M-ACKENZIE'S 
 
 ' I* / 
 
 TEN THOUSAND RECEIPTS, 
 
 IN ALL THE 
 
 USEFUL AND DOMESTIC '"AKTS ; : - ; ^' 
 
 CONSTITUTING 
 
 A COMPLETE AND PRACTICAL LIBRARY, 
 
 RELATING TO 
 
 AGBICULTUEE, ANGLING, BEES, BLEACHING, BOOK-KEEPING, BREWING, COTTOU 
 CULTURE, CROCHETING, CARVING, CHOLERA, COOKING, CALICO PRINTING, 
 CONFECTIONERY, CEMENTS, CHEMICAL RECEIPTS, COSMETICS, DISEASES, 
 DAIRY, DENTISTRY, DIALYSIS, DECALCOMANIA, DYEING, DISTILLA- 
 TION, ENAMELLING, ENGRAVING, ELECTRO-PLATING, ELEO 
 TROTYPING, FlSH CULTURE, FARRIERY, FOOD, FLOWER 
 GARDENING, FIREWORKS, GAS METRES, GILDING, 
 GLASS, HEALTH, HORSEMANSHIP, INKS, JEW- 
 ELLERS' PASTE, KNITTING, KNOTS, LITHO- 
 GRAPHY, MERCANTILE CALCULATIONS, 
 MEDICINE, MISCELLANEOUS EE- 
 CEIPTS, METALLURGY,' MEZ- 
 ZOTINTS, OIL COLORS, 
 OILS, PAINTING, 
 
 PERFUMERY, 
 
 PASTRY, PETROLEUM, PICKLING, POISONS AND ANTIDOTES, POTICHOMANIA, 
 PROOF-READING, POTTERY, PRESERVING, PHOTOGRAPHY, PYROTECHNICS, 
 RURAL AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY, SUGAR RAISING, SILVERING, 
 SCOURING, SILK AND SILK-WORMS, SORGHUM, TOBACCO 
 CULTURE, TANNING, TREES, TELEGRAPHING, VAR- 
 NISHES, VEGETABLE GARDENING, .WEIGHTS 
 AND MEASURES, WINES, ETC., ETC. 
 
 BEING AN ENTIRELY NEW EDITION 
 
 CABEFULLY EEVISED AND KE-WKITTEN, 
 
 AND 
 
 Containing the Improvements and Discoveries up to last Date of Publication. 
 JANUARY, 1867. 
 
 Again Eevised to Date of Prese^^^^Aj^4^^U^i^ll?ii Addition of Special Articles 
 ui 
 
 REPORT AND AWARD OP THE TRIAT^&^fc&Wffl^WyjgraNTS AT THE GREAT NATIONAL 
 FIELD TRIAL HM^g^^MgyB^^ J ULY, 1866. 
 
 PHIL 
 T. ELLWOOD ZELL & COMPANY, 
 
 Nos. 17 & 19 SOUTH SIXTH STREET. 
 .1867. 
 
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1867, by 
 T. ELLWOOD ZELL, 
 
 In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Eastern District of 
 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 J. FAGAN & SON, 
 STEBEOTYPEBS, 
 
 PHILADELPHIA. 
 
 PRINTED BY SHERMAN ft CO. 
 
F THE 
 
 'UNIVERSITY, 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 TO THE NEW AND EEYISED EDITION 
 OP OCTOBER, 1865. 
 
 IN preparing a new edition of this popular work, the Editors have endeavored 
 to incorporate all the improvements in the various branches, which have been intro- 
 duced, since the publication of the last edition. Much of the work has been 
 entirely re-written, and new articles have been added on Photography, Pyrotech- 
 nics, Angling, Pisciculture, etc. The matter has not been simply scissored from 
 newspapers, but carefully digested from standard authorities, the scientific journals, 
 and from the practical knowledge of the Editors and contributors. The Editors 
 have to acknowledge valuable assistance from gentlemen, eminent in the depart- 
 ments of Agriculture, Horticulture, Wine-making, Perfumery, Cements, Engraving, 
 Photography, Angling, Tanning, etc. The work, it is believed, will be found 
 more reliable and thorough than any one of its class now in print. The Miscel- 
 laneous department is almost entirely new, and contains much valuable and inter- 
 esting information. Some matters properly belonging under other heads, but 
 received too late, have been transferred to it. The reader is especially requested 
 io refer to the index, when seeking information. 
 
 (iii) 
 
OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. 
 
 / 
 
 FROM THZ PHILA. NORTH AMERICAN, DEC. 22, 1865. 
 
 The vast amount of useful knowledge bearing on every-day life which constantly flits thiough the world, hnt 
 Often led to efforts for gathering and rendering it available b.v those who want it, when they want it. Mr. Z< 11 
 having made a previous successful eifort in this direction, has enlarged the field of his usefulness by a new editic n 
 of his work, which will be exceedingly useful to all, and almost indispensable to some. He has gathered the formulae 
 and directions of all the most recent discoveries in the useful and domestic arts, and has made it as nearly complete as 
 possible. Though the work is designed for popular rather than scientific use, it contains much that will interest 
 scientific men, as well as general readers. Agriculture, horticulture, domestic economy, farriery, medicine, biewing, 
 distillation, dyeing, paints and varnishes, metallurgy, photography, engraving, pottery, weights and measures these 
 are among the subjects treated very fully, and which are of fir^t importance. There is no effort to prepare treatises upon 
 any of these. The kernel alone is retained, and that in the best form for use by practical men. There is a great 
 body of what may be termed the cream of useful knowledge, under the general head of agriculture, which it were 
 well all farmers should have for perusal at leisure moments. Manures, cropd, drainage, and the care of animals, are 
 all treated in a condensed manner, with directions and information which cannot fail to advantage readers. The 
 gardener, poulterer, and apiarian, are provided with excellent receipts. The half-hundred pages devoted to medicine 
 will be useful where a physician cannot be procured ; and under the miscellaneous head there are a variety of facts 
 on horsemanship and knitting, gunpowder and book-keeping, dogs and crocheting, which could not readily be found 
 elsewhere. A great deal of the information hitherto published in this form has been of doubtful use, and has discredited 
 honest efforts to aid the community. The counterfeit only proves the worth of what is genuine, and this really 
 careful and useful vade mecum ought not to suffer from the reputation of the trash which it seeks to supplant. The 
 index an essential in such a compilation has been carefully arranged, at much length. There are diagrams and 
 illustrations where they are needed, and ihe whole forms a volume which ought to be very widely circulated, and 
 which will repay its cost in almost any family within a year. 
 
 FROM THE PHILA. SUNDAY DISPATCH, Nov. 26, 1865. 
 
 Mackenzie's Ten Thousand Receipts, containing new discoveries and processes in use up to October, 1865. 487 pages. 
 To describe this volume properly would require the space given to a catalogue, and the volubility of an auctioneer. 
 We find in it almost everything that can be conceived as an object of inquiry involving the special preparation of 
 materials or the management of processes. Agriculture, chemistry, cooking, manufactures, medicine, the decorative 
 arts, household^management, and a thousand other things which defy classification, are embraced in this closely- 
 printed book, which, in the way of condensation, contains enough to stock a library with volumes printed in fashion- 
 ably large type. \Ve could not undertake to recite the whole title-page, which is of itself prodigious, affordhig but 
 a feeble idea of what is within. Suffice it to say, that almost anything that anybody wants to know how to do will 
 be found in this volume properly described, and illustrated in some cases by useful engravings. It has been re- 
 written by a corps of scientific gentlemen, and is really a book which should be found in every house. 
 
 FROM THE GERMANTOWN (PA.) TELEGRAPH, Nov. 22, 1865. 
 
 The editor and publisher of this extremely well gotten-up edition, has been many months in its preparation, hay- 
 ing employed in this time a corps of able experts, in order that the work might be brought out not only in a style 
 hitherto unapproached, but with intrinsic claims upon the community which cannot but be acknowledged. Truth- 
 fully, these "Ten Thousand Receipts in the Domestic Arts," constitute a "complete and practical library," relating 
 to the hundreds of subjects treated of, connected with the indispensable every-day affairs of family life. The clear- 
 ness of the print, the arrangement of the receipts, with the comprehensive index, render recourse to it at all times 
 as easy almost as turning over the pages of a magazine, and obtaining from it the information sought in plain lan- 
 guage and in condensed form, so that all can quickly see and readily understand. But this is not a work designed 
 exclusively for domestic purposes, as the word "Domestic" is most generally understood; but it contains valuable 
 suggestions and advice upon almost every practical pursuit. There is scarcely anything omitted in which any con- 
 siderable number of people are interested. 
 
 FROM THE PHILA. PRESS, Nov. 24, 1865. 
 
 This is a domestic cyclopaedia, of nearly 500 pages, in new type, small but clear. We are assured that two years' 
 labor, by very competent gentlemen, has been bestowed upon this large and improved edition, and can well believe 
 it. There is scarcely a subject connected with the useful and domestic arts about which a seeker for information 
 cannot find what he wants in this book. The most recent improvements and discoveries, up to October, 1865, when 
 the work was stereotyped, have been included. The quantity of information in this volume is very great so far ag 
 we have tested it we can vouch for its accuracy. As a work of reference, it has been made complete by the addition 
 of a copious index. 
 
 FROM THE PHILA. SUNDAY TRANSCRIPT, DEC. 10, 1865. 
 
 It is one of the most remarkable books of the day, containing, as it does, a reference to every conceivable subject under 
 the sun. In itself it is a complete and practical library, so arranged as to be invaluable in the household, on the 
 farm, and in the counting-room. Pastry and petroleum, agriculture and knitting, receive equal attention, while the 
 entire volume presents a fund of information not accessible in any other form. The thrifty housekeeper can pick up 
 numerous capital receipts for pies, or can learn the art of carving, which is treated as one of the exact sciences ; the 
 merchant will find mercantile calculations; the artist will find a dissertation upon oil colors, water colors, and mez- 
 zotints; the farmer will learn something about gardening. In fact, there is no branch of trade but can be bene- 
 fited by a perusal of this book. Although the receipts are quoted as 10,000, judging from the book they will double 
 that figure. 
 
 FROM THE PHILA. INQUIRER, Nov. 24, 1865. 
 
 The present issue of this useful work by Mr. Zell, is a new and improved edition, carefully revised and re-written 
 by a corps of gentlemen eminently qualified for the peculiar task. To it has been likewise added all the improve- 
 ments and discoveries in the useful and domestic arts up to the date of publication, October, 1865. Two years of 
 labor have been necessary to bring the book out in the present improved shape. 
 
 FROM THE PHILA. EVENING TELEGRAPH, DEC. 23, 1865. 
 
 Mr. Zell maintains his position among the first-class houses of our land, principally through his agencies and th* 
 few well-selected works to which he has given life. Principal among the latter is " Mackenzie's Ten Thousand Re- 
 ceipts," a work of universal information. In it are found, in fact, all the useful knowledge of the age compressed 
 into this universal compendium of information. If a man be familiar with all thi contents of this book, he will bo 
 an accomplished gentleman, a practical doctor, and in many respects a professional man. The work is one we can 
 recommend as likely to be every day useful. We understand it is prepared by a gentleman well known in the 
 world of science ; it bears the impress of a well-informed mind. It is specific in its directions, and illustrated by 
 numerous wood-cuts. Too much credit cannot be given to both the compiler and publisher for the remarkable care and 
 skill exercised in compressing into one volume, and that so carefully printed, so great an amount of useful information. 
 
 FROM THE PHILA. EVENING BULLETIN, DEC. 12, 1865. 
 
 This work has been thoroughly re-written, and comprises all manner of improvements and discoveries, brought up 
 to October of this year. It forms a complete library of valuable knowledge upon almost every imaginable subject 
 connected with the useful and domestic arts, and is a most important volume of reference for th manufacturer, 
 agriculturalist and housekeeper. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 TO THE LATEST LONDON EDITION. 
 
 As the object of all study, and the end of all wisdom, is practical utility, so a collec- 
 tion of the most approved Receipts, in all the arts of Domestic and Social Life, may be 
 considered as a volume containing nearly the whole of the wisdom of man, worthy of 
 preservation. In truth, the present volume has been compiled under the feeling, that 
 if all other books of Science in the world were destroyed, this single volume would be 
 found to embody the results of the useful experience, observations, and discoveries of 
 mankind during the past ages of the world. 
 
 Theoretical reasonings and historical details have, of course, been avoided, and the 
 object of the compiler has been to economize his space, and come at once to the point. 
 Whatever men do, or desire to do, with the materials with which nature has supplied 
 them, and with the powers which they possess, is here plainly taught and succinctly 
 preserved ; whether it regard complicated manufactures, means of curing diseases, 
 simple processes of various kinds, or the economy, happiness, and preservation of life. 
 
 The best authorities have been resorted to, and innumerable volumes consulted, and 
 wherever different processes of apparently equal value, for attaining the same end, have 
 been found, they have been introduced. 
 
 Among the works consulted have been, 
 
 The Monthly Magazine, 56 vols. 
 
 The Repertory of Arts and Sciences, 60 vols. 
 
 The London Journal of Arts and Scienees. 
 
 The Transactions of the Society of Arts, 30 vols. 
 
 The Magazine of Trade and Manufactures, 6 
 
 vols. 
 
 The Gazette of Health, 9 vols. 
 The Series of the Horticultural Society, 5 vols. 
 The Series of the Agricultural Society, 30 vols. 
 The Farmer's Magazine, 16 vols. 
 YOUNG'S Farmer's Calendar. 
 LOUDON on Gardening, 1 vol. 
 JENNINGS'S Domestic Cyclopaedia, 2 vols. 
 TINGREY on Varnishing. 
 RICHARDSON on the Metallic Arts. 
 
 THOMAS'S Practice of Physic. 
 COOPER'S Dictionary of Surgery. 
 THORNTON'S British Herbal. 
 WALLER'S British Herbal. 
 IMISON'S School of Arts. 
 Handmaid to the Arts. 
 SMITH'S Laboratory of the Arts. 
 HAMILTON on Drawing. 
 
 The EDITOR'S Thousand Experiments in Manu- 
 factures and Chemistry. 
 DAVY'S Agricultural Chemistry. 
 HENRY'S Elements of Chemistry. 
 CHAPTAL'S Chemistry applied to the Arts. 
 GREGORY'S Cyclopaedia. 
 The English and other Cyclopaedias. 
 
 Besides innumerable treatises on special subjects, minor journals, and a great variety 
 of manuscript communications from friends and connections of the editor and publisher. 
 
 A general, rather than a scientific, arrangement has been adopted, because the object 
 of the work is popular and universal, and, though likely to be useful to men of science, 
 it is more especially addressed to the public at large. In like manner, as far as pos- 
 sible, technical and scientific language has been avoided, and popular names and simple 
 descriptions have been preferred. 
 
 Every care has been taken in the printing to avoid errors in quantities, as well as to 
 select the best receipts of each kind ; but notices of errors, omissions, or experimental 
 improvements, will be thankfully received by the publisher, for the use of future 
 editions. 
 
 The Index will render it easy to refer to every article of importance. 
 
PKEFACE 
 
 TO THE EAELY AMEEICAN EDITION", 
 
 IN fulfilling the duty of preparing for the press a new and enlarged edition of the 
 valuable work of Mackenzie, the Editor has steadily borne in mind its evident aim at 
 general practical utility; and consequently he has submitted both alterations and 
 additions to its rules. While the former will be found but few a circumstance arising 
 from the nature of the book ; the latter are both numerous and important amounting 
 to about fifty pages, exclusive of those contained in the Miscellaneous Department and 
 the Appendix. 
 
 The Medical part has been condensed, simplified, and adapted to the climate and 
 diseases of the United States. A short, but complete manual of " Directions for rear- 
 ing the Silk Worm, and the Culture of the White Mulberry Tree," together with an 
 extensive article on the Diseases of the Horse, may be noticed as among the important 
 additions. The Culinary art has not been neglected the numerous original receipts 
 from the best modern authorities of the " Kitchen," for preparing various delicacies of 
 the animal and vegetable kingdom, including Pastry, Puddings, etc., will no doubt 
 prove acceptable to American housekeepers. The man of family, the Sportsman, the 
 Artist, the Mechanic, and the Farmer, have all been remembered. And an unusually 
 large and correct Index gives every facility of reference that could be wished. 
 
 The attention of the Reader is called to the " Miscellaneous Receipts." In this 
 portion, which is very copious, numerous receipts have been placed, which could not 
 with propriety be elsewhere arranged. It has also been made the receptacle of much 
 valuable matter obtained from several kind female friends, and the fruH of researches 
 into many curious and rare books ; and which was prepared at too late a period for 
 insertion in the appropriate departments. The Appendix of " Instructions in the Art 
 of Carving," with its numerous wood cuts, will, it is hoped, prove acceptable and 
 useful to our country readers, for whose accommodation this work was originally 
 designed. 
 
 The Editor more especially notices the following works, as sources from which he has 
 derived considerable assistance: The Franklin Journal; Willich's Domestic Encyclo- 
 paedia, by Professor Cooper ; a Tract published by the Pennsylvania Society for the 
 Rearing of Silk-Worms, etc. ;. and the curious work of Colonel Hanger, of sporting 
 memory. 
 
 In conclusion, the publishers beg leave to state, that neither time nor expense has 
 been considered in endeavoring to render this edition cheaper and better than any 
 other which has been published, and at the same time worthy of the patronage which 
 is solicited for it. They have availed themselves of the services of a gentleman aa 
 Editor, who has been for a considerable time engaged in the preparatory researches. 
 The type, though small, is very legible and distinct ; and in the selection of the paper, 
 whilst regard has been had to the color, it has been deemed of main importance that it 
 should be sufficiently durable to resist the frequent usage into which a work of this 
 description must necessarily be called, 
 (vi) 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 [FOR DETAILS, SEE INDEX, AT CLOSE OF THE VOLUME.] 
 
 AGRICULTURE 9 
 
 MANURE 11, 18 
 
 WHEAT 27 
 
 DRAINAGE 49 
 
 SUGAR 52 
 
 COTTON AND TOBACCO 53 
 
 SILK-WORM 54 
 
 HORTICULTURE 60 
 
 BUDDING AND GRAFTING 54 
 
 FRUIT 67 
 
 INSECTS AND DISEASES OP TREES ......... 76 
 
 KEEPING FRUIT 86 
 
 FLOWER GARDENING ........... 88 
 
 RURAL AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY 91 
 
 DAIRY WORK 91 
 
 MANAGEMENT OF BEES 98 
 
 FARRIERY 104 
 
 DISEASES OF HORSES 105 
 
 DOGS 115,449 
 
 HOGS 116 
 
 " SHEEP 117 
 
 CATTLE 120 
 
 MEDICINE 122 
 
 DISEASES 122 
 
 CHOLERA 162 
 
 ACCIDENTS 143 
 
 WOUNDS 144 
 
 FRACTURES ............ 146 
 
 DISLOCATIONS 148 
 
 AMPUTATIONS 150 
 
 DROWNING 151, 180 
 
 POISONS 152 
 
 MEDICINES 154 
 
 DISEASES OF FEMALES .......... 165 
 
 DISEASES OF CHILDREN 169 
 
 DOMESTIC MEDICINES . . . . . . . 173 
 
 HYGIENE 178 
 
 RULES FOR HEALTH 184 
 
 TEETH 186 
 
 CULINARY ARTS ' . 188 
 
 COOKING .188 
 
 CONFECTIONERY 232 
 
 PICKLING 238 
 
 PRESERVING . . ... 239 
 
 CARVINQ 241 
 
 FOOD 5 .247 
 
 (Tii) 
 
Vlll CONTENTS. 
 
 Mfl 
 
 BREWING 251 
 
 CIDER 263 
 
 WINES 265 
 
 DISTILLATION 277 
 
 ESSENTIAL OILS 289 
 
 WATERS 292 
 
 VINEGAR 296 
 
 ARTIFICIAL WATERS 300 
 
 PERFUMERY 303 
 
 BLEACHING AND SCOURING 309 
 
 DYEING 315 
 
 STAINING 325 
 
 PAINTS AND COLORS 327 
 
 VARNISHES 339 
 
 LACQUERS 345 
 
 CEMENTS 352 
 
 GLUE 355 
 
 INKS 358 
 
 METALLURGY 362 
 
 ASSAYING 363 
 
 PARTING 367 
 
 ALLOYS 368 
 
 FOILS 373 
 
 ELECTRO-PLATING 374 
 
 GILDING 376 
 
 IRON AND STEEL 381 
 
 PYROTECHNY 384 
 
 MATCHES 386 
 
 TANNING 386 
 
 ENAMELLING 390 
 
 POTTERY 394 
 
 GLASS 399 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHY 409 
 
 PHILOLITHOGRAPHY 417 
 
 ENGRAVING 419 
 
 LITHOGRAPHY 424 
 
 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 427 
 
 SPECIFIC GRAVITY 429 
 
 GAS METERS 430 
 
 VALUE OF COINS 431 
 
 CHEMICAL RECEIPTS 432 
 
 BOILER ENCRUSTATIONS 433 
 
 ARTIFICIAL COLD 435 
 
 ANTISEPTICS AND DISINFECTANTS ......... 435 
 
 WEATHER PROGNOSTICS 439 
 
 ANGLING 443 
 
 PISCICULTURE 445 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS 446 
 
 To TIE KNOTS 446 
 
 KNITTING ...........'.. 447 
 
 CANARY BIRDS 448 
 
 DOGS 449 
 
 INSECTS 449 
 
 PETROLEUM 451 
 
 ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH .......... 451 
 
 BOOK-KEEPING 452 
 
 PROOF-READING ........... 452 
 
 ROWING 453 
 
 DOMESTIC RECEIPTS 455-458-464 
 
 MEDICAL RECEIPTS 460-463-464 
 
 DIALYSIS 463 
 
 HORSEMANSHIP 463 
 
 DECALCOMANIA 464 
 
 GUNPOWDER ............. 466 
 
 FARM SEED 466 
 
 INDEX 467-487 
 
MACKENZIE'S 
 
 TEN THOUSAND RECEIPTS, 
 
 THE MODERN THEORY OF AGRICUL- 
 TURE. 
 
 Liebig and other chemists have, within the last 
 twenty-five years, endeavored to establish a science 
 of agriculture, based upon a knowledge of the 
 constitution of plants and of soils, and their mutual 
 relations. We propose to give a very condensed 
 account of the general conclusions arrived at. 
 
 Food of Plant*. 
 
 Plants derive their food from the air as well as 
 from the earth ; the former by their leaves, the 
 latter by their roots. Elements most necessary 
 to them are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitro- 
 gen, with various mineral substances present in 
 the soil. Carbon is the most abundant. This is 
 to a large extent extracted from the atmosphere 
 by the leaves of plants, during the day-time. 
 Hydrogen and oxygen are in the water contained 
 in the earth and air; and oxygen is in the air 
 mixed with nitrogen. Plants do not seem able, 
 however, to separate much nitrogen from the air 
 as such, but more readily obtain it by the decom- 
 position of ammonia (composed of hydrogen and 
 nitrogen), which is formed in the atmosphere, and 
 washed down into the earth by rain-water, so as 
 to reach the roots. All ordinary waters, it must 
 be remembered, contain substances dissolved in 
 them. Irrigation of land does not act only by 
 the water itself, but by that which is dissolved or 
 diffused in it. Davy calculated that, supposing 
 one part of sulphate of lime to be contained in 
 every two thousand of river water, and every 
 square yard of dry meadow land to absorb eight 
 gallons of water, then, by every flooding, more 
 than one and a half hundred weight of gypsum 
 per acre is diffused by the water a quantity 
 equal to that generally used in spreading gypsum 
 as a manure or fertilizer ; and so, if we allow only 
 twenty-five parts of animal and vegetable remains 
 to be present in a thousand parts of river water, 
 we shall find that every soaking with such water 
 will add to the meadow nearly two tons per acre 
 of organic matter. The extraordinary fertility 
 of the banks and delta of the river Nile is due to 
 the natural annual overflow of the river, extended 
 by artificial irrigation. In China also, the prin- 
 ciple of irrigation is carried out very largely, and 
 it is applicable, on a large or small scale, in any 
 country. The water of lakes is usually charged 
 with dissolved or suspended substances even more 
 abundantly than that of rivers. 
 
 Humus. 
 
 Soils contain a great amount of matter which 
 results from the decay of vegetables and animals; 
 to a compound of which with earthy material the 
 name of humus is given. This was once incor- 
 rectly supposed to give the whole nutriment of 
 the plant. Trees and plants, instead of abstract- 
 ing carbon from the earth, really, by taking it 
 from the air, and subsequently dying and decay- 
 ing, annually by their leaves, and finally alto- 
 gether, give carbon and other atmospheric elements 
 to the soil. As above said, all plants by their 
 leaves absorb carbonic acid from the air, and 
 retain carbon, giving out oxygen. It is evident, 
 therefore, that the leaves are of great importance 
 to the plant. So are the roots, for their absorbing 
 office. Thus it is true that the growth of a plant 
 is always proportioned to the surface of its roots 
 and leaves together. Vegetation, in its simplest 
 form, consists in the abstraction of carbon from, 
 carbonic acid, and hydrogen from water; but the 
 taking of nitrogen also, from ammonia especially, 
 is important to them, and most of all, to those 
 which are most nutritious, as the wheat, rye, 
 barley, &c., whose seeds contain gluten and other 
 nitrogenous principles of the greatest value for 
 food. Plants will grow well in pure charcoal, if 
 supplied with rain-water, for rain-water contains 
 ammonia. 
 
 Animal substances, as they putrefy, alway? 
 evolve ammonia, which plants need and absorb. 
 Thus is explained one of the benefits of manuring, 
 but not the only one, as we shall see presently. 
 Animal manure, however, acts chiefly by th 
 formation of ammonia. The quantity of gluten 
 in wheat, rye, and barley is very different; and 
 they contain nitrogen in varying proportions. 
 Even in samples of the same seed the quantity 
 varies ; and why ? Evidently because one variety 
 has been better fed with its own appropriate fer- 
 tilizer than another which has been reared on a 
 soil less accurately adapted by artificial means 
 for its, growth. French wheat contains 12 per 
 cent, of gluten; Bavarian 24 per cent. Sir H. 
 Davy obtained 19 per cent, from winter, and 24 
 from summer wheat; from Sicilian 21, from Bar- 
 bary wheat 19 per cent. Such great differ- 
 ences must be owing to some cause, and thi* 
 we find in the different methods of cultivation. 
 An increase of animal manure gives rise not 
 only to an increase in the number of seeds, but 
 also to a remarkable difference in the proper- 
 
10 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 tion of gluten which those seeds contain. Among 
 manures of animal origin there is great diversity. 
 Cow dung contains but a small proportion of 
 nitrogen. One hundred parts of wheat, grown 
 on a soil to which this material was applied, 
 afforded only 11 parts of gluten and 64 of starch ; 
 while the same quantity of wheat, grown on a soil 
 fertilized with human urine, yielded 35 per cent. 
 of gluten, and of course a smaller proportion of 
 less valuable ingredients. During the putrefaction 
 of urine, ammoniacnl salts are formed in large 
 quantity, it may be said, exclusively; for under 
 the influence of warmth and moisture, the most 
 prominent ^ingredient ,of .urine as! converted into 
 carbonate, efalumonia:, ." ; ',*'*" 
 'Guano. 
 
 Guano -co.n.e1sfes" &f the ^xcrement-s of sjea-fowl, 
 collected durJrrg'lVn'g. periods. ^xh/CBFtaifl islands 
 in th'e South Sea. A soil which is deficient in 
 organic matter is made much more productive by 
 the addition of this manure. It consists of am- 
 monia, combined with uric, phosphoric, oxalic, 
 and carbonic acids, with some earthy salts and 
 impurities. 
 
 The urine of men and animals living upon flesh 
 contains a large quantity of nitrogen, partly in 
 the form of urea. ' Human urine is the most 
 powerful manure for all vegetables which contain 
 nitrogen; that of horses and horned cattle con- 
 tains less of this element, but much more than 
 the solid excrements of these animals. In the 
 face of such facts as these, is it not pitiable to 
 observe how the urine of the stable or cow-shed 
 is often permitted to run off, to sink uselessly into 
 the earth, or to form a pool in the middle of a 
 farm-yard, from which, as it putrefies, the am- 
 monia formed in it rapidly escapes into the atmos- 
 phere ? 
 
 Cultivated plants need more nitrogen than wild 
 ones, being of a higher and more complex organ- 
 ization. The result of forest growth is chiefly 
 the production of carbonaceous woody fibre; of 
 garden or field culture, especially the addition of 
 as much nitrogen as the plant can be made to 
 take up. 
 
 Solid Manure. 
 
 The solid excrements of animals do not con- 
 tain as much nitrogen as those which are voided 
 in a liquid form, and do not constitute so power- 
 ful a fertilizing material. In urine, moreover, 
 ammonia loses a good deal of its volatility by 
 being combined and dissolved in the form of 
 Baits. In an analogous manner, one of the uses 
 of sulphate of lime or gypsum, as a manure, is to 
 fix the ammonia of the atmosphere. Charcoal 
 and humus have a similar property. 
 
 Mineral Matter in Plants. 
 
 Besides the substances already mentioned, 
 others are needed by plants as part of their food, 
 to form their structure. The firmness of straw, 
 for example, is due to the presence in it of silica, 
 the principal constituent of sand and flints. Po- 
 tassa, soda, lime, magnesia, and phosphoric acid, 
 are contained in plants, in different proportions. 
 All of these they must obtain from the soil. The 
 alkalies above-named (potassa and soda) appear 
 to be essential to the perfect development of the 
 higher vegetable forms. Some plants require 
 them in one mode of combination, and some in 
 another,- and thus the soil that is very good for 
 one, may be quite unfit for others. Firs and 
 pines find enough to support them in barren, 
 vandy soil. 
 
 The proportion of silicate of potash (necessary 
 for the firmness of wheat straw) does not vary 
 
 perceptibly in the soil of grain-fields, because what 
 is removed by the reaper, is again replaced in 
 putrefying straw. But this is not the case with 
 meadow-land. Hence we never find a luxuriant 
 crop of grass on sandy and limestone soils which 
 contain little potash, evidently because one of the 
 constituents indispensable to the growth of the 
 plants is wanting. If a meadow be well manure!, 
 we remove, with the increased crop of grass, a 
 greater quantity of potash than can, by a repe- 
 tition of the same manure, be restored to it. So, 
 grass-land manured with gypsum soon ceases to 
 feel its agency. But if the meadow be strewed 
 from time to time with wood ashes, or soap-boilers' 
 lye made from wood ashes, then the grass thrives 
 as luxuriantly as before. And why ? The ashes 
 are only a means of restoring the necessary potash 
 for the grass stalks. So oats, barley, and rye 
 may be made for once to grow upon a sandy 
 heath, by mixing with the scanty soil the ashes 
 of the heath-plants that grow upon it. Those 
 ashes contain soda and potash, conveyed to the 
 growing furze or gorse by rain-water. The soil 
 of one district consists of sandstone; certain trees 
 find in it a quantity of alkaline earths sufficient 
 for their own sustenance. When felled, and burnt, 
 and sprinkled upon the soil, oats will grow and 
 thrive that without such aid would not vegetate. 
 
 The most decisive proof of the absurdity of the 
 indiscriminate use of any strong manure was ob- 
 tained at Bingen, a town on the Rhine, where the 
 produce and development of vines were highly 
 increased by manuring them with animal matters, 
 such as shavings of horn. After some years, the 
 formation of the wood and leaves decreased per- 
 ceptibly. Such manure had too much hastened 
 the growth of the vines : in two or three years 
 they had exhausted the potash in the formation 
 of their fruit leaves and wood; so that none re- 
 mained for the future crops, as shavings of horn 
 contain no potash. Cow-dung would have been 
 better, and is known to be better. 
 
 Conditions of Vegetation. 
 
 The sun's heat and light, air, water, and the 
 common elements of the earth are necessary to 
 the existence of plants. But a greater or less 
 abundance of certain elements, and their existence 
 in more or less favorable states of combination, 
 determines the magnitude and fertility, or, in a 
 word, the whole productiveness, of the vegetable 
 growth. 
 
 The rules of agriculture should then, if ration- 
 ally perfected, enable us to give to each plant 
 what it requires for the attainment of the special 
 object of its culture; namely, the increase of cer- 
 tain parts which are used as food for men and 
 animals. 
 
 One instance may illustrate this idea. The 
 means to be resorted to for the production of fine 
 pliable straw for hats and bonnets are the very 
 opposite to those which would tend to produce the 
 greatest possible amount of seed or grain from the 
 same plant. 
 
 Sand, clay, and lime, as has been said ; are the 
 principal constituents of soils. Clay asi marl 
 always contain potash and soda. Pure land, or 
 pure limestone, would alone constitute absolutely 
 barren soils. All arable land contains an admix- 
 ture of clay, although an excess of it, in propor- 
 tion, is of course disadvantageous. 
 
 Rotation of Crops. 
 
 The exhaustion of alkalies in a soil by succes- 
 sive crops is the true reason why practical farmers 
 suppose themselves compelled to suffer land to lie 
 fallow. It is the greatest possible mistake to 
 
FERTILIZERS. 
 
 11 
 
 think that the temporary diminution of fertility 
 in a field is chiefly owing to the loss of the decay- 
 ing vegetiible matter it previously contained: it 
 is principally the consequence of the exhaustion 
 of potash and soda, which are restored by the 
 slow process of the more complete disintegration 
 of the materials of the soil. It is evident that the 
 careful tilling of fallow land must accelerate and 
 increase this further breaking up of its mineral 
 ingredients. Nor is this repose of the soil always 
 necessary. A field, which has become unfitted for 
 a certain kind of produce, may not, on that ac- 
 count, be unsuitable for another; and upon this 
 observation a system of agriculture has been 
 gradually formed, the principal object of which is 
 to obtain the greatest possible produce in a suc- 
 cession of years, with the least outlay for manure. 
 Because plants require for their growth different 
 constituents of soil, changing the crop from year 
 to year will maintain the fertility of that soil 
 (provided it be done with judgment) quite as well 
 as leaving it at rest or fallow. In this we but 
 imitate nature. The oak, after thriving for long 
 generations on a particular spot, gradually sick- 
 ens; its entire race dies out; other trees and 
 shrubs succeed it, till, at length, the surface be- 
 comes so charged with an excess of dead vegetable 
 matter, that the forest becomes a peat moss, or a 
 surface upon which no large tree will grow. 
 Generally long before this can occur, the opera- 
 tion of natural causes has gradually removed from 
 the soil substances, essential to the growth of oak, 
 leaving others favorable and necessary to the 
 growth of beech or pine. So, in practical farm- 
 ing, one crop, in artificial rotation with others, ex- 
 tracts from the soil a certain quantity of necessary 
 materials; a second carries off, in preference, 
 those which the former has left. 
 
 One hundred parts of wheat straw yield 15J of 
 ashes ; the same quantity of barley straw, 8 ; of 
 oat straw, only 4; and the ashes of the three are, 
 chemically, of about the same composition. Upon 
 the same field, which will yield only one harvest 
 of wheat, two successive crops of barley may be 
 raised, and three of oats. We have in these facts 
 a clear proof of what is abstracted from the soil, 
 and the key to" the rational mode of supplying the 
 deficiency. 
 
 Since wheat consumes a large amount of silicate 
 of potassa from the soil, the plants which should 
 succeed or alternate with it must be such as re- 
 quire but little potassa, as potatoes or turnips. 
 After three or four years the same lands may well 
 bear wheat ; because, during the interval, the soil 
 will have been, by the action of the atmosphere, 
 and the solution of vegetable and nnimal sub- 
 stances decaying upon or in it, again rendered 
 capable of yielding what the wheat requires. 
 Whether this process can be artificially antici- 
 pated, by supplying the exhausted ingredient to 
 the soil, is a further and most interesting and im- 
 portant inquiry. 
 
 We could keep our fields in a constant state of 
 fertility by replacing, every year, as much as is 
 removed from them by their produce. An in- 
 crease of fertility may be expected, of course, 
 only when more is added of the proper material 
 to the soil than is taken away. Any soil will 
 partially regain its strength by lying fallow. But 
 any soil, under cultivation, must at length (with- 
 out help) lose those constituents which are re- 
 moved in the seeds, roots and leaves of the plants 
 raised upon it. To remedy this loss, and also in- 
 crease the productiveness of the land, is the ob- 
 ject of the use of proper manures. 
 
 Land, when not employed in raising food for 
 animals or man, should, at least, be applied to 
 
 the purpose of raising manure for itself; and 
 this, to a certain extent, may be effected by means 
 of green crops, which, by their decomposition, not 
 only add to the amount of vegetable mould con- 
 tained in the soil, but supply the alkalies that 
 would be found in their ashes. That the soil 
 should become richer by this burial of a crop, 
 than it was before the seed of that crop was sown, 
 will be understood by recollecting that three- 
 fourths of the whole organic matter we bury las 
 been derived from the air : that by this process of 
 ploughing in, the vegetable matter is more 
 equally diffused through the whole soil, and 
 therefore more easily and rapidly decomposed ; 
 and that by its gradual decomposition, ammonia 
 and nitric acid are certainly generated, though 
 not so largely as when animal matters are em- 
 ployed. He who neglects the green sods, and 
 crops of weeds that flourish by his hedgerows 
 and ditches, overlooks an important natural 
 means of wealth. Left to themselves, they ripen 
 their seeds, exhausting the soil, and sowing them 
 annually in his fields : collected in compost heaps, 
 they add materially to his yearly crops of corn. 
 
 Organic Manures. 
 
 The following conclusions may be regarded as 
 scientifically sustained, as well as confirmed by 
 practical experience : 
 
 1. That fresh human urine yields nitrogen in 
 greater abundance to vegetation than any other 
 material of easy acquisition ; and that the urine 
 of animals is valuable for the same purpose, but 
 not equally so. 
 
 2. That the mixed excrements of man and 
 animals yield (if carefully preserved from further 
 decomposition), not only nitrogen, but other in- 
 valuable saline and earthy matters that have 
 been already extracted in food from the soil. 
 
 3. That animal substances which, like urine, 
 flesh, and blood, decompose rapidly, are fitted to 
 operate immediately and powerfully on vegetation. 
 
 4. That dry animal substances, as horn, hair, 
 or woollen rags, decompose slowly, and (weight 
 for weight) contain a greater quantity of organized 
 as well as unorganized materials, manifesting 
 their influence it may be for several seasons. 
 
 5. That bones, acting like horn, in so far as 
 their animal matter is concerned, and like it for a 
 number of seasons more or less, according as 
 they have been more or less finely crushed, may 
 ameliorate the soil by their earthy matter for a 
 long period (even if the jelly they contain have 
 been injuriously removed by the size maker), per- 
 manently improving the condition and adding to 
 the natural capabilities of the land. 
 
 Uses of Guano. 
 
 This manure is a powerful stimulant to vege- 
 table development generally; it is especially 
 available in raising wheat, corn, potatoes, gaiien 
 vegetables, and tobacco. If the land needs it, it 
 may be put on as often as a crop is to be raised; 
 though not, it is said, as a top dressing. For 
 wheat, 150 to 200 pounds of guano may be used 
 to the acre; for Indian corn, 300 to 400 pounds; 
 unless it is put directly in the hills., when 100 
 pounds per acre will do. For potatoes, 300 to 400 
 pounds, in a drill, with bone dust. The addition 
 of the latter makes the good effects of the guano 
 more durable. 
 
 Min eral Fertilizers. 
 
 Simple lime, although an important constituent 
 of plants, is rarely suitable as an application to 
 them in its pure state. Carbonate of lime (rep- 
 resented by chalk, &c.) is a natural ingredient in 
 very many soils. The sulphate of liine (gypsum. 
 
12 
 
 AGKICULTURE. 
 
 plaster of Paris) is often used for fertilizing pur- 
 poses. It is less easily decomposed than the car- 
 bonate. The precise conditions which make it 
 most advantageous, are not positively determined 
 yet. Phosphate of lime is a very important con- 
 stituent of plants; and, as it exists also in the 
 bones of animals, a double relation follows : 
 namely, that it should be abundant in soil on 
 which plants are raised for food of men and ani- 
 mals ; and, on the other hand, that animal bones 
 contribute it to the soil when they decay upon it. 
 Wood ashes contain a large amount of car- 
 bonate of potassa, with also the sulphate and 
 silicate of that alkali. Peat ashes vary in different 
 regions, but always are found useful as manure. 
 Kelp, or the ashes of sea-weeds, are often em- 
 ployed in the same way; they contain soda in 
 considerable amount. Nitrate of potassa (nitre, 
 or saltpetre) is said to quicken vegetable action 
 when aided to the soil, and to give the leaves a 
 deeper $<;reen. A hundred pounds to the acre of 
 grass or young corn, have been reported to pro- 
 duce a beneficial effect. In localities far inland, 
 common salt, chloride of sodium, is indispensable 
 to the soil, although a small amount of it will 
 suffice. Animal manures contain it. An excess 
 of salt will render land barren; as was well 
 known to the ancients. 
 
 Conclusions, 
 
 We may take it for granted that every thinking, 
 practical mind, will admit it as proved, that there 
 must be an exact adaptation and fitness between the 
 condition of any given soil and the plants intended 
 to be raised upon it; and, further, that if this 
 mutual fitness does not naturally exist, a know- 
 ledge of its requirements will enable us to supply 
 it artificially. The great difficulty is, to obtain 
 this knowledge fully and accurately. It must be 
 confessed that, at present, much is wanting to 
 render it complete and directly available. Indus- 
 trious observation and experiment may, hereafter, 
 make it so; and thus give us a system of truly 
 scientific agriculture. 
 
 A few statements only remain to be added to 
 what has been said. The best natural soils are 
 those where the materials have been derived 
 from the breaking up and decomposition, not of 
 one stratum or layer, but of many divided mi- 
 nutely by air and water, and minutely blended 
 together: and in improving soils by artificial 
 additions, the farmer cannot do better than imi- 
 tate the processes of nature. 
 
 We have spoken of soils as consisting mostly 
 of sand, lime, and clay, with certain saline and 
 organic substances in smaller and varying pro- 
 portions; but the examination of the ashes of 
 plants shows that a fertile soil must of necessity 
 contain an appreciable quantity of at least eleven 
 different substances, which in most cases exist in 
 greater or less relative abundance in the ash of 
 cultivated plants; and of these the proportions 
 are not by any means immaterial. In general, 
 the soils which are made up of the most various 
 materials are called alluvial ; having been formed 
 from the depositions of floods and rivers. Many 
 of them are extremely fertile. Soils consist of 
 two parts; of an organic part, which can readily 
 be burned away when the surface-soil is heated 
 to redness ; and of an inorganic part, which re- 
 mains fi^ed in the fire, consisting of earthy and 
 saline substances ; from which, if carbonic acid 
 or any elastic gas be present, it may, however, be 
 driven by the heat. The organic part of soils is 
 derived chiefly from the remains of vegetables 
 and animals which have lived and died in and 
 upon the soil, which have been spread over it by 
 
 riverg and rains, or which have been added by the 
 industry of man for the purposes of increased 
 fertility. 
 
 This organic part varies much in quantity, a. 
 well as quality, in different soils. In peaty soils 
 it is very abundant, as well as in some rich, long 
 cultivated lands. In general, it rarely amounts 
 to one-fourth, or 25 per cent., even in our best 
 arable lands. Good wheat soils contain often as 
 little as eight parts in the hundred of organic 
 animal or vegetable matter; oats and rye will 
 grow in a soil containing only 1 per cent. ; and 
 barley when only two or three parts per cent, are 
 present. 
 
 The inorganic portion of any given soil, again, 
 is divisible into two portions; that part which is 
 soluble in water, and thus easily taken up by 
 plants, and a much more bulky portion which is 
 insoluble. 
 
 Sir Humphrey Davy found the following to be 
 the composition of a good productive soil. In 
 every 9 parts, 8 consisted of siliceous sand; the 
 remaining (one-ninth) part was composed, in 100 
 parts, as follows : 
 
 Carbonate of lime (chalk), . . .63 grains. 
 Pure silex, . . . " . 15 grains. 
 
 Pure alumina, or the earth of clay, . 11 grains. 
 Oxide (rust) of iron, ... 3 grains. 
 Vegetable and other saline matter, . 5 grains. 
 Moisture and loss, . . . . 3 grains. 
 
 100 
 
 Thus the whole amount of organic matter in this 
 instance is only 1 part in 200, or one-half of one 
 per cent.; a fact which, in itself, would demon- 
 strate the fallacy of supposing that decomposed 
 animal and vegetable matter in the soil form the 
 exclusive supply to growing plants. 
 
 In another instance, soil was taken from a field 
 in Sussex, remarkable for its growth of flourishing 
 oak trees. It consisted of 6 parts of sand, and 1 
 part of clay and finely-divided matter. One 
 hundred grains of it yielded, in chemical lan- 
 guage 
 Of silica (or silex), . . . .54 grains. 
 
 Of alumina, . . . . .,28 grains. 
 
 Carbonate of lime, .... 3 grains. 
 
 Oxide of iron, ..... 5 grains. 
 
 Vegetable matter in a state of decom- 
 position, ...... 4 grains. 
 
 Moisture and loss, .... 6 grains. 
 
 100 
 
 To wheat soils t the attention of the practical 
 farmer will be most strongly directed. An ex- 
 cellent wheat soil from West Dray ton, in Eng- 
 land, yielded 3 parts in 5 of silicious sand; and 
 the remaining two parts consisted of carbonate 
 of lime, silex, alumina, and a minute proportion 
 of decomposing animal and vegetable remains. 
 
 Of these soils, the last was by far the most, 
 and the first the least, coherent in texture. In all 
 cases, the constituent parts of the soil which give 
 tenacity and stiffness, are the finely-divided por- 
 tions; and they possess this quality in propr rtion 
 to the quantity of alumina (or earth of clay) they 
 contain. 
 
 The varying power of soils to absorb and retain 
 water from the air, is much connected with their 
 fertility. This absorbent power is always greatest 
 in the most fertile lands. Their productiveness 
 is also much influenced by the nature of the sub- 
 soil on which they rest; for, when soils are situ- 
 ated immediately upon a bed of rock or stone, 
 they dry sooner by the sun's agency than when 
 the subsoil is clay or marl. 
 
 A great deal more might be said upon other 
 
SOILS. 
 
 13 
 
 kindred points. But, as has been already re- 
 marked, agricultural science is, as yet, imperfect. 
 It is a mistake for the practical farmer to contemn 
 "book farming," as if it were something visionary 
 or useless; while, on the other hand, the agricul- 
 tural chemist and vegetable physiologist must 
 submit all their inductions and conclusions to the 
 test of careful and repeated trials. The one can 
 seldom analyze soils, and the other can rarely 
 attend to raising crops; so they must help each 
 other, and, together, aid in advancing the oldest 
 of human arts, and one of the most beautiful of 
 the sciences that of the earth's culture. 
 
 PRACTICAL FARMING. 
 
 Component parts of Soil. 
 
 The principal component parts of the soil, what- 
 ever may be the color, are clay, lime, sand, water, 
 and air. The primitive earths, argil, lime, and 
 sand, contain each, perhaps in nearly equal de- 
 grees, the food of plants; but in their union the 
 purposes of vegetation are most completely an- 
 swered. The precise quantities of each necessary 
 to make this union perfect, and whether they 
 ought to be equal, it is not very easy to ascertain, 
 since that point is best determined in practice, 
 when the soil proves to be neither too stiff nor 
 adhesive, from the superabundance of clay, nor 
 of too loose and weak a texture, from an over 
 quantity of sand in its composition. The medium 
 is undoubtedly best; but an excess towards adhe- 
 sion is obviously most safe. A stiff or strong soil 
 holds the water which falls upon it for a long 
 time, and, being capable of much ploughing, is 
 naturally well qualified for carrying the most 
 valuable arable crops. A light sod, or one of a 
 texture feeble and easily broken, is, on the con- 
 trary, soon exhausted by aration, and requires 
 renovation by grass; or otherwise it cannot be 
 cultivated to advantage. 
 
 To distinguish Clayey Soils. 
 
 A clayey soil, though distinguished by the 
 color which it bears, namely black, white, yellow, 
 and red, differs from all other soils, being tough, 
 wet, and cold, And consequently requiring a good 
 deal of labor from the husbandman before it can 
 be sufficiently pulverized, or placed in a state for 
 bearing artificial crops of corn or grass. Clay 
 land is known by the following qualities, or pro- 
 perties. 
 
 It holds water like a cup, and once wetted does 
 not soon dry. In like manner, when thoroughly 
 dry, it is not soon wetted ; if we except the varie- 
 ties which have a thin surface, and are the worst 
 of all to manage. In a dry summer, clay cracks 
 and shows a surface full of small chinks, or open- 
 ings. If ploughed in a wet state, it sticks to the 
 plough like mortar, and in a dry summer, the 
 plough turns it up in great clods, scarcely to be 
 broken or separated by the heaviest roller. 
 
 To manage Sandy Soils. 
 
 Soils of this description are managed with infi- 
 nitely less trouble, and at an expense greatly infe- 
 rior to what clays require; but at the same time, 
 the crops produced from them are generally of 
 smaller value. There are many varieties of sand, 
 however, as well as of clay; and in some parts of 
 the country, the surface is little better than a bare 
 barren sand, wherein artificial plants will not take 
 root unless a dose of clay or good earth is previ- 
 ously administered. This is not the soil meant 
 by the farmer when he speaks of sands. To speak 
 practically, the soil meant is one where sand is 
 predominant, although there be several other 
 
 earths in the mixture. From containing a great 
 quantity of sand, these soils are all loose and 
 crumbling, and never get into a clod, even in the 
 driest weather. This is the great article of dis- 
 tinction betwixt sand and sandy loams. A sandy 
 loam, owing to the clay that is in it, does not 
 crumble down, or become loose like a real sand, 
 but retains a degree of adhesion after wetness or 
 j drought, notwithstanding the quantity of sand 
 I that is mixed with it. Perhaps a true sandy loam, 
 ' incumbent upon a sound subsoil, is the ino.t valu- 
 able of all soils. Upon such, every kind of grain 
 may be raised with advantage, and no soil is 
 better calculated for turnips and grass. 
 
 The real sands are not favorable to the growth 
 of wheat, unless when preceded by clover, which 
 binds the surface, and confers a temporary strength 
 for sustaining that grain. Much of the county of 
 Norfolk, in England, is of this description ; and it 
 is well known that few districts of the kingdom 
 yield a greater quantity of produce. Till Norfolk, 
 however, was invigorated by clay and marl, nearly 
 one-half of it was little better than waste; but by 
 the success which accompanied the use of these 
 auxiliaries, a new soil was in a manner created; 
 which, by a continuation of judicious manage- 
 ment, has given a degree of fame to the husbandry 
 of that country, far surpassing that of other dis- 
 tricts naturally more fertile. 
 
 Gravelly Soils. 
 
 The open porous nature of these soils disposes 
 them to imbibe moisture, and to part with it with 
 great facility: from the latter of which circum- 
 stances they are subject to burn, as it is termed, 
 in dry seasons. The main difference between 
 gravel and sand is, that the former is chiefly com- 
 posed of small soft stones ; though in some in- 
 stances the stones are of a silicious or flinty na- 
 ture, and, in others, of the calcareous or chalky. 
 From these constitutional circumstances arises the 
 propriety of deepening gravelly soils by coats of 
 marl or earth, and of keeping them fresh by fre- 
 quent returns of grass, and repeated applications 
 of manure. Gravelly soils, from the lightness of 
 their texture, are not expensive or difficult in the 
 means of cultivation. All the necessary business 
 required for gravels may be carried forward with 
 ease and expedition; and such soils are, in gene- 
 ral, soon brought into a proper state for the re- 
 ception of crops. 
 
 The constitutional qualities of gravels point out 
 the propriety of ploughing them deep, so that the 
 surface soil may be augmented, and greater room 
 given to the growth of the plants cultivated on 
 them. A shallow-ploughed gravel can stand no 
 excess of weather, however enriched by manure. 
 It is burnt up by a day or two of drought, and it 
 is almost equally injured by an excessive fall of 
 rain, unless the pan or firm bottom, which such 
 soils easily gain, be frequently broken through by 
 deep ploughing. 
 
 Uses of different Soils. 
 
 Clayey soils, when sufficiently enriched with 
 manures, are naturally well qualified for carrying 
 crops of wheat, oats, beans, and clover; but are 
 not fitted for barley, turnips, potatoes, etc., or even 
 for being kept under for grass longer than one 
 year. Such soils ought to be regularly summer- 
 fallowed once in six, or at least once in eight years, 
 even when they are comparatively in a clean state, 
 as they contract a sourness and adhesion from wet 
 ploughing, only to be removed by exposure to the 
 sun and wind during the dry months of summer. 
 Soils of this kind receive little benefit from winter 
 ploughing, unless so far as their surface is thereby 
 
AGRICULTURE. 
 
 presented to the frost, which mellows and reduces 
 them in a. manner infinitely superior to what could 
 be accomplished by all the operations of man. 
 gtill they are not cleaned or made free of weeds 
 by winter ploughing; and therefore this operation 
 can only be considered as a good means for pro- 
 curing a seed-bed, in which the seeds of the future 
 crop may be safely deposited. Hence the neces- 
 sity of cleansing clay soils during the summer 
 months, and of having always a large part of every 
 clay farm under summer fallow. All clayey soils 
 require great industry and care, as well as a con- 
 siderable portion of knowledge in dressing or 
 m;mngement, to keep them in good condition; yet 
 when their natural toughness is got the better of, 
 they always yield the heaviest and most abundant 
 crops. One thing requisite for a clayey soil, is to 
 keep it rich and full of manure; a poor clay being 
 the most ungrateful of all soils, and hardly capa- 
 ble of repaying the expense of labor, after being 
 worn out and exhausted. A clayey soil also re- 
 ceives, comparatively, small benefit from grass; 
 and when once allowed to get into a sterile con- 
 dition, the most active endeavors will with diffi- 
 culty restore fertility to it after the lapse of many 
 years. 
 
 Upon light soils the case is very different. These 
 flourish under the grass husbandry; and bare 
 summer fallow is rarely required, because they 
 may be cleaned and cropped in the same year, 
 with that valuable esculent, turnip. Upon light 
 soils, however, wheat can seldom be extensively 
 cultivated; nor can a crop be obtained of equal 
 value, either in respect to quantity or quality, as 
 on clay sand loams. The best method of procur- 
 ing wheat on light lands, is to sow upon a clover 
 stubble, when the soil has got an artificial solidity 
 of body and is thereby rendered capable of sus- 
 taining the grain till it arrives at maturity. The 
 same observation applies to soils of a gravelly na- 
 ture; and upon both barley is generally found 
 of as great benefit as wheat. 
 
 Thin clays and peat earths are more friendly to 
 the growth of oats than of other grains, though in 
 favorable seasons a heavy crop of wheat may be 
 obtained from a thin clayey soil, when it has been 
 completely summer-fallowed and enriched with 
 dung. A first application of calcareous manure 
 is generally accompanied with great advantage 
 upon these soils; but when once the effect of this 
 application is over, it can hardly be repeated a 
 second time, unless the land has been very cau- 
 tiously managed after the first dressing. Neither 
 of these soils is friendly to grass, yet there is a 
 necessity of exercising this husbandry with them, 
 because they are incapable of standing the plough 
 more than a year or two in the course of a rotation. 
 
 Wheat ought to be the predominant crop upon 
 all the rich clays and strong loams, and light 
 soils of every kind are well qualified for turnips, 
 barley, etc. Upon the thin and moorish soils, oats 
 must necessarily preserve a prominent rank, and 
 grass seeds may be cultivated upon every one of 
 them, though with different degrees of advantage, 
 according to the natural and artificial richness of 
 each soil, or to the qualities which it possesses for 
 encouraging the growth of clover, in the first in- 
 stance, and preserving the roots of the plant after- 
 wards. 
 
 Operation of Tillage. 
 
 Tillage is an operation whereby the soil is either 
 cleared from noxious weeds, or prepared for re- 
 ceiving the seeds of plants cultivated by the hus- 
 bandman. When this operation is neglected, or 
 even partially executed, the soil becomes foul, 
 barren, and unproductive; hence, upon arable j 
 
 farms, tillage forms tne prominent branch of work j 
 and, according to the perfection or imperfection 
 with wnich it is executed, the crops of the hus- 
 bandman, whether of corn or grass, are in a great 
 measure regulated. 
 
 Tillage, in the early ages, was performed by 
 hand labor; but, in modern times, the plough has 
 been the universal instrument used for executing 
 this necessary and important branch of rural work. 
 In no other way can large fields be turned over, 
 because the expense of digging with the spade, 
 the only other method of turning over the ground, 
 would much exceed any profit that can be reaped. 
 
 Stones lying above or below the surface are the 
 most formidable obstruction to perfect tillage. 
 On stony ground, the work is not only imperfectly 
 executed, but in many cases the implement is 
 broken to pieces, and a considerable portion of 
 time lost before it is repaired and put in order. 
 The removal of stones, therefore, especially of 
 such as are below the surface, ought to be a pri- 
 mary object with every agriculturist; because a 
 neglect of this kind may afterwards occasion him 
 considerable loss and inconvenience. 
 
 To drain the ground, in other words, to lay it 
 dry, also facilitates tillage exceedingly ; for plough- 
 ing cannot be performed with advantage where 
 either the surface or subsoil is wet. 
 
 Best Mode of Tillage. 
 
 The only sure and certain way by which the soil 
 is cleaned or rendered free of weeds, is by plough- 
 ing in the summer months, when the ground is 
 dry, and when, by the influence of the sun and 
 air, the weeds may be destroyed with facility. 
 Seldom at any other period is the soil much bene- 
 fitted by ploughing, unless so far as a seed-bed is 
 thus procured for the succeeding crop ; and though 
 the situation or state of the ground, when these 
 intermediate ploughings are bestowed, is of im- 
 portance in judging of their utility, yet the radi- 
 cal process of summer fallow cannot, by any means, 
 be altogether dispensed with. Though, if the win- 
 ter and spring ploughings are executed under 
 favorable circumstances, and plenty of manure is 
 at hand, it may be delayed for a greater number 
 of years than is otherwise practicable, if good 
 husbandry is to be maintained. 
 
 Without summer fallow, or, which is the same, 
 thing, without working the ground in the summer 
 months, perfect husbandry is unattainable on all 
 heavy or cold soils, and upon every variety in- 
 cumbent on a close or retentive bottom. 
 
 To keep his land clean will always be a princi- 
 pal object with every good farmer; for if this is 
 neglected, in place of carrying rich crops of gram 
 or grass, the ground will be exhausted by crops 
 of weeds. Where land is foul, every operation of 
 husbandry must be proportionably non-effective; 
 and even the manures applied will, in a great 
 measure, be lost. 
 
 The necessity of summer fallow depends greatly 
 upon the nature and quality of the soil; as, upon 
 some soils, a repetition of this practice is less fre- 
 quently required than upon others. Wherever 
 the soil is incumbent upon clay or till, it is more 
 disposed to get foul, than when incumbent upon 
 a dry gravelly bottom ; besides, wet soils, from be- 
 ing ploughed in winter, contract a stiffness which 
 lessens the pasture of artificial plants, and prevents 
 them from receiving sufficient nourishment. When 
 land of a day gravelly bottom gets foul, it may 
 easily be cleaned without a plain summer fallow; 
 since crops, such as turnips, etc., may be substi- 
 tuted in its place, which, when drilled at proper 
 intervals, admit of being ploughed as often as 
 necessary ; whereas wet soils, which are naturally 
 
IMPLEMENTS. 
 
 15 
 
 unfit for carrying such crops, must be cleaned 
 and brought into good order by frequent plough- 
 ings and harrowings during the summer months. 
 
 To Conduct a Fallow. 
 
 Upon all clayey soils (and upon such only is 
 a complete summer fallow necessary) the first 
 ploughing ought to be given during the winter 
 months, or as early in the spring as possible; 
 which greatly promotes the rotting of the sward 
 and stubble. This should be done by gathering 
 up the ridge, which both lays the ground dry and 
 rips up the furrows. As soon as seed-time is over, 
 the ridge should be cloven down, preparatory to 
 cross ploughing; and after lying a proper time, 
 should be harrowed and rolled repeatedly, and 
 every partible of quickens that the harrovrs have 
 brought above, should be carefully picked off with 
 the hand. It is then proper to ridge or gather it 
 up immediately, which both lays the land in pro- 
 per condition- for meeting bad weather, and opens 
 up any fast land that may have been missed in 
 the furrows when the cross ploughing was given. 
 After this harrow, roll, and gather the root weeds 
 again ; and continue so doing till the field is per- 
 fectly clean. 
 
 To Prepare the Ground. 
 
 The above object is most completely accom- 
 plished, when the ground is ploughed deep and 
 equal, while the bottom of the furrow immediately 
 above the subsoil is perfectly loosened and turned 
 equally over with the part which constitutes the 
 surface. In many places these properties are 
 altogether neglected, the ground being ploughed 
 in a shallow way, while the bottom of the ploughed 
 land remains something like the teeth of a saw, 
 having the under part of the furrow untouched, 
 and consequently not removed by the action of 
 the plough. While these things are suffered, the 
 j object of tillage is only partially gained. The 
 food of plants can only be imperfectly procured : 
 and the ground is drenched and injured hy wet- 
 ness; these ridges, or pieces of land, which are 
 not cut, preventing a descent of the moisture from 
 above to the open furrows left for carrying it off. 
 Where the seed-bed is prepared by one ploughing, 
 the greatest care ought to be used in having it 
 closely and equally performed. When two are 
 given, they should be in opposite directions, so 
 that any firm land left in the first may be cut up 
 in the second ploughing. It is not profitable to 
 plough twice one way, if it can be safely avoided. 
 
 Another important point towards procuring 
 good tillage, is never to plough the land when in 
 a wet state; because encouragement is thus given 
 to the growth of weeds, while a sourness and ad- 
 hesion is communicated to the ground, which is 
 rarely got the better of till the operations of a 
 summer fallow are again repeated. 
 
 All soils ought not to be wrought or ploughed 
 in one manner. Each kind has its particular and 
 appropriate qualities ; and, therefore, each requires 
 a particular and appropriate mode of tillage. 
 Ploughing, which is the capital operation of hus- 
 bandry, ought, on these accounts, to be adminis- 
 tered according to the nature of the soil which is 
 to be operated upon, and not executed agreeably 
 to one fixed and determined principle. On strong 
 clays and loams, and on rich gravels and deep 
 sands, the plough ought to go as deep as the cat- 
 tle are able to work it; whereas, on thin clays 
 and barren sands the benefit of deep ploughing is 
 Very questionable; especially when such are in- 
 cumbent on a till bottom, or where the subsoil is 
 of a yellow-ochre nature; such, when turned up, 
 being little better than poison to the surface, un- 
 
 less highly impregnated with alluvial compost, 
 the effect of which expels the poisonous substance 
 contained in this kind of subsoil, and gives a fer- 
 tility to the whole mass, more decisively perma- 
 nent than would follow a heavy application of tLa 
 best rotten dung. 
 
 Two sets of Ploughs required for perfect Tillage. 
 
 On clayey soils, where the ridges are so that 
 the ground may be preserved in something like 
 a dry condition, the plough used for tillage 
 ought to have a mould-board considerably wider 
 set than is required for light soils, in order that 
 the furrow may be close cut below, and only 
 turned over. The method of constructing the 
 plough necessarily makes a heavier draught than 
 would be the case were the mould-board placed 
 differently ; though if good and sufficient work 
 be wanted, the necessity of constructing the im- 
 plement in the way mentioned, is absolute and 
 indispensable. The plough to be used on light 
 soils, or on all soils that admit of what is tech- 
 nically called crown and furrow ploughing, 
 may be made much straighter below, and yet 
 be capable of executing the work in a perfect 
 manner. On every farm, consisting of mixed 
 soils, two sets of ploughs ought to be kept, 
 otherwise proper work cannot be performed. All 
 land ought to be ploughed with a shoulder, and 
 the advantages of ploughing in this way are, 
 that, if ploughed before winter, the surface is 
 enabled to resist the winter rains, and afterwards 
 present a face on which the harrows can make a 
 proper impression, when the seed process is to be 
 executed. This deserves particular attention 
 when old grass fields are broken up ; as, by neg- 
 lecting it, the harrows are often unable to cover 
 the seed. It is perfectly practicable to plough 
 land with a tolerably broad furrow, say 10, 11, or 
 12 inches, and yet to plough it clean, provided 
 the implement used is properly constructed ; but, 
 then, care must be taken that the furrow be of 
 proportionate deepness, otherwise it will be laid 
 on its back, instead of being deposited at an angle 
 proper for undergoing the harrowing process. 
 
 The use of stibsoilers is now common, to turn up 
 the depth of the soil. In sandy earth, beneath a 
 ten-inch furrow, a subsoiler may go ten inches 
 deeper ; but this is not easy or possible in all 
 soils. 
 
 Implements of Husbandry. * 
 No country in the world is better provided with 
 implements for executing rural labor than Great 
 Britain; and to this superiority may, in some 
 measure, be attributed the increased and in- 
 creasing perfection of agriculture over the whole 
 island. American ingenuity has gone still further 
 in the same direction. We have ploughs of all 
 the different kinds that ever were constructed : as 
 for wheel carriages, the variety is immense; 
 whilst harrows, and other common implements, 
 of various constructions and dimensions, are 
 equally numerous. But it is in the articles more 
 pmperly allied to machinery, that the superiority 
 f A merican rural implements is most conspicuous. 
 Drills for sowing grain and small seeds with 
 regularity, have been constructed upon scientific 
 principles; and machines for separating grain 
 from straw, have been invented, and brought to 
 a degree of perfection which few people expected 
 when these machines were first introduced. 
 
 The double Michigan plough is an important 
 mprovement on the old plough. Instead of a 
 coulter it has a small plough attached to the 
 beam in front of the other, which takes a slice 
 from the sod, and makes cleaner work for the 
 plough. Steam ploughs have also been invented. 
 
16 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 The univertal Sowing Machine. 
 
 This machine, whether made to he worked hy 
 hand, drawn by a horse, or fixed to a plough, and 
 used with it, is extremely simple in its construc- 
 tion, and not liable to be put out of order; as 
 there is but one movement to direct the whole. 
 It will sow wheat, barley, oats, rye, clover, cole- 
 seed, hemp, flax, canary, rape, turnip ; besides a 
 great variety of other kinds of grain and seeds, 
 broadcast, with an accuracy hitherto unknown. 
 It is equally useful when fixed to a plough; it 
 will then drill a more extensive variety of grain, 
 pulse, and seed (through every gradation, with 
 regard to quality), and deliver each kind with 
 greater regularity than any drill plough whatever. 
 
 Among many other valuable and peculiar pro- 
 perties, it will not only sow in the broadcast way 
 with a most singular exactness, but save the ex- 
 pense of a seedsman; the seed being sown (either 
 over or under furrow at pleasure), and the land 
 ploughed at the same operation. 
 
 Another advantage attending the use of this 
 machine is, that the wind can have no effect on 
 the falling of the seed. 
 
 The machine, when made to be used without a 
 plough, and to be drawn by a horse, may be of 
 different lengths. The upper part contains the 
 hoppers, from which the grain or seed descends 
 into the spouts. The several spouts all rest upon 
 a bar, which hangs and plays freely by two dia- 
 gonal supporters; a trigger, fixed to this bar, 
 bears a catch wheel: this being fixed on the axle, 
 occasions a regular and continued motion, or 
 jogging of the spoute, quicker or slower in pro- 
 portion to the space the person sowing with it 
 drives. At the bottom of the' machine is placed 
 an apron or shelf, in a sloping position, and the 
 corn or seed, by falling thereon from the spouts 
 above, is scattered about in every direction. 
 
 To sow the corn or seed in drills, there are 
 movable spouts, which are fixed on or taken off 
 at pleasure, to direct the seed from the upper 
 spout to the bottom of the furrow. 
 
 Harrows. 
 
 These beneficial implements are of various sizes 
 and dimensions; but the harrow most commonly 
 used consists of four bulls, with cross-mortised 
 sheaths, each bull containing five teeth, of from 
 five to seven inches in length below the bulls, the 
 longest being placed forwards. Harrows of this 
 kind, drawn by one horse, are generally used on 
 most farms for all purposes, though on others 
 large brake-harrows, consisting of five bulls, each 
 containing six teeth, and worked by two horses, 
 are employed during the fallow process, and for 
 reducing rough land. Some of these brake-har- 
 rows are constructed with joints, so as to bend 
 and accommodate their shape to the curvature of 
 ridges. A small harrow, with short teeth, is also 
 used for covering grass seeds, though we have 
 rarely seen any detriment from putting grass 
 seeds as deep into the ground as the teeth of ordi- 
 nary sized harrows are capable of going. 
 
 The best methods of Harrowing. 
 When employed to reduce a strong obdurate 
 soil, not more than two harrows should be yoked 
 together, because they are apt to ride and tumble 
 upon each other, and thus impede the work, and 
 execute it imperfectly. On rough soils, harrows 
 ought to be driven as fast as the horses can walk ; 
 because their effect is in the direct proportion to 
 the degree of velocity with which they are driven. 
 In ordinary cases, and in every case where har- 
 rowing is meant for covering the seed, three har- 
 rows are the best yoke, because they fill up the 
 
 ground more effectually, and leave fewer vacan- 
 cies, than when a smaller number is employed. 
 The harrowman's attention, at the seed process, 
 should be constantly directed to prevent these 
 implements from riding upon each other, and to 
 keep them clear of every impediment from stones, 
 lumps of earth, or clods, and quickens or grass 
 roots; for any of these prevents the implement 
 from working with perfection, and causes a mark 
 or trail upon the surface, always unplensing to 
 the eye, and generally detrimental to the vege- 
 tation of the seed. Harrowing is usually given 
 in different directions, first in length, then across, 
 and finally in length as at first. Careful hus- 
 bandmen study, in the finishing part of the pro- 
 cess, to have the harrows drawn in a straight 
 line, without suffering the horses to go in a zigzag 
 manner, and are also attentive that the horses 
 enter fairly upon the ridge, without making a 
 curve at the outset. In some instances, an excess 
 of harrowing has been found very prejudicial to 
 the succeeding crop; but it is always necessary 
 to give so much as to break the furrow, and level 
 the surface, otherwise the operation is imperfectly 
 performed. 
 
 Rollers. 
 
 The roller is an implement frequently used for 
 smoothing the surface of land when in tillage, 
 especially when the processes of summer fallow 
 are going forward. Several kinds of rollers are 
 used in America. Some are of stone, others of 
 wood or iron, according to the nature of the opera- 
 tion intended to be performed. The only material 
 difference in rollers is their weight; but it should 
 be attended to, when a roller is made of large 
 diameter, that its weight ought to be the greater, 
 for in proportion to the largeness of its diameter 
 will be the extent of surface upon which the 
 roller rests. The weight of a roller ought there- 
 fore to be in proportion to its diameter, otherwise 
 its effect will be proportionably diminished. 
 
 Rolling, however, is a modern improvement, 
 and used for different purposes. In the first place, 
 it is of great advantage to roll young grasses 
 after the ground is stoned, because the scythe can 
 then be placed nearer the surface, and the crop 
 cut more equally than when the operation is 
 neglected. 2dly. Land on which turnips are to 
 be cultivated can rarely be made fine enough, 
 without the repeated use of this implement. And 
 3dly. The process of summer fallow, upon strong 
 soils, is much advanced by rolling, because 
 without its aid the large and obdurate clods can- 
 not be reduced or couch-grass eradicated. -From 
 these circumstances it will readily appear, that 
 rollers of various sizes and dimensions are re- 
 quired on every farm, for accomplishing different 
 purposes. Wooden rollers, drawn by one horse, 
 answer very well for grass and turnip land; but 
 massy stone rollers, drawn either by two or three 
 horses, are absolutely necessary on clay soils. 
 
 It is obvious, that when a large field is to be 
 rolled, a number of rollers ought at once to be set 
 at work, otherwise an opportunity may be lost, 
 never to be regained. The deficiency is most 
 conspicuous when barley is taken after turnips in 
 a dry season. From poaching the ground with 
 carts, in order to carry off the crop, and even by 
 the treading of sheep, a degree of stiffness is 
 contracted, which requires the use of the roller 
 before grass seeds can be sown. 
 
 On all occasions it is most beneficial to roll 
 across, because, when going in length, the imple- 
 ment is of small benefit to the furrows, the 
 slightest acclivation of the ridges preventing the 
 work from being equally performed. The expe- 
 
IMPLEMENTS. 
 
 17 
 
 dition which takes place when rollers are used, 
 compared with the tedious and expensive process 
 of breaking clods with malls, formerly the gene- 
 ral custom, sufficiently proves the importance of 
 these implements, though it deserves to be re- 
 marked, that, when rolling is bestowed upon a 
 pring-sown field, harrowing it afterwards is of 
 great advantage. By harrowing when the clods 
 ftro reduced, the earth stands the effects of rain 
 better afterwards, and does not consolidate so 
 firmly as when that process is neglected. 
 
 Mowers and Reapers. * 
 
 These machines are of great value, especially 
 to those with large farms. One machine, the 
 mower, can be made to perform duty both with 
 grass and grain ; but reapers are constructed 
 especially for the latter. Weeders are also in use 
 in some parts of the country, drawn by horse 
 power. 
 
 The Thrashing Machine. 
 
 The thrashing machine is the most valuable 
 implement in the farmer's possession, and one 
 which adds more to the general produce of the 
 country, than any invention hitherto devised. 
 The saving of manual labor thereby obtained is 
 almost incalculable; while the work is performed 
 in a much more perfect manner than was formerly 
 practicable, even when the utmost care and ex- 
 ertion were bestowed. In fact, had not the 
 thrashing machine been invented, it is hardly 
 possible to conceive what would have been the 
 rate of expense of thrashing, or even whether a 
 sufficient number of hands could, at any rate of 
 expense, have been obtained for thrashing the 
 grain of the country. 
 
 Since the invention of this machine, Mr. Meikle 
 and others have progressively introduced a variety 
 of improvements, all tending to simplify the labor, 
 and to augment the quantity of the work performed. 
 When first erected, though the grain was equally 
 well separated from the straw, yet as the whole 
 of the straw, chaff, and grain, was indiscrimi- 
 nately thrown into a confused heap, the work 
 could only with propriety be considered as half 
 executed. By the addition of rakes, or shakers, 
 and two pairs of fanners, all driven by the same 
 machinery, the different processes of thrashing, 
 shaking, and winnowing are now all at once per- 
 formed, and the grain immediately prepared for 
 the public market. When it is added, that the 
 quantity of grain gained from the superior powers 
 of the machine is fully equal to a twentieth part 
 of the crop, and that, in some cases, the expense 
 of thrashing and cleaning the grain is considerably 
 less than what was formerly paid for cleaning it 
 alone, the immense saving arising from the in- 
 Tention will at once be seen. 
 
 The expense of horse labor, from the increased 
 value of the animal and the charge of his keep- 
 ing, being an object of great importance, it is 
 recommended that, upon all sizable farms, that 
 is to say, where two hundred acres, or upwards, 
 of grain are sown, the machine should be worked 
 by wind, unless where local circumstances afford 
 th<; conveniency of water. 
 
 Where coals are plenty and cheap, steam may 
 be advantageously used for working the machine. 
 
 Method of Treading Grain. 
 
 In some countries wheat is trodden out by 
 horses, nearly in the same way as it was formerly 
 done in Palestine by oxen. 
 
 The treading floors are generally from sixty to 
 100 feet in diameter; but the larger their diameter 
 ie, the easier is the work to the horses. The 
 track, or path, on which the sheaves are laid, and 
 
 on which the horses walk, is from twelve to tvron- 
 ty-four feet wide, or more. The floors are com- 
 monly enclosed by fences; and the horses are 
 generally driven between them promiscuously and 
 loose, each pressing to be foremost, so that fresh 
 air may be obtained, biting, jostling, and kick- 
 ing each other with the greatest fury. The labor 
 in this way is extremely severe. Upon some 
 small floors a centre-stick is placed, to which 
 hangs a rope, or a pole and swivel, and four or 
 five horses being fastened together, travel round 
 upon the sheaves with the utmost regularity. 
 Previously to laying down the wheat sheaves, the 
 state of the air, and the probability of its con- 
 tinuing dry through the day, is fully considered. 
 If they resolve to tread, the morning is suffered 
 to pass away till the dew is removed. A row of 
 sheaves is first laid upon the floors with the heads 
 and butts in a line across the track of it, as a 
 bolster for receiving other sheaves; and these 
 sheaves range with the path, or circle, the butts 
 resting on the floor. Other sheaves are ranged in 
 like manner, with the heads raised on the former, 
 till the whole floor is filled, when it appears to be 
 filled with nothing but ears of wheat, sloping a 
 little upwards. Upon laying down each sheaf, 
 the baud thereof is cut with a knife. A west 
 wind is always desirable while treading is going 
 on, as when wind is from the eastward dampness 
 generally prevails. 
 
 In some instances, twenty-four horses are 
 formed at some distance from the floor into four 
 ranks; and when the floor is ready laid, the word 
 is given to advance. For the sake of order and 
 regular work, a boy mounted on one of the fore- 
 most horses advances in a walk with the whole 
 rank haltered or tied together, and enters upon 
 the bed of wheat, walking the horses slowly over 
 it; another rank is ordered to follow as soon as 
 the first is supposed to have obtained a distance 
 equal to a fourth part of the circumference of the 
 bed, and in the same manner the other ranks 
 proceed. They are forbidden to go past a walk, 
 till they have proceeded five or six rounds, when 
 the word is given to move at a sober trot, and to 
 keep their ranks at a full distance from each 
 other, regularity and deliberate movement being 
 necessary for preventing confusion. The gentle 
 trot is continued till it may be supposed the 
 horses have travelled eight or nine miles, which 
 is the extent of their first journey ; they are then 
 led off to be foddered and watered, when the 
 trodden light straw is taken off as deep as the 
 place where the sheaves lie close, and are but 
 partially bruised. 
 
 As soon as this first straw is removed, one-third 
 of the width of the bed is turned over on the other 
 two-thirds from the inner side or circle of the bed, 
 which narrows the neck of the next journey. The 
 horses are again led on, and trot out their second 
 journey, till the straw be clear of wheat. The 
 outer part of the bed is then turned upon the 
 middle part, when the horses take another jour- 
 ney. The loose straw being then taken oft', the 
 whole remaining bed is turned up from the floor, 
 and shaken with forks, and handles of rakes, 
 after which the horses give another tread, which 
 finishes the work. The grain is then shoved up 
 from the floor with the heads of rakes turned 
 downwards, and put into heaps of a conical form, 
 in which situation it often remains exposed to the 
 weather for several days. The correct American 
 agriculturists, however, have houses adjoining 
 the treading floor, where the grain is deposited 
 till it is cleared from the chaff and offal ; though, 
 as most of them continue treading, if the weathet 
 be favorable, till the whole crop is separated from 
 
 See page 470. 
 
18 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 the straw, it is pretty obvious that the grain 
 stands a considerable chance of being damaged 
 before the several processes are concluded. 
 
 Fanners. 
 
 If thrashing machines are of much advantage 
 to the public, by separating grain completely from 
 the straw, the introduction of fanners, or the ma- 
 chine by which grain is cleansed from chaff, and 
 all sorts of offal, may, with justice, be considered 
 as of equal benefit to the practical agriculturist. 
 
 Since thrashing machines were introduced, fan- 
 ners almost in every case are annexed to them, 
 and in some instances, where powerful machines 
 are used, fitted internally with suitable riddles, it 
 i perfectly practicable to measure and market the 
 grain immediately as it comes from the machine. 
 
 Manure*. 
 
 The term manure is applied indiscriminately to 
 all substances, which are known from experience 
 either to enrich the different soils, or contribute 
 in any other way to render them more favorable 
 to vegetation. 
 
 In an ngricultural point of view, the subject of 
 manures is of the first magnitude. To correct 
 what is hurtful to vegetation in the different soils, 
 and to restore what is lost by exhausting crops, 
 are operations in agriculture which may be com- 
 pared to the curing of diseases in the animal body, 
 or supplying the waste occasioned by labor. 
 
 To manage Dung upon Light Lands. 
 
 For soils of this description, where turnips are 
 taken as a first crop, dung can hardly be too well 
 prepared ; because the nature of the crop to which 
 it is applied renders a complete incorporation 
 with the ground absolutely necessary; without 
 which the young plants might be starved at their 
 very entrance into life. In the best farmed Eng- 
 lish counties, dung is often kept more than a year, 
 In order that it may be perfectly rotted. 
 
 In general there is not much difficulty in pre- 
 paring dung upon turnip farms; because, in the 
 driest season, from the nature of the food used, 
 juch a quantity of liquid passes from the animals, 
 is to prevent burning, provincially fire-fanging, 
 the greatest obstacle to the rotting of dung that 
 ean be experienced. If turnip dung is regularly 
 removed, if it is properly mixed with the horse 
 litter and other excrementitious matter accumu- 
 lated upon the farm, it will be found an ea?y task 
 to prepare all that is made by the middle of April, 
 at which time the fold-yard should be cleared. 
 What is produced after that time should be stored 
 up separately, receive waterings if the weather is 
 dry, and be reserved for clover-stubbles, or other 
 fields that are to be dunged in autumn. 
 
 The middle of April is a good time for clearing 
 the fold-yard; but this does not prevent the work 
 from going partially forward through the winter, 
 when suitable opportunities occur. 
 
 When driven out of the fold-yard, the dung 
 should be laid up in a regular heap or pile, not 
 exceeding six quarters, or four feet and a half in 
 height; and care should be taken not to put either 
 horse or cart upon it, which is easily avoided by 
 backing the cart to the pile, and laying the dung 
 compactly together with a grape or fork. It is 
 also useful to face up the extremities with earth, 
 which Tteeps in the moisture, and prevents the sun 
 and wind from doing injury. Perhaps a small 
 quantity of ea,rth strewed upon the top might also 
 prove useful. Dung, when managed in this man- 
 ner, generally ferments very rapidly; but if it is 
 discovered to be in a backward state, a complete 
 turn over, about the 1st of May, when the weather 
 becomes warm, wilJ quiokn the process ; and the 
 
 better it is shaken asunder, the sooner will theob* 
 ject in view be accomplished. 
 
 A secluded spot of ground, not much exposed to 
 wind, and perfectly secure from being floated with 
 water, ought always to be chosen for the site of 
 such piles or heaps. If the field to which it is to 
 be applied is at hand, a little after-trouble may be 
 saved by depositing it there in the first instance. 
 But it is found most convenient to reserve a piece 
 of ground adjacent to the homestead for this pur- 
 pose. There it is always under the farmer's eye, 
 and a greater quantity can be moved in a shorter 
 time than when the situation is more distinct. 
 Besides, in wet weather (and this is generally the 
 time chosen for such an operation), the roads are 
 not only cut up by driving to a distance, but the 
 field on which the heap is made, may be poached 
 and injured considerably. 
 
 Upon Heavy Lands. 
 
 Upon clay soils, where wheat forms a principal 
 part of the crop, where great quantities of beans 
 are cultivated, and few turnips sown, unless for 
 the use of milch cows, the rotting of dung is not 
 only a troublesome but an expensive affair. In- 
 dependent of what is consumed by the ordinary 
 farm stock, the overplus of the straw must, some- 
 how or other, be rotted, by lean cattle kept in the 
 fold-yard, who either receive the straw in racks, 
 or have it thrown across the yard, to be eaten and 
 trodden down by them. According to this mode 
 of consumption, it is evident that a still greater 
 necessity arises for a frequent removal of this un- 
 made dung; otherwise, from the trampling of 
 beasts, and the usual want of moisture, it would 
 compress so much as altogether to prevent putre- 
 faction. TO prepare dung sufficiently upon farms 
 of this description is at all times'an arduous task, 
 but scarcely practicable in dry seasons; for if it 
 once gets burnt (fire-fanged), it is almost physi- 
 cally impossible to bring it into a suitable state of 
 preparation afterwards; and, at all events, its 
 virtues are thereby considerably diminished. 
 
 Straw flung out in considerable portions to the 
 fold-yard, after being compressed by ihe tramp- 
 ling of cattle, becomes rather like a well-packed 
 stack, than a mass of dung in a preparatory state. 
 The small quantity of water and dung made by 
 the animals is barely sufficient to cause a slight 
 fermentation ; and this slight fermentation, when 
 the heap gets into a compressed state, is sure to 
 bring on fire-fang, as already said, after which 
 its original powers can rarely be restored. To 
 prevent such an injury, no measure can be so 
 successfully used as a frequent removal of this 
 unmade dung, especially if the weather is wet at 
 the time. If people can stand out to work, there 
 cannot be too much wetness while executing this 
 operation; for there is always such a quantity of 
 the straw that has not passed through the en- 
 trails of the cattle, as renders it almost impossible 
 to do injury, in the first instance, by an ex jess of 
 moisture. 
 
 It is therefore recommended, upon every olay- 
 land farm, especially those of considerable size, 
 that the fold-yard be frequently cleared; and that 
 the greatest care be taken to mix the stable or 
 horse-dung in a regular way with what is gathered 
 in the fold-yard, or made by other animal?, in 
 order that a gradual heat or fermentation may be 
 speedily produced. Where the materials are of 
 the sorts now described (that is, a small quantity 
 of dung, or excrementitious matter, and a large 
 store of unrotten straw, only partially moistened), 
 no damage can ensue from putting horses and 
 carts upon the heap; nay, a positive benefit will 
 be gained from this slight compression. 
 
MANURES. 
 
 19 
 
 The heap or pile, in the case of turnip dung, 
 should be formed in a secluded spot, if such can 
 be got at hand; because the less it is exposed to 
 the influence of the sun and wind, the faster 
 will fermentation proceed. It should be con- 
 structed on a broad basis, which lessens the 
 bounds of the extremities, and separate heaps are 
 necessary, so that too much may not be de- 
 posited at once. By shifting the scene frequently, 
 and allowing each covering or coat to settle and 
 ferment before laying on any more, the most 
 happy effects will follow, and these heaps (at 
 least all such as are completed before the first of 
 May), may reasonably be expected to be in a fit 
 condition for applying to the summer-fallow 
 fields, in the end of July, or first of August. If 
 the external parts get dry at any time during the 
 process, it will be proper to water them thorough- 
 ly, and in many cases to turn over the heap com- 
 pletely. It may be added, that much benefit has 
 been experienced from laying a thick coating of 
 snow upon such heaps, as by the gradual melting 
 thereof the whole moisture is absorbed, and a 
 strong fermentation immediately follows. 
 
 Upon large farms, where the management of 
 manure is sufficiently understood and practised, 
 it is an important matter to have dunghills of all 
 ages, and ready for use whenever the situation of 
 a field calls for a restorative. No method of ap- 
 plication to clay soils, however, is so beneficial as 
 during the year of summer fallow, though in such 
 a situation a greater stock of manure is often 
 gathered than is required for the fields under 
 this process. 
 
 As to the proper quantity of dung to be used, 
 no greater quantity ought to be given at one time 
 than is sufficient to fructify the grounds; in other 
 words, to render it capable of producing good 
 crops, before the time arrives when a fresh dose 
 can be administered. 
 
 The Spreading of Dung. 
 
 The increased attention now bestowed, in all 
 the cultivated districts, to the spreading of dung, 
 originated from the measure of limiting the quan- 
 tity applied. When forty, fifty, nay even sixty 
 double loads were applied to an acre, it was not 
 very difficult to cover its surface, even with an 
 imperfect separation, though it certainly was im- 
 practicable to bury the big lumps with a furrow 
 of ordinary size; but when the quantity was 
 brought down to eighteen and twenty loads, and, 
 still more, when twelve or fourteen loads were 
 thought sufficient, a different conduct became ab- 
 solutely necessary. Another improvement also 
 followed, viz., spreading dung when raw or green, 
 that is, immediately after the carts; in which way, 
 at least during summer, it will be separated at 
 one-half the expense, and to much better purpose, 
 than when it is suffered to lie in the heap for a 
 day or two. In short, it is a sure mark of a slov- 
 enly farmer to see dung remain unspread in a 
 field, unless it be in the winter months, when it 
 may happen that hands cannot be got for carry- 
 ing on such operations with the usual regularity. 
 At that time the injury sustained by losing a few 
 days is not great, though as a general rule it will 
 be found that the expense is always smallest when 
 the carts are regularly followed up. 
 
 Application of Dung to Turnips. 
 When turnip husbandry forms the chief branch 
 of fallow process, dung is naturally of a superior 
 quality, and requires little artificial management 
 for bringing it to a proper state of preparation. 
 In the greater part of Scotland, and even in Eng- 
 land, where the drill and horse-hoeing system is 
 pi fcctised, the common, and undoubtedly the most 
 
 approved way of applying dung to turnips, is by 
 laying it in the intervals of the drills or small 
 ridges, which are previously made up by a bout, 
 or two furrows of the plough. These drills oe 
 ridges are formed at a distance of from twenty- 
 four to thirty inches from the centre of each ; and 
 by driving the horses and cart along the middle 
 one of the space intended to be manured, th 
 dung is drawn out either by the carter, or by 
 another man specially appointed for that pur- 
 pose, in such proportions as the poverty of the 
 soil, or the disposition of the occupier, may rec kon 
 necessary. If the breadth of three drills is unly 
 taken at a time, the dung stands a better chance 
 of being regularly administered; for it often hap- 
 pens, that when a greater number are included in 
 one space, the two outside drills receive a less 
 quantity than the intervening ones. Those, 
 therefore, who limit themselves to three drills, 
 generally divide the spreaders; as it requires six 
 hands, women or boys, to follow up what is usu- 
 ally called a head of carts, the number of carts 
 to a head being regulated by the distance of the 
 dunghill, or the kind of road over which it is to 
 be carried. 
 
 The quantity of dung usually given for turnips 
 is from twelve to fifteen double cart loads, of one 
 and a half cubic yards each, to a Scots acre. In 
 some cases only ten loads are given ; but the 
 land ought to be in high condition where such a 
 small quantity is bestowed. In fact, no soil caa 
 be made too rich for turnips or other green crops, 
 peas excepted ; but the object to be attended to 
 in this, and every other case, is an allotment of 
 the manure collected on the premises, in such a 
 way as that the greatest possible return over the 
 whole farm, not from a particular field, may be 
 gained by the occupier. 
 
 Application of Dung to Potatoes. 
 The culture is in several respects similar to 
 that of turnips, but in others it differs materially. 
 Potatoes are planted earlier in the season than 
 turnips: the ground rarely receives so much 
 work; the soils upon which they are cultivated 
 are more variable; and the dung considered to be 
 most suitable for promoting their growth, does 
 not require such high preparation. Many far- 
 mers, notwithstanding these circumstances, follow 
 out the same process as described under the head 
 of turnips. After the ground receives three, or 
 at most four ploughings. the drills are made up, 
 dung deposited in the intervals, the seed planted 
 above the dung, and the drills reversed; aftor 
 which, say at the distance of two or three weeks, 
 a slight harrowing is given. They avoid making 
 up drills, but dung the ground in what may be 
 called the broadcast way; and, entering the 
 plough, plant the seed in every thiid furrow, into 
 which only the dung is raked; and so on till the 
 whole is finished. Before the young plants ap- 
 pear, or even after they are above the surface, a 
 complete harrowing is given, which is considered 
 as equal to a hand-hoeing; ad from the dung 
 being completely covered, scarce any of it ia 
 dragged up, while the seed, being undermost, 
 noneof it is disturbed by the operation. Some 
 farmers do not dung their potato fields; but, re- 
 serving the manure till the crop is removed, find 
 the remainder of the rotation greatly benefited. 
 Potatoes scourge severely, and, in general cases, 
 require a larger quantity of dung than turnips, 
 but, as the extent of land under this culture is not 
 great in common farming, few people grudge this 
 extra quantity, because, except in a few favored 
 situations, a good crop cannot otherwise be re** 
 sonably expected. 
 
AGRICULTURE. 
 
 To Manure Clayey Soils. 
 
 Upon all soils incumbent on a wet or close bot- 
 tom, whether characterized as clay, loam, or moor, 
 it may be laid down as a primary principle, that 
 dung cannot be so profitably applied, as while the 
 ground is under the process of summer fallow. 
 
 When the ground is under the process of sum- 
 mer fallow, it is then the best and most appro- 
 priate time for applying manure to clayey soils. 
 When under this process, the soil, comparatively 
 peaking, is reduced into minute particles, which 
 affords an opportunity of conveying the virtues 
 of manure through the veins or pores of all its 
 parts. The soil, at that time, is also freed from 
 its aboriginal inhabitants, quickens and other root- 
 weeds, which claim a preferable right of support; 
 hence the artificial plants, afterwards cultivated, 
 possess, without a rival, such supplies as have 
 been granted, without any deduction whatever. 
 In short, without laying any stress upon ele- 
 mentary effects during the procees, it does not 
 admit of a doubt, that the same quantity of ma- 
 nure, bestowed upon the ground when summer- 
 fallowed, will produce a greater return to the 
 occupier, than if it had been applied at any other 
 stage of the rotation. 
 
 Dung should not be laid upon fallows before 
 they are completely cleaned ; though, no doubt, 
 in wet summers, that operation is not easily ac- 
 complished. 
 
 To make sure work, the fallows, if possible, 
 hould be early stirred, and no opportunity slipped 
 of putting them forward with the utmost expedi- 
 tion; for it rarely happens that much good can 
 be done towards the destruction of root-weeds 
 after the month of July. Before that time a ju- 
 dicious farmer will have his fallow dressed up, 
 and in a suitable state for receiving dung. It 
 should be well harrowed, if the weather is favor- 
 able, previous to the dung being laid on ; and if 
 rolled, or made smooth, the spreaders will be en- 
 abled to perform their task with much more pre- 
 cision. 
 
 At the proper season every other operation 
 ought to be laid aside, so that dung may be ex- 
 peditiously spread out. To do it in wet weather is 
 attended with pernicious effects; the horses are 
 oppressed, a longer time is required, the land is 
 poached, and in some measure deprived of all 
 benefit from the previous fallow. These circum- 
 stances will be reflected upon by the attentive 
 farmer; they will stimulate him not to lose a mo- 
 ment when the weather is favorable, and prevent 
 him from forcing on the work, when injury, rather 
 than benefit, may be expected. After all, seasons 
 are so perverse as to render every rule nugatory. 
 These must, however, be taken as they come, 
 avoiding at such times to break the land down, ac- 
 clivating the ridges sufficiently, and keeping the 
 water-furrows completely clear. 
 
 Quantity of Dung for Fallows. 
 The quantity of dung usually applied to fal- 
 lows in ordinary condition is from fourteen to 
 twenty double loads per acre; though often good 
 Crops are reaped when twelve loads only have been 
 
 Siven. Much, however, depends upon the con- 
 ition of the land, upon the quality of the dung, 
 and the way in which the carts are loaded. A 
 decent, load may contain one cubic yard and 
 three-fourths, and weigh a ton, or thereabouts. 
 It also deserves notice, that less dung will serve 
 gome lands than others, especially if they have 
 lately been ploughed from grass ; but, at all events, 
 sixteen such loads as are mentioned will answer 
 for any sort of soil, unless it has been previously 
 quite wrought out. Even if it were in this forlorn 
 
 state, it is better management to dung upon th* 
 stubble of the first crop than to give an over-dose 
 when under summer fallow. 
 
 Time of Spreading the Dung. 
 
 All dung laid upon summer fallow ought to be 
 spread the moment it is pulled out of the cart. 
 It can at no other time be done so well, or so 
 cheaply, though on many farms, small ones espe- 
 cially, where a full supply of hands is wanting, 
 this beneficial practice is much neglected. Four 
 spreaders, boys or girls, with an attentive overs- 
 man to follow up and supply any omissions, are 
 sufficient for one head of carts ; the number in- 
 cluded in a head being regulated by the distance 
 of the field from the dunghill. Some farmers 
 employ a person on whom they can depend to 
 draw the dung from the cart, who has judgment 
 to proportion it according to circumstances, and 
 is responsible for any failure in the execution; 
 but the carter is the person usually employed, 
 though, unless a boy is given him to drive, a regu- 
 lar distribution can hardly be expected. To in- 
 sure accuracy in laying down, fields are some- 
 times thrown into a dam-broad figure; and. a 
 heap being drawn into each square, you could 
 have nearly ascertained the quantity required for 
 the whole. The great object, after a regular and 
 economical distribution, is to shake and part the 
 whole completely; as, by minute attention to this 
 circumstance, a, much greater effect is necessarily 
 produced. 
 
 Intermediate Dunging. 
 
 After the fallows are dunged, the remainder in 
 hand is reserved for what may be called the inter- 
 mediate dunging, generally bestowed either upon 
 clover stubbles, upon wheat stubbles previously 
 to taking beans, or upon bean stubbles before the 
 seed furrow is given for wheat. It is obvious, 
 that the farmer must be regulated, in this inter- 
 mediate dunging, by the weather at the time, 
 though it rarely happens but that dung may be 
 got out upon clover stubbles at one time of the 
 winter or other. When applied to beans, a bene- 
 ficial practice, the dung, as we said above, is by 
 some people laid upon the wheat stubble, and 
 ploughed down before winter; hence it is in full 
 action in the spring, when the seed furrow is 
 given. Others make up drills at seed time, de- 
 positing the dung in the intervals, as for turnips 
 or potatoes ; but it seldom occurs that weather 
 can then be got, at least on real bean soils, for 
 executing this management. 
 
 Many arable farms, under the strictest economy, 
 are unable to furnish supplies for an intermediate 
 dunging, at least to its full extent; but persons so 
 circumstanced have it always in their power to 
 overcome the defect, and preserve a regular rota- 
 tion, by keeping certain fields longer in grass, 
 which of course will yield weightier crops when 
 broken up, and stand less in need of manure du- 
 ring the after rotation. As, for instance, in a 
 rotation of six, and it is here that the greatest 
 shortcoming is felt, grass seeds to a certain ex- 
 tent, say a half, may be thrown in with the crop 
 of wheat taken after fallow, which is the second 
 year of the rotation ; this part may be pastured 
 for three years, and broken up in the sixth for 
 oats, which concludes the course. Again, in a 
 rotation of eight, grass seeds, in like manner, may 
 be sown with a part of the fallow wheat, which 
 part can be pastured for three years, then broken 
 up for oats, succeeded by beans and wheat. By 
 such arrangements, made according to circum- 
 stances, it is an easy matter to preserve a regulai 
 rotation, and to proportion the corn crops to th 
 quantity of manure collected upon the premises. 
 
MANURES. 
 
 21 
 
 To increase the Quantity of Dung by Soiling. 
 
 The practice of soiling, or feeding horses or 
 eattle in the house or farm yard, is eminently 
 calculated to increase the quantity of manure up- 
 on every farm, and improve its quality. 
 
 The soiling of horses, in the summer months, 
 on green clover and rye-grass, is a practice which 
 prevails in many grain districts where farm labor 
 is regularly executed. The utility of the practice 
 does not need the support of argument, for it is 
 not only economical to the farmer, but saves much 
 fatigue to the poor animal; besides, the quantity 
 of dung thereby gathered is considerable. 
 
 Oxen and cows of all sorts, might be supported 
 and fed in like manner, during the whole of the 
 grass season. It is well known that milch-cows 
 have, in several instances, been so kept; but it 
 has rarely happened that other descriptions of 
 cattle have been fed for the butcher according to 
 this mode, though it is perfectly practicable. 
 
 The chief benefit of soiling may be considered 
 as arising from the immense quantity of fine dung 
 which would thus be accumulated, and which can 
 be returned to the ground in the succeeding sea- 
 son, alter being properly fermented and prepared. 
 In all grain-farms, at least those of clayey soils, it 
 is a work of great difficulty to rot the straw pro- 
 duced upon it; and much of it is misapplied, in 
 consequence of such soils being naturally unfit 
 for raising green winter-crops. 
 
 If a numerous stock of cattle were kept either in 
 the house or in separate divisions of the fold yard, 
 all the straw threshed in the summer months 
 might be immediately converted into dung, the 
 quality of which would be equal, if not superior, to 
 what is made from turnips consumed at the stake. 
 
 Dung is the mother of good crops ; and it appears 
 that no plan can be devised by which a large quan- 
 tity can be so easily and cheaply gathered, or by 
 which straw can be so effectually rotted and ren- 
 dered beneficial to the occupier of a clay-land farm, 
 as the soiling of grass in the summer season. In 
 a word, the dung of animals fed upon green clover, 
 may justly be reckoned the richest of all dung. It 
 may, from the circumstances of the season, be ra- 
 pidly prepared, and may be applied to the ground 
 at a very early period, much earlier than any other 
 sort of dung can be used with advantage. 
 
 To make Composts, 
 
 The use of manure, in the shape of compost, or 
 ingredients of various qualities, mixed together in 
 certain proportions, has long been a favorite prac- 
 tice with many farmers; though it is only in par- 
 ticular situations that the practice can be exten- 
 sively or profitably executed. The ingredients 
 used in these composts are chiefly earth and lime, 
 sometimes dung, where the earth is poor; but lime 
 may be regarded as the main agent of the process, 
 acting as a stimulus for bringing the powers of 
 the heap into action. Lime, in this view, may be 
 considered as a kind of yeast, operating upon a 
 heap of earth as yeast does upon flour or rneal. 
 It is obvious, therefore, that unless a sufficient 
 quantity is given, the heap may remain unfer- 
 raented, in which case little benefit will be derived 
 from it as a manure. 
 
 The best kind of earth for compost is that of 
 the alluvial sort, which is always of a rich greasy 
 substance, often mixed with marl, and in every 
 respect calculated to enrich and invigorate barren 
 soils, especially if they are of a light and open 
 texture. Old yards, deep headlands, and scourings 
 cf ditches, offer themselves as the basis of corn- 
 lost middens; but it is proper to summer-fallow 
 them before hand, so that they may be entirely free 
 Df weeds. When the lime is mixed with the soil 
 
 of these middens, repeated turnings are necessary, 
 that the whole may be suitably fermented, and some 
 care is required to apply the fermented mass at a 
 proper time to the field on which it is to be used. 
 The benefit of such a compost in nourishing 
 soils is even greater than what is gained by dress- 
 ing them with dung. 
 
 Lord Meadowbank' 8 Directions for making Conk- 
 posts of Peat-mots. 
 
 Let the peat-moss, of which compost is to bo 
 formed, be thrown out of the pit for some weeks 
 or months, in order to lose its redundant moisture. 
 By this means, it is rendered the lighter to carry, 
 and less compact and weighty when made up with 
 fresh dung for fermentation; and, accordingly, 
 less dung is required for the purpose, than if the 
 preparation is made with peat taken recently from 
 the pit. The peat taken from near the surface, or 
 at a considerable depth, answers equally well. 
 
 Take the peat-moss to a dry spot convenient for 
 constructing a dunghill to serve the field to be 
 manured. Lay the cart-loads of it in two rows, 
 ad of the dung in a row betwixt them. The dung 
 thus lies nearly on an area of the future compost 
 dunghill, and the rows of peat should be near 
 enough each other, that worCTnen, in making up 
 the compost, may be able to throw them together by 
 the spade. In making up, let the workmen b< .gin at 
 one end, and, at the extremity of the row of dung 
 (which should not extend quite so far at th&.t end 
 as the rows of peats on each side of it do), let them 
 lay a bottom of peat, six inches deep and fifteen 
 feet wide, if the grounds admit of it, then throw 
 forward, and lay on, about ten inches of dung above 
 the bottom of peat; then add from the side rows 
 about six inches of peat; then four or five of dung, 
 and then six more of peat; then another thin layer 
 of dung; and then cover it over with peat at the 
 end where it was begun, at the two sides, and 
 above. The compost should not be raised above 
 four feet, or four feet and a half high ; otherwise it 
 is apt to press too heavily on the under parts, and 
 check the fermentation. When a beginning is 
 thus made, the workmen will proceed working 
 backwards, and adding to the columns of compost, 
 as they are furnished with the three rows of ma- 
 terials directed to be laid down for them. They 
 must take care not to tread on the compost, or 
 render it too compact ; and. in proportion as the 
 peat is wet, it should be made up in lumps, and 
 not much broken. 
 
 In mild weather, seven cart-loads of common 
 farm-dung, tolerably fresh made, is sufficient for 
 twenty-one cart-loads of peat-moss; but in cold 
 weather, a larger proportion of dung is desirable. 
 To every twenty-eight carts of the compost, when 
 made up, it is of use to throw on, above it, a cart- 
 load of ashes, either made from coal, peat, or 
 wood ; half the quantity of slacked lime, the more 
 finely powdered the better. 
 
 The compost, after it is made up, get;* into a 
 general heat, sooner or later, according to the 
 weather, and the condition of the dung. In sum- 
 mer, in ten days or sooner; in winter, not perhaps 
 for many weeks, if the cold is severe. In the for- 
 mer season, a stick should be kept in it in different 
 parts, to pull out and feel now and then ; for, if it 
 approaches blood-heat, it should either be watered 
 or turned over; and, on such an occasion, advantage 
 may be taken to mix with it a little fresh moss. 
 The heat subsides after a time, and with great 
 variety, according to the weather, the dung, and 
 the perfection of the compost ; which should then 
 be allowed to be untouched, till within three weeks 
 of using, when it should be turned over upside 
 down, and outside in, and all lumps broken ; thua 
 
22 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 it comes into a second heat, but soon cools, and 
 ehruld be taken out for use. In this state the 
 whole, except bits of the old decayed wood, ap- 
 pears a black free mass, and spreads like garden 
 mould. Use it weight for weight, as farm-yard 
 dung; and it will be found, in a course of crop- 
 ping, fully to stand the comparison. 
 
 Peat, nearly as dry as garden-mould in seed- 
 time, may be mixed with the dung, so as to 
 double the volume. Workmen must begin with 
 using layers ; but, when accustomed to the just 
 pix portions, if they are furnished with peat mod- 
 erately dry, and dung not lost in litter, they throw 
 it up together as a mixed mass, and make a less 
 proportion of dung serve for the preparation. 
 
 The rich coarse earth, which is frequently found 
 en the surface of peat, is too heavy to be admit- 
 ted into this compost; but it makes an excellent 
 top-dressing, if previously mixed and turned over 
 with lime. 
 
 Dr. Hennie's Method of Converting Moss into Ma- 
 nure. 
 
 The importance of moss as a manure is now 
 generally admitted by all who have had an op- 
 portunity of making experiments on that subject. 
 The Rev. Dr. Rennie, of Kilsyth, having proved 
 the utility of filtration, has recommended, in pri- 
 vate letters, to water the collected heap of moss 
 for about ten days, once each day, very copiously ; 
 and when that is done, to trim it up to a compact 
 body, allow it to dry, and to receive a gentle de- 
 gree of heat. The degree of heat necessary for 
 accomplishing that end, is sufficient, though not 
 discoverable by the hand. If it only affects the 
 thermometer a little, it is declared to be a ma- 
 nure. The doctor also declares, that moss can be 
 converted by filtering steam through it; and 
 more expeditiously still, by exposing it to a run- 
 ning stream of water. If the water penetrates 
 the moss, it expels its poisonous qualities sooner 
 and more effectually than any other mode ever 
 devised. When it is sufficiently purified by any 
 of these means, it must be laid up to dry, and is 
 in a short time ready for applying to the land. 
 
 Use of Lime as Manure. 
 
 This mineral, after undergoing the process of 
 calcination, has long been applied by husband- 
 men as a stimulus to the soil, and, in consequence 
 of such an application, luxuriant crops have been 
 produced, even upon soils apparently of inferior 
 quality, and which would have yielded crops of 
 trifling value had this auxiliary been withheld. 
 In fact, the majority of soils cannot be cultivated 
 with advantage till they are dressed with lime ; 
 and whether this beneficial effect shall be consid- 
 ered as an alterative, or as a stimulant, or as a 
 manure, it will be found to be the basis of good 
 husbandry, and of more use than all other ma- 
 nures put together. Wherever lirne has been 
 prcperly applied, it has constantly been found to 
 piove as much superior to dung, as dung is to 
 the rakings of roads, or the produce of peat-mire. 
 _ In respect of operation, it is immaterial whether 
 lime be used upon grass land or summer-fallow. 
 Upon old grass land, it is perhaps best to plough 
 first, and to summer-fallow in the second year, 
 when lime can be applied. On new and clean 
 grass land, it may be limed at the outset, that is 
 before the plough is admitted. 
 
 To lime moorish soils is a hazardous business, 
 unless dung is likewise bestowed: but to repeat 
 the application upon such soils, especially if they 
 have been severely cropped, is almost a certain 
 loss ; a compost of lime and rich earth is, in such 
 cases, the only substitute. 
 
 Strong loams and clays require a full dose to 
 bring them into action ; such soils being capable 
 of absorbing a greater quantity of calcareous 
 matter. Lighter soils, however, require less lime 
 to stimulate them, and may be injured by admin- 
 istering a quantity that would prove moderately 
 beneficial to those of a heavy nature. 
 
 Upon fresh land, or land in a proper state for a 
 calcareous application, lime is much superior to 
 dung. Its effects continue fora longer period; 
 while the crops produced are of a superior kind 
 and less susceptible of injury from the excesses 
 of drought and moisture. Finally, the ground, 
 particularly what is of a strong nature, is much 
 easier wrought; and, in many instances, the 
 saving of labor would almost tempt a judicious 
 farmer to lime his land, were no greater benefit de- 
 rived from the application than the opportunity 
 thereby gained of working it in a perfect manner. 
 
 It may be added, that though strong soils re- 
 quire to be animated with a strong dose of lime, 
 those of a light texture will do well with little 
 more than half the quantity requisite on the 
 others, especially if they are fresh, ^r have not 
 already received an application of calcareous 
 matter. 
 
 Application of Marl. 
 
 In many places the value of land has been 
 much augmented by the application of marl. 
 Treating of this article in a practical way, it may 
 be divided into shell-marl and earth-marl. Shell- 
 marl is composed of animal shells dissolved; 
 earth-marl is also fossil. The color of the latter 
 is various ; its hardness being sometimes soft and 
 ductile, like clay; sometimes hard and solid, like 
 stone; and sometimes it is extended into thin 
 beds, like slate. Shell-marl is easily distin- 
 guished by the shells, which always appear in it j 
 but the similarity betwixt earth-marl and many 
 other fossil substances, renders it difficult to dis- 
 tinguish them. 
 
 Shell-marl is very different in its nature from 
 clayey and stone marls, and, from its effects upon 
 the soil, is commonly classed among the animal 
 manures : it does not dissolve with water as the 
 other marls do. It sucks it up, and swells with 
 it like a sponge. Dr. Home says, that it takes 
 six times more of acids to saturate it than any of 
 the other marls which he had met with. But the 
 greatest difference betwixt the shell-marl and the 
 other marls consists in this, the shell-marl con- 
 tains oils. 
 
 This marl, it would seem from the qualities 
 which it possesses, promotes vegetation in all the 
 different ways. It increases the food of plants; 
 it communicates to the soil a power of attracting 
 this food from the air; it enlarges the pasture of 
 plants; and it prepares the vegetable food for 
 entering their roots. 
 
 Shelly Sand. 
 
 The shelly sand, often found deposited in beds 
 in the crevices and level parts of the sea-coasts, 
 is another substance capable of being employed, 
 both as a manure and stimulant, not only on ac- 
 count of its containing calcareous matter, in 
 greater or less proportions, but also from the 
 mixture of animal and vegetable substances that 
 are found in it. The portion of calcareous matter 
 contained in these substances must vary accord- 
 ing to circumstances; but, when the quantity is 
 any way large, and in a reduced or attenuated 
 state, the quality is so much the more valuable. 
 On that account the quantity which ought to be 
 applied to the soil, must be regulated by the ex- 
 tent of calcareous matter, supposed, or found, 
 upon trial, to be contained in the article. 
 
MANURES. 
 
 23 
 
 Clayey and Stone Marls. 
 
 The clayey and stone marls are distinguished 
 by their colors, viz., white, black, blue, and red. 
 The white, being of a soft, crumbly nature, is 
 considered to be the best for pasture land ; and 
 the blue, which is more compact and firm, for 
 grain land. In the districts where marl is much 
 used, these distinctions of management nre at- 
 tended with advantage, if the following rules are 
 adhered to : 
 
 If marl is of the blue kind, or of any kind that 
 is compact or firm, lay it upon the land early in 
 the season, so as the weather may mellow it down 
 before the last plough ; and, if on pasture land, 
 let it also be early laid on, and spread very thin, 
 breaking any lumps afterwards which are not 
 completely separated by the first spreading. If 
 marl is of the white, or any of the loose or crum- 
 bling sorts, it need not be laid on so early; be- 
 cause these varieties break and dissolve almost as 
 soon as exposed to the weather. 
 Sea-weed. 
 
 Sea- weed is driven ashore afteV storms, and is 
 found to be an excellent article for manuring light 
 and dry soils, though of little advantage to those of 
 a clayey description. This article may be applied 
 on the proper soil with advantage to any crop, and 
 its effects are immediate, though rarely of long 
 continuance. As the coast-side lands of Great 
 Britain are, in every case, of superior fertility to 
 those that are inland, we may attribute this su- 
 perior fertility to the great quantity of manure 
 found upon their shores after every storm or high 
 tide, whereby the resources of the ocean are in a 
 manner brought forward for the enrichment of 
 tta lands locally situated for participating in such 
 benefits. The utmost attention has long been 
 paid to the gathering and laying on of this valu- 
 able manure. 
 
 Application of Sea-weed. 
 
 Sea-weed is applied at all seasons to the surface, 
 and sometimes, though not so profitably, it is 
 mixed with untrodden dung, that the process of 
 putrefaction may be hastened. Generally speak- 
 ing, it is at once applied to the soil, which saves 
 labor, and prevents that degree of waste which 
 otherwise would necessarily happen. Sea-weed 
 is, in one respect, preferable to the richest dung, 
 because it does not produce such a quantity of 
 weeds. The salt contained in sea-weed, and ap- 
 plied with it, is the real cause of the after-clean- 
 liness. This may be inferred from the general 
 state of coast-side lands, where sea-weed is used. 
 These lands are almost constantly kept in tillage, 
 and yet are cleaner and freer from weeds than 
 those in the inland situations, where grain crops 
 are not so often taken. 
 
 When a coast-side farm contains mixed soils, 
 the best management is exercised, by applying 
 sea-weed to dry, and dung to clay-land. In this 
 way, the full advantage of manure may be ob- 
 tained, and a form so circumstanced is of infi- 
 nitely greater value, with respect to manuring 
 atd laboring, than the one which contains no such 
 variety. 
 
 Burning the Surface. 
 
 The practice of burning the surface, and apply- 
 ing the ashes as manure to the soil that remains, 
 has been long prevalent in Britain; and is con- 
 sidered as the most advantageous way of bring- 
 ing in and improving all soils, where the surface 
 carried a coarse sward, and was composed of peat- 
 earth, or other inactive substances. The burning 
 of this surface has been viewed as the best way 
 of bringing such soils into action ; the ashes, fur- 
 nUhed by the burning, serving as a stimulant to 
 
 raise up their dormant powers, thereby rendering 
 them fertile and productive in a superior degree 
 to what could otherwise be accomplished. 
 
 Mr. Curwen's Method of Burning Surface Soil and 
 Clay. 
 
 Mounds of seven yards in length, and three and 
 a half in breadth, are kindled with seventy-two 
 Winchester bushels of lime. First, a layer of dry 
 sods or parings, on which a quantity of lime is 
 spread, mixing sods with it, then a covering of 
 eight inches of sods, on which the other half of 
 the lime is spread, and covered a foot thick, the 
 height of the mound being about a yard. 
 
 In twenty-four hours it will take fire. The lime 
 should be immediately from the kiln. It is better 
 to suffer it to ignite itself, than to effect it by the 
 operation of water. When the fire is fairly kin- 
 dled, fresh sods must be applied. I should re- 
 commend obtaining a sufficient body of ashes be- 
 fore any clay is put on the mounds. The fire 
 naturally rises to the top. It takes less time, and 
 does more work to draw down the ashes from the 
 top, and not to suffer it to rise above six feet. The 
 former practice of burning in kilns was more ex- 
 pensive; did much less work; and, in many in- 
 stances, calcined the ashes. 
 
 I think it may fairly be supposed that the lime 
 adds full its worth to the quality of the ashes. 
 Where limestone can be had, I should advise the 
 burning of a small quantity in the mounds, which 
 would be a great improvement to the ashes, and, 
 at the same time, help to keep the fire in. 
 
 The general adopting of the system of surface 
 and soil clay-burning, is likely to be an important 
 discovery for the interests of agriculture. 
 
 To burn Moss with the Ashes. 
 
 The following directions for burning mops along 
 with the ashes are of considerable importance: 
 Begin the fire with dry faggots, furze, or straw, 
 then put on dried moss finely minced and well 
 beaten with a clapper; and when that is nearly 
 burnt down, put on moss less dry, but well minced 
 and clapped, making holes with a prong to carry 
 on the fire, and so adding more moss till a hill of 
 ashes, something of the size of a wagon load, is 
 accumulated, which, when cold, carry to the bins, 
 or store heaps, before the ashes get wet. 
 
 Mr. Roscoe's Method of Improving Moss Land. 
 
 The best method of improving moss land is by 
 the application of a calcareous substance in a suf- 
 ficient quantity to convert the moss into a soil, 
 and by the occasional use of animal or other ex- 
 traneous manures, such as the course of cultiva- 
 tion and the nature of the crops may be found to 
 require. 
 
 After setting fire to the heap and herbage on 
 the moss, and ploughing it down as far as practi- 
 cable, Mr. Roscoe ploughs a thin sod or furrow 
 with a very sharp horse- plough, which he burns 
 in small heaps and dissipates; considering it of 
 little use but to destroy the tough woods of the 
 ediophorus, narclus stricta, and other plants, 
 whose matted roots are almost imperishable. 
 The moss being thus brought to a tolerably dry 
 and level substance, then plough it in a regular 
 furrow six inches deep, and as soon as possible 
 after it is turned up, set upon it the necessary 
 quantity of marl, not less than 200 cubic yaris to 
 the acre. As the marl begins to crumble and fall 
 with the sun or frost, it is spread over the land 
 with considerable exactness, after which put in a 
 crop as early as possible, sometimes by the plough, 
 and at others with the horse-scuffle, or scarifier, 
 according to the nature of the crop, a quantity of 
 manure, setting on about twenty tons to the cr. 
 
24 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Moss-land, thus treated, may not only be ad- 
 rantageously cropped the first year with green 
 crops, as potatoes, turnips, etc., but with any kind 
 f grain. 
 
 Peat and Peat Ashes used as Manure. 
 
 In the county of Bedford, England, peat ashes 
 are sold as manure, and are used as a top dressing 
 for clovers, and sometimes for barley, at the rate 
 of from forty to sixty bushels per acre. They are 
 usually spread during the month of March, on 
 elover, and on the surface of the barley-lands 
 after the seed is sown. Peat ashes are also admir- 
 ably useful as manure for turnips, and are easily 
 drilled with or over the seed, by means of a drill- 
 box connected with a loaded cart. 
 
 After the quantity required has been cast, a por- 
 tion sufficient to kindle a large heap (suppose two 
 cart-loads), is dried as much as if intended for 
 winter's use. A conical pile is then built and 
 fired, and as soon as the flame or smoke makes its 
 appearance at any of the crevices, it is kept back 
 by fresh peat, just sufficiently dry to be free from 
 water; and thus the pile is continually increased, 
 until it has burnt thirty or forty loads, or as much 
 more as may be required. The slower the process 
 the better; but, in case of too languid a consump- 
 tion, the heap should be stirred by a stick, when- 
 ever the danger of extinction seems probable. 
 
 In case of rain, the workmen should be prepared 
 with some coarse thick turf, with which to cover 
 the surface of the cone. 
 
 Coal Ashes used as Manure. 
 Coal ashes may likewise be made a most useful 
 article of manure, by mixing with every cart-load 
 of them one bushel of lime in its hottest state, 
 covering it up in the middle of the heap for about 
 twelve hours, till the lime be entirely slacked, and 
 incorporating them well together ; and, by turn- 
 ing the whole over two or three times, the cinders, 
 or half-burnt parts of the coal, will be reduced to 
 as fine a powder as the lime itself. The coal-ashes 
 should, however, be carefully kept dry ; this mix- 
 ture will be found one of the best improvers of 
 moorish and benty land. 
 
 Method of Burning Lime without Kilns. 
 
 The practice of lime-burners in Wales has for- 
 merly been to burn lime in broad shallow kilns, 
 but lately they have begun to manufacture that 
 article without any kiln at all. 
 
 They place the limestone in large bodies, which 
 are called coats, the stones not being broken small 
 as in the ordinary method, and calcine these heaps 
 in the way used for preparing charcoal. To pre- 
 vent the flame from bursting out at the top and 
 Bides of these heaps, turfs and earth are placed 
 against them, and the aperture partially closed; 
 and the heat is regulated and transfused through 
 the whole mass, that notwithstanding the increased 
 size of the stones, the whole becomes thoroughly 
 calcined. As a proof of the superior advantage 
 that lime burnt in these clamps or coaks has over 
 lime burnt in the old method, where farmers have 
 *an option of taking either lime at the same price, 
 a preference is invariably given to that burned in 
 heaps. This practice has long prevailed in York- 
 shire and Shropshire, and is also familiar in Scot- 
 land. 
 
 Mr. Craig's Improved Method of Burning Clay. 
 Make an oblong enclosure, of the dimensions 
 of a small house say fifteen feet by ten- of 
 green turf-seeds, raised to the height of three and 
 a half or four feet. In the inside of this enclosure 
 air-pipes are drawn diagonally, which communi- 
 eate with holes left at each corner of the exterior 
 
 wall. These pipes are formed of sods put on edge, 
 and the space between so wide only as another 
 sod can easily cover. In each of the four spacos 
 left between the air-pipes and the outer wall, a 
 fire is kindled with wood and dry turf, and then 
 the whole of the inside of the enclosure or kiln 
 filled with dry turf, which is very soon on fire; 
 and, on the top of that, when well kindled, is 
 thrown on the clay, in small quantities at a time, 
 and repeated as often as .necessary, which must 
 be regulated by the intensity of the burning. The 
 air-pipes are of use only 'It first, because if the 
 fire burns with tolerable keenness, the sods lorm- 
 ing the pipes will soon be reduced to ashes. The 
 pipe on the weather side of the kiln only is left 
 open, the mouths of the other three being stopped 
 up, and not opened except the wind should veer 
 about. As the inside of the enclosure or kiln 
 begins to be filled up with clay, the outer wall 
 must be raised in height, at least fifteen inches 
 higher than the top of the clay, for the purpose 
 of keeping the wind from acting on the fire. 
 When the fire burns through the outer wall, 
 which it often does, and particularly when the 
 top is over-loaded with clay, the breach must be 
 stopped up immediately, which can only be effec- 
 tually done by building another sod wall from 
 the foundation opposite to it, and the sods that 
 formed that part of the first wall are soon re- 
 duced to ashes. The wall can be raised as high 
 as may be convenient to throw on the clay, and 
 the kiln may be increased to any size by forming 
 a new wall when the previous one is burnt through. 
 The principal art in burning consists in having 
 the outer wall made quite close and impervious to 
 the external air, and taking care to have the top 
 always lightly, but completely, covered with clay; 
 because if the external air should come in contact 
 with the fire, either on the top of the kiln or by 
 means of its bursting through the sides, the fire 
 will be very soon extinguished. In short, the 
 kilns require to be well attended, nearly as closely 
 as charcoal-pits. Clay is much easier burnt than 
 either moss or loam it does not undergo any 
 alteration in its shape, and on that account allows 
 the fire and smoke to get up easily between the 
 lumps whereas moss and loam, by crumbling 
 down, are very apt to smother the fire, unless care- 
 fully attended to. No rule can be laid down for 
 regulating the size of the lumps of clay thrown on 
 the kiln, as that must depend on the state of the 
 fire. After a kiln is fairly set going, no coal or 
 wood, or any sort of combustible, is necessary, the 
 wet clay burning of itself, and it can only be ex- 
 tinguished by intention, or the carelessness of the 
 operator, the vicissitudes of the weather having 
 hardly any effect on the fires, if propei-ly attended 
 to. When the kiln is burning with great keenness, 
 a stranger to the operation may be apt to think that 
 the fire is extinguished. If, therefore, any person, 
 either through impatience or too great curiosity, 
 should insist on looking into the interior of the 
 kiln, he will certainly retard, and may possibly 
 extinguish, the fire; the chief secret consisting, as 
 before-mentioned, in keeping out the external air. 
 The above .method of burning clay may be con- 
 sidered as an essential service rendered to agri- 
 culture; as it shows farmers how to convert, at a 
 moderate expense, the most worthless barren sub- 
 soil into excellent manure. 
 
 To decompose Green Vegetables for Manure. 
 
 The following process for the decomposition of 
 green vegetables, for manure, has been practised 
 with great success in the counties of Norfolk and 
 Suffolk, England: 
 
 Place a layer of vegetable matter a foot thick. 
 
MANURES. 
 
 25 
 
 then a thin layer of lime, alternately ; in a few 
 hours the decomposition will begin, and, unless 
 prevented by sods, or a fork full of vegetables, will 
 break out into a blaze ; this must be guarded 
 against; in twenty-four hours the process will be 
 completed. Weeds of every description will an- 
 swer for vegetables ; two pounds' worth of lime 
 will produce manure for four acres. Use the 
 vegetables as soon after cutting as possible, and 
 the lime fresh from the kiln, as distance will allow. 
 
 Bone Manure. 
 
 Mills are constructed for the purpose of bruis- 
 ing (not pounding) bones; and the dust riddled 
 therefrom is reckoned a still stronger manure. 
 The same person selects the best bones, which 
 are sawn into pieces, for button-moulds and 
 knife-handles: and the saw-dust from this ope- 
 ration is particularly useful in gardens and hot- 
 beds. It suits every vegetable, hot-house, or 
 green-house plant. 
 
 Bone manure is best adapted for cold and light 
 sandy land. The usual quantity per acre is 
 seventy bushels, when used alone; but when 
 mixed with ashes, or common manure of any 
 sort, thirty bushels per acre is thought quite 
 enough. It is applied at the same periods as 
 other manure, and has been found in this way 
 to remain seven years in the ground. The rough 
 part of this manure, after being five years in 
 the ground, has been gathered off one field and 
 thrown upon another of a different soil, and has 
 proved, even then, good manure. 
 
 The bones which are best filled with oil and 
 marrow are certainly the best manure; and the 
 parts generally used for buttons and knife-hafts 
 are the thigh and shank bones. The powdered 
 bones are dearer, and generally used for hot-beds 
 in gardens, being too expensive for the field, and 
 not so durable as bruised bones, yet, for a short 
 time, more productive. 
 
 A dry, light, or gentle soil, is best adapted for 
 the use of bone-manure; as it is supposed that, 
 in land which retains wet, the nutritive part of 
 the bone washes to the surface of it and does not 
 incorporate sufficiently with the soil. 
 
 Bruised bones are better when mixed with 
 ashes or any other manure, as the juice of the 
 bone is then more equally spread over the field. 
 Bone manure ought to be ploughed into the land 
 in tillage. On the grass the powder should be 
 sown in the hand. 
 
 Super -Phosphate of Lime. 
 
 To Liebig is due the greatest credit for the theory 
 that the organic matter of plants is supplied abund- 
 antly by nature from air and water; that the ashes 
 of plants exhibit the mineral matters most needed 
 for a fertile soil ; that the ashes of the most valu- 
 able parts, such as the husk of wheat, especially 
 show what matters are required for the most 
 abundant production of those parts ; that soils are 
 most frequently deficient in phosphoric acid, which 
 should be supplied in the form of bones, guano, 
 and more especially as a more or less soluble phos- 
 phate of lime. Long and extensive experience 
 has proved the great value of a fertilizer which 
 contains a portion of so-called super-pho.sphate of 
 lime ; that is, a bone-phosphate of lime, which is 
 treated with sulphuric acid, so that more or less 
 of the phosphate will dissolve in water. Of course 
 a true chemical super-phosphate would wholly dis- 
 lolve, but such a one is impracticable in use; 
 moreover it is found by practice that a few per 
 cent, of phosphoric acid in a fertilizer is sufficient 
 to insure its promotion of fertility. Hence some 
 fertilizers in commerce consist almost wholly of a 
 
 phosphate of lime mixed with a little sulphate of 
 lime (plaster), resulting from the action of the 
 sulphuric acid, so that it contains 15 to 20 per 
 cent, phosphoric acid, one-third or one-fourth of 
 which readily dissolves in water. These fertilizers 
 are found to yield excellent results when applied 
 to the soil. 
 
 The superiority of these nitrogenous superphcs- 
 phated fertilizers over all others may be summed 
 up in a few words. They surpass stable manure 
 in their extremely small bulk and weight for the 
 same fertilizing effect, and consequently in the 
 greater ease and less expense of their handling, 
 hauling and spreading, and yet further in their 
 never fouling land by the seeds of weeds and 
 noxious plants. They excel bones and phosphatio 
 guano in their more rapid action and their yield- 
 ing a quicker return. They excel Peruvian guano 
 in continuing their fertilizing effects for a longer 
 period of time, in their being less violent at first, 
 and yet sufficiently energetic to yield a return the 
 first season of their application. Most of our 
 land is either poor by nature or through exhaust- 
 ive cropping, and there is nothing that will more 
 rapidly restore and increase their fertility than 
 the ammoniated super-phosphates. It may be 
 yet further observed, that there is scarcely any 
 soil to which their application will not prove a 
 decided benefit, and scarcely a crop which they 
 will not improve, whether grain, vegetables, cot- 
 ton, tobacco, fruits, etc. 
 
 Various Substances used as Manure. 
 
 J. B. Bailey, Esq., presented to tho Agricul- 
 tural Society of Manchester, the following enu- 
 meration of substances which may be applied 
 usefully as manures instead of stable dung, viz., 
 mud, sweepings of the streets, and coal-ashes, 
 night-soil, bones, refuse matters, as sweepingg 
 and rubbish of houses, etc., sea-weeds, sea-shells, 
 and sea-gravel, river-weeds, sweepings of roads, 
 and spent tanner's bark to mix with lime. Peat 
 or moss, decayed vegetables, putrid water, the 
 ashes of weeds, etc., the refuse of bleacher's 
 ashes, soap suds, or lye, peat ashes, water in- 
 floating, refuse salt. 
 
 The use of liquid manure, so long common in 
 China and Japan, is gaining in favor with agri- 
 culturists everywhere. Peruvian guano is one 
 of the important discoveries of modern times ; with 
 its use ground almost barren may be made produc- 
 tive; it is available for almost all kinds of crops. 
 
 Plaster of Paris used as Manure. 
 
 Plaster of Paris is used as a manure in Pennsyl- 
 vania and elsewhere. The best kind is imported 
 from hills in the vicinity of Paris: it is brought 
 down the Seine, and exported from Havre de Grace. 
 The lumps composed of flat shining spicula are pre- 
 ferred to those which are formed of round parti- 
 cles like sand; the simple method of finding out 
 the quality is to pulverize some, and put it dry 
 into an iron pot over the fire, when that which is 
 good, will soon boil, and great "quantities of the 
 fixed air escape by ebullition. It is pulverized 
 by first putting it in a stamping-mill. The finer 
 its pulverization the better, as it will thereby be 
 more generally diffused. 
 
 It is best to sow it on a wet day. The most 
 approved quantity for grass is six bushels per 
 acre. No art is required in sowing it more than 
 making the distribution as equal as possible en 
 the sward of grass. It operates altogether as a 
 top manure, and therefore should not be put on in 
 the spring until the principal frosts are over and 
 vegetation has begun. The general time for 
 sowing in America is in April, May, June, July, 
 
26 
 
 AGRICULTUKE. 
 
 August, and even as late as September. Its 
 effects will generally appear in ten or fifteen days ; 
 after which the growth of the grass will be so 
 great as to produce a large burden at the end of 
 gix weeks after sowing. 
 
 It must be sown on dry land, not subject to be 
 overflown. It has been sown on sand, loam, and 
 clay, and it is difficult to say on which it has best 
 answered, although the effect is sooner visible on 
 eand. It has been used as a manure in this state 
 for twelve years; for, like other manure, its con- 
 tinuance very much depends on the nature of the 
 soil on which it is placed. 
 
 Mode of Applying Blubber as a Manure. 
 
 This is a very rich ingredient, as well for ara- 
 ble as pasture lands, when mixed at the rate of 
 one ton of blubber to twenty loads of mould, and 
 one chaldron of lime, per acre. It must be turned 
 over and pulverized ; and when it has lain in 
 this state three or four months, it will become fit 
 for use, and may be put upon the land in such 
 quantities as the quality of the land to be ma- 
 nured requires. It is a very strong manure, and 
 very excellent. 
 
 Application of Manures to Land. 
 
 Early in autumn, after the hay crop is removed, 
 is the most convenient and least objectionable pe- 
 riod for the purpose. The common practice is to 
 apply manures during the frost, in the winter. 
 But the elastic fluids being the greatest supports 
 of vegetation, manures should be applied under 
 circumstances that favor their generation. These 
 will occur in spring, after the grass has, in some 
 degree, covered the ground, the dung being then 
 shaded from the sun. After a frost much of the 
 virtues of the dung will be washed away by the 
 thaw, and its soluble parts destroyed, and in a 
 frosty state the ground is incapable of absorbing 
 liquids. 
 
 Management of Arable Land. 
 
 Alternate husbandry, or the system of having 
 leguminous and culmiferous crops to follow each 
 other, with some modifications, is practicable on 
 every soil. According to its rules, the land would 
 rarely get into a foul and exhausted state ; at 
 least, if foul and exhausted under alternate hus- 
 bandry, matters would be much worse were any 
 other system followed. The rotation may be long 
 or short, as is consistent with the richness of the 
 soil, on which it is executed, and other local cir- 
 cumstances. The crops cultivated may be any of 
 the varieties which compose either of the two tribes, 
 according to the nature of soil and climate of the 
 district where the rotation is exercised, and where 
 circumstances render ploughing not so advanta- 
 geous as pasturing, the land may remain in gra^s, 
 till those circumstances are obviated, care being 
 always taken, when it is broken up, to follow 
 alternate husbandry during the time it is under 
 tillage. 
 
 In this way we think it perfectly practicable to 
 follow the alternate system in every situation ; nor 
 do we consider the land being in grass for two, 
 three, or four years, as a departure from, that sys- 
 tem, if called for by a scarcity of manure, poverty 
 of soil, want of markets for corn, or other acci- 
 dental circumstances. The basis of every rotation 
 wo hold to be either ,a bare summer fallow, or a 
 fallow on which drill turnips are cultivated, and 
 its conclusion to be with the crop taken in the 
 year preceding a return of fallow or drilled tur- 
 nips, when, of course, a new rotation commences. 
 First Rotation of Crops. 
 
 According to this rotation, wheat and drilled 
 beans are th crops to be cultivated, though clover 
 
 and rye-grass may be taken for one year, in place 
 of beans, should such a variety be viewed as mor 
 eligible. The rotation begins with summer fallow, 
 because it is only on strong deep lands that it can 
 be profitably practised; and it may go on lor any 
 length of time, or so long as the land can be kept 
 clean, though it ought to stop the moment that 
 the land gets into a contrary condition. A con- 
 I siderable quantity of manure is required to go on 
 successfully ; dung should be given to each bean 
 crop; and if this crop is drilled and attentively 
 horse-hoed, the rotation may turn out to be one 
 of the most profitable that can be exercised. 
 Second Rotation. 
 
 Upon loams nnd clays, where it may not be ad- 
 visable to carrj the first rotation into execution, a 
 different one can be practised, according to which 
 labor will be more divided, and the usual grains 
 more generally cultivated; as, for instance: 
 
 1. Fallow, with dung. 2. Wheat. 3. Beans, 
 drilled and horse- hoed. 4. Barley. 5. Clover 
 and rye-grass. 6. Oats, or wheat. 7. Beans, 
 drilled and horse-hoed. 8. Wheat. 
 
 This rotation is excellently calculated to insure 
 an abundant return through the whole of it, pro- 
 vided dung is administered upon the clover stub- 
 ble. Without this supply the rotation would be 
 crippled, and inferior crops of course produced in 
 the concluding years. 
 
 Third Rotation. 
 
 This rotation is calculated for clays and loama 
 of an inferior description to those already treated 
 of: 
 
 1. Fallow, with dung. 2. Wheat. 3. Clover 
 and rye-grass. 4. Oats. 5. Beans, drilled and 
 horse-hoed. 6. Wheat. 
 
 According to this rotation, the rules of good 
 husbandry are studiously practised, while the se- 
 quence is obviously calculated to keep the land in 
 good order, and in such a condition as to insure 
 crops of the greatest value. If manure is be- 
 stowed either upon the clover stubble or before 
 the beans are sown, the rotation is one of the best 
 that can be devised for the soils mentioned. 
 Fourth Rotation. 
 
 On thin clays gentle husbandry is indispensably 
 necessary, otherwise the soil may be exhausted, 
 and the produce unequal to the expense of culti- 
 vation. Soils of this description will not improve 
 much while under grass, but unless an additional 
 stock of manure can be procured, there is a neces- 
 sity of refreshing them in that way, even though 
 the produce should, in the meantime, be compara- 
 tively of small value. The following rotation is 
 an excellent one: 
 
 1. Fallow, with dung. 2. Wheat. 3. Grass, 
 pastured, but not too early eaten. 4. Grass. 5. 
 Grass. 6. Oats. 
 
 This rotation may be shortened or lengthened, 
 according to circumstances, but should never ex- 
 tend further in point of ploughing, than when 
 dung can be given to the fallow break. This is 
 the keystone of the whole, and if it is neglected 
 the rotation is rendered useless. 
 Fifth Rotation. 
 
 Peat-earth soils are not friendly to wheat unless 
 aided by a quantity of calcareous matter. Taking 
 them in a general point of view, it is not advi- 
 sable to cultivate wheat, but a crop of oats may 
 almost be depended upon, provided the previous 
 management has been judiciously executed. If 
 the sub-soil of peat-earth lands be retentive of 
 moisture, the process ought to commence with a 
 bare summer fallow; but if such are incumbent 
 on free and open bottoms, a crop of turnips may 
 
WHEAT. 
 
 27 
 
 b substituted for follow, according to which 
 method the surface will get a body which natu- 
 rally it did not possess. Grass, on such soils, must 
 always occupy a great space of every rotation, be- 
 cause physical circumstances render regular crop- 
 ping utterly impracticable. 
 
 1. Fallow, or turnips, with dung. 2. Oats, of 
 an early variety. 3. Clover, and a considerable 
 quantity of perennial rye-grass. 4. Pasture for 
 several years, till circumstances permit the land 
 to be broken up, when oats are to be repeated. 
 
 Sixth Hotation. 
 
 Light soils are easily managed, though to pro- 
 cure a full return of the profits which they are 
 capable of yielding, requires generally as much 
 attention as is necessary in the management of 
 those of a stronger description. Upon light soils 
 a bare summer fallow is seldom called for, as 
 cleanliness may be preserved by growing turnips 
 and other leguminous articles. Grass also is of 
 eminent advantage upon such soils, often yielding 
 a greater profit than what is afforded by culmifer- 
 ous crops. 
 
 1. Turnip?. 2. Spring wheat, or barley. 3. 
 Clover and rye-grass. 4. Oats, or wheat. 
 
 This rotation would be greatly improved, were 
 it extended to eight years, whilst the ground by 
 such an extension, would be kept fresh, and con- 
 stantly in good condition. As for instance, were 
 seeds for pasture sown in the second year, the 
 ground kept three years under grass, then broken 
 up for oats in the sixth year, drilled with beans 
 and peas in the seventh, and sown with wheat in 
 the eighth, the rotation would be complete; be- 
 cause it included every branch of husbandry, and 
 admitted a variety in management generally 
 agreeable to the soil, and always favorable to the 
 interest of cultivators. The rotation may also 
 consist of six crops, were the land kept only one 
 year in grass, though few situations admit of so 
 much cropping, unless additional manure is 
 within reach. 
 
 Seventh Rotation. 
 
 Sandy soils, when properly manured, are well 
 adapted to turnip?, though it rarely happens that 
 wheat can be cultivated on them with advantage, 
 unless they are dressed with alluvial compost, 
 marl, clay, or some such substance, as will give a 
 body or strength to them which they do not natu- 
 rally possess. Barley, oats, and rye, the latter 
 especially, are, however, sure crops on sands ; and, 
 in favorable seasons, will return greater profit 
 than can be obtained from wheat. 
 
 1. Turnips, consumed on the ground. 2. Bar- 
 ley. 3. Grass. 4. Rye or oats. 
 
 By keeping the land three years in grass, the 
 rotation would be extended to six years, a mea- 
 sure highly advisable. 
 
 From what has been stated, every person capa- 
 ble of judging will at once perceive the facility of 
 arranging husbandry upon correct principles, and 
 of cropping the ground in such a way as to make 
 it produce abundant returns to the occupier, 
 whilst at the same time it is preserved in good 
 condition, and never impoverished or exhausted. 
 All these things are perfectly practicable under 
 the all ornate system, though it is doubtful whether 
 they can bs gained under any other. 
 
 It may be added, that winter-sown crops, or 
 crops sown on the winter furrow, are most eligible 
 on all clayey soils. 
 
 Ploughing, with a view to clean soils of the de- 
 scription under consideration, has little effect un- 
 less given in the summer months. This renders 
 summer fallow indispensably necessary; and, 
 without this radical process, none of the heavy 
 
 and wet soils can be suitably managed, ir pre. 
 served in u good condition. 
 
 To adopt a judicious rotation of chopping for 
 every soil, requires a degree of judgment in the 
 farmer, which can only be gathered from obser- 
 vation and experience. The old rotations were 
 calculated to wear out the soil, and to render it 
 unproductive; but the modern rotations, such as 
 thos<e which we have described, are founded on 
 principles which insure a full return from the 
 soil, withi.ut lessening its value, or impoverishing 
 its condition. Much depends, however, up;n the 
 manner in which the different processes are exe- 
 cuted; for the best-arranged rotation may be of 
 no avail, if the processes belonging to it are im- 
 perfectly and unreasonably executed. 
 
 To cultivate Wheat. 
 
 On soils really calculated for wheat, though in 
 different degrees, summer fallow is the first and 
 leading step to gain a good crop or crops of that 
 grain. The first furrow should be given before 
 winter, or as early as the other operations of the 
 farm will admit; and every attention should be 
 used to go as deep as possible; for it rarely hap- 
 pens that any of the succeeding furrows exceed 
 the first one in that respect. The number of 
 after-ploughings must be regulated by the condi- 
 tion of the ground and the state of the weather; 
 but, in general, it may be observed, that plough- 
 ing in length and across, alternately, is the way 
 by which the ground will be most completely cut, 
 and the intention of fallowing accomplished. 
 Varieties of Seed. 
 
 Wheat may be classed under two principal di- 
 visions, though each of these "admits of several 
 subdivisions. The first is composed of all the 
 varieties of red wheat. The second division com- 
 prehends the whole varieties of white wheat, 
 which again may be arranged under two distinct 
 heads, namely, thick-chaffed and thin-chaffed. 
 
 The thick-chaffed varieties were formerly in 
 greatest repute, generally yielding the whitest 
 and finest flour, and, in dry seasons, not inferior 
 in produce to the other; but since 1799, when the 
 disease culled mildew, to which they are consti- 
 tutionally predisposed, raged so extensively, they 
 have gradually been going out of fashion. 
 
 The thin-chaffed wheats are a hardy class, and 
 seldom mildewed, unless the weather be particu- 
 larly inimical during the stages of blossoming, 
 filling, and ripening, though some of them are 
 rather better qualified to resist that destructive 
 disorder than others. In 1799, thin chaffed 
 wheats were seriously injured; and instances 
 were not wanting to show, that an acre of them, 
 with respect to value, exceeded an acre of thick- 
 chaffed wheat, quantity and quality considered, 
 not less than fifty per cent. Since that time, 
 therefore, their culture has rapidly increased ; and 
 to this circumstance may, in a great measure, be 
 attributed the high character which thin-chaffed 
 wheats now bear. 
 
 Method of Sowing. 
 
 Sowing in the broadcast way may be said to be 
 the mode universally practised. Upon well pre- 
 pared lands, if the seed be distributed equally, it 
 can scarcely be sown too thin ; perhaps two 
 bushels per acre are sufficient; for the heaviest 
 crops at autumn are rarely those which show the 
 most vigorous appearance through the winter 
 months. Bean stubbles require more seed than 
 summer fallows, because the roughness of their 
 surface prevents such an equal distribution ; and 
 clover leas ought to be still thicker sown than 
 bean stubbles. Thin sowing in spring ought not 
 
28 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 to hft practised, otherwise the crop will be late, 
 and imperfectly ripened. No more harrowing 
 should be given to fields that have been fallowed, 
 than what is necessary to cover the seed, and 
 level the surface sufficiently. Ground, which is 
 to lie in a broken-down state through the winter, 
 suffers severely when an excessive harrowing is 
 given, especially if it is incumbent on a close 
 bottom; though, as to the quantity necessary, 
 none can give an opinion, except those who are 
 personally present. 
 
 To sow Grain by JZibbing. 
 
 The ribbing of grain crops was introduced into 
 Great Britain in the year 1810. The process is 
 as follows: Suppose the land in fallow, or tur- 
 nips eat off, let it be gathered into ridges of twelve 
 feet each; then harrow it well, particularly the 
 furrows of the ridges: after which take a narrow- 
 bottomed swing plough, five inches and a half 
 broad at the heel, with a narrow-winged sock, 
 drawn by one horse; begin in the furrow, as if 
 you intended to gather two ridges together, which 
 will make, a rib exactly in the middle of the fur- 
 row; then turn back up the same furrow you 
 came down, keeping close to the rib made; pursue 
 the same mode on the other side, and take a little 
 of the soil which is thrown over by the mould- 
 board from the back of each rib, and so on till you 
 come near the furrow, when you must pursue the 
 same mode as at first. In water furrowing you 
 will then have a rib on each side of the furrow, 
 distance between the rib, ten or twelve inches. 
 The seed to be sown from the hand, and, from the 
 narrowness or sharpness of the top of the ridges, 
 the grain will fall regu-'i'-'v r1<M V n thon put on a 
 light harrow to cover the oeea. in wet soils the 
 ridges ought to be twice gathered, as ribbing re- 
 duces them. 
 
 It will answer all kinds of crops, but not all 
 soils. Strong clayey soils cannot be pulverized 
 sufficiently for that purpose ; nor can it be effected 
 in clover-lea, unless it be twice ploughed and well 
 harrowed. Ribbing is here esteemed preferable 
 to drilling, as you have the same opportunity of 
 keeping the land clean, and the grain does not 
 fall so close together as by drilling. 
 
 The farmer may hand or horse-hoe his crops, 
 and also hoe in his clover-seed, which is consider- 
 ed very advantageous. It is more productive of 
 grain, especially when it is apt to lodge, and, in 
 all cases, of as much straw; and ribbing is often 
 the means of preventing the corn lodging. 
 
 In a wet season ribbing is more favorable to 
 harvesting, because the space between the ribs 
 admits the air freely, and the corn dries much 
 sooner. The reapers also, when accustomed to it, 
 cut more and take it up cleaner. 
 
 Improved Method of Drilling Wheat. 
 The drill contains three coulters, placed in a 
 triangular form, and worked by brushes, with 
 cast-iron nuts, sufficient for one horse to draw, 
 and one man to attend to. It will drill three acres 
 'i>er day of wheat, barley or oa.ts, at five inches 
 asunder; and five acres per day of beans, peas, 
 etc., at twelve inches asunder. The general prac- 
 tice is to drill crossways, and to set the rows five 
 or six inches, and never exceeding seven inches, 
 apart, it being found that if the distance is greater 
 they are too long filling up in the spring, that 
 Miey afford a greater breadth for the growth of 
 Weeds, are more expensive to hoe, and more liable 
 to be laid in the summer. In drilling wheat never 
 harrow after the drill if it can be avoided, the 
 drill generally leaving the corn sufficiently cover- 
 ed ; and by this plan the vegetation is quickened, 
 and the ridges of soil between each two rows pre- 
 
 serve the plants in winter, and render 1 he operation 
 of harrowing in the spring much more efficacious. 
 The spring harrowing is performed the contrary 
 way to that of the drilling, as the harrow working 
 upon the ridges does not pull up the plants, and 
 leaves the ground mouldy for the hoe. This point 
 should be particularly attended to. The harrow- 
 ing after the drill evidently leaves the ground in 
 a better state to the eye, but the advantages in 
 the produce of the crop are decidedly in favcr of 
 the plan of heaving the land in the rough staf-a 
 already described, as the operation of the winte/ 
 upon the clods causes them to pulverize, and tur- 
 nishes an abundant nutrition to the plants in the 
 spring; and followed by the hoe about the tiiuo 
 the head or ear is forming, it makes the growtn. 
 of th-j plant more vigorous, and greatly improves 
 the size of the head or ear. The drilling for wheat 
 should generally commence about the latter end 
 of September, at which time the farmer may drill 
 about two bushels per acre. As the season ad- 
 vances, keep increasing the quantity to three 
 bushels per acre, being guided by the quality of 
 the soil and other circumstances. A great loss 
 has frequently arisen through drilling too small a 
 quantity of seed, as there can be none spared in 
 that case for the rooks and grubs: and a thick, 
 well-planted crop will always yield more abun- 
 dantly than a thin stooling crop, and ripen sooner. 
 
 The drill system would have been in more gene- 
 ral practice, if its friends had also recommended 
 the use of a larger quantity of seed to the acre, 
 and the rows to be planted nearer together. It is 
 impossible to obtain so great a produce per acre 
 by the broadcast system as by the drill system at 
 the same expense, be the land ever so free from 
 weeds. Fifty bushels per acre may be raised by 
 the drill, but never more than forty bushels by 
 sowing broadcast. The wheat crops should gene- 
 rally be top dressed in winter with manure com- 
 post, or some other dressing in frost, or when you 
 can cart upon the land; but if that operation ia 
 rendered impracticable, sooting in March, or any 
 other dressing of that description, hoed in at the 
 spring, is preferable to a dressing laid on in the 
 autumn and ploughed in. 
 
 The advantages of the drill over the broadcast 
 system, are numerous and decisive, as it enables 
 the farmer to grow corn without weeds, is sooner 
 ready for stacking after the scythe or sickle, pro- 
 duces a cleaner and more regular sample for the 
 market, and hence obtains a better price, leaves 
 the land in a better state for a succeeding crop, 
 and materially increases the quantity of food for 
 human consumption. 
 
 To Pickle the Seed. 
 
 This process is indispensably necessary on every 
 soil, otherwise smut, to a greater or less exterit, 
 will, in nine cases out of ten, assuredly follow. 
 Stale urine may be considered as the safest and 
 surest pickle, and where it can be obtained in a 
 sufficient quantity, is commonly resorted to. TL 
 mode of using it does not however seem to be 
 agreed upon, for while one party contends that 
 the grain ought to be steeped in the urine, another 
 party considers it sufficient to sprinkle the urine 
 upon it. But whatever difference of opinion there 
 may be as to the kind of pickle that ought to be 
 used, and the mode of using it, all admit the utility 
 of mixing the wetted seed with hot lime fresh 
 slaked; and this, in one point of view, is abso- 
 lutely necessary, so that the seed 'may be equally 
 distributed. It may be remarked that experience 
 justifies the utility of all these modes, provided 
 they are attentively carried into execution. There 
 is dome danger from the first, for if the seed steep- 
 
INDIAN CORN, SORGHUM. 
 
 29 
 
 d in urine is not immediately sown, it will infal- 
 libly lose its vegetative power. The second, viz., 
 sprinkling the urine on the seed, seems to be the 
 safest if performed by an attentive hand, whilst 
 the last may do equally well, if such a quantity of 
 alt be incorporated with the water as to render it 
 of sufficient strength. It may also be remarked, 
 that this last mode is often uccumpanied with 
 smut, owing no doubt to a deficiency of strength 
 in the pickle; whereas a single head with smut is 
 rarely discovered when urine has been used. 
 
 To cultivate Indian Corn, 
 
 The land should be a loamy sand, very rich. In 
 April the grains should be set like hops, at three 
 to four feet distance, three to six grains in a hill, 
 each grain about an inch deep in the ground. 
 The seed from New England is the best. In 
 May the alleys should be hoed and the hills weed- 
 ed and earthed up higher; many good farmers 
 plough three times after planting. At the latter 
 end of that month all the superfluous stalks should 
 be taken away, and only three steins of corn left 
 in each hill. By the middle of June, it will cover 
 the alley. It grows much like bulrushes, the 
 lower leaves being like broad flags, three or four 
 inches wide, and as many feet in length ; the 
 steins shooting upwards, from seven to ten feet in 
 height, with many joints, casting off flag-leaves at 
 every joint. Under these leaves and close to the 
 stem grows the corn, covered over by many coats 
 of sedgy leaves, and so closed in by them to the 
 stem, that it does not show itself easily till there 
 bursts out at the end of the ear a number of 
 strings that look like tufts of horse-hair, at first 
 of a beautiful green, and afterwards red or yellow, 
 the stem ending in a flower. The corn will ripen 
 in October or early November; but the sun at 
 that season not having strength enough to dry it, 
 it must be laid upon racks or thin open floors in 
 dry rooms, and frequently turned, to avoid mould- 
 ing; the grains are about as big as peas, and 
 adhere in regular rows round a white pithy sub- 
 stance, which forms the ear. An ear contains 
 from two to four hundred grains, and is from six 
 to ten inches in length. They are of various 
 colors, blue, red, white and yellow. The manner 
 of gathering them is by cutting down the stems 
 and breaking off the ears. The stems are as big 
 as a man's wrist, and look like bamboo cane; the 
 pith is full of a juice that tastes as sweet as sugar, 
 and the joints are about a foot and a half distant. 
 The increase is upwards of five hundred fold. 
 Upon a large scale the seed may be drilled in 
 alleys like peas, and to save digging, the ground 
 may be ploughed and harrowed, which will answer 
 very well. It will grow upon all kinds of land. 
 The ears which grow upon dry sandy land are 
 smaller, but harder and riper. The grain is taken 
 from the husk by hand, and when ground upon 
 tones, makes an excellent flour, of which it 
 yields much more, with much less bran, than 
 wheat does, and exceeds it in crust, pancakes, 
 puddings, and all other uses except bread ; but a 
 sweetness peculiar to it, which in all other cases 
 makes it agreeable, is here less so. It is excellent 
 for feeding horses, poultry and hogs, and fattens 
 them much better and sooner than peas or barley. 
 The stems make better hedges for kitchen garden 
 than reeds do. It clears the ground from weeds, 
 and makes a good season for any other kind of 
 grain. It was the only bread-grain known in 
 America when first discovered by the Spaniards, 
 and is there called maize. 
 
 Sorghum. 
 This, also called Chinese sugar-cane, is now 
 
 attracting attention, especially in the West. It 
 uuiy be cultivated almost precisely like in ^?e, and 
 is more profitable. It is cut off when it is ripa 
 and beginning to fade slightly, or sometimes ear- 
 lier than this. It may then be ground like sugar- 
 cane. This is often done in a mill like a cider- 
 press. The syrup is then boiled at once, in largo 
 shallow kettles. It is said that soighuui should 
 be grown on a sandy soil, not too rich; if tho 
 earth is rich, it grows too strong and fibrous, with 
 less sugar in the stem. 
 
 Diseases of Wheat. 
 
 Wheat is subject to more diseases than other 
 grains, and, in some seasons, especialiy in wet 
 ones, heavier losses are sustained from those dis- 
 eases than are felt in the culture of any other cut- 
 miferous crop with which we are acquainted. 
 Wheat may suffer from the attack of insects at 
 the root; from blight, which primarily affects 
 the leaf or straw, and ultimately deprives the 
 grain of sufficient nourishment; from mildew on 
 the car, which operates thereon with the force of 
 an apoplectic stroke ; and from gum of different 
 shades, which lodges on the chaff or cups in which 
 the grain is deposited. 
 
 Slight. 
 
 Blight originates from moist or foggy weather, 
 and from hoar-frost, the effects of which, when ex- 
 pelled by a hot sun, are first discernible on the 
 straw, and afterwards on the ear, in a greater or 
 less degree, according to local circumstances. Let 
 a field be examined in a day or two alter such 
 weather, and a careful observer will soon be satis- 
 fied that the fibres and leaves of plants are con- 
 tracted and enfeebled, in consequence of what 
 may be called a stoppage of perspiration. This 
 disorder may take place either earlier or later, 
 but is most fatal when it appears at the time the 
 grain is forming in the ear. It may appear at an 
 earlier stage; and though the productive powers 
 of the plant will thereby be lessened, yet, if cir- 
 cumstances are afterwards favorable, the quality 
 of the grain produced may not be much impaired; 
 or it may appear, after the grain is fully formed, 
 and then very little damage will be sustained, 
 except by the straw. 
 
 Mildew. 
 
 Mildew may be ranked as a disease which af- 
 fects the ear, and is brought on by causes some- 
 what similar to those which occasion blight, 
 though at a more advanced period of the season. 
 If this disorder comes on immediately after the 
 first appearance of the ear the straw will also be 
 affected, but if the grain is nearly or fully formed 
 then injury on the straw is not much discernible. 
 We have seen a crop that carried wheat that was 
 mildewed where the straw was perfectly fresh, 
 though, indeed, this rarely happens. A severe 
 mildew, however, effectually prevents both grain 
 and straw from making any further progress, the 
 whole plant apparently going backward every 
 day till existence in a manner ceases altogether. 
 Something akin to mildew is the gum which, in 
 all warm moist seasons, attaches itself to the ear, 
 and often occasions considerable damage. All 
 these different disorders are generally accompa- 
 nied by insects, and by minute parasitic vege- 
 table growths, considered by many to be the 
 authors of the mischief that follow?. Their ap- 
 pearance, however, may justly be attributed to 
 the diseased state of the plant; for wherevet 
 putrefaction takes place, either in animal or vege- 
 table substances, the presence of these parasites 
 will never be wanting. 
 
80 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Rust. 
 
 .Another disorder which affects wheat and is 
 by several people denominated the real rust, is 
 brought or/ by excessive heat, which occasions the 
 plants to Buffer from a privation of nourishment, 
 and become sickly and feeble. In this atrophic 
 state a kind of dust gathers on the stalks and 
 leaves, which increases with the disease, till the 
 plant is in a great measure worn out and ex- 
 hausted. The only remedy in this case, and it is 
 one that cannot easily be administered by the 
 hand of man, is a plentiful supply of moisture, by 
 which, if it is received before consumption is too 
 far advanced, the crop is benefited in a degree 
 proportional to the extent of nourishment re- 
 ceived, and the stage at which the disease has 
 arrived. 
 
 Impropriety of Sowing Xfildewed Wheat. 
 Some people have recommended the sowing of 
 blighted and mildewed wheat, because it will 
 vegetate; though certainly the recommendation, 
 if carried into practice, would be attended with 
 imminent danger to those who attempted it. 
 That light or defective wheat will vegetate and 
 
 Sroduce a plant we are not disposed to contra- 
 ict, but that it will vegetate as briskly, or put 
 out a stem of equal strength, and capable of with- 
 standing the severe winter blasts as those pro- 
 duced from sound seed we must be excused for 
 not believing. Let it only be considered that a 
 plant of young wheat, unless when very early 
 sown, lives three or four months, in a great 
 measure, upon the nourishment which it derives 
 from the parent seed ; and that such nourishment 
 can, in no view of the subject, be so great when 
 the parent is lean and enmciated as when sound, 
 healthy and vigorous. Let it also be remem- 
 bered that a plant produced from the best and 
 weightiest seed must, in every case, under a 
 parity of other circumstances, have a stronger con- 
 stitution at the outset, which necessarily qualifies 
 it to push on with greater energy when the sea- 
 son of growth arrives. Indeed, the economy of na- 
 ture would be ove'rturned should any other result 
 follow. A breeder of cattle or sheep would not 
 act more foolishly, who trusted that a deformed 
 diminutive bull or ram would produce him good 
 stock, than the corn farmer does who uses unsound 
 or imperfect seed. 
 
 To remove the Mildew on Wheat. 
 A solution of common salt in water, in the pro- 
 portion of a pound to a gallon, is an excellent 
 remedy for the mildew on grain. After sprinkling 
 three or four days, the mildew will disappear, 
 leaving only a discoloration on the straw where it 
 was destroyed. The best and most expeditious 
 way of applying the mixture is with a flat brush, 
 such as is used by whitewashes. The operator 
 having a pail of the mixture in one hand, with 
 the other he dips the brush into it, and makes 
 his regular casts as when sowing grain broadcast; 
 in this way he will readily get over ten acres in 
 the day, and with an assistant a great deal more. 
 About two hogsheads of the mixture will suffice 
 for an acre. Wherever the mixture touches the 
 mildew immediately dies. 
 
 To prevent Mildew in Wheat. 
 Dissolve three ounces and two drachms of sul- 
 phate of copper, copperas, or blue vitriol, in three 
 gallons and three quarts, wine measure, of cold 
 water, for every three bushels of grain that is to 
 be prepared. Into another vessel capable of con- 
 taining from fifty-three to seventy -nine wine 
 gallons, throw from three to four bushels of 
 
 wheat, into which the prepared liquid is poured, 
 until it rises five or six inches above the grain. 
 Stir it thoroughly; and carefully remove all that 
 swims on the surface. After it has remained half 
 an hour in the preparation, throw the wheat into 
 a basket that will allow the water to escape, but 
 not the grain. It ought then to be immediately 
 washed in rain, or pure water, which will prevent 
 any risk of its injuring the germ, and afterwards 
 the seed ought to be dried before it is sown. It 
 may be preserved in this shape for months. Ano- 
 ther method, which has been tried in Russia, 13 
 to expose the seed for one or two weeks to a dry 
 heat of about 80 or 90. 
 
 To prevent the Smut in Wheat. 
 
 Liming the seed by immersion is recommended 
 by a French writer, as the only preventive war- 
 ranted by science and sanctioned by experience, 
 and the following is given as the method in which 
 the process is best performed : 
 
 To destroy the germs of the blight in four and 
 a half bushels or 256 pounds of grain, about six 
 or seven gallons of water must be used, as grain 
 may be more or less dry, and from thirty-five to 
 forty-two ounces avoirdupois of quick-lime, ac- 
 cording as it may be more or less caustic, and 
 according as the seed may have more or less of 
 the blight. Boil part of the water, black the 
 lime with it, and then add the rest. When joined 
 the heat of the water should be such that the 
 hand can with difficulty bear it. Pour the lime 
 water upon the corn placed in a tub, stirring it 
 incessantly, first with a stick, and afterwards with 
 a shovel. The liquid should, at first, cover the 
 wheat, three or four fingers' breadth ; it will soon 
 be absorbed by the grain. In this state let it 
 remain covered over for twenty-four hours, but 
 turn it over five or six times during the day. 
 Such parts of the liquor as will drain off may 
 then be separated, when the corn, after standing 
 a few hours, in order that it may run freely out 
 of the hand, may be sown. If not intended to be 
 used immediately, the limed wheat should be put 
 in a heap, and moved once or twice a day till dry. 
 Experience has proved that limed grain germi- 
 nates sooner than unlimed ; and, as it carries with 
 it moisture sufficient to develop the embryo, the 
 seed will not suffer for want of rain ; insects will 
 not attack it, the acrid, taste of the lime being 
 offensive to them ; and, as every grain germinates, 
 a less quantity is requisite. In fact, the grain 
 being swelled, the sower filling his hand as usual, 
 will, when he has sown sixty-five handsful of 
 limed corn, have in reality only used fifty-two. 
 As blighted grains preserve for a long time the 
 power of germinating, the careful farmer, whose 
 grain has been touched, should carefully sweep 
 out the crevices in the walls and cracks in the 
 floors of his barn, and take great pains to clean 
 them thoroughly. Dry heat, as above spoken of, 
 may be worth trying. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 A tub is used that has a hole at bottom for ft 
 spigot and faucet, fixed in a wisp of straw, to 
 prevent any small pieces of lime passing (as in 
 brewing). To seventy gallons of water add a 
 bushel of unslaked lime, stir it well till the 
 whole is mixed, let it stand thirty hours, run it 
 off into another tub (as practised in beer) ; add 
 forty-two pounds of salt, which, with stirring, 
 will soon dissolve; this is a proper pickle for 
 brining and liming seed wheat without any ob- 
 stacle, and greatly facilitates the drilling. 
 
 Steep the wheat in a broad-bottomed basket^ 
 twenty -four inches in diameter and twenty inchei 
 
BARLEY. 
 
 3l 
 
 deep, running in the grain gradually in small 
 quantities, from ten to twelve gallons; stirring 
 the same. What floats skim off, and do not sow ; 
 then draw up the basket, to drain the pickle for a 
 few minutes ; this may be performed in half an 
 hour, and when sufficiently pickled proceed as 
 before. The wheat will be fit for sowing in 
 twenty-four hours, if required; but for drilling 
 two hours pickled will be best, and prepared four 
 or five days before. 
 
 Mr. Henderson's Method of preventing Smut in 
 Wheat. 
 
 Take of best soft green soap, made from fish- 
 oil, one pound, and of scalding water four gallons. 
 Put the soap into a glazed vessel with a small 
 portion of the water; continue stirring it, and 
 add the water as it dissolves, till the whole is a 
 perfect lye. It should be used at about ninety de- 
 grees of Fahrenheit's thermometer or new-milk 
 warm. Put the wheat into a tub, and pour on it 
 a quantity of the liquor sufficient to cover it com- 
 pletely, and throw a blanket over it to preserve 
 the heat. Stir it every ten minutes, and take off 
 the scum. When it has remained in this manner 
 for an hour, drain the liquor from the wheat 
 through a sieve, or let the tub be furnished with 
 a drain-bottom like a brewing vat. Let the 
 liquor which was drawn off stand a few minutes 
 to subside, and then pour it off the sediment. 
 Repeat the operation till the whole quantity is 
 steeped, only observe to add each time as much 
 hot lye as was observed by the former steeping. 
 Dry the wheat with quick-lime, and sow as soon 
 as convenient. It will keep ten days after steep- 
 ing; but should be spread thin on a dry floor. 
 
 If a tub with a drain-bottom is used, such as 
 a hogshead with a spigot to draw off the lye, 
 four ounces of soap and one gallon of water, 
 scalding hot, will preserve a stock of warm lyo 
 euffieient for any quantity of wheat. The ope- 
 ration should be performed in a clean place, 
 at a distance from barns and granaries, the 
 roofs of which may be observed hanging full of 
 smut. The refuse of smutted wheat should be 
 buried deep in the earth, and not thrown to the 
 dunghill, from which it would be conveyed to 
 the field. 
 
 Advantages of Reaping. Grain before being Per- 
 fectly Ripe. 
 
 M. Cadet de Vaux has recommended, as an im- 
 portant and useful innovation, the reaping of 
 grain before it is perfectly ripe. This practice 
 originated with M. Sajles, of the Agricultural 
 Society of Beziers : grain thus reaped (say eight 
 days before it is ripe) is fuller, larger, and finer, 
 and is never attacked by the weevil. This was 
 proved by reaping one half of a field as recom- 
 mended, and leaving the other till the usual 
 time. The early-reaped portion gave a hecto- 
 litre (about three bushels) of grain more for an 
 acre of land than the later-reaped. An equal 
 quantity of flour from each was made into bread ; 
 that made from the grain reaped green gave seven 
 pounds of bread more than the other in two 
 bushels. The weevil attacked the ripe grain but 
 not the green. The proper time for reaping is 
 when the grain, pressed between the fingers, has 
 a doughy appearance, like bread just hot from 
 the oven when pressed in the .same way. 
 To Manage the Wheat Harvest. 
 
 It is advantageous to cut wheat before it is fully 
 ripe; but, in ascertaining the proper state, it is 
 necessary to discriminate between the ripeness of 
 the straw and the ripeness of the grain ; for, in 
 lome seasons, the straw dies upwards, under whict 
 
 circumstance a field, to the eye, may appear to be 
 completely ffl for the sickle, when, in reality, the 
 grain is imperfectly consolidated, and perhaps nofc 
 much removed from a milky state. Though it in 
 obvious that under such circumstances no further 
 benefit can be conveyed from the root, and that 
 nourishment is withheld the moment that the roots 
 die, yet it does not follow that grain so circum- 
 stanced should be immediately cut, because, after 
 that operation is performed it is in a great mea- 
 sure necessarily deprived of every benefit from the 
 sun and air, both of which have greater influence 
 in bringing it to maturity so long as it remains on. 
 foot than when cut down, whether laid on the 
 ground or bound up in sheaves. The' state of 
 weather at the time also deserves notice, for as in 
 moist or even variable weather every kind of 
 grain, when cut prematurely, is more exposed to 
 damage than when completely ripened. All these 
 things will be studied by the skilful husbandman, 
 who will also take into consideration the danger! 
 vhich may follow were he to permit his wheat 
 crop to remain uncut till completely ripened. Th 
 danger from wind will not be lost sight of, espe- 
 cially if the season of the equinox approaches; 
 even the quantity dropped in the field and in th< 
 stack-yard, when wheat is over ripe, is an objecl 
 of consideration. Taking all these things inta 
 view, it seems prudent to have wheat cut before it 
 is fully ripe, as less damage will be sustained from 
 acting in this way than by adopting a contrary 
 practice. 
 
 If the weather be dry and the straw clean, 
 wheat may be carted to the stack-yard in a few 
 diiys ; indeed, if quite ripe it may be stacked im- . 
 mediately from the sickle, especially when not 
 meant for early threshing. So long, however, as 
 any moisture remains in the straw, the field will 
 be found to be the best stack-yard; and where 
 grass or weeds of any kind are mixed with the 
 crop, patience must be exerted till they are de- 
 cayed and dried, lest heating be occasioned. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Next to wheat the most valuable grain is bar- 
 ley, especially on light and sharp soils. 
 
 It is a tender grain and easily hurf in any of 
 the stages of its growth, particularly at seed 
 time; a heavy shower of rain will then almost 
 ruin a crop on the best prepared land; and in all 
 the after processes greater pains and attention are 
 required to insure success than in the case of other 
 grains. The harvest process is difficult, and often 
 attended with danger; even the threshing of it is 
 not easily executed with machines, because the 
 awn generally adheres to the grain, and renders 
 separation from the straw a troublesome task. 
 Barley, in fact, is raised at greater expense than 
 wheat, and generally speaking is a more hazard- 
 ous crop. Except upon rich and genial soils, 
 where climate will allow wheat to be perfectly 
 reared, it ought not to be cultivated. 
 
 Varieties of Barley. 
 
 Barley may be divided into two sorts, fall and 
 spring; to which may be added a bastard variety, 
 called bear or bigg, which affords similar nutri- 
 ment or substance, though of inferior quality. 
 The spring is cultivated like oats ; the fall, like 
 fall wheat. Early barley, under various names, 
 was formerly sown in Britain upon lands that had 
 been previously summer-fallowed, or were in high 
 condition. 
 
 The most proper seed season for spring barley 
 is any time in March or April, though we have 
 seen good crops produced, the seed of which waa 
 sown at a much later period. 
 
32 
 
 AGKICULTUKE. 
 
 To prepare the Ground. 
 
 Barley is chiefly taken after turnips, sometimes 
 after peas and beans, but rarely by good farmers 
 either after wheat or oats, unless under special 
 circumstances. When sown after turnips it is 
 generally taken with one furrow, which is given 
 as fast as the turnips are consumed, the ground 
 thus receiving much benefit from the spring frosts. 
 But often two or more furrows are necessary for 
 the fields last consumed, because when a spring 
 drought sets in the surface from being poached by 
 the removal or consumption of the crop, gets so 
 hardened as to render a greater quantity of 
 ploughing, harrowing and rolling necessary than 
 would otherwise be called for. When sown after 
 beans and peas, one winter and one spring plough- 
 ing are usually bestowed: but when after wheat 
 or oats, three ploughings are necessary, so that 
 the ground may be put in proper condition. 
 These operations are very ticklish in a wet and 
 backward season, and rarely in that case is the 
 grower paid for the expense of his labor. Where 
 land is in such a situation as to require three 
 ploughings before it can be seeded with barley, it 
 is better to summer-fallow it at once than to run 
 the risks which seldom fail to accompany a quan- 
 tity of spring labor. If the weather be dry, mois- 
 ture is lost during the different processes, and an 
 imperfect braird necessarily follows ; if it be wet, 
 the benefit of ploughing is lost, and all the evils 
 of a wet seed time are sustained by the future 
 crop. 
 
 Quantity of Seed. 
 
 The quantity sown, is different in different cases, 
 according to the quality of the soil and other cir- 
 cumstances. Upon very rich lands eight pecks 
 per acre are sometimes sown ; twelve is very com- 
 mon, and upon poor land more is sometimes 
 given. 
 
 By good judges a quantity of seed is sown suf- 
 ficient to insure a full crop, without depending on 
 its sending out offsets ; indeed, where that is done 
 few offsets are produced, the crop grows and ripens 
 equally > and the grain is uniformly good, 
 
 M'Cai-tney's Invention for Hummelling Barley. 
 
 This invention is extremely simple, and the 
 cost small. It is a bit of notched stick or bar, 
 lined on one side with a thin plate of iron, and 
 just the length of the rollers, fixed by a screw- 
 bolt at each end to the inside of the cover of the 
 drum, about the middle of it, so that the edge of the 
 said notched stick is about one-eighth of an inch 
 from the arms of the drum as it goes round. Two 
 minutes are sufficient to put it on, when its opera- 
 tion is wanted, which is when putting through 
 the second time, and it is easily taken off. It 
 rubs off the awns or spikes to admiration, and 
 by putting the grain another time through the 
 mill, it will rub the husk off the ends of the 
 pickle so entirely, that it is unnecessary to sow it 
 afterwards. 
 
 To harvest Barley. 
 
 More care is required in the harvesting of barley 
 than of any of the other white crops,, even in the 
 best of seasons ; and in bad years it is often found 
 very difficult to save it. Owing to the brittleness 
 of the straw after it has reached a certain period, 
 it must be cut down, as when it is suffered to stand 
 longer much loss is sustained by the breaking of 
 the heads. On that account it is cut at a time 
 when the grain is soft, and the straw retains a 
 great proportion of its natural juices, consequently 
 requires a long time in the field before either the 
 grain is hardened or the straw sufficiently dry. 
 When put into the stack too soon it is apt to heat, 
 
 and much loss is frequently sustained. It Ih 4 
 custom with many farmers to have an opening in 
 the middle of their barley stacks, from top to boU 
 torn. This opening is generally made by placing 
 a large bundle of straw in the centre of the stack 
 when the building commences, and in proportion 
 as it rises, the straw is drawn upwards, leaving a 
 hollow behind, which, if one or two openings are 
 left in the side of the stack near the bottom, in- 
 sures so complete a circulation of air as not only 
 to prevent heating, but to preserve the grain from 
 becoming musty. 
 
 Varieties of Oats. 
 
 Of this grain the varieties are more numerous 
 than of any other of the culmiferous tribe. These 
 varieties consist of what is called the common oat, 
 the Angus oat, which is considered as an improved 
 variety of the other, the Poland oat, the Friesland 
 oat, the red oat, the dun oat, the Tartar or Sibe- 
 rian oat, and the potato oat. The Poland and 
 potato varieties are best adapted to rich soils; 
 the red oat for late climates ; and the other va- 
 rieties for the generality of soils of which the 
 British isles are composed. The Tartar or Sibe- 
 rian kind, though very hardy and prolific, is much 
 out of use, being of a coarse substance, and un- 
 productive of meal. The dun oat has never been 
 much cultivated, and the use of Poland and 
 Friesland is now much circumscribed, since 
 potato oats were introduced; the latter being 
 considered, by the most discerning agriculturists, 
 as of superior value in every respect where the 
 soil is rich and properly cultivated. 
 
 To prepare the Ground. 
 
 Oats are chiefly sown after grass; sometimes 
 upon land not rich enough for wheat, that has 
 been previously summer-fallowed, or has carried 
 turnips; often after barley, and rarely after wheat, 
 unless cross-cropping, from particular circunv 
 stances, becomes a necessary evil. One ploughing 
 is generally given to the grass lands, usually in 
 the month of January, so that the benefit of 
 frost may be gained, and the land sufficiently 
 mellowed for receiving the harrow. In some 
 cases a spring furrow is given, when oats succeed 
 wheat or barley, especially when grass seeds are 
 to accompany the crop. The best oats, both in 
 quantity and quality, are always those which 
 succeed grass; indeed, no kind of grain seems 
 better qualified by nature for foraging upon grass 
 land than oats; as a full crop is usually obtained 
 in the first instance, and the land left in good 
 order for succeeding crop^. 
 
 Quantity of Seed. 
 
 From twelve to eighteen pecks of seed are 
 generally allowed to the acre of ground, accord- 
 ing to the richness of the soil and the variety 
 that is cultivated. Here it may be remarked that 
 land sown with potato oats requires much less 
 seed, in point of measure,, than when any of the 
 other sorts are used ; because potato oats both 
 tiller well, much better than Poland, and have 
 not an awn or tail like the ordinary varieties. 
 On that account, a measure contains many more 
 seeds of them than of any other kind. If land 
 is equally well cultivated, there is little doubt but 
 that the like quantity of seed given when barley 
 is cultivated, may be safely trusted to when po- 
 tato oats are to be raised. 
 
 To harvest Oats. 
 
 Oats are a hardy grain, and rarely get much 
 damage when under the harvest process, except 
 from high winds or from shedding, when opened 
 out after being thoroughly wetted. Tho early 
 
OATS, RYE. 
 
 TjBjg 
 
 rarieties are much more liable to these losses than 
 the late ones, because the grain parts more easily 
 from the straw, an evil to which the best of grain 
 is at all times subject. Early oats, however, may 
 be cut a little quick, which, to a certain extent, 
 lessens the danger to which they are exposed from 
 high winds; and if the sheaves be made small the 
 danger from shedding after rains is considerably 
 lessened, because they are thus sooner ready for 
 the stack. Under every management, however, a 
 greater quantity of early oats will be lost during 
 the harvest process than of late ones; because 
 the latter adhere firmly to the straw, and conse- 
 quently do not drop so easily as the former. 
 
 To cultivate Rye. 
 
 Bye ought never to be sown upon wet soils, nor 
 even upon sandy soils where the subsoil is of a 
 retentive nature. Upon downs, links, and all soft 
 lands which have received manure, this grain 
 thrives in perfection, and, if once covered in, will 
 stand a drought afterwards that would consume 
 any other of the culmiferous tribe. The several 
 processes may be regarded as nearly the same with 
 those recommended for wheat, with the single ex- 
 ception of pickling, which rye does not require. 
 Rye may be sown either in winter or spring, 
 though the winter-seeded fields are generally 
 bulkiest and most productive. It may succeed 
 either summer fallow, clover or turnips: even 
 after oats good crops have been raised, and where 
 such crops are raised the land will always be 
 found in good condition. 
 
 To cultivate Bean*. 
 
 Beans naturally succeed a culmiferous crop, and 
 we believe it is not of much importance which of 
 the varieties is followed, provided the ground be 
 in decent order, and not worn out by the previous 
 crop. The furrow ought to be given early in 
 winter, and as deep as possible, that the earth 
 may be sufficiently loosened, and room afforded 
 for the roots of the plant to search for the requi- 
 site nourishment. The first furrow is usually 
 given across the field, which is the best method 
 when only one spring furrow is intended; but as 
 it is now ascertained that two spring furrows are 
 highly advantageous, the one in winter ought to 
 be given in length, which lays the ground in a 
 better situation for resisting the rains, and ren- 
 ders it sooner dry in spring than can be the case 
 when ploughed across. On the supposition that 
 three furrows are to be given, one in winter and 
 two in spring, the following is the most eligible 
 preparation : 
 
 Approved Modes of Drilling. 
 
 The land being ploughed in length as early in 
 winter as is practicable, and the gaw and head- 
 land furrows sufficiently digged out, take the 
 second furrow across the first as soon as the 
 ground is dry enough in spring to undergo the 
 operation ; water-furrow it immediately,, and dig 
 again the gaw and headland furrows, otherwise 
 the benefit of the second furrow may be lost. 
 This being done, leave the field for some days, 
 till it is sufficiently dry, when a cast of the har- 
 rows becomes necessary, so that the surface may 
 be levelled. Then enter with the ploughs and 
 form the drills, which are generally made up with 
 an interval of twenty- seven inches. In the hollow 
 of this interval deposit the seed by a drill-barrow, 
 and reverse or slit out the drills to cover the seed, 
 which finishes the process for the time. In ten 
 or twelve days afterwards, according to the state 
 of the weather, cross-harrow the drills, thereby 
 levelling the field for the hoeing process. Water- 
 furrow the whole in a neat manner, and spade 
 
 JJIFIVEEST 
 
 and shovel the gnw and tKe. headland furrows, 
 which concludes the whole process. 
 
 This is the most approved way of drilling beans. 
 The next best is to give only one spring furrow, 
 and to run the drill-barrow after every third 
 plough, in which way the intervals are nearly of 
 the same extent as already mentioned. Harrowing 
 is afterwards required before the young plants 
 reach the surface, and water-furrowing, etc., aa 
 above described. 
 
 Dung is often given to beans, especially when 
 they succeed wheat which has not received ma- . 
 nure. The best way is to apply the dung on the 
 stubble before the winter furrow is given, which 
 greatly facilitates the after process. Used in thig 
 way, a fore stock must be in hand ; but where the 
 farmer is not so well provided spring dunging be- 
 comes necessary, though evidently of less advan- 
 tage. At that season it may either be put into the 
 drills before the seed is sown or spread upon the 
 surface and ploughed down, according to the na- 
 ture of the drilling process which is meant to be 
 adopted. Land dunged to beans, if duly hoed, is 
 always in high order for carrying a crop of wheat 
 in succession. Perhaps better wheat, both in re- 
 spect to quantity and quality, may be cultivated 
 in this way than in any other mode of sowing. 
 
 Drilling Machines. 
 
 Different machines have been invented for drill- 
 ing beans, but the most common and handy is one 
 of the narrow form. This hand drill is pushed 
 forward by a man or woman, and will, according 
 as the brush or director is lowered or heightened, 
 sow thicker or thinner, as may be expedient and 
 necessary. Another machine, drawn by a horse, 
 and sowing three drills at a time, has been con- 
 structed, and upon flat lands will certainly dis- 
 tribute the seed with the most minute exactness. 
 Upon unequal fields, and even on those laid out in 
 high ridges, the use of this machine is attended 
 with a degree of inconvenience sufficient to bal- 
 ance its advantages. The hand-drill, thepefore, 
 in all probability, will be retained for general use, 
 though the other is capable of performing the 
 work with minuter regularity. 
 
 Quantity of Seed. 
 
 Less than four bushels ought not to be hazarded 
 if a full crop is expected. We seldom have seen 
 thin beans turn out well, unless . the soil is par- 
 ticularly rich; nay, unless the rows close, weeds 
 will get away after the cleaning process is fin- 
 ished, thereby disappointing the object of drill- 
 ing and rendering the system of little avail to- 
 wards keeping the ground in good condition. 
 
 Hoeing Process. 
 
 Beans are cleaned in various ways : 1st. By the 
 hand-hoe. 2d. By the scraper, or Dutch hoe. 
 3d. By a plough of small dimensions, but con- 
 structed upon the principles of the approved swing 
 plough. Ploughs with double mould-boards are 
 likewise used to earth them up, and with all good 
 managers the weeds in the drills which cannot be 
 touched by the hoe are pulled out by the hand; 
 otherwise no field can be considered as duly 
 cleaned. 
 
 In treating of the cleaning process we shall 
 confine ourselves to the one most suited to the 
 generality of bean soils. About ten or twelve 
 days after the young plants have appeared above 
 the surface, enter with the scraper, and loosen 
 any weeds that may have vegetated. At this time 
 the wings or cutters of the implement ought to 
 be particularly sharp, so that the scraper may not 
 run too deep and throw the earth upon the plants. 
 
AGRICULTURE. 
 
 In about ten days after the ground is scraped, ac- 
 cording to the state of the weather, and other cir- 
 cumstances, use the small swing plough to lay the 
 earth away from the sides of the rows, and in 
 doing so go as near to the plants as possible, 
 taking care at the same time not to loosen their 
 roots. If any weeds stand in the rows pull them 
 out with the hand, afterwards earth-up the plants 
 with the small swing plough, or run the scraper 
 in the intervals, as may seem expedient. 
 
 To manage the Harvest. 
 
 Before beans are cut the grain ought to be tol- 
 erably well ripened, otherwise the quality is im- 
 paired, whilst a long time is required to put the 
 straw in such a condition as to be preserved in the 
 stack. In an early harvest, or where the crop is 
 not weighty, it is an easy matter to get beans 
 sufficiently ripened ; but, in a late harvest, and in 
 every one where the crop takes on a second 
 growth, it is scarcely practicable to get them thor- 
 oughly ripened for the sickle. Under these circum- 
 stances it is unnecessary to let beans stand uncut 
 after the end of September or the first of October, 
 because nny benefit that can be gained afterwards 
 is not to be compared with the disadvantages that 
 accompany a late wheat seed time. Beans are 
 usually cut with the sickle and tied in sheaves, 
 either with straw ropes or with ropes made from 
 peas sown along with them. It is proper to let the 
 sheaves lie untied several days, so that the wind- 
 ing process may be hastened, and, when tied, to 
 set them up on end, in order that full benefit from 
 air may be obtained and the grain kept off the 
 ground. In building bean stacks it is a useful 
 measure for preserving both grain and straw from 
 injury, to keep an opening in the centre, and to 
 convey air from the extremity by a hole or funnel. 
 Beans, on the whole, are a troublesome crop to the 
 farmer, though of great utility in other respects. 
 Without them heavy soils can scarcely be man- 
 aged with advantage, unless summer fallow is re- 
 sorted to once in four years, but by the aid de- 
 rived from drilled beans summer fallow may be 
 avoided for eight years, whilst the ground at that 
 period will be found in equal, if not superior 
 condition. 
 
 To cultivate Peas. 
 
 Peas are partially sown with beans to great ad- 
 vantage, and when cultivated in this way the same 
 system of preparation, etc., described under the 
 head of beans is to be adopted. Indeed, upon 
 many soils not deep enough for beans, a mixture 
 of peas to the extent of one-third of the seed 
 sown proves highly advantageous. The beans 
 serve as props to the peas, and the latter being 
 thus kept off the ground and furnished with air 
 and other atmospheric nutriment, blossom and 
 pod with much greater effect than when sown ac- 
 cording to the broadcast system. 
 
 Peas agree well with lime and other analogous 
 stimulants, and can hardly be reaped in perfection 
 where these are wanting. The varieties cultiva- 
 ted are numerous, but those adapted to field cul- 
 ture may be divided into two kinds, namely, early 
 and late, though these branch out again into sev- 
 eral varieties. We have white peas both early 
 and late, and likewise gray peas, possessed of 
 similar properties. The nomenclature is entirely 
 arbitrary, and therefore not to be illustrated. As 
 a general rule the best seed time for late peas is 
 in the arly spring, though early ones, such as the 
 Extra Early and Blue Imperial pea, may be sown 
 successfully later in the season. 
 
 Peas ought to be sown tolerably thick, so that 
 tho ground may be covered as early as possible. 
 
 To cultivate Taret. 
 
 The tare is a plant of a hardy growth, and when 
 sown upon rich land will return a large supply of 
 green fodder for the consumption of horses or for 
 fattening cattle. When intended for this use, the 
 seed ought to be sown tolerably thick, perhaps 
 to the extent of four bushels per acre, though 
 when intended to stand for seed a less quantity is 
 required, because otherwise the thickness of the 
 crop will prevent the plants from blossoming and 
 podding in a sufficient way. When meant for 
 seed early sowing ought to be studied, otherwise 
 the return will be imperfect ; but when for green 
 food any time betwixt the first of April and the 
 latter end of May will answer well, provided 
 crops in succession from the first to the last men- 
 tioned period be regularly cultivated. Instances 
 are not wanting of a full crop being obtained 
 even when the seed was sown so late as the mid- 
 dle of June, though sowing so late is a practice 
 not to be recommended. After the seed is sown 
 and the land carefully harrowed, a light roller 
 ought to be drawn across, so that the surface may 
 be smoothed, and the scythe permitted to work 
 without interruption. It is proper also to guard 
 the field for several days against the depredations 
 of pigeons, who are remajkably fond of tares, and 
 will pick up a great part of the seed unless con- 
 stantly watched. 
 
 Horses thrive very well upon tares, even better 
 than they do upon clover and rye-grass ; and the 
 same remark is applicable to fattening cattle, who 
 feed faster upon this article of green fodder than 
 upon any kind of grass or esculent with which 
 we are acquainted. Danger often arises from 
 their eating too many, especially when podded; 
 as colics and other stomach disorders are apt to 
 be produced by the excessive loads which they 
 devour. 
 
 Potatoes. 
 
 Potatoes, as an article of human food, are, next 
 to wheat, of the greatest importance in the eye of 
 a political economist. From no other crop that 
 can be cultivated will the public derive so much 
 food as from this valuable esculent; and it ad- 
 mits of demonstration that an acre of potatoes 
 will feed double the number of people that can be 
 fed from an acre of wheat. Very good varieties 
 are the Gleason, Calico, and Early Goodrich. 
 
 To prepare the Ground. 
 
 To reduce the ground till it is completely free 
 from root-weeds, may be considered as a desi- 
 deratum in potato husbandry; though in many 
 seasons these operations cannot be perfectly exe- 
 cuted, without losing the proper time for planting, 
 which never ought to be beyond the first of May, 
 if circumstances do not absolutely interdict it. 
 Three ploughings, with frequent harrowings and 
 rollings, are necessary in most cases before the 
 land is in suitable condition. When this is accom- 
 plished form the drills as if they were for turnips; 
 cart the manure, which ought not to be sparingly 
 applied, plant the seed above the manure, reverse 
 the drills for covering it and the seed, then harrow 
 the drills in length, which completes the prepa- 
 ration and seed process. 
 
 Quantity of Seed. 
 
 It is not advantageous to cut the seed into 
 small slips, for the strength of the stem at the 
 outset depends in direct proportion upon the 
 vigor and power of the seed-plant. The seed- 
 plant, therefore, ought to be large, rarely smaller 
 than the fourth-part of the potato; and if the 
 seed is of small size, one-half of the potato may 
 be profitably used. At all events, rather err in 
 
POTATOES. 
 
 35 
 
 giving over large seed than in making it too 
 email because, by the first error, no great loss 
 can ever be sustained; whereas, by the other, a 
 feeole and late crop may be the consequence. 
 When the seed is properly cut, it requires from 
 ten to twelve hundredweight of potatoes to plant 
 an acre of ground, where the rows are twenty- 
 seven inches apart; but this quantity depends 
 greatly upon the size of the potatoes used; if 
 they are large, a greater weight may be required, 
 but the extra quantity will be abundantly repaid 
 by the superiority of crop which large seed 
 usually produces. 
 
 Advantageous Method of raising them. 
 
 The earth should be dug twelve inches deep, if 
 the soil will allow it; after this, a hole should be 
 opened about six inches deep, and horse-dung or 
 long litter should be put therein, about three 
 inches thick ; this hole should not be more than 
 twelve inches in diameter. Upon this dung or lit- 
 ter a potato should be planted whole, upon which a 
 little more dung should be shaken, and then the 
 earth should be put thereon. In like manner the 
 whole plot of ground must be planted, taking care 
 that the potatoes be at least sixteen inches apart. 
 When the young shoots make their appearance 
 they should have fresh mould drawn around them 
 with a hoe; and if the tender shoots are covered, 
 it will prevent the frost from injuring them; they 
 should again be earthed when the shoots make a 
 second appearance, but not covered, as in all pro- 
 bability the season will be less severe. 
 
 A plentiful supply of mould should be given 
 them, and the person who performs this business 
 should never tread upon the plant, or the hillock 
 that is raised round it, as the lighter the earth is, 
 the more room the potato will have to expand. 
 
 A gentleman obtained from a single root, thus 
 planted, very nearly forty pounds weight of large 
 potatoes; and from almost every other root upon 
 the same plot of ground from fifteen to twenty 
 pounds weight; and, except the soil be stony or 
 gravelly, ten pounds or half a peck of potatoes 
 may generally be obtained from each root by pur- 
 suing the foregoing method. 
 
 But note cuttings or small sets will not do for 
 this purpose. 
 
 Mode of Taking up and Storing the Crop. 
 Potatoes are generally dug up with a three- 
 prong grape or fork, but at other times, when the 
 weather is dry, the plough is used, which is the 
 most expeditious implement. After gathering 
 the interval, the furrow taken by the plough is 
 broken and separated, in which way the crop may 
 be more completely gathered than when taken up 
 by the grape. The potatoes are then stored up for 
 winter and spring use; and as it is of importance 
 to keep them as long through summer as possible, 
 every endeavor ought to be made to preserve 
 them from frost, and from sprouting in the spring 
 months. The former is accomplished by covering 
 them well with straw when lodged in a house, 
 and by a thick coat of earth when deposited in a 
 pit, and the latter, by picking them carefully at 
 different times, when they begin to sprout, drying 
 them sufficiently by exposure to the sun, or by a 
 gentle toast of a kiln. 
 
 Method of Cultivating Potatoes in Ireland. 
 The drill system, in the cultivation of pota- 
 toes in Ireland, is particularly recommended by 
 Lord Farnham, in a letter to Sir John Sinclair. 
 The small farmers and laborers plant them in 
 lazy -beds, eight feet wide. This mode is prac- 
 tised on account of the want of necessary imple- 
 
 ments for practising the drill system, together 
 with a want of horses for the same purpose. 
 
 They are cut into sets, three from a large potato j 
 and each set to contain at least one eye. The sets 
 are planted at the distance of seven inches asunder, 
 six and a quarter cwt. are considered sufficient 
 seed for an English acre. Lord Farnham recom- 
 mends rotten dung in preference to any fresh 
 dung. If not to be procured, horse-dung, hot 
 from the dunghill. In any soil he would recom* ' 
 mend the dung below the seed. 
 
 When the potatoes are vegetated ten inches 
 above the surface, the scuffier must be introduced, 
 and cast the mould from the potato. If any 
 weeds are found in the drills they must be hand- 
 hoed ; in three days afterwards they must be 
 moulded up by the double-breasted plough, as 
 high as the neck of the potato. This mode must 
 be practised twice, or in some cases three times, 
 particularly if the land is foul. I do not (says 
 Lord Farnham) consider any mode so good as the 
 drill system. 
 
 General Observations. 
 
 To prepare for the drill system either oat or 
 wheat stubble, it should be ploughed in October 
 or the beginning of November; to be ploughed 
 deep and laid up for winter dry. In March let it 
 be harrowed, and give it three clean earths. Be 
 very particular to eradicate the couch grass. The 
 drills to be three feet asunder; drill deep the first 
 time that there is room in the bottom of the fur- 
 row to contain the dung. The best time to begin 
 planting the potatoes is about the latter end of 
 April by this system. It is as good a preparation 
 for wheat as the best fallows. 
 
 Three feet and a half for drills are preferable to 
 four feet. Mr. Curwen prefers four feet and a 
 half. He says the produce is immense. Pota- 
 toes ought to be cut at least from two to three 
 weeks before being planted; and if planted very 
 early whole potatoes are preferable to cut ones, 
 and dung under and over. Some agriculturists 
 lately pay much attention to raising seedling 
 potatoes, with the hope of renewing the vigor of 
 the plant. 
 
 To produce early Potatoes in great Quantity. 
 Early potatoes may be produced in great quan- 
 tity by resetting the plants, after taking off the 
 ripe and large ones. A gentleman at Dumfries 
 has replanted them, six different times in one sea- 
 son, without any additional manure; and, instead 
 of falling off in quantity, he gets a larger crop of 
 ripe ones at every raising than the former ones. 
 His plants have still on them three distinct crops, 
 and he supposes they may still continue to vege- 
 tate and germinate until they are stopped by the 
 frost. By this means he has a new crop every 
 eight days, and has had so for a length of time. 
 
 To grow Potatoes constantly on the same piece of 
 Ground. 
 
 Let the cuttings be made from the finest pota- 
 toes instead of the smallest and worst, usually 
 employed for the purpose ; and it will be found, 
 contrary to what is supposed by farmers, that 
 they will not degenerate. The same will happen 
 with respect to the seeds of the watery squash, 
 early peas, and several other kinds of vegetables. 
 To preserve Potatoes from Frost. 
 
 This is best done by filling completely the place 
 where they are deposited, whether it be a house 
 or a pit, and allowing the place to remain shut 
 during the winter. But this cannot be done 
 easily with a potato-house, as it cannot be com- 
 pletely packed or filled like a pit Besides, some 
 potatoes are generally wanted daily, and thus air 
 
36 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 is admitted and a greater vacuity constantly 
 making, both which are very likely to be the 
 means of proving injurious or destructive to what 
 potatoes may be in the house when a severe frost 
 sets in. There is no such thing in nature as a va- 
 cuum ; therefore, if a place is not filled with some 
 substance or other, it will be filled with air. For 
 this reason, pits are better for preserving potatoes 
 from frost than a house, because a pit can be 
 more effectually filled : and, by opening a pit 
 when potatoes are wanted, and removing the 
 whole into some part of a house, and still keep- 
 ing over them a covering of straw or turf, the 
 potatoes are kept close. A potato-house, how- 
 ever, is very useful, and what every farmer ought 
 to have, as in this house he may still keep a 
 small quantity of his crop for daily use by emp- 
 tying a pit occasionally, and keeping them always 
 well covered with straw, as has been already 
 mentioned. 
 
 The potato-house ought to be well plastered 
 with clay, and perfectly dry before using it. 
 
 Potato-pits should be made upon ground that 
 has a southern exposure, a deep soil, and de- 
 clining to a considerable distance from the pit. 
 In a deep soil the pits can be made sufficiently 
 deep before reaching any cold bottom, and the 
 declivity carries away water. When the pits 
 have been fully finished and covered, a sod should 
 be cut out all the way round the potatoes, and 
 the cut continued a little way as the descent 
 points out. A pit of about ten feet deep, six 
 wide and ten long, will hold from four to six cart 
 loads of potatoes. The covering should consist 
 of straw, fern, rushes, etc. next the potato, then 
 the whole of the earth dug out should be thrown 
 upon the heap; and, last of all, a covering of 
 earth, if done in the best way. This covering 
 will be about two feet thick. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 The best and easiest way of preserving potatoes 
 is for the farmer to drive all his potatoes home, 
 and to lay them upon dry ground without break- 
 ing the surface, and as near the stables as pos- 
 sible, putting them in heaps of about three or 
 four carts, then covering them with straw, and 
 above that with turf, where it can be commanded, 
 or with a neat thatching of straw. Then let a 
 quantity of stable dung, of the roughest kind 
 and the newest, be laid upon each heap, to remain 
 during the winter, but which must be removed in 
 the spring. As the weather appears severe, the 
 quantity of dung may be increased at pleasure. 
 If this practice were adopted few or no potatoes 
 would be penetrated by the frost, as none would 
 be in hazard except one pit, or part of it, when 
 it was removing or placed in the potato-house 
 during the winter season. 
 
 To remove Frost from Potatoes. 
 
 Theweather which soonest injures and destroys 
 potatoes, is when the atmosphere is depressed 
 with cold to such a degree that it congeals water ; 
 then potatoes, unless covered, will be frosted ; and 
 the cover proper to preserve them ought to be 
 proportioned to the intenseness of the weather. 
 
 Potatoes, when slightly frosted, so as to have 
 acquired a slight sweet taste only, are often 
 found quite wet. When they are in this state, in 
 order to recover them, and bring them to a proper 
 taste, the whole quantity infected should be 
 turned over, and a quantity of mill-seeds thrown 
 among them as they are turned over; this both 
 extracts and absorbs the injured moisture from 
 the boJy of the potatoes infected. But there is 
 Btill a more powerful remedy than simply mixing 
 
 them with mill-seeds, and that is a small quantity 
 of slaked lime, perfectly dry, mixed among the 
 seeds to be used, which has a very wonderful 
 effect in recovering potatoes that have been con- 
 siderably injured by frost. 
 
 When frosted potatoes are to be used, either at 
 the table, or given to horses, black cattle or swine, 
 plunging them in cold water, about half a day 
 before using them, is of great advantage ; and if 
 put into running water so much the better, as it 
 has been proved to be more powerful in extracting 
 the frost, on account of its alterative quality and 
 superior purity. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 Another way of removing frost from potatoes, 
 when they are to be prepared for the table, is to 
 strip them of their skins, and, if large, to cut 
 them into two or more pieces; then to plunge 
 them into cold water for a considerable time, with 
 a handful of salt in the water; and, when put on 
 to be boiled, put as much salt into the water as 
 possible, not to make them too salt when boiled. 
 
 This is a powerful way of making the potato % 
 throw off the bad taste and spoiled quality lodged 
 in its substance. 
 
 When prepared for horses, black cattle, and 
 swine : Salt put among the potatoes and boiled 
 together, will destroy any injurious quality which 
 frost has lodged or brought on. Chaff or oats 
 bruised in a mill, boiled with the frosted potatoes, 
 when designed for horses or cattle, tend to destroy 
 the bad effects of the frost. 
 Uses to which Frosted Potatoes may lie beneficially 
 
 applied. 
 
 When potatoes have acquired a disagreeable 
 taste by means of frost, they will make good and 
 wholesome bread by boiling them, as has been 
 mentioned, with salt, mashing or bruising them 
 small, then kneading them together with oatmeal. 
 Not less than two-thirds should consist of meal, 
 which will destroy the sweet taste, and the dry 
 and generous quality of the meal will effectually 
 correct and destroy anything noxious in the in- 
 jured roots. 
 
 Horses, swine, dogs, etc., may all be fed with 
 potatoes, though frosted, by boiling them and 
 mixing them with oats coarsely ground, or with 
 oat-meal, always adding a good quantity of salt 
 in the mixture. Poultry also may be fed with 
 potatoes very much frosted, if mixed with oat- 
 rueal in about equal proportions, without salt, as 
 this species of animal cannot admit of it. 
 Further uses of Frosted Potatoes. 
 Potatoes frosted, when three times distilled, 
 produce a spirit from hydrometer proof to ten per 
 cent, over proof; therefore a principal purpose 
 and use to which they may be turned, is'the mak- 
 ing of alcohol, more particularly as that article 
 is useful for many purposes where strength is its 
 principal recommendation. The ordinary strength 
 thai; spirits are run preparatory to converting 
 them into alcohol, is from forty to fifty per cent, 
 over proof, which, re-distilled from calcined car- 
 bonate of potash, will produce alcohol at 825, 
 water being 1000. 
 
 When potatoes are frosted to such a degree as 
 to be useless for food from their sweet taste, they 
 are very useful to weavers in dressing their yarn, 
 and particularly cotton. They are prepared for 
 this purpose by boiling them well, then mash or 
 beat them small; then put them into a vessel, 
 adding a little barm, drippings of ale or porter 
 barrels, allowing them to stand two or three 
 months to ferment. 
 
 Shoemakers may use it also; only as their pasta 
 requires more solidity and greater strength, flour 
 
TURNIPS. 
 
 ST 
 
 is generally miyed along with the fermented pota- 
 toes in about equal proportions. 
 
 Bookbinders also may use this paste, alum being 
 mixed to assist the strength of the composition. 
 And it may be beneficially used by paper stainers 
 and upholsterers, when made up with a mixture 
 of flour and alum. 
 
 When potatoes are so penetrated with frost that 
 they have become quite soft, they are useless for 
 man or beast, but make excellent manure for light, 
 sharp soils, and for this purpose are worth about 
 one-fifth or sixth of their original value. In 
 places where it is a great object to get straw 
 turned into dung, the value of the frosted potato 
 is still greater, as it assists the farmer in that 
 operation. 
 
 To make Starch from Frosted Potatoes. 
 
 Potatoes much frosted will make very good 
 starch, though it is a shade darker in color. All 
 coarse clothes requiring to be stiffened, where 
 whiteness is no object, may be done with starch 
 made from potatoes greatly penetrated with frost. 
 The beet method of making potatoes into starch 
 is to grate them down into water, then to take 
 out all the refuse with the h:ind, and next to strain 
 the whole of the water in which the potatoes have 
 been grated through a thin cloth, rather coarse, 
 or fine sieve, and afterwards frequently putting on 
 and pouring off water until it comes clear from 
 the starch, which is always allowed to settle or 
 fall to the bottom of the vessel in which the ope- 
 ration is performed. An experiment was tried 
 with a few potatoes that were put out to frost. 
 They were grated down and made into starch 
 powder. The produce of the fresh potato weighed 
 876 grains, while that of the frosted was only 412, 
 being less than half the quantity. 
 
 The refuse of the potato, when taken from the 
 sieve, possesses the property of cleansing woollen 
 cloths without hurting their colors, and the water 
 decanted from the starch powder is excellent for 
 cleansing silks without the smallest injury to their 
 color. In making hair-powder it has long been 
 used, and is therefore well known. 
 
 Turnips. 
 
 The benefits derived from turnip husbandry are 
 of great magnitude j light soils are cultivated with 
 profit and facility ; abundance of food is provided 
 for man and beast ; the earth is turned to the uses 
 for which it is physically calculated, and by being 
 suitably cleaned with this preparatory crop, a bed 
 is provided for grass seeds, wherein they nourish 
 and prosper with greater vigor than after any 
 other preparation. 
 
 To prepare the Ground. 
 
 The first ploughing is given immediately after 
 harvest, or as soon as the wheat seed is finished, 
 either in length or across the field, as circum- 
 stances may seem to require. In this state the 
 ground remains till the oat seed is finished, when 
 a second ploughing is given to it, usually in a 
 contrary direction to the first. It is then repeat- 
 edly harrowed, often rolled between the harrow- 
 ings, and every particle of root-weeds carefully 
 picked off with the hand ; a third ploughing is 
 then bestowed, and the other operations are re- 
 peated. In this stage, if the ground has not been 
 very foul, the seed process generally commences, 
 but often a fourth ploughing, sometimes a fifth is 
 necessary before the ground is sufficiently clean. 
 Less labor, however, is necessary now than in 
 former times, when a more regular mode of crop- 
 ping was commonly followed. 
 
 To sow the Seed. 
 The next part of the process is the sowing of the 
 
 seed ; this may be performed by drilling machines 
 of different sizes and constructions, though all act- 
 ing on the same principle. A machine drawn by a 
 horse in a pair of shafts, sows two drills at a time 
 and answers extremely well, where the ground if 
 flat, and the drills properly made up. The weight 
 of the machine insures a regularity of sowing 
 hardly to be gained by those of a different size 
 and construction. From two to three pounds of 
 seed are sown upon the acre, though the smallest 
 of these quantities will give many more plants in 
 ordinary seasons than are necessary j but as the 
 seed is not an expensive article the greater part 
 of farmers incline to sow thick, which both prc- 
 vides against the danger of part of the seed per- 
 ishing, and gives the young plants an advantage 
 at the outset. 
 
 Turnips are sown from the beginning to the end 
 of June; but the second and third weeks of the 
 month are, by judicious farmers, accounted the 
 most proper time. Some people have sown as 
 early as May, and with advantage ; but these 
 early fields are apt to run to seed before winter, 
 especially if the autumn be favorable to vegeta- 
 tion. As a general rule it may be laid down that 
 the earliest sowings should be on the latest soils j 
 plants on such soils are often long before they 
 make any great progress, and, in the end, may be 
 far behind those in other situations, which were 
 much later sown. The turnip plant, indeed, does 
 not thrive rapidly till its roots reach the dung, 
 and the previous nourishment afforded them is 
 often so scanty as to stunt them altogether before 
 they get so far. 
 
 Cleaning Process. 
 
 The first thing to be done in this process is to 
 run a horse-hoe, called a scraper, along the 
 intervals, keeping at such a distance from the 
 young plants that they shall not be injured; 
 this operation destroys all the annual weeds 
 which have sprung up, and leaves the plants 
 standing in regular stripes or rows. The hand- 
 hoeing then commences, by which the tur- 
 nips are all singled out, at a distance of from 
 eight to twelve inches, and the redundant ones 
 drawn into the spaces between the rows. The 
 singling out of the young plants is an operation 
 of great importance, for an error committed in 
 this process can hardly be afterwards rectified. 
 Boys and girls are always employed as hoersj 
 but a steady and trusty man-servant is usually 
 set over them to see that the work is properly 
 executed. 
 
 In eight or ten days, or such a length of time 
 as circumstances may require, a horse-hoe of a 
 different construction from the scraper is used. 
 This, in fact, is generally a small plough, of the 
 same kind with that commonly wrought, but of 
 smaller dimensions. By this implement, the earth 
 is pared away from the sides of the drills, and a 
 sort of new ridge formed in the middle of the for- 
 mer interval. The hand-hoers are again set to 
 work, and every weed and superfluous turnip is 
 cut up; afterwards the horse-hoe is employed to 
 separate the earth, which it formerly threw into 
 the furrows, and lay it back to the sides of the 
 drills. On dry lands this is done by the scraper, 
 but where the least tendency to moisture prevails, 
 the small plough is used, in order that the furrows 
 may be perfectly cleaned out. This latter mode, 
 indeed, is very generally practised. 
 
 To cultivate the Yellow Turnip. 
 
 This variety, as now cultivated in the field, is 
 quite different from the yellow garden turnip, be- 
 ing larger in size, containing more juice, or nu. 
 tritive substance, much easier cultivated, and pre> 
 
88 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 serving its power till the middle of May, when 
 the grass-season may he expected. Upon ordi- 
 nary soils it is superior to ruta baga, because it 
 will grow to a considerable weight, where the 
 Other would be stunted or starved ; and it stands 
 the frost equally well. No farmer who keeps 
 Stock to any extent should be without it. The 
 mode of culture required is in every respect simi- 
 lar to what is stated concerning common turnips, 
 With these exceptions, that earlier sowing is 
 necessary, and that the plants need not be set out 
 o wide as they do not swell to such a size. 
 
 Ruta Baga or Swedish Turnip. 
 
 The process of management is precisely the 
 game with that of turnips, with this addition, that 
 more dung is required, and that seed-time ought 
 to be three or four weeks earlier. Rich soil, how- 
 ever, is required for this article; for it will not 
 grow to any size worthwhile, on soils of middling 
 quality, whatever quality of dung may be required. 
 
 Ruta baga is of great advantage in the feeding 
 of horses, either when given raw or boiled, or 
 with broken corn. If a sufficient quality were 
 cultivated a great deal of grain might be saved, 
 while the health and condition of the working 
 Stock would be greatly invigorated and aug- 
 mented. An evening feed of this nutritious arti- 
 cle would be of incalculable benefit; most horses 
 are fond even of the common turnip in a raw 
 state; and it is a subject well worthy of every 
 farmer's attention, whether it would not be for 
 his interest to raise these esculents in such a 
 quantity as to serve them during the long period 
 when grass cannot be obtained. That the health 
 of the animals would thereby be benefited is un- 
 questionable ; and the saving of grain would 
 greatly exceed the trouble occasioned by furnish- 
 ing a daily supply of these roots. 
 
 To destroy the Fly on Turnips. 
 
 Lime sown by the hand, or distributed by a 
 machine, is an infallible protection to turnips 
 against the ravages of the fly. It should be ap- 
 plied as soon as the turnips come up, and in the 
 game daily rotation in which they were sown. 
 The lime should be slaked immediately before it 
 is used ; if the air be not sufficiently moist to 
 render that operation unnecessary. 
 
 Another Method. Let the farmer carefully 
 %atch his turnips as they come up, and whenever 
 the fly makes its appearance, take a certain quan- 
 tity of brimstone, about two and a half or three 
 pounds to an acre; put this into a kettle, and 
 melt it in the turnip-field, in a situation the most 
 eligible for the wind to carry the fume over the 
 ground; then take any combustible matter calcu- 
 lated to make a considerable smoke, which, being 
 dipped in the liquid brimstone, must be strewn 
 all over the field in a state of ignition, and so 
 close together that the fumes of the burning mat- 
 ter may completely cover every part of the ground 
 The decoction of the bitter almond is more fatal 
 to the lives of insects and worms than almost any 
 Other vegetable or mineral poison. It is made by 
 infusing the bitter almond powder (the ground 
 cakes that remain after expressing the oil) in 
 warm water for twenty-four hours ; twenty-eight 
 pounds will make forty gallons, a sufficient quan- 
 tity for a large garden. 
 
 Remedy against the Bite of the Turnip Fly. 
 It is upon the principle of creating an offensive 
 mell that turnip seed is recommended to be 
 steeped in train oil before it is sown. This has 
 been found to be a perfect security against the 
 bite of the turnip fly. 
 
 To prevent the Fly in Tnrnipg. 
 
 Sow good and fresh seed in well-manured and 
 well-prepared ground. 
 
 To prevent the increase of Pismires in Grass Landt 
 newly laid down. 
 
 Make a strong decoction of walnut-tree leaves, 
 and after opening several of the pismire's sandy 
 habitations, pour upon them a quantity of the 
 liquor, just sufficient to fill the hollow of each 
 heap; after the middle has been scooped, throw 
 in the contents from the sides, and press down 
 the whole mass with the foot, till it becomes level 
 with the rest of the field. This, if not found 
 effectual at first, must he repented a second or a 
 third time, when they will infallibly be destroyed. 
 
 To preserve Growing Crops from the Devastation of 
 
 Vermin. 
 
 The good effects of elder in preserving plants 
 from insects and flies are experienced in the fol 
 lowing cases : 
 
 1. For preventing cabbages and cauliflowoj 
 plants from being devoured and damaged by 
 caterpillars. 
 
 2. For preventing blights, and their effects on 
 fruit trees. 
 
 3. For preserving corn from yellow flies and 
 other insects. 
 
 4. For securing turnips from the ravages of 
 flies. 
 
 The dwarf elder appears to exhale a much more 
 fetid smell than the common elder, and therefore 
 should be preferred. 
 
 To Check the Ravages of the Turnip Fly. 
 Suppose that the farmer had no objection to 
 bestow five pounds of seed per acre, in order to 
 secure his crop of turnips. If he sows broad cast, 
 let him medicate one half of the seed, in the man- 
 ner to be afterwards explained, leaving the other 
 half unprepared. The latter may be sown one 
 day, and the medicated a day or two after, so as 
 to give a start to the other. The medicated will, 
 in that case, escape from the attacks of the fly or 
 beetle. If the slug, however, does appear, rolling 
 in the night is necessary. If the farmer drills his 
 turnips after the land is prepared for the drill, 
 two and a half pounds of the unmedicated seed 
 should be sown broadcast, and a day or two after- 
 wards the medicated seed sown in the drills. In 
 this way a crop may be obtained, at least by the 
 industrious farmer who does not grudge a little 
 trouble to secure a good one. He will find that 
 the plants sown broadcast will give full employ- 
 ment to the fly, till the less savory plants in the 
 drill pass the moment of danger. As to preparing 
 or medicating the seed, sulphur is so obnoxious to 
 the whole insect tribe, and at the same time so 
 favorable to vegetation, that it seems entitled to 
 a preference. The turnip seed may be a little 
 damped, and then mixed with the flour of sulphur, 
 at the rate of two ounces of sulphur to one pound 
 of seed; or let the seed be steeped in a liquor 
 formed by boiling three parts of lime to one of 
 sulphur, and 100 parts of water. This steep is 
 much approved of for all such purposes. It is 
 not improbable that the same liquid in which 
 wheat is commonly pickled would prove a pre- 
 servative against the fly. It may be proper to 
 add, that when the season is very dry, it has been 
 found a most useful practice to moisten the dung 
 well before it is inserted into the drill, to spread 
 the dung very rapidly in the rows, and instantly 
 to sow, at the rate of four pounds of turnip seed 
 per acre, upon the dung. The ground should then 
 be gathered up into bouts twenty-seven inoliea 
 wide, by tha going and returning of the plough. 
 
TO DESTBOY WEEDS AND INSECTS. 
 
 The seeds are thus put in contact with the wet 
 dung. Many perish, but a sufficient number es- 
 cape to produce a good crop. In this case, the 
 owing any unmedicated seed broadcast may be 
 dispensed with. 
 
 To cultivute San-/oin. 
 
 Chalky loams and gravelly soils on a calcareous 
 bottom, are most proper for this grass. It is more 
 adapted to hay than pasture, and much heavier 
 crops of this grass are obtained from thin lands 
 than when clover is sown. San-foin is a hardy 
 kind of grass, well worth the attention of cultiva- 
 tors in upland districts where the soil is obdurate 
 and shallow^ and where clover and rye-grass can 
 with difficulty be raised to such a height as to 
 stam} the scythe. When sown, fresh seed ought 
 constantly to be used, as the vegetation of old seed 
 cannot be depended upon. Four bushels may be 
 used for an acre, and great care ought to be taken 
 to cover the seed well, and to put it deeper into 
 the ground than the seeds of other grasses. 
 
 To preserve Grain from Vermin. 
 To preserve rye and secure it from insects and 
 rats, nothing more is necessary than not to winnow 
 it after it is threshed, and to stow it in the grana- 
 ries mixed with the chaff. In this state it has 
 been kept for more than three years, without ex- 
 periencing the smallest alteration, and even with- 
 out the necessity of being turned to preserve it 
 from humidity and fermentation. Rats and mice 
 may be prevented from entering the barn by put- 
 ting some wild vine or hedge plants upon the 
 heaps; the smell of this wood is so offensive to 
 these animals that they will not approach it. 
 
 To prevent the Destruction of Corn by Insects. 
 
 In laying the floors of a granary let Italian 
 poplars be made use of for the timber. Many ex- 
 periments show that granaries, after laying down 
 this flooring, will no longer be infested with wee- 
 vils, etc. 
 
 To destroy Slugs upon Wheat. 
 
 Collect a number of lean ducks, keep them all 
 day without food, and turn them into the fields 
 towards evening; each duck would devour the 
 slugs much faster than a man could collect them, 
 and they would soon get very fat for market. 
 
 To prevent the Ravages of Mice in Corn Stacks. 
 
 The following simple remedy against the depre- 
 dations of mice in corn stacks, has lately been re- 
 commended for its undoubted efficacy. Sprinkle 
 from four to six bushels of dry white sand upon 
 the root of the stack before the thatch is put on. 
 The sand is no detriment to the corn, and stacks 
 thus dressed have remained without injury. So 
 very effective is the remedy, that nests of dead 
 young mice have been found where the sand has 
 been used, but not a live mouse could be seen. 
 
 To clear Barns and Out-houses from Mites and 
 Weevils. 
 
 The following method is practised in Germany, 
 for granaries infested with mites and weevils. Let 
 the walls and rafters, above and below, of such 
 granaries be covered completely with quick-lime 
 llaked in 'water, in which trefoil, wormwood, and 
 hyssop havedeen boiled. This composition should 
 be applied as hot as possible. A farmer who had 
 the granaiies empty in June last, collected quanti- 
 ties of the largest sized ants in sacks, and scatter- 
 ed them about the places infested with weevils. 
 The ants immediately fell upon and devoured 
 them all. 
 
 Tc destroy Slugs on Land. 
 
 Procure some fresh lime, and after throwing as 
 
 much water upon it as will reduce it to a powder, 
 sow the lime in a hot state upon the land that is 
 overrun with the vermin, at the rate of about 
 twelve bushels to the acre. The lime should b* 
 sown towards the wind, and falling upon them i 
 a fermented state, it will instantly kill them. 
 
 Usefulness of the Hedgehog. 
 This little animal, the object of persecution, not 
 only to little boys but to the farmer and game- 
 keeper, on account of its supposed mischievous 
 propensities, is in fact one which the agriculturist 
 should endeavor to preserve, as it is the most 
 effectual destroyer of snails, worms, and insects, 
 on which it almost entirely subsists. A garden 
 in which a hedgehog is kept, will, in the course 
 of two or three nights, be entirely freed from 
 slugs; and that enemy to fruit, the millepede, is a 
 favorite food to him. The London gardeners are 
 so aware of this, as often to purchase hedgehogs 
 to put in their grounds. If it ever has been found 
 eating poultry or game, as has by some been as- 
 serted, they must previously have been killed by 
 rats, weasels, or some more ferocious animal than 
 the hedgehog, whose habits are those of gentle- 
 ness and timidity, who is not formed for attack, 
 and whose sole mode of defense is rolling itself 
 up in a ball and opposing its strong prickles to 
 the enemy. This statement is given in the hop* 
 of rescuing a harmless and useful creature from 
 the general abhorrence in which it is held, and 
 the unmerciful treatment it meets with. 
 
 Birds. 
 
 Farmers should be friendly to birds, as they 
 are of the greatest service in destroying worms 
 and insects, and thus preserving the crops and 
 fruits. The small amount of vegetable food they 
 consume is thus much more than compensated for. 
 Sparrows are especially useful in this way. 
 
 To destroy Weeds. 
 
 To clear the ground of weeds is an operation no 
 less necessary in husbandry than the disposing it 
 to produce vegetables of any kind in plenty. 
 
 Annual weeds, or such as spring from seed and 
 die the same year, are most easily destroyed. For 
 this purpose, it will be sufficient to let them spring 
 up till near the time of ripening their seed, and 
 then plough them down before it comes to matu- 
 rity. It is also of service to destroy such weeds 
 as grow in borders or neglected corners, and fre- 
 quently scatter their seeds to a great distance; 
 such as the thistle, dandelion, rag- weed, etc.; for 
 these propagate their species through a deal of 
 ground, as their seeds are carried about with the 
 wind to very considerable distances. A farmer 
 ought also to take care that the small seeds of 
 weeds, separated from corn in winnowing, be not 
 sown again upon the ground; for this certainly 
 happens when they are thrown upon a dunghill, 
 because, being the natural offspring of the earth, 
 they are not easily destroyed. The best method 
 of preventing any mischief from this cause is to 
 burn them. 
 
 Perennial weeds are such as are propagated by 
 the roots, and last for a number of years. They 
 cannot be effectually destroyed but by removing 
 the roots from the ground, which is often a matter 
 of some difficulty. The only method that can be 
 depended upon in this case is frequent ploughing 
 to render the ground as tender as possible, and 
 harrowing with a particular kind of harrow, in 
 order to collect these pernicious roots. When 
 collected, they ought to be dried and burnt, as 
 the only effectual method of insuring their doing 
 no farther mischief. 
 
AGRICULTURE. 
 
 To destroy Broom, Furze and Thorns. 
 
 Besides those kinds of weeds which are of an 
 herbaceous nature, there are others which are 
 woody, and grow to a very considerable size; such 
 as broom, furze and thorns. The first may be 
 destroyed by frequent ploughing and harrowing, 
 in the same manner as other perennial weeds are. 
 Another method of destroying broom is by pas- 
 turing the field where it grows with sheep. 
 
 The best method of extirpating furze is to set 
 fire to it in frosty weather, for frost has the effect 
 of withering and making them burn readily. The 
 stumps must then be cut over with a hatchet, and 
 when the ground is well softened by rain it may 
 be ploughed up, and the roots taken out by a 
 harrow adapted to that purpose. If the field is 
 goon laid down to grass they will again spring 
 up; in this case, pasturing with sheep is an 
 effectual remedy. The thorn, or bramble, can 
 only be extirpated by ploughing up the ground 
 and collecting the roots. 
 
 Usefulness of Mowing Weeds. 
 
 In the month of June weeds are in their most 
 succulent state, and in this condition, after they 
 have lain a few hours to wither, hungry cattle 
 will eat greedily almost every species. There is 
 scarcely a hedge, border, or a nook, but what at 
 that season is valuable; and it certainly must be 
 good management to embrace the transient oppor- 
 tunity, for in a few weeks they will become nui- 
 sances. 
 
 To banish Crows from a Field. 
 
 Machinery of various kinds, such as wind-mills 
 in miniature, horse-rattles, etc., to be put in mo- 
 tion by the wind, are often employed to frighten 
 crows; but with all of these they soon become 
 familiar, when they cease to be of any use what- 
 ever. 
 
 The most effectual method of banishing them 
 from a field, as far as experience goes, is to com- 
 bine with one or other of the scarecrows in vogue 
 the frequent use of the musket. Nothing strikes 
 such terror into these sagacious animals as the 
 sight of a fowling-piece aud the explosion of gun- 
 powder, which they have known so often to be 
 fatal to their race. Such is their dread of a fowl- 
 ing-piece, that if one is placed upon a dyke or 
 other eminence, it will for a long time prevent 
 them from alighting on the adjacent grounds. 
 Many persons now, however, believe that crows, 
 like most other birds, do more good by destroying 
 insects and worms, etc., than harm by eating grain. 
 
 To cultivate Carrots. 
 
 To command crops of this root, manure the 
 land with twenty-five or thirty loads of dung per 
 acre, pretty rotten, plough it in, and then cover 
 the seed by harrowing. The dung neither injures 
 the taste of the carrot, makes them grow de- 
 formed, nor causes the canker. A farmer's object 
 is to produce as great a quantity as possible from 
 every acre, which must undoubtedly be accom- 
 plished by manure. In confirmation of this 
 opinion the following statement is given : 
 
 Unmanured Carrots, sown March 31. 
 
 Ton. Ibs. 
 
 Boots . . . 9 . . 1918 per acre. 
 Tops . . . 4 . . . 336 do. 
 Manured after Potatoes, sown April 7. 
 
 Ton. Ibs. 
 
 Roots . . . 12 . . 1582 per acre. 
 Tops . . . 5 . . . 994 do. 
 
 The soil in both was exactly the same, and the 
 dung half rotten. The preceding crop had in 
 both instances been potatoes, and the quality of 
 the carrots was similar in both cases. An extcn- 
 
 j sive collection of such well authenticated experi- 
 ments is better calculated to extend the boun- 
 daries of agricultural knowledge than all the 
 theories and mere reasonings upon them yet 
 published. 
 
 Mode of Cultivating Parsnips in Guernsey. 
 
 Although this root is cultivated in almost all 
 the soils of that island, that is esteemed the bsk 
 which consists of a good light loam, the deeper 
 the better. If the loamy soil is not deep, the 
 under soil at least should be opened, to allow of 
 the free penetration of the roots. 
 
 If the land is not perfectly clear from couch 
 grass and other weeds, it is pared with the paring- 
 plough in October, and harrowed to 'remove the 
 weeds. About the middle of February the land 
 is prepared for sowing by means of two ploughs. 
 A small plough precedes and opens the furrow to 
 the depth of four inches, and is followed by a 
 large plough drawn by four or six oxen and as 
 many horses, which deepens the furrow to ten or 
 fourteen inches. As soon as the clods are capable 
 of being broken the harrowing commences, and 
 is repeated till the soil is pulverized, and reduced 
 nearly to the state of garden mould. All of the 
 processes are intended to loosen the soil to as 
 great a depth as possible. 
 
 The seed should not be more than a year old, as 
 it is uncertain when of a greater age. It is sown 
 broadcast, and on a day just so windy as to insure 
 its regular spreading over the surface. The seed 
 is then covered by the harrow. The quantity 
 sown is from two to four quarts. 
 
 As soon as the plants are sufficiently strong, 
 they are hand-weeded and thinned, and this ope- 
 ration must be repeated at least three times during 
 the summer. The distance between the plants is 
 ultimately about nine inches; and to save a por- 
 tion of the labor a harrowing is sometimes given 
 between the first and second weedings. 
 
 The first weeding is performed about the middle 
 of May, and repeated when necessary till the be- 
 ginning of July. 
 
 The roots are dug up about the middle of Au- 
 gust, when they are thought to be most nutritious, 
 and to fatten animals better than after the leaves 
 are decayed. The quantity dug up at this season 
 is not more than is required for two or three days' 
 consumption. It is only in October that the root 
 is fully ripe, when it may be dug up with forks 
 and preserved dry in sheds during the winter; but 
 it is usually left in the ground in Guernsey, where 
 frost is rare, and taken up as it is wanted. 
 
 The parsnip is considered by the Guernsey far- 
 mers to be the most nutritious root known, supe- 
 rior even to the carrot and the potato. When 
 small it is given to the animals whole, but when 
 large it is sliced longitudinally. Hogs prefer this 
 root to all others, and it makes excellent pork. 
 Horses are equally fond of the parsnip, although 
 from eating it with too much avidity it sometimes 
 sticks in the throat. But this may easily be pre- 
 vented by cutting the roots into pieces before they 
 are given. 
 
 To cultivate Hemp. 
 The Soil. 
 
 The soils most suited to the culture of this 
 plant are those of the deep, black, putrid vegeta- 
 ble kind, that are low, and rather inclined to 
 moisture, and those of the deep mellow, loamy, 
 or sandy descriptions. The quantity of produce 
 is generally much greater on the former than on 
 the latter; but it is said to be greatly inferior in 
 quality. It may, however, be grown with success 
 on lands of a less rich and fertile kind, by proper 
 care and attention in their culture and preparation. 
 
HEMP AND FLAX. 
 
 41 
 
 To prepare the Ground. 
 In order to render the grounds proper for th 
 reception of the crop, they should b reduced intc 
 fine mellow state of mould, and be perfectly 
 cleared from weeds, by repeated ploughings 
 When it succeeds grain crops, the wrrk is mostly 
 accomplished by three ploughings, and as man;] 
 harrowings: the first being given immediately 
 after the preceding crop is removed, the seconc 
 early in the spring, and the last, or seed earth 
 just before the seed is to be put in. . In the lasl 
 ploughing, well rotted manure, in the proportion 
 of fifteen or twenty, or good compost, in the quan- 
 tity of twenty-five or thirty-three horse-cart loads 
 should be turned into the land; as without this il 
 is seldom that good crops can be produced. The 
 surface of the ground being left perfectly flat, and 
 as free from furrows as possible; as by these 
 means the moisture is more effectually retained 
 and the growth of the plants more fully pro- 
 moted. 
 
 Quantity of Seed, etc. 
 
 It is of much importance in the cultivation of 
 hemp crops that the seed be new, and of a gooc 
 quality, which may in some measure be known by 
 its feeling heavy in the hand, and being of 
 bright shining color. 
 
 The proportion of seed that is most commonly 
 employed, is from two to three bushels, according 
 to the quality of the land; but, as the crops are 
 greatly injured by the plants standing too closely 
 together, two bushels, or two bushels and a half 
 may be a more advantageous quantity. 
 
 As the hemp plant is extremely tender in its 
 early growth, care should be taken not to put the 
 peed into the ground at so early a period, as thai 
 it may be liable to be injured by the effects of 
 frost; nor to protract the sowing to so late a sea- 
 son, as that the quality of the produce may be 
 affected. The best season, on the drier sorts of 
 land, in the southern districts, is as soon as pos- 
 sible after the frosts are over in April, and, on 
 the same descriptions of soil, in the more north- 
 ern ones, towards the close of the same month, or 
 early in the ensuing one. 
 
 Method of Sowing. 
 
 The most general method of putting crops of 
 this sort into the soil is the broadcast, the seed 
 being dispersed over the surface of the land in as 
 even a manner as possible, and afterwards covered 
 in by means of a very light harrowing. In many 
 eases, however, especially when the crops are to 
 stand for seed, the drill method in rows, at small 
 distances, might be had recourse to with advan- 
 tage; as, in this way, the early growth of the 
 plants would be more effectually promoted, and 
 the land be kept in a more clean and perfect state 
 of mould, which are circumstances of importance 
 in such crops. In whatever method the seed is 
 put in. care must constantly be taken to keep the 
 birds from it for some time afterwards. 
 
 This sort of crop is frequently cultivated on 
 the same piece of ground for a great number of 
 years, without any other kind intervening; but, in 
 such cases, manure must be applied with almost 
 every crop, in pretty large proportions, to prevent 
 the exhaustion that must otherwise take place. 
 It may be sown after most sorts of grain crops, 
 especially where the land possesses sufficient fer- 
 tility, and is in a proper state of tillage. 
 
 After Culture. 
 
 As hemp, from its tall growth and thick foliage, 
 soon covers the surface of the land, and prevents 
 the rising of weeds, little attention is necessary 
 after the seed has been put into the ground, espe- 
 
 cially where the broadcast method of sowing is 
 practised; but, when put in by the drill machine, 
 a hoeing or two may be had recourse to with ad- 
 vantage in the early growth of the crop. 
 
 In the culture of this plant, it is particularly 
 necessary that the same piece of land growl 
 both male and female, or what is sometimes de- 
 nominated simple hemp. The latter kind con- 
 tains the seed. 
 
 When the grain is ripe (which is known by its 
 becoming of a whitish-yellow color, and a few of 
 the leaves beginning to drop from the stems) ; this 
 happens commonly about thirteen or fourteen 
 weeks from the period of its being sown, according 
 as the season may be dry or wet (the first sort 
 being mostly ripe some weeks before the latter), 
 the next operation is that of taking it from the 
 ground ; which is effected by pulling it up by the 
 roots, in small parcels at a time, by the hand, 
 taking care to shake off the mould well from them 
 before the handsful are laid down. In some dis- 
 tricts, the whole crop is pulled together, without 
 any distinction being made between the different 
 kinds of hemp ; while, in others, it is the prac- 
 tice to separate and pull them at different times, 
 according to their ripeness. The latter is ob- 
 viously the better practice; as by pulling a large 
 proportion of the crop before it is in a proper state 
 of maturity, the quantity of produce must not only 
 be considerably lessened, but its quality greatly 
 injured by being rendered less durable. 
 
 After being thus pulled, it is tied up in small 
 parcels, or what are sometimes termed baits. 
 
 Where crops of this kind are intended for seed- 
 ing, they should be suffered to stand till the seed 
 becomes in a perfect state of maturity, which is 
 easily known by the appearance of it on inspec- 
 tion. The stems are then pulled and bound up, 
 as in the other case, the bundles being set up in 
 the same manner as grain, until the seed becomes 
 so dry and firm as to shed freely. It is then 
 either immediately threshed out upon large cloths 
 for the purpose in the field, or taken home to have 
 the operation afterwards performed. 
 
 Process of Grassing Hemp. 
 
 The Kemp, as soon as pulled, is tied up in small 
 bundles, frequently at both ends. 
 
 It is then conveyed to pits, or ponds of stagnant 
 water, about six or eight feet in depth, such as 
 have a clayey soil being in general preferred, and 
 deposited in beds, according to their size, and 
 depth; the small bundles being laid both in a 
 straight direction and crosswise of each other, so 
 as to bind perfectly together; the whole, being 
 oaded with timber, or other materials, so as to 
 leep the beds of hemp just below the surface of 
 he water. 
 
 It is not usual to water more than four or five 
 imes in the same pit, till it has been filled with 
 water. Where the ponds are not sufficiently large 
 :o contain the whole of the produce at once, it \8 
 he practice to pull the hemp only as it can be 
 admitted into them, it being thought disadvanta- 
 geous to leave the hemp upon the ground after 
 >eing pulled. It is left in these pits four, five, or 
 ix days, or even more, according to the warmth 
 )f the season and the judgment of the operator, 
 
 his examining whether the hempy material 
 eadily separates from the reed or stem ; and then 
 aken up and conveyed to a pasture field which is 
 lean a.nd even, the bundles being loosened and 
 pread out thinly, stem by stem, turning it every 
 econd or third day, especially in damp weather, 
 o prevent its being injured by worms or other 
 nsects. It should remain in this situation for 
 ;wo, three, four, or more weeks, according to cir- 
 
42 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 cumstances, and be then collected together when 
 in a perfectly dry state, tied up into large bundles, 
 and placed in some secure building until an oppor- 
 tunity is afforded for breaking it, in order to sepa- 
 rate the hemp. By this means the process of 
 grassing is not only shortened, but the more ex- 
 pensive ones of breaking, scutching, and bleach- 
 ing the yarn, rendered less violent and trouble- 
 some. 
 
 After the hemp has been removed from the field 
 it is in a state to be broken and swingled, opera- 
 tions that are mostly performed by common la- 
 borers, by means of machinery for the purpose, 
 the produce being tied up in stones. The refuse 
 collected in the latter process is denominated 
 sheaves, and is in some districts employed for the 
 purposes of fuel. After having undergone these 
 different operations, it ia ready for the purposes 
 of the manufacturer. 
 
 To cultivate Flax. 
 
 The soils most suitable for flax, besides the al- 
 luvial kind, are deep friable loams, and such as 
 contain a large proportion of vegetable matter in 
 their composition. Strong clays do not answer 
 well, nor soils of a gravelly or dry sandy nature. 
 But whatever be the kind of soil, it ought neither 
 to be in too poor nor too rich a condition, because 
 in the latter case the flax is apt to grow too luxu- 
 riant and produce a coarse sort, and in the former 
 case, the plant, from growing weakly, affords only 
 a small produce. 
 
 To prepare tJie Ground. 
 
 When grass land is intended for flax, it ought 
 to be broken up as early in the season as possible, 
 so that the soil may be duly mellowed by the winter 
 frosts, and in good order for being reduced by the 
 harrows, when the seed process is attempted. If 
 flax is to succeed a corn crop, the like care is re- 
 quired to procure the aid of frost, without which 
 the surface cannot be rendered fine enough for re- 
 ceiving the seed. Less frost, however, will do in 
 the last than in the first case, therefore the grass 
 land ought always to be earliest ploughed. At seed 
 time, harrow the land well before the seed is dis- 
 tributed, then cover the seed to a sufficient depth, 
 by giving a close double time of the harrows. 
 Water-furrow the land, and remove any stones 
 end roots that may remain on the surface, which 
 finishes the seed process. 
 
 Quantity of Seed. 
 
 When a crop of seed is intended to be taken, 
 thin sowing is preferable, in order that the plants 
 may have room to fork or spread out their leaves, 
 and to obtain air for the blossoming and filling 
 seasons. But it is a mistake to sow thin when flax 
 is intended to be taken, for the crop then becomes 
 coarse, and often unproductive. From eight to 
 ten pecks per acre is a proper quantity in the last 
 case ; but when seed is the object, six pecks will 
 do very well. 
 
 To save the Flax and Seed. 
 Flax should be pulled when the lower part of the 
 plant begins to turn yellow, and when, on opening 
 the pods, the most forward of the seeds are found 
 in a soft state, and the middle of the seeds is green ; 
 while the seed is quite soft, the flax should be 
 spread on the ground in bundles of about as much 
 as a woman can grasp with both hands, and it 
 should remain so till the upper part is dry ; in fine 
 weather it will be dry in twenty-four or forty-eight 
 hours ; the bundles should be then made up, with 
 the dry part inside, and set up in stocks of ten 
 bundles each, to stand on the ground till the 
 whole is dry, pods and all j the seed will then be 
 
 ripe and the flax in the best state, and may I* 
 stacked, housed, or worked; great care should be 
 taken to keep the root ends even. 
 
 Method of Watering. 
 
 When flax is pulled it ought to be immediately 
 put into the water, so that it may pnrt with the 
 rind and be fit for the manufacturer. Stand- 
 ing pools, for many reasons, are most proper 
 for the purpose, occasioning the flax to have a 
 better color, to be sooner ready for the grass, and 
 even to be of superior quality in every respect. 
 When put into the water it is tied up in beet*, or 
 small sheaves, the smaller the better, because it is 
 then most equally watered. These sheaves ought 
 to be built in the pool, in a reclining upright pos- 
 ture, so that the weight placed above may keep 
 the whole firmly down. In warm weather, ten days 
 of the watering process are sufficient ; but it is pro- 
 per to examine the pools regularly after the seventh 
 day, lest the flax should putrefy or rot, which some- 
 times happens in very warm weather. Twelve 
 days will answer in any sort of weather; 'hough 
 it may be remarked, that it is better to give rather 
 too little of the water than too much, as any de- 
 ficiency may be easily made up by suffering it to 
 lie longer on the grass, whereas an excess of water 
 admits of no remedy. After lying on the grass 
 for a due time, till any defect of the watering pro- 
 cess is rectified, the flax is taken up, tied when 
 dry in large sheaves, and carried to the mill to be 
 switched and prepared for the hackle. 
 
 Dressing Flax. Instructions for Using the Ma- 
 chinery. 
 
 The process is divided into two parts : the first 
 part is intended for the farmer, or flax-grower, to 
 bring the flax into a fit state for general or common 
 purposes. This is performed by three machines : 
 one for threshing out the seed, one for breaking 
 and separating the wood from the fibre, and one 
 for further separating the broken wood and matter 
 from the fibre. In some cases the farmers will 
 perhaps thrash out the seed in their own mill, and 
 therefore, in such cases, the first machine will be, 
 of course, unnecessary. 
 
 The second part of the process is intended for 
 the manufacturer to bring the flax into a state for 
 the very finest purposes, such as lace, cambric, 
 damask, and very fine linen. This second part is 
 performed by the refining machine only. 
 
 The Threshing Machine. 
 
 Take the flax in small bundles, as it comes from 
 the field or stack, and holding it in the left hand, 
 put the seed end between the threshing machine 
 and the bed or block against which the machine 
 is to strike ; then take the handle of the machine 
 in the right hand, and move the machine back- 
 ward and forward, to strike on the flax, until the 
 seed is all threshed out. 
 
 The Breaking Machine. 
 
 Take the flax in small handsful in the left hand, 
 spread it flat between the third and little finger, 
 with the seed end downwards, and the root-end 
 above, as near the hand as possible; then put it 
 between the beater of the breaking machine, and 
 beat it gently till the three or four inches, which 
 have been under the operation of the machine, ap- 
 pear to be soft; then remove the flax a little 
 higher in the hand, so as to let the soft part of 
 the flax rest upon the little finger, and continue 
 to beat it till all is soft, and the wool is separated 
 from the fibre, keeping the left hand close to the 
 block and the flax as flat upon the block a? pos- 
 sible. The other end of the flax is then to be 
 turned, and the end which has been beaten is to 
 
HOPS. 
 
 be wrapped round the little finger, the root end 
 flat, and beaten in the machine till the wood is 
 separated, exactly in the same way as the other 
 nd was beaten. 
 
 The Cleansing Machine. 
 
 It it to be used in the same way, in all respects 
 as the breaking machine, first cleansing one end 
 of the flax, and then turning the other, keeping 
 the flux all the while flat in the hand. 
 
 To Hackle. 
 
 A common hackle will be found useful in this 
 stage for opening the ends, and may be placed for 
 greater convenience at the side of the breaking 
 and cleansing machine. 
 
 This concludes the first process of the machi- 
 nery intended for the farmer or flax-grower. The 
 second, or manufacturer's process, requires 
 
 The Refining Machine. 
 Take a small piece of flax as it comes from the 
 breaking or cleansing machine, pass the seed end 
 through the fluted rollers of the refining machine, 
 and bring it round, laying it flat on the root-end 
 of the flax, forming it into a skein. A few fibres 
 of the end brought round, and looped in the flax 
 on which it is laid, will keep the skein together. 
 It must be kept flat and even on the machine, 
 which may continue to go round and work the 
 flax till it is brought to any degree of fineness 
 that may be required, and this will not require 
 more than from two to six minutes. 
 
 Washing or Whitening. 
 
 The flax, when prepared by these machines, 
 without having been water-steeped, or dew- rotted, 
 may be washed in small quantities at a time, either 
 in water only or with soap and water, without any 
 other mixture, and brought by these simple means 
 to the purest white. It is to be wrung several 
 times in water till the water becomes no longer 
 colored from the matter, and care is to be taken 
 that the flax is laid flat like tape, and then spread 
 upon the grass, but it is recommended that the 
 flax should be spun in the yellow state, and then 
 washed in warm water and soap, or boiled with 
 care in water and soap from ten to fifteen minutes, 
 so that, when dried, it will be perfectly white. If 
 the weather should be favorable it would be well 
 to have it dried on the grass. 
 
 As to the labor required, the machines are easily 
 wrought by women or girls, and without any as- 
 sistance from men. 
 
 The Produce. 
 
 As to the produce of different degrees of fine- 
 ness from a given weight of the raw material, we 
 subjoin the following statement: 
 
 112 Ibs. of flax from the stack, after the seed 
 was threshed out, produced 30 Ibs. in the state 
 No. 1 ; refined to No. 3 it produced 20 Ibs. of flax 
 and 3 Ibs. of common tow; 20 Ibs. of No. 3 pro- 
 duced 14J Ibs. of No. 4. The loss in weight is 
 caused by the discharge of matter ; there is no loss 
 of fibre. 
 
 An average crop will produce about two tons to 
 the acre after the seed is threshed out. This will 
 produce one-fourth fibre, making ten cwt. to the 
 acre No. 1. 
 
 To cultivate Hops. The Soil, &c. 
 The hop is planted on various soils, and chiefly 
 in valleys. Hops are generally of the best quality 
 from strong clay land. The crop, however, is 
 there very precarious. Those on peat are much 
 more productive, but are liable to be affected by 
 the mould in some seasons, which reduces their 
 value considerably. The best plantations are on 
 a deep, laarny soil, where the produce of the latter 
 and the quality of the former are sometimes ob- 
 
 tained. Those which are grown on sandy and 
 gravelly lands are seldom remarkable for either 
 great produce or superior quality. 
 
 The plant is extremely liable to disasters from 
 its first putting up in the spring until the time of 
 ' picking the crop, which is in September. Snaila 
 or slugs, ants and flies, are formidable enemies in 
 the first instance. Frosts are inimical to its 
 growth, and the vines are frequently blighted even 
 after they have reached the t< p of the poles. 
 Small green flies and other injects which make 
 their appearance in the months of May and June, 
 when the wind is about northeast, often greatly 
 injure them, and they are subject to take damage 
 by high winds from the southwest. The best 
 situation for a plantation, therefore, is a southern 
 aspect, well shaded on three sides either by hills 
 or planting, which is supposed to be the chief pro- 
 tection that can be given them. 
 
 To plant Hopt. 
 
 In the winter time provide the soil and manure 
 for the hop-ground against the following spring. 
 If the dung be rotten, mix it with two or three 
 parts of common earth, and let it incorporate to- 
 gether till there is occasion to make use of it in 
 making the hop-hills ; but if it be new dung, then 
 let it be mixed as before till the spring in the next 
 year, for new dung is very injurious to hops. 
 Hops require to be planted in a situation so open 
 that the air may freely pass round and between 
 them to dry up and dissipate the moisture, which 
 often destroys the middle of large plantations, 
 while the outsides remain unhurt. 
 
 The hills should be eight or nine feet asunder. 
 If the ground be intended to be ploughed with 
 horses between the hills, it will be best to plant 
 them in squares, chequerwise ; but if the ground 
 is so small that it may be done with the breast- 
 plough, or spade, the holes should be ranged in a 
 quincunx form. Which way soever is made use 
 of, a stake should be stuck down at each of the 
 places where the hills are to be made. 
 
 To choose Hops. 
 
 Be very particular in the choice of the plants as 
 to kind, for if the hop-garden be planted with a 
 mixture of several sorts of hops that ripen at 
 several times, it will cause much trouble and 
 great detriment. 
 
 The two best sorts are the white and the gray 
 bind ; the latter is a large, square hop, more hardy, 
 bears more abundantly, but ripens later than the 
 former. There is another sort of the white bind, 
 which ripens a week or ten days before the com- 
 mon ; but this is a tenderer and a less plentiful 
 bearer, though it has this advantage, that it comes 
 first to market. If there be a sort of hop you 
 value, and would wish to increase, the superfluous 
 binds may be laid down when the hops are tied, 
 cutting off the tops and burying them in the hill, 
 or when the hops are dressed all the cuttings may 
 be saved, for almost every part will grow and be- 
 come a good set the next spring. 
 
 Seasons of Planting. 
 
 English planters approve the months of Octo- 
 ber and March. The most usual time of pro- 
 curing the cuttings is in March, when the hops 
 are cut and dressed. As to the manner of plant- 
 ing the sets, there should be five good sets planted 
 in every hill, one in the middle, and the rest 
 round about, sloping. Let them be pressed close 
 with the hand and covered with fine earth j a 
 stick should be placed on each side of the hill to 
 secure it. 
 
 To form a New Plantation. 
 
 The best method is to have cuttings from ap- 
 
AQKICULTURE. 
 
 proved stock, planted out the year before they are 
 wanted, in the hop-ground ; as the use of plants in- 
 stead of cuttings not only gains a year, but the for- 
 mer arc more certain to flourish. A small piece of 
 moist land is sufficient to raise plants for many acres, 
 and at little expense. If the ground be in grass, 
 pare and dig in the pods ; work the land with a 
 spade, and set it out into ridges of three and a 
 half yards wide, and two yards between each ; 
 having a strip of grass (called a pillar) next every 
 ridge, and an open drain between every two pil- 
 lars, the depth of which must vary according to 
 the soil, some being less than one foot, and others 
 nearly four feet in depth. Three rows of plants, 
 or, as they are termed, hills, are made upon each 
 ridge, which should intersect each other; they 
 are generally two yards distant in the rows, so 
 that about 1300 is the usual number of hills in a 
 statute acre. Small sticks are proper to tie the 
 binds up to the first year, then small poles for a 
 year or two; the size of which should be gradu- 
 ally increased. Some set two poles to every hill, 
 which is proper for ground producing luxuriant 
 binds ; but on clay land three poles are set in a 
 triangular form to the hills on the two outside 
 rows of each ridge, and only two in the middle 
 row. Many additional poles, longer than the 
 rest, called catch- poles, are also set to take the 
 binds as they run beyond the lesser poles. 
 Where the bind is weak, three heads are com- 
 monly trained up each pole ; though two are bet- 
 ter, if strong. If the ground intended for a new 
 plantation is not clean from couch-grass, a com- 
 plete fallow is essential, whether it be grass or 
 stubble ; and a crop of turnips may be taken to 
 advantage, if the land is proper for their growth, 
 and can be made clean, as hops are planted in 
 March, 
 
 To take up Hop-Ground. 
 
 The following are termed the annual orders : 
 Digging the ground completely over; hoeing the 
 earth from the hills, and cutting off the stock a 
 little above the root, which are called pickling and 
 cutting; poling, which is carrying the poles from 
 the stacks, and setting them down to the hills 
 with a round implement, shod with iron, and called 
 a poy, having a crutch at the top, and a peg 
 through the middle to tread upon ; tying^the binds 
 round the poles with rushes, and pulling up the 
 superfluous binds; hoeing the ground all over 
 with a hoe of large dimensions ; wheeling and 
 laying manure upon every hill ; covering the ma- 
 nure with the soil, which is done by scraping the 
 ground over with a hoe, and is called hilling; and 
 stacking, which is carrying and setting up the 
 poles into heaps or stacks, after the crop has been 
 taken. 
 
 Extra-works. 
 As the preceding are termed the ordinary* so 
 the following are called the extra-works, as not 
 being included in the yearly bargain with the men 
 by the generality of planters, and some of them 
 are done only by the very best managers. Or 
 clayey ground, either the earth ought to be bared 
 off the hills,' and a covering of good manure ap 
 pliod to them previous to digging, which will re- 
 quire from twelve to fifteen tons per acre ; or from 
 twenty to twenty -five tons of manure, or a greater 
 quantity of fresh earth (when the ground wants 
 condition) should be wheeled and spread all over 
 the ridges. It is not improper, in some cases, to 
 pursue these methods alternately; but on b^ggj 
 and very rich ground the earth only can be ap- 
 plied with advantage. The drains should be 
 scoured out yearly on very wet ground ; and wha 
 Is thrown out is always intermixed with the soi 
 
 n digging; on drier soils this is done every second 
 3r third year, and on very dry land it is scarcely 
 necessary to do it at all. Recruiting the stock by 
 )1 an ting, where any hills have failed, is done at 
 ittle cost in well-managed plantations, as there 
 are seldom many at once in those. If there is any 
 couch-grass, it should be dug out with three- 
 >ronged forks in March, and carried off the 
 ground. The renewal of poles requires from one 
 o two hundred per acre every year. If, when the 
 )inds first appear, they are beaten by slugs, a 
 landful of malt culm or saw-dust is sometimes 
 aid round each hill, which they cannot travel 
 over; and should flies or ants attack them, soot 
 s the best preventive. The carrying in and set- 
 ting catch-poles varies much as to number, as 
 some set fewer than one hundred, and others five 
 or six hundred per acre. Moving the drains and 
 illars is generally done once, but twice moving is 
 setter (whether the grass be made into fodder.^ or 
 suffered to fall into the drains for manure), as 
 :,hen no seeds scatter on the ground. Extra-hoe 
 once before the hilling, and once after. After 
 high winds many poles are broken down, which 
 should be set up again soon 
 
 J^anure proper for Hop- Culture. 
 
 As to the manure most proper for the hop-cul- 
 ture, good stable dung is much used, and is pre- 
 ferred to the manure made by beasts at pasture, 
 as the latter encourages ants on strong ground. 
 Woollen rags are the best for forcing a luxuriant 
 bind, and if used with judgment, are excellent 
 for clayey ground; but they are apt to make the 
 hops small, if too many are used. Malt culm 
 and dove manure are excellent, and one complete 
 dressing with lime is very serviceable for strong 
 ground. 
 
 To pick Hops. 
 
 When the crop is ripe, a proper number of 
 pickers is procured, for whom are provided light 
 wooden frames, called binges; they are clothed 
 with hop-bagging, into which the hops are picked 
 off the poles by women and children, having them 
 brought by men, who take them up by cutting the 
 binds about a foot above the ground, and drawing 
 up the poles by an instrument called a dragon. 
 Each binge has from four to six pickers, and a 
 man attends to one or two binges, according to 
 the crop ; he strips the binds from the poles as 
 they are picked, and lays them in heaps ready for 
 stocking; he also carries the hops to the kilns, if 
 near; or to a cart, as they nre measured from the 
 binge. The number of binges employed vary 
 with the crop and kiln-room; about one to an 
 acre is usual. The hops are taken out of th 
 binge with a basket which holds six pecks. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 The most convenient way of picking them is 
 into a long square frame of wood, with a cloth 
 hanging on tenter-hooks within it, to receive th 
 hops as they are picked. 
 
 They must be picked very clean, free from 
 leaves and stalks; and as there shall be occasion, 
 two or three times in a day, the frame must be 
 emptied into a hop-bag made of coarse linen 
 cloth, and carried immediately to the oast or kiln, 
 in order to be dried : for if they should be too 
 long in the bag they will be apt to heat and be 
 discolored. If the weather be hot, there should 
 no more poles be drawn than can be picked in an 
 hour, and they should be gathered in fair weather, 
 if it can be, and when the hops are dry; this will 
 save some expense in firing, and preserve their 
 color better when they are dried. 
 
HOPS, MADDER. 
 
 45 
 
 To dry Hops. 
 
 The best method of drying hops is with char- 
 coal on an oast or kiln, covered with hair-cloth of 
 the same form and fashion that is used for drying 
 malt. The kiln ought to be square, and may be 
 ten, twelve, fourteen, or sixteen feet across at the 
 toji, where the hops are laid, as the plantation re- 
 quires and the room will allow. There ou^ht to 
 be a due proportion between the height nd breadth 
 of the kiln, and the steddle where the fire is kept, 
 via., if the kiln be twelve feet square on the top, 
 it ought to be nine feet high from the fire, and 
 the steddle ought to be six feet and a half square, 
 and so proportionable in other dimensions. 
 The hops must be spread even upon the oast, a 
 foot thick or more, if the depth of the curb will 
 allow it; but care is to be taken not to overload 
 the oast if the hops are green or wet. The oast 
 ought to be first warmed with a fire before the hops 
 are laid on, and then an even steady fire must be 
 kept under them, it must not be too fierce at first 
 lest it scorch them, nor must it be suffered to sink 
 or slacken, but rather be increased, till the hops 
 are nearly dried, lest the moisture or sweat which 
 the fire has raised, fall back or discolor them. 
 
 When they have lain about nine hours they must 
 be turned, and in two or three hours more they 
 may be taken off. It may be known When they 
 are well dried, by the brittleness of the stalks and 
 the easy falling off of the hop-leaves. 
 
 TQ bag Hops. 
 
 As soon as the hops are taken off the kiln, lay 
 them in a room for three weeks or a month to cool, 
 give, and toughen ; for if they are bagged immedi- 
 ately they will powder, but if they lie awhile (and 
 the longer they lie the better, provided they are 
 covered close with blankets to secure them from 
 the air), they may be bagged with more safety, 
 as not being liable to be broken to powder in 
 treading ; and this will make them bear treading 
 the better, and the harder they are trodden the 
 better they will keep. 
 
 To dress Hops. 
 
 When the ground is dug in January or February, 
 the earth about the hills and very near them, 
 should be taken away with the spade. About the 
 end of February, if the hops were planted the 
 spring before, or if the ground be weak, they 
 ought to be dressed in dry weather; but if the 
 ground be strong and in perfection, the middle of 
 March will be a good time; and if it is aptto pro- 
 duce over-rank binds, the beginning of April may 
 be soon enough. Then having with an iron picker 
 cleared away all the earth out of the hill, so as to 
 clean the stock to the principal roots, with a sharp 
 knife cut off all the shoots which grew with the 
 binds the last year; and also all the young suck- 
 ers, that none may be left to run in the alley and 
 weaken the hill. It will be proper to cut one part 
 of the stock lower than the other, and also to cut 
 that part low that was left highest the preceding 
 year. In dressing those hops that have been 
 planted the year before, cut off both the dead tops 
 and the young suckers which have sprung up 
 from the sets, and also cover the stocks with fine 
 earth, a finger's length in thickness. 
 
 To pole Hops. 
 
 About the middle of April the hops are to be 
 poled ; when the shoots begin to sprout up, the 
 poles must be set to the hills deep in the ground, 
 with a square iron picker or crow, that they may 
 the better endure the wind; three poles are suffi- 
 cient for one hill. These should be placed as near 
 the hill as possible, with their bending tops turned 
 
 outwards from the hill, to prevent the binds from 
 entangling; and a space between two poles ought 
 to be left open to the south, to admit the sun- 
 beams. 
 
 To tie Hops. 
 
 The buds that do not clasp of themselves to the 
 nearest pole when they are grown to three or four 
 feet high, must be guided to it by the hand, turn- 
 ing them to the sun, whose course they will always 
 follow. They must be bound with withered rushes, 
 but not so close as to hinder them from climbing 
 up the pole. This continue to do till all the poles 
 are furnished with binds, of which two or three 
 are enough for a pole ; and all the sprouts and 
 binds that there are no occasion for, are to be 
 plucked up ; but if the ground is young, then none 
 of these useless binds should be plucked up, but 
 should be wrapped up together in the middle of 
 the hill. 
 
 To gather Hops. 
 
 About the beginning of July hops begin to blow, 
 and will be ready for gathering the last of Au- 
 gust. A judgment may be made of their ripe- 
 ness by their strong scent, their hardness, and 
 the brownish color < f their seed. When by these 
 tokens they appear to be ripe they must be picked 
 with all the expedition possible, for if at this time 
 a storm of wind should come, it would do them 
 great damage, by breaking the branches and bruis- 
 ing and discoloring the hops; and it is very well 
 known that hops, being picked green and bright, 
 will sell for a third more than those which are 
 discolored. 
 
 To cultivate the Madder Plant. 
 
 The ground is ploughed deep in autumn, and 
 again in March, and then laid up in ridges eighteen 
 inches asunder, and about a foot high. About 
 the beginning of April the ground is opened where 
 the old roots are planted, and the side shoots taken 
 off, which are transplanted immediately upon the 
 new ridges, at about a foot distance, where they re- 
 main two seasons ; at Michaelmas, when the tops 
 of the plants are decayed, the roots are taken up. 
 This method of planting in ridges is only neces- 
 sary in wet land. If all the horizontal roots are 
 destroyed from time to time, it will cause the large 
 downright roots to be much bigger, in which the 
 goodness of this plant chiefly consists. After the 
 roots, the only parts of the madder used by 
 dyers, are taken up, they are kiln-dried, and then 
 reduced to powder by a mill. Previously to the 
 grinding they are carefully assorted. 
 
 The fine quality of madder is distinguished by 
 its being of a bright, lively, light color, well 
 ground, without any coarse parts proceeding from 
 the peelings. Fresh is always more valuable than 
 old madder. It should be kept close to prevent 
 the access of air, as its virtue evaporates when 
 exposed. 
 
 Madder is principally cultivated in Holland, 
 Germany, and France, especially the former place, 
 where it grows in greater abundance than in any 
 other part of the world. The turkey madder root 
 s principally cultivated about Smyrna. This plant 
 may be propagated either by offsets or seeds. On 
 a light thin soil the culture cannot be carried on to 
 any profit; that soil in which the plant delights is 
 a rich sandy loam, three feet or more in depth. 
 
 The ground being first made smooth, is divided 
 nto beds four feet wide, with alternate alleys half 
 as broad again as the beds. In each alley is a sh al- 
 ow channel for irrigating the whole field, etc., that 
 ;hat part of the alley that is not otherwise engaged 
 may be sown with legumes. The madder seed is 
 sown broadcast in the proportion of from twenty- 
 
AGRICULTURE. 
 
 five to thirty pounds per acre about the end of 
 April. In a fortnight or three weeks the young 
 plants begin to appear, and from this time to the 
 month of September care must be tsiken to keep 
 the ground well watered and free from weeds. If 
 the plants are examined in autumn they will be 
 found to be surrounded with small yellow offsets 
 at the depth of two inches, and early in Septem- 
 ber the earth from the alleys is to be dug out and 
 laid over the plants of madder to the height of 
 two or three feet. With this the first year's ope- 
 ralion finishes. 
 
 The second year's work begins in May with 
 giving the beds a thorough weeding; and care 
 must be taken to supply them with plenty of water 
 during summer. In September the first crop of 
 seed will be ripe, at which time the stems of the 
 plants may be mown down, and the roots covered 
 a few inches with earth taken as before out of the 
 alleys. 
 
 The weeding should take place as early as pos- 
 sible in the spring of the third year; and the 
 crop, instead of being left for seeds, may be cut 
 three times during summer for green fodder, all 
 kinds of cattle being remarkably fond of it. In 
 October the roots are taken up, the offsets are 
 carefully separated, and immediately used to form 
 a new plantation ; and the roots, after being dried, 
 are sold either without further preparation or 
 ground to a coarse powder and sprinkled with an 
 alkaline lye. The roots lose four-fifths of their 
 weight in drying, and the produce of an acre is 
 about 2000 pounds of dry salable madder. 
 
 Use of Madder. 
 
 The principal use of madder is in dyeing. It 
 gives out its color both to water and rectified 
 spirits ; the watery tincture is of a dark dull red, 
 the spirituous of a deep bright one. It imparts 
 to woollen cloth, prepared with alum and tartar, 
 a very durable, though not a very beautiful red 
 dye. As it is the cheapest of all red drugs that 
 give a durable color, it is the principal one com- 
 monly made use of for ordinary stuffs. Some- 
 times its dye is heightened by the addition of 
 Brazil-wood, and sometimes it is employed in 
 conjunction with the dearer reds, as cochineal, for 
 demi-scarlets and demi-crimsons. Madder-root 
 is sometimes employed in medicine as an emme- 
 nagogue. When the madder is given to animals 
 with their food it produces a curious phenomenon, 
 namely, tinging their bones with red. The bones 
 of young pigeons will be thus tinged of a rose- 
 color in twenty-four hours, and of a deep scarlet 
 in three days; but the bones of adult animals 
 will be a fortnight in acquiring a rose-color. 
 
 Best Method of Hay-making. 
 Instead of allowing the hay to lie, as usual in 
 most places, for some days in the swath after it 
 is cut, never cut hay but when the grass is quite 
 dry, and then make the gatherers follow close 
 upon the cutters ; put it up immediately into small 
 cocks about three feet high each, and of as small 
 a diameter as they can be made to stand with ; 
 always giving each of them a slight kind of 
 thatching, by drawing a few handsful of the hay 
 from the bottom of the cock all round and laying 
 it lightly upon the top, with one of the ends 
 hanging downwards. This is done with the utmost 
 ease and expedition ; and when once in that state 
 the hay is, in a great measure, out of danger ; for 
 unless a violent wind should arise immediately 
 after the cocks are put up, nothing else can hurt 
 the hay ; as no rain, however violent, can pene- 
 trate into these cocks but for a very little way ; 
 and if they are dry put up they never sit together 
 
 so closely as to heat, although they acquire, in a 
 day or two, such a degree of firmness as to be in 
 no danger of being overturned by wind after that 
 time, unless it blows a hurricane. 
 
 In these cocks allow the hay to remain until, 
 upon inspection, the farmer judges it will keep in 
 pretty large tramp-cocks (which is usually in a 
 week or two, according as the weather is more or 
 less favorable), when two men, each with a long- 
 pronged pitchfork, lift up one of these small cocks 
 between them with the greatest ease, and carry 
 them one after another to the place where the 
 tramp cock is to be built; and in this manner 
 proceed over the field till the whole is finished. 
 
 Mode of Hay-making in England. 
 The clover is cut, and after it has lain four or 
 five days in the swath, till it is sufficiently dry, 
 the hay-maker, with a rake, rolls up a sufficient 
 quantity to form a ripple, which is set up in the 
 form of a cone. Taking a few of the longest 
 straws he twists them round the top, which forms 
 the point of the cone, keeps the ripple compact, 
 and shoots off the rain. In taking up the clover 
 from the swath and forming the ripple, it is 
 necessary to keep the upper or dry part inwards : 
 by that means it is much sooner dry, and in a fit 
 state for the stack. It is generally necessary for 
 clover to remain five or six days in the ripple 
 before it is put into the stack ; but that depends 
 on the state of the weather. There is no occasion 
 to untie the ripples. The method of rippling is 
 not so expensive as cocking; it is much superior 
 both in wet and dry seasons not so liable to bo 
 injured by the wet much sooner dry, and of 
 course of a better quality and more nourishing 
 for cattle. Each ripple will weigh, when dry, 
 about four or five pounds. They should not be 
 made too large. Except where meadow grass is 
 very long it would not be practicable to ripple it. 
 The practice of rippling is simple, attended with 
 little trouble or expense, and whenever t;ied will 
 recommend itself. 
 
 To manage Cut Grass for Hay. 
 Grass, when cut for hay, ought to be quickly 
 raked, in order that its powers may neither be 
 exhausted by the sun nor dissipated by the air. 
 In the first stage small cocks are preferable, and 
 on after days these may be gathered into large 
 ones or hand-ricks, by which method the hay is 
 equally made and properly sweetened. After 
 standing eight or ten days in these ricks, accord- 
 ing to the nature of the weather, hay may be 
 carted home and built in stacks of sufficient size 
 for standing through the winter months. 
 
 Buckwheat. 
 
 This thrives among mountains better than on 
 lowlands. Sow in July. It grows ripe with frost j 
 the seeds grow black after a frost. 
 
 Importance of Straw in Husbandry. 
 
 This is a subject that has not always been so 
 much attended to as its importance deserves. 
 
 Though many useful observations on straw are 
 occasionally introduced in agricultural writings, 
 and though its value, as the basis of future crops, 
 is fully admitted by every intelligent farmer, yet 
 the subject has seldom been professedly treated 
 of at any length : we shall endeavor, therefore, to 
 compress the most important particulars con- 
 nected with it under the following heads : 
 
 1. The weight of straw produced on an average 
 of the different crops of grain and pulse per 
 statute acre. 
 
 2. The value of the different kinds of straw, and 
 
STRAW. 
 
 3. The various uses to which each kind of straw 
 It applicable. 
 
 Weight of Straw produced by the different Crops. 
 
 The quantity of straw per acre differs according 
 to a variety of circumstances j as, 1. The speciel 
 of grain, whether wheat, barley, oats, etc. 2 
 The different kinds of the same grain. 3. The 
 season, for in dry seasons the quantity is less 
 than in moist 4. The soil, for in fertile soils 
 the straw is more abundant than in poor ones. 
 6. The season when the seed is sown, for spring, 
 gown wheat has less straw than the winter-sown 
 And, 6. The manner in which the straw is cut, 
 for an inch or two at the root- end of the straw 
 makes a great addition to the dunghill. 
 
 From a statement by Mr. Young it would ap- 
 pear that the average produce in straw of all the 
 different crops, stubble included, may be calculated 
 at 1 ton, 7 cwt. per acre, but that is rejecting the 
 weaker soils. 
 
 It is calculated by Mr. Brown, of Markle, tha 
 yn an average of years, the produce of straw in 
 good land and under tolerable management, wil 
 be nearly in the following proportion per acre : 
 
 Wheat, 2240 
 
 Beans and peas, 1820 
 
 Oats, ...*... 1820 
 
 Barley, 1400 
 
 Total, 
 
 7280 
 
 Or, at an average of these crops, 130 stone per 
 acre, 22 Ibs. avoirdupois per stone j in all 2860 
 Ibs., or 1 ton, 5 cwt., 2 quarters and 4 Ibs. 
 
 It may be safely estimated that on an average 
 of years well cultivated and fertile soils, when 
 the crop is carefully cut down, will annually pro- 
 duce, on the average of the crops above mentioned, 
 1 ton, 5 cwt. per acre. 
 
 Value of the different kinds of Straw. 
 
 The intrinsic value of straw must vary materi- 
 ally, according to its leading properties, the quan- 
 tity of manure into which it may be converted by 
 littering, or its fitness to be employed as thatch, 
 these being the chief uses to which it is applicable ; 
 but in general its price depends on its vicinity to 
 large towns. It is only in situations where foreign 
 manure can be procured easily and at a cheaper 
 rate ihan by converting the straw raised upon the 
 farm into dung that the sale of straw is ever per- 
 mitted. Two loads of wheat-straw per acre are 
 reckoned a tolerable crop. 
 
 As straw is rarely permitted to be sold, being 
 usually employed in maintaining winter stock, the 
 real value of the article to the farmer is but in- 
 considerable, depending upon the quantity and 
 quality of the dung it produces. So little is it 
 thought necessary accurately to ascertain the value 
 of straw, that in several cases it has been given by 
 the outgoing to the incoming tenant as an equiva- 
 lent for the expense of harvesting, threshing and 
 marketing the last crop. It is often thought in- 
 sufficient to cover even that expense, and a fur- 
 ther abatement is allowed on the price of the 
 grain. 
 
 Various purposes to which Straw is applicable. 
 
 The subject of feeding with straw will be better 
 understood by considering the specific properties 
 of the different kinds of straw employed in feed- 
 ing stock, and the rules that ought to be observed 
 when stock are fed with that material. 
 
 Wheat Straw. 
 
 This kind of straw, from its strength, is con- 
 dered to be peculiarly calculated both for litter 
 
 threshing, and indeed wherever the practice ' which would improve both. 
 
 < r 47 
 
 of cutting straw into chaff ftr mixing with grain 
 for horses prevails, wheat %aw/1s preferred. 
 When given to cattle or horses, it IB sometimes cut 
 into chaff, and either given raw In that state, or 
 what is greatly preferred, steamed with other food, 
 in particular with potatoes. 
 
 In order to improve wheat straw as fodder, it is 
 the practice in some parts of England to cut the 
 grain rather green, which preserves more of the 
 natural juices, and consequently makes the fodder 
 better. Some of the best farmers are accustomed 
 to cut wheat much earlier than common in their 
 respective districts. One of these was a miller in 
 Norfolk, who occupied a large farm, where he 
 always cut his wheat several days before any one 
 else thought of beginning, well knowing the good 
 consequences in the value of the grain. It must 
 then be less apt to be injured by shaking or 
 harvesting. 
 
 Oat Straw. 
 
 Among the culmiferous grains, the straw of the 
 oat is considered to be the best fodder, when given 
 uncut. It is well known, indeed, that oat straw, 
 during the winter season, is almost universally 
 given instead of hay, in all the best cultivated 
 counties of Scotland during the winter monthY, 
 though that of peas and beans is certainly pre- 
 ferred where both are grown. 
 
 In some districts farmers cut oats in the straw 
 into a species of fodder, which is called "cut 
 meat." This is given not only to horses, but to 
 cattle, especially fattening cattle. It is thought 
 to give not only fatness but a fineness of skin to 
 all sorts of stock. 
 
 Bean Straw. 
 
 If well harvested this straw forms a very hearty 
 and nutritious kind of food for cattle in the win- 
 ter season. Both oxen and horses, when duly 
 supplied with oats in proportion to the work they 
 have to execute, thrive well on it, and the reduced 
 parts, or what is termed in England the coving- 
 chaff, is found valuable as a manger food for the 
 laboring teams; when blended with other sub- 
 stances it is probable that, in particular cases, the 
 stems might be cut into chaff with advantage, but 
 when made use of in these methods it should be 
 used as fresh as possible after being threshed. A 
 mixture of bean straw (which by itself is rather 
 dry), and of peas-haum, which is sweet and nour- 
 ishing, makes excellent fodder. 
 
 But though this straw, more especially when 
 mixed with peas-haum, is of great value as fodder 
 to the working stock of the farm, it does not suit 
 well with riding-horses, as it is apt to hurt their 
 wind. In some horses both bean-straw and peas- 
 are apt to occasion colic pains, or the dis- 
 ease which is called botts, probably occasioned by 
 flatulency. For this disease, about half an ounce 
 or a tablespoonful of laudanum is found to be a 
 good remedy. 
 
 Pea Straw. 
 
 In Scotland the haum of peas is used as fodder 
 "or working-horses instead of hay, and when well 
 larvested forms a very excellent provender, inso- 
 much that it is considered to be of almost equal 
 value to the grain itself. 
 
 Tare-straw or ffay. 
 
 This is an article strongly recommended by some 
 armers ; for when the land has been dunged and 
 he seed good, the produce is considerable. The 
 crop should be cut as soon as the blossoms begin 
 ;o fall off or the pod to form, and the whole, con- 
 verted into hay-tares, require a great deal of sun 
 o cure, and rain is very injurious to them. It 
 would be a good plan to mix them with dry straw, 
 
AGRICULTUKE. 
 
 Itules regarding the consumption of Straw in feed- 
 ing Cattle. 
 
 Straw is much used in the feeding of cattle in 
 Scotland, and there can be no doubt that oxen 
 will feed well on straw and turnips, if the straw 
 be good. It is recommended in all cases that for 
 a month or six weeks after a bullock is put to tur- 
 nips, straw only should be given with them. But 
 in the more advanced stages of fattening, hay is 
 go much superior, that it should if possible be 
 supplied. It is certain, at the same time, that hay 
 is a very expensive food for stock, and ought to 
 be saved as much as possible where it can pru- 
 dently be done. It is well known that a full 
 allowance of turnips and straw, during the winter 
 months, will fatten better than a small allowance 
 of hay in place of the straw. In the spring, hay, 
 which retains its nutritive juices longer than 
 straw, is much more valuable, both for fattening 
 stock and feeding horses, and it is therefore the 
 practice to reserve hay for about three months' 
 consumption of these kinds of stock, and for no 
 others. 
 
 Rules for Feeding Horses with Straw. 
 
 In regard to horses, hay may very often be 
 more or less scarce or dear ; but with straw and 
 the oats, which must always be given them whe- 
 ther they get straw or hay, they not only plough 
 three-fourths of an acre per day, or work from 
 seven to eight hours at other labor, but are actu- 
 ally full of flesh and vigor when sowing com- 
 mences. They must, however, have hay instead 
 of straw, when the severe labor of spring takes 
 place. 
 
 When, therefore, farmers' horses are so much 
 reduced in condition as to be unable to go through 
 the severe labor of spring, it is owing to their not 
 having got a sufficient quantity of oats or corn. 
 Pea. and bean-straw certainly make the best fodder, 
 when not injured by rain ; but if that kind of straw 
 ,is damaged in harvest, white straw is to be pre- 
 ferred. 
 
 Rules for Feeding Sheep with Straw. 
 'There is no food of which sheep are fonder than 
 pea-straw. The soil of pastoral districts being 
 rarely of a kind calculated for peas, any extensive 
 cultivation of that grain is impracticable; but 
 where circumstances are favorable to that crop, 
 peas ought to be cultivated, were it merely for 
 the straw, as it would enable the store-farmers to 
 carry on their system of sheep-farming with 
 much more advantage. Indeed, the same plan 
 might be advisable in other districts. It might 
 be proper to add, that for ewes at yeaning time, 
 lentil-hay is better than tare-hay or even pea- 
 hautu. 
 
 Miscellaneous Rules and Observations regarding 
 the Consumption of Straw. 
 
 On turnip farms it is the usual practice to feed 
 horses till March, where the labor is not severe, 
 and cows through the winter, with oat-straw, 
 whilst the fattening and straw-yard cattle get 
 the straw of wheat and barley. If any peas 
 or beans be cultivated on the farm, that straw 
 being given to the horses, a part of the oat-straw 
 may be left for the fattening and straw-yard cat- 
 tle. Upon turnip farms, it is not thought profit- 
 able to cut the greater part of the clovers for hay. 
 These are usually eaten by sheep, and no more 
 hay paved than what may serve the horses, cows, 
 and fattening stock for eight or ten weeks, imme- 
 diately before grass, with a small quantity occa- 
 sionally given to the.sheep fed on turnips. 
 
 The expense of feeding even the horses alone, 
 for eight months, on hay, would be more than a 
 
 farmer can well afford; at the same time it is a 
 rule with the best farmers to give hay to their 
 horses in the early part of winter; then peas or 
 bean-straw till seed-time commences in the spring; 
 and afterwards hay. 
 
 Straw keeps much better unthreshed, in a large 
 stack, than in a barn. Straw in general, more es- 
 pecially white straw, is found to lose its value a? 
 fodder, in whatever way it may be kept, after 
 the sharp dry breezes of the spring months have 
 set in. 
 
 It is a general rule that straw, when intended 
 to be used as food for stock, should be given as 
 speedily as possible after it is threshed. The 
 threshing separates and exposes it so much, that 
 if kept long it is, comparatively speaking, of little 
 value as fodder. Lisle, an intelligent writer on 
 agriculture, and a practical farmer, states, that he 
 found cows did not eat straw so well on a Monday 
 morning as they did the rest of the week, because 
 the straw was not fresh from the flail. Straw, 
 therefore, should be constantly made use of, as 
 soon after it is threshed as possible: for by keep- 
 ing it becomes either musty or too dry, and cattle 
 do not eat it, or thrive on it so well. It cannot 
 be doubted that air has a very injurious effect 
 upon all kinds of fodder, and the more it can be 
 kept from the influence of the sun and the atmo- 
 sphere, the better. It is seldom given as fodder, 
 unless to straw-yard cattle, after the month of 
 March. 
 
 When clover is sown with grain crops, the clo- 
 ver has often arrived at such a length as to mix 
 with the straw in cutting the crop. This certainly 
 improves the straw in good harvests ; but as little 
 clover as possible should be cut with the straw, as 
 it makes it very difficult to secure the crop, unless 
 it be left upon the ground for several days. 
 
 Straw as applicable to Litter. 
 
 Straw, when mixed with the dung and the urine 
 of cattle, horses, etc. etc., is a rich and excellent 
 manure; but even alone, when ploughed in, or de- 
 composed by pure simple water, it is of use. All 
 the various sorts of straw answer the purposes of 
 litter. Some farmers contend that rye-straw is 
 the best litter; others prefer the straw of wheat, 
 which absorbs, it is said, so much urine and moist- 
 ure, that a cart of wheat-straw is supposed equal 
 in' value to three carts of well-made dung. In 
 England the straw of peas and beans is extremely 
 valuable, forming, it is said, when well broken by 
 threshing, a desirable litter for working-horses, 
 hogs, and other stock; but in Scotland it is never 
 used as litter, unless it has been spoilt by bad 
 management or a most unseasonable season in 
 harvest, as its feeding properties there are so well 
 known. Littering is of use, not only for convert- 
 ing straw into manure, but for keeping the ani- 
 mals warm and dry. In fact cattle cannot be 
 soiled on clover, or fed on turnips, without abua- 
 dance of litter. 
 
 There are four modes of converting straw into 
 dung by littering stock: 1. In stalls or stables; 
 2. In hammels; 3. In fold-yards; and 4. In open 
 folds, where sheep are littered with straw. . 
 
 The quantity of dung produced from a given 
 quantity of straw depends a good deal upon the 
 kind of straw that is used (as some kinds absorb 
 much more moisture than others), and upon the 
 degree of care employed in preparing the dung. 
 Speaking generally, the original weight of straw 
 may be tripled, if the manufacturing process be 
 properly conducted, and the dung applied to the 
 ground before its powers are lessened or ex- 
 hausted. The quantity of dung which may be 
 made from an acre, especially if the dung arising 
 
DRAINAGE. 
 
 49 
 
 from clover, turnips, and hay, consumed on a 
 farm, is included in the general stock, will be 
 / something more than four tons; consequently, 
 any farm of decent soil may be manured at the 
 rate of twelve tons per acre, every third year, from 
 its own produce, provided the corn crops are cut 
 with accuracy and the straw manufactured into 
 dung in a husbandman-like manner. 
 
 Straw as applicable to Thatching. 
 
 For many ages straw was the common material 
 for roofing farm-buildings and cottages, and was 
 formerly made use of even in towns. The expense 
 of a thatched roof is not great, in so far as respects 
 labor; and the value of the straw is, to the grower, 
 either the price he could obtain for it, or that of 
 the dung that could be made from it, as the kind 
 used for thatch is seldom used as fodder. Where 
 economy must be attended to in the building of 
 cottages, straw is taken as the least costly mate- 
 rial; but in these days, when manure is so ex- 
 tremely valuable, as little straw as possible should 
 be spared for other purposes. 
 
 The durability of a thatched roof is likewise 
 maintained. A good coat of thatch will need very 
 little repair during an ordinary lease. But care 
 must be taken that the straw is very clean 
 threshed. If it is not, the grain left will soon 
 spring, and introduce putrefaction and encourage 
 vermin. The threshing-mill renders straw less fit 
 for thatch than when it is threshed by the flail. 
 
 In Great Britain, wheat is seldom threshed with 
 the straw, but the ears are cut off, and the straw, 
 bound in sheaves, and tied very light, is used for 
 thatching. 
 
 Miscellaneous Uses of Straw. 
 
 It is well known that various articles are manu- 
 factured from straw, such as bonnets, and other 
 ornaments for the ladies. Even in remote coun- 
 ties in England, the straw manufacture is car- 
 ried on. The straw is prepared in London, and 
 the plait is returned to that market. Straw-plait- 
 ing is the principal manufacture in Bedfordshire. 
 The quantity thus used is very considerable, and 
 it furnishes employment for numbers of persons 
 who might otherwise with difficulty find the means 
 of subsistence. 
 
 In some districts straw mixed with clay is used 
 for building the walls of houses or gardens, and 
 with the same mixture for the roofs of houses, 
 instead of the common mode of thatching. 
 
 In districts on the sea-shore, it is common for 
 experienced farmers to keep in reserve a consid- 
 erable proportion of their vneat or barley straw, 
 and to make it into a dunghill, alternately with 
 the sea-ware, stratum upon stratum, till both are 
 exhausted. This is an excellent plan where the 
 ea-weed cannot be immediately applied, but it is 
 the best system to plough it in, when obtained. 
 
 In some places great quantities of bean-haum, 
 as well as common straw, are bought up at potash 
 manufactories, and burnt for the ashes. 
 
 Straw is alsj used for stuffing beds. For this 
 purpose the chaff of oats is found to be a material 
 not much inferior to ordinary feathers ; and being 
 o much cheaper, chaff beds are almost univer- 
 sally used by the lower orders in Scotland. 
 
 Another purpose to which straw is applied, is 
 that of packing ; and it is proper to observe that 
 the quantity used in packing china and stone- 
 ware, in the districts where these manufactories 
 Srevail, is found to be a serious injury to the 
 irmer. 
 
 Rev. James Hall has ascertained that every 
 bean-stalk, according to its size, contains from 
 twenty to thirty-five filaments, which are of a 
 
 nature among the strongest and most durable 
 hitherto discovered. He calculates that on an 
 average there are about 200 Ibs. weight of such 
 filaments on an acre, capable of being applied t 
 various useful purposes, where durability and 
 strength, rather than fineness and delicacy, are re- 
 quired. A tolerable paper is now made of straw. 
 
 To tinder-drain Clay Lands. 
 
 This operation is always best performed in 
 spring or summer, when the ground is dry. 
 Main drains ought to be made in every part of the 
 field where a cross-cut or open drain was formerly 
 wanted ; they ought to be cut four feet deep, upon 
 an average. This completely secures them from 
 the possibility of being damaged by the treading 
 of horses or cattle, and being so far below the 
 small drains, clears the water finely out of them. 
 In every situation, pipe turfs for the main drains, 
 if they can be had, are preferable. If good stiff" 
 clay, a single row of pipe-turf; if sandy, a double 
 row. When pipe-turf cannot be got conveniently, 
 a good wedge drain may answer well, when the 
 subsoil is a strong, stiff clay; but if the subsoil 
 be only moderately so, a thorn drain, with couples 
 below, will do still better ; and if the subsoil is 
 very sandy, except pipes can be had, it is in vain 
 to attempt under-draining the field by any other 
 method. It may be necessary to mention here 
 that the size of the main drains ought to be regu- 
 lated according to the length and declivity of the 
 run, and the quantity of water to be carried off by 
 them. It is always safe, however, to have the 
 main drains large, and plenty of them; for economy 
 here seldom turns out well. 
 
 Having finished the main drains, proceed next 
 to make a small drain in every furrow of the field, 
 if the ridges formerly have not been less than fif- 
 teen feet wide. But if that should be the case, first 
 level the ridges, and make the drains in the best 
 direction, and at such a distance from each other 
 as may be thought necessary. If the water rises 
 well in the bottom of the drains, they ought to be 
 cut three feet deep ; and in this case would dry 
 the field sufficiently well, although they were from 
 twenty-five to thirty feet asunder ; but if the water 
 does not draw well to the bottom of the drains, 
 two feet will be a sufficient deepness for the pipe- 
 drain, and two and a half feet for the wedge-drain. 
 In no case ought they to be shallower where th 
 field has been previously levelled. In this in- 
 stance, however, as the surface water is carried off 
 chiefly by the water sinking immediately into th 
 top of the drains, it will be necessary to have the 
 drains much nearer each other say from fifteen 
 to twenty feet. If the ridges are more than fif- 
 teen feet wide, however broad and irregular 
 they may be, follow invariably the line of the 
 old furrows, as the best direction for the drains ; 
 and, where they are high-gathered, ridges, from 
 twenty to twenty-four inches will be a sufficient 
 depth for the pipe-drain, and from twenty-four to 
 thirty inches for the wedge-drain. Particular 
 care should be taken in connecting the small and 
 main drains together, so that the water may har 
 a gentle declivity, with free access into the main 
 drains. 
 
 When the drains are finished, the ridges are 
 cleaved down upon the drains by the plough; and 
 where they had been very high formerly, a second 
 clearing may be given ; out it is better not to lvel 
 the ridges too much, for by allowing them to re- 
 tain a little of their former shape, the ground 
 being lowest immediately where the drains are, 
 the surface water collects upon the top of the 
 drains; and, by shrinking into them, gets freely 
 away. After the field is thus finished, run the 
 
50 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 new ridges across the small drains, making them 
 about nine or ten feet broad, and continue after- 
 wards to plough the field in the same manner as 
 dry land. 
 
 It is evident from the above method of drain- 
 ing that the expense will vary very much, accord- 
 ing to the quantity of main drains necessary for 
 the field, the distance of the small drains from 
 each other, and the distance the turf is to be 
 carried. 
 
 The advantage resulting from under-draining, 
 ia very great; for besides a considerable saving 
 annually of water furrowing, cross cutting, etc., 
 the land can often be ploughed and sown to ad- 
 vantage, both in the spring and in the fall of the 
 year, when otherwise it would be found quite im- 
 practicable ; every species of drilled crops, such as 
 beans, potatoes, turnips, etc., can be cultivated 
 successfully; and every species, both of green and 
 white crops, is less apt to fail in wet and unto- 
 ward seasons. 
 
 To drain Lands. 
 
 Wherever a burst of water appears in any par- 
 ticular spot, the sure and certain way of getting 
 quit of such an evil is to dig hollow drains to 
 such a depth below the surface as is required by 
 the fall or level that can be gained, and by the 
 quantity of water expected to proceed from the 
 burst or spring. Having ascertained the extent 
 of water to be carried off, taken the necessary 
 levels, and cleared a mouth or leading passage 
 for the water, begin the drain at the extremity 
 next to that leader, and go on with the work till 
 the top of the spring is touched, which probably 
 will accomplish the intended object. But if it 
 should not be completely accomplished, run off 
 from the main drain with such a number of 
 branches as may be required to intercept the 
 water, and in this way disappointment will hardly 
 be experienced. Drains, to be substantially use- 
 ful, should seldom be less than three feet in depth, 
 twenty or twenty-four inches thereof to be close 
 packed with stones or wood, according to circum- 
 stances. The former are the best materials, but 
 in many places are not to be got in sufficient 
 quantities ; recourse, .therefore, must often be 
 made to the latter, though not so effectual or 
 durable. 
 
 It is of vast importance to fill up drains as fast 
 as they are dug out ; because, if left open for any 
 length of time, the earth is not only apt to fall in, 
 but the sides get into a broken, irregular state, 
 which cannot afterwards be completely rectified. 
 It also deserves attention, that a proper covering 
 of straw or sod should be put upon the top of the 
 materials, to keep the surface earth from mixing 
 with them ; and where wood is the material used 
 for filling up, a double degree of attention is ne- 
 cessary, otherwise the proposed improvement may 
 be effectually frustrated. 
 
 Pit Draining. 
 
 The pit method of draining is a very effectual 
 one, if executed with judgment. When it is suffi- 
 ciently ascertained where the bed of water is de- 
 posited, which can easily be done by boring with 
 an auger, sink a pit into the place of a size which 
 will allow a man freely to work within its bounds. 
 Dig this pit of such a depth as to reach the bed 
 of the water meant to be carried off; and when 
 this depth is attained, which is easily discerned 
 by the rising of the water, fill up the pit with 
 great land-stones and carry off the water by a 
 stout drain to some adjoining ditch or mouth, 
 whence it may proceed to the nearest river. 
 Mr. Uay ley's directions for Draining Land. 
 
 First make the main drains down the slope or 
 
 fall of the field. When the land is very wet, or 
 has not much fall, there should in general be two 
 of these to a statute acre ; for the shorter the 
 narrow drains are, the less liable they are to acci- 
 dents. The width of the trench for the main 
 drains should be thirty inches at top, but the width 
 at the bottom must be regulated by the nature and 
 sizp of the materials to be used. If the drain is 
 to hfi made of bricks ten inches long, three inchet 
 thick, and four inches in breadth, then the boltotn 
 of the drain must be twelve inches: but if the 
 common sale bricks are used, then the bottom 
 must be proportionably contracted. In both cases 
 there must be an interstice of one inch between 
 the bottom bricks and the sides of the trench, and 
 the vacuity must be filled up with straw, rushes, 
 or loose mould. For the purpose of making these 
 drains the bricks should be moulded ten inches 
 long, four broad and three thick, which dimen- 
 sions always make the best drain. 
 
 To construct Main Drains. 
 
 When the ground is soft and spongy the bottom 
 of the drain is laid with bricks placed across. On 
 these, on each side, two bricks are laid flat, one 
 upon the other, forming a drain six inches high 
 and four broad, which is covered with bricks laid 
 flat. When stones are used instead of bricks, the 
 bottom of the drain should be about eight inches 
 in width; and in all cases the bottom of main 
 drains ought to be sunk four inches below the 
 level of the narrow ones, whose contents they 
 receive, even at the point where the latter fall into 
 them. 
 
 The main drains should be kept open or unco- 
 vered till the narrow ones are begun from them, 
 after which they may be finished; but before the 
 earth is returned upon the stones or bricks, it is 
 advisable to throw in straw, rushes or brushwood, 
 to increase the freedom of the drain. The small 
 narrow drains should be cut at the distance of six- 
 teen or eighteen feet from each other, and should 
 fall into the main drain at very acute angles, to 
 prevent any stoppage. At the point where they 
 fall in, and eight or ten inches above it, they 
 should be made firm with brick or stone. These 
 drains should be eighteen inches wide at the top 
 and sixteen at bottom. 
 
 To Jill Drains. 
 
 The completest method yet known is to cut the 
 strongest willows, or other aquatic brushwood, 
 into lengths of about twenty inches, and place 
 them alternately in the drain, with one end againsk 
 one side of the bottom and the other leaning 
 against the opposite side. Having placed the 
 strong wood in this manner, fill up the space be- 
 tween them, on the upper side, with the small 
 brushwood, upon which a few rushes or straw 
 being laid, as before mentioned, the work is done. 
 Willow, alder, asp or beach boughs, are exceed- 
 ingly durable if put into the drain green, or before 
 the sap is dried ; but if they are suffered to become 
 dry, and then laid under ground, a rapid deqay is 
 the consequence. 
 
 As in some situations it is an object of great 
 importance to save the expense of materials com- 
 monly used in filling drains, a variety of devices 
 have, with that view, been adopted. One of these 
 is of the following nature : A drain is first dug 
 to the necessary depth, narrow at bottom. Into 
 the trench is laid a smooth tree or cylindrical 
 piece of wood, twelve feet long, six inches in dia- 
 meter at the one end and five at the other, having 
 a ring fastened into the thickest end After 
 strewing a little sand upon the upper side of the 
 tree, the clay, or toughest part of the contents of 
 the trench, is first thrown in upon it, and after 
 
THORN" HEDGES. 
 
 51 
 
 that the remainder of the earth is fully trodden 
 down. By means of the ring, the tree is then 
 drawn out to within a foot or two of the smaller 
 or hinder end; and the same operation is re- 
 peated till the whole drain is complete. Such 
 a drain is said to have conducted a small run of 
 water a considerable way under ground for more 
 than twenty years without any sign of failure. 
 
 To water Meadows. 
 
 The water should be set on in the month of Oc- 
 tober, and also as early in that month as possible. 
 The effects of this watering are very important in 
 strengthening the roots and stalks of the plants, 
 and preparing them for shooting up strong and 
 vigorous next spring; and the blades that now 
 rise form a rough coat against winter, protecting 
 the vital powers of the plants from the severity 
 of that season. It sometimes happens, also, that 
 by delaying the watering process too long, early 
 frosts supervene, and very much impede or pre- 
 vent the operation. The floods of autumn are 
 very enriching to meadows; but this benefit is 
 lost sight of to a certain degree when the process 
 of watering is delayed too long. Indeed, the 
 latter pasturage of meadows may generally be 
 consumed early in October; and what may then 
 remain is of no importance compared with the 
 advantages to be derived from early watering. 
 Besides, if the meadow must be watered in sepa,- 
 rate divisions, and at different periods, it must 
 happen, that by delaying the operation till No- 
 vember, some parts of the meadow may receive 
 no water sooner than December or January; and 
 if these months are very severe, it may be wholly 
 impracticable to complete the process at that 
 season. 
 
 If the land is fine and rich, it will generally be 
 found that three weeks may be sufficient for the 
 first turn ; if sour and coarse, four weeks may be 
 necessary. The verdure will then be fine, and the 
 soil rich and yielding. If scum appear on the 
 grass, the water must be instantly removed. 
 
 Should the water not overflow properly, stops 
 must be placed in the small feeders. These are 
 either of stones or stakes, which are firm and dur- 
 able. Sods rise and float away, and boards are 
 seldom firm enough, though at times they may 
 answer well. If the water, after all, does not flow 
 properly over, notches must be cut, in order to 
 make passages for it. 
 
 Separate divisions of meadow occupy the water 
 in succession throughout winter; during which 
 they ought all to receive one turn of the water, as 
 above recommended, if not given in later than 
 autumn. , 
 
 In severe frosts, it is not very safe to remove 
 the water, as it operates so far to protect the 
 grass ; and if exposed wet to frost, it might be 
 greatly injured. If it be necessary to alter the 
 water in such weather, let it be done in the morn- 
 ing of a dry day. 
 
 In spring every division of the meadow requires 
 to be again watered ; and the fine rich verdure 
 that appears, with the soft unctuous tread of the 
 Boil, are indications of advantage being obtained; 
 but the appearance of a white scum warns the 
 floater instantly to remove the water. 
 
 To form Inclosnrcs. 
 
 Inclosures, with some trifling exceptions, are 
 formed in Great Britain by building stone walls, 
 or planting thorn hedges. In this country rail 
 fences are most used, but wire is becoming com- 
 mon. According to the first method, the walls are 
 either of dry stone, or of stone and lime; and in 
 th * last instance lime is either used only in bed- 
 
 ding the outer part of the wail, or applied to the 
 whole of It, as circumstances may render neoos< 
 sary. These walls are either coped witn sod, or 
 have a cope which tapers to the top, closely built 
 with stone and lime, or the coping is executed 
 with large irregular stones, according to the taste 
 and disposition of the persons by whom they are 
 erected. A wall built with stone and lime is un- 
 doubtedly the preferable fence; but the expense 
 far exceeds the value of the interest a tenant gen- 
 erally has in the premises. Such walls ough^ 
 therefore, in every case, to be erected by the pro- 
 prietor, who thus increases the value of his prop- 
 erty, in a direct proportion with the increased value 
 given to the land, by the erection of such fences. 
 To render a stone wall useful as a fence, its 
 height ought never to be less than five feet three 
 inches, otherwise it will not keep in many of the 
 breeds of sheep which prevail in the country. In 
 erecting the fence great care ought to be taken to 
 build upon a solid foundation, otherwise the wall 
 is apt to incline to a side, and gradually to fall 
 down. The coping should be made close, for if 
 the water gets down the inside of the wall, it will 
 bulge out, and finally go to ruin. 
 
 To plant Thorn Hedges. 
 
 When a thorn hedge is to be planted, it is of 
 advantage to fallow the ground a year before- 
 | hand ; and if the soil is poor, to dress it with dung, 
 so that the young plants may not be oppressed 
 with weeds, or stunted for want of food, when weak 
 and unable to send forth their fibres in search of 
 nourishment. These things being attended to, 
 nnd the hedge planted, an annual cleaning ought 
 to be given ; sometimes two cleanings are neces- 
 sary before the hedge will thrive. It is also 
 necessary to fence it at the back with paling, that 
 beasts may be restrained from going over it, and 
 to switch it over when two or three years of age, 
 in order that it may be kept close at the bottom. 
 As the hedge grows up, repeated cuttings are 
 necessary, so that a wide bottom may be gained, 
 without which no hedge can be considered as a 
 suitable fence; and some attention is required to 
 give a proper shape to the top, which is a matter 
 of much importance to the welfare of the hedge. 
 When thorns are allowed to grow to unequal 
 heights, the strong plants are sure to smother the 
 weak ones; and when the hedge becomes broad 
 at the top, it retains water and snow to the great 
 injury of the plant. All these evils may be 
 avoided by proper management: though twelve 
 years must elapse before the best- managed hedge 
 can be considered as a sufficient fence. 
 
 To protect Young Thorn Hedges. 
 
 The expense of protecting young hedges from 
 cattle, by paling and railing, have always ap- 
 peared to be too great, and, at the same time, an 
 unnecessary consumption of wood and nails. It 
 occurred to Mr. Moore, steward to the Marquia 
 of Bute, that a more economical protection might 
 be effected by forming a small earthern dike upon 
 the side of the ditch, opposite the line of thorns, 
 sufficiently high to prevent cattle getting into the 
 ditch. Accordingly, some years ago, he tried the 
 experiment, and found it completely to answer his 
 expectation. 
 
 The materials of this sort of a protection being 
 always on the ground, it is attended with no ex- 
 pense but the workmanship, and the want of the 
 use of the land occupied by this small ditch, for 
 the time required will be much more than com- 
 pensated by the saving of paling, railing, work- 
 manship, and nails. Mr. Moore has also practised 
 with success, in parts where dead thorns, or brush 
 
52 
 
 AGRICULTURE; 
 
 for cocking, are scarce, the placing of stones I 
 across the top of the dike, instead of the usual 
 ocking. These stones, after having served their 
 purpose, will be useful for drains or dikes where 
 improvements are carrying on. 
 
 To form a Plantation. 
 
 When a plantation of timber is to be formed, 
 the first step necessary is to fence the ground that 
 is to be planted, so that cattle of all kinds may be 
 kept from making inroads. The ground to be 
 planted ought to be completely fallowed the pre- 
 ceding year, and, if in a rough or waste state, 
 two years fallowing will be useful. If wet or 
 boggy, open drains are to be dug through all the 
 hollow places, so that superfluous moisture may be 
 removed. These operations being performed, the 
 planting may proceed, in executing which great 
 care should be taken to make the pits of a proper 
 size; and, in filling them up, that the best earth 
 be returned nearest the roots. A mixture of tim- 
 ber, in the same plantation, is always advanta- 
 geous, and thick planting is eligible for the pur- 
 pose of affording shelter. As the plantation gets 
 forward, attention must be paid to thinning and 
 pruning the trees, removing always those first 
 that are either sickly or debilitated ; and, in this 
 way, and by exercising constant attention in the 
 management, timber trees will advance with much 
 more rapidity, than when neglected and over- 
 looked. 
 
 Much expense is often incurred in planting 
 trees, which is afterwards lost by neglecting to 
 train them up. Trees indeed are, in most cases, 
 put intc the earth, and then left to themselves to 
 grow or die; whereas with them, as with all other 
 plants, the fostering hand of man is indispen- 
 sably called for in every stage of growth, other- 
 wise they will rarely arrive at perfection, or make 
 that return to the owner which maybe reasonably 
 expected when the several processes of planting, 
 pruning, and thinning are duly exercised. 
 
 Planting trees in hedge-rows is not only preju- 
 dicial to fences, but of great detriment to grain 
 crops cultivated in fields surrounded by these 
 hedge-rows, especially if the fields are of a small 
 size. If shelter is wanted for a field, the best 
 way of procuring it is to form belts, or strips of 
 planting, from fifty to sixty feet wide; for timber 
 trees thrive much better than when planted in 
 rows, or narrow strips. All cold or moorish soils 
 are greatly benefited by being inclosed in this 
 way ; though it may be remarked that small in- 
 closures ought to be avoided, because they occa- 
 sion a great waste of ground without affording a 
 benefit in other respects proportioned to the heavy 
 expense entailed upon the proprietor or tenant, 
 for supporting such a number of unnecessary 
 fences. 
 
 The best method of raising Oaks. 
 
 The Dutchess of Rutland received the gold 
 medal of the Society for the Encouragement of 
 Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce, for experi- 
 ments in raising oaks. After five several experi- 
 ments, her grace is of opinion that the best 
 method is " to sow the acorns where they are to 
 remain, and, after hoeing the rows two years, to 
 plant potatoes, one row only between each row of 
 oaks, for three years. The benefit to the oaks 
 from planting potatoes is incalculable; for, from 
 the said experiments and from others made at the 
 same time, and with the same seedling oaks, 
 planted with a mixture of larch, spruce, beech, 
 birch, and other forest trees, and also with oaks 
 only in all cases she has found that potatoes 
 between the rows are so superior to all other 
 methods that the oaka will actually grow as much 
 
 the first four years with them as in six without 
 them, "It appears," she observes, "that the 
 great secret in raising plantations of oaks is to 
 get them to advance rapidly the first eight years 
 from seed, or the first five years from planting, 
 so that the beads of the trees are completely united, 
 and become a smothering crop ; after this is ef- 
 fected the trees will appear to strive to outgrow 
 each other, and will advance in height rapidly; 
 they will be clean straight trees, to any given 
 height : experiments have proved the fact, which 
 may be verified by viewing Belvoir." 
 
 Sugar-Cane. 
 
 The best climate for the sugar-cane is that of 
 tropical or sub-tropical regions. Although some- 
 times grown in South Carolina, Tennessee, and 
 Kentucky, it cannot be depended upon as a crop 
 farther north than Louisiana. The principal va- 
 rieties of the plant are the Creole, called also 
 Malabar, the Otaheite, and the Batavian. 
 
 The plants are, in our Southern States, put in 
 between January and March; October is the sea- 
 son for gathering the crop. At that time the slips 
 or cuttings are selected for setting out, as the cane 
 is never grown from seed. On general principles 
 we venture to suggest that final deterioration is 
 probable in any plant which is never renewed from 
 seed. 
 
 For planting, after breaking up the land, fur- 
 rows are run four, six or eight feet apart; in these 
 the slips, each having several joints, are laid, from 
 two to five feet apart, and covered not very deeply. 
 The spaces between the rows are ploughed or hoed 
 well. In Louisiana three crops will successively 
 follow from a single planting; in the West Indies 
 one laying will last from ten to twenty years. 
 The yield of sugar to the acre is from 500 to 5000 
 or more Ibs. to the acre ; never more than 2000 in 
 this country. 
 
 When ripe the canes are cut down close to the 
 ground and stripped of the leaves, which are left 
 to shelter the roots through the winter. This 
 trash is now and then burned or ploughed under. 
 The lowest part of the cane is richest in sugar. 
 All parts of the plant make good fodder. 
 
 As soon as cut the canes should be taken to the 
 mill, before fermentation sets in. There are many 
 kinds of mills in use, from the simplest to the 
 most powerful steam apparatus. In them all the 
 canes are crushed repeatedly, so that the juice 
 runs out below ; but a great deal of sugar yet re- 
 mains in the bagasse. The crude syrup contains 
 various impurities, and should be at once strained 
 through copper or iron wire into the clarifying 
 vessels. Then it is boiled fpr concentration, lime, 
 being added in just sufficient quantity to neutral- 
 ize the free acid, which is known by its no longer 
 reddening litmus paper. The heat used should 
 not be more than is necessary for boiling. In 
 about twenty-four hours crystalization begins. 
 The molasses is then drained out from hogsheads 
 bored at the bottom. This process requires fn.m 
 three to six weeks before it is fit for shipping, 1 ut 
 it continues to deposit or drip molasses for some 
 time afterwards. Refining or whitening the sugar 
 is performed in various ways, the most useful 
 agent for the purpose being animal charcoal >r 
 bone-black. 
 
 Maple Sugar. 
 
 This is obtained by tapping the sugar-maple 
 tree in the spring, while the sap is ascending vig- 
 orously. The trees grow in groves or orchards in 
 New England, New York, Pennsylvania, Michi- . 
 gan, and Canada, as well as farther south. In 
 February and March persons go to the maple 
 groves and bore the trees with augers, two hole* 
 
SUGAR, TOBACCO, COTTON. 
 
 53 
 
 in each tree, near each other, two feet above the 
 ground and only half an inch beyond the bark 
 into the white wood. Tubes of split elder are 
 then introduced, and the sap allowed to flow into 
 troughs prepared for it The sap is poured into 
 kettles and boiled briskly, the scum being removed 
 as it forms. When it becomes a thick syrup it is 
 cooled and filtered through woollen cloth. After 
 a second boiling it is left for granulation in moulds 
 made of birch bark. Maple sugar may be refined 
 BO as to b perfectly white, but is generally eaten 
 in the crude state. A good deal of it is sold in 
 small cakes in the northern cities. 
 
 Beet- Root Sugar. 
 
 In France and Belgium this is quite largely 
 manufactured. The fresh root of the sugar beet 
 contains from five to twelve per cent, of sugar. 
 The juice is obtained by pressure, after a kind of 
 tearing or' grating process has broken up the 
 fibres and cells. The liquor is then boiled with 
 lime, filtered, concentrated by evaporation, and 
 granulated much as cane-sugar. 
 
 Tobacco. 
 
 The tobacco plant will flourish as far north as 
 Southern Ohio and Pennsylvania. Even in Con- 
 necticut large quantities of it are now raised for 
 market. The most suitable soil for it is a light, 
 rich, sandy soil ; the finest qualities grow on newly 
 cleared land. Tobacco consumes the strength of 
 the soil more than most crops. The best fertilizer 
 for it is Peruvian guano. 
 
 Having selected a lot of newly cleared land, in 
 the early part of March lay a large quantity of 
 brush, leaves, etc., over the ground, and burn it 
 thoroughly, then plough and pulverize the earth 
 well, raking in as much ashes as possible. When 
 the bed has been made smooth and firm, sow your 
 seed about the middle of March, and then tramp 
 it in, being careful to tramp the surface equally. 
 
 A few days before the plants are ready for 
 transplanting, the ground should be thrown into 
 ridges with the plough, by throwing two furrows 
 together about two feet apart, and then raking 
 down to from two to three inches above the gen- 
 eral level of the surface. A time of wet weather 
 is the best for transplanting. Set the plants about 
 eighteen inches or two feet apart in the rows. 
 This work is generally done from the middle of 
 May to the middle of June. 
 
 Cultivate the plants as you would a corn crop, 
 being careful to keep the ground well stoned and 
 clean from weeds. The greatest enemy to con- 
 tend with is the tobacco worm, which must be 
 often and well looked for and destroyed. These 
 worms will sometimes devour a large plant in a 
 few hours. Some planters keep large flocks of 
 turkeys, and train them to the tobacco field, in 
 order that they may devour the worms; this 
 answers well, and saves a good deal of manual 
 labor. 
 
 When the plant makes buds for seed, they must 
 be broken off, or it will make small leaves. 
 
 After the plant seems fully grown and assumes 
 a yellowish cast, it is then ripe and fit for housing, 
 which must be done by cutting it off at the ground 
 and piercing with split sticks about four feet 
 long, putting as many plants on each stick as it 
 will hold without pressing them too closely to- 
 gether. If a free circulation of air be prevented 
 the plants will mould. When thus done, hang 
 them up in an airy house, made for the purpose, 
 to dry. It is better to wilt the plants in the sun 
 before housing, if it can be done. 
 
 When housed it requires nothing further until 
 it has become seasoned. Then, in damp weather, 
 
 while the leaves are pliable, strip them off, noting 
 the different qualities as you proceed. Tobacco is 
 generally, at this stage, divided into four qualitie* 
 the ground leaves, the bright red, the dull red, 
 and the tail ends, or top leaves. When there are 
 large quantities to handle, it is best to have a 
 stripper for each quality, the first taking off the 
 ground leaves, then passing the plant to the next 
 to take off the bright red, and so on until the 
 leaves are all taken off. The stripper should hold 
 them in his hand till he has as many as he can 
 well carryj then he takes a leaf and ties around 
 the stock ends of the bunch, and ties them fast. 
 The bunches of leaves are then to be well packed 
 in heaps, and to remain so until they begin t 
 heat. Then they must be shaken out and again 
 hung on the sticks and put up in the house as be- 
 fore. When the bunches are packed in bulk to 
 heat, the pack must be examined every twelve 
 hours, lest it get too hot and spoil. 
 
 After the bunches have undergone the ferment- 
 ing process they are to be tightly packed by hand 
 in hogsheads and powerfully pressed, putting from 
 800 to 1000 pounds in a hogshead. It is then 
 ready for market. 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 The most suitable soil for the cotton plant is a 
 rich loam. It cannot be too rich, and it is a poor 
 crop on poor land. Cotton has been raised with 
 success in Delaware, and even in Pennsylvania, 
 but the finest long-staple cannot be produced so 
 far north. 
 
 The seed are planted in hills, the rows three or 
 three and a half feet asunder, and the plant* 
 about two feet apart in the row. After springing 
 it should be thinned to one plant in a hill. The 
 season for planting is as early in the spring aa 
 the ground can be prepared. The soil should be 
 well cultivated and kept clean from weeds. 
 
 In the fall, when the pods open, it must be 
 gathered every day and stowed away Until there 
 is a sufficiency to run through the cotton gin, 
 which cleans it of seed. It is then packed in 
 bales, when it is ready for market. The yield of 
 cotton per acre is from 500 to 1000 pounds, ac- 
 cording to soil, cultivation, season, etc. 
 
 DIRECTIONS FOR THE REARING OF SILK 
 
 WORMS. 
 
 Procure eggs in February and March, and 
 choose those of a pale slate or clay color; avoid 
 all which are yellow, as they are imperfect. Keep 
 them in a cold, dry place (where water will, how- 
 ever, not freeze,) until the leaf buds of the mul- 
 berry begin to swell. If the eggs be soiled, dip 
 the paper or cloth to which they adhere in water 
 once or twice, to wash off the coat with which 
 they are covered, and which will impede the hatch- 
 ing of the worms. It is not necessary to scrape 
 off the eggs from the paper or cloth on which they 
 have been deposited. Dry them quickly in a 
 draught of air, and put them in one or more shal- 
 low boxes lined with paper, which place, if pos- 
 sible, in a small room of the temperature of 64, 
 and keep it up to that degree for the first two day* 
 by means of a fire in the chimney, or, still better, 
 in a brick, tile, or porcelain stove, or for want of 
 these in a iron stove, and use tanners' waste-brok 
 turf, or charcoal for fuel, to promote and keep up 
 a regular heat day and night. The third day in- 
 crease the heat to 66, the fourth to 68, the fifth 
 to 71, the sixth to 73, the seventh to 75, the 
 eighth to 77, the ninth to 80, the tenth, eleventh 
 and twelfth to 82. It is impossible to expect re- 
 gularity in hatching, if reliance be placed upon 
 our variable weather, and it is the regularity of 
 
AGRICULTUKE. 
 
 the worms coming forth which will ensure their 
 uniform growth, save much trouble in feeding and 
 attending those of various ages, and cause the 
 whole, or the greater part, to form their cocoons 
 at the same time, provided proper care be given 
 during their progress. 
 
 When the eggs assume a whitish hue the worm 
 is formed ; cover the eggs with white paper (never 
 use a newspaper,) pierced full of holes the size of 
 a large knitting needle; the worms when hatched 
 Will creep through them ; turn up the edges of the 
 paper to prevent their crawling off. Lay twigs of 
 the mulberry, having two or three dry and young 
 leaves on the paper, to collect the worms, and 
 more as they continue to mount. For want of 
 mulberry leaves feed for a short time upon lettuce 
 leaves, perfectly dry ; if large they should be cut 
 in strips and the mid rib thrown away, or, still 
 better, feed with the twigs of the white mulberry 
 tree cut up fine. The worms first hatched are the 
 strongest, nevertheless, if only a few come out on 
 the first day, give them away to save trouble, and 
 depend upon those which appear on the second 
 and third days. Give away also the produce of 
 the fourth day, and then the whole stock will go 
 on regularly. If it be wished to rear all that a,re 
 hatched, endeavor to keep the produce of each 
 day separate, by numbering the boxes and shelves. 
 When the leaves on the twigs are loaded with 
 worms, they are to be gently placed on clean, stout, 
 white paper laid on frames with crossed rattans, 
 giving them plenty of room. The shelves over 
 which these frames should slide may be four feet 
 square and fixed to upright posts ; they may be 
 multiplied as required. Whether a distinct build- 
 ing or apartment in a dwelling-house be devoted 
 to a large parcel, it is absolutely necessary to se- 
 cure the command of a gentle circulation of air 
 by having ventilators in the windows, floors, and 
 doors. 
 
 One or more tin circular ventilators in place of 
 panes of glass would always ensure a regular cir- 
 culation in the apartment; they may be stopped 
 when their motion is not required. Bed ants are 
 deadly enemies to silk worms; to prevent their 
 attacks the posts containing fixed shelves must not 
 touch the ceiling, nor must the shelves reach the 
 walls; the lower part of the posts should be 
 smeared with thick molasses. If the worms are 
 fed on tables or movable frames, their legs may 
 also be smeared with molasses or put in u dish of 
 water ; guard also against cockroaches, mice, and 
 other vermin. 
 
 The worms being all hatched, whether they are 
 to remain in the first apartment or be removed to 
 another room or distinct building, the heat must 
 be reduced to 75, for as the worms grow older 
 they require less heat. 
 
 It is impossible to insure the regular hatching 
 of the worms without the use of a thermometer. 
 
 first Age that is, until the Worms have passed 
 their First Moulting or changed their First Skin. 
 
 The apartment must be light, but the sun must 
 not shine on the worms in any stage. 
 
 Feed the worms with the most tender leaves 
 four times a day, allowing six hours between each 
 meal ; give the smallest quantity for the first feed- 
 ing, and gradually increase it at each meal be- 
 tween the moultings. 
 
 In about an hour and a half, the silk- worms de- 
 vour their portion of leaves, and then remain more 
 or less quiet. Whenever food is given, widen the 
 *paces for them ; scattered food may be swept into 
 its place. 
 
 Experiments may be made as to the compara- 
 tive advantages of using chopped or whole young 
 
 leaves. If chopped, a sharp knife must be used, 
 to prevent the leaves from being bruised, and 
 thereby causing the exudation of water from them, 
 which would prove injurious. On the fourth day 
 the skin becomes of a hazel color and looks shin- 
 ing, their heads enlarge and assume a silvery 
 bright appeamnce; these are marks of their ap- 
 proaching first change. Their food on this day, 
 therefore, may be diminished, or when these ap- 
 pearances take place, but not before. Enlarge the 
 spaces as the worms increase in size. The leaves 
 ought to be gathered a few hours before they aro 
 used, that they may lose their sharpness : they 
 keep very well in a cool cellar three days. The 
 leaves ought to be gathered over night for the 
 morning's meal, to prevent the danger of collect- 
 ing them in rainy weather. The leaves must be 
 pulled carefully, and not bruised. On the fourth 
 day the appetites of the worms begin to decrease, 
 preparatory to their first moulting, and their food 
 must be diminished in proportion as the previous 
 meal has not been completely eaten. If the pre- 
 carious heat of the weather has been depended 
 upon, the first change may not appear until the 
 sixth or seventh day. 
 
 In the course of the fifth day all the worms be- 
 come torpid; during this period, and in the sub- 
 sequent moultings, they must on no account be 
 disturbed. A few begin to revive at the close of 
 the fifth day; some leaves may be then given. 
 After the first moulting the worms are of a dark 
 ash color. 
 
 Second Age. 
 
 As the worms are fond of the young twigs, some 
 of these should be spread over them with the leaves 
 attached, upon which the worms will immediately 
 fasten, and they may then be removed to a clean 
 paper; or lay a strip of chopped leaves near the 
 worms, and they will leave the old food. 
 
 The litter is to be taken away; but as some of 
 the worms often remain among the old leaves, they 
 ought to be examined. To this end the litter 
 should be removed to another room, spread out 
 on a table, and a few twigs placed over it, on 
 which the worms, if any, will mount, when they 
 may be added to the others. This rule must be 
 attended to after every moulting. Ten per cent, 
 is generally allowed for loss of young worms. The 
 first two meals of the first day should be less plen- 
 tiful than the last two, and must consist of the 
 most tender leaves; these must be continued for 
 food until after the third moulting. 
 
 If between the moultings any worms should ap- 
 pear sick and cease to eat, they must be removed 
 to another room, where the air is pure and a little 
 warmer than that they have left, put on clean pa- 
 per, and some fresh leaves, chopped fine, given to 
 them; they will soon recover, and then may be 
 added to the others. 
 
 On the third day the appetite of many worms 
 will be visibly diminished, and in the course of it 
 many will become torpid; the next day all are 
 torpid ; on the fifth day they will all have changed 
 their skins and will be roused. 
 
 The color of the worms in the second age be- 
 comes a light grey, the muzzle is white, and the 
 hair hardly to be seen. 
 
 It must never be forgotten, that during the time 
 the worms are occupied in moulting the food should 
 be greatly diminished, and no more given than will 
 satisfy those which have not yet become torpid on 
 the first day, or those which have changed their 
 skins before the others. 
 
 Third Age. 
 
 During this age the thermometer must range be- 
 tween 71 and 73. The revived worma are easily 
 
SILK WORMS. 
 
 55 
 
 known by their new aspect. The latest worms 
 should be placed apart, as their next moulting will 
 be a day later also, or they may be put in the hot- 
 test part of the room to hasten their growth. This 
 rule must be observed in the next moulting in- 
 crease the spaces. 
 
 The second day the first two meals are to be 
 the least copious, the last two the greatest, be- 
 cause towards the close of the day the worms grow 
 very hungry. The third day will require about 
 the same quantity as the preceding last meals; 
 but on the fourth day, as the appetites of the 
 worms sensibly diminish, not more than half the 
 former feed will be required. The first meal is to 
 be the largest: feed those that will eat at any 
 time of the day. The fifth day still less will suf- 
 fice, as the greatest part are moulting; the sixth 
 day they begin to rouse. Remove the litter, or 
 even before they are moulted, if the worms are 
 numerous. 
 
 Fourth Age. 
 
 The thermometer should range between 68 and 
 71. If the weather be warm, and the glass rise 
 several degrees higher, open the ventilators, ex- 
 clude the sun, and make a slight blaze in the 
 chimney, to cause a circulation of the air. Widen 
 the spaces for the worms. The leaves must now 
 be regularly chopped in a straw-cutting box, or 
 with achopping-knife. The food is to be greatly 
 increased on the second, third, and fourth days. 
 On the Hfth less will be required, as in the course 
 of this day many become torpid; the lirst meal on 
 this day should therefore be the largest. On the 
 sixth they will want still less, as nearly the whole 
 will be occupied in effecting their last change of 
 skin. Renew the air in the apartment by burning 
 straw or shavings in the chimney, and open the 
 ventilators. If the evenings be cool, after a hot 
 day, admit the external air for an hour. None but 
 full grown leaves should be hereafter given to the 
 worms, and they must be all chopped; avoid the 
 fruit, as they would prove injurious, and add 
 greatly to the litter, On the seventh day all the 
 worms will have roused, and thus finish their 
 fourth age. The litter must be again removed. 
 
 Fifth Age, or until the Worms prepare to Mount. 
 The thermometer should be about 68. The 
 constitution of the worms being now formed, they 
 begin to elaborate the silk-vessels, and fill them 
 with the silky material, which they decompose, 
 and form from the mulberry leaves. Give abun- 
 dance of room: do not let the worms lie so close 
 as to touch one another, for their respiration will 
 be thereby impeded. Continue to feed regularly 
 and fully, as the appetite of the worms now be- 
 comes voracious : give food rather five times a 
 day than four; even six meals will not be too 
 many. The last meal should be late at night, and 
 the first the next day in the morning, at an early 
 hour. The worms are not again to be moved, and 
 the hurdles or feeding frames must be cleaned. 
 On the seventh day of the fifth age they have at- 
 tained their largest size, viz., three inches long, 
 and begin to grow shining and yellow. The ap- 
 petites of some diminish, but that of others con- 
 tinues, and must be supplied, to hasten their ma- 
 turity. The litters must be removed every two 
 days during the fifth age, but not when the worms 
 are moulting, unless it can be done without dis- 
 turbing them. 
 
 The preservation of the proper temperature of 
 the apartment at this stage cannot be too seriously 
 impressed upon the cultivator. If sudden and 
 great heat in the weather should take place, as 
 often happens at this time, serious loss may be 
 uttered, without proper precautions. The in- 
 
 creased heat to which the worms are exposed 
 causes them to cease eating, to leave their feeding 
 shelves, and to wander about the room in order to 
 find corners and places to form their cocoons in 
 before the silk fluid has been fully elaborated or 
 matured: thus defeating, in a great measure, all 
 the care previously bestowed upon them. In the 
 summer of the year 1825 vast numbers of worms 
 were killed by hot weather in Mansfield, Connec- 
 ticut. To guard against sudden heat in the wea- 
 ther, close the window shutters while the sun is 
 beating on them, and keep the ventilators in the 
 ceiling or other parts of the room open ; and, if 
 possible, tubs of ice should be brought into the 
 apartment until the thermometer shows a dimi- 
 nution of temperature to the proper degree. The 
 windows must also be kept open every evening, 
 and until sunrise next morning, and water sprin- 
 kled on the floor to promote evaporation,, and 
 consequently a freshness in the air. If the worms 
 should become diseased during the fourth or fii'th 
 ages, oak leaves may be given to them. These 
 are stated to have been found very beneficial ; but 
 the species of oak is not mentioned. The white 
 oak may be tried. 
 
 Of the rearing of Silk Worms in the last period of 
 
 the Fifth Aye ; that is, until the Cocoon is Per- 
 fected. 
 
 The fifth age can only be looked on as termi- 
 nated when the cocoon is perfect. 
 
 The cleanliness of the feeding frames in these 
 last days of the fifth age requires great attention 
 to preserve the health of the silk worms. 
 
 About the tenth day of the fifth age the worms 
 attain perfection, which may be ascertained by 
 the following indications: 
 
 1st. When on putting some leaves on the wick- 
 ers, the insects get upon the leaves without eating 
 them, and rear their heads as if in search of some- 
 thing else. 
 
 2d. When looking at them horizontally the 
 light shines through them, and they appear of a 
 whitish yellow transparent color. 
 
 3d. When numbers of the worms which were 
 fastened to the inside of the edges of the wickers, 
 and straightened, now get upon the edges and 
 move slowly along, instinct urging them to seek 
 change of place. 
 
 4th. When numbers of worms leave the centre 
 of the wickers, and try to reach the edges and 
 crawl upon them. 
 
 5th. When their rings draw in and their green- 
 ish color changes to a deep golden hue. 
 
 6th. When their skins become wrinkled about 
 the neck, and their bodies have more softness to 
 the touch than heretofore, and feel like soft dough. 
 
 7th. When in taking a silk worm in the hand, 
 and looking through it, the whole body has as- 
 sumed the transparency of a ripe yellow plum. 
 When these signs appear in any of the insects, 
 everything should be prepared for their rising, 
 that those worms which are ready to rise may not 
 lose their strength and silk in seeking for the 
 support they require. Handle the worms at this 
 stage with the greatest gentleness, as the slightest 
 pressure injures them. When moved, they should 
 be left on the twigs or leaves to which they are 
 fastened, to prevent their being hurt by tearing 
 them off. A blunt hook should be used to take 
 up those not adhering to leaves or twigs. 
 Preparation of the Hedge. 
 
 A week or ten days before the worms are ready 
 to mount, bundles of twigs of chestnut, hickory, 
 oak, or of the birch of which stable-brooms are 
 made, must be procured, prepared, and arranged 
 in bunches, so that the worms may easily climb 
 
56 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 up them to work their cocoons. As soon as it is 
 observed that the worms want to rise, the bundles 
 of twigs must be arranged on the feeding trays, 
 leaving fifteen inches between them. The top 
 branches should touch the lower part of the tray 
 above that on which they are placed, so as to form 
 an arch and be placed a little aslant, that the 
 worms, when climbing, may not fall off'. The 
 branches should be spread out like fans, that the 
 air may penetrate through all parts and the worms 
 work with ease. When the worms are too near 
 one another they do not work so well, and form 
 double cocoons, which are only worth half a single 
 round cocoon. Leave openings at the tops of the 
 urves for the worms to form their cocoons in. 
 
 As soon as the worms are prepared to rise, the 
 feeding frames should be cleaned thoroughly and 
 the apartment well ventilated. Put the worms 
 which are ready to rise near the hedges, and give 
 a few leaves to those that are still inclined to eat. 
 After they have begun to rise, those that are weak 
 and lazy do not eat, do not seem to be inclined to 
 rise, and remain motionless on the leaves. These 
 should be taken away, and put in a clean dry room 
 of at least 75 of heat, where there are hurdles 
 covered with paper, and the hedge prepared for 
 them. The increased heat will cause them to rise 
 directly. All the silk worms being off the hurdles, 
 they should be immediately cleaned. The tem- 
 perature of the room should be between 68 and 
 71. When the worms are forming their cocoons 
 the utmost silence must be preserved in the room, 
 as they are very sensible to noise, and, if disturbed, 
 will for a moment cease to spin; thus the con- 
 tinuity of the thread will be interrupted, and the 
 value of the cocoon diminished. When the co- 
 coons have attained a certain consistency, the 
 apartment may be left quite open. 
 
 Sixth Aye, beginning in the Chrysalis State, and 
 
 ending when the Moths Appear. 
 The following are the necessary things to be 
 done : 
 
 I. To gather the cocoons. 
 
 II. To choose the cocoons which are to be pre- 
 erved for the eggs. 
 
 III. Preservation of cocoons until the appear- 
 ance of the moth. 
 
 /. Gathering of the Cocoons. 
 
 Strong, healthy, and well managed silk worms 
 will complete their cocoons in three days and a 
 half at farthest, reckoning from the moment when 
 they first begin casting the floss. This period 
 will be shorter if the silk worms spin the silk in 
 a higher temperature than that which has been 
 indicated, and in very dry air. 
 
 It will be better not to take off the cocoon be- 
 fore the eighth or ninth day, reckoning from the 
 time when the silk-worm first rose. They may 
 be taken off on the seventh, if the laboratories 
 have been conducted with such regularity that 
 the time may be known with certainty, when this 
 may be done. 
 
 Begin on the lower tier of hurdles and take the 
 cabins down gently, giving them to those who are 
 to gather the cocoons ; place a basket between two 
 of the gatherers to receive the cocoons ; another 
 person should receive the stripped bushes, which 
 may be laid by for another year. All the cocoons 
 that want a certain consistency, and feel soft, 
 should be laid aside, that they may not be mixed 
 with the better. Empty the baskets upon hurdles 
 or trays placed in rows, and spread the cocoons 
 about four fingers deep, or nearly to the top of 
 the feeding frame. When Ihe cocoons are de- 
 tached, the down or floss in which the silk-worms 
 have formed the cocoon should be taken off. If 
 
 the cocoons are for sale, weigh them and send 
 them to the purchaser. The baskets, the floor and 
 all things used, should be cleaned. 
 
 When gathering the cocoons, make four assort- 
 ments : 1st. Those designed for breed. 2d. The 
 dupions, or double ones. 3d. The firmest of those 
 which are to be reeled. 4th. Those of a looser 
 texture. 
 
 //. Choosing the Cocoons for the Production of 
 Eggs. 
 
 About two ounces of eggs may be saved out of 
 one pound and a half of male and female cocoons, 
 
 The small cocoons of a straw color, with hard 
 ends, and fine webs, and which are a little de- 
 pressed in the middle, as if tightened by a ring or 
 circle, are to be preferred. There are no certain 
 signs to distinguish the male from the female oo- 
 coons; the best known are the following: 
 
 The small cocoons sharper at one or both ends, 
 and depressed in the middle, generally produce 
 the male. The round full cocoons without ring 
 or depression in the middle, usually contain the 
 female. 
 
 These may be distinguished from the dupiong 
 by the extra size, the clumsy shape, rather round 
 than oval, of the latter. As however all marki 
 may fail, an extra number may be kept, of the 
 best of those which are spun double ; and when 
 the moths come out, the males and females being 
 easily distinguished, an addition can be made 
 from them to the defective fide. 
 
 By shaking the cocoon close to the ear, we may 
 generally ascertain whether the chrysalis be alive. 
 If it be dead, and loosened from the cocoon, it 
 yields a sharp sound. When dead it yields a muf- 
 fled sound, more confined in the cocoon. 
 
 ///. Preservation of Cocoons intended for Seed, or 
 until the Appearance of the Moth. 
 
 Experience shows that where the temperature 
 of the room is above 73 the transition of the 
 chrysalis to the moth state will be too rapid, 
 and the coupling will not be productive; if below 
 66 the development of the moth is tardy, which 
 is also injurious. Damp air will change it into a 
 weak and sickly moth; the apartment should, 
 therefore, be kept in an even dry temperature, be- 
 tween 66 and 73. When collected spread the 
 cocoons on a dry floor, or on tables, and strip 
 them clean of down or floss, to prevent the feet 
 of the moth from being entangled in it when 
 coming out. While cleaning them, all those that 
 appear to have any defect should be laid aside; 
 this is the time, also, to separate the male and 
 female cocoons, as far as we can distinguish them. 
 
 Select an equal number of males and females, 
 and keep the cocoons of the same day's mounting 
 separate, that the moths may pierce them at the 
 same time. If the good cocoons taken from the 
 whole parcel, are all first mixed, and the selection 
 for those intended for breeding be made from this 
 general heap, many will be set aside, which were 
 formed by worms that had mounted upon different 
 days, and which will be pierced by the moths un- 
 equally, and hence there will not be an equal num- 
 ber of males and females produced at the ??.m6 
 time; this irregular appearance may cause the 
 loss of a great many moths, or of several thou- 
 sand eggs. 
 
 When the selection has been made, the sorted 
 cocoons must be put on tables, in layers of al><>ut 
 two inches, allowing the air to pass freely through 
 them, that it may not be necessary to stir them 
 frequently; but it is beneficial to stir them round 
 once a day, if the air be moist. When the sed 
 cocoons are not very numerous, they may be 
 
SILK WORMS. 
 
 57 
 
 gtrung i pou threads, and hung against a wall, or 
 suspended from a beam. Just so much of the 
 middle of the cocoon is to be pierced with a nee- 
 dle as is sufficient to attach it to the thread. The 
 middle is chosen, because it cannot be ascertained 
 at which end the moth will pierce the cocoon. 
 Place a male and female cocoon alternately upon 
 the thread, that they may be near each other 
 when they come out. 
 
 If the heat of the apartment is above 73, every 
 method of diminishing the heat should be tried : 
 Buch as keeping all the apertures to the sunny 
 side carefully closed, to cause thorough drafts of 
 air to dry the humidity that exhales from the 
 chrysalides. Should the temperature rise to 78 
 or 82, the cocoons must be put in a cooler place, 
 as a dry cellar. 
 
 Seventh Age of the Silk Worm. 
 
 The seventh, and the last age of the silk worm, 
 comprises the entire life of the moth. 
 
 The formation of the moth, and its disposition 
 to issue from the cocoon, may be ascertained when 
 one of its extremities is perceived to be wet, 
 which is the part occupied by the head of the 
 moth. A few hours after, and sometimes in one 
 hour after, the moth will pierce the cocoon and 
 come out ; occasionally the cocoon is so hard, and 
 BO wound in silk, that the moth in vain strives to 
 comes forth, and dies in the cocoon. Sometimes 
 the female deposits some eggs in the cocoon be- 
 fore she can get out, and often perishes in it; this 
 circumstance has induced some to extract the 
 chrysalis from the cocoon by cutting it, that the 
 moth may have only to pierce its thin envelope; 
 but the experienced Dandolo disapproves of the 
 practice (although he has performed the operation 
 with success) becsiuse it is tedious; and should the 
 moth be put on a plain surface, five in a hundred 
 will not be able to get out, but will drag the en- 
 velope along, and at last die, not being able to 
 disencumber themselves. If the surface be not 
 smooth, the moths will issue with greater ease; it 
 is very favorable to the moths when they put forth 
 their head and first legs, to find some substance to 
 which they may fasten, arid thus facilitate clear- 
 ing out of the cocoon by the support. For this 
 reason they should be spread out very thin on ta- 
 bles covered with a muslin or linen cloth. The 
 life of the moth lasts, in Italy, ten, eleven, or 
 twelve days, according to the strength of its con- 
 stitution, and the mildness of the atmosphere. 
 With Mr. Dusar, of Philadelphia, the moths lived 
 from five to eight days; a hot temperature accele- 
 rates their operations and the drying which pre- 
 cedes their death. 
 
 Hatching of the Moths, and their Preservation. 
 
 Cocoons kept in a temperature of 66 begin to 
 be hutched after fifteen days ; those kept in a heat 
 between 71 and 73, begin to come forth after 
 eleven or twelve days. The room in which the 
 moths are produced should be dark, or at least 
 there should be only sufficient light to distinguish 
 objects. This is an important rule, and must be 
 carefully attended to. The moths do not come 
 forth in great numbers the first or the second day, 
 but. are chiefly hatched on the fourth, fifth, sixth, 
 and seventh days, according to the degree of heat 
 in which the cocoons have been kept. The hours 
 when the moths burst the cocoons in the greatest 
 numbers, are the three and four hours after sun- 
 rise, if the temperature is from 64 to 66. The 
 m;ile moths, the very moment they come out, go 
 eagerly in quest of the female; when they are 
 united, they must be placed on frames covered 
 Kith linen, and made in such a manner as to 
 
 allow the linen to be changed when soiled. 
 Much care must be taken in raising the united 
 moths; they must be held by the wings in order 
 not to separate them. When one small table is 
 filled with moths in a state of union, they are to 
 be carried into a small room, sufficiently airy and 
 fresh, and which can be made very dark. Hav- 
 ing employed the first hours of the day in select- 
 ing and carrying the united moths, the males and 
 females which are found separate on the tables 
 are to be brought into contact, put on frames and, 
 carried into the dark room. It is easy to ascer- 
 tain if there are more females than males. The 
 body of the female is nearly double the size of 
 that of the male ; besides, the male which is sin- 
 gle, beats about its wings at the least approach 
 of light; the hour must be noted at which the 
 tables containing the united moths are placed in 
 the dark room. 
 
 If, after this operation is over, there still remait 
 some moths of each sex, they are to be placed in 
 a small box with a perforated cover, until the mo- 
 ment favorable for their union arrives. From 
 time to time they must be looked at, to see if they 
 separate, in order that they may be brought anew 
 into contact. 
 
 When any thing is to be done in the dark cham- 
 ber, as little light as possible must be admitted, 
 only sufficient to distinguish objects. The more 
 light there is the more the moths are disturbed 
 and troubled in their operations, as light is too 
 stimulating for them. The boxes are very con- 
 venient to keep quiet the males which remain, and 
 thus prevent the fine powder adhering to their 
 wings from flying about, and the destruction of 
 their wings, and consequently their vital power. 
 The cocoons must be removed as fast as they are 
 pierced by the moth, for being moist they com- 
 municate their humidity to those which are still 
 entire. The paper also on the trays, when soiled, 
 is to be removed, and fresh supplied. Constant 
 attention is required during the whole day, as 
 there is a succession in the process of hatching, 
 and union of the moths, which occasionally vary 
 in relative proportion to one another. Instead of 
 a frame paper may be used for receiving the eggs. 
 A few good cocoons will not produce moths, 
 owing to their hardness, which prevents the moth 
 from making a hole by which to come forth. 
 
 Separation of the Moth and laying the Eggs. 
 
 If there be an excess of males they must be 
 thrown away ; if of females, males must be allotted 
 to them, which have already been in a state of 
 union. Great care must be taken when the couples 
 are separated not to injure the males. The male 
 ought not to remain united more than six hours; 
 after the lapse of that time take the moths by the 
 wings and body and separate them gently. All 
 the males which are no longer in union must be 
 placed upon a frame, the most vigorous after- 
 wards selected and united with those females 
 which have not yet had a mate. Other vigorous 
 males must be preserved in a separate box, and 
 kept in darkness. When there is a want of 
 males let them remain united to the female the 
 first time only five hours instead of six; the fe- 
 males are not injured by waiting for the male even 
 many hours; the only loss sustained is that of 
 some eggs, which are not impregnated. Before 
 separating the two sexes prepare in a cool, dry, 
 airy chamber the linen on which the moth is to 
 deposit its eggs. 
 
 Six hours, as just said, is the usual time for the 
 moths to remain united, for in that time the eggs 
 of the female will be fully impregnated. It is 
 also the general practice not to use the mal '' 
 
53 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 another female, but Mr. Delonchamps assures us 
 that in the event of having more female than male 
 moths, the latter may be again used to profit. In 
 the year 1824 he raised many worms from eggs 
 the produce of a sixth coupling, which were fully 
 equal to those produced from those at the first; 
 the union continued never less than from twenty 
 to twenty-four hours; the male after a sixth union 
 appeared & lively and as brisk as at first, but he 
 had no more females. The eggs from even a thir- 
 teenth union of the same male with different fe- 
 males had all the characters of those of the best 
 quality. In these cases the disunion of the pair 
 was, moreover, never spontaneous, but always re- 
 quired to be effecttd by the hands. 
 
 The following is the manner in which the cloth 
 must be arranged : 
 
 At the bottom of a tressel or frame, which must 
 be proportioned to the number of moths, place 
 horizontally on each side of the length two boards, 
 BO arranged that one of their sides may be nailed 
 to the tressel about five inches and a half high 
 above the ground, and that the other side of the 
 board shall be a little higher and project out- 
 wards. Upon the tressel lay a cloth, so that it 
 may hang equally on each side. The ends of 
 the cloth must cover the boards below; the more 
 perpendicular the lateral parts of the tressel are 
 the less soiled will be the cloth by the evacuation 
 of the liquid from the moths. The moths which 
 have been united six hours are then to be gently 
 separated, the females placed on the frame and 
 carried to the tressel and placed on the cloth, 
 one over another, beginning at the top and 
 going downwards. Note the time at which the 
 moths are pluced on the cloth, and keep those which 
 are placed afterwards separate, to avoid confusion. 
 
 The females that have had a virgin mate must 
 be treated \r. the same manner as those which 
 have been united with one that had been coupled 
 previously five hours. The females should be 
 left on th cloth thirty-six or forty hours without 
 being touched; at this time if it be observed that 
 the linen has not been well stocked with eggs, 
 other females must be placed upon it, in order 
 that the eggs may be equally distributed. When 
 the heat of the room is 77 or 79, or when at 63 
 or 65, the eggs will be yellow, that is unimpreg- 
 nated, or of a reddish color, that is imperfectly 
 impregnated, and will not produce worms; the 
 temperature of the room must therefore be kept 
 between these extremes. Sometimes a female moth 
 will escape from its mate before impregnation and 
 produce many worthless eggs. 
 
 The female cocoons, as before noted, are gene- 
 rally larger than the males and not so much 
 pointed as these are, and are without the ring or 
 depression in the middle, which commonly distin- 
 guishes the cocoons containing the latter. 
 
 Eight or ten days after the deposition of the 
 eggs the jonquil color peculiar to them will change 
 to a reddish gray, and afterwards into a pale clay 
 hue ; they are of a lenticular form, and on both 
 surfaces there is a slight depression. 
 
 Preservation of the Eggs. 
 
 Collect the eggs which have fallen on the cloth 
 covering the shelves of the tressel, when quite 
 dry, and put them in a box, and, if numerous, in 
 layers not more than half the breadth of the fin- 
 ger. The cloths raised from the tressel when quite 
 dry are to be folded and placed in a dry room, the 
 temperature of which does not exceed 65, nor 
 below the freezing point, 32. 
 
 During the summer the cloths must be exam- 
 ined every month, to remove insects, and to pre- 
 serve the cloths always in fresh air ; if the quan- 
 
 tity be large, place them on a frame of cord at- 
 tached to the ceiling or a rafter. A barrel-hoop 
 crossed with stout pack-thread will make a good 
 frame. A small quantity may be kept in a tin case. 
 If a board box be used the joints and edges of the 
 top should be pasted with paper to exclude ants. 
 
 There exists a notion that every two or three 
 years the eggs should be changed. It requires 
 little to be said on this egregious error. To sup- 
 pose that the good cocoons of a cultivator, after a 
 few years, are no longer fit to produce seed, and 
 yet that these cocoons can give good seed for the 
 use of another, would be to admit a superstitious 
 contradiction, which reason, practice, and science 
 alike condemn. A change of seed can only be 
 necessary when, from great neglect for a series of 
 years of the worms, a diminutive race has been 
 produced. Worms properly treated will never 
 degenerate. On the subject of the degeneracy of 
 silk-worms, in the United States, the most posi- 
 tive information can be given. 
 
 Mr. Samuel Alexander, of Philadelphia, says: 
 "I am convinced that silk worms cultivated in 
 Pennsylvania, instead of degenerating, improve; 
 proof of which I possess, in comparing the co- 
 coons of four years since with those of the last 
 year. I can say, with truth, the worms hatched 
 from the eggs I brought from the south of Eu- 
 rope have produced annually better silk." The 
 testimony of Mr. Sharrod M'Call, of Florida, is 
 still more decisive. 
 
 A sample of beautiful sewing-silk, sent with his 
 communication to the Secretary of the Treasury, 
 was part of a parcel produced by worms, the stock 
 of which he has had thirty years; and they were 
 obtained from a maternal ancestor, who had pos- 
 sessed them many years before. 
 
 During all this long period no degeneracy has 
 been observed. Let proper care be taken of silk- 
 worms, and no deterioration will take place. 
 
 The time has passed when the idle reveries of 
 Buffon, Robertson, De Pauw, and others, respect- 
 ing the tendency of nature "to belittle" and de- 
 generate everything foreign in the new world, 
 were received as truths. Facts, proud facts, de- 
 monstrate not only the absurdity of their positions, 
 but the superiority of many American animals and 
 vegetables, when compared with similar produc- 
 tions in the old world, 
 
 To bake Cocoons. 
 
 Cocoons reel more readily, and yield silk of a 
 superior quality, without killing the insect by 
 either steam of hot water, or by baking them; but 
 those who have not the means of reeling off their 
 cocoons in two or three days after they are formed, 
 or of selling them, must kill the insects they con- 
 tain, or they will eat through, and spoil the co- 
 coons by breaking the continuity of the thread. 
 The easiest way to do this is to bake them in an 
 oven, which must be about as hot as when bread 
 has been taken out of it. After picking out all 
 the spotted cocoons, put the rest in flat baskets, 
 filling them within <m inch of the top; cover them 
 with paper, and a wrapper over it; put these bas- 
 kets in the oven, and after an hour draw them 
 out and cover them with a woollen rug, leaving 
 the wrapper as it was. Let them stand five or six 
 hours, to keep in the heat and stifle the chrysalis. 
 Then spread them in thin layers on shelves, and 
 move them every day (to prevent their becoming 
 mouldy) until perfectly dry. ft may be impor- 
 tant to state that the birth of the moth may be 
 prolonged a month, by keeping the cocoons in a 
 very cold dry cellar. If the cocoons are kept 
 over summer, they must be protected from an'.d, 
 mice, and cockroaches. 
 
MULBERRY TREE. 
 
 59 
 
 OH the Culture of the White Mulberry Tree. 
 
 The proper soils for this tree are dry, sandy, or 
 stony; the more stony the better, provided the 
 roots can penetrate them. The situation should 
 be high: low, rich, and moist lands never pro- 
 duce nourishing leaves, however vigorously the 
 trees may grow. They are always found to be too 
 watery. The same remark may be made upon 
 the leaves of young seedling plants, which will 
 not produce good or abundant silk, and are 
 only proper when the worms are young, say in 
 their first two ages. It may be useful to have a 
 parcel of these growing in a warm situation, that 
 they may come forward before large trees, and 
 serve for early food. 
 
 Mulberry trees may be propagated by 1st, 
 seed; 2d, grafting; 3d, budding; 4th, layers; 5th, 
 cuttings; 6th, suckers. 
 
 The ripe fruit may be sown in drills, in ground 
 previously prepared; or the seeds may be washed 
 out of the pulp, and mixed with an equal quantity 
 of sand or fine mould, and then sown. They should 
 be covered about a quarter of an inch deep. The 
 seeds will soon vegetate, if the ground be rich, and 
 will live through the winter, unless the cold should 
 be unusually severe. A quantity of plants from 
 seed* thus treated lived through the coldest win- 
 ters in the Middle States. In very cold weather 
 the young plants may be covered with straw or 
 long manure. The following spring thin the plants, 
 BO that they may stand one foot apart at least. 
 Seeds intended to be sown in the spring, or to be 
 kept, should be washed out, as they are apt to 
 heat or to mould, if permitted to remain in the 
 fruit. Land destined for spring sowing should be 
 dug or ploughed in the preceding autumn, left 
 rough ail winter, and be harrowed or raked fine, 
 as soon as the season will permit, and the seed 
 sown in drills. The young plants must be watered 
 in dry weather, and weeds carefully kept down. 
 Weeds will not only stint the growth of the plants, 
 but cause disease in them, which may affect the 
 future vigor and health of the tree. In the second 
 year transplant them to two feet distance from one 
 another, to give room for cleansing and dressing 
 the land. When transplanting, cut off some of the 
 roots, especially those that are ragged or decayed, 
 and the tap-root, to force out lateral roots; and 
 also the tops, at six or seven inches from the 
 ground. When the plants in the nursery have 
 sprung, strip off the side buds, and leave none but 
 such as are necessary to form the head of the tree. 
 The buds which are left should be opposite to one 
 another. If the plants in the nursery do not shoot 
 well the first year, in the month of March follow- 
 ing cut them over, about seven inches from the 
 ground, and they will grow briskly. They should 
 be watered with diluted barn-yard water. 
 
 When the plants have grown to the size of one 
 inch in diameter, plant them out in fields or places 
 where they are to remain, and make the hole six 
 feet square; trim the roots, and press the earth on 
 the roots as the holes are filled. During the first 
 year of planting out, leave all the buds which the 
 young trees have pushed out on the top till the 
 following spring, when none are to be left but 
 three or four branches to form the head of the 
 tree. The buds on those branches should be on 
 the outside of them, that the shoots may describe 
 a circle round the stem, and that the interior of 
 the tree may be kept open; and as the buds come 
 out rub off all those on the bodies of the trees. 
 For several years after, every spring open the 
 beads of the trees when to: thick of wood, and 
 
 cut off any branch which crosses or takes I ho lead 
 of the rest, leaving two buds on the outside of 
 every trimmed branch. Count Verri, of Italy, an 
 experienced cultivator of the mulberry tree, re- 
 commends to leave only one bud at the end of 
 every branch, preferring those which are outside 
 and opposite to each other; and when three buds 
 appear together to leave the middle one, which is 
 always most vigorous, and to detach the two on 
 e:ich side of it. If the superior buds do not push 
 well, the two next lower ones must be left. Every 
 farmer knows the very great importance of dress- 
 ing ground round young trees twice in the course 
 of a year, and of securing them to stakes, to in- 
 sure an upright, straight growth, and to prevent 
 their being shaken by winds or levelled by storms. 
 The trees may be planted at the usual distances 
 of apple trees. The intervals may be cultivated 
 in cabbages, turnips, or mangel wurt/.el. The at- 
 tendance necessary to Indian corn would endan- 
 ger the young trees. 
 
 It is so much the practice in the United States 
 to let trees take their chance for growing, after 
 they have been planted, or sprung up from seeds 
 or stones, that these particular directions may be 
 disregarded. But let a comparative experiment 
 be made with mulberry trees permitted to grow 
 at will, and others treated as here directed, and 
 the difference in their beauty and growth will be 
 obvious. The advantage, in these respects, will 
 be decidedly in favor of trees which have been 
 attended to. 
 
 Without deciding upon the superiority of the 
 various modes of propagating mulberry trees, it is 
 thought proper to mention the great advantage of 
 the mode of budding. In the year 1826, Mr Mil- 
 lington, of Missouri, "budded the white mulberry 
 on stocks of native trees; and such as were done 
 before July were forced out immediately by cut- 
 ting off the stocks above the buds. Some of these 
 buds made limbs more than two feet long by the 
 27th of October. The buds put in after the mid- 
 dle of July he did not intend to force out until 
 the following spring. He thinks budding more 
 expeditious and surer than engrafting, and when 
 it fails does not injure the stock so much as this 
 mode. Native stocks, to engraft or bud on, can 
 be procured with ease; and the trees thus raised 
 would not be liable to disease in their roots, like 
 foreign trees : and these engrafted or budded trees 
 would grow much faster, and furnish leaves much. 
 sooner, and of a larger size, and better quality. 
 This will not be doubted by those who have ob- 
 served how much faster an engrafted tree grows, 
 and how much larger its leaves are than those of a 
 seedling tree." 
 
 Experience has fully shown that the leaves of 
 the native mulberry tree produce good and strong 
 silk; although not so fine as that from the white 
 mulberry. Those, therefore, who have only the 
 native tree, may begin their operations with it; 
 and they will acquire a knowledge of the business 
 of rearing silk worms, while the foreign species is 
 growing. 
 
 It must be added that experience in the raising 
 of the mulberry silk worm has led to much disap- 
 pointment in this country. Recently, the ailan- 
 thus silk worm (bombyx or attacus cynthia) has 
 been introduced, and affords promise of success. 
 Dr. Stewardson, of Philadelphia, and Rev. Mr. 
 Morris, of Baltimore, report very favorably of its 
 hardiness and productiveness. Fabrics made of 
 its silk are very durable. The U. S. Agricultural 
 Department, at Washington, will furuisk the eggs 
 for trial. 
 
60 
 
 HORTICULTURE. 
 
 HORTICULTURE. 
 
 To choose the lest Soil for a Garden. 
 Prefer a sandy loam, not less than two feet deep, 
 and good earth not of a binding nature in sum- 
 mer, nor retentive of rain in winter; but of such a 
 texture that it can be worked without difficulty in 
 any season of the year. There are few sorts of 
 fruit-trees or esculent vegetables, which require 
 less depth of earth to grow in than two feet to 
 bring them to perfection, and if the earth of the 
 kitchen-garden be three or more feet deep, so 
 much the better ; for when the plants are in a state 
 of maturity, if the roots even of peas, spinach, 
 kidney beans, lettuce, etc., be minutely traced, 
 they will be found to penetrate into the earth, in 
 search of food, to the depth of two feet, provided 
 the soil be of a nature that allows them; if it can 
 be done, a garden should be made on land whose 
 bottom is not of a springy wet nature. If this 
 rule can be observed, draining will be unneces- 
 sary, for when land is well prepared for the growth 
 of fruit trees and esculent vegetables, by trench- 
 ing, manuring, and digging, it is by these means 
 brought into such a porous temperament, that the 
 rains pass through it without being detained longer 
 than necessary. If the land of a garden be of too 
 strong a nature, it should be well mixed with sand, 
 or scrapings of roads, where stones have been 
 ground to pieces by carriages. 
 
 To make Gravel Walks. 
 
 The bottom should be laid with lime-rubbish, 
 large flint stones, or any other hard matter, for 
 eight or ten inches, to keep weeds from growing 
 through, and over this the gravel is to be laid 
 six or eight inches thick. This should be lain 
 rounding up in the middle, by which means the 
 larger stones will run off to the sides, and may be 
 raked away; for the gravel should never be 
 screened before it is laid on. It is a common mis- 
 take to lay these walks too round, which not only 
 makes them uneasy to walk upon, but takes off 
 from their apparent breadth. One inch in five feet 
 is a sufficient proportion for the rise in the mid- 
 dle; so that a walk twenty feet wide should be 
 four inches higher at the middle than at the edges, 
 and so in proportion. As soon as the gravel is 
 laid, it should be raked, and the large stones 
 thrown back again.; then the whole should be 
 rolled both lengthwise and crosswise; and the 
 person who draws the roller should wear shoes 
 with flat heels that he may make no holes, be- 
 cause holes made in a new walk are not easily 
 remedied. The walks should always be rolled 
 three or four times after very hard showers, from 
 which they will bind more firmly than otherwise 
 they could ever be made to. 
 
 To prepare Hot-beds, Manures, and Composts. 
 
 Stable-dung is in the most general use for form- 
 ing hot-beds, which are masses of this dung after 
 it has undergone its violent fermentation. 
 
 Bark is only preferable to dung because the 
 substance which undergoes the process of putrid 
 fermentation requires longer time to decay. Hence 
 it is found useful in the bark pits of hot-houses, 
 as requiring to be less often moved or renewed 
 than dung or any other substance. 
 
 Leaves, and especially oak leaves, come the 
 nearest to bank, and have the additional advan- 
 tage that when perfectly rotten like dung they form 
 a rich mould or excellent manure. 
 
 The object of preparation in these three sub- 
 stances being to get rid of the violent heat which 
 is produced when the fermentation is most pow- 
 erful, it is obvious that preparation must consist 
 in facilitating the process. For this purpose a 
 certain degree of moisture and air in the ferment- 
 ing bodies are requisite, and hence the businesa 
 of the gardener is to turn them over frequently 
 and apply water when the process appears impe- 
 ded, and exclude rain when chilled with too much 
 water. 
 
 Recent stable-dung generally requires to lie a 
 month in ridges or beds, and be turned over in 
 that time thrice before it is fit for cucumber-beds 
 of the common construction: but for McPhail's 
 hot-beds, or for linings, or for frames with mov- 
 able bottoms, three weeks, a fortnight, or less, 
 will suffice, or no time at all need be given, but 
 the dung formed at once into linings. Tan and 
 leaves require in general a month. Fermentation 
 is always most rapid in summer, and if the ma- 
 terials are spread abroad during the frost, it is 
 totally impeded. In winter the process of prepa- 
 tion generally goes on under the back sheds, which 
 situation is also the best in summer, as full expo- 
 sure to the sun and wind dries too much the ex- 
 terior surface; but where sheds cannot be had, it 
 will go on very well in the open air. Some culti- 
 vators have devised plans to economize heat by 
 fermenting dung in vineries which are just begin- 
 ning to be forced, or in vaults under pine pits, or 
 plant stoves. 
 
 To form Dung Beds. 
 
 In general such beds are formed on a level sur- 
 face, but Mr. T. A. Knight's plan is to form a sur- 
 face of earth as a basis, which shall incline to the 
 horizon to the extent of 15; on this he forma 
 the dung-bed to the same inclination, and finally 
 the frame, when placed on such a bed, if as is 
 usual, it be deepest behind, will present its glass 
 at an angle of 20, instead of six or eight, which 
 is undoubtedly of great advantage in the winter 
 
 Ashes are often mixed with the dung of hot- 
 beds, and are supposed to promote the steadiness 
 and duration of their heat, and at least to revive 
 it if somewhat decayed. Tan leaves have also 
 been used for the same purpose, and it is generally 
 found that about one-third of tan and two-thirds 
 of dung will form a more durable and less violent 
 heat than a bed wholly of dung. The heat of 
 dung-heds is revived by linings or collateral and 
 surrounding walls or banks of fresh dung, the old 
 dung of the bed being previously cut down close 
 to the frames, and in severe weather the sides of 
 the beds are often protected by bundles of straw 
 or faggots. 
 
 The residuum of heats, properly reduced by 
 keeping, is a good simple manure for most fruit 
 trees, and excellent in a compost; but where the 
 soil is naturally cold a little ashes of coal*, wood, 
 straw, or burnt turf, or a minute proportion of 
 soot, ought to be incorporated with it. Hog-dung 
 has a peculiar virtue in invigorating weak trees 
 Rotten turf, or any vegetable refuse, is a general 
 manure, excellent for all soils not already too rich. 
 One of the best correctives of too rich a soil is 
 drift sand. For an exhausted soil, where a fruit- 
 tree that has been an old, profitable occupant is 
 wished to be continued, a dressing of animal mat- 
 ter is a powerful restorative, such as hogs' or bul- 
 
COMPOSTS FOR MANURES. 
 
 61 
 
 locks blood, offal from the slaughter-house, refuse 
 of skins and leather, decomposed carrion, etc. 
 The drain ings of dung laid on as mulch are highly 
 *erviceable. 
 
 It is very proper to crop the ground among new 
 planted orchard trees for a few years, in order to 
 defray the expense of hoeing and cultivating it, 
 which should be done until the temporary plants 
 are removed and the whole be sown down in grass. 
 As the trees begin to produce fruit, begin also to 
 relinquish cropping. When by their productions 
 they defray all expenses, crop no longer. 
 To make Composts for Manure. 
 
 During hot weather, says Knight, I have all the 
 offals in the garden, such as weeds, leaves of straw- 
 berries and other vegetables, short grass, peas, 
 and asparagus haum, with the foliage of trees and 
 ghrubs when newly shed, carefully collected into 
 a heap. These are all turned over and mixed 
 during the winter, that they may be sufficiently 
 rotted to mix with the dung against the end of 
 summer. I have also another heap formed with 
 the prunings from gooseberry and currant bushes, 
 fruit-trees, raspberry shoots, clippings of box-edg- 
 ings, and lappings from shrubs; also the roots of 
 greens and cabbages, which are generally burnt at 
 two different periods in the year, viz., in spring 
 and autumn, but previous to each burning I en- 
 deavor to pare up all the coarse grasses around the 
 garden, with a portion of the soil adhering there- 
 to, and whenever these are sufficiently dried have 
 them collected to the heap intended to be burnt. 
 The fire is kindled at a convenient distance from 
 the heaps, and a portion of such as burn most 
 easily is first applied, until the fire has gained a 
 considerable power. After this the process of 
 burning is continued by applying lighter and 
 heavier substances alternately, that the one may 
 preserve the action of the fire, and the other pre- 
 vent it from reducing them too much to ashes. 
 When the whole are thus consumed a quantity of 
 mould is thrown over the heap to prevent the fire 
 from breaking through, and whenever it can be 
 broken into with safety it is then mixed up into a 
 dunghill with the rotted vegetables, moss-earth 
 and stable-yard dung in such proportions as is 
 likely to insure a moderate fermentation, which is 
 generally completed in three or four weeks, at 
 which time it is most advantageously applied in 
 having it carried to the ground and instantly 
 dug in. 
 
 To make Composts for Moulds. 
 
 Composts are mixtures of several earths, or 
 earthy substances, or dungs, ekher for the im- 
 provement of the general soil under culture or for 
 the culture of particular plants. 
 
 In respect to composts for the amendment of 
 the general soil of the garden, their quality must 
 depend upon that of the natural soil; if this be 
 light, loose, or sandy, it may be assisted by heavy 
 loams, clays, etc., from ponds and ditches, clean- 
 ings of sewers, etc. On the other hand, heavy 
 clayey and all stubborn soils may be assisted by 
 light composts of sandy earth, drift, and sea-sand, 
 the shovellings of turnpike roads, like cleansing of 
 streets, all kinds of ashes, rotten tanner's bark, 
 rotten wood, saw dust, and other similar light 
 opening materials that can be most conveniently 
 procured. 
 
 To make Composts for Plants. 
 
 These may be reduced to light sandy loam from 
 old pastures : strong loam approaching nearly to 
 brick earth from the same source; peat earth, from 
 the surface of heaths or commons ; bog earth, from 
 bogs or morasses ; vegetable earth, from decayed 
 karo, ttalks, cow-dung, etc.; sand, either sea- 
 
 sand, drift-sand, or powdered stone, so as to be as 
 free as possible from. iron; lime-rubbish; and, 
 lastly, common garden earth. There are no 
 known plants that will not grow or thrive in one 
 or other of these earths, alone or mixed with some 
 other earth, or with rotten dung or leaves. Nur- 
 serymen have seldom more than three sorts of 
 earth : loam, approaching to the qualities of brick- 
 earth ; peat or bog-earth, and the common soil of 
 their nursery. With these and the addition of a 
 little sand for striking plants, some sifted lime- 
 rubbish for succulents, and some well-rotted cow- 
 dung for bulbs, and some sorts of trees, they con- 
 tinue to grow thousands of different species in aa 
 great or greater perfection as in their native coun- 
 tries, and many, as the pine, vine, camellia, rose, 
 etc., in a superior manner. 
 
 To prepare Composts. 
 
 The preparation necessary for heavy and light 
 composts for general enrichment, and o r the above 
 different earths, consists in collecting jach soil in 
 the compost ground, in separate ridges of three or 
 four feet broad, and as high, turning them every 
 six weeks or two months for a year or a year and 
 a half before they are used. Peat earth, being 
 generally procured in the state of turves full of 
 the roots and tops of heath, requires two or three 
 years to rot; but, after it has lain one year, it may 
 be sifted, and what passes through a small sieve 
 will be found fit for use. Some nurserymen use 
 both these loams and peats as soon as procured, 
 and find them answer perfectly for most plants; 
 but for delicate flowers, and especially bulbs, and 
 all florists' flowers, and for all composts in which 
 manures enter, not less than one year ought to be 
 allowed for decomposition, and what is called 
 sweetening. 
 
 To make a Green-House or Conservatory. 
 
 The depth of green-houses should never be 
 greater than their height in the clear; which, in 
 small or middling houses may be sixteen or eigh- 
 teen feet, but in large ones from twenty to twenty- 
 four feet; and the length of the windows should 
 reach from about one foot and a half above the 
 pavement, and within the same distance of the 
 ceiling. 
 
 The floor of the green- house, which should be 
 laid either with Bremen squares, Purbeck stone, 
 or flat tiles, must be raised two feet above the sur- 
 face of the adjoining ground, or, if the situation 
 be damp, at least three feet; and if the whole is 
 arched with low brick arches under the floor, they 
 will be of great service in preventing damp; and 
 under the floor, about two feet from the front, it 
 will be very advisable to make a flue of ten inches 
 wide, and two feet deep ; this should be carried 
 the whole length of the house, and then returned 
 back along the hinder part, and there be carried 
 up into funnels adjoining to the tool-house, by 
 which the smoke may be carried off. The fire- 
 place may be contrived at one end of the house, 
 and the door at which the fuel is put in, as also 
 the ash-grate, may be contrived to open into the 
 tool-house. 
 
 Whilst the front of the green -house is exactly 
 south, one of the wings may be made to face the 
 southeast, and the other the southwest. By this 
 disposition the heat of the sun is reflected from 
 one part of the building to the other all day, and 
 the front of the main green-house is guarded from 
 the cold winds. These two wings may be so con- 
 trived as to maintain plants of different degrees 
 of hardiness, which may be easily effected by the 
 situation and extent of the fire-place, and tho 
 manner of conducting the flues. 
 
62 
 
 HOKTICULTUKE. 
 
 The sloping glasses of these houses should be 
 made to slide and take off, so that they may be 
 drawn down more or less in warm weather to 
 admit air to the plants; and the upright glasses 
 in the front may be so contrived as that every 
 other may open as a door upon hinges, and the al- 
 ternate glasses may be divided into two; the upper 
 part of each should be so contrived as to be drawn 
 down like a sash, so that either of them may be 
 ased to admit air in a greater or less quantity, as 
 there may be occasion. As to the management 
 of plants in a green-house, open the mould about 
 them from time to time, and sprinkle a little fresh 
 mould in them, and a little warm dung on that; 
 also water them when the leaves begin to wither 
 and curl, and notoftener, which would make them 
 fade and be sickly ; and take off such leaves as 
 wither and grow dry. 
 
 To propagate Vegetables. 
 
 Plants are universally propagated by seed, but 
 partially also by germs or bulbs, suckers, runners, 
 slips, and offsets, and artificially by layers, in- 
 arching, grafting, budding, and cutting. 
 
 The propagation by seed is to make sure of live 
 seeds ; for some lose their vitality very early after 
 being gathered, while others retain it only for one 
 or perhaps two seasons ; some seeds also are in- 
 jured, and others improved by keeping. The size 
 of seeds requires also to be taken into considera- 
 tion, for on this most frequently depends the depth 
 which they require to be buried in the soil ; the 
 texture of their sl- ; n or covering must be at- 
 tended to, as on this ^ c ten depends the time they 
 require to be buried in the soil previously to ger- 
 mination. On the form and surface of the outer 
 coating of seeds sometimes depends the mode of 
 sowing, as in the carrot, and on their qualities in 
 general depends their liability to be attacked by in- 
 sects. The nature of the offspring expects it, and 
 the proper climate, soil, and season, require also to 
 be kept in view in determining how, where, when, 
 and in what quantity any seed must be sown. 
 
 Germs or bulbs, cauline or radical, require in 
 general to be planted immediately, or soon after 
 removal from the parent plant, in light earth, 
 about their own depth from the surface. Ma- 
 tured bulbs may be preserved out of the soil for 
 some months, without injury to the vitality; but 
 infant bulbs are easily dried up and injured when 
 BO treated. 
 
 Slips are shoots which spring from the collar or 
 the upper part of the roots of herbaceous plants, 
 as in auricular, and under shrubs, as thymes, etc. 
 The shoot, when the lower part from whence the 
 roots proceed begins to ripen or acquire a firm 
 texture, is to be slipped or drawn from the parent 
 plant, so far as to bring off a heel or claw of old 
 wood, stem, or root, on which generally some 
 roots, or rudiments of roots, are attached. The 
 ragged parts and edges of this claw or rough sec- 
 tion are then to be smoothed with a sharp knife, 
 and the slip to be planted in suitable soil and 
 shaded till it strikes root afresh. 
 
 The division of the plant is adopted in many 
 species, as in grasses, the daisy, polyanthus, and 
 a great variety of others. The plant is taken up, 
 the earth shaken from its roots ; the whole is then 
 separated, each piece containing a portion of root 
 and stem, which may be planted without further 
 preparation. 
 
 With certain species taking runners is a conve- 
 nient and sure mode of propagation. All that is 
 requisite is to allow the plantlet on the shoot or 
 runner to be well rooted before being separated 
 from the parent. It may then be planted where 
 ft is finally to remain. 
 
 Suckers are merely runners under ground ; some 
 run to a considerable distance, as the acacia, nar- 
 row-leaved elm, sea-lime gr;iss, etc.; others again 
 are more limited in their migrations, as the lilac, 
 syringa, Jerusalem artichoke, saponaria, etc. All 
 that is necessary is to dig them up, cut off each 
 plantlet with a portion of root, after which its top 
 may be reduced by cutting off from one-fourth tp 
 one-half of the shoot, in order to fit it to the cur- 
 tailed root, and it may then be planted, either in. 
 the nursery department or, if a strong plant, wher < 
 it is finally to remain. 
 
 Propagation by Layering. 
 
 In general the operation of layering in tree* 
 and shrubs is commenced before the ascent of the 
 sap, or delayed till the ascent is fully up. Th 
 shoot, or extremity of the shoot, intended to be- 
 come a new plant, is half separated from ihe parent 
 plant, at a few inches distance from its extremity, 
 and, while this permits the ascent of the sap at the 
 season of its rising, the remaining half of them, 
 being cut through and separated, forms a dam or 
 sluice to the descending sap, which, thus inter- 
 rupted in its progress, exudes at the wound, in the 
 form of a granulous protuberance, which throws 
 out roots. If the cut or notch in the stem does 
 not penetrate at least half way through, some sorts 
 of trees will not form a nuc'eus the first season; 
 on the other hand, if the notch be out neariy 
 through the shoot, a sufficiency of alburnum, or 
 soft wood, is not left for the ascent of the sap, and 
 the shoot dies. In delicate sorts it is not suffi- 
 cient to cut a notch merely, because in that case 
 the descending sap, instead of throwing out gran- 
 ulated matter, in the upper side of the wound, 
 would descend by the entire side of the shoot; 
 therefore, besides a notch formed by cutting out 
 a portion of bark and wood, the notched side is 
 slit up at least one inch, separating it by a bit of 
 twig, or small splinter of stone or potsherd. The 
 operation of layering is performed on herbaceous 
 plants, as well as trees; and the part to become 
 the future plant is, in both cases, covered with 
 soil about a third of its length. 
 
 When the layers are rooted, which will generally 
 be the case by the autumn after, the operation is 
 performed, they are all cleared from the stools or 
 main-plants, and the head of each stool, if to be 
 continued for furnishing layers, should be dressed; 
 cutting off all decayed scraggy parts, and digging 
 the ground round them. Some fresh rich mould 
 should also be worked in, in order to encourage 
 the production of the annual supply of shoots for 
 layering. 
 
 Propagation by In-arching. 
 
 A sort of layering, by the common or slit pro- 
 cess, in which the talus or heel, intended to throw 
 out fibres, instead of being inserted in the soil, is 
 inserted in the wood, or between the wood and 
 bark of another plant, so as to incorporate with it. 
 It is the most certain mode of propagation with 
 plants difficult to excite to a disposition for root- 
 ing; and, when all other modes fail, this, when a 
 proper description of stock or basis is to be found, 
 is sure to succeed. 
 
 The stocks designed to be in-arched, and the 
 tree from which the layer or shoot is to be bent or 
 arched towards them, and put in or united, must 
 be placed, if in pots, or planted if in the open soil, 
 near together. Hardy trees of free- growing kinds 
 should have a circle of stocks planted round them 
 every year in the same circumference, every other 
 one being in-arched the one year, and when re- 
 moved their places supplied by others. If the 
 branches of the tree are too high for stocks in the 
 ground, they should be planted in pots, and ele- 
 
BUDDING, 
 
 r~ted on posts or stands, or supported from the 
 tree, etc. 
 
 To perform the operation, having made one of 
 the most convenient branches or shoots approach 
 the stock, mark, on the body of the shoot, the part 
 where it will most easily join to the stock; and 
 in that part of each shoot pare away the bark and 
 part of the wood two or three inches in length, 
 and in the same manner pare the stock in the 
 proper place for the junction of the shoot; next 
 make a slit upwards in that part of the branch or 
 shoot, as in layering, and make a slit downward 
 in the stock to admit it. Let the parts be then 
 joined, slipping the tongue of the shoot into the 
 slit of the stock, making both join in an exact 
 manner, and tie them closely together with bags. 
 Cover the whole afterward with a due quantity 
 of tempered or grafting clay or moss. In hot- 
 houses care must be taken not to disturb the pots 
 containing the plants operated on. 
 
 By Budding. 
 
 Budding, or, as it is sometimes called, grafting, 
 by germs, consists in taking an eye or bud attached 
 to a portion of the bark of a ligneous vegetable, of 
 various size and form, and generally called a 
 shield, and transplanting it to another or a differ- 
 ent ligneous vegetable. Nursery-men now gene- 
 rally prefer budding to any other mode of propa- 
 gation. The object in view is precisely that of 
 grafting, and depends on the same principle; all 
 the difference between a bud and a scion being 
 that a bud is a shoot or scion in embryo. Budded 
 trees are two years later in producing their fruit 
 than grafted ones: but the advantage of budding 
 is that, where a tree is rare, a new plant can be 
 got from every eye, whereas by grafting it can 
 only be got from every three or four eyes. There 
 are also trees which propagate much more readily 
 by budding than grafting; and others, as most 
 of the stone fruits, are apt to throw out gum when 
 grafted. Budding is formed from the beginning 
 of July to the middle of August, the criterion 
 the formation of the buds in the axillae of the leaf 
 of the present year. 
 
 The budh are known to be ready by the shield, 
 or portion of bark to which they are attached, 
 easily parting with the wood. 
 
 Shield Budding 
 
 Is performed as follows : Fix on a smooth part 
 on the side of the stock, rather from than towards 
 the sun, and of a height depending, as in grafting, 
 on whether dwarf, half, or whole standard trees 
 are desired; then, with the budding-knife, make 
 a horizontal cut across the rind, quite through the 
 firm wood ; from the middle of this transverse cut 
 make a slit downward perpendicularly, an inch or 
 more long, going also quite through to the wood. 
 Proceed with expedition to take off a bud; hold- 
 ing the cutting or scion in one hand, with the 
 thickest end outward, and with the knife in the 
 other hand, enter it about half an inch or more 
 below a bud, cutting nearly half-way into the 
 wood of the shoot, continuing it, with one clean 
 slanting cut, about half an inch or more above 
 the bud, so deep as to take off part of the wood 
 along with it, the whole about an inch and a half 
 long; then directly with the thumb and finger, or 
 point of the knife, slip off the woody part remain- 
 ing to the bud; which done, observe whether the 
 eye or germ- of the bud remains perfect; if not, 
 and a little hole appears in that part, the bud has 
 lost its root, and another must be prepared. This 
 done, place the back part of the bud or shield be- 
 tween the lips, and with the flat haft of the knife 
 separate the bark of the stock on each side of the 
 
 perpendicular cut clear to the wood, for the ad- 
 mission of the bud, which directly slip down, close 
 between the wood and bark, to the bottom of the 
 slit. Next cut off the top part of the shield even 
 with the horizontal cut, in order to let it com- 
 pletely into its place, and to join exactly the upper 
 edge of the shield with the transverse cut, that 
 the descending sap may immediately enter the 
 back of the shield, and protrude granulated mat- 
 ter between it and the wood, so as to effect a living 
 union. The parts are to be bound round with a 
 ligament of fresh bass, previously soaked in water, 
 to render it pliable and tough. Begin a little below 
 the bottom of the perpendicular slit, proceeding 
 upward closely round every part, except just ovec 
 the eye of the bud, and continue it a little above 
 the horizontal cut, not too tight, but just sufficient 
 to keep the hole close, and exclude the air, sun, 
 and wet. 
 
 Another Method of Budding. 
 Trees are generally budded by making a trans- 
 verse section in the bark of the stock, and a per- 
 pendicular slit beneath it; the bud is then pushed 
 down to give it the position which it is to have. 
 This operation is not always successful, and it is 
 better to employ an inverse or contrary method 
 by making the vertical slit above the transverse 
 section or cut, and pushing the bark containing 
 the bud upwards into its proper position. This 
 method very rarely fails of success, because as the 
 sap descends by the bark, the bud placed above 
 the transverse section receives abundance, whereas 
 if it be placed below the section very little sap 
 can ever get to it to promote the growth of the 
 bud. Oil rubbed upon the stems and branches cf 
 fruit trees destroys insects and increases the fruit- 
 buds. Used upon the stems of carnations, it guards 
 them against the depredations of the ear- wig. 
 The coarsest oil will suit, and only a small quan- 
 tity is required. 
 
 To bud with Double Ligatures. 
 This is an expeditious mode of budding 
 by Mr. T. A. Knight. The operations are per- 
 formed in the manner above stated, but instead 
 of one ligature two are applied, one above the 
 bud, inserted upon the transverse section, through 
 the bark; the other applied below in the usual 
 way. As soon as the buds have attached them- 
 selves the lower ligatures are taken off, but the 
 others are suffered to remain. The passage of the 
 sap upwards is in consequence much obstructed, 
 and the inserted buds begin to vegetate strongly 
 in July (being inserted in June), and when these 
 have afforded shoots about four inches long the 
 remaining ligatures are taken off, to permit the 
 excess of sap to pass on, and the young shoots are 
 nailed to the wall. Being there properly exposed 
 to light, their wood will ripen well, and afford 
 blossoms in the succeeding spring. 
 
 To graft Trees. 
 
 This is a mode of propagation applicable to 
 most sorts of trees and shrubs, but not easily to 
 very small under-shrubs, as heath, or herbaceous 
 vegetables. It is chiefly used for continuing va- 
 rieties of fruit trees. A grafted tree consists of 
 two parts, the scion and the stock; their union 
 constitutes the graft, and the performance of the 
 operation is called grafting. 
 
 The end of grafting is, first, to preserve and 
 multiply varieties and sub-varieties of fruit-trees, 
 endowed accidentally or otherwise with particular 
 qualities, which cannot be with certainty trans- 
 ferred to their offspring by seeds, and which would 
 be multiplied too slowly or ineffectually by any 
 other mode of propagation. 
 
 Second, to accelerate the fructification of trees, 
 
HORTICULTURE. 
 
 barren as w 11 as fruit bearing; for example, sup- 
 po e two acorns of a new species of. oak received 
 from a distant country; sow both, and after they 
 have grown one or two years cut one of them over 
 and graft the part cut off on a common oak of five 
 or six years' growth ; the consequence will be that 
 the whole nourishment of this young tree of five 
 years' growth being directed towards nourishing 
 the scion of one or two years, it will grow much 
 faster, and consequently arrive at perfection much 
 sooner than its fellow, or its own root left in the 
 ground. 
 
 The third use of grafting is to improve the 
 quality of fruits, and the fourth to perpetuate va- 
 rieties of ornamental trees or shrubs. 
 Materials used in Grafting. 
 
 Procure a strong pruning-knife for cutting off 
 the heads of the stocks previous to their prepara- 
 tion by the grafting-knife for the scion, a small 
 saw for larger stocks, and a penknife for very 
 small scions, chisel and mallet for cleft grafting, 
 bass ribbons for ligatures, and grafting clay. 
 
 To prepare Graf ting- Clay. 
 
 Grafting-clay is prepared either from stiff yel- 
 low or blue clay, or from clayey loam or brick 
 earth ; in either case adding thereto about a fourth 
 part of fresh horse dung, free from litter, and a 
 portion of cut hay, mixing the whole well together 
 and adding a little water ; then let the whole be 
 well beaten with a stick upon a floor or other hard 
 substance, and as it becomes too dry apply more 
 water, at every beating turning it over, and con- 
 tinue beating it well at top till it becomes flat and 
 soft. This process must be repeated more or less 
 according as the nature of the clay may require 
 to render it ductile, and yet not so tough as to be 
 apt to crack in dry weather. 
 
 Whip Grafting. 
 
 Whip, or as it is sometimes called tongue graft- 
 ing, is the most generally adopted in nurseries for 
 propagating fruit-trees. To effect this mode in 
 the best style, the top of the stock and the ex- 
 tremity of the scions should be nearly of equal 
 diameter. Hence this variety admits of being 
 performed on smaller stocks than any other. It 
 is called whip-grafting, from the method of cut- 
 ting the stock and scions sloping on one side so as 
 to fit each other, and thus tied together in the 
 manner of a whip-thong to the shaft or handle. 
 
 The scion and stock being cut off obliquely, at 
 corresponding angles, as near as the operator can 
 guess, then cut off the tip of the stock obliquely, 
 or nearly horizontally j make now a slit nearly in 
 the centre of the sloped face of the stock down- 
 wards and a similar one in the scion upwards. 
 The tongue or wedge-like process forming the up- 
 
 Eer part of the sloping face of the scion, is then 
 iserted downwards in the cleft of the stock, the 
 inner barks of both being brought closely to unite 
 on one side, so as not to be displaced in tying, 
 which ought to be done immediately with a rib- 
 band of b.iss, brought in a neat manner several 
 times rouud the stock, and which is generally done 
 from right to left, or in the course of the sun. 
 The next operation is to clay the whole over an 
 inch thick on every side from about half an inch 
 or more below the bottom of the graft to an inch 
 over the top of the stock, finishing the whole coat 
 of clay in a kind of oval globular form, rather 
 longways up and down, closing it effectually about 
 the scion and every part, so as no light, wet, nor 
 wind may penetrate, to prevent which is the whole 
 intention of claying. 
 
 Cleft Grafting. 
 This is resorted to in the case of strong stocks, 
 
 or in heading down and re-grafting old trees. The 
 head of the stock or branch is first cut off ob- 
 liquely, and then the sloped part is cut over hori- 
 zontally near the middle of the slope ; a cleft nearly 
 two inches long is made with a stout knife or 
 chisel in the crown downward, at right angles to 
 the sloped part, taking care not to divide the pith. 
 This cleft is kept open by the knife. The scion 
 has its extremity for about an inch and a half, 
 cut into the form of a wedge; it is left about the 
 eighth of an inch thicker on the outer side, and 
 brought to a fine edge on the inside. It is then 
 inserted into the opening prepared for it, and the 
 knife being withdrawn the stock closes firmly 
 upon it. 
 
 Crown Grafting. 
 
 This is another mode adopted for thick stocks, 
 shortened branches, or headed down trees. It ia 
 sometimes called grafting in the bark or rind, 
 from the scion being inserted between the bark 
 and wood. This mode of grafting is performed 
 with best effect somewhat later than the others, 
 as the motion of the sap renders the bark and 
 wood of the stock much more easily separated for 
 the admission of the scions. 
 
 In performing this operation, first cut or saw 
 off the head of the stock or branch horizontally 
 or level, and pare the top smooth; then having 
 the scions cut one side of each flat and somewhat 
 sloping, an inch and a half long, forming a sort 
 of shoulder at the top of the slope, to rest upon 
 the crown of the stock; and then raise the rind 
 of the stock with the ivory wedge forming the 
 handle of the budding knife, so as to aflinit the 
 scion between that and the wood two inches down, 
 which done., place the scion with the cut side next 
 the wood, thrusting it down far enough for the 
 shoulder to rest upon the top of the stock ; and 
 in this manner may be put three, four, five or 
 more scions in one large stock or branch. It is 
 alleged as a disadvantage attending this method 
 in exposed situations, that the ingrafted shoots 
 for two or three years are liable to be blown out 
 of the stock by violent winds; the only remedy 
 for which is tying long rods to the body of the 
 stock or branch, and tying up each scion and its 
 shoots to one of the rods. 
 
 Side Grafting. 
 
 This method resembles whip grafting, but dif- 
 fers in being performed on the side of the stock, 
 without bending down. It is practised on wall 
 trees to fill up vacancies, and sometimes in order 
 to have a variety of fruits upon the same tree. 
 Having fixed upon those parts of the branches 
 where wood is wanting to furnish the head or any 
 part of the tree, then slope off the bark and a 
 little of the wood, and cut the lower end of the 
 scions to fit the part as nearly as possible, then join 
 them to the branch, and tie them with bass and 
 clay them over. 
 
 Saddle Grafting. 
 
 This is performed by first cutting the top of th 
 stock into a wedge-like form, and then splitting 
 up the end of the scion and thinning off each half 
 to a tongue-shape; it is then placed on the wedge, 
 embracing it on each side, and the inner barks 
 are made to join on one side of the stock, as in 
 cleft grafting. This is a very strong and hand- 
 some mode for standard trees, when grafted at 
 the standard height. It is also desirable for 
 orange-trees and rose-standards, as it makes a 
 handsome finish, covering a part of the stock, 
 which, by the other methods, long remains a black 
 scar, and sometimes never becomes covered with 
 bark. The stocks for this purpose should not be 
 
GRAFTING. 
 
 65 
 
 much thicker than the scions, or two scions may 
 be inserted. 
 
 Shoulder or Chink Grafting. 
 This is performed with a shoulder, and, some- 
 times also with a stay at the bottom of the slope. 
 It is chiefly used for ornamental trees, where the 
 scion and stock are of the same size. 
 
 Hoot Grafting. 
 
 Root grafting is sometimes performed in nurse- 
 ries on parts of the roots of removed trees, when 
 the proper stocks are scarce; in which case the 
 root of the white thorn has been resorted to as a 
 stock both for the apple and pear. In general, 
 however, a piece of the root of the tree of the same 
 genus is selected, well furnished with fibres, and 
 a scion placed on it in any of the ordinary ways 
 for small stocks. Thus united, they are planted 
 BO deep as to cover the ball of clay, and leave only 
 a few eyes of the scion above ground. 
 
 In a month after grafting it may be ascertained 
 whether the scion has united with the stock by ob- 
 serving the progress of its buds; but, in general, 
 it is not safe to remove the clay for three months 
 or more, till the graft be completely cicatrized. 
 The clay may generally be taken off in July or 
 August, and at the same time the ligatures loos- 
 ened where the scion seems to require more room 
 to expand : a few weeks afterwards, when the 
 parts have been thus partially inured to the air, 
 and when there is no danger of the scion being 
 blown off by winds, the^ whole of the ligatures 
 may be removed. 
 
 To choose Scions. 
 
 Scions are those shoots which, united with the 
 stock, form the graft. They should be gathered 
 several weeks before the season for grafting ar- 
 rives. It is desirable that the sap of the stock 
 should be in brisk motion at the time of grafting; 
 but by this time the buds of the scion, if left on 
 the parent tree, would be equally advanced, 
 whereas the scions, being gathered early, the 
 buds are kept back, and ready only to swell out 
 when placed on the stock. Scions of pears, plums 
 and cherries, ace collected in the end of January 
 or beginning of February. They are kept at full 
 length sunk in dry earth, and out of the reach of 
 frost till wanted, which is sometimes from the 
 middle of February to the middle of March. 
 Scions of apples are collected any time in Febru- 
 ary, and put in from the middle to the end^of 
 March. In July grafting the scions are used as 
 
 To choose Cuttings. 
 
 In respect to the choice of cuttings, those 
 branches of trees and shrubs which are thrown 
 out nearest the ground, and especially such as 
 recline, or nearly so, on the earth's surface, have 
 always the most tendency to produce roots. Even 
 the branches of resinous trees, which are extremely 
 difficult to propagate by cuttings, when reclining 
 on the ground, if accidentally or otherwise covered 
 with earth in any part, will there throw out roots, 
 and the extremity of the lateral shoot will assume 
 the character of a main stem, as may be some- 
 times seen in the larch, spruce and silver fir. 
 
 The choice of cuttings then is to be made from 
 the side shoots of plants rather than from their 
 summits or main stems, and the strength and 
 health of side shoots being equal, those nearest 
 the ground should be preferred. The proper time 
 for taking cuttings from the mother plant is when 
 the sap is in full motion, in order that, in return- 
 ing by the bark, it may form a callus or protruding 
 ring of granular substance between the bark and 
 Wood, whence the roots proceed,. As this callus 
 
 or ring of spongy matter is generally best formed 
 in ripened wood, the cutting, when taken from the 
 mother plant, should contain a part of the former 
 year, or in plants which grow twice a year, of the 
 wood of the former growth ; or in the case of 
 plants which are continually growing, as most 
 evergreen exotics, such wood as has begun to 
 ripen or assume a brownish color. This is the 
 true principle of the choice of cuttings as to time ; 
 but there are many sorts of trees, as willow, elder, 
 etc,, the cuttings of which will grow almost at any 
 season, and especially if remored from the mother 
 plant in winter, when the sap is at rest. 
 
 These ought always to be cut across, with the 
 smoothest and soundest section possible at an eye 
 or joint. And as buds are in a more advanced 
 state in wood somewhat ripened or fully formed 
 than in forming wood, this section ought to be 
 made in the wood of the growth of the preceding 
 season; or as it were in the point between the two 
 growths. It is a common practice to cut off the 
 whole or a part of the leaves of cuttings, which is 
 always attended with bad effects in evergreens, in 
 which the leaves may be said to supply nourish- 
 ment to the cutting till it can sustain itself. This 
 is very obvious in the case of striking from buds, 
 which, without a leaf attached, speedily rot and 
 die. Leaves alone will even strike root, and form 
 plants in some instances, and the same may be 
 stated of certain flowers and fruits. 
 Piping. 
 
 This is a mode of propagation by cuttings, and 
 is adopted with plants having jointed tubular 
 stems, as the dianthus tribe; and several of the 
 grasses and the arundines may be propagated in 
 this manner. When the shoot has nearly done 
 growing, its extremity is to be separated at a part 
 of the stem where it is nearly indurated or ri- 
 pened. This operation is effected by holding the 
 root end between the finger and thumb of one 
 hand, below a pair of leaves, and with the other 
 pulling the top part above the pair of leaves, so 
 as to separate it from the root part of the stem at 
 the socket, formed by the axillae of the leaves, 
 leaving the stem to remain with a tubular termi- 
 nation. These pipings are inserted without any 
 further preparation in finely sifted earth to the 
 depth of the first joint or pipe. 
 
 To insert Cuttings. 
 
 Cuttings, if inserted in a mere mass of earth, 
 will hardly throw out roots, while, if inserted at 
 the sides of the pots so as to touch the pot in their 
 whole length, they seldom fail to become rooted 
 plants. The art is to place them to touch the 
 bottom of the pot; they are then to be plunged 
 in a bark or hot-bed and kept moist. 
 
 To manage Cuttings. 
 
 No cutting requires to be planted deep, though 
 the large ought to be inserted deeper than such 
 as are small. In the case of evergreens the leave* 
 should be kept from touching the soil, otherwise 
 they will damp or rot off; and in the case of tu- 
 bular-stalked plants, which are in general not very 
 easily struck, owing to the water lodging in the 
 tube and rotting the cutting, both ends may be 
 advantageously inserted in the soil, and besides a 
 greater certainty of success, two plants will be 
 produced. Too much light, air, water, heat or 
 cold, are alike injurious. To guard against these 
 extremes in tender sorts, the means hitherto de- 
 vised is that of inclosing an atmosphere over the 
 cuttings by means of a hand or bell-glass, accord- 
 ing to their delicacy. This preserves a uniform 
 stillness and moisture of atmosphere. Immersing 
 the pot in earth has a tendency to preserve a 
 
66 
 
 HORTICULTURE. 
 
 steady, uniform degree of moisture at the roots; 
 and shading, or planting the cuttings if in the 
 open air in a shady situation, prevents the bad 
 effects of excess of light. The only method of 
 regulating the heat is by double or single cover- 
 ings of glass or mats, or both. A hand-glass 
 placed over a bell-glass will preserve, in a shady 
 situation, a very constant degree of heat. 
 
 What the degree of heat ought to be is decided 
 by the degree -of heat requisite for the mother 
 plant. Most species t,f the erica, dahlia, and 
 geranium, strike better rhen supplied with rather 
 more heat than is requisite for the growth of these 
 plants in green-houses. The myrtle tribe and 
 camellias require rather less: and in general a 
 lesser portion of heat, and of everything else pro- 
 
 er for plants, in their rooted and growing state, 
 i the safest. 
 
 To sow Seeds with Advantage. 
 This is the first operation of rearing. Where 
 seeds are deposited singly, as in rows of beans or 
 large nuts, they are said to be planted; where 
 dropped in numbers together, to be sown. The 
 operation of sowing is either performed in drills, 
 patches or broadcast. Drills are small excavations 
 formed with the draw-hoe, generally in straight 
 lines parallel to each other, and in depth and 
 distance apart varying according to the size of 
 the seeds. In these drills the seeds are strewed 
 from the hand of the operator, who, taking a 
 small quantity in the palin of his hand and fin- 
 gers, regulates its emission by the thumb. Some 
 seeds are very thinly sown, as the pea and spinach; 
 others thick, as the cress and small salading. 
 
 Patches are small circular excavations made 
 with the trowel ; in these seeds are either sown or 
 planted, thicker or thinner, and covered more or 
 less, according to their natures. This is the mode 
 adopted in sowing in pots, and generally in flower 
 borders. 
 
 In broadcast sowing the operator scatters the 
 seed over a c^ siderable breadth of surface, pre- 
 viously prepared by digging, or otherwise being 
 minutely pulverized. The seed is taken up in 
 portions in the hand and dispersed by a horizon- 
 tal movement of the arm to the extent of a semi- 
 circle, opening the hand at the same time and 
 scattering the seeds in the air so that they may fall 
 as equally as possible over the breadth taken in 
 by the sower at once, and which is generally six 
 feet that being the diameter of the circle in 
 which his hand moves through half the circum- 
 ference. In sowing broadcast on beds and narrow 
 strips or borders, the seeds are dispersed between 
 the thumb and fingers by horizontal movements 
 of the hand in segments of smaller circles. 
 
 Dry weather is essentially requisite for sowing, 
 and more especially for the operation of covering 
 in the seed, which in broadcast sowing is done by 
 treading or gently rolling the surface, and then 
 raking it; and in drill-sowing by treading in the 
 larger seeds, as peas, and covering with the rake ; 
 smaller seeds, sown in drills, are covered with the 
 same implement without treading. 
 
 To plant Shrubs and Trees. 
 
 Planting, as applied to seeds or seed-like roots, 
 as potatoes, bulbs, etc., is most frequently per- 
 formed in drills or in separate holes made with 
 the dibbler ; in these the seed or bulb is dropped 
 from the ha,nd, and covered with or without tread- 
 ijig, according to its nature. Sometimes planting 
 k) performed in patches, as in pots or borders, in 
 which case the trowel is the chief instrument used. 
 
 Quincunx is a mode of planting in rows, by 
 which the plants in the one row are always op- 
 posed to the blanks in the other, so that when 
 
 plot of ground is planted in this way the plants 
 appear in rows in four directions. 
 
 Planting, as applied to plants already originated, 
 consists generally in inserting them in the soil of 
 the same depth, and in the same position as they 
 were before removal, but with various exceptions. 
 The principal object is to preserve the fibrous 
 roots entire, to distribute them equally around the 
 stem among the mould or finer soil, and to pro- 
 serve the plant upright. The plant should not be 
 planted deeper than it stood in the soil before re- 
 moval, and commonly the same side should be 
 kept towards the sun. Planting should as much 
 as possible be accompanied by abundant water- 
 ing, in order to* consolidate the soil about the 
 roots ; and where the soil is dry, or not a stiff clay, 
 it may be performed in the beginning of wet 
 weather, in gardens; and in forest planting, on 
 dry soils, in all open weather during autumn, 
 winter and spring. 
 
 To water Gardens. 
 
 Watering becomes requisite in gardens for va- 
 rious purposes, as aliment to plants in a growing 
 state, as support to newly-transplanted plants, 
 for keeping under insects, and keeping clean the 
 leaves of vegetables. One general rule must be 
 ever kept in mind during the employment of water 
 in a garden, that is, never to water the top or 
 leaves of a plant when the sun shines. All water- 
 ing should be carried on in the evening or early 
 in the morning, unless it be confined to watering 
 the roots, in which case transplanted plants, and 
 others in a growing state, may be watered at any 
 time; and if they are shaded from the sun, they 
 may also be watered over their tops. Watering 
 over the tops is performed with the rose, or dis- 
 penser attached to the spout of the watering-pot, 
 or by the syringe or engine. Watering the roota 
 is best done with the rose; but in the case of 
 watering pots in haste, and where the earth is 
 hardened, it is done with the naked spout. In 
 new-laid turf, or lawn of a loose, porous soil, and 
 too mossy surface, the water-barrel may be advan- 
 tageously used. 
 
 Many kitchen crops are lost, or produced of 
 very inferior quality, for want of watering. Let- 
 tuces and cabbages are often hard and stringy, 
 turnips and radishes do not swell, onions decay, 
 cauliflowers die off; and, in general, in dry soils, 
 copious waterings in the evenings, during the dry 
 season, would produce that fullness of succulency, 
 which is found in the vegetables produced in the 
 low countries, and in the Marsh Gardens at Paris; 
 and in this country at the beginning and latter 
 end of the season. 
 
 The watering of the foliage of small trees, to pre- 
 vent the increase of insects, and of strawberries 
 and fruit shrubs, to swell the fruit, is also of im- 
 portance. 
 
 To water the Foliage of Wall Trees. 
 
 Water is to be supplied to a garden from a re- 
 servoir, situated on an eminence, a considerable 
 height above the garden walls. Around the 
 whole garden, four inches below the surface of 
 the ground, a groove, between two and three 
 inches deep, has been formed in the walls, to re- 
 ceive a three-quarter inch pipe for conducting the 
 water. About fifty feet distant from each other, 
 are apertures through the wall, two and a half 
 feet high, and ten inches wide, in which a cock is 
 placed, so that on turning the handle to either side 
 of the wall, the water issues from that side. The 
 nozzles of the cocks have screws on each side, to 
 which is attached at pleasure a leathern pipe, with 
 a brass cock and director; roses, pierced with 
 holes of different sizes, being fitted to the latter. 
 
By this contrivance, all the trees, both inside and 
 outside the wall, can be most effectually watered 
 and washed, in a very short space of time, and 
 with little trouble. One man may go over the 
 whole in two hours. At the same time the bor- 
 ders, and even a considerable part of the quar- 
 ters, can be watered with the greatest ease, when 
 required. 
 
 To transplant. 
 
 Transplanting consists in removing propagated 
 plants, whether from seeds, cuttings, or grafts, ac- 
 cording to their kinds and other circumstances, 
 to a situation prepared to receive them. Trans- 
 planting, therefore, involves three things: first, 
 the propagation of the soil, to which the plant is 
 to be removed; secondly, the removal of the 
 plant; thirdly, the insertion in the prepared soil. 
 
 The preparation of the soil implies, in all cases, 
 stirring, loosening, mixing, and comminution; 
 and, in many oases, the addition of manure or 
 compost, according to the nature of the soil and 
 plant to be inserted, and according as the same 
 may be in open grounds, or pots, or hot-houses. 
 
 The removal of the plant is generally effected 
 by loosening tlic earih around it, and then draw- 
 ing it out of the soil with the hand ; in all cases 
 avoiding as much as possible to break, or bruise, 
 or otherwise injure the roots. In the case of small 
 seedling plants, merely inserting the spade, and 
 raising the portion of earth in which they grow 
 will suffice ; but in removing larger plants, it is 
 necessary to dig a trench round the plant. 
 
 In some cases, the plant may be lifted with a 
 ball of earth, containing all its roots, by means 
 of the trowel ; and in others, as in large shrubs or 
 trees, it may be necessary to cut the roots at a 
 certain distance from the plant, one year before 
 removal, in order to furnish them with young 
 fibres, to enable them to support the change. In 
 pots less care is necessary, as the roots and ball 
 of earth may be preserved entire. 
 
 To accelerate Plants in Hot-Houses. 
 There are two leading modes of accelerating 
 plants in these buildings; the first is by placing 
 them there permanently, as in the case of the 
 peach, vine, etc., planted in the ground; and the 
 second is by having the plants in pots, and intro- 
 ducing or withdrawing them at pleasure. As far 
 as respects trees, the longest crops, and with far 
 less care, are produced by the first method ; but in 
 respect to herbaceous plants and shrubs, whether 
 culinary, as the strawberry and kidney-bean, or 
 ornamental, as the rose and the pink, the latter is 
 by far the most convenient method. Where large 
 pots are used, the peach, cherry, fig, etc., will 
 produce tolerable crops. Vines and other fruit 
 trees, when abundantly supplied with water and 
 manure in a liquid state, require but a very small 
 quantity of mould. 
 
 To protect Vegetables from injuries by means of 
 
 Straw Ropes. 
 
 This is effected by throwing the ropes in differ- 
 ent directions over the trees, and sometimes de- 
 positing their ends in pails of water. It has been 
 tried successfully on wall-trees, and on potatoes 
 and other herbaceous vegetables. As soon as the 
 buds of the trees become turgid, place poles 
 against the wall, in front of the trees, at from four 
 to six feet asunder, thrusting their lower ends into 
 the earth, about a foot from the wall, and fasten- 
 ing them at the top with a strong nail, either to 
 the wall or coping. Then procure a quantity of 
 straw or hay-ropes, and begin at the top of one of 
 the outer poles, making fast the end, and pass the 
 rope from pole to pole, taking a round turn upon 
 
 FRUIT TREES. 67 
 
 each, until the end is reached, when, after secur- 
 ing it well, begin about eighteen inches below, and 
 return in the same manner to the other end, and 
 so on^ till within two feet of the ground. Straw- 
 ropes have also been found very useful in protect- 
 ing other early crops from the effects of frost, as 
 peas, potatoes, or kidney-beans, by fixing them 
 along the rows with pins driven into the ground. 
 
 The same by Nets. 
 
 The net should be placed out at the distance of 
 fifteen or eighteen inches from the tree, being 
 kept off by looped sticks, with their butts placed 
 against the wall, and at a distance of about a } r ard 
 from each other. In order to make them stand 
 firmly, the net should be first stretched tightly on, 
 and be fastened on all sides. If the nets were 
 doubled or trebled, and put on in this way, they 
 would be a more effectual screen, as the meshes 
 or openings would, in that case, be rendered very 
 small. Woollen nets are deemed the best, and are 
 now in general use in Scotland. In screening 
 with nets of any kind, they are always to be left 
 on night and day, till all danger be over. 
 
 The same by Canvas Screens. 
 This is effected either by placing movable can- 
 vas screens over or around detached trees, porta- 
 ble hand-cases over herbaceous plants, tents or 
 open sheds over the forests' productions, or frames 
 or sheets against trees trained on walls. In all 
 cases they should be placed clear of the tree or 
 plant, either by extended, forked or hooked sticks, 
 or any other obvious resource. 
 
 To raise and manage Fruit Trees. 
 
 In the removal or transplantation of trees, gar- 
 deners and nurserymen are generally very care- 
 less and inattentive in taking them up, and care 
 not how much the roots are broken or lessened in 
 number, provided they have enough left to keep 
 the tree alive; the consequence is that although 
 the branches left on remain alive, there is so great 
 a deficiency of sap, from the loss of roots, that the 
 vessels cannot be filled the following spring. 
 
 The roots are broken or cut off at random, and 
 generally diminished more than one-half, or they 
 are doubled back and distorted, and if there be 
 enough left to keep the plant alive, it is thought 
 quite sufficient, and by these means the appear- 
 ance of blossoms and fruit being prematurely pro- 
 duced, those stinted and deformed plants are sold 
 as half or full- trained trees for four times the 
 price of others, and when sold they are again 
 taken up and the roots treated and diminished in 
 the same careless manner. 
 
 When the soil of a garden wherein fruit-trees 
 are to be planted is not naturally comfortable or 
 congenial to the first principle, it must be made so. 
 
 The top of a wall should be so formed as to 
 throw off water, for otherwise it will generally be 
 damped, which renders the trees unhealthy, and 
 when the substance against which the branches 
 are fixed is dry, the temperature on all sides will 
 be more equal. 
 
 In preparing beds or borders, due attention 
 must be paid both to the soil and subsoil, as each 
 equally affects the health and fruitfulness of trees, 
 and principally as it retains or discharges water, 
 stagnant water being at all times particularly det- 
 rimental to the fructification of trees. 
 
 For peaches, nectarines, etc., a border of ten or 
 twelve feet wide will generally prove sufficient. 
 In cases where the soil has been too close and re- 
 tentive, and the roots apt to grow deep on the 
 substratum, lay a stratum of six inches of the 
 common soil of the garden and then form a strat- 
 um of about six inches for the roots to ruu and 
 
68 
 
 HORTICULTURE. 
 
 repose in, composed of two-third parts of fine 
 drift sand (the scrapings of a public road that 
 has been made or repaired with flints), and one- 
 third part of rich vegetable mould, well mixed 
 together; and the better way to perform this is, 
 first to lay on about three inches of the compo- 
 sition, and on this place the roots of the plant, 
 a-nd over them spread the other three inches, and 
 cover the whole down with from nine to twelve 
 inches of the common soil of the place. 
 
 Where it is not found necessary to form an arti- 
 ficial substratum, it will be sufficient to remove 
 the soil to the depth of fifteen or eighteen inches, 
 and there form the stratum of the roots, covering 
 it down with afoot or nine inches of the common 
 toil. 
 
 General mode of planting Trees. 
 
 The operation of inserting plants in the soil is 
 performed in various ways ; the most general 
 mode recommended by Marshal and Nicol is pit- 
 ting, in which two persons are employed, one to 
 operate on the soil with a spade, and the other to 
 insert the plant and hold "it till the earth is put 
 round it, and then press down the soil with the 
 foot. 
 
 The pit having been dug for several months, the 
 surface will therefore be incrusted by the rains or 
 probably covered with weeds. The man first 
 strikes the spade downwards to the bottom two or 
 three times, in order to loosen the soil, then 
 poaches it, as if mixing mortar for the builder; 
 he next lifts up a spadeful of the earth, or if ne- 
 cessary two spadesful, so as to make room for all 
 the fibres without their being anywise crowded 
 together; he then chops the rotten turf remaining 
 in the bottom and levels the whole. The boy now 
 places the plant perfectly upright an inch deeper 
 than when it stood in the nursery, and holds it 
 firm in that position. The man trindles in the 
 mould gently; the boy gently moves, the plant, 
 not from side to side, but upwards and downwards, 
 until the fibres be covered. The man then fills in 
 all the remaining mould, and immediately proceeds 
 to chop and poach the next pit, leaving the boy to 
 set the plant upright and to tread the mould about 
 it. This in stiff, wet soil he does lightly, but in 
 sandy or gravelly soil he continues to tread until 
 the soil no longer retains the impression of his 
 foot. The man has by this time got the pit ready 
 for the next plant; the boy is also ready with it 
 in his hand, and in this manner the operation 
 goes on. 
 
 One general rule, and one of considerable im- 
 portance in transplanting, is to set the plant or 
 tree no deeper in the ground than it was origi- 
 nally ; deep planting very often causes a delay, if 
 not sudden destruction. 
 
 More expeditious method. 
 
 The following mode has been practised for many 
 years on the Duke of Montrose's estate, in Scot- 
 land: The operator with his spnde makes three 
 cuts twelve or fifteen inches long, crossing each 
 other in the centre at an angle of 60, the whole 
 having the form of a star. He inserts his spade 
 cross one of the rays, a few inches from the cen- 
 tre, and on the side next himself; then bending 
 the handle towards himself, and almost to the 
 ground, the earth opening in fissures from the 
 centre in the direction of the cuts which had been 
 made, he at the same instant inserts his plant at 
 the point where the spade intersected the ray, 
 pushing it forward to the centre and assisting the 
 roots in rambling through the fissures. He then 
 lets down the earth by removing his spade, hav- 
 ing pressed it into a compact state with his heel ; 
 the operation is finished by adding a little earth 
 
 with the grass side down, completely covering the 
 fissures for the purpose of retaining the moisture 
 at the root, and likewise as a top-dressing, which 
 greatly encourages the plant to put fresh roots 
 between the swards. 
 
 German method of forcing Trees. 
 With a sharp knife make a cut in the bark of 
 the branch which is meant to be forced to bear, 
 and not far from the place where it is connected 
 with the stem, or if it is a small branch or shoot, 
 near where it is joined to the large bough; the 
 cut is to go round the branch, or to encircle it, and 
 penetrate to the wood. A quarter of an inch from 
 this cut make a second like the first, round the 
 branch, so that by both encircling the branch a 
 ring is formed upon the branch a quarter of an 
 inch broad between the two cuts. The bark be- 
 tween these two cuts is taken clean away with a 
 knife down to the wood, removing even the fine 
 inner bark, which lies immediately upon the wood, 
 so that no connexion whatever remains between 
 the two parts of the bark, but the bare and naked 
 wood appears white and smooth; but this bark 
 ring, to compel the tree to bear, must be made at 
 the time when the buds are strongly swelling or 
 breaking out into bloom. 
 
 The AppU. 
 
 The best soil for the apple is a dry, loamy, rich 
 soil, with a light clay subsoil that the roots can 
 easily penetrate to a considerable depth; with an 
 easterly or southern exposure. The best fertili- 
 zers are barn-yard manure, lime, and bone-dust. 
 Care should be taken to apply the manure gene- 
 rally over the surface. 
 
 The best varieties for cultivation are the follow- 
 ing, which ripen in succession : the Early Har- 
 vest; Red Astrachan; Summer Rose; American 
 Summer Pearmain; Large Early Bough ; Graven- 
 stein ; Maiden's Blush ; Fall Pippin ; Smokehouse; 
 Rambo; Esopus; Spitzenberg; Boston Russet; 
 Rhode Island Greening; Baldwin; Wine-sap. 
 
 The apple-tree is subject to several diseases. 
 The best preventive of them is heading low, so 
 th.:t the trunk of the tree will be shaded from the 
 hot sun, and washing the tree occasionally with 
 soap-suds, a pint of soft soap to a gallon of 
 water. 
 
 The Pear. 
 
 The best soil for the pear is a moderately heavy, 
 sandy, and dry soil, with a sub-soil of light clay 
 which is easily penetrated by the roots to a great 
 depth ; a moderate portion of iron in the soil is 
 desirable. The best situation is an undulating 
 eastern or southern exposure. The best fertili- 
 zers, as in the case of the apple, are barn-yard 
 manure, lime, and bone-dust. Iron cinders are a 
 good application when there is a deficiency of that 
 element in the soil. 
 
 The most desirable varieties for general culture 
 as standards to ripen in succession are as follows: 
 
 Doyenne d'Ete ; Bloodgood ; Dearborn's Seed- 
 ling; Beurre Giffard; Bartlett; Sickel; Tyson; 
 Howell; Belle Lucrative; BuflFum; Blemish Beau- 
 ty; Beurre Bose; Doyenne Boussock ; Beurre 
 d'Anjou; Sheldon; Beurre Clairgeau; Lawrence. 
 
 The best varieties for dwarf pears, on quince 
 stocks, are Beurre d'Anjou; Duchesse d'Angou- 
 16me ; Glou Morceau ; Vicar of Wakefield. 
 
 The most serious disease of the pear is the 
 blight. The remedy is, to cut the blight off well 
 down into the second wood. 
 
 The Peach. 
 
 The soil most suitable for the peach-tree ia * 
 dry, light, sandy, undulating soil, with a light 
 
PINE-APPLES. 
 
 69 
 
 clay subsoil, and an eastern or southern expo- 
 sure. The best fertilizer for the peach is Peruvian 
 guano. Among the best varieties to ripen in suc- 
 cession are, of clearstoues, the Early York; Early 
 Tillotson; George the Fourth; Oldmixon Free- 
 stone; Columbian; Crawford's Late. Of cling- 
 stones, Large White; Oldmixon Cling;- Heath. 
 
 The principal diseases of the peach are, the yel- 
 lows, aod worms which prey upon the crown roots 
 near the surface of the ground. The most effec- 
 tual preventive for the yellows is, to be careful to 
 get healthy trees, and to plant them well above 
 the surface of the ground, by throwing up ridges 
 with the plough, say fifteen or twenty feet apart ; 
 then plant the tree on the ridge, also making a 
 slight mound to cover the roots. If the tree shows 
 signs of weakness, dig the earth well from the 
 crown roots, scrape the worms away if any, and 
 then sprinkle in the hole around the roots a hand- 
 ful or two of guano, and fill it up with earth. 
 Worms may be prevented, also, by coating the 
 bark of each tree, for three or four inches next to 
 the ground, with coal or gas tar; which will not 
 allow the parent insect to deposit its eggs. Only 
 a short distance must be so coated, as to cover the 
 whole trunk would kill the tree. A kind of coat 
 made of the gas-soaked felt used for roofs will 
 answer the same purpose. 
 
 All orchard trees require good cultivation, but 
 especially the peach. Ashes are said by some to 
 be a good addition to its manure. 
 
 The Plum. 
 
 The plum-tree is hardy, and requires but little 
 attention ; it bears abundantly, and may be' con- 
 sidered a sure crop when the soil suits. The best 
 for it is a stiff clay, which is not suitable to the 
 habits of the curculio, the great enemy of the 
 plum. 
 
 The best varieties are, the Green Gage, Purple 
 Gage, and Prince's Yellow Gage. 
 
 The Blackberry. 
 
 For the cultivated blackberry the soil should be 
 rich, dry, and mellow. Barn-yard manure and 
 bone-dust are its best fertilizers; it is a good plan 
 to mix them with half-rotten straw, or some such 
 thing. They should be planted three feet apart 
 in the rows; the rows being six feet asunder. 
 The most approved variety is the Lawton or Ro- 
 chelle; its fruit is very large, beautiful, and lus- 
 cious, when allowed to become fully ripe on the 
 bush. The Dr. W'arder, Dorchester and Marshall 
 Winder varieties are also very fine. Immense 
 numbers of cultivated blackberries are now sold 
 annually in the markets of our cities. 
 
 The Raspberry. 
 
 The best soil for the raspberry is a rich, light, 
 deep soil. Plant them in rows six feet apart and 
 three feet asunder in the row. It is well occa- 
 sionally to throw up the earth around them so as 
 to protect the roots which keep near the surface 
 from the hot sun. The most desirable varieties 
 are, the American Black; Hudson River Ant- 
 werp; Improved American Black; Brinckle's 
 Orange. 
 
 The Strawberry. 
 
 For this fruit the most suitable soil is light and 
 sandy. It may be enriched by ashes, bone, barn- 
 yard manure, etc. The plants should be set one 
 foot apart, in rows two feet from each other. Put 
 in the young plants from the middle of August to 
 the middle of September. Keep the ground mel- 
 low and free from weeds. In the following spring 
 manure and hoe the ground well, to keep it moist 
 and free from weeds. With such care a quart of 
 
 fruit has sometimes been picked from one plant, 
 the next season after planting. Some cultivators 
 prefer to cut off all the blossoms the first spring, 
 so as to strengthen the plants for growth. The 
 best varieties of strawberry are, Wilson's Albany; 
 Hovey's Seedling; Triomphe de Gaud; Bartlett; 
 McAvoy's Superior. 
 
 The Cranberry. 
 
 This is a hardy trailing shrub, growing wild in 
 many parts of the country. It is easily cultivated, 
 and when once established in the soil requires very 
 little attention ; it produces large crops, and the 
 fruit commands high prices. The best soil is that 
 of swampy, sandy meadows or bogs, which are 
 unfit for any other purpose. This fruit is well 
 worthy of the attention of any one who has wet, 
 swampy land. It will flourish from Maine to 
 middle Virginia. 
 
 To plant Small Fruits. 
 
 Currants and gooseberries are often planted in 
 lines, by the side of the walks or alleys of the 
 garden ; but it is a better method to plant them, 
 in quarters by themselves, and to make new plan- 
 tations every sixth or seventh year. 
 
 Raspberries produce the finest fruit when 
 young; that is, about the third or fourth year 
 after planting, if properly managed. 
 
 It is proper to plant some of all the above fruits 
 on a north border, or other shaded situation, in 
 order to prolong the season of them, if that be an 
 object, besides planting them out in quarters as 
 hinted above. 
 
 From four to six feet square, according to the 
 quality of the soil, may be deemed a proper dis- 
 tance at which to plant the above fruits; that is, 
 in good land six feet, in middling land five, and in 
 poor land four feet apart. Some may also very pro- 
 perly be planted against vacant places on any of 
 the walls, pales or espaliers. Antwerp raspber- 
 ries, in particular, and some kinds of gooseberries, 
 are highly improved in size and flavor if trained 
 to a south wall. 
 
 To choose Plants. 
 
 No better mode exists at present than having 
 recourse for trees to the most reputable nurseries; 
 and, with McPhail and Nicol, we would recom- 
 mend, instead of maiden plants, " to make choice 
 of those not very young, but such as are healthy, 
 and have been transplanted several times, and 
 been in a state of training for two or three years 
 at least." A safe mode is to plant partly maiden 
 and partly trained plants, by which means those 
 which come early into fruit, should they prove 
 bad sorts, may be replaced by others. 
 
 To manage Orchards. 
 
 The whole ground of an orchard should be dug 
 in the autumn and laid up in a rough state for th 
 winter, giving it as much surface as possible in 
 order that the weather may fully act upon and 
 meliorate the soil; thus following it as far as thd 
 case will admit. Observe to dig carefully near to 
 the trees, and so as not to hurt their roots and 
 fibres. If the soil be shallow, and if these lie 
 near to the surface, it would be advisable to dig 
 with a fork instead of the spade. 
 
 Crop to within two feet of the trees the first 
 year, a yard the second, four feet the third, and 
 so on until finally relinquished ; which, of course, 
 would be against the eighth year, provided the 
 trees were planted at thirty or forty feet apart, 
 with early-bearing sorts between. By this time, 
 if the kinds have been well chosen, the temporary 
 trees will be in full bearing, and will forthwith 
 defray every necessary expease. 
 
70 
 
 HORTICULTURE. 
 
 Let a small basin or hollow be made round the 
 Stem of each tree, a foot or eighteen inches in dia- 
 meter and two or three inches deep, according to 
 the extent of its roots. Fill this basin with 
 dung to the thickness of five or six inches, over 
 which sprinkle a little earth, just enough to keep 
 It from being blown about. This both nourishes 
 the young fibres, and keeps the ground about 
 them moist in hot weather if wetted freely once 
 a week. 
 
 To clothe the Stems of Standard Trees. 
 
 This is done by an envelope of moss or short 
 grass; or litter wound round with shreds of mat- 
 ting is of great use the first year after planting to 
 keep the bark moist, and thereby aid the ascent 
 and circulation of the sap in the alburnum. This 
 operation should be performed at or soon after 
 planting, and the clothing may be left on till by 
 decay it drops off of itself. It is of singular ser- 
 Tice in very late planting, or when, from unfore- 
 seen circumstances, summer-planting becomes 
 requisite. 
 
 To prune Orchard Trees. 
 
 The object in pruning young trees is to form a 
 proper head. The shoots may be pruned in pro- 
 portion to their lengths, cutting clean away such 
 as cross one another, and fanning the tree out 
 towards the extremities on all sides, thereby keep- 
 ing it equally poised, and fit to resist the effects 
 of high winds. When it is wished to throw a 
 young tree into a bearing state, which should not 
 l>e thought of, however, sooner than the third or 
 fourth year after planting, the leading branches 
 should be very little shortened and the lower or 
 side branches not at all, nor should the knife be 
 used, unless to out out such shoots as cross one 
 another. 
 
 The season for pruning orchards is generally 
 winter or early in spring. A weak tree ought to 
 be pruned directly at the fall of the leaf. To 
 prune in autumn strengthens a plant, and will 
 bring the blossom buds more forward ; to cut the 
 wood late in spring tends to check a plant, and is 
 one of the remedies for excessive luxuriance. 
 
 To recover Deformed Trees. 
 Where a tree is stinted or the head ill-shaped 
 from being originally badly pruned, or barren from 
 having overborne itself, or from constitutional 
 weakness, the most expeditious remedy is to head 
 down the plant within three, four or five eyes (or 
 inches, if an old tree) of the top of the stem, in 
 order to furnish it with a new head. The recovery 
 of a languishing tree, if not too old, will be fur- 
 ther promoted by taking it up at the same time 
 and pruning the roots : for as, on the one hand, 
 the depriving of too luxuriant a tree of part even 
 of its sound, healthy roots, will moderate its 
 vigor, so, on the other, to relieve a stinted or 
 sickly tree of cankered or decayed roots, to prune 
 the extremities of sound roots, and especially to 
 shorten the dangling tap-roots of a plant affected 
 by a bad subsoil, is, in connection with heading 
 down, or very short pruning, and the renovation 
 of the soil, and draining if necessary of the sub- 
 soil, the most availing remedy that can be tried. 
 
 To cure Diseases of Orchard Trees. 
 A tree often becomes stinted from an accumu- 
 lation of moss, which affects the functions of the 
 bark and renders the tree unfruitful. This evil 
 is to be removed by scraping the stem and 
 branches of old trees with the scraper, and on 
 young trees a hard brush will effect the purpose. 
 Abercrombie and Nicol recommend the finishing 
 of tiiis operation by washing with soap-suds, or a 
 
 medicated wash of some of the different sorts For 
 destroying the eggs of insects. 
 
 Wherever the bark is decayed or cracked it 
 ought to be removed. 
 
 The other diseases to which orchard trees are 
 subject are chiefly the canker, gum, mildew and 
 blight, which are rather to be prevented by such 
 culture as will induce a healthy state than to be 
 remedied by topical applications. Too much lime 
 may bring on the canker, and if so, the replacing 
 a part of such soil with alluvial or vegetable earth 
 would be of service. 
 
 The gum may be constitutional, arising from 
 offensive matter in the soil; or local, arising from 
 external injury. In the former case improve the 
 soil, in the latter employ the knife. 
 
 The mildew may be easily subdued at its first 
 appearance, by scattering flour of sulphur upon 
 the infected parts. 
 
 For the blight and caterpillars, Forsyth recom- 
 mends burning of rotten wood, weeds, potato- 
 haulm, with straw, etc., on the windward side of 
 the trees, when they are in blossom. He also re- 
 commends washing the stems and branches of all 
 orchard trees with a mixture of "fresh cow dung 
 with wine and soap-suds," as a whitewa^her would 
 wash the ceiling or walls of a room. The pro- 
 mised advantages are, the destruction of insects 
 and fine bark, more especially when it is found 
 necessary to take off all the outer bark. 
 
 To preserve Apple, Cherry, and Plum-trees from 
 frost, as practised in Russia. 
 
 The, severity of the winters at St. Petersburg 
 is so great that few fruit, trees will survive it, even 
 with careful matting; to prevent the loss which is 
 thus usually sustained, the following mode of 
 training has been attended with complete success. 
 It consists in leading the branches of the trees on 
 horizontal trellises only ten or twelve inches from 
 the ground. When the winter sets in, there are 
 heavy falls of snow, and as the frost increases, the 
 snow generally augments, by which the trees are 
 entirely buried, and receive no injury from the 
 most intense frost. 
 
 Another very great advantage of training trees 
 in the above method consists in the growth of the 
 wood, it being of equal strength, and the fruit pro- 
 duced being all alike, the blooms come out much 
 earlier, and the crop ripens sooner. The trees 
 are always clean and free from insects. 
 
 The only cherry that does not succeed in that 
 way is the Black-heart; this is attributed to the 
 damps which affect the early blossoms, but in a 
 milder climate this injury would be obviated by 
 placing the trellis higher from the ground. When 
 the trellis decays under the apples, it is never re- 
 newed, as the trees keep always (from the strength 
 of their branches) their horizontal position. 
 
 There are other advantages of treating fruit 
 trees in this manner; they come sooner into bear- 
 ing, and their fruit is not affected by high winds. 
 The apples are never gathered, but suffered to 
 drop off, for the distance they fall is not sufficient 
 to bruise them. 
 
 To preserve and pack Roots, etc. 
 Roots, cuttings, grafts, and perennial plants in 
 general, are perserved, till wanted, in earth or 
 moss, moderately moist, and shaded from the sun. 
 The same principle is followed in packing them 
 to be sent to a distance. The roots, or root ends 
 of the plants, or cuttings, are enveloped in balls 
 of clay or loam, wrapped round with moist moss, 
 and air is admitted to the tops. In this way 
 orange-trees are sent from Genoa to any part of 
 Europe and North America in perfect preserva- 
 
PINERIES. 
 
 71 
 
 tion ; and cuttings of plants sent to any distance 
 which can be accomplished in eight months, or 
 even longer with some kinds. Scions of the apple, 
 pear, etc., if enveloped in clay, and wrapt up in 
 moss or straw, and then placed in a portable ice- 
 house, so as to prevent a greater heat than 32 
 from penetrating to them, would keep for a year, 
 and might thus be sent from England to China. 
 The buds of fruit trees may be preserved in a 
 vegetating state, and sent to a considerable dis- 
 tance by reducing the half-stalks to a short length, 
 and enclosing the shoot in a double fold of cab- 
 bage-leaf, bound close together at each end, and 
 then enclosing the package in a letter. It is of 
 advantage to place the under surface of the cab- 
 bage-leaf inwards, by which the enclosed branch 
 is supplied with humidity, that being the porous 
 surface of the leaf, the other surface being nearly 
 or wholly impervious to moisture. 
 
 Screen for protecting Wall Trees. 
 
 It consists of two deal poles, on which is nailed 
 thin canvas, previously dipped in a tanner's bark 
 pit, to prevent its being mildewed when rolled up 
 wet. At the top the ends of the poles fit into 
 double iron loops, projecting a few inches from the 
 wall, immediately under the coping; and at the 
 bottom they are fixed by a hole at the end of each 
 pole, upon a forked iron coupling which projects 
 about fourteen inches from the wall, thereby giv- 
 ing the screen a sufficient inclination to clear the 
 branches. When it is wished to uncover the trees, 
 one of the poles is disengaged, and rolled back to 
 the side of the other, where it is fastened as before. 
 The most violent winds have no injurious- effect 
 upon shades of this kind ; a wall is very expedi- 
 tiously covered and uncovered, and there is not 
 any danger of damaging the blossoms in using 
 them ; they occupy very little space when rolled 
 up, are not liable to be out of order ; and, although 
 rather expensive at first, seem to be very durable. 
 From the facility with which the screen is put up, 
 it may be beneficially used in the seasons when 
 fruit ripens to secure a succession, by retarding 
 the crop of any particular tree. 
 
 The lower ends of the poles are advantageously re- 
 tained in their place by means of a small iron spring 
 key, attached to the coupling by a short chain. 
 
 To protect Fruits from Insects. 
 
 Some species, as wasps, flies, etc., are prevented 
 from attacking ripe fruits by gauze or nets, or by 
 inclosing the fruit, as grapes, in bags. 
 
 The blossoms of the hoya carnosa drives wasps 
 from grapes in hot-houses; and the fruit of the 
 common yew-tree the same in open air, 
 
 To manage Pineries. 
 
 The culture of Pine-apples (says Nicol), is at- 
 tended with a heavier expense than that of any 
 other fruit under glass, especially if they be grown 
 in lofty stoves; but, independent of this, pine-ap- 
 ples may certainly be produced in as great per- 
 fection, if not greater, and with infinitely less 
 trouble and risk, in fluid pits, if properly con- 
 structed, than in any other way. 
 
 The pinery should, therefore, be detached from 
 the other forcing-houses, and consists of three pits 
 in a range; one for crowns and suckers, one for 
 succession, and one for fruiting plants. The fruit- 
 ing pit to be placed in the centre, and the other 
 two right and left, forming a range of one hun- 
 dred feet in length, which would give pine-apples 
 enough for a large family. 
 
 The fruiting pit to be forty feet long, and ten 
 wide, over walls; and each of the others to be 
 thirty feet long, and nine feet wide also over walls. 
 The breast-wall of the whole to be on a line, and 
 
 to be eighteen inches above ground. The back- 
 wall of the centre one to be five feet, and of the 
 others to be four and a half feet higher than the 
 front. The front and end flues to be separated 
 from the bark bed by a three inch cavity, and the 
 back flues to be raised above its level. 
 
 The furnaces may either be placed in front or 
 at the back, according to convenience ; but the 
 strength of the heat should be first exhausted in 
 front, and should return in the back flues. The 
 fruiting pit would require two small furnaces in 
 order to diffuse the heat regularly, and keep up a 
 proper temperature in winter; one to be placed at 
 each end; and either to play first in front and re- 
 turn in the back ; but the flues to be above, and 
 not alongside of one another. The under one to 
 be considered merely as an auxiliary flue, as it 
 would be wanted occasionally. None of these 
 flues need be more than five or six inches wide, 
 and nine or ten deep. Nor need the furnaces be 
 so large, by a third or a fourth part, as those for 
 large forcing houses ; because there should be pro- 
 per oil-cloth covers for the whole, as guards against 
 severe weather, which would be a great saving of 
 fuel. The depth of the pits should be regulated 
 so that the average depth of the bark-beds may 
 be a yard below the level of the front flues, as to 
 that level the bark will generally settle, although 
 made as high as their surfaces when new stirred 
 up. If leaves, or a mixture of leaves with dung, 
 are to be used instead of bark, the pits will re- 
 quire to be a foot or half a yard deeper. 
 
 General Mode of Cultivating the Pine. 
 
 The culture of this plant generally commences 
 in a common hot-bed frame, heated by dung; at 
 the end of six or nine months it is removed to a 
 larger framed hot-bed or pit, generally called a 
 succession-bed ; and after remaining here from 
 three to twelve months, it is removed to its final 
 destination, the fruiting-bed. . Here it shows its 
 fruit, continues in a growing state during a period 
 of from six to twelve months, according to the 
 variety grown, mode of culture, etc., and finally 
 ripens its fruit and dies, leaving the crown or ter- 
 minal shoot of the fruit, and one or more suckers 
 or side-shoots as successors. The production of a 
 single pine-apple, therefore, requires a course of 
 exotic culture, varying from eighteen months to 
 three years. 
 
 Soil. 
 
 The pine-apple plant will grow in any sort of 
 rich earth taken from a quarter of the kitchen 
 garden, or in fresh sandy loam taken from a com- 
 mon pastured with sheep, etc. If the earth be 
 not of a rich, sandy quality, of darkish color, it 
 should be mixed well with some perfectly rotten 
 dung and sand, and if a little vegetable mould is 
 put with it, it will do it good, and also a little 
 soot. Though pine-plants will grow in earth of 
 the strongest texture, yet they grow most freely in 
 good sandy loam not of a binding quality. 
 
 Heat. 
 
 Pines do not require so strong a bottom-heat as 
 many keep them in ; yet there is something in a 
 mild tan- heat so congenial to their natures, that 
 they thrive much better in pots plunged in a bark- 
 bed, if properly managed, than when planted out 
 on a bed of earth that is heated, and often 
 scorched by under-flues. The tan or bark-pits 
 are, therefore, essential to the pinery. Bark-pits 
 are filled with tan which has previously under- 
 gone a course of draining and sweating. The 
 heat thus produced will last from three to six 
 months, when it is sifted and again put in a state 
 of fermentation, by replacing the deficiency occa- 
 
72 
 
 HORTICULTURE. 
 
 sioned by decay, and a separation of the dust by 
 gifting With new tan. In this way the bark-bed 
 is obliged to be stirred, turned, refreshed, or even 
 renewed, several times a year, so as to produce 
 and retain at all times a bottom-heat of from 
 75 to 85 in each of the three departments of pine 
 culture. 
 
 Propagation of the Pine. 
 
 The pine is generally propagated by crowns and 
 guckers, though, in common with every other 
 plant; it may be propagated by seed. 
 
 To separate Crowns and Suckers. 
 
 When the fruit is served at table, the crown is 
 to be detached by a gentle twist, and returned to 
 the gardener, if it be wanted for a new plant. 
 Frui', stalk suckers are taken off at the same pe- 
 riod. Suckers at the base of the herb are com- 
 monly fit for separation when the fruit is mature; 
 though, if the stool be vigorous, they may be left 
 on for a month after the fruit is cut, the stool re- 
 ceiving plentiful waterings on their account. The 
 fitness of a sucker to be removed is indicated, at 
 the lower part of the leaves, by a brownish tint; 
 on the appearance of which, if the lower leaf be 
 broken off, the sucker is easily displanted by the 
 thumb. 
 
 If the old fruiting-plant offers only small bot- 
 tom suckers, or fails to furnish any, good suckers 
 may be thus brought out : having waited till the 
 fruit is cut, take the old plant in its pot out of the 
 bark-bed; strip off the under-leaves near the root, 
 and with the knife cut away the leaves to six 
 inches from the bottom. Take out some of the 
 stale mould from the pot, fill up with fresh, and 
 give a little water. Plunge the old plant into a 
 bed with a good growing heat. Let the routine 
 culture not be neglected, and the old plants will 
 soon send out good suckers; allow these to grow 
 till they are four inches long or more, and on the 
 signs of fitness detach them. 
 
 As soon as either crowns or suckers are de- 
 tached, twist off some of the leaves about the base ; 
 the vacancy thus made at the bottom of the stem 
 is to favor the emission of roots. Pare the stump 
 smooth ; then lay the intended plants on a shelf 
 in a shaded part of the stove or any dry apart- 
 ment. Let crowns and fruit off-sets lie till the 
 part that adhered to the fruit is perfectly healed ; 
 and root suckers in the same manner till the part 
 which was united to the old stock is become dry 
 and firm. They will be fit to plant in five or six 
 days. 
 
 Treatment of the Plants. 
 
 Keep the plants growing gently, and have the 
 pots, in general, completely filled with the roots 
 by the time at which it is intended to excite them 
 into blossom. From the middle of February to 
 the 1st of March is a good time to have the main 
 crop in flowers ; as the prospective season is the 
 finest. About a month before it is expected to 
 see fruit dress the plants by taking away two 
 inches in depth from the top of the mould. Twist 
 off some of the lower leaves. Fill up with fresh 
 eompost, round the stem, to the remaining leaves. 
 The bark-bed should be revived at the same time, 
 so as to make it lively ; but no new tan should be 
 added till the time for the fullest heat arrives. 
 If it is desired to ripen eminently large fruit, de- 
 stroy the suckers as they spring, by twisting out 
 their hearts with an iron sharp-pointed instrument 
 formed for the purpose. Apply this to the heart 
 of the sucker ; and, turning it round, bring the 
 heart away; on the other hand, when the multi- 
 plication of the stock is a principal object, the 
 suckers must not be extirpated. A yet further 
 advantage may be given to the swelling of the 
 
 fruit, by having a few of the lower leaves of tho 
 plant taken off, and by putting a rim of tin, or 
 anything else in the form of a hoop, round the top 
 of the pot, sufficient to raise the mould three or 
 four inches. The mould should be of the best 
 quality, and constantly kept in a moderately moist 
 state; this may be done by having the surface 
 kept covered with moistened moss. The roots of 
 the pine-plant, especially those produced from the 
 part of the stein just under the leaves, will then 
 make a surprising progress, and the fruit will be 
 greatly benefited by this expedient. 
 
 To cut Ripe Pines. 
 
 The indications of maturity are a diffusive fra- 
 grance, accompanied by change in the color of 
 the fruit; most sorts becoming yellow or straw 
 color; others dark green, or yellowish tinged with 
 green. Cut pine-apples before they are dead 
 ripe, or the spirit of the flavor will be dissipated. 
 Bring away with the fruit above five inches of 
 stalk, and leave the crown adhering to the top. 
 If pine-apples be not cut soon after they begin to 
 color, they fall greatly off in flavor and richness, 
 and that sharp luscious taste, so much admired, 
 becomes insipid. 
 
 To destroy Insects in Pines. 
 
 If the plants by proper culture be kept healthy 
 and vigorous, insects will not annoy, but leave 
 them. The coccus hesperides seems to delight in 
 disease and decay, as flies do in carrion. The fol- 
 lowing recipe may safely be applied to pine-applea 
 in any state, but certainly best to crowns and suck- 
 ers, at striking them in August; to others it may, 
 at any rate, be used in the March shifting, when 
 they are shaken out of their pots : 
 
 Take of soft soap, 1 pound; flowers of sulphur, 
 1 pound; tobacco, half a pound; nux vomit-a, 1 
 ounce; soft water, 4 gallons. Boil all these together 
 till the liquor is reduced to three gallons, and set 
 it aside to cool. In this liquor immerse the whole 
 plant, after the roots and leaves are trimmed for 
 potting. Plants in any other state, placed in the 
 bark-bed, may safely be watered over head with 
 the liquor reduced in strength by the addition of 
 a third part of water. As the bug harbors most 
 in the angles of the leaves, there is the better 
 chance that the medicated water will be effectual, 
 because it will there remain the longest, and there 
 its sediment will settle. The above is a remedy 
 for every species of the coccus ; and for most in- 
 sects, on account of its strength and glutinous 
 nature. Its application will make the plants look 
 dirty; therefore, as soon as the intended effects 
 may be supposed to have followed, whatever re- 
 mains of the liquor on the leaves should be washed 
 off with clean water. It would be improper to 
 pour a decoction charged with such offensive ma- 
 terials, over fruiting plants. 
 
 Other Methods. 
 
 Turn the plants out of the pots, and clean the 
 roots; then keep them immersed for twenty-four 
 hours in water in which tobacco stalks have been 
 infused. The bugs are then to be rubbed off with 
 a sponge, and plants, after being washed in clean 
 water and dipped, are to be repotted. 
 
 In the" Caledonian Horticultural Transactions," 
 a similar mode is described, only in the place of 
 tobacco-juice flowers of sulphur are directed to be 
 mixed with the water. With a bit of bass-mat, 
 fixed on a small stick and dipped in water, dis- 
 place as many of the insects as can be seen,. 
 Then immerse the plants in a tub of water, con- 
 taining about one pound of flowers of sulphur to 
 each garden potful. Let them remain covered in. 
 the water twenty- four hours, then lay them with 
 
GRAPES. 
 
 73 
 
 their tops downwards to dry, and re-pot them in 
 the usual manner. 
 
 The experience of Hay, one of the best prac- 
 tical gardeners in Scotland, leads him to conclude 
 that even moderate moisture is destructive to these 
 insects. For many years he regularly watered his 
 pine plants over head with the squirt during the 
 summer months. This was done only in the even- 
 ing. It never injured the plants, and the bug 
 never appeared upon them. 
 
 The Grope. 
 
 For the grape, the best soil is a light, loamy, dry, 
 limestone soil, with a high and warm exposure, 
 especially to the south. The earth should be kept 
 well cultivated and free from weeds. The most 
 useful fertilizers for the grape are well-rotted 
 barn-yard manure, bone, and lime. For ordinary 
 cultivation the best varieties are, the Isabella, Ca- 
 tawba, Diana, Delaware, Concord, Clinton, and 
 the Rebecca when you have a sheltered situation. 
 Some of the finer foreign wine-grapes, of France, 
 Italy, and the Rhine region, may be naturalized 
 with success in some parts of the United States; 
 "but it is hardly yet determined which are best 
 suited for the purpose. 
 
 To plant Vines. 
 
 Vines are often either trained against the 
 back wall or on a trellis under a glass roof. In 
 the former case the plants are always placed in- 
 Bide the house; but in the latter, there are two 
 opinions among practical men, one in favor of 
 planting them outside, and the other inside the 
 parapet wall. 
 
 Abercroinbie says: "Let them be carefully 
 turned out of the pots, reducing the balls a little 
 and singling out the matted roots. Then place 
 them in the pits, just as deep in the earth as they 
 were before, carefully spreading out the abres and 
 filling in with fine sifted earth or with vegetable 
 mould. Settle all with a little water, and let them 
 have plenty of free air every day, defending them 
 from very severe frost or much wet; which is all 
 the care they will require till they begin to push 
 young shoots. 
 
 Composts for Vines. 
 
 The following are the materials and proportions 
 of a good compost, recommended by Abercroinbie : 
 Of top-spit sandy loam, from an upland pasture, 
 one-third part; unexhausted brown loam from a 
 garden, one-fourth part; scrapings of roads, free 
 from clay, and repaired with gravel or slate, one- 
 sixth part; vegetable mould, or old tiin reduced 
 to earth, or rotten stable-dung, one-eighth part; 
 shell marl or mild lime, one-twelfth part. The 
 borders to be from three to five feet in depth, and, 
 where practicable, not less than four feet wide in 
 surface within the house, communicating with a 
 border outside of the building not less than ten 
 feet wide. 
 
 To choose, the Plants. 
 
 Vines are to be had /n the nurseries, propagated 
 either from layers, cuttings, or eyes ; and, provided 
 the plants bo well rooted, and the wood ripe, it is 
 a matter of indifference from which class the 
 choice is made. 
 
 Speedy Mode of Storing a New Grape House. 
 
 This mode is only to be adopted where a vinery 
 previously exists in the open air, or where there 
 i a. friend's vinery in the neighborhood. 
 
 In the end of June or beginning of July, when 
 the vines have made new shoots from ten to twelve 
 feet long, and about the time of the fruit setting, 
 select any supernumerary shoots, and loosening 
 tbeia from the trellis, bend them down so as to 
 
 make them form a double or flexure in a pot filled 
 with earth, generally a mixture of loam and vege- 
 table mould, taking care to make a portion of last 
 year's wood, containing a joint, pass into the soil 
 in the pot. The earth is kept in a wet state, and 
 at the same time a moist warm air is maintained 
 in the house. In about ten days roots are found 
 to have proceeded plentifully from the joint of last 
 year's wood, and these may be seen by merely stir- 
 ring the surface of the earth, or sometimes they 
 may be observed penetrating to its surface. The 
 layer may now be safely detached; very fre- 
 quently it contains one or two bunches of grapes, 
 which continue to grow and come to perfection. 
 A layer cut off in the beginning of July generally 
 attains, by the end of October, the length of fif- 
 teen or twenty feet. A new grape-house, there- 
 fore, might in this way be as completely furnished 
 with plants in three months, as by the usual me- 
 thod, above described, in three years. 
 Another Mode. 
 
 A mode of more general utility than the fore- 
 going, is to select the plants in the nursery a year 
 before wanted, and to order them to be potted into 
 very large pots, baskets, or tubs, filled with the 
 richest earth, and plunged into a tan bed. They 
 will thus make shoots which, the first year after 
 removal to their final destination, will, under or- 
 dinary circumstances, produce fruit. 
 To prune and train Vines. 
 
 The methods of pruning established vines admit 
 of much diversity, as the plants are in different 
 situations. Without reckoning the cutting down 
 of young or weak plants alternately to the lower- 
 most summer shoot, which is but a temporary 
 course, three different systems of pruning are 
 adopted. 
 
 The first is applicable only to vines out of doors, 
 but it may be transferred to plants in a vinery 
 without any capital alteration. In this method 
 one perpendicular leader is trained from the stem, 
 at the side of which, to the right and left, the 
 ramifications spring. Soon after the growing 
 season has commenced, such rising shoots as are 
 either in fruit or fit to be retained, or are eligibly 
 placed for mother- bearers next season, are laid in 
 either horizontally, or with a slight diagonal rise 
 at something less than- a foot distance, measuring 
 from one bearing shoot to the next. The rising 
 shoots, intended to form young wood, should be 
 taken as near the origin of the branch as a good 
 one offers, to allow of cutting away, beyond the 
 adopted lateral, a greater quantity of the branch, 
 as it becomes old wood; the new- sprung laterals, 
 not wanted for one of these two objects, are 
 pinched off. The treatment of those retained 
 during the rest of the summer thus differs : A3 
 the shoots in bearing extend in growth, they are 
 kept stopped about two eyes beyond the fruit. 
 The coronate shoots, cultivated merely to enlarge 
 the provision of wood, are divested of embryo 
 bunches, if they show any, but are trained at full 
 length as they advance during the summer, until 
 they reach the allotted bounds. In the winter 
 pruning there will thus be a good choice of mo- 
 ther-bearers. That nearest the origin of the former 
 is retained, and the others on the same branch are 
 cut away; the rest of the branch is also taken off, 
 so that the old wood may terminate with the 
 adopted lateral. The adopted shoot is then short- 
 ened to two, three, four, or more eyes, according 
 to its place on the vine, its own strength, or the 
 strength of the vine. The lower snoots are pruned 
 in the shortest, in order to keep the means of 
 always supplying young wood at the bottom of 
 the tree. 
 
HORTICULTURE. 
 
 Second method. 
 
 The second method is to head the natural leade 
 BO as to cause it to throw out two, three, or more 
 principal shoots; these are trained as leading 
 branches, and in the winter-pruning are not re 
 duced, unless to shape them to the limits of the 
 house, or unless the plant appears too weak t 
 sustain them at length. Laterals from these are 
 cultivated about twelve inches apart, as mother 
 bearers; those in fruit are stopped in summer 
 and after the fall of the leaf are cut into one or 
 two eyes. From the appearance of the mother 
 bearers, tLns shortened, this is called spur-prun 
 ing. 
 
 Third method. 
 
 The third plan seems to flow from taking the 
 second as a foundation, in having more than one 
 aspiring leader, and from joining the superstruc- 
 ture of the first system immediately to this in re- 
 serving well-placed shoots to come in as bearing 
 wood. Thus, supposing a stem which has been 
 headed to send up four vigorous competing lead- 
 ers, two are suffered to bear fruit and two are di- 
 vested of such buds as break into clusters, and 
 trained to the length of ten, twelve, fifteen feet or 
 more, for mother-bearers, which have borne a 
 crop, are cut down to within two eyes of the stool 
 or legs, according to the strength of the plant, 
 while the reserved shoots lose no more of their 
 tops than is necessary to adjust them to the trellis. 
 
 To prune Vines to advantage. 
 In pruning vines leave some new branches every 
 year, and take away (if too many) some of the 
 old, which will be of great advantage to the tree, 
 and much increase the quantity of fruit. When 
 you trim your vine, leave two knots and cut them 
 off the next time, for usually two buds yield a 
 bunch of grapes. Vines thus pruned have been 
 known to bear abundantly, whereas others that 
 have been cut close to please the eye have been 
 almost barren of fruit. 
 
 To mature Grapes by Incision of the Vine Bark. 
 
 It is not of much consequence in what part of 
 the tree the incision is made, but in case the trunk 
 is very large the circles ought to be made in the 
 smaller branches. All shoots which come out 
 from the root of the vine or from the front of the 
 trunk, situated below the incision, must be re- 
 moved aa often as they appear, unless bearing 
 wood is particularly wanted to fill up the lower 
 part of the wall, in which case one or two shoots 
 may be left. 
 
 Vines growing in forcing houses are equally im- 
 proved in point of size and flower, as well as made 
 to ripen earlier, by taking away circles of bark. 
 The time for doing this is when the fruit is set, 
 and the berries are about the size of small shot. 
 The removed circles may here be made wider than 
 on vines growing in the open air, as the bark is 
 sooner renewed in forcing houses, owing to the 
 warmth and moisture in those places. .Half an 
 inch will not be too great a width to take off in a 
 circle from a vigorous growing vine, but I do not 
 recommend the operation to be performed at all in 
 weak trees. 
 
 This practice may be extended to other fruits, 
 BO as to hasten their maturity, especially figs, in 
 Which there is a most abundant flow of returning 
 Bap, and it demonstrates to us why old trees are 
 more disposed to bear fruit than young ones. Mil- 
 ler informs us that vineyards in Italy are thought 
 to improve every year by age till they are fifty 
 years old. For as trees become old the returning 
 vessels do not convey the sap into the roots with 
 the same facility they did when young. Thus by 
 
 occasionally removing circles of bark we only an. 
 ticipate the process of nature. In both cases a 
 stagnation of the true sap is obtained in the fruit- 
 ing branches, and the redundant nutriment then 
 passes into the fruit. 
 
 It often happens after the circle of bark has 
 been removed, a small portion of the inner bark 
 adheres to the alburnum. It is of the utmost im- 
 portance to remove this, though ever so small, 
 otherwise in a very short space of time the com- 
 munication is again established with the roots, and 
 little or no effect is produced. Therefore, in about 
 ten days after the first operation has been per- 
 formed, look at the part from whence the bark was 
 removed, and separate any small portion which 
 may have escaped the knife the first time. 
 
 To prevent the Dropping off of Grapes. 
 Make a circular incision in the wood, cutting 
 away a ring of bark about the breadth of the 
 twelfth of an inch. The wood acquires greater 
 size about the incision, and the operation accele- 
 rates the maturity of the wood, and that of the 
 fruit likewise. The incision should not be made 
 too deep and further than the bark, or it will spoil 
 both in the wood and the fruit. 
 
 To retard the Sap. 
 
 At certain periods preventing or retarding the 
 mounting of the sap tends to produce and ripen 
 the fruit. An abundance of sap is found to in- 
 crease the leaf buds and decrease the flower buds. 
 A process to retard sap has long been employed in 
 the gardens of Montreuil. The practice is to di- 
 varicate the sap as near the root as may be, by 
 cutting off the main stem and training two lateral 
 branches, from which the wall is to be filled. An- 
 other process of interrupting the rising of the sap 
 by separating the bark has been long in practice 
 in vine-forcing houses; this is done when the 
 grapes are full grown, and is found to assist the 
 bark in diminishing the aqueous and increasing 
 the saccharine juice. 
 
 To destroy Insects in Vines. 
 The red spider is the grand enemy to the vine; 
 after every winter's pruning and removal of the 
 outward rind on the old wood, anoint the branches, 
 shoots and trellis with the following composition, 
 the object of which is the destruction of their eggs 
 or larvae : 
 
 Soft soap, 2 Ibs. ; flour of sulphur, 2 Ibs. ; leaf of 
 roll tobacco, 2 Ibs. ; nux vomica, 4 oz. ; turpentine, 1 
 English gill. 
 
 Boil the above in 8 English gallons of scft river 
 water till it is reduced to six. 
 
 Lay on this composition, milk-warm, with a 
 painter's brush; then with a sponge carefully 
 anoint every branch, shoot and bud, being sure to 
 rub it well into every joint, hole and angle. If 
 the house is much infected the walls, flues, rafters, 
 jtc., are also to be painted over with the same 
 iquor. Watering over the leaves and fruit at all 
 hues, except the ripening season, is the preven- 
 ,ive recommended, and which all gardeners ap- 
 prove. 
 
 To protect Grapes from Was})s. 
 Plant near the grapes some yew-trees, and the 
 wasps will so far prefer the yew-tree berries as 
 wholly to neglect the grapes. 
 
 To take off Superfluous Suckers from Shrubs. 
 Many flowering shrubs put out strong suckers 
 rotn the root, such as lilacs, syringa, and some of 
 he kinds of roses which take greatly from the 
 trength of the mother plant, and which, if not 
 panted for the purpose of planting the ollow- 
 ng season should be l wisted off or otherwise da 
 troyed. 
 
FRUIT-TREES. 
 
 75 
 
 To renovate old Apple- Tree*. 
 Take fresh made lime from the kiln, slake it 
 well with water and well dress the tree with a 
 brush, and the insects and moss will be completely 
 destroyed, the outer rind will fall off and a new, 
 smooth, clear, healthy one will be formed, and the 
 tree will assume a most healthy appearance and 
 produce the finest fruit. 
 
 Treatment of Apple-Trees. 
 
 The limbs of apple-trees re recommended by 
 some to be brushed all over in the midst of sum- 
 mer, but it is difficult to brush the branches of 
 trees when the fruit is upon them. Instead of 
 brushing the trees in summer, as soon as the 
 leaves have fallen every tree should be carefully 
 and freely pruned ; this will open a passage to the 
 Bun and air, and will contribute to health in the 
 future season. In addition to this, says a corres- 
 pondent of the Monthly Magazine, I should re- 
 commend brushing off the moss and cutting out 
 the cankered parts at any season this is conve- 
 nient, and I further recommend the tree to be 
 anointed some feet from the ground with a com- 
 position of sulphur and goose oil, and unless the or- 
 chard is ploughed, the soil should be opened at 
 the roots.- 
 
 To render New Pippins Productive. 
 
 To render it more hardy, the farina of the pip- 
 pin should be introduced to the flower of the Sibe- 
 rian crab, whereby a mule is produced, which 
 ripens in cold and exposed situations, yet retains 
 the rich flavor of the other parent. But the^e 
 hybrid or mule productions in a few generations 
 return to the character of the one or the other va- 
 riety. A most excellent variety 01 this apple, 
 called the Downton Pippin, has been obtained by 
 introducing the farina of the golden to the female 
 flower of the Orange Pippin, and the progeny is 
 more hardened than either parent. 
 
 To obtain Early Fruit by Exhibiting the Trees. 
 
 Mr. Knight having trained the branches of an 
 apple-tree against a southern wall in winter, 
 loosened them to their utmost, and in spring, when 
 the flower-buds began to appear, the branches were 
 again trained to the wall. The blossoms soon ex- 
 panded and produced fruit, which early attained 
 perfect maturity, find, what is more, the seeds from 
 their fruits afforded plants which, partaking of the 
 quality of the parent, ripened their fruit very con- 
 siderably earlier than other trees raised at the 
 same time from seeds of the same fruit, which had 
 grown in the orchard. 
 
 To hasten the Ripening of Wall Fruit. 
 Painting the wall with black paint or laying a 
 composition of the same color, produces not only 
 more in quantity, in the proportion of five to three, 
 but the quality is also superior in size and flavor 
 to that which grows against the wall of the natu- 
 ral color. But the trees must be clear of insects, 
 or they will thrive, from the same cause, more 
 than the fruit. 
 
 To preserve Plants from. Frost. 
 
 Before the plant has been exposed to the sun or 
 thawed, alter a night's frost, sprinkle it well with 
 ipring-water in which sal-ammoniac or common 
 colt has been infused. 
 
 To engraft the Coffee-Tree. 
 
 Plant in small hampers during the rainy season 
 young plants raised by seed, when they are from 
 twelve to eighteen inches high. Place them in the 
 shade until they are quite recovered, then remove 
 them in the hampers, respectively, to the foot of 
 the coffee trees chosen for the mother plants, which 
 
 ought to be of the most healthy and productive 
 kind. 
 
 These latter ought to be cut down to within 
 three or four inches of the ground, to make them 
 throw out new wood near their roots. It, is those 
 shoots which are grafted when they are about a 
 foot or fifteen inches long upon the seedling plants 
 in the hampers placed round the mother plants. 
 The hampers should be in part buried in the 
 ground to preserve the earth within them moist. 
 
 There are several ways of performing the ope- 
 ration of grafting, but we shall give only the two 
 following, which seem most likely to answer the 
 purpose, without calling upon the cultivator to 
 pursue too complex a process : 
 
 1st Draw together the stem of the plant in the 
 hamper and one of the branches of the mother 
 plant. Then make a longitudinal incision on each 
 of them of the same length ; bring the two in- 
 cisions together, so that one wound covers the 
 other ; bind them closely together and finally cover 
 them with a mixture of clayey earth and cow 
 dung. It would be useful to cut off the top of 
 the plant in the hamper, in order to force the sap 
 into the branch of the mother plant. 
 
 2d. Draw together the tree in the hamper and 
 the branch of the mother plant as before, and take 
 off from three to eight inches of the head of the 
 former. Then make a triangular incision upon 
 this cut, and a similar one on the branch of the 
 mother plant, to unite the two wounds; make them 
 fast together and cover them with the same com- 
 position as before; then place the branch upright 
 by means of a prop. When the parts are firmly 
 knit together, cut the branch away from the 
 mother pl>mt. and the engrafting is completed. 
 
 Young trees thus engrafted, after remaining one 
 or two years in the nursery, should be removed to 
 the plantation they are designed for. This method 
 is highly useful to the fruit trees which do not 
 propagate with all their best qualities by means 
 of seed. In the same manner excellent varieties 
 of spice trees may be raised from plants propa- 
 gated by seed. 
 
 To preserve Fruit Trees in Blossom from Frost. 
 
 Surround the trunk of the tree in blossom with 
 a wisp of straw or hemp. The end of this sink 
 by means of a stone tied to it in a vessel of spring 
 water at a little distance from the tree. One ves- 
 sel will conveniently serve two trees, or the cord 
 may be lengthened so as to surround several be- 
 fore its end is plunged into the water. It is neces- 
 sary that the vessel should be placed in an open 
 situation out of the reach of any shade, so that 
 the frost may produce all its effects on the water 
 by means of the cord communicating with it. 
 Chinese Jlfode of Propagating Fruit Trees. 
 
 Strip a ring of bark about an inch in width 
 from a bearing branch ; surround the place with a 
 ball of fat earth or loam, bound fast to the branch 
 with a piece of matting, over this they suspend a 
 pot or horn with water, having a small hole in the 
 bottom just sufficient to let the water drop, in 
 order to keep the earth constantly moist. The 
 branch throws new roots into the earth just above 
 the place where the ring of bark was stripped 
 off. The operation is performed in the spring, and 
 the branch is sawn off and put into the grour.d at 
 the fall of the leaf. The following year it wil] 
 bear fruit. 
 
 This mode of propagating, not only fruit trees 
 but plants of every description, received particular 
 attention from the editor while in China, and has 
 since been practised by him in this country with 
 never-failing success. The mode he has adopted 
 is this : A common tin cup has a round hole 
 
HORTICULTURE. 
 
 punched in the bottom, a little larger than will 
 admit the stem of the branch it is intended to re- 
 ceive. A slit is then to be made from the edge 
 down one side and along the bottom to the central 
 aperture. The two sides can thus be separated 
 go as to let in the branch without injury ; it is 
 then closed up, the cup filled with loom mixed 
 with chopped moss, and another cup or gourd 
 pierced with a small hole suspended from a branch 
 above. This is to be kept filled with water. The 
 time to do this is in the spring just before the sap 
 rises. In the fall the limb, as before stated, is to 
 be taken off below the cup and planted, with all 
 the earth that adheres to the roots. 
 
 To heal Wounds in Trees. 
 
 Make a varnish of common linseed oil, rendered 
 very drying by boiling it for the space of an hour, 
 with an ounce of litharge to each pound of oil, 
 mixed with calcined bones, pulverized and sifted 
 to the consistence of an almost liquid paste. With 
 this paste the wounds are to be covered by means 
 of a brush, after the bark and other substance 
 have been pared, so as to render the whole as 
 smooth and even as possible. The varnish must 
 be applied in dry weather, in order that it may 
 attach itself properly. 
 
 Composition for Healing \Vounds in Trees. 
 
 Take of dry pounded chalk three measures, and 
 of common vegetable tar one measure; mix them 
 thoroughly, and boil them with a low heat till the 
 composition becomes of the consistency of bees- 
 wax; it may be preserved for use in this state for 
 any length of time. If chalk cannot conveniently 
 be got, dry brick-dust may be substituted. After 
 the broken or decayed limb lias IH-CM sawed off, 
 the whole of the saw-cut must be very carefully 
 pared away, and the rough edges of the bark, in 
 particular, must be made quite smooth : the doing 
 of this properly is of great consequence; then lay 
 on the above composition hot, about the thickness 
 of half a dollar, over the wounded place, and over 
 the edges of the surrounding bark; it should be 
 spread with a hot trowel. 
 
 To propagate Herbs by Slips and Cuttings. 
 Many kinds of pot-herbs may, in July, be pro- 
 pagated by cuttings or slips, which may bp planted 
 out to nurse on a shady border for a few weeks, 
 or till they have struck root, and may then be 
 planted out where they are to remain. If made 
 about the middle or end of the month, they will 
 be ready for transplanting before the end of Au- 
 gust, and in that case will be well established 
 before the winter. The kinds are marjoram, mint, 
 sage, sorrel, tansy, tarragons and thyme. 
 
 To prevent the growth of Weeds round Young Fruit- 
 Trees. 
 
 To diminish the growth of weeds round fruit 
 trees, spread on the ground round the fresh trans- 
 planted trees, as far as the roots extend, the refuse 
 stalks of flax after the fibrous parts have been 
 separated. This gives them very surprising vigor, 
 as no weeds will grow under flax refuse, and the 
 earth remains fresh and loose. Old trees treated 
 in the same manner, when drooping in an orchard, 
 will recover and push out vegerian shoots. In 
 place of flax stalks the leaves which fall from 
 trees in autumn may be substituted, but they 
 must be covered with waste twigs or anything 
 else that can prevent the wind from blowing them 
 away. 
 
 To avoid the bad effects of Iron Nails, etc., on 
 Fruit- Trees. 
 
 It often happens that some of the limbs of fruit- 
 trees, trained against a wall, are blighted and die, 
 
 while others remain in a healthy and flourishing 
 state. This has hitherto been erroneously attri- 
 buted to the effects of lightning; but from closer 
 observation, and from several experiments, it has 
 been found to arise from the corroding effects of 
 the nails and cramps with which trees in this sit- 
 uation are fastened. To avoid this inconvenience, 
 therefore, it requires only to be careful in pre- 
 venting the iron from coming in contact with the 
 bark of the trees. 
 
 To destroy Moss on Trees. 
 
 Remove it with a hard scrubbing brush in Feb- 
 ruary and March, and wash the trees with cow- 
 dung, urine and soap-suds. 
 
 To protect Trees and Shrubs from the attack of 
 
 Hares. 
 
 Take three pints of melted tallow to one of tar, 
 and mix them well together over a gentle fire. 
 In November take a small brush and go over the 
 rind or bark of the trees with the mixture, in a milk- 
 warm state, as thin as it can be laid on with the 
 brush. This coating will not hinder the juices or 
 sap expanding in the smallest degree. Its effi- 
 cacy has been proved by applying the liquid to 
 one tree and missing another, when the latter has 
 been attacked and the former left. During five 
 years' experience, of those besmeared the first two 
 years not one was injured afterwards. If all the 
 bark were properly gone over with the mixture, 
 they probably would not need any more for some 
 years, 
 
 To prevent the Propagation of Insects on Apple- 
 Trees. 
 
 Let a hard shoe-brush be applied to every in- 
 fected limb, as if it were to coach harness, to get 
 off the dirt, after which, with the tin box and 
 brush, give the limbs a dressing, leaving them 
 exposed to the sun to increase the efficacy of the 
 application. This should be repeated occasionally 
 during the summer, choosing always a dry time, 
 and warm, clear sunshine. 
 
 To prevent the Ravages of the Gooseberry Cater- 
 pillar. 
 
 The only remedy is placing something about the 
 stem or among the branches of the bush, the smell 
 of which is obnoxious to flies, and which they will 
 not approach. The smell of coal-tar or petroleum 
 is said to keep off the caterpillars ; the fact is, 
 that it keeps off the fly. The practice is to wrap a 
 beam or twist of seed, strongly impregnated with 
 this strong-scented bitumen, round the stem of 
 the bush, and no caterpillar will touch a leaf. 
 
 Other remedies are used, such as soap-suds 
 thrown over the bushes, lime, chimney-soot, and 
 a strong decoction of elder-leaves ; but who can 
 eat gooseberries and currants after they have 
 been besmeared with such filthy materials ? Keep- 
 ing off the fly by the smell of something which is 
 disagreeable to it goes to the root of the evil at 
 once, and there is nothing in the smell of coal-tar 
 which can excite a prejudice in the most delicate 
 stomach. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 A few small pits or holes, from twelve to fifteen 
 inches deep, being dug among the bushes, at con- 
 venient distances, all the surfaco mould immedi- 
 ately under and near to the bu.'.hes, wherein the 
 greatest quantity of shells is likely to be depo- 
 sited, is taken off with a common garden hoe and 
 buried in these holes or pits; after which the 
 whole surface is carefully dug over to a consi- 
 derable depth. Wherever these operations are 
 properly performed, no apprehension of loss from 
 this kind of caterpillar need be entertained. 
 
FRUIT-TREES. 
 
 77 
 
 To cure the Disease in Apple-Trees. 
 
 Brush off the white down, clear off the red stain 
 Underneath it, and anoint the places infected with 
 a liquid mixture of train oil and Scotch snuff. 
 Another Method. 
 
 Orchards are occasionally much injured by an 
 insect appearing like a white efflorescence ; when 
 bruised between the fingers it emits a blood-red 
 fluid. Mix a quantity of cow-dung with human 
 urine, to the consistence of paint, and let the in- 
 fected trees be anointed with it, about the begin- 
 ning of March. 
 
 To cure the Canker in Apple- Trees. 
 
 The only means of preventing the canker 
 worm, which destroys the young fruit, and endan- 
 gers the life of the tree, when discovered, and 
 which, in many instances, has proved to be effec- 
 tual, is encircling the tree, about knee-high, 
 with a streak of tar, early in the spring, and occa- 
 sionally adding a fresh coat. 
 
 In other Trees. 
 
 Cut them off to the quick, and apply a piece of 
 sound bark from any other tree, and bind it on 
 with a flannel roller. Cut off the canker, and a 
 new shoot will grow strong, but in a year or two 
 you will find it cankered. 
 
 To cure Ulcers in Elm- Trees. 
 
 The remedy consists in boring every tree at- 
 tacked by the disease, at the ulcer itself; and in 
 applying a tube to the hole occasioned by the 
 borer, penetrating about nine lines in depth. The 
 sound trees, which are also bored, afford no 
 liquor, whereas those that are ulcerated afford it 
 in great abundance, increasing particularly in fine 
 weather, and when the wound is exposed to the 
 south. Stormy weather and great winds stop 
 the effusion. In this manner the ulcers dry and 
 heal in forty-eight hours. 
 
 To cleanse Orchard Trees by Lime. 
 
 The use of lime has been highly recommended 
 in the dressing of old moss-eaten orchard trees. 
 Some fresh made lime being slaked with water, 
 and some old worn out apple-trees well dressed 
 with it with a brush, the result was that the in- 
 sects and moss were destroyed, the outer rind fell 
 off, and a new, smooth, clear, healthy one formed; 
 the trees, although twenty years old, assuming a 
 most healthy appearance. 
 
 To cure Blight in Fruit Trees. 
 
 A smothering straw-fire should be made early 
 in October, in calm weather, under each tree, and 
 kept up during an hour or more. This done, 
 scrape the moss and other impurities from the 
 trunk, and from every obscure hole and corner; 
 set your ladders to the branches, carefully clean- 
 ing them in the same way, taking from the re- 
 maining leaves every web or nidus of insects. If 
 need be, wash the trunk, and all the larger wood, 
 with a solution of lime and dung. Last of all, it 
 is necessary to destroy the insects or eggs, which 
 may have dropped upon the ground, and it may be 
 useful to loosen the soil in the circumference. In 
 the spring, or early blighting season, apply your 
 ladders, make a careful survey of every branch, and 
 act accordingly; repeat this monthly, picking 
 off all blights by hand, and using the water-en- 
 gine, where ablution may be necessary. To those 
 who have fruit, or the market profit thereof, every 
 orchard or garden, little or great, will amply re- 
 pay such trouble and expense. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 Trees newly transplanted, in general, escape its 
 attack, when other trees, of the same kind of fruit, 
 
 grown in the same situation, are nearly de- 
 stroyed. Peach and nectarine trees should be dug 
 up once in every five or six years, and replanted 
 with fresh mould. By this method, a larger 
 quantity of fruit of a superior kind will be ob- 
 tained. The covering of trees with mats, by 
 almost totally depriving them of light, has a ten- 
 dency to create blight, which often attends an 
 excess of heat or cold. 
 
 To preserve Apple- Trees from Blight. 
 
 Washing the branches with quick-lime will pre- 
 serve the trees from blight, and insure a crop; 
 those which escape washing suffer from the blight, 
 whilst the others produce a good crop. 
 To prevent the Blight or Mildew from injuring Or- 
 chards. 
 
 Rub tar well into the bark of the apple-trees, 
 about four or six inches wide round each tree, 
 and at about one foot from the ground. Thia 
 effectually prevents blight, and abundant crops 
 are the consequence. 
 
 To prevent Mildew on Fruit- Trees. 
 
 Take one quart of whiskey, two pounds of pow- 
 dered sulphur, two ounces of copperas, and a small 
 quantity of camphor. Dissolve first the camphor, 
 reduced to powder, gradually in the spirit, then 
 dissolve also the copperas in it; then rub gradu- 
 ally the powdered sulphur into the solution, when 
 the whole will form a mixture of a thickish con- 
 sistence. The fruit-trees, in the spring of the year, 
 immediately after being cleaned and tied up, are 
 to have their trunks and all their branches com- 
 pletely covered with this mixture, by means of a 
 large paint-brush. 
 
 To prevent Mildew on Peach-Trees. 
 
 In the months of January and February, if the 
 trees are in a stunted or sickly state, take away 
 all the old mould from the roots as carefully as 
 possible, and put in its place fresh rotten turf from 
 an old pasture, without any dung; and the trees 
 will not only recover their health, but produce a 
 crop of fine fruit. 
 
 To prevent Gumming in Fruit- Trees. 
 
 To prevent gumming, or the spontaneous exu 
 dation of gum from the trunks of fruit trees, 
 which injures to a considerable extent the growth 
 and strength of the tree, 
 
 Take of horse dung any quantity, mix it well 
 up with a quantity of clay and a little sand, so as 
 to make a composition; then add a quantity of 
 pitch-tar (which is put upon cart-wheels), and 
 form a wettish composition of the whole. The 
 fruit trees, in the spring of the year, after they are 
 cleaned and tied up, are to have their trunks and 
 stems completely bedaubed or covered with this 
 mixture. 
 
 To cultivate the Cucumber. 
 
 To produce cucumbers at an early season, is an 
 object of emulation with every gardener; and 
 there is scarcely any person who has not a cu- 
 cumber-bed in his garden. Cucumbers are forced 
 in hot-beds, pits, and hot-houses, and the heat of 
 fire, steam, and dung have been applied to their 
 culture; but dung is the only thing yet found out, 
 by the heat of which the cucumber may be advan- 
 tageously cultivated. 
 
 Soil. 
 
 Cucumbers, like every other plant, will grow in 
 any soil, though not with the same degree of vigor, 
 provided they be supplied with a sufficiency of 
 heat, light, water, and air. 
 
 For Early Forcing. 
 
 Abercrombie recommends a mould or compost 
 of the following materials One-third of rich top- 
 
78 
 
 HORTICULTURE. 
 
 spit earth, from an upland pasture, one-half of 
 vegetable mould, and one-sixth of well decom- 
 posed horse dung, with a small quantity of sand. 
 McPhail used vegetable mould made from a 
 mixture of the leaves of elm, lime, beech, syca- 
 more, horse and sweet chestnut, spruce and Scotch 
 fir, walnut, laurel, oak, evergreen, oat, ash, etc., 
 and among them withered grass, and weeds of 
 various sorts. This vegetable mould is preferable 
 to any other. 
 
 Compost used in Keic Garden. 
 Of light loam, a few months from the common, 
 one-third part; the best rotten dung, one-third 
 part; leaf mould, and heath earth, equal parts, 
 making together one-third part: the whole well 
 mixed for use. 
 
 To form the Seed. 
 
 If one light frame will be large enough for ordi- 
 nary purposes, choose a dry sheltered part of the 
 melon ground, and form abed. When high winds 
 are suffered to blow against a cucumber bed, they 
 have a very powerful effect on it; therefore, when 
 a cucumber bed is about to be formed, the first 
 object of consideration should be to have it shel- 
 tered from the high winds and boisterous stormy 
 weather. Having put on the frame, and waited 
 till the bed is fit for moulding, lay in five or six 
 inches depth of the proper earth or compost. 
 
 Sowing. 
 
 Abercrombie sows some seeds in the layer of 
 the earth, which he spreads over the bed, putting 
 them in half an inch deep. He also sows som< 
 seeds in two, three, or more small pots of the same 
 kind of earth, which may be plunged a little into 
 that of the bed. 
 
 To raise Plants from Cuttings. 
 Instead of raising cucumber plants from seed, 
 they may be raised from cuttings, and thus kept 
 on from year to year, in the following manner: 
 Take a shoot which is ready for stopping, cut it 
 oif below the joint, then cut smooth the lower end 
 of the shoot or cutting, and stick it into fine leaf 
 or other rich mould, about an inch deep, and give 
 it plenty of heat, and shade it from the rays of 
 the sun till it be fairly struck. By this method 
 cucumber plants may readily be propagated. 
 
 Treatment till removed to the Fruiting Bed. 
 After sowing continue the glasses on the frame; 
 giving occasional vent above for the steam to eva- 
 porate. The plants will be up in a few days, when 
 it will be proper to admit air daily, but more 
 guardedly at the upper ends of the lights. In 
 frosty weather hang part of a mat over the aper- 
 ture. When the plants are a little advanced, with 
 the seed leaves about half an inch broad, take them 
 up and prick some in small pots of light earth, 
 previously warmed by the heat of the bed. Put 
 three plants in each pot, and insert them a little 
 slopingly, quite to the seed-leaves. Plunge the 
 pots into the earth; and prick some plants also 
 into the earth of the bed. Give a very little water 
 just to the roots ; the water should be previously 
 warmed to the temperature of the bed. Draw on 
 the glasses ; but admit air daily, to promote the 
 growth of the plants, as well as to give vent to the 
 steam rising in the bed, by tilting the lights be- 
 hind from half an inch to an inch or two high, in 
 proportion to the heat of the bed and the tempera- 
 ture of the weather. Cover the glasses every night 
 with garden mats and remove them timely in the 
 morning. Give twice a week, once in two days, 
 or daily, according to the season, a very light 
 watering. Keep up a moderate lively heat in 
 the bed by requisite linings of hot dung to the 
 sides. 
 
 To guard the Seeds from Mice. 
 
 Lay a pane of glass over the pot or pan till they 
 have come up, and afterwards at night cover with 
 a pot of equal size till the seed-leaves have ex- 
 panded and the husks h;.ve dropped; for, until 
 then, the plants nre liable to be destroyed. The 
 cover, however, should always be removed by sun- 
 rise, and replaced in the evening. It is at night 
 these vermin generally commit their depredations. 
 No air need be admitted till the heat begins to 
 rise, and steam begins to appear; hut after that 
 the light should be tilted a little every day, in 
 whatever state the weather may be, until the plants 
 break ground. Air must then be admitted with 
 more care; and if frosty, or very chill, the end of 
 a mat should be hung over the opening, that the 
 air may sift through it, and not immediately strike 
 the plants. 
 
 To transplant Cucumbers. 
 
 As soon as the seed-leaves of the plants are fully 
 expanded, transplant them singly into pots of the 
 48th size, and give a little water and air night 
 and day. The temperature for seedlings is from 
 65 to 75. With this heat and water, as the 
 earth in the pots becomes dry, and a little air 
 night and day so as to keep the internal air in th 
 frame sweet and fluctuating between the degrees 
 of heat above-mentioned, the plants will be fit for 
 finally transplanting out in one month, that is, by 
 the 14th of November, into the fruiting frames. 
 To form the Fruiting Bed. 
 
 Begin to make preparations for the fruiting bed, 
 about three weeks before the plants are ready to 
 be planted out for good. The dung collected, 
 after being well worked, is made up into a bed 
 about four or five feet high, and the frames and 
 lights set upon it. It is afterwards suffered to 
 stand for a few days to settle, and until its violent 
 
 heat be somewhat abated, and when it is thought 
 to be in a fit state for the plants to grow in, its 
 surface is made level, and a hill of mould laid in 
 just under the middle of each light, and when the 
 mould gets warm the plants are ridged out in it. 
 After this, if the bed has become perfectly sweet, 
 and there be heat enough in it, and the weather 
 proves fine, the plants will grow finely. 
 
 To Plant Out. 
 
 When the temperature is ascertained to be right, 
 bring the plants in their pots; turn over the hills 
 of mould, forming them again properly, and then 
 proceed to planting. Turn those in pots clean out 
 one at a time, with the ball of earth whole about 
 the roots; and thus insert one patch of three 
 plants which have grown together, with the ball 
 of earth entire into the middle of each hill, earth- 
 ing them nearly around the stems. Also any not 
 in pots having been pricked into the earth of the 
 bed, if required for planting, may be taken up 
 with a small ball of earth and planted similarly. 
 With water warmed to the air of the bed, give a 
 very light watering about the roots, and shut 
 down the glasses till next morning. Shade the 
 plants a little from the mid-day sun a few days, 
 till they have taken root in the hills, and cover 
 the glasses every evening with large mats, which 
 should be taken off in the morning. 
 
 Mr. Phail's Method of Covering the Frames. 
 First, lay clean single mats on the lights in 
 ength and breadth, nearly to cover the sashes, 
 ;aking care not to suffer any part of the mats to 
 iang over the sashes on or ahove the linings, for 
 ;hat would be the means of drawing the steam 
 nto the frames in the night time. On these mats 
 spread equally a covering of soft hay, and on the 
 lay lay another covering of single mats, upon 
 
VEGETABLES. 
 
 79 
 
 which are laid two, and sometimes three or four, 
 rows of boards to prevent the covering from being 
 bljwn off by the winds. The mats laid on next 
 to the gla,<s are merely to keep the seeds and dust 
 which may happen to be in the hay from getting 
 into the frames among the plants. If the bed be 
 high, in covering up, steps or short ladders must 
 be used by those whose office it is to cover and 
 uncover; and great care must be taken not to 
 break or injure the glass. 
 
 Setting the Fruit. 
 
 The cucumber bears male and female blossoms 
 distinctly on the same plant. The latter only pro- 
 duce the fruit, which appears first in miniature 
 close under the case, even before the flower ex- 
 pands. There is never any in the males; but 
 these are placed in' the vicinity of the females, and 
 are absolutely necessary, by the dispersion of their 
 farina, to impregnate the female blossom; the fruit 
 of which will not, otherwise, swell to its full size, 
 and the seeds will be abortive. The early plants 
 under the glass, not having the full current of the 
 natural air, nor the assistance of bess and other 
 winged insects to convey the farina, the artificial 
 aid uf the cultivator is necessary to effect the im- 
 pregnation. 
 
 At the time of fructification watch the plants 
 daily, and, as soon as a female flower and some 
 male blossoms are fully expanded, proceed to set 
 the fruit the same day. Take off a male blossom, 
 detaching it with part of the foot-stalk; hold this 
 between the finger and thumb; pull away the 
 flower-le;if close to the stamens and central part, 
 which apply close to the stigma of the female 
 flower, twirling it a little about, to discharge 
 thereon some particles of the fertilizing powder. 
 Proceed thus to set every fruit, as the flowers of 
 both sorts open, while of a lively full expansion; 
 and generally perform it in the early part of the 
 day, using a fresh male, if possible, for each im- 
 pregnation, as the males are usually more abun- 
 dant than the female blossoms. In consequence, 
 the young fruit will soon be observed to swell 
 freely Cucumbers attain the proper size for 
 gathering in about fifteen or twenty days from 
 the time of setting; and often, in succession, for 
 two or three months or more, in the same bed, by 
 good culture. The above artificial operation will 
 be found both necessary and effectual in forcing 
 the cucumber, between the decline of autumn and 
 May, while the plants are mostly shut under glass. 
 In plants more fully exposed to the free air the im- 
 pregnation is effected mostly or wholly by nature. 
 
 To save the Seed. 
 
 Select some best summer fruit, from good pro- 
 ductive plants, which permit to continue in full 
 growth till they become yellow. Then cut them 
 from the vine, and place them upright on end, in 
 the full sun, for two or three weeks, when they 
 may be cut open, and, the seed being washed out 
 from the pulp, spread it to dry and harden; then 
 put it up in papers or bags for future sowing. It 
 will reraain good many years ; and seed of three 
 or four years' keeping is preferable for early 
 frame crops. 
 
 Insects and Diseases. 
 
 The thrips sometimes attack early cucumbers, 
 and are to be destroyed by fumigation. The red 
 spider rarely makes its appearance; when it does 
 water must have been improperly withheld. Some 
 soils produce canker in the shoots, especially where 
 they branch from the main stem. When this is 
 the case, the only resource is to renew the soil 
 and the plants. 
 
 To grow Cucumbers under Hand-Glasses. 
 The following method is given by McPhail as 
 
 that generally practised: The seeds are sown 
 about the middle of April, in a cucumber or 
 melon bed, add when they come up they are pot- 
 ted out into small pots, two or three plants in 
 each, and kept properly watered, and stopped at 
 the first or second joint. About the middle of 
 May a warm situation, where the mould is very 
 rich, is pitched on, and a trench dug out about 
 two feet deep, three broad, and the length pro- 
 portioned according to the number of lights it is 
 intended for. This breach is filled with good 
 warm dung, and when the dung is come to its full 
 heat it is covered over with eight, ten, or twelve 
 inches deep of rich mould. The glasses are then 
 set upon it about three feet distant from each 
 other, and when the mould gets warm under them 
 the plants are turned out of the pots, with their 
 balls whole, and plunged in the mould under the 
 glasses, and a little water given them to settle the 
 mould about their roots, the glasses set over them; 
 and, after they have made roots and begin to grow, 
 in fine days they are raised a little on one side to 
 let the plants have free air; and, as the weather 
 gets warmer, air is given more plentifully, to 
 harden the plants, so that they may be able to 
 bear the open air and run from under the glasses. 
 When the plants begin to fill the glasses, they are 
 trained out horizontally, and the glasses set upon 
 bricks to bear them from the plants. After this 
 the plants require nothing more than to be sup- 
 plied with water when the summer showers are 
 not sufficient, and to stop them when they run 
 too thin of branches, and thin them of leaves or 
 branches when they are likely to be overcrowded. 
 In warm summers and in warm situations, by 
 this mode of management, the plants will bear 
 plentifully for about two months, provided they be 
 not attacked by insects or weakened by diseases. 
 
 To prevent the Irregular Growth of Melon*. 
 Melons frequently, in certain situations, lose 
 their circular form- and grow larger on one side 
 than the other, and these misshapen fruits are 
 always bad. To remedy this, take a small forked 
 stick, in proportion to the size of the melon, and 
 thrust it into the ground as nearly as possible to 
 the tail of the fruit, taking the precaution to lay a 
 little moss between the two prongs, and suspend 
 the melon to the fork. In a few days the melon 
 will resume its form, when the fork may be re- 
 moved, and the operation is finished. The quality 
 of the fruit remains undiminished. 
 
 To produce Mushrooms. 
 
 If the water wherein mushrooms have been 
 steeped or washed be poured upon an old bed, or 
 if the broken part of mushrooms be strewed 
 thereon, there will speedily arise great numbers. 
 
 To produce New Potatoes throughout the Winter 
 
 Months. 
 
 Prepare a proper quantity of red sand, of a 
 rather loamy nature, and mix it up with a portion 
 of lime in powder, viz., about one-third, about 
 fourteen days before using it. This soil is to be 
 spread about three inches thick at the bottom of 
 any old wooden box, or on a very dry brick, cellar 
 floor. The cellar ought not to be exposed to the 
 frost, nor yet too much confined from the air. 
 Procure a measure or two of large potatoes of a 
 prior year's growth ; the sorts preferred are the 
 red-apple potatoes and the pink-eyes of purple 
 potatoes. Set these on the soil whole, about three 
 inches apart, with the crown or the principal eye 
 to the soil in preference ; but put no soil over 
 them. Plant about the 20th of September, which 
 allows from ten to twelve weeks for their growth ; 
 the old potatoes also throw out numerous sprouts 
 
80 
 
 HORTICULTUKE. 
 
 or stalks, with many potatoes growing on them. 
 The original potatoes for planting whole, for sets 
 in September, should be such as were of perfect 
 growth in the October of the preceding year, and 
 well preserved during the winter. The sprouts 
 which shoot from them should be removed by the 
 end of April; and these sprouts, which will be 
 from six to twenty-six inches long, may be planted 
 with all their fibres in a garden, for a first crop; 
 about June 15 the potato sets may be sprit again, 
 and the sprouts planted for a second crop ; and in 
 September the potato sets may be sprit a third 
 time, and the sprouts of the last produce thrown 
 away as useless. At the end of September the 
 original or seed potato is to be gently placed on 
 the soils, as before mentioned for a Christmas 
 crop. At the end of three months at furthest the 
 old potatoes should be carefully twisted from the 
 new ones, and the sprouts taken off the old po- 
 tato, and the old potato is then to be placed on its 
 bottom or side, on a fresh bed of soil prepared as 
 before, and left to produce another crop from fresh 
 eyes placed next the soil : as you are to observe 
 that the old potato should not be set or placed 
 twice on the same side, and you must take care 
 at that time to remove the sprouts, to prevent the 
 moisture from rotting the old potato. By the 
 above method may be had four crops of new po- 
 tatoes from one potato, exclusive of those pro- 
 duced from the sprouts planted in the garden in 
 April and June, from which may be obtained two 
 crops of well-grown potatoes in September and 
 October, weighing from ten to twelve ounces each. 
 The crops were very plentiful, in proportion to the 
 quantity planted. 
 
 The potatoes are remarkably well flavored, and 
 may be kept longer without prejudice after gath- 
 ering, before dressed, than potatoes grown in the 
 natural ground. 
 
 To raise Peas in Autumn. 
 
 The purple-flowered peas are found to answer 
 best for a late crop in autumn, as they are not so 
 liable to be mildewed as many of the other sorts, 
 and will continue flowering till the first crop stops 
 them. These peas may be sown in July, August, 
 or so late as the first week in September, if sown 
 in a warm, sheltered situation, and in a soil in- 
 clining to sand. Soak the peas in warm milk, and 
 after you have drawn the drills water them before 
 you sow the peas ; it is best to sow them towards 
 the evening. If the autumn should prove very dry 
 they will require frequent watering. When peas 
 are sown before winter or early in spring, they are 
 very apt to be eaten by mice. To prevent this, 
 soak the peas for a day or two in train oil before 
 you sow them, which will encourage their vegeta- 
 tion and render them HO obnoxious to the mice 
 that they will not eat them. 
 
 To sow Peas in Circles instead of Straight Rows. 
 It is a great error in those persons who sow the 
 rows of tall-growing peas close together. It is 
 much better in those sorts which grow six or eight 
 feet high to have only one row, and then to leave 
 a bed ten or twelve feet wide for onions, carrots, 
 or any crops which do not grow tall. The advan- 
 tages which will be derived are, that the peas will 
 not be drawn up so much, be stronger, will flower 
 much nearer the ground, and in wet weather can 
 be more easily gathered without wetting you. But 
 instead of sowing peas in straight rows, if you 
 will form the ground into circles of three feet di- 
 ameter, with a space of two feet between each 
 circle, in a row thirty feet long, you will have six 
 circles of peas, each nine feet, in all fifty-four feet 
 of peas instead of thirty, on the same extent of 
 
 ground. If you want more than one row of cir- 
 cles leave a bed of ten or twelve feet before you 
 begin another. For the very tall sorts four feet 
 circles will afford more room for the roots to grow 
 in, and care must be taken by applying some ten- 
 der twigs or other support, to prevent the circles 
 from joining each other. This method is equally 
 applicable for scarlet beans. 
 To prevent Mice from Destroying early-sown Peas. 
 
 The tops of furze, or whins, chopped and 
 thrown into the drills, and thus covered up, by 
 goading them in their attempts to scratch, is an 
 effectual preventive. Sea sand strewed pretty 
 thickly upon the surface has the same effect. It 
 gets in their ears and is troublesome. 
 
 To cultivate Common Garden Rhubarb. 
 
 It is not enough to give it depth of good soil, 
 but it must be watered in drought, and in winter 
 must be well covered with straw or dung. If this 
 be attended to your rhubarb will be solid when 
 taken out of the ground, and your kitchen, if a 
 warm one, will soon fit it for use. 
 To force Rhubarb. 
 
 Cover plants of the rheum hybridum with com- 
 mon garden-pots (number twelve), having their 
 holes stopped. These are covered with ferment- 
 ing dung and the plants come very fine and quick- 
 ly, but are much broken by the sides and tops of 
 the pots. After it is all well up the dung and 
 pots are entirely taken off and large hand-glasses 
 are substituted in their stead, thickly covered with 
 mats every night and in dull weather. This pro- 
 cess greatly improves their flavor, and gives a 
 regular supply till that in the open air is ready 
 for use. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 Inclose and cover the bed with open frame- 
 work, around and on which place the dung, and 
 with this treatment the rhubarb will come up very 
 regularly, be of excellent quality and want far 
 less attention than is required by the former 
 method, for the frame-work renders hand-glasses 
 or any othen cover unnecessary. Care should be 
 taken to lay the dung in such a manner that the 
 top may be partly or wholly taken off at any time 
 for the purpose of gathering or examination with- 
 out disturbing the sides. 
 
 This is a superior method of forcing thje rheum 
 hybridum, but still the forcing by pots will an- 
 swer very well for any of the smaller- growing 
 species. 
 
 Third Method. 
 
 To those who dislike th trouble of either frames 
 or pots, it may be useful to know that rhubarb will 
 come in much quicker by being covered about six 
 inches thick with light litter ; care should be taken 
 in putting it on and removing it that no injury be 
 done to the plants. 
 
 To dry Rhubarb. 
 
 The best method of drying rhubarb is to strip 
 it off its epidermis. This is a long operation, but 
 both time and expense are spared in the end by 
 the promptness and regularity of the drying. 
 Many cultivators of rhubarb on a large scale have 
 repeated the experiment and have met with the 
 most decisive results. 
 
 To cure Rhubarb. 
 
 The method of curing the true rhubarb is as 
 follows : Take the roots up when the stalks are 
 withering or dying away, clean them from the 
 earth with a dry brush, cut them in small pieces 
 of about four or five inches in breadth and about 
 two in depth, taking away all the bark, and make 
 a hole in the middle and string them on pack 
 
ONIONS AND ASPARAGUS. 
 
 81 
 
 thread, keeping every piece apart, and every 
 morning, if the weather is fine, place them in the 
 open part of the garden on stages erected by pla- 
 cing small posts about six feet high in the ground 
 and six feet asunder, into which fix horizontal 
 pegs about a foot apart, beginning at the top, and 
 the rhubard being sprung crosswise on small 
 poles, place them on these pegs, so that if it should 
 rain you could easily remove each pole with the 
 luspended pieces into any covered place. Never 
 i lifter them to be out at night, as the damp moulds 
 them. 
 
 To cultivate Onions. 
 
 Never use the hoe to the plant except it be for 
 clearing the ground from weeds. When the onions 
 have shot out their leaves to their full size, and 
 when they begin to get a little brown 'at the top, 
 clear away all the soil from the bulb down to the 
 ring, from whence proceed the fibres of the roots, 
 and thus form a basin round each bulb, which 
 Catches the rain and serves as a receptacle for the 
 \dter from the watering-pot. The old bulbs will 
 then immediately begin to form new ones, and if 
 they are kept properly moist and the soil is good 
 the clusters will be very large and numerous. 
 This is not the only advantage of this mode of 
 treatment, as the bulbs thus grown above ground 
 are much sounder than those formed beneath the 
 surface, and will keep quite as well as any other 
 sort, which was not the case until this plan was 
 adopted. 
 
 By a particular mode of culture, the onion in 
 this country may be grown nearly in form and 
 size like those from Spain and Portugal. The 
 seeds of the Spanish or Portugal onion should for 
 this purpose be sown at the usual period in the 
 spring, very thickly, and in poor soil, under the 
 shade of apple or pear-trees. In autumn the bulbs 
 will not be much larger than peas, when they 
 should be taken from the soil and preserved until 
 the succeeding spring, and then planted at some 
 distance from each other, in a good soil, and ex- 
 posed to the sun. The bulbs will often exceed five 
 inches in diameter, and will keep throughout the 
 winter much better than those cultivated in the 
 usual manner. 
 
 The Portuguese Mode of Cultivating Onions. 
 
 They must first be raised on a nursery-bed, in 
 the warmest and most sheltered part of the gar- 
 den, as early in the month of February as the sea- 
 son will permit; as soon as the plants are strong 
 enough to bear removal, that is to say, when they 
 are about the thickness of a goose-quill, let some 
 puddle be prepared with garden mould and water, 
 with a small proportion of soot, the whole to be 
 of the consistence of thick cream ; as the plants 
 are drawn from the seed-bed, let their roots be in- 
 stantly immersed in the puddle, and there remain 
 till they are transplanted, where they are perma- 
 nently to continue. The plants should be set out 
 about six inches apart, and the ground kept per- 
 fectly clear of weeds, and regularly refreshed with 
 water in hot and dry weather. On this latter cir- 
 cumstance will very much depend their size and 
 mildnf ss ; to this is owing the superiority of onions 
 grown in Portugal, which are all cultivated in the 
 way here recommended. By keeping the roots in 
 puddle, if it were only for a few minutes, during 
 the interval between the taking up and transplant- 
 ing, they are prevented from receiving the slight- 
 est check from the access of the atmospheric air, 
 and will require no immediate watering when first 
 transplanted. 
 
 To obtain a good Crop of Onions. 
 
 In order to obtain a good crop of onions it is 
 proper to sow at different seasons, viz., in light 
 
 soils, in August, January, or early in February; 
 and, in heavy wet soils, in March, or early in 
 April. Onions, however, should not be sown in 
 January, unless the ground be in a dry state, 
 which is not often the case at so early a period of 
 the season : but if so, advantage should be taken 
 of it. 
 
 To cultivate Asparagus. 
 
 That part of the garden which is longest ex- 
 posed to the sun, and least shaded by shrubs and 
 trees, is to be chosen for the situation of the as- 
 paragus quarter. A pit is then to be dug five feet 
 in depth, nnd the mould which is taken from it 
 must be sifted, taking care to reject all stones, 
 even as low in size as a filbert nut. The best parts 
 of the mould must then be laid aside for making 
 up the beds. 
 
 The materials of the beds are then to be laid in 
 the following proportion and order: 
 
 Six inches of common dunghill manure; eight 
 inches of turf; six inches of dung as before; six 
 inches of sifted earth; eight inches of turf; six 
 inches of very rotten dung; eight inches of the 
 best earth. 
 
 The best layer of earth must then be well mixed 
 with the last of dung. The addition of salt to the 
 earth of asparagus beds, especially in places far 
 from the sea, is suggested by the natural habits 
 of the plant. 
 
 The quarter must now be divided into beds fire 
 feet wide, by paths constructed of turf, two feet 
 in breadth, and one in thickness. The asparagus 
 must be planted about the end of March, eighteen 
 inches asunder. In planting them, the bud or top 
 of the shoot is to be placed at the depth of an inch 
 and a half in the ground, while the roots must be 
 spread out as widely as possible, in the form of an 
 umbrella. A small bit of stick must be placed as 
 a mark at each plant, as it is laid in the ground. 
 As soon as the earth is settled and dry, a spadeful 
 of fine sand is to be thrown on each plant, in the 
 form of a mole-hill. If the asparagus plants 
 should have begun to shoot before their transplan- 
 tation, the young shoots should be cut off, and the 
 planting will, with these precautions, be equally 
 successful, though it should be performed in this 
 country even as late as July. Should any of tho 
 plants originally inserted have died, they also may 
 be replaced at this season. The plants ought to 
 be two years old when they are transplanted ; 
 they will even take at three, but at four they are 
 apt to fail. 
 
 In three years the largest plants will be fit to cut 
 for use. If the buds be sufficiently large to furnish 
 a supply in this manner, the asparagus shoots 
 should be cut as fast as they appear; otherwise 
 they must be left till the quantity required has 
 pushed forth ; in which case the variety in color 
 and size prevents them from having so agreeable 
 an appearance. An iron knife is used for this 
 purpose. 
 
 The asparagus-bed now described will generally 
 last thirty years ; but if they be planted in such 
 abundance as to require cutting only once in 
 twenty-seven years, half the bed being always in 
 a state of reservation, it will last a century or 
 more. The turf used in making the beds should 
 be very free from stones. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 Make the bed quite flat, five feet wide, of good 
 soil, without any dung, long or short; sow it with 
 onions. Then sow two asparagus seeds (lest one 
 should fail) about one inch deep, near each other; 
 twelve inches each way sow two more ; and if the 
 spring is cold and dry let the weeds grow until 
 rain comes. In October cover the bed with ma- 
 
82 
 
 HORTICULTUKE. 
 
 nuro or rotten hot-bed. The next spring remove 
 the weakest of the two plants, and keep the bed 
 free from weeds. To raise seed, select the thick- 
 est stems; after blossoming enough, take off the 
 tops, to make the seed strong. This is also the 
 best way to raise double ten-weeks and Brompton 
 stocks. Six pounds are sufficient for any strong 
 plant; setting them to flower near double ones is 
 of no use. The excess in petal arises from culti- 
 vation, and transplanting into rich soil; wild 
 flowers are seldom double. Keep all small seeds 
 in the pod until you sow them. 
 
 To force Asparagus. 
 
 The pits in which succession pines are kept in 
 the summer have at bottom a layer of leaves about 
 eighteen inches deep, covered with the same thick- 
 ness of tan, which becomes quite cold when the 
 pines are removed. In one of the pits should be 
 spread over the entire surface of the old tan a 
 quantity of asparagus roots, and cover it with six 
 inches more of tan, and apply linings of hot dung, 
 and successively renew it round the sides, keep- 
 ing up thereby a good heat. The above mode was 
 practised in the middle of December by Mr. Wil- 
 liam Ross, and in five weeks the crop was fit for 
 use. As soon as the shoots made their appear- 
 ance, and during the day-time he took off the 
 lights, introducing as much air as possible, which 
 gave them a good natural color, and the size was 
 nearly as large as if they had been produced in 
 the open ground, at the usual season. 
 
 To insure perfect success, it is expedient to 
 have good roots to place in the bed ; the usual 
 plan of taking them from the exhausted old beds 
 of the garden is bad. If they are past their best 
 and unfit to remain in the garden, they cannot be 
 in a good state for forcing. Young roots, four 
 years old from the seed, are much preferable : 
 they are costly if they are to be purchased every 
 jear ; but where there is sufficient space a regular 
 cowing for this particular purpose should be m;ule 
 annually, and thus a succession of stock secured. 
 
 To render Asparagus more Productive. 
 
 In the formation of beds the male plants only 
 should be selected, which may easily be done by 
 not planting from the seed-bed until they have 
 flowered. When the plants are one year old 
 transplant them into the other beds, at six inches 
 distance; let them remain there until they flower, 
 which will be in most of them in the second year; 
 put a small stick to each male plant to mark it, 
 and pull up the females, unless it is wished to 
 make a small plantation with one of them to prove 
 the truth of the experiment. 
 
 Towards the end of July, especially if it be rainy 
 weather, cut down the stalks of the asparagus, 
 fork up the beds, and rake them smooth. If it be 
 dry, water them with the draining of a dunghill ; 
 but, instead of leaving them round, leave them 
 rather flat or hollow in the middle, the better to 
 retain the water or rain. In about twelve or four- 
 teen days the asparagus will begin to appear, and 
 if it be dry weather continue watering once or 
 twice a week. By this method asparagus may be 
 _cut about the end of September; at which time 
 the hot-beds will succeed this, so that by making 
 five or six hot-beds during the winter, a regular suc- 
 cession of it may be had every month of the year. 
 
 To raise Capsicum and make Cayenne Pepper. 
 
 Capsicum pepper is produced from the capsi- 
 etim, which is raised for ornament, with many 
 oiler annual flowers, or for pickling the green 
 pods, and is the seed and pod when ripe. In 
 March or April procure some pods of any of the 
 sorts of capsicums, as there are many varieties of 
 
 them of different shapes; take out the seeds, ;md 
 sow them on a bed not too thick. When they are 
 about four inches high prick them out on the hot- 
 bed at six inches asunder, or put each into a small 
 pot, or three into a large one, and keep them still 
 under the glasses. In June, when the weather is 
 settled, plant them all in a warm situation in a 
 rich earth, where they are to remain, some on the 
 borders of the flower garden and some into larger 
 pots, which you can shelter in bad weather. 
 To cultivate the Alpine Strawberry. 
 
 The process consists of sowing the seed on a 
 moderate hot-bed in the beginning of April, and 
 removing the plants, as soon as they have acquired 
 sufficient strength, to beds in the open ground. 
 They will begin to blossom after midsummer, and 
 afford an abundant late autumnal crop. This 
 strawberry ought always to be treated as our an- 
 nual plants. 
 
 To cultivate Sea Kail. 
 
 The seed is to be sown in the month of April in 
 drills, on a good light dry soil; as the plants rise, 
 thin them and keep them clean. The first winter 
 earth them up to protect them from the frost; the 
 following summer thin them to about eighteen 
 inches distance, leaving the best plants. At 
 Christmas take away the decayed leaves and cover 
 up each plant with a large deep pan or flower-pot, 
 upon which lay a quantity of the leaves of trees, 
 to keep off the frost and create heat to the plants. 
 Stable litter is sometimes used instead of leaves, 
 but it is apt to give the plants a rank taste. In 
 the following month of April the pots will be quite 
 full of fine tender blanched shoots, which may be 
 cut over by the ground (but not too near) and the 
 stumps covered up again for a second crop. This 
 may be repeated with the same plants two or three 
 times during the spring, before the plants are left 
 for summer's growth. With this treatment the 
 sea kail, if sufficiently boiled in two waters, will 
 be found equal to any asparagus or brocoli, and 
 may be eaten with butter, or butter and vinegar 
 and pepper, as may suit the taste. The plant 
 being a perennial one, will last for any length of 
 time with proper culture. 
 To cultivate Radishes to have them at all Seasons. 
 
 Take seeds of the common radish and lay them 
 in rain water to steep for twenty-four hours ; then 
 put them quite wet into a small linen bag, well 
 tied at the mouth with a packthread. If you 
 have steeped a large quantity of seeds, you may 
 divide them into several bags. Then expose the 
 bags in a place where they will receive the great- 
 est heat of the sun for about twenty-four hours, 
 at the end of which time the seed will begin to 
 grow, and you may then sow it in the usual man- 
 ner in earth well exposed to the heat of the sun. 
 Prepare two small tubs to cover each other exactly. 
 These may be easily provided by sawing a small 
 cask through the middle, and they will serve in 
 winter; in summer one will be sufficient for each 
 kind of earth that has been sown. As soon as you 
 have sown your seeds you must cover them with 
 your tub, and at the end of three days you will 
 find radishes of the size and thickness of young 
 lettuces, having at their extremities two small 
 round leaves, rising from the earth, of a reddish 
 color. These radishes, cut or pulled up, will be 
 excellent if mixed with a salad, and they have a 
 much more delicate taste than the common rad- 
 ishes which are eaten with salt. 
 
 By taking the following precautions you may- 
 have them in the winter, and even during the 
 hardest frosts. After having steeped the seeds in 
 warm water, and exposed them to the ?un as al- 
 ready directed, or in a place sufficiently hot to 
 
TO DESTROY INSECTS. 
 
 83 
 
 make them shoot forth, warm the two tubs; fill 
 one of them with earth well dunged; sow your 
 seeds, thus prepared, in one of them, and cover 
 it with the other tub; you must then be careful 
 to sprinkle it with warm water as often as may be 
 necessary. Then carry the two tubs closely joined, 
 taking care they cover each other, into a warm 
 vault or cellar, and at the end of fifteen days you 
 may gather a fine salad. 
 
 To increase Potnge Herbs. 
 
 The manzel worzel would, if permitted to run 
 up, grow to a great height, and afford a good 
 plucking of potage vegetables twice a week in 
 winter (only). It must be planted late, but may 
 continue in the ground two or three years, when 
 its roots will be wasted, the herbage become 
 dwarfish, and it must be renewed by seed. 
 
 To guard Cabbages from the Depredations of Ca- 
 terpillars. 
 
 Sow with hemp all the borders of the ground 
 wherein the cabbage is planted ; and, although 
 the neighborhood be infested with caterpillars, 
 the space inclosed by the hemp will be perfectly 
 free, and not one of these vermin will approach it. 
 To banish the Red Spider. 
 
 Cut off the infected leaf. The leaf once attacked 
 soon decays and falls off; but in the mean time 
 the animals remove to another, and the leaf, from 
 the moment of attack, seems to cease to perform 
 its office; but persevere in the amputation, and 
 the plants become healthy. 
 
 To stop the Ravages of Caterpillars from Shrubs-, 
 Plants, and Vegetables. 
 
 Take a chafing-dish with lighted charcoal, and 
 place it under the branches of the tree or bush 
 whereon are the caterpillars ; then throw a little 
 brimstone on the coals. The vapor of the sulphur, 
 which is mortal to these insects, and the suffocat- 
 ing fixed air arising from the charcoal, will not 
 only destroy all that are on the tree, but will 
 effectually prevent the shrubs from being, at that 
 season, infested with them. A pound of sulphur 
 will clear as many trees as grow on several acres. 
 
 Another method of driving these insects off fruit 
 trees is to boil together a quantity of rue, worm- 
 wood, and common tobacco (of each equal parts), 
 in common water. The liquor should be very 
 strong. Sprinkle this on the leaves and young 
 branches every morning and evening during the 
 time the fruit is ripening. 
 
 To destroy Insects on Plants. 
 
 Tie up some flowers of sulphur in a piece of 
 muslin or fine linen, and with this the leaves of 
 young shoots of plants should be dusted, or it may 
 be thrown on them by means of a common swans- 
 down puff, or even by a dredging box. 
 
 Fresh assurances have repeatedly been received 
 of the powerful influence of sulphur against the 
 whole tribe of insects and worms which infest and 
 prey on vegetables. Sulphur has also been found 
 to promote the health of plants on which it was 
 sprinkled ; and that peach-trees in particular were 
 remarkably improved by it, and seemed to absorb 
 it. It has been likewise observed that the verdure 
 and other healthful appearances were perceptibly 
 increased; for the quantity of new shoots and 
 leaves formed subsequently to the operation, and 
 having no sulphur on their surfaces, served as a 
 kind of comparative index, and pointed out dis- 
 tinctly the accumulation of health. 
 ^ To cultivate the Sunflower. 
 
 The sunflower, kidney-beans, and potatoes, 
 mixed together, agree admirably, the neighbor- 
 hood of the sunflower proving advantageous to 
 
 the potato. It is a well-authenticated fact that, 
 with careful attention, the sunflower will make 
 excellent oil. 
 
 The marc or refuse of the sunflower, after the 
 oil is expressed, may be prepared as a light viand 
 for hogs and goats, pigeons and poultry, which 
 will banquet on it to satiety. Query, would it not 
 make good oil-cakes for fattening pigs? if brought 
 into notice it might become an object of magni- 
 tude. Forty-eight pounds of sunflower will pro- 
 duce twelve pounds of oil. In fine, I esteem it as 
 worthy of consideration; for 1. In the scale of ex- 
 cellence, it will render the use of grain for feeding 
 hogs, poultry, pigeons, etc. completely unneces- 
 sary. 2. As it resembles olive oil, would it not 
 be found, on examination, competent to supply its 
 place ? Whatever may be the points of difference, 
 it certainly may be serviceable in home consump- 
 tion and manufactures. 3. Its leaves are to be 
 plucked as they become yellow, and dried. 4. It 
 affords an agreeable and wholesome food to sheep 
 and rabbits. To goats and rabbits the little 
 branches are a delicious and luxurious gratifica- 
 tion, as is also the disc of the pure flower, after 
 the grains have been taken out. Rabbits eat the 
 whole, except the woody part of the plant, which 
 is well adapted for the purpose of fuel. 5. Its al- 
 kalic qualities appear to deserve notice ; forty- 
 eight quintals yield eighty pounds of alkali, a 
 produce four times superior to that of any other 
 plant we are acquainted with, maize excepted. 
 6. Might it not be used as a lye? And minuter 
 observation might convert it into soap, the basis 
 of both being oil. 
 
 Dig and trench about it, as both that and the 
 potato love new earths. Let the rows be twenty- 
 nine inches distant from each other, and it will 
 be adviintageous, as the turnsole loves-l-oom. 
 
 Three grains are to be sown distant some inches 
 from each other, and, when their stems are from 
 eight to twelve inches high, the finest of the three 
 only to be left. Twc tufts of French beans to be 
 planted with potatoes. The French beans will 
 climb up the side of the sunflower, which will act 
 and uniformly support like sticks, and the sun- 
 flower will second this disposition, by keeping off 
 the great heat from the potato, and produce more 
 than if all had been planted with potatoes. 
 
 Each sunflower will produce one or two pounds, 
 and the acre will bring in a vast amount, or con- 
 tain one thousand pounds, being one-third more 
 than grain. 
 
 To economize the Sunflower. 
 
 The cultivation of the annual sunflower is re- 
 commended to the notice of the public, possessing 
 the advantage of furnishing abundance of agree- 
 able fodder for cattle in their leaves. When in 
 flower bees flock from all quarters to gather honey. 
 The seed is valuable in feeding sheep, pigs, and 
 other animals; it produces a striking effect in 
 poultry, as occasioning them to lay more eggs, 
 and it yields a large quantity of excellent oil by 
 pressure. The dry stalks burn well, the ashes 
 affording a Considerable quantity of alkali. 
 
 To remove Herbs and Flowers in the Summer. 
 
 If you have occasion to transplant in the sum- 
 mer season, let it be in the evening, after the heat 
 is passed. Plant and water the same immedi- 
 ately, and there will be no danger from the heat 
 next day; but be careful in digging up the earth 
 you do not break any of the young shoots, as the 
 sap will exude out of the same, to the great danger 
 of the plants. 
 
 Method of Growing Flowers in Winter. 
 In order to produce this effect the trees or 
 
HORTICULTUKE. 
 
 ahrubs, being taken up in tbe spring, at tbe time 
 when they are about to bud, with some of their 
 own soil carefully preserved among the roots, 
 must be placed upright in a cellar till Michael- 
 mas; when, with the addition of fresh earth, they 
 are jo be put into proper tubs or vessels, and 
 placed in a stove or hot-house, where they must 
 every morning be moistened or refreshed with a 
 solution of half an ounce of sal-ammoniac in a 
 pint of rain-water. Thus, in the month of Feb- 
 ruary, fruits or roses will appear; and, with re- 
 spect to flowers in general, if they are sown in 
 pots at or before Michaelmas, and watered in a 
 similar manner, they will blow at Christmas. 
 
 To preserve Wood from Insects. 
 In the East Indies aloes are employed as a var- 
 nish to preserve wood from worms and other 
 insects; and skins, and even living animals, are 
 anointed with it for the same reason. The havoc 
 committed by the white ants, in India, first sug- 
 gested the trial of aloe juice to protect wood from 
 them, for which purpose the juice is either used 
 as extracted, or in solution by some solvent. 
 
 To preserve Young Shoots from Slugs and Earwigs. 
 Earwigs and slugs are fond of the points of the 
 young shoots of carnations and pinks, and are very 
 troublesome in places where they abound; to pre- 
 vent them they are sometimes insulated in water, 
 being set in cisterns or pans. If a pencil dipped 
 in oil was drawn round the bottom of the pots 
 once in two days, neither of these insects or ants 
 would attempt them. Few insects can endure oil, 
 and the smallest quantity of it stops their progress. 
 
 Vegetable Liquor to hasten the Blowing of Bulbous- 
 Rooted Flowers. 
 
 Take nitre, 3 ounces; common salt, 1 ounce; 
 potash, 1 ounce; sugar, ounce; rain-water 1 
 pound. Dissolve the salts in a gentle heat, in a 
 glazed earthen pot, and when the solution is com- 
 plete add the sugar, and filter the whole. Put 
 about eight drops of this liquor into a glass jar, 
 filled with rain or river-water. The jars must be 
 kept always full, and the water removed every ten 
 or twelve days, adding each time a like quantity 
 of the liquor. The flowers also must be placed 
 on the corner of a chimney-piece, where a fire is 
 regularly kept. The same mixture may be em- 
 ployed for watering flowers in pots, or filling the 
 dishes in which they are placed, in order to keep 
 the earth, or the bulbs or plants which they con- 
 tain, in a state of moisture. 
 
 To restore Flowers. 
 
 Most flowers begin to droop and fade after being 
 kept during twenty-four hours in water; a few 
 may be revived by substituting fresh water, but 
 all (the most fugacious, such as poppy, and per- 
 haps one or two others excepted,) may be restored 
 by the use of hot water. For this purpose place 
 the flowers in scalding hot water, deep enough to 
 eovfr about one-third of the length of the stem; 
 by the time the water has become cold the flowers 
 will have become erect and fresh ; then cut off the 
 coddled ends of the stems and put them into cold 
 water. 
 
 To preserve Flower Seeds. 
 
 Those who are curious about saving flower seeds 
 must attend to them in the month of August. 
 Many kinds will begin to ripen apace, and should 
 be carefully sticked and supported to prevent 
 them from being shaken by high winds, and so 
 partly lost. Others should be defended from 
 much wet, such as asters, marygolds, and gener- 
 ally those of the class syngenesia, as from the 
 construction of their flowers they are apt to rot, 
 
 and the seeds to mould in bad seasons. When- 
 ever they are thought ripe, or sooner in wei 
 weather, tbey should be removed to an airy shed 
 or loft, gradually dried and rubbed or beat out 
 at convenience. When dried wrap them up in 
 papers or in tight boxes containing powdered 
 charcoal. 
 
 To improve all sorts of Seeds. 
 Charles Miller, son of the celebrated botanist, 
 published a recipe for fertilizing seed, and tried it 
 on wheat, by mixing lime, nitre and pigeon's 
 dung in water, and therein steeping the seed. 
 The produce of some of these grains is stated at 
 sixty, seventy and eighty stems, many of the ears 
 five inches long, and fifty corns each, and none 
 less than forty. 
 
 To preserve Seeds for a long time. 
 When seeds are to be preserved longer than the 
 usual period, or when they are to be sent to a 
 great distance, sugar, salt, cotton, saw-dust, sand, 
 paper, etc., have been adopted with different de- 
 grees of success. Chinese seeds, dried by means 
 of sulphuric acid, in Leslie's manner, may be af- 
 terwards preserved in a vegetating state for any 
 necessary length of time by keeping them in an 
 airy situation in any common brown paper, and oc- 
 casionally exposing them to the air on a fine day, 
 especially after damp weather. This method will 
 succeed with all the larger mucilaginous seeds. 
 Very small seeds, berries and oily seeds may pro- 
 bably require to be kept in sugar, or among cur- 
 rants or raisins. 
 
 To preserve Exotic Seeds. 
 
 Five years ago, says a correspondent of the 
 Monthly Magazine, I had a collection of seeds 
 sent me from Scrampoore, in the East Indies, 
 which have been since that period kept in small 
 bottles in a dry situation, without corks ; last 
 spring some of them were sown, and produced 
 strong, healthy plants, under the following sys- 
 tem ; but if taken from the bottles and sown in 
 the ordinary way I have found them either to fail 
 altogether or to produce germination so weak that 
 the greatest care can never bring them to any 
 perfection. 
 
 I have long observed that oxygen is necessary 
 to animal and vegetable life, and that soil which 
 has imbibed the greatest proportion of that air or 
 gas yields the strongest germination, and with the 
 least care produces the best and most healthy 
 plants; under that impression I prepare the soil 
 by adding to it a compost made from decayed 
 vegetables, night soil and fresh earth, well mixed 
 together and turned several times; but should the 
 weather be dry I have generally found the com- 
 post better by adding water to keep it moist. On 
 the evening before I intended to sow the seeds I 
 have immersed them in a weak solution of chlo- 
 rine, and suffered them to remain until they begun 
 to swell. 
 
 By pursuing this treatment even with our En- 
 glish annual seeds, I am gratified with an earlier 
 germination and with generally stronger and more 
 healthy plants. 
 
 To dry Flowers. 
 
 They should be dried off as speedily as possi- 
 ble, the calyces, claws, etc., being previously taken 
 off; when the flowers are very small the calyx ia 
 left, or even the whole flowering spike, as in the 
 greatest portion of the labiate flowers ; compound 
 flowers with pappous seeds, as coltsfoot, ought to 
 be dried very high and before they are entirely 
 opened, otherwise the slight moisture that re- 
 mains would develope the pappi, and these would 
 form a kind of cottony nap, which would be very 
 
TO PKESERVE VEGETABLES AND FRUIT. 
 
 85 
 
 hurtful in infusions, by leaving irritating parti- 
 cles in the throat. Flowers of little or no smell 
 may be dried in a heat of 75 to 100 Fahr.; the 
 succulent petals of the liliaceous plants, whose 
 odor is very fugaceous, cannot well be dried ; sev- 
 eral sorts of flowering tops, as those of lesser cen- 
 taury, lily of the valley, wormwood, mellilot, wa- 
 ter germander, etc., are tied up in small parcels 
 and hung up, or exposed to the sun, wrapped in 
 paper cornets, that they may not be discolored. 
 The color of the petals of red roses is preserved 
 by their being quickly dried with heat, after which 
 the yellow anthers are separated by sifting; the 
 odor of roses and red pinks is considerably in- 
 creased by drying. 
 
 To dry Tops, Leaves, or Whole Herbs. 
 
 They should be gathered in a dry season, 
 cleansed from discolored and rotten leaves, 
 screened from earth or dust, placed on handles 
 covered with blotting paper and exposed to the 
 sun or the heat of a stove, in a dry, airy place. 
 The quicker they are dried the better, as they 
 have less time to ferment or grow mouldy; hence 
 they should be spread thin and frequently turned ; 
 when dried they should be shaken in a large 
 meshed sieve to get rid of the eggs of any insects. 
 Aromatic herbs ought to be dried quickly with a 
 moderate heat, that their odor may not be lost. 
 Cruciferous plants should not be dried, as in that 
 case they lose much of their antiscorbutic qualities. 
 Some persons have proposed to dry herbs in a 
 water bath, but this occasions them, as it were, to 
 be half boiled in their own water. 
 To dry Roots. 
 
 They should be rubbed in water to get rid of 
 the dirt and also some of the mucous substance 
 that would otherwise render them mouldy ; the 
 larger are then to be cut, split, or peeled, but in 
 most aromatic roots, the odor residing in the bark, 
 they must not be peeled; they are then to be 
 spread on sieves or hurdles and dried in a heat of 
 about 120 Fahr. either on the top of an oven, in a 
 stove, or a steam closet, taking care to shake them 
 occasionally to change the surface exposed to the 
 air. Thick and juicy roots, as rhubarb, briony, 
 peony, water-lily, etc., are cut in slices, strung 
 upon a thread and hung in a heat of about 90 to 
 100 Fahr. Squills are scaled, threaded and 
 dried round the tube of a German stove, or in a 
 hot closet. Rhubarb should be washed to sepa- 
 rate that mucous principle which would otherwise 
 render it black and soft when powdered. Pota- 
 toes are cut in slices and dried. 
 
 To preserve Roots. 
 
 These are preserved in different ways, according 
 to the object in view. Tuberous roots, as those 
 of the dahlia, paeonia, tuberose, etc., intended to 
 be planted in the succeeding spring, are preserved 
 through the winter in dry earth, in a temperature 
 lather under than above what is natural to them. 
 So may the bulbous roots of commerce, as hya- 
 cinths, tulips, onions, etc., but for convenience, 
 these are kept cither loose, in cool dry shelves or 
 lofts, or the finer sorts in papers, till the season 
 of planting. 
 
 Roots of all kinds may be preserved in an ice- 
 house till the return of the natural crop. 
 
 After stuffing the vacuities with straw, and 
 covering the surface of the ice with the same 
 material, place on it case boxes, casks, baskets, 
 etc., and fill them with turnips, carrots, beet- 
 roots, and in particular potatoes. By the cold of 
 the place vegetation is so much suspended that 
 all these articles may be thus kept fresh and un- 
 injured till they give place to another crop in its 
 natural season. 
 
 To gather Vegetables. 
 
 This is, in part, performed with a knife, and in 
 part by fracture or torsion with the hand. In all 
 cases of using the knife, the general principle of 
 cutting is to be attended to, leaving also a sound 
 section on the living plant. Gathering with the 
 hand ought to be done as little as possible. 
 
 To preserve Vegetables. 
 
 This is effected in cellars or sheds, of any tem- 
 perature, not lower nor much above the freezing- 
 point. Thus cabbages, endive, chicory, lettuce, 
 etc., taken out of the ground with their main 
 roots, in perfectly dry weather, at the end of the 
 season, and laid on, or partially immersed in sand 
 or dry earth, in a close shed, cellar, or ice-oold 
 room, will keep through the winter, and be fit for 
 use till spring, and often till the return of the sea- 
 son of their produce in the garden. 
 
 Time for Gathering Fruits. 
 
 This should take place in the middle of a dry 
 day. Plums readily part from the twigs when 
 ripe; they should not be much handled, as the 
 bloom is apt to be rubbed off. Apricots may be 
 accounted ready when the side next the sun feels 
 a little soft upon gentle pressure with the finger. 
 They adhere firmly to the tree, and would over- 
 ripen on it and become mealy. Peaches and nec- 
 tarines, if moved upwards, and allowed to descend 
 with a slight jerk, will separate, if ready; and 
 they may be received into a tin funnel lined with 
 velvet, so as to avoid touching with the fingers or 
 bruising. 
 
 A certain rule for judging of the ripeness of fig* 
 is to notice when the small end of the fruit be- 
 comes of the same color as the large one. 
 
 The most transparent grapes are the most ripe. 
 All the berries in a bunch never ripen equally; 
 it is therefore proper to cut away unripe or de- 
 cayed berries before presenting the bunches at 
 table. 
 
 Autumn and winter pears are gathered, when 
 dry, as they successively ripen. 
 
 Immature fruit never keeps so well as that 
 which nearly approaches maturity. Winter ap- 
 ples should be left on the trees till there be dan- 
 ger of frost ; they are then gathered on a dry day. 
 
 To gather Orchard Fruits. 
 
 In respect to the time of gathering, the crite- 
 rion of ripeness, adopted by Forsyth, is their be- 
 ginning to fall from the tree. Observe attentively 
 when the apples and pears are ripe ; and do not 
 pick them always at the same regular time of the 
 year, as is the practice with many. A dry season 
 will forward the ripening of fruit, and a wet one 
 retard it so that there will sometimes be a month's 
 difference in the proper time for gathering. If 
 this is attended to the fruit will keep well, and be 
 plurnp, and not shrivelled, as is the case with all 
 fruit that is gathered before it is ripe. 
 
 The art of gathering is to give them a lift, so as 
 to press away the stalk, and if ripe, they readily 
 part from the tree. Those that will not come off 
 easily should hang a little longer; for when thojr 
 come off hard they will not be so fit to store ; 
 and the violence done at the foot-stalk may injure 
 the bud there formed for the next year's fruit. 
 
 Let the pears be quite dry when pulled, and in 
 handling avoid pinching the fruit, or in any way 
 bruising it, as those which are hurt not only de- 
 cay themselves, but presently spread infection to 
 those near them ; when suspected to be bruised, 
 let them be carefully kept from others, and used 
 first; as gathered, lay them gently in shallow 
 baskets 
 
86 
 
 HOETICULTUEE. 
 
 To preserve Green Fruits. 
 
 Green fruits are generally preserved by pick- 
 ling or salting, and this operation is usually per- 
 formed by some part of the domestic establish- 
 ment. 
 
 To preserve Ripe Fruit. 
 
 Such ripe fruit as may be preserved is generally 
 laid up in lofts and bins, or shelves, when in large 
 quantities, and of baking qualities ; but the better 
 sorts of apples and pears are now preserved in a 
 tfystriTi of drawers, sometimes spread out in them ; 
 at other times wrapped up in papers, or placed in 
 pots, cylindrical earthen vessels, among sand, 
 moss, paper, chaff, hay, saw-dust, etc., or sealed 
 up in air-tight jars or casks, and placed in the 
 fruit-cellar. 
 
 To preserve Pears. 
 
 Having prepared a number of earthen-ware 
 jars, and a quantity of dry moss, place a layer of 
 moss and pears alternately till the jar is filled, 
 then insert a plug, and seal around with melted 
 rosin. These jars are sunk in dry sand to the 
 depth of a foot ; a deep cellar is preferable for 
 keeping them to any fruit-room. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 Choice apples and pears are preserved in glazed 
 jars, provided with covers. In the bottom of the 
 jars, and between ea,ch two layers of fruit, put some 
 pure pit-sand, which has been thoroughly dried. 
 The jars are kept in a dry, airy situation, as cool 
 as possible, but secure from frost. A label on the 
 jar indicates the kind of fruit, and when wanted 
 it is taken from the jar and placed for some time 
 on the shelves of the fruit-room. 
 
 In this way Colmarts, and other fine French 
 pears may be preserved till April; the Terling till 
 June; and many kinds of apples till July, the 
 skin remaining. 
 
 To preserve Apples and Pears. 
 
 The most successful method of preserving ap- 
 ples and pears'is by placing them in glazed earthen 
 vessels, each containing about a gallon, and sur- 
 rounding each fruit with paper. These vessels 
 being perfect cylinders, about a foot each in 
 height, stand very conveniently upon each other, 
 and thus present the means of preserving a large 
 quantity of fruit in a very small room ; and if the 
 space between the top of one vessel and the base 
 of another be filled with a cement composed of two 
 parts of the curd of skimmed milk, and one of 
 lime, by which the air will be excluded, the later 
 kinds of apples and pears will be preserved with 
 little change in their appearance, and without any 
 danger of decay, from October till February or 
 March. A dry and cold situation, in which there 
 is little change of temperature, is the best for the 
 vessels; but the merits of the pears are greatly 
 increased by their being taken from the vessels 
 about ten days before they are wanted for vrse, 
 and kept in a warm room, for warmth at this, as 
 at other periods, accelerates the maturity of the 
 pear. 
 
 To preserve various sorts of Fruit. 
 
 By covering some sorts of cherry, plum, goose- 
 berry and currant trees, either on walls or on 
 bushes with mats, the fruit of the red and white 
 currant, and of the thicker-skinned gooseberry- 
 trees, may be preserved till Christmas and late'r. 
 Grapes, in the open air, may be preserved in the 
 game manner; and peaches and nectarines may 
 be kept a month hanging on the trees after they 
 are ripe. 
 
 Arkwright, by late forcing, retains plump grapes 
 on his vines till the beginning of May, and even 
 later, till the maturity of his early crops. In this 
 
 way grapes may be gathered every day in ths 
 year. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 But the true way to preserve keeping-fruit, 
 such as the apple and pear, is to put them in air- 
 tight vessels, and place them in the fruit cellar, in 
 a temperature between thirty-two and forty de- 
 grees. In this way all the keeping sorts of these 
 fruits may be preserved in perfect order for eating 
 for one year after gathering. 
 
 To store Fruit. 
 
 Those to be used first, lay by singly on shelves 
 or on the floor, in a dry southern room, on clean 
 dry moss or sweet dry straw, so as not to touch 
 one another. Some, or all the rest, having first 
 laid a fortnight singly, and then nicely culled, arc 
 to be spread on shelves or on a dry floor. But 
 the most superior way is to pack in large earthen, 
 China or stone jars, with very dry long moss at 
 the bottom, sides, and also between them if 
 possible. Press a good coat of rnoss on the top, 
 and then stop the mouth close with cork or other- 
 wise, which .should be rosined round about with a 
 twentieth part of beeswax in it. Baked saw-dust 
 will do as well. As the object is effectually to 
 keep out air (the cause of putrefaction), the jars, 
 if earthen, may be set on dry sand, which put also 
 between, round and over them, to a foot thick on 
 the top. In all close storing, observe there should 
 be no doubt of the soundness of the fruit. Guard 
 in time from frost those that lie open. Jars of 
 fruit must be soon used after unsealing. 
 
 To keep Apples and Pears for Market. 
 
 Those who keep their fruit in storehouses for 
 the supply of the London and other markets, as 
 well as those who have not proper fruit-rooms, 
 may keep their apples and pears in baskets or 
 hampers, putting some soft paper in the bottoms 
 and round the edges of the baskets, etc., to keep 
 the fruit from being bruised; then put in a layer 
 of fruit, and over that another layer of paper; and 
 so on, a layer of fruit and of paper alternately, 
 till the basket or hamper be full. Cover the top 
 with paper three or four times thick to exclude 
 the air and frost as much as possible. Every dif- 
 ferent sort of fruit should be placed separately; 
 and it will be proper to fix a label to each basket 
 or hamper, with the name of the fruit that it con- 
 tains, and the time of its being fit for use. 
 Another Way. 
 
 Another way of keeping fruit is to pack it in 
 glazed earthern jars. The pears or apples must 
 be separately wrapped up in soft paper, then put 
 a little well -dried bran in the bottom of the jar, 
 and over the bran a layer of fruit ; then a, little 
 more bran to fill up the interstices between the 
 fruit, and to cover it; and so on, a layer of fruit 
 and bran alternately, till the jar be full : then 
 shake it gently, which will make the fruit and 
 bran sink a little; fill up the vacancy at top with 
 a piece of bladder to exclude the air; then put on 
 the top or cover of the jar, observing that it fit* 
 as closely as possible. These jars should be key fc 
 in a room where there can be a fire in wet or damp 
 weather. 
 
 Nicol considers it an error to sweat apples pre- 
 viously to storing them. The fruit ever after re- 
 tains a bad flavor. It should never be laid in 
 heaps at all; but if quite dry when gathered 
 should be immediately carried to the fruit-room, 
 and be laid, if not singly, at least tain on the 
 shelves. If the finer fruits are placed on any- 
 thing else than a clean shelf, it should be mi line 
 paper. Brown paper gives them the flavor of 
 pitch. The fine larger kinds of pears should not 
 
TO PACK FRUIT. 
 
 87 
 
 be allc fred even to touch one another, but should 
 be laid quite single and distinct. Apples, and all 
 ordinary pears, should be laid thin ; never tier above 
 tier. Free air should be admitted to the fruit- 
 loom always in good weather, for several hours 
 every day; and in damp weather a fire should be 
 kept in it. Be careful at all times to exclude 
 frost from the fruit, and occasionally to turn it 
 when very mellow. 
 
 To preserve Fruits or Flowers. 
 Mix one pound of nitre with two pounds of sal 
 ammoniac and three pounds of clean common 
 sand. In dry weather take fruit of any sort not 
 fully ripe, allowing the stalks to remain, and put 
 them one by one into an open glass, till it is quite 
 full; cover the glass with oiled cloth, closely tied 
 down ; put the glass three or four inches into the 
 earth in a dry cellar, and surround it on all sides, 
 to the depth of three or four inches, with the 
 above mixture. This method will preserve the 
 fruit quite fresh all the year round. 
 
 To preserve Walnuts. 
 
 Walnuts for keeping should be suffered to drop 
 of themselves, and afterwards laid in an open airy 
 place till thoroughly dried ; then pack them in 
 jars, boxes or casks, with fine clean sand that has 
 been well dried in the sun, in an oven, or before 
 the fire, in layers of sand and walnuts alternately ; 
 set them in a dry place, but not where it is too 
 hot. In this manner they have been kept good 
 till the latter end of April. Before sending them 
 to table wipe the sand clean off: and if they have 
 become shrivelled, steep them in milk and water 
 for six or eight hours before they are used; this 
 will make them plump and fine, and cause them 
 to peel easily. 
 
 To preserve Chestnuts and Filberts. 
 
 The chestnut is to be treated like the walnut 
 after the husk is removed, which in the chestnut 
 opens of itself. Chestnuts and walnuts may be 
 preserved during the whole winter by covering 
 them with earth, as cottagers do potatoes. 
 
 Filberts may always be gathered by hand, and 
 should afterwards be treated as the walnut. Nuts 
 intended for keeping should be 'packed in jars or 
 boxes of dry sand. 
 
 To preserve Medlars and Quinces. 
 The medlar is not good till rotten ripe. It is 
 generally gathered in the beginning of November, 
 and placed between two layers of straw to forward 
 its maturation. Others put medlars in a box on a 
 three-inch layer of fresh bran, moistened well 
 with soft warm water ; then strew a layer of straw 
 between them, and cover with fruit two inches 
 thick, which moisten also, but not so wet as before. 
 In a week or ten days after this operation they 
 will be fit for use. 
 
 Quinces are gathered in November, when they 
 are generally ripe. After sweating in a heap for 
 a few days, they are to be wiped dry and placed 
 on the fruit-shelf, at some distance from each 
 other. 
 
 To pack Fruit for Carriage. 
 If fruit is to be sent to any considerable dis- 
 tance, great care should be taken in packing it. 
 It should not be done in baskets, as they are liable 
 to be bruised among heavy luggage, and the fruit 
 of course will be impaired. Forsyth, therefore, 
 recommends boxes made of strong deal, of differ- 
 ent sizes, according to the quantity of fruit to be 
 packed. The following are the dimensions of the 
 boxes in which fruit used to be sent by the coach 
 to Windsor and Weymouth, for the use of the 
 royal family : 
 
 The larger box is two feet long, fourteen inches 
 broad, and the same in depth. The smaller box 
 is one foot, nine inches long, one foot broad, and 
 the same in depth. These boxes are made of inch 
 deal, and well secured with three iron clamps at 
 each corner; they have two small iron handles, 
 one at each end, by which they are fastened to the 
 roof of the coach. In these boxes are sent melons, 
 cherries, currants, pears, peaches, nectarines, plums 
 and grapes; they are first wrapped in pine leaves, 
 and then in paper. The cherries and currants are 
 first packed in a flat tin box one foot four inches 
 long, ten inches broad and four deep. 
 
 In packing, proceed thus: First put a layer of 
 fine, long, dry moss in the bottom of the tin box, 
 then a layer of currants or cherries, then anothei 
 layer of moss, and so on alternately fruit and 
 moss until the box is so full that when the lid is 
 hasped down the fruit may be so finely packed as 
 to preserve them from friction. Then make a 
 layer of fine moss and short, soft, dry grass, well 
 mixed, in the bottom of the deal box; pack in the 
 melons with some of the same, tight in between 
 all the rows, and also between the melons in the 
 same row, till the layer is finished, choosing the 
 fruit as nearly of a size as possible, filling up 
 every interstice with the moss and grass. When 
 the melons are packed, put a thin layer of moss 
 and grass over them, upon which place the tin 
 box with the currants, packing it firmly all round 
 with moss to prevent it from shaking; then put a 
 thin layer of moss over the box and pack the 
 pears firmly (but so as not to bruise them) on that 
 layer in the same manner as the melons, and so 
 on with the peaches, nectarines, plums, and lastly 
 the grapes, filling up the box with moss, that the 
 lid may shut down so tight as to prevent any fric- 
 tion among the fruit. The boxes should have 
 locks and two keys, which may serve for them all, 
 each of the persons who pack and unpack the 
 fruit having a key. The moss and grass should 
 always be returned in the boxes, which, with a 
 little addition, will serve the whole season, being 
 shaken up and well aired after each journey, and 
 keeping it sweet and clean. After the wooden box 
 is locked cord it firmly. 
 
 If fruit be packed according to the above di- 
 rections, it may be sent to great distances by 
 coaches or wagons with perfect safety. 
 
 Other Methods of PacJeing Frvit. 
 
 Fruits of the most delicate sorts are sent from 
 Spain and Italy to England, packed in jars with 
 saw-dust from woods not resinous or otherwise ill 
 tasted. One large branch of grapes is suspended 
 from a twig or pin laid across the mouth of the 
 jar, so that it may not touch either the bottom or 
 sides ; saw-dust or bran is then strewed in, and 
 when full the jar is well shaken to cause it to set- 
 tle ; more is then added till it is quite full, when 
 the supporting twig is taken away, and the earthen 
 cover of the jar closely fitted and sealed, gener- 
 ally with fine stucco. 
 
 In the same way grapes may be sent from the 
 remotest part of Scotland or Ireland to the me- 
 tropolis. When the distance is less they may be 
 sent enveloped in fine paper and packed in mess. 
 The simplest mode for short distances is to wrap 
 each bunch in fine, soft paper, and lay them on a 
 bed of moss in a broad, flat basket with a proper 
 cover. 
 
 Cherries and plums may be packed in tnin lay- 
 ers, with paper and moss between each. 
 
 Peaches, apricots, and the finer plums may ach 
 be wrapped separately in vine or other leaves, or 
 fine paper, and packed in abundance of cotton, 
 flax, fine moss, or dried short grass. Moss is ajw 
 
88 
 
 HORTICULTURE. 
 
 to communicate its flavor to fine fruits, and so is 
 short grass, if not thoroughly dried and sweet- 
 ened. Cotton best preserves the bloom on peaches 
 and plums. 
 
 To preserve Grapes. 
 
 Where there are several bunches in one branch, 
 it may be cut off, leaving about six inches in 
 length or more of the wood, according to the dis- 
 tance between the bunches, and a little on the out- 
 ide of the fruit at each end ; seal both ends with 
 common bottle wax, then hang them across a line 
 in a dry room, taking care to clip out with a pair 
 of scissors any of the berries that begin to decay 
 or become mouldy, which, if left, would taint the 
 others. In this way grapes may be kept till Feb- 
 ruary, but if cut before the bunches are too ripe, 
 they may be kept much longer. 
 
 Grapes may be kept by packing them in jars 
 (every bunch being first wrapped up in soft pa- 
 per), and covering every layer with bran well dried, 
 laying a little of it in the bottom of the jar, then 
 ft layer of grapes, and so on, a layer of bran and 
 of grapes alternately till the jar is filled ; then 
 shake it gently and fill it to the top with bran, 
 laying some paper over it and covering the top 
 with a bladder tied firmly on to exclude the air ; 
 then put on the top or cover of the jar, observing 
 that it fits close. These jars should be placed in 
 a room where a fire can be kept in wet, damp 
 weather. 
 
 French Method of Preserving Gropes. 
 Take a cask or barrel inaccessible to the exter- 
 nal air, and put into it a layer of bran dried in an 
 oven, or of ashes well dried and sifted. Upon 
 this place a layer of bunches of grapes, well 
 cleaned, and gathered in the afternoon of a dry 
 day, before they are perfectly ripe. Proceed thus 
 with alternate layers of bran and grapes till the 
 barrel is full, taking care that the grapes do not 
 touch each other, and to let the last layer be of 
 bran ; then close tbe barrel, so that the air may 
 not be able to penetrate, which is an essential 
 point. Grapes thus packed will keep nine or even 
 twelve months. To restore them to their fresh- 
 ness, cut the end of the stalk of each bunch of 
 grapes and put that of white grapes into white 
 wine and that of black grapes into red wine, as 
 flowers are put into water to revive or to keep 
 them fresh. 
 
 To pack Young Trees for Exportation. 
 The long, white moss of the marshes, sphag- 
 num palustre, may be applied for this purpose. 
 Squeeze one part of the moisture from the moss, 
 and lay courses of it about three inches thick, in- 
 terposed with other courses of the trees, short- 
 ened in their branches and roots, stratum above 
 stratum, till the box is filled; then let the whole 
 be trodden down and the lid properly secured. 
 The trees will want no care even during a voyage 
 of ten or twelve months, the moss being retentive 
 of moisture, and appearing to possess an anti- 
 septic property which prevents fermentation or 
 putrefaction. Vegetation will proceed during the 
 time the trees remain inclosed, shoots arising both 
 f- in the branches and roots, which, however, are 
 L... i. .died and tender, for want of light aud air, to 
 which the trees require to be gradually inured. 
 This moss is very common in most parts of Eu- 
 rope and America. 
 
 How to dry Sweet Corn. 
 
 When the corn is in good condition for eating, 
 the grains being fully grown, boil a quantity of 
 ears just enough to cook the starch, and then let 
 them dry a few hours, and then shell or cut off 
 
 the grains and spread them in the sun till dried. 
 The best way to dry the corn is to nail a piece of 
 cloth of very open texture on a frame, which, if 
 two feet wide and five long, will be of a conve- 
 nient size to handle. If the corn is spread thinly 
 upon this cloth it will dry quickly without sour- 
 ing. It should be covered with a mosquito net- 
 ting to keep off the flies. Another person gives 
 the following directions for drying sweet corn: 
 As soon as the corn is fit for the table, husk and 
 spread the ears in an open oven or some quickly- 
 drying place. When the grains loosen shell the 
 corn, or chell as soon as you can ; then spread 
 upon a cloth to dry in the sun, or on paper in a 
 warm oven ; stir often, that it may dry quickly, 
 and not overheat. It more resembles the undried 
 by its being whole, is sweeter and retains more of 
 its natural flavor by drying faster. When wholly 
 dried expose it to the wind by turning it slowly 
 from dish to dish ; the wind blows off all the trou- 
 blesome white chaff. 
 
 Flower Gardening. 
 
 Autumn is the best time to manure a flower 
 garden. It should be done once a year, and bet- 
 ter in spring (April) than not at all. Lay on four 
 inches deep of well-rotted manure, and dig it in 
 at once. During the summer the earth will need 
 now and then to be stirred with a hoe or rake; 
 but in May it should always be thoroughly dug 
 over with a spade, avoiding of course the plants 
 in the bed. In May transplanting, setting of 
 bulbs, or bedding plants and sowing seeds may be 
 done. 
 
 Weeding can be best done by hand, early in the 
 morning; letting the sun kill the weeds that are 
 pulled up. 
 
 Never water, unless the soil evidently requires 
 it. Clayey soils seldom need it; loose and sandy 
 more often. Use always a watering-pot, with a 
 rose, to sprinkle gently, without pouring or dash- 
 ing. Rain-water is the best; it may be collected 
 in a hogshead from a roof-spout. Very cold water 
 should never be used for flowers : better too warm 
 than too cold. 
 
 Shade-trees spoil a garden, but it should be 
 protected from a strong wind. 
 Shrubbery. 
 
 To plant shrubs, dig for each a hole two or three 
 feet in diameter; fill with rich loam ; set the shrub 
 or small tree in the middle, and tread it firm. If 
 it droop, syringe or sprinkle it at night, or set a 
 flower-pot near the root and fill it with water to 
 soak down. 
 
 Prune shrubs only to avoid too great irregular- 
 ity of shape or to remove dead parts. 
 
 For the winter, tender plants require to be tied 
 up in cedar boughs or straw, in November. The 
 covering should be taken off in April. 
 
 Favorite shrubs are the following: the June 
 Berry, Flowering Acacia, Flowering Almond, Li- 
 lacs, Laburnum, Siberia Tree- pea, Tree Paeonies, 
 Magnolias, Azaleas, Fringe Tree, Althaea, Tarta- 
 rean Honeysuckle, Spiraeas, Syringa, Pyrus Japo- 
 nica, Cranberry Tree. 
 
 Climbers, which are both hardy and ornamental, 
 are the Trumpet-flower (Bignonia radicans) Vir- 
 ginia Creeper, Clematis, Glycene, and the Honey- 
 suckles, Coral, Evergreen, etc. ; and the climbing 
 roses, as the Baltimore Belle, Queen of the Prairie, 
 Superba, and Greville Rose. 
 
 Rhododendrons are highly ornamental whea 
 they thrive. So is the Kalmia, or common laurel j 
 and the evergreen Ledum. 
 
 Hoses. 
 These require a rich, well-mixed soil, in pots or 
 
FLOWER 
 
 in the garden. Loam, or leaf mould, with half as 
 much manure, and a little fine sand, will do the 
 best. Roses which require to be taken up and 
 kept in house for the winter should be well pruned 
 at that time. Do not water roses so as to make 
 the soil sodden around the roots. A little broken 
 charcoal about them will aid the brilliancy of their 
 blooming. 
 
 Roses are chiefly of the China, Tea, and Bour- 
 bon varieties. Of the first these are much ad- 
 mired : Agrippina (crimson), Eel's Blush (a great 
 bloomer), Common Daily, White Daily, Madame 
 Bosanquet, Sanguinea (crimson), Louis Philippe 
 (dark crimson), Eugene Hardy (nearly white), and 
 Eugene Beauharnois (fragrant). 
 
 Tea Roses are more delicate. The following 
 are preferred : Odorata, Devoniensis, Caroline, 
 Triomphe de Luxembourg, Safrano (beautiful 
 buds), Clara Sylvain (pure white), Bouge're, Ma- 
 dame Desprez (white), and Pactole (lemon yellow). 
 
 Bourbon Roses are hardy in our Middle and 
 Southern States. Of them we would choose Gloire 
 de Dijon, Souvenir de la Malmaison, Hermosa, 
 and Paul Joseph; though there are many other 
 fine kinds. 
 
 Pinks. 
 
 Carnations and picotees are most admired, but 
 the double crimson Indian pink is very pretty and 
 easily raised. The pinks do best in a soil of three 
 parts loam, one part cow manure, and sandy 
 peat one part, with a little old plaster, sifted. 
 
 Pinks do not bear a great deal of moisture. They 
 are raised either from layers or pipings, or from 
 seed. Pipings are superfluous shoots cut off and 
 potted in compost surrounded by moist sand. The 
 seeds may be sown in spring, in similar pots or 
 pans, or in open beds. In the Northern States 
 they need potting for the winter as early as Oc- 
 tober. 
 
 Geraniums. 
 
 These require a strong loam for soil ; the top of 
 a pasture will do, with a little sand and charcoal. 
 Geraniums require a good deal of light and air, 
 and should not be crowded. They bloom in spring 
 and summer, not often flowering in winter even in 
 pots. Horseshoe or scarlet geranium is very pop- 
 ular; so are the rose, oak, and nutmeg geraniums. 
 They all bear pruning very well. Large-flowered 
 geraniums (pelargoniums) are beset by the green 
 fly. Once in a week or two in warm weather they 
 should be smoked, to get rid of the flies, and sy- 
 ringed every day or two. 
 
 Verbenas. 
 
 These repay care well: having variety of color, 
 blooming freely, and being easily cultivated. It 
 is easy to raise new varieties from seed. All 
 colors but blue ard a handsome yellow have been 
 produced. They .re often raised from cuttings. 
 
 The soil for verbenas should be about two parts 
 loam, two leaf mould, and a little sand. Cuttings 
 of young shoots may be taken from old plants 
 early in Eebruary. After rooting for a few weeks 
 in sandy loam, they may be potted: bedded out 
 when warm weather comes, and repotted in Sep- 
 tember. You may take cuttings from choice 
 plants in August, root them for two weeks, then 
 pot, and repot them when the roots touch the 
 Bides of the pot. This is, by the way, proper as 
 a rule with any plants. 
 
 Verbenas are native to dry, hilly ground, and 
 need but moderate watering. Favorites are, Giant 
 of Bat\les, Admiral Dundas, General Simpson, Ce- 
 lestial, Defiance, Lord Raglan, Glory of America. 
 
 Heliotrope. 
 This gives a delightful fragrance, and is not 
 
 GARDENING. _. .. -, 
 
 hard to cultivate. It may be managed just as tl 
 verbena, but should be repotted often, and allowed 
 to grow large, being trimmed for shape only. 
 
 What is called the lemon verBftwa is another 
 plant, a half-hardy shrub, grown for the sweet 
 scent of its leaves. It should be kept in a cellar 
 all winter and planted out in the spring. 
 
 Of biennial and perennial flowering plants there 
 are many of great beauty for the garden, of which 
 we have no room to give more than the names. 
 They require little care beyond loosening the 
 earth round them in the spring. The spring is 
 the time for transplanting them. In the summer 
 prune away weak stems ; in the fall cover them, 
 with coarse manure; if evergreen, shelter with 
 cedar or pine boughs. They may be propagated 
 by division of the root early in the spring or after 
 the summer bloom is over. The following are 
 choice kinds: Lily of the Valley, Larkspur (Del- 
 phinum Formosum), Phlox (Phlox Dni'mmondii 
 is a beautiful annual), Canterbury Bell, Foxglove, 
 Hemerocallis, Iris or Flag, Everlasting Pea, Spi- 
 raea (several varieties are very beautiful), Sweet 
 William, Alyssum. 
 
 If one has a greenhouse, large or small, he may 
 enjoy also, with good management, in winter as 
 well as summer, the following: Camellias, Orange 
 and Lemon trees, .Daphne, Azalea, Oleander, 
 Erica, Fuchsia, Salvia, Tropaeolum (common nas- 
 turtium is Tropaeolum majus), Abutilon, Cactus, 
 Calla, Cuphaea, Achsenia, Maranta, Pittosporum, 
 
 Jasmines (white and yellow, very sweet), Calceo- 
 laria, Chinese Primrose, Laurestinus, Wax-plant, 
 Begonia, Chrysanthemums (good garden bloom- 
 ers in autumn), and the various bulbous plants, 
 namely, Oxalis, Hyacinths, Tulips (grown beauti- 
 fully in beds), Crocuses, Snowdrops, Jonquils, Nar- 
 cissus. The Tuberose, and the Gladiolus are uni- 
 versally admired. The latter is gaining recently 
 especiall3 r in favor. There are twenty or thirty 
 varieties, which may be bought for three or four 
 dollars a dozen. When grown from seed they 
 bloom the third year. Finest varieties of Gladi- 
 olus are, Penelope, Brenchleyensis, Count de 
 Morny, Vesta, Calypso. 
 
 Though not here exactly in place, we may name 
 the periwinkles, larger and smaller, as beautiful 
 in leaf and flower, for the border of a bed or about 
 the fence of a garden ; and Ivy as the most per- 
 manently beautiful of vines for a wall. The Par- 
 lor Ivy is a great grower, in baskets or elsewhere, 
 and a pretty plant; not a true .ivy, however, nei- 
 ther is the Kenilworth Ivy. 
 
 Annuals. 
 
 These are either hardy or half-hardy. The for- 
 mer may be sown in the fall to bloom the next 
 summer, or early in spring. The latter are sown 
 early in spring to bloom in the summer. These 
 are also either for the hot-bed only, or for the 
 garden. Many plants which are annual in the 
 open air, in a temperate climate, may become per- 
 ennial in a conservatory. 
 
 Tuberous annuals, kept through the winter to 
 plant out again, are the Four- o-clock, Scarlet 
 Bean, etc. 
 
 The following must be sown where tbej ase to 
 remain : Annual Larkspurs, Poppy, Mignonette, 
 Lupin, Sweet Pea. They may be started in pots, 
 however. 
 
 In sowing annuals, let the depth be according 
 to the size of the seed ; very shallow for the small 
 kinds. Thin out the weakest as they come up. 
 August or April will do to sow the hardy kinds; 
 the beginning of May for tne other sorts. In the 
 fall pull up the old stalks. 
 
 Besides those named above, desirable annuals 
 
90 
 
 RURAL AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY. 
 
 are, Asters, Coreopsis, Sweet Alyssum, Escholt- 
 zia, Portulacca (a fine bloomer in a good place), 
 Canna Indica, Zinnia, and Cypress Vine. The 
 last should have a light frame for it to climb on. 
 
 Lilies and tiger-lilies have, in the above outline 
 of garden-culture, been overlooked. They can 
 only be named as having great beauty and variety. 
 Dahlias are going out of fashion ; they are not 
 fragrant, and not superior in beauty in proportion 
 to the pair-s formerly taken with them. 
 
 For artificial he;iting, the structures in use are : 
 the Stove, where the temperature is from 70 to 
 120 Fahr., with copious moisture; the Hot house 
 being a more common name for the same; the 
 Green-house, of glass, kept at from 4(T to 70, 
 for care and rearing of plants ; and the Conser- 
 vatory, used more for their display when in per- 
 fection. A Pit is an excavation of six or eight 
 feet in depth, covered with a glass roof. This is 
 very useful, and not costly. 
 
 On a small scale, all that can be done in a 
 green -house may be accomplished in a parlor or 
 chamber, with a Ward Case or a Walton Case. 
 The Hanging Basket and the Aquarium are also 
 delightful sources of enjoyment to those who ac- 
 quire skill in their management. 
 Insects. 
 
 Red spider is killed by water ; syringing will dis- 
 pose of it. Mealy bug and scale are to be searched 
 for and destroyed by hand; but sponging, espe- 
 cially with soap-suds, may suffice. The green fly 
 is best gotten rid of by smoking. Put the plant 
 under a barrel in which tobacco is burning; or 
 barn tobacco-leaves or smoking tobacco under 
 the plant in its place. 
 
 Soil for Window Gardening. 
 
 Loam, or common garden earth, brown or black, 
 got from old pastures, left to crumble ; peat, or 
 black earth from damp woods or meadows ; leaf- 
 mould, the top soil of old woods; manure, well 
 totted by time, as in an old hot-bed: and common 
 or silver sand, free from salt; these, in different 
 proportions will do for all plants. For potting, 
 good authority (C. S. Rand, Parlor and Garden) 
 recommends two parts leaf-mould, one part ma- 
 nure, one-half part loam, one-half part peat, and 
 one part sand. 
 
 Potted plants seldom need manure. Liquid 
 manure or guano should, if used for them, be di- 
 luted and not often applied. 
 
 PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS FOR GAR- 
 DENERS. 
 
 1. Perform every operation in the proper sea- 
 son. 
 
 2. Perform every operation in the proper man- 
 ner. 
 
 This is to be acquired in part by practice, and 
 partly also by reflection. For example, in dig- 
 
 ging over a piece of ground, it is a common prac- 
 tice with slovens to throw the weeds and stones 
 on the dug ground, or on the adjoining alley or 
 walk, with the intention of gathering them off 
 afterwards. A better way is to have a wheel-bar- 
 row or a large basket, in which to put the weeds 
 and extraneous matters, as they are picked out of 
 the ground. Some persons, in planting or weed- 
 ing, whether in the open air, or in hot-houses, 
 throw down all seeds, stones, and extraneous mat- 
 ters on the paths or alleys, with a view to pick 
 them up, or sweep or rake them together after- 
 wards; it is better to carry a basket or other 
 utensil, either common or subdivided, in which to 
 hold in one part the plants to be planted, in 
 another the extraneous matters, etc. 
 
 3. Complete every part of an operation as you 
 proceed. 
 
 4. Finish one job before beginning another. 
 
 5. In leaving off working at any job, leave the 
 work and tools in an orderly manner. 
 
 6. In leaving off work for the day, make a tern, 
 porary finish, and carry the tools to the tooU 
 house. 
 
 7. In passing to and from the work, or on any 
 occasion, through any part of what is considered 
 under the charge of the gardener, keep a vigilant 
 look out for weeds, decayed leaves, or any other 
 deformity, and remove them. 
 
 8. In gathering a crop, remove at the same time 
 the roots, leaves, stems, or whatever else is of no 
 farther use, or may appear slovenly, decaying, or 
 offensive. 
 
 9. Let no crop of fruit or herbaceous vegetables 
 go to waste on Ihe spot. 
 
 10. Cut down the flower-stalks on all plants. 
 
 11. Keep every part of what is under your care 
 perfect in its kin I. 
 
 Attend in spring and autumn to walls and 
 buildings, and get them repaired, jointed, glazed, 
 and painted where wanted. Attend at ail times to 
 machines, implements, and tools, keeping them 
 clean, sharp, and in perfect repair. See particu- 
 larly that they are placed in their proper situa- 
 tions in the tool-house. House every implement, 
 utensil, or machine not in use, both in winter and 
 summer. Allow no blanks in edgings, rows, sin- 
 gle specimens, drills, beds, and even, where prac- 
 ticable, in broadcast sown pieces. Keep edgings 
 and edges cut to the utmost nicety. Keep the 
 shapes of the wall trees filled with wood accord- 
 ing to their kind, and let their training be in the 
 first style of perfection. Keep all walks in per- 
 fect form, whether raised or flat, free from weeds, 
 dry, and well rolled. Keep all the lawns, by 
 every means in your power, of a close texture, 
 and dark green velvet appearance. Keep water 
 clear and free from weeds, and let not ponds, 
 lakes, or artificial rivers, rise to the brim in win- 
 ter, nor sink very far under it in summer. 
 
 HTJRAJL and DOMESTIC ECONOMY. 
 
 To make good Bread. 
 
 Place in a large pan twenty-eight pounds of 
 flour ; make a hole with the hand in the centre of 
 it like a large basin, into which strain a pint of 
 brewers' yeast; this must be tested, and if too 
 bitter a little flour sprinkled into it, and then 
 strained directly ; then pour in two quarts of wa- 
 ter of the temperature of 100, or blood heat, and 
 
 stir the flour round from the bottom of the hole 
 formed by the hand till that part of the flour is 
 quite thick and well mixed, though nil the rest 
 must remain unwetted ; then sprinkle a little flour 
 over the moist part and cover it with a cloth; this 
 is called sponge, and must be left to rise. Some 
 leave it only half an hour, others all night. 
 
 When the sponge is light, however, add four 
 
TO MANAGE A DAIEY. 
 
 91 
 
 quarts of water of the same temperature as above, 
 and well knead the whole mass into a smooth 
 dough. This is hard work if done well. Then 
 cover the dough and leave it for an hour. In 
 cold weather both sponge and dough must be 
 placed on the kitchen hearth, or in some room not 
 too cold, or it will not rise well. Before the last 
 water is put in two tablespoonsful of salt must be 
 sprinkled over the flour. Sometimes the flour will 
 absorb another pint of water. 
 
 After the dough has risen it should be made 
 quickly into loaves j if much handled then the 
 bread will be heavy. It will require an hour and 
 a half to bake, if made into four-pound loaves. 
 The oven should be well beared before the dough 
 is put into it. To try its heat, throw a little flour 
 into it; if it brown directly, it will do. 
 To make Butter. 
 
 Let the cream be at the temperature of 55 to 
 60, by a Fahrenheit thermometer: this is very 
 important. If the weather be cold put boiling 
 water into the churn for half an hour before 
 you want to use it ; when that is poured oft' strain 
 in the cream through a butter cloth. When the 
 butter is coming, which is easily ascertained by 
 the sound, take off the lid, and with a small, flat 
 board scrape down the sides of the churn, and do 
 the same to the lid; this prevents waste. When 
 the butter is come the butter-milk is to be poured 
 off and spring water put into the churn, and 
 turned for two or three minutes ; this is to be then 
 poured away and fresh added, and again the han- 
 dle turned for a minute or two. Should there be 
 the least milkiness when this is poured from the 
 hum, more must be put in. 
 
 The butter is then to be placed on a board or 
 marble slab and salted to taste ; then with a cream 
 cloth, wrung out in spring water, press all the 
 moisture from it. When dry and firm make it up 
 into rolls with flat boards. The whole process 
 should be completed in three-quarters of an hour. 
 
 In hot weather pains must be taken to keep the 
 cream from reaching too high a heat. If the 
 dairy be not cool enough, keep the cream-pot in 
 the coldest water you can get ; make the butter 
 early in the morning, and place cold water in the 
 churn for a while before it is used. 
 
 The cows should be milked near the dairy; car- 
 rying the milk far prevents its rising well. In 
 summer churn twice a week. Wash the churn 
 well each time with soap or wood-ashes. 
 To cure Hams. 
 
 For each ham of twelve pounds weight: Two 
 pounds of common salt; 2 ounces of saltpetre; i 
 pound of bay salt; i pound of coarse sugar. 
 
 This should be reduced to the finest powder. 
 Rub the hams well with it; female hands are not 
 often heavy enough to do this thoroughly. Then 
 place them in a deep pan, and add a wineglassful 
 of good vinegar. Turn the hams everyday; for 
 the first three or four days rub them well with the 
 brine; after that time it will suffice to ladle it over 
 the meat with a wooden or iron spoon. They should 
 remain three weeks in the pickle. When taken 
 from it wipe them well, put them in bags of brown 
 paper and then smoke them with wood smoke for 
 three weeks. 
 
 TO MANAGE A DAIRY. 
 
 Directions to the Cow- Feeder. 
 Go to the cow-stall at six o'clock in the 
 morning, winter and summer; give each cow half 
 a bushel of the mangel-wurtzel, carrots, turnips, 
 or potatoes, cut; at seven o'clock, the hour the 
 dairy-maid comes to milk them, give each some 
 
 hay, and let them feed till they are all milked, iff 
 any cow refuses hay, give her something she will 
 eat, such as grains, carrots, etc., during the time 
 she is milking, as it is absolutely necessary the 
 cow should feed whilst milking. As soon as the 
 woman has finished milking in the morning, turn 
 the cows into the airing ground, and let there be 
 plenty of fresh waier in the troughs ; at nine 
 o'clock give each cow three gallons of this mix- 
 ture : to eight gallons of grain add four gallons 
 of bran or pollard; when they have eaten that 
 put some hay into the cribs; at twelve o'clock 
 give each three gallons of the mixture as before ; 
 if any cow looks for more give her another gal- 
 lon ; on the contrary, if she will not eat what you 
 gave her, take it out of the manger, for never 
 at one time let a cow have more than she will eat 
 up clean. Mind and keep the mangers clean, that 
 they do not get sour. At two o'clock give each 
 cow half a bushel of carrots, or turnips; look the 
 turnips, etc., over well before giving them to 
 the cows, as one rotten turnip will give a bad 
 taste to the milk, and most likely spoil a whole 
 dairy of butter. At four o'clock put the cows 
 into the stall to be milked ; feed them on hay as 
 at milking-time in the morning, keeping in 
 mind that the cow whilst milking must feed on 
 something. At six o'clock give each cow three 
 gallons of the mixture as before. Rack them up 
 at eight o'clock. Twice in a week put into each 
 cow's feed at noon a quart of malt-dust. Corn or 
 mill feed (offal from grinding flour from wheat) is 
 still better. One-half peck of corn, or a little more, 
 mill-feed twice a day, mixed with chopped straw 
 or hay, wet and mashed. 
 
 Directions to the Dairy-Maid. 
 Go to the cow-stall at 7 o'clock ; take with you 
 cold water and a sponge, and wash each cow's 
 udder clean before milking; dowse the udder well 
 with cold water, winter and summer, as it braces 
 and repels heats. Keep your hands and arms 
 clean. Milk each cow as dry as you can, morning 
 and evening, and when you milk each cow as you 
 suppose dry, begin again with the cow you first 
 milked and drip them each, for the principal rea- 
 son of cows failing in their milk is from negli- 
 gence in not milking the cow dry, particularly at 
 the time the calf is taken from the cow. Suffer 
 no one to milk the cow but yourself, and have no 
 gossiping in the stall. Every Saturday night give 
 in an exact account of the quantity each cow has 
 given in the week. 
 
 To make Oats prove Doubly Nutritious to Horses. 
 Instead of grinding the oats, break them in a 
 mill, and the same quantity will prove doubly nu- 
 tritious. Another method is to boil the corn and 
 give the horses the liquor in which it has been 
 boiled ; the result will be, that instead of six bush- 
 els in a crude state, three bushels so prepared will 
 be found to answer, and to keep the animals in 
 superior vigor and condition. 
 
 Cheap Method of Rearing Horned Cattle. 
 
 After having expressed the oil from the linseed, 
 make up the remaining husks or dross into round 
 balls of the size of a fist, and afterwards dry them; 
 infuse and dissolve two or three of these balls in 
 hot water, and add in the beginning a third or 
 fourth part of fresh milk, but afterwards, when 
 the calves are grown, mix only skim milk with 
 the infusion. 
 
 To rear Calves. 
 
 The best method of rearing calves is to take 
 them from the cows in three weeks or a month, and 
 to give them nothing but a little fine hay until 
 
92 
 
 RURAL AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY. 
 
 they begin through necessity to pick a little ; then 
 cut some of the hay and mix it with bran or oats 
 in a trough, and slice some turnips about the size 
 of a dollar, which they will soon b}- licking learn 
 to eat; after which give them turnips enough. 
 
 To rear Calves without Milk. 
 In two or three days after they are calved take 
 the calves from the cows, put them in a house by 
 themselves, then give them a kind of water gruel, 
 composed of about one- third barley and two- 
 thirds of oats ground together very fine, then sift 
 the mixture through a very fine sieve, put it into 
 the quantity of water below mentioned, and boil 
 it half an hour, when take it off the fire, and let it 
 remain till it is milk-warm; then give each calf 
 about a quart in the morning, and the same quan- 
 tity in the evening, and increase it as the calf 
 grows older. It requires very little trouble to 
 make them drink it; after the calves have had 
 this diet about a week or ten days, tie up a little 
 bundle of hay and put it in the middle of the 
 house, which they will by degrees come to eat; 
 also put a little of the meal above-mentioned in a 
 small trough for them to eat occasionally; keep 
 them in this manner until they are of proper age 
 to turn out to grass, before which they must be at 
 least two months old. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 Make an infusion of malt, or fresh wort as a 
 substitute for milk; in summer it may be given 
 to the calves cold, but in winter it must have the 
 same degree of warmth as the milk just coming 
 from the cow ; the quantity is the same as the milk 
 commonly given at once to a calf, and to be in- 
 creased in proportion as the call grows. 
 
 To Fatten Poultry. 
 
 An experiment has been tried of feeding geese 
 with turnips cut in small pieces like dice, but 
 less in size, and put into a trough of water; 
 with this food alone the effect was that six geese, 
 each when lean weighing only nine pounds, actu- 
 ally gained twenty pounds each in about three 
 weeks' fattening. 
 
 Malt is an excellent food for geese and turkeys; 
 grains are preferred for the sake of economy, un- 
 less for immediate and rapid fattening; the grains 
 should be boiled afresh. 
 
 Other cheap articles for fatteniug are oatmeal 
 and treacle; barley-meal and milk; boiled oats 
 and ground malt. 
 
 Corn before being given to fowls should always 
 be crushed and soaked in water. The food will 
 thus go further, and it will help digestion. Hens 
 fed thus have been known to lay during the whole 
 of the winter months. 
 
 Turkeys are very tender while young, after- 
 wards quite hardy. Put them in large and open 
 coops; they may be well raised with hens, and 
 ramble less so. When hatched some put a grain 
 of black pepper down their throats as a sort of 
 cordial. The best food for ducks when hatched 
 is bread and milk; in a few days barley-meal, 
 wetted into balls as big as peas. 
 
 To choose a Milch Cow. 
 
 As to a choice of breeds for a private family, 
 none (says Mr. Lawrence) probably combine 
 go many advantages as the Suffolk dun cows. 
 They excel both in quantity and quality of 
 milk ; they feed well after they become barren ; 
 they are small-sized, and polled or hornless ; the 
 last a great convenience. The horns of cows 
 which butt and gore others, should be immediately 
 broad tipped. There is a breed of polled York- 
 bhire or Holderness cows, some of them of mid- 
 
 dling size, great milkers, and well adapted to the 
 use of families where a great quantity of uilk is 
 required, and where price is no object and food in 
 plenty. If richer milk and a comparison of the 
 two famous breeds be desired, one of each may 
 be selected, namely, the last mentioned and the 
 other of the midland county, or long-horned spe- 
 cies. Color is so far no object, that neither a good 
 cow nor a good horse can either be of a bad color; 
 nevertheless, in an ornamental view, the sheeted 
 and pied stock of the Yorkshire short-horns make 
 a picturesque figure in the grounds. 
 
 The Alderney cows yield rich milk upon less 
 feed than larger stock, but are seldom large milk- 
 ers, and are particularly scanty of produce in the 
 winter season. They are, besides, worth little or 
 nothing as barreners, not only on account of their 
 small size, but their inaptitude to take on fat, and 
 the ordinary quality of their beef. 
 
 To determine the Economy of a Cow. 
 The annual consumption of food per cow, if 
 turned to grass, is from one acre to an acre and a 
 half in summer, and from a ton to a ton and a 
 half of hay in the winter. A cow may be allowed 
 two pecks of carrots per day. The grass being 
 cut and carried will economize it full one-third. 
 The annual product of a good, fair dairy cow du- 
 ring several months after calving, and either in 
 summer or winter, if duly fed and kept in the lat- 
 ter season, will be an average of seven pounds of 
 butter per week, from five to three gallons of milk 
 per day. Afterwards a weekly average of three 
 or four pounds of butter from barely half the 
 quantity of milk. It depends on the constitution 
 of the cow, how nearly she may be milked to the 
 time of her calving, some giving good milk until 
 within a week or two of that period, others re- 
 
 Juiring to be dried eight or nine weeks previously. 
 have heard (says Mr. Lawrence) of twenty 
 pounds of butter, and even twenty-two pounds, 
 made from the milk of one long-horned cow in 
 seven days, but I have never been fortunate 
 enough to obtain one that would produce more 
 than twelve pounds per week, although I have 
 had a Yorkshire cow which milked seven gallons 
 per day, yet never made five pounds of butter in 
 one week. On the average, three gallons of good 
 milk will make one pound of butter. 
 
 To fatten Hogs. 
 
 The Shakers have proved that ground corn is 
 one-third better than unground, and nineteen 
 pounds of cooked meal are equal to fifty pounds 
 raw. Boiled and slightly fermented vegetables 
 are also very fattening to swine. 
 
 To breed Pheasants. 
 
 Eggs being provided, put them under a hen that 
 has kept the nest three or four days, and if you 
 set two or three hens on the same day you will 
 have the advantage of shifting the good eggs, 
 The hens having set their full time, such of the 
 young pheasants as are already hatched put in a 
 basket, with a piece of flannel, till the hen has 
 done hatching. The brood now ccmi put un lei 
 a frame with a net over it, and a place for the hen, 
 that she cannot get to the young pheasant?, but 
 that they may go to her, and feed them with 
 boiled egg cut small, boiled milk and bread, alum 
 curd, a little of each sort, and often. After 
 two or three days they will be acquainted with 
 the call of the hen that, hatched them, may have 
 their liberty to run on the grass-plat, or else- 
 where, observing to shift them with the sun and 
 out of the cold winds ; they need not have their 
 liberty in the morning till the sun is up, and they 
 must be shut up with the hen in good time in the 
 
POULTRY. 
 
 93 
 
 evening. You must be very careful in order to 
 guard against the distemper to which they are 
 liable, in the choice of a situation for breeding the 
 birds up, where no poultry, pheasants, or turkeys, 
 etc., have ever been kept, such as the warm side 
 of a field, orchard, or pleasure-ground, or garden, 
 or even on a common, or a good green lane, under 
 circumstances of this kind, or by a wood side; 
 but then it is proper for a man to keep with them 
 under a temporary hovel, and to have two or three 
 dogs chained at a proper distance, with a lamp or 
 two at night. 
 
 The birds going on as before mentioned should 
 so continue till September or (if very early bred) 
 the middle of August. Before they begin to shift 
 the long feathers in the tail, they are to be shut 
 up in the basket with the hen regularly every 
 night. For such young pheasants as are chosen 
 for breeding stock at home, and likewise to turn 
 out in the following spring, provide a new piece 
 of ground, large and roomy for two pens, where 
 no pheasants, etc., have been kept, and there put 
 the young birds in as they begin to shift their 
 tails. Such of them as are intended to be turned 
 out at a future time, or in another place, put into 
 one pen netted over, and leave their wings as they 
 are, and those wanted for breeding put in the 
 other pen, cutting one wing of each bird. The 
 gold and silver pheasants pen earlier, or they will 
 be off. Cut the wing often, and when first penned 
 feed all the young birds with barley-meal, dough, 
 corn, plenty of green turnips, and alum curd, to 
 make which take new milk, as much as the young 
 birds require, and boil it with a lump of alum, so 
 as not to make the curd hard and tough, but cus- 
 tard-like. 
 
 A little of this curd twice a- day, and ants' eggs 
 after every time they have had a sufficient quan- 
 tity of the other food. If they do not eat heartily, 
 give them some ants' eggs to create nn appetite, 
 but by no means in such abundance as to be con- 
 sidered their food. 
 
 Not more than four hens should be allowed in 
 the pens to one cock. Never put more eggs under 
 a hen than she can well and closely cover, the 
 eggs being fresh and carefully preserved. Short 
 broods to be joined and shifted to one hen ; com- 
 mon hen pheasants in close pens, and with plenty 
 of cover, will sometimes make their nests and 
 hatch their own eggs : but they seldom succeed in 
 rearing their brood, being so naturally shy ; 
 whence should this method be desired, they must 
 be left entirely to themselves, as they feel alarm 
 even in being looked at. Eggs for setting are 
 generally ready in April. Period of incubation 
 the same in the pheasant as in the common hen. 
 Pheasants, like the pea-fowl, will clear grounds 
 of insects and reptiles, but will spoil all wall-trees 
 within their reach, by pecking off every bud and 
 leaf. 
 
 Strict cleanliness to be observed, the meat not 
 to be tainted with dung, and the water to be pure 
 and often renewed. Food for grown pheasants, 
 barley or wheat; generally the same as for other 
 poultry. In a cold spring, hemp seed, or other 
 warming seeds, are comfortable, and will forward 
 the breeding stock. 
 
 To manage Young Chickens. 
 The chickens first hatched are to be taken from 
 the hen, lest she be tempted to leave her task un- 
 finished. They may be secured in a basket of 
 wool or soft hay, and kept in a moderate heat; if 
 the weather be cold, near the fire. They will re- 
 quire no food for twenty-four hours, should it be 
 necessary to keep them so long from the hen. 
 The whole brood being hatched, place the hen 
 
 under a coop abroad, upon a (fry spot, and, if pos- 
 sible, not within re.ach of another hen, since the 
 chickens will mix, and the hens are apt to maim 
 and destroy those which do not belong to them. 
 Nor should they .be placed near young fowls, 
 which are likely to crush them, being always eager 
 for their small meat. 
 
 The first food should be split grits, afterwards 
 tall wheat; all watery food, soaked bread or po- 
 tatoes, being improper; corn or mill screenings 
 (before the wheat is ground) will do. Eggs boiled 
 hard, or curds chopped small, are very suitable aa 
 first food. Their water should be pure, and often 
 renewed, and there are pans made in such forms, 
 that the chickens may drink without getting into 
 the water, which, by wetting their feet and fea- 
 thers, numbs and injures them ; a basin in the mid- 
 dle of a pan of water will answer the end; the 
 water running around it. There is no necessity 
 for cooping the brood beyond two or three days, 
 but they may be confined as occasion requires, or 
 suffered to range, as they are much benefited by 
 the foraging of the hen. They should not be let 
 out too early in the morning, whilst the dew lies 
 upon the ground, nor be suffered to range over wet 
 grass, which is a common and fatal cause of dis- 
 ease in fowls. Another caution requisite is to 
 guard them against unfavorable changes of the 
 weather, particularly if rainy. Nearly all the dis- 
 eases of fowls arise from cold moisture. 
 
 For the period of the chickens' quitting the hen 
 there is no general rule ; when she begins to roost, 
 if sufficiently forward, they will follow her; if 
 otherwise, they should be secured in a proper 
 place till the time arrives when they are to asso- 
 ciate with the other young poultry, since the larger 
 are sure to overrun and drive from their food the 
 younger broods. 
 
 Access to a barn-yard for worms is good for 
 them. A warm house for shelter in winter is very 
 Important for chickens. 
 
 To hatch Chickens in the Egyptian Mode. 
 
 The mamals or ovens of Egypt are scarcely 
 above nine feet in height, but they have an extent 
 in length and breadth which renders them remark- 
 able, and yet they are more so tn their internal 
 structure. The centre of the building is a very 
 narrow gallery, usually about the width of three 
 feet, extending from one end of the building to 
 the other, the height of which is from eight to 
 nine feet; the structure for the most part of brick. 
 The entrance into the oven is through the gallery, 
 which commands the whole extent of it, and facili- 
 tates the several operations that are necessary to 
 keep the eggs to the proper degree of heat. The 
 oven has a door, not very wide, and only as high 
 as it is broad; this door, and many others in use 
 in the mamals, are commonly no more than round 
 holes. 
 
 The gallery is a corridor, with this difference 
 from our common corridors, which have only one 
 row of rooms, whereas that of the mamal has 
 always two rows of them on both sides ; namely, 
 one on the ground floor, and another above. 
 Every one upon the ground floor has one above, 
 perfectly equal, both in length and breadth. The 
 rooms of each row on the ground floor, are all 
 equal, in length, breadth, and height. Reaumur 
 observes, " We know of no other rooms in the world 
 so low as these, being only three feet in height." 
 Their breadth, which is in the same direction with 
 the length of the gallery, is four or five feet; they 
 are very narrow in proportion to their length, 
 which is twelve or fifteen feet. 
 
 Every one of these rooms has its door or round 
 aperture, about a foot and a half iu diameter, 
 
RURAL AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY. 
 
 opening into the gallery, the hole being wide 
 enough for a man to creep through. All the eggs 
 to be hatched are first ranged in these rooms. 
 Four or five thousand eggs are put into each of 
 them. These are the real ovens, so that the whole 
 edifice, which is denominated a chicken oven, is 
 an assemblage of many ovens set together, side 
 by side, opposite and over each other, and in the 
 course of the process a part of the eggs are wanned 
 in the upper rooms, after having been previously 
 in the lower. 
 
 Forty or fifty thousand eggs are hatched at once, 
 or another account extends the number to eighty 
 thousand. The eggs are spread on mats, flocks 
 or flax, in each room upon the ground floor, 
 where they contract their first and general warmth, 
 during a certain number of days. 
 
 The heat of the air in the inferior rooms, and 
 consequently that of the eggs, would rise to an 
 excessive degree, were the fire in thti gutter inces- 
 santly kept up. They keep it up on^y an hour in 
 the morning, and an hour at night, and they style 
 these heatings the dinner and supper of the chick- 
 ens ; they receive, however, two more meals, that 
 is, luncheon and afternoon meal, the /Ire being 
 lighted four times a day. 
 
 On the day on which they cease ';o light the 
 fires, some of the eggs of each infevior room are 
 always conveyed into the room above. The eggs 
 had been too much heaped in the former, and it 
 is now time to extend and give them more room. 
 
 The proper number of eggs from each inferior 
 room having been removed into the room above, 
 all the apertures of the rooms and of the gallery 
 are closely and exactly stopped with bungs of tow, 
 excepting, perhaps, half the apertures in the 
 arches or ceilings of the upper rooms, which are 
 left open in order to procure there a circulation 
 of air. This precaution is sufficient to preserve 
 in the ovens, for many days together, the temper- 
 ature which has been obtained; which indeed 
 would be the case with ovens upon so considerable 
 a scale in any country, more especially one so hot 
 as Egypt. 
 
 Three hundred and eighty-six ovens are kept 
 in Egypt annually, during four or six months, 
 allowing more time than is necessary to hatch 
 eight successive broods of chickens, ducks and 
 turkeys, making on the whole yearly three thou- 
 sand and eighty-eight broods. The number in 
 different hatchings is not always the same, from 
 the occasional difficulty of obtaining a sufficient 
 number of eggs, which may be stated at a medium 
 between the two extremes of forty and eighty 
 thousand to each oven. 
 
 The overseer contracts to return, in a living 
 brood, to his employer, two-thirds of the number 
 of eggs set in the ovens all above being his own 
 perquisite, in addition to his salary for the season, 
 which is from eighty to forty crowns, exclusive of 
 his board. According to report, the crop of poul- 
 try thus artificially raised in Egypt was seldom, 
 if ever, below that ratio, making the enormous 
 annual amount of ninety-two million six hundred 
 and forty thousand. 
 
 The chickens are not sold from the stove by 
 tale, but by the bushel or basket full ! 
 
 Excellent Substitute for Candles. 
 Procure meadow-rushes, such as they tie the 
 hop shoots to the poles with. Cut .,hem when they 
 have attained their full sub.-lance, but are still 
 green. The rush, at this age, consists of a body 
 of pith with a green skin on it. Cut off both ends 
 of the rush and leave the prime part, which, on 
 an average, may be about a foot and a half long. 
 Then take off all the green skin except for about 
 
 a fifth part of the way round the pith. Thus it 
 is a piece of pith all but a little strip of skin in 
 one part all the way up, which is necessary to 
 hold the pith together. 
 
 The rushes being thus prepared, the grease is 
 melted, and put, in a melted state, into something 
 that is as long as the rushes are. The rushes are 
 put into the grease, soaked in it sufficiently, then 
 taken out and laid in a bit of bark taken from a 
 young tree, so as not to be too large. This bark 
 is fixed up against the wall hy a couple of straps 
 put round it, and there it hangs for the purpose 
 of holding the rushes. 
 
 The rushes are carried about in the hand; but 
 to sit by, to work by, or to go to bed by, they are 
 fixed in stands made for the purpose, some of 
 which are high to stand on the ground, and some 
 low to stand on a table. These stands have an 
 iron part something like a pair of pliers to hold 
 the rush in, and the rush is shifted forward from 
 time to time, as it burns down to the thing that 
 holds it. 
 
 These rushes give a better light than a common 
 small dip candle, and they cost next to nothing, 
 though the laborer may with them have as much 
 light as he pleases. 
 
 Petroleum or kerosene is now cheaper than 
 candles, and gives a beautiful light. 
 
 To cultivate Mustard. 
 
 A yard square of ground, sown with common 
 mustard, the crop of which may be ground for 
 use in a little mustard-mill as wanted, will save 
 some money. The mustard will look brown in- 
 stead of yellow, but the former color is as good 
 as the latter; and, as to the taste, the real mus- 
 tard has certainly a much better taste than that 
 of the drugs and flour which sometimes go under 
 the name of mustard. Let any one try it, and he 
 will never use the latter again. The drugs, if 
 taken freely, leave a burning at the pit cf the 
 stomach, which the real mustard does not. 
 
 To cure Herrings, Pilchards, Mackerel, Sprats, etc. 
 
 Reservoirs of any size, vats or casks, perfectly 
 water-tight, should be about half filled with brine 
 made by dissolving about twenty-eight parts of 
 solid salt in seventy-two of fresh water. The fish, 
 as fresh as possible, gutted or not must be plunged 
 into this fully-saturated brine in such quantity as 
 nearly to fill the reservoir; and, after remaining 
 quite immersed for five or six <lajs, they will be 
 fit to be packed as usual, with large-grained solid 
 salt, and exported to the hottest climates. As 
 brine is always weakest at the upper part, in order 
 to keep it of a uniform saturation, a wooden lat- 
 tice-work frame, of such size as to be easily let 
 into the inside of the reservoir, is sunk an inch 
 or two under the surface of the brine, for the pur- 
 pose of suspending upon it lumps of one or two 
 pounds, or larger, of solid salt, which effectually 
 saturates whatever raoisture may exude from the 
 fish : and thus the brine will be continued of the 
 utmost strength so long as any part of the salt 
 remains undissolved. The solidity of the lumps 
 admits of their being applied several times, or 
 whenever the reservoirs are replenished with fish; 
 and the brine, although repeatedly used, does not 
 putrefy ; nor do the fish, if kept under the surface, 
 ever become rancid. 
 
 All provisions are best preserved by this method, 
 especially bacon, which, when thus aured, is not 
 so liable to become rusty as when done by the 
 usual method of rubbing with salt. 
 
 Portable Ice-House. 
 
 Take an iron-bound butt ov puncheon and 
 knock out the head j then cut a very small hol 
 
TO MAKE ICE. 
 
 95 
 
 in the bottom, about the size of a wine-cork. 
 Place inside oi it a wooden tub, shaped like a 
 churn, resting it upon two pieces of wood, which 
 are to raise it from touching the bottom. Fill the 
 space round the inner tub with pounded charcoal, 
 and fit to the tub a cover with a convenient han- 
 dle, having inside one or two small hooks, on 
 which the bottles are to be hung during the ope- 
 ration. Place on the lid a bag of pounded char- 
 coal, about two feet square, and over all place 
 another cover, which must cuver the head of the 
 outer cask. 
 
 When the apparatus is thus prepared let it be 
 placed in a cold cellar, and buried in the earth 
 above four-fifths of its height; but, though cold, 
 the cellar must be dry; wet ground will not an- 
 swer, and a sandy soil is the best. Fill the inner 
 tub, or nearly so, with pounded ice; or, if pre- 
 pared in winter, with snow well pressed down, and 
 the apparatus will be complete. 
 
 Whenever it is wished to make ices take off the 
 upper cover, then the sack or bag of pounded 
 charcoal, and suspend the vessel containing the 
 liquid to be frozen to the hooks inside of the inner 
 cover; then close up the whole as before for half 
 an hour, when the operation will be complete, 
 provided care be taken to exclude external air. 
 
 To produce Ice for Culinary Purposes. 
 Fill a gallon stone bottle with hoi spring water, 
 leaving about a pint vacant, and put in two ounces 
 of refined nitre; the bottle must then be stopped 
 very close and let down into a deep well. After 
 three or four hours it will be completely frozen, 
 but the bottle must be broken to procure the ice. 
 If the bottle is moved up and down so as to be 
 sometimes in and sometimes out of the water, the 
 consequent evaporation will hasten the process. 
 The henting of the water assists the subsequent 
 congelation ; and experience has proved that hot 
 water in winter will freeze more rapidly than cold 
 water just drawn from a spring. 
 
 To make Ice. 
 
 The following is a simple and speedy method 
 of congealing water: 
 
 Into a metal vase half filled with water pour 
 very gently an equal quantity of ether, so that no 
 mixture may take place of the two liquids. The 
 vase is placed under the receiver of an air-pump, 
 which is so fixed upon its support as to remain 
 quite steady when the air is pumped out. 
 
 At the first strokes of the piston the ether be- 
 comes in a state of ebullition; it is evaporated to- 
 tally in less than a minute, and the water remains 
 converted into ice. 
 
 T? procure Ice from a Powder. 
 This is made by pulverizing and drying the 
 shivery fragments of porphyritic trap, which will 
 absorb one-fifth of its own weight of water. Two 
 quarts of it, spread in a large dish, will, in a few 
 minutes, in an exhausted receiver, freeze half of 
 three quarters of a pound of water, in a cup of 
 porous earthenware. This is a cheap substitute 
 for the still more powerful freezing mixtures men- 
 tioned in chemical works. 
 
 To char Peats at the Moss. 
 
 I The best method of charring peats where they 
 'are dug is, when the peats are properly dried, 
 wheel to the outside of the moss a single horse- 
 cart load of them. Level a spot of ground, about 
 seven feet in diameter, near to a drain, and drive 
 a stake of wood into the ground about five feet 
 long ; roll some dry heather or pol (the refuse of 
 flaxj round the stake, and lay some also upon the 
 
 ground where the peats are to be placed ; then set 
 the peats upon and all round the stake, inclining to 
 the centre, with a little dry heather or pol bet ween 
 each two floors of peat, until near the top or last 
 course : then they are laid in a horizontal direc- 
 tion ; and the stack, when finished, is in the form 
 of a bee-hive. The next operation is to set the 
 stack on fire, which is done at the bottom all 
 round. The fire will soon run up the post in the 
 centre, and, when the heather or pol is all con- 
 sumed, the space forms a chimney, and occasions 
 the stack to burn regularly. If the windward 
 side should burn too fast, apply some wet turf. 
 When the peats are thought to be sufficiently 
 burnt, which is easily known from the appearance 
 of the smoke, apply wet turf and water from the 
 adjoining drain as fast as possible until the whole 
 is extinguished. The charcoal may be removed 
 upon the following day. 
 
 To char Peats for Family Use. 
 
 When charcoal is required for cookery, or any 
 other purpose in the family, take a dozen or fifteen 
 peats and put them upon the top of the kitchen 
 fire upon edge; they will soon draw up the coal 
 fire, and become red in a short time. After being 
 turned about once or twice, and done with smok- 
 ing, they are charred, and may be removed 10 the 
 stoves. If more char is wanted, put on another 
 supply of peats. By following this plan the 
 kitchen fire is kept up, and thus, with very little 
 trouble, a supply of the best charred peat is ob- 
 tained, perfectly free from smoke, and the vapor 
 by no means so noxious as charcoal made from 
 wood. Peats charred in this way may be used in 
 a chafer in any room, or even in a nursery, with- 
 out any danger arising from the vapor. It would 
 also be found very fit for the warming of beds, 
 and much better than live coals, which are in 
 general used full of sulphur, and smell all over 
 the house. 
 
 Peats charred in a grate, and applied to the pur- 
 pose of charcoal immediately, without being ex- 
 tinguished, make the purest and best char, and 
 freest of smoke. When peats are charred in a 
 large quantity, and extinguished, any part of the 
 peat that is not thoroughly burnt in the heart will 
 imbibe moisture, and when used will smoke and 
 have a disagreeable smell, which would at once 
 hinder charred peat from being used in a gentle- 
 man's family. 
 
 To make a Cheap Fuel. 
 
 Mix coal, charcoal, or sawdust, one part; sand, 
 of any kind, two parts; marl or clay, one part; in 
 quantity as thought proper. Make the mass up 
 wet, into balls of a convenient size, and when the 
 fire is sufficiently strong place these balls, accord- 
 ing to its size, a little above the top bar, and they 
 will produce a heat considerably more intense than 
 common fuel, and insure a saving of one-half the 
 quantity of coals. A fire then made up will re- 
 quire no stirring, and will need no fresh food for 
 ten hours. 
 
 To clean Water-casks. 
 
 Scour the inside well out with water and sand, 
 and afterwards apply a quantity of charcoal dust. 
 Another and better method is to rinse them with 
 a pretty strong solution of oil of vitriol and water, 
 which will entirely deprive them of their foulness. 
 
 To preserve Eggs. 
 
 Apply with a brush a solution of gum arabic to 
 
 the shells, or immerse the eggs therein ; let them 
 
 dry, and afterwards pack them in dry charcoal 
 
 dust. This prevents their being affected by any 
 
 Iterations of temperature. 
 
KURAL AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 Mix together in a tub or vessel one bushel of 
 quick-lime; thirty-two ounces of salt; eight ounces 
 of cream of tartar, with as much water as will 
 reduce the composition to a sufficient consistence 
 to float an egg. Then put and keep the eggs 
 therein, which will preserve them perfectly sound 
 for two years at least. 
 
 A Substitute for Milk and Cream. 
 Beat up the whole of a fresh egg in a basin, 
 and then pour boiling tea over it gradually, to 
 prevent its curdling. It is difficult from the taste 
 to distinguish the composition from rich cream. 
 
 To cure Butter. 
 
 Take two parts of the best common salt, one part 
 of sugar, and one-half part of saltpetre ; beat them 
 up and blend the whole together. Tiike one ounce 
 of this composition for every sixteen ounces of 
 butter, work it well into the mass, and close it up 
 for use. 
 
 Butter cured this way appears of a rich, mar- 
 rowy consistence and fine color, and never ac- 
 quires a brittle hardness, nor tastes salt. It will 
 likewise keep good three years, only observing 
 that it must stand three weeks or a month before 
 it is used. 
 To remove the Turnip Flavor from Milk and Slitter. 
 
 Dissolve a little nitre in spring-water, which 
 keep in a bottle, and put a small teacupful into 
 eight gallons of milk, when warm from the cow. 
 To make Butter, Dumbarton Method. 
 
 First scald the churn with boiling water to in- 
 sure cleanliness; then, having put in the cream, 
 work it till the butter is separated from the milk, 
 and put the former into a clean vessel. Next draw 
 a corn-sickle several times cross-ways through it, 
 for the purpose of extracting any hairs or super- 
 fluities which may adhere to it. Let the butter 
 be put into spring-water during this operation, 
 which will prevent its turning soft, and which will 
 clear it likewise from any remnants of milk. Next 
 mix with every stone of butter ten ounces of salt. 
 Incorporate it well, otherwise the butter will not 
 keep. In May and June each stone of butter will 
 take one ounce more of salt, but after the middle 
 of August one ounce less will suffice. When made 
 put it into a well-seasoned kit, and shake a hand- 
 ful of salt on the top, which will preserve it from 
 mouldiness. In this way continue to make and 
 salt the butter, placing one cake upon the other 
 until the kit is full. Observe that the kit does 
 not leak, as the liquor oozing through would oc- 
 casion the butter to spoil. 
 
 To make Cheshire Cheese. 
 
 It is necessary in making the best cheese to put 
 in the new milk without skimming, and if any 
 overnight's milk be mixed with it, it must be 
 brought to the same natural warmth ; into this 
 put as much rennet as is just sufficient to come to 
 the curd, and no more; for on this just propor- 
 tion the mildness of the cheese is said to depend; 
 a piece dried of the size of a worn dime, and 
 put into a teacupful of water with a little salt, 
 about twelve hours before it is wanted, is suffi- 
 cient for eighteen gallons of milk. The curd is 
 next broken down, and, when separated from the 
 whey, is put into a cheese-vat, and pressed very 
 dry; it is next broken very small by squeezing it 
 with the hands. New curd is mixed with about 
 half its quantity of yesterday's, and which has 
 been kept for that purpose. When the curds have 
 been thus mixed, well pressed and closed with the 
 hands in a cheese-vat, till they become one solid 
 lump, it is put into a press for four or five hours, 
 
 then taken out of the cheese-vat and turned, by 
 means of a cloth put into the same for this pur- 
 pose, and again nut into the press for the night. 
 It is then taken rut, well salted, and put into the 
 press again till morning, when it is taken out and 
 laid upon a flag or board till the suit is quit* 
 melted, then it is wiped, put into a dry room, and 
 turned every day, till it becomes dry enough fol 
 the market. 
 
 To correct Damaged Grain. 
 
 Put the injured article into an oven, from 
 which the bread has been just drawn. Spread 
 it in a bed of from three to four inches in thick- 
 ness, and stir it frequently with a shovel or rake 
 to facilitate the disengagement of the vapor. In 
 ten or fifteen minutes, according to its humidity, 
 withdraw it; when perfectly cool and aired, it will 
 be restored to its wholesome qualities. 
 Another Method. 
 
 Musty grain, totally unfit for use, and which 
 can scarcely be ground, may be rendered perfectly 
 sweet and sound by simply immersing it in boil- 
 ing water, and letting it remain till the water be- 
 comes cold. The quantity of water must be double 
 that of the corn to be purified. The musty, quality 
 rarely penetrates through the husk .of the wheat; 
 arid in the very worst cases, it does not extend 
 through the amylaceous matter which lies imme- 
 diately under the skin. In the hot water, all the 
 decayed or rotten grains swim on the surface, so 
 that the remaining wheat is effectually cleaned 
 from all impurities, without any material loss. It 
 is afterwards to be dried, stirring it occasionally 
 on the kiln. 
 
 To improve New Seconds Flour of bad quality. 
 
 Mix common carbonate of niagnesia well, in 
 proportion of from twenty to forty grains to a 
 pound of flour ; calcined magnesia will improve the 
 bread, but not nearly to the same extent as the 
 carbonate. It will improve the color of bread 
 made from new seconds flour, while it impairs the 
 color of bread from fine old and new flour. 
 
 To preserve Flour. 
 
 Attach a number of lofts to every mill, so that 
 the flour, in place of being thrust into sacks, the 
 moment it escapes from the friction of the stones, 
 may be taken up by the machinery, and spread 
 out to cool in the most careful manner. The vio- 
 lent friction of the stones necessarily creates a 
 great heat and steam ; and if flour is thrust into 
 sacks in this state, a chemical action will make it 
 moist, soft, and clammy. 
 
 To preserve Wheat. 
 
 Kiln dry it and put it in cubical cases of earth- 
 enware, glazed on the outside, and filled full as 
 possible; cover them with a piece of the same ware 
 made to fit close, and secured with a mixture of 
 pitch, tar, and hemp cloth, till the whole be made 
 air-tight. A case of this kind might be made which 
 would hold four bushels or a quarter of wheat. 
 
 To correct Moist Flour. 
 
 In preparing the dough, let one-third of the 
 flour be kept unmixed, till the dough begins to 
 rise, then add a little of the flour, and when it 
 rises again add a little more, and so on for four or 
 five hours, till the whole of the flour is used. In 
 this manner the mixture, which occasions a glis- 
 tening appearance in the dough, will be taken up, 
 and the bread, as is already mentioned, will be 
 highly improved. 
 
 To remove Flies from Roomt. 
 
 Take half a teaspoonful of black pepper, in 
 powder, one teaspoonful of brown sugar, and one 
 
TO MAKE BREAD. 
 
 97 
 
 tablespoonful of cream; mix them well together, 
 and pla^e them in the room, on a plate where the 
 flies are troublesome, and they will soon disappear. 
 
 To make Excellent Bread. 
 
 Mix seven pounds of best flour with three 
 pounds of pared boiled potatoes. Steam off the 
 water, and leave them a few minutes on the fire, 
 mash them fine, and mix them whilst quite warm 
 in the flour, with a spoonful or more of salt. Put 
 a quart of water, milk warm, with three large 
 spoonsful of yeast, gradually to the potatoes and 
 flour. Work it well into a smooth dough, and let 
 it remain four hours before it is baked. 
 
 To make Bread with a very small quantity of Yeast. 
 Put one bushel of flour into the trough, mix 
 three-quarters of a pint of warm water, and one 
 teaspoonful of thick yeast well together; pour a 
 email quantity in a hole made in the centre of the 
 flour large enough to contain two gallons of water; 
 then stir with a stick, about two feet long, some 
 of the flour, until it is as thick as pudding batter. 
 Strew some of the dry flour over it, and let it rest 
 for an hour, then pour about a quart more water, 
 and having stirred it as before, leave it for two 
 hours, and then add a gallon more of warm water. 
 Stir in the flour again, and in about four hours 
 more, mix up the dough, and cover it warm; in 
 about four hours more you may put it in the oven, 
 and as light bread will be obtained as though a 
 pint of yeast had been used. 
 
 To prepare Bread in the Method of the London 
 
 Bakers. 
 
 Sift a sack of flour into the kneading-trough ; 
 add six pound? of salt, dissolve them separately 
 in a pailful of water (cooled to 90 Fahr.) with 
 two quarts of yeast. Stir it well, and strain it 
 through a cloth or sieve; afterwards mix it with 
 the flour into a dough, next cover it up with cloths 
 and shut down the trough-lid close to retain the 
 heat. In two hours more mix in another pailful 
 of warm water with the sponge, and again cover 
 it up for two hours. After this knead it for more 
 than an hour, with three pailsful of warm water. 
 Return the dough to the trough, sprinkle it with 
 dry flour, and in four hours' time knead it well for 
 about half an hour, when it will be fit to mould 
 into loaves. 
 
 To prepare Household Bread. 
 Mix four ounces of salt, three quarts of water, 
 a pint of yeast, and a peck of seconds flour, in a 
 trough. When properly fermented, knead and 
 divide it into loaves. Sometimes a portion of rye- 
 meal, rice, flour, or boiled potatoes, are mixed 
 with the flour previous to the kneading; the two 
 former serve to bind the bread, the latter cause it 
 to be open and spongy. 
 
 To produce one-third more Bread from a given 
 Quantity of Wheat. 
 
 Boil a bushel of the coarsest bran in seven gal- 
 lons of water for one hour; keep stirring it, that 
 it may not stick to the bottom; then pour it off 
 into a trough or tub full of holes, over which lay 
 a coarse cloth or sieve. On the top of the whole 
 put a wooden cover, with a weight sufficiently 
 heavy to press out the liquor from the bran, which 
 will sink to the bottom of the tub in a thick pulp. 
 This liquor will contain the essential oil of the 
 grain, and when kneaded in with a proper propor- 
 tion of flour it will yield one-third more than the 
 same quantity would made with water in the usual 
 way. 
 
 To make French Bread. 
 
 Put a pint of milk into three quarts of water. 
 In winter let it be scalding hot, but in summer 
 1 
 
 little more than milk warm. Put in salt sufficient. 
 Take a pint and a half of good ale yeast, free 
 from bitterness, and lay it in a gallon of water the 
 night before. Pour off the yeast into the milk 
 and water, and then break in rather more than a 
 quarter of a pound of butter. Work it well till it 
 is dissolved; then beat up two eggs in a basin, 
 and stir them in. Mix about a peck and a half 
 of flour with the liquor, and in winter make the 
 dough pretty stiff, but more slack in summer; 
 mix it well, and the less it is worked the better. 
 Stir the liquor into flour, as for pie-crust, and 
 after the dough is made cover it with a cloth, and 
 let it lie to rise while the oven is heating. When 
 the loaves have lain in a quick oven about a quar- 
 ter of an hour, turn them on the other side for 
 about a quarter of an hour longer. Then take 
 them out, and chip them with a knife, which will 
 make them look spongy, and of a fine yellow, 
 whereas rasping takes off this fine color, and ren- 
 ders their look less inviting. 
 
 To make wholesome Mixed Bread. 
 Take of rice 3 pounds; boil it in a sufficient 
 quantity of water till reduced to a soft pulp, then 
 rub it with 6 pounds of mealy potatoes, cooked 
 by steam, and, when well blended, add 6 pounds 
 of flour. Make the whole into a dough with water, 
 and ferment with yeast, in the usual manner. 
 
 To make Bran Bread. 
 
 To four pounds of best household flour put two 
 tablespoonsful of small beer yeast and a half pint 
 of warm water. Let it stand two hours in a warm 
 place. Add half a pound of bran and a teaspoon- 
 ful of salt; make the dough with skim-milk or 
 warm water; cover it up and let it stand an hour. 
 Put the loaves into warm dishes, and let them 
 stand twenty minutes before they go into the oven. 
 Another Method. 
 
 Mix with half a peck of flour, containing the 
 whole of the bran, a quarter of a pint of small- 
 beer yeast, and a quart of lukewarm water; stir 
 it well with a wooden spoon until it becomes a 
 thick batter, then put a napkin over the dough 
 and set it about three feet from the fire, until it 
 rises well. Add, if requisite, a little more warm 
 water, strew over it a tablespoonful of salt, and 
 make the whole into a stiff paste. Put it to the 
 fire, and when it rises again kneed it into the 
 dough. If baked in tins the loaves will be im- 
 proved. 
 
 To make Leaven Bread. 
 
 Take about two pounds of dough of the last 
 making, which has been raised by barm ; keep it 
 in a wooden vessel covered well with flour. This 
 will become leaven when sufficiently sour. Work 
 this quantity into a peck of flour with warm water. 
 Cover the dough close with a cloth or flannel, and 
 keep it in a warm place ; further mix it next morn- 
 ing with two or three bushels of flour, mixed up 
 with warm water and a little salt. When the 
 dough is thoroughly made cover it as before. A 
 soon as it rises knead it well into leaves. Ob- 
 serve in this process, that the more leaven is put 
 to the flour the lighter the bread will be, and the 
 fresher the leaven the less sour it will taste. 
 
 To make Four Quartern Loaves for Family Use. 
 
 Procure a peck of flour, with which mix a hand- 
 ful of salt to three quarts of water, and add half a 
 pint of good fresh yeast. Work the whole well 
 together, and set it to rise at a moderate distance 
 from the fire from two to three hours. Then di- 
 vide it into four equal parts, put it into tins, and 
 send it to the baker's. 
 
 The London bakers, to give their flour a faoti- 
 
98 
 
 RUKAL AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY. 
 
 tious whiteness, boil alum in the water; but such 
 means will not be resorted to in any private family. 
 
 To make Cheap Bread. 
 
 Take pumpkins and boil them in water until it 
 is quite thick, and with the decoction mix flour 
 80 as to make dough. This makes an excellent 
 bread. The proportion is increased at least one- 
 fourth, and it keeps good a length of time. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 Birkenmayer, a brewer of Constance, has suc- 
 ceeded in manufacturing bread from the farina- 
 ceous residue of beer. Ten pounds of this species 
 of paste, one pound of yeast, five pounds of ordi- 
 nary meal, and a handful of salt produce twelve 
 pounds of black bread, both savory and nourishing. 
 
 To make Bread of Iceland Moss and Flour. 
 This vegetable may be used alone or with flour 
 in the making of bread. Boil seven pounds of 
 lichen meal in 100 pints of water, and afterwards 
 mix the same with 69 pounds of flour, and when 
 baked the product will be 160 pounds of good 
 household bread; whereas, without this addition, 
 the flour would not produce more than 79 pounds 
 of bread. To prepare it, use 1 pound of lichen 
 meal, in the form of paste, to about 3 pounds of 
 flour. 
 
 To make Bread on Mr. Cobbett's Plan. 
 Suppose the quantity to be a bushel of flour. Put 
 this flour into a trough that people have for the 
 purpose, or it may be in a clean smooth tub of any 
 shape, if not too deep and sufficiently large. Make 
 a pretty deep hole in the middle of this heap of 
 flour. Take (for a bushel) a pint of good fresh 
 yeast; mix it and stir it well up in a pint of soft 
 water, milk warm. Pour this into the hole in the 
 heap of flour. Then take a spoon and work it 
 round the outside of this body of moisture, so as 
 to bring into it by degrees flour enough to make 
 it form a thin batter, which must be stirred about 
 well for a minute or two. Then take a handful 
 of flour and scatter it thinly over the head of this 
 batter, so as to hide it; then cover the whole over 
 with a cloth to keep it warm ; and this covering, 
 as well as the situation of the trough, as to distance 
 from the fire, must depend on the nature of the 
 place and state of the weather, as to heat and cold. 
 When the batter has risen enough to make cracks 
 in the flour, begin to form tke whole mass into 
 dough, thus: Begin round the hole containing the 
 batter, working the flour into the batter, and pour- 
 ing in as it is wanted to make the flour mix with 
 the batter, soft water, milk warm, or milk. Before 
 beginning this, scatter the salt over the heap, at 
 the rate of half a pound to a bushel of flour. 
 When the whole is sufficiently moist, knead it 
 well. This is a grand part of the business; for, 
 unless the dough be well worked, there will be 
 little round lumps of flour in the loaves ; and be- 
 sides the original batter, which is to give fermen- 
 tation to the whole, will not be duly mixed. It 
 must be rolled over, pressed out, folded up, and 
 pressed out again, until it be completely mixed, 
 and formed into a stiff and tough dough. 
 
 When the dough is made it is to be formed into 
 a lump in the middle of the trough, and, with a 
 little dry flour thinly scattered over it, covered 
 over again to be kept warm and to ferment, and 
 in this state, if all be done rightly, it will not 
 have to remain more than about fifteen or twenty 
 minutes. 
 
 The oven should be hot by the time that the 
 dough has remained in the lump about twenty 
 minutes. When both are ready take out the fire 
 and wipe the oven clean, and at nearly the satne 
 
 moment take the dough out upon the lid of the 
 baking trough, or some proper place, cut it up into 
 pieces and make it up into loaves, kneading it 
 again in these separate parcels, shaking a little 
 flour over the board to prevent the dough adhering 
 to it. The loaves should be put into the oven as 
 quickly as possible after they are formed ; when 
 in the oven lid or door should be fastened up very 
 closely, and if all be properly managed loaves of 
 about the size of quartern loaves will be suffi- 
 ciently baked in about two hours. But they usually 
 take down the lid and look at the bread in order 
 to see how it is going on. 
 
 To detect Adulteration in Bread. 
 
 Run into the crumb of a loaf one day old the 
 blade of a knife considerably heated, and if adul- 
 terated with alum it will show its unwholesome 
 adherences on the surface, and it may further be 
 detected by the smell. Bone-dust or plaster of 
 Paris may be discovered by slicing the soft part 
 of a loaf thin and soaking it in a large quantity 
 of water in an earthen vessel placed over a slow 
 fire three or four hours. Then having poured off 
 the water and pap the obnoxious matter will be 
 found at the bottom. 
 
 To preserve Houses from Vermin. 
 
 Bugs, in particular, may readily be destroyed 
 by dissolving half a drachm of corrosive subli- 
 mate in a quarter of an ounce of spirit of salts, 
 mixing it with one quart of spirit of turpentine. 
 Shake these well together, dip a brush in it and 
 wash those places where bugs are supposed to re- 
 sort, and this will remove them with greater cer- 
 tainty than any other mode now practised. 
 
 To make Hominy. 
 
 Indian corn is now generally made into hominy 
 by a kind of mill or machine. In the country, 
 however, it is often made by soaking the corn for 
 a short time, merely enough to soften and loosen 
 the outer hull of the grain, so that it can be 
 broken off by beating it in a mortar. 
 
 To make a mortar large enough a log of wood 
 is chosen, on top of which a large fire is lit, and 
 allowed to burn out a sufficiently deep cavity ; or 
 else with a saw and hatchet an edge or shoulder 
 is cut on four sides of the log, against which shin- 
 gles are fastened upright, projecting above the 
 top of the log far enough to make a receptacle. 
 
 After beating, as above mentioned, the grain ia 
 put into water, when the loosened hulls can easily 
 be separated. Some add lye to the water for the 
 preparatory soaking, because it softens the hull 
 sooner, but it injures the flavor of the hominy. 
 
 MANAGEMENT OF BEES. 
 To work Bees in Glass Hives. 
 
 To produce the finest virgin honey without the 
 cruel practice of destroying the bees, and having 
 the opportunity of seeing them at their labors, a 
 double-topped straw hive has been invented by 
 Mr. John Molton, and is so constructed as to sup- 
 port four glasses, which may be removed with 
 safety, and the bees kept warmer and more secure 
 than in any other hives. 
 
 Hive a swarm in the lower part of the hive in 
 the usual way. The board at the top must be 
 kept close by taking care to secure the openings; 
 this is done by turning the top board by means 
 of a thumb screw, so that when first hived the 
 holes of both boards shall not correspond, and by 
 thus turning the upper board it will prevent the 
 bees from passing through while hiving. At 
 night bring the hive into the bee-house, or where 
 it is intended to stand; in about two days after 
 place on the glasses (which should be clean) over 
 
BEES AND BEE-HIVES. 
 
 99 
 
 their respective openings, and stop them round 
 with mortar, after which turn the board to admit 
 the bees to ascend for the purpose of working; 
 cover the glasses with the small upper hive, and 
 do npt look at them for a few days. Indeed, no- 
 thing will then be necessary but to ascertain when 
 they are filled, which is known by the cell being 
 sealed over, which may he expected in about 
 twenty days after a swarm has been hived. 
 
 When the honey is to be taken and all the 
 glasses removed, it will be requisite first to turn 
 the board to exclude the bees ; then with a thin 
 knife loosen them from the adapter; leave them 
 thus for about an hour ; then carry the glasses in* 
 verted a short distance from the hive into the 
 shade, or raise the glasses with a small wedge, and 
 what few bees remain will readily leave and re- 
 turn to their original hive. This, if effected early 
 in the season, will afford the opportunity of im- 
 mediately replacing the* same, or another set of 
 glasses to be again filled. 
 
 Observe, if wanted at any time to take only one 
 or two of the glasses with honey, do not turn the 
 board, as by so doing the combs are disunited, 
 and the bees themselves will then empty the re- 
 maining glasses (although afterwards re-fill them), 
 which might occasion a loss of time in the best 
 part of the season for working; to simplify 
 which, only loosen such glasses as are wished to 
 be removed with a thin knife, set them on a 
 divider, and replace others in their stead. The 
 middle of a fine day is the best time to remove 
 glasses. 
 
 It will not be advisable to take any honey from 
 the hive after the end of July, as the remaining 
 part of the season might not prove favorable to 
 their gathering enough for their winter support; 
 therefore, it will be necessary about this time, or 
 early in August, to remove all the glasses and 
 turn the board, to finally shut them up. 
 
 Those glasses only partly filled with combs 
 should be carefully set aside, to be placed on again 
 the following April; if, however, the stock will 
 require feeding, leave one or more of the glasses 
 with honey for that purpose, which is by far the 
 best mode. 
 
 Thus much for the swarm which is left till the 
 following April the time to commence again 
 working the glasses, as hives are now full of combs 
 and brood; should the season prove favorable, 
 work the glasses twice or more, and equal success 
 will attend every subsequent corresponding year, 
 but the first season a swarm cannot be expected to 
 fill the glasses more than once, which will pro- 
 duce eight pounds of the finest honey. This 
 method of management will not prevent the bees 
 from swarming. 
 
 The honey thus obtained being fresh from the 
 hive, will be of the finest quality, pure, perfectly 
 free from the young brood, of remarkably fine 
 fragrance, clear in color, and very far superior to 
 any produced from common hives; it may also 
 be taken at pleasure without injury to the bees, 
 especially without being obliged to resort at any 
 time to the painful and execrable process of smoth- 
 ering these industrious and valuable insects. 
 
 To work Bees in Straw Hives. 
 
 The double cottage straw hive will answer many 
 purposes in the keeping of bees, as either a glass 
 or a ^niall straw hive may be worked on the top 
 of it, which gives it an advantage over the com- 
 mon hive, although the method of management 
 is simple an 'I the price easy. 
 
 Prepare this hive for a swarm by spreading mor- 
 tar round the crown of it, to carry the adapter to 
 support a glass or small straw hive, as it may be 
 
 worked with either. Hive the swarm as usual, 
 taking care to secure the opening at the top; after 
 removing it to its appointed place let the swarm 
 work for ten days, then clear the opening at top, 
 and affix either a glass or a small straw hive; 
 the bees will then ascend for working. Stop the 
 upper hive around with mortar to the adapter, 
 and darken it with a common hive ; in the course 
 of from fifteen to twenty days examine it, and if 
 full take the honey as here directed: Pass a knife 
 or wire between the adapter and small hive to 
 separate the combs, after which remove the small 
 hive of honey on a divider (a brass plate about 
 twelve inches square) ; it will then be irnmedi 
 ately necessary to place a small hive on tho 
 adapter, or stop the opening till another hive is 
 to be worked. Carry the small hive now on the 
 divider a short distance awa.y, or rather into a 
 darkened room ; invert it and place over it a small, 
 empty hive of the same size ; keep them steady, 
 and, by tapping round the bottom hive the bees 
 in a few minutes will ascend to the hive above; 
 carry them to within about two yards of their 
 original stock, shake them out, and they will enter 
 again as usual. 
 
 To work Bees in a Box Hive. 
 
 This elegant box hive consists of three divi- 
 sions, and is so ingeniously constructed that the 
 finest honey may be taken without destroying the 
 bees; you may work a glass hive on the top, and 
 inspect the whole of their curious and interesting 
 labors without disturbing them. 
 
 When a swarm is placed in this hive shut the 
 slider of the adapter; tie a small cord round to 
 secure the parts ; hive the swarm in the usual 
 manner; at night bring it into the bee-hou.e or 
 place appointed ; open the entrance at bottom and 
 remove the cord ; if a glass hive is worked on the 
 top place it on the same evening, stop it round, 
 then draw back the slider to clear the grate, leave 
 it a few minutes, and the bees will ascend for 
 working. Then raise the two upper divisions to 
 be able to remove the bottom division, and by the 
 compression the bees are obliged to work in the 
 glass hive, which should be darkened with its 
 proper cover and left for a few days without being 
 looked at; it will be necessary to replace the un- 
 employed division at tho bottom four or five days 
 previous to the removal of the glass of honey : in 
 removing which shut the slider and leave it in 
 this state for one hour; then follow those plain 
 directions laid down for the removal of glass 
 hives. 
 
 If more honey is wanted from this hive than 
 the glass affords, examine the divisions early in 
 September; if the three are full, viz., tho two 
 upper hives of honey and the bottom of combs, 
 and not otherwise, proceed to remove the fillets 
 of the top division and pass the brass divider be- 
 tween those parts, where it should remain for an 
 hour; then raise the division with a wedge and 
 draw back the slider of the adapter to let the beea 
 out, and when clear, which will be in a few min- 
 utes, remove this division and place the adapter 
 to the next division, and by withdrawing the 
 divider it will fit close down ; when the combs of 
 honey are taken out from this division it should 
 be replaced at the bottom; consequently, every 
 year or once in two years gives them, as it were, 
 a fresh division or part of a hive to rebuild in, 
 which keeps the bees constantly at work and the 
 combs in a good state of preservation. 
 To work Bees in a Hexagon Box Hive and Straw 
 Hive. 
 
 This box hive is admirably constructed with 
 slider and grating, having large glass windows, 
 
100 
 
 RURAL AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY. 
 
 and supporting a glass hive on the top, that, when 
 well supplied with bees, affords the pleasing 
 opportunity of viewing the progress of their 
 labors, and exhibits a very interesting and beau- 
 tiful appearance. 
 
 To hive a swarm it is only necessary to shut the 
 slider over the grating, and then proceed as before 
 directed. (When a glass hive is to be worked 
 follow the instructions given with the superior 
 box hive.) This hive is the best calculated to 
 work bees from other hives, especially when they 
 are in a state of decay, particularly the common 
 hive. It is effected merely by withdrawing the 
 slider clear of the grate and placing the common 
 hive over it in the evening, taking care to stop 
 the entrance of the former with mortar. The bees 
 will of course then enter at bottom, and when 
 they have worked the bottom hive nearly full, 
 which is ascertained by means of the windows, 
 carefully lift them up and place them under ano- 
 ther hexagon hive; consequently this colony con- 
 sists of three hives, and it will not be safe to 
 remove the upper hive unless the bees have worked 
 combs into the bottom hive, which, if effected at 
 the end of the season, the common hive may be 
 safely taken with its contents. 
 
 To work Bees in the Common Hive. 
 
 This hive being in such general use in this 
 country for many years, requires but little obser- 
 vation, except on some essential points, which, to 
 benefit the cultivator, ought to be attended to. 
 First, care should be taken to have the hive made 
 of clean and good straw, and manufactured of a 
 suitable thickness. Some hives are so thin and 
 loose as to require many days of the most valu- 
 able time of the swarm to render the hive fit for 
 their use. 
 
 Secondly, a hive should be chosen in proportion 
 to the size of the swarm ; and when a good hive 
 is obtained, and a swarm placed in it, which 
 should fill it to within a rim or two of the bottom, 
 shelter it from cold winds and rain; for, if once 
 the wet penetrates a hive it affects the combs, and 
 the bees getting a distaste for their home, will 
 work very slowly, and often desert it altogether; 
 whereas, if they have a hive to their liking leave 
 them unmolested, and they will soon furnish it 
 with combs and honey. It is not material in what 
 aspect the stock stands, provided the sun shines 
 on the hive once in the course of the day. Well 
 peopled hives, kept dry, will thrive in most situ- 
 ations. 
 
 One of those fatal accidents to which this hive 
 is subject, occurs through covering it with a hackle 
 or turf, by which their great enemy, the mouse, 
 is enticed, who will make a nest on the top, and 
 ultimately eat its way through the crown of the. 
 hive, and destroy both combs and bees. 
 
 About August the robbing commences by bees 
 and wasps, which is but little regarded ; an im- 
 portant benefit will be derived by destroying the 
 queen wasp, seen about April, which is the mo- 
 ther of thousands; much therefore depends on 
 the preservation of those hives which are to stand 
 the winter. To protect them apply the guard in- 
 vented by Mr. Espinasse, which is calculated to 
 prove highly beneficial in its effects. 
 
 In September attention should be directed to 
 weigh the stocks; none of those of less than from 
 fifteen to twenty pounds in weight can safely be 
 relied on to stand the winter without feeding; and 
 stop all hives down to the board with mortar. 
 
 To establish an Apiary. 
 
 The best time to establish an apiary is about 
 February, as the stocks have passed through the 
 winter in safety. The combs are then empty of 
 
 brood, light of honey, and the removal safe and 
 easy. Stocks should be selected by a competent 
 judge, as the weight alone cannot always be re- 
 lied on; but such as weigh twelve pounds and 
 upwards the number of bees must also be ob- 
 served, and that they are well combed to near the 
 bottom these may be safely chosen. 
 
 When they are brought home set them in the 
 bee-house, being particularly careful to keep them 
 dry. The next day plaster the hive to the board, 
 leaving an entrance the size of the little finger. 
 
 If this season has passed, purchase the first and 
 early swarms; for late ones or casts are not worth 
 keeping, unless two or three have been united. 
 
 To remove stocks, the evening is the best time; 
 the hive should be raised by wedges some hours 
 previous, unless the floor be also moveable with 
 the hive otherwise many bees will remain on 
 the floor at the time, and prove very troublesome. 
 But when the door is moveable, plaster the hive 
 with mortar to the board; pin a card pierced with 
 holes before the entrance, securing the hive to the 
 board firmly ; in this way it would travel any dis- 
 tance. 
 
 Swarms purchased should be brought home the 
 same evening; for if delayed for a day or two, 
 combs will be worked, and subject to be broken in 
 removing. 
 
 To cultivate Bee-Flowers. 
 
 Bees are most fond of those places where their 
 favorite flowers are to be found; therefore bee- 
 keepers should encourage the growth of such 
 shrubs and flowers as are known to supply honey 
 and wax in the greatest abundance ; in most situ- 
 ations bees do not fly far for food, generally not 
 more than half a mile ; they may be observed to 
 return with great precipitation to the hive when 
 rain or a storm approaches. The following are 
 the most favorable for pasturage, and those which 
 blossom early are the most desirable : 
 
 Shrubs, etc. 
 Gray willow. 
 Tulip poplar. 
 Persimmon. 
 Gooseberry, 
 Raspberry. 
 Apricot and all other 
 
 fruit-trees. 
 American linden. 
 Locust. 
 Broom. 
 Alder. 
 
 Mignonette, borage, and lemon thyme are the 
 principal, as they continue very long in bloom, 
 and afford the finest honey. Rosemary is also a 
 great favorite, but seldom supplies much honey in 
 this country, unless the weather proves very hot 
 and dry when it is in blossom, yet it is worth cul- 
 tivating, especially in a southern aspect, being one 
 of the principal aromatic plants from which the 
 bees in the neighborhood of Narbonne collect their 
 honey, which is esteemed the finest in Europe. 
 Fields of beans, white clover, and buckwheat are 
 of great benefit. Rivers or streams of water are 
 also very beneficial, as bees make use of a great 
 deal of water. 
 
 To swarm Bees. 
 
 Swarming depends on the increase of bees, and 
 a queen being ready to lead them. Their breed- 
 ing begins sooner or later, according to the for- 
 wardness of the spring, the fruitfulness of the 
 queen, and the populousness of the hive. When 
 bees carry in farina or pellets on their thighs, it 
 denotes they have commenced breeding, which 
 may be as early as February, and not finish till 
 
 Flowers. 
 Mignonette. 
 Lemon thyme. 
 Garden and wild thyme 
 Buckwheat. 
 Winter savory. 
 Hyssop. 
 Mustard. 
 Turnips. 
 Cabbage. 
 
 White clover. J DW "' 
 Scarlet and other beans. 
 
 when 
 left for 
 seed. 
 
BEES. 
 
 101 
 
 October; and when their numbers are much in- 
 creased they show indications of swarming, by 
 their clustering in great quantities below the rest- 
 ing-board. They never rise but on a fine day, 
 and sometimes will settle, and for some cause re- 
 turn to the stock, probably for want of a queen 
 being with them. Some hives will cast three times, 
 but mostly only twice. The second cast may be 
 expected within three or four days, and never laj;er 
 than ten days after the first. Should a stock over- 
 swarm itself it will perish, unless strengthened ; 
 this may he ascertained by observing the quantity 
 of bees afterwards seen to enter. It is necessary 
 in the swarming season, from April to July, par- 
 ticularly in May and June, to observe the hives 
 on a fine day ; in general the bees issue forth about 
 noon from nine to two o'clock, or about three in 
 the afternoon. 
 
 ( To hive Bees. 
 
 Bee-keepers should have square hives by them, 
 prepared to hive the bees as soon as they are set- 
 tled ; for should the sun shine hot upon the swarm 
 it may take another flight, and may possibly be 
 lost entirely. The manner of hiving them must 
 be regulated by the nature of the place on which 
 they settle. The custom of preparing hives va- 
 ries ; a clean new hive only requires the loose straw 
 to be rubbed off with a cloth ; if any dressing be 
 used, fennel dipped in ale and sugar will best an- 
 swer the purpose. Having ready a cloth whereon 
 to place the hive, and a wedge to raise it; if the 
 swarm should settle on a branch, shake the best 
 part of it into the hive, place it on the cloth on the 
 ground, and continue to disturb the swarm where 
 it is settled, and the hive being left underneath, 
 they will all go in, or cut the branch off, and 
 gently place it in the hive. Should the bees set- 
 tle on the ground, place the hive over them; and 
 though bees are not apt to sting at this time, the 
 hiving should be performed quietly. Avoid talk- 
 ing and breathing on them, and if any of them 
 are crushed, they will resent it; therefore, to pre- 
 vent accident, invariably use the bee-dress, which 
 will give confidence. All swarms are to be shel- 
 tered and left near to where they settle till the 
 evening ; thence to be removed very gently to the 
 appointed place. 
 
 T<> unite SwarmKy and reinforce Stocks. 
 
 It is essential when there are weak swarms of 
 bees, that they should be strengthened. The idea, 
 so prevalent, of the greatest number of hives pro- 
 ducing the most honey and wax, is erroneous; for 
 a great part of the bees is necessarily employed in 
 rearing the young, and therefore the number of 
 those who are occupied in collecting honey is not 
 near so great as has been imagined ; for every 
 swarm, the least as well as the greatest, is pro- 
 vided with a queen, equal in fecundity to the 
 queen of the larger stock, and as the brood she 
 brings continually demands the labor and attend- 
 ance of nearly half the bees, this circumstance 
 renders the other moiety, from the smallness of 
 their number, unable to accumulate a large quan- 
 tity of honey in the short time it mostly abounds, 
 and therefore honey cannot be obtained in glass 
 hives or otherwise, but from a strongly-peopled 
 hive. 
 
 Have the swarms or casts in the usual way, 
 and at about eight o'clock the same evening spread 
 a cloth on the ground, near to the hive required to 
 be reinforced ; bring the new swarm, and strike it 
 down rather hard, flat on the ground. The bees 
 will then fall in a cluster; quickly place over 
 them the stock to be reinforced ; in ten minutes 
 they will have united and become as one family, 
 to be removed the same evening to its former 
 situation. 
 
 Or, each cast or swarm may be hived separately. 
 In the evening, turn the crown of the hive into a 
 pail, and set the other hive exactly over it; in the 
 morning the bees from the bottom hive will have 
 ascended. 
 
 The system of uniting, so very important, is 
 but little practised, and has been overlooked by 
 many cultivators ; but it is absolutely necessary 
 to have the hives well peopled and completely 
 sheltered from wet, whkh are the principal and 
 main objects to be particrT'aRly attended to>in r^htf 
 art of bee-keeping; a/.itf t&tfatfvaMages of ^inftl^g 
 swarms will be jdtond particularly beneficial on 
 working the glasses;- with, tlitt "n<tfwiyt"inv;onte<Jl 
 double-topped hives.-' "'-.?>, ', ' " , < "/*', V> > ; - 
 To feed Bees. 
 
 With the aid of feeding it is perfectly easy to 
 bring any hive of bees through the winter; but 
 to ensure the success of a very light stock, it is 
 essential to keep it also very warm and dry. Feed- 
 ing is absolutely necessary when more honey has 
 been taken than the hive can afford, by means of 
 small hives or glasses. Such stocks as are in- 
 tended to be kept through the winter should weigh 
 twenty pounds or upwards at the end of Septem- 
 ber; but casts and late swarms seldom attain this 
 weight, unless two or more should have been 
 united. The composition for feeding consi'sts of 
 moist sugar and new beer, the proportion of one 
 pound of sugar to a pint of beer, simmered to the 
 consistency of treacle: to be inserted into the 
 hives by means of small troughs, at night, and 
 removed the next morning early. Should a hive 
 be very poor and weak, it is better to feed in 
 larger quantities each time. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 Have a thick wooden hoop, about six inches 
 deep, to set upon the board when the hive is taken 
 up, and set honey-combs with the natural honey 
 in them, or filled with sugar a little moistened, 
 and set the hive upon it. A piece of an old hive 
 will make a good hoop. Old empty combs should 
 be carefully kept covered up with a piece of thin 
 linen or muslin, in a very clean place for feeding 
 the bees. Weak hives should be removed at a dis- 
 tance from the rest, when they must be fed; if 
 near the strong will rob them. Remove them in 
 the following manner: Take up the board with 
 the hive, tie a cloth firm over it, and with a hand- 
 barrow carry it gently between two where it is in- 
 tended to be placed. Troughs of pithy wood, fillc 1 
 with moistened sugar or honey, and thrust in at 
 the aperture of the hive, is a good method of feed- 
 ing. Be sure when raising a hive from the board, 
 to fix it down again with plaster lime. 
 
 Be not hasty in concluding a hive is dead though 
 the bees seem inactive. Expose them at mid-day, 
 turned upon a white sheet, where the sun is most 
 powerful, for half an hour; then house them in a 
 warm place, where neither noise, bad smells, nor 
 light can annoy them. 
 
 If wanted to purchase a hive defer it till May. 
 Set careful persons to watch at several stalls that 
 they may reckon, by watch time, every loaded bee 
 that comes in for ten or fifteen minutes. That 
 which has mo.st laborers should be the choice. All 
 the refuse honey, after draining the best in jars, 
 should be kept in a clean place for feeding the 
 bees. 
 
 Improved Machine for feeding Bees. 
 
 Prepare a board a little larger than the bottom 
 of the hive, in the centre of which make an open- 
 ing about ten inches diameter; then form a frame 
 of half inch deal, to consist of four sides, ench 
 about twelve inches by three inches; make the 
 angles firm with small wooden blocks, to which 
 
102 
 
 RURAL AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY. 
 
 affix the before-mentioned board. A door should 
 then be made in a side of the frame sufficiently 
 large to admit a deep plate, or small dish, to con- 
 tain the food. By the use of this machine the 
 bees are fed quietly, and protected from the cold 
 weather and the intrusion of other bees. It is 
 scarcely necessary to observe further, that the 
 door of the machine should face such part of the 
 bee-house as best suits convenience. The dish 
 of food to be placed under should be covered with 
 a-giecfe of thick, p.after t^be .size of the plate or dish, 
 pfeVcecTin ho,le!s,;through which the bees will feed; 
 and. a quantity of short pieces qf straw also put 
 into the dish will prevent the be;es from daubing 
 the*2Cisolve&. * They should be fed at night, and 
 the' dish only taken away early on the following 
 morning, to do this the face and hands should be 
 covered. The autumn and early part of the 
 spring are times proper to examine if any hives 
 require feeding; but always commence before the 
 stock is in absolute want of food, otherwise the 
 bees will be so poor and weak as to be unable to 
 come down. 
 
 To manage Honey. 
 
 To judge of the best honey, it should be of a 
 bright pale color, thick, and a little aromatic. To 
 obtain it from the combs in its pure state, it must 
 be left to run from them without pressing. The 
 color shows whether it is fine or inferior. If 
 wanted to press some in the comb, choose the 
 fairest and such as have not been broken ; wrap 
 each comb in white paper, such as lines the blue 
 cover of loaf sugar. Set it edgeways as it stood 
 in the hive, and it may be preserved many months. 
 The combs meant to be drained, must be cut in 
 slices. L:iy them on a hair- search, supported by 
 a rack over the jar, in which the honey is to re- 
 main ; for the less it is stirred after draining the 
 better it keeps. Fill the jar to the brim, as a 
 little scum must be taken off when it has settled. 
 A bladder, well washed in lukewarm water, ought 
 to be laid over the double fold of white paper with 
 which it is covered. 
 
 To take the Honey without destroying the Bees. 
 
 The following easy method of taking the honey 
 without destroying the bees, is generally practised 
 in France. In the dusk of the evening, when the 
 bees are quietly lodged, approach the hive, and 
 turn it gently over. Having steadily placed it in 
 a small pit, previously dug to receive it, with its 
 bottom upwards, cover it with a clean new hive, 
 which has been properly prepared, with a few 
 sticks across the inside of it, and rubbed with aro- 
 matic herbs. Having carefully adjusted the mouth 
 of each hive to the other, so that no aperture re- 
 mains between them, take a small stick and beat 
 gently round the sides of the lower hive for about 
 ten minutes or a quarter of an hour, in which 
 time the bees will leave their cells in the lower 
 hive, ascend, and adhere to the upper one. Then 
 gently lift the new hive, with all its little tenants, 
 and place it on the stand from which the other 
 hive was taken. This should be done some time 
 in the week preceding midsummer day, that the 
 bees may have time, before the summer flowers 
 are faded, to lay in a new stock of honey, which 
 they will not fail to do for their subsistence through 
 winter. 
 
 To manage Bees generally. 
 
 The best situation for bees is to the north, with 
 a range of hills wooded on the summit, and to- 
 ward the base, enriched with heather, skirted to 
 the east with a stream from the rocks. To con- 
 fine this rivulet, the bee-master should sow the 
 sandy beech with the seed of furze, and cover it 
 with a light surface of earth. The furze would 
 
 soon, vegetate; and blooming, in the course of 
 three years, overpay his labor by providing the 
 bees with pasture on soil otherwise barren, and 
 the margin of the brook would gradually rise to 
 restrain its encroachment on fertile lands. Sup- 
 pose a white clover field to the south of the hills, 
 and south from the field a large garden, where 
 hardy winter greens have been allowed to flower 
 as early food for the bees. White mustard should 
 also be sown very early in patches near the hive; 
 but not nearer than one yard. A few dwarf 
 flowers may come within two feet, but tall grown 
 ones would assist insects to get up. To the west 
 it would be desirable to have a shrubbery, a wood, 
 a broom common, or heather moor. 
 
 The stations for the hives must be six yards 
 asunder, and never nearer than three yards. The 
 board on which they are placed ought to be of one 
 piece; or, if joined, the under side of the joining 
 should be lined with a thinner board fixed closely 
 with wooden pins. The edges of this rounded 
 standard should project four inches all round from 
 the hive. Place it on three wooden pillars sixteen 
 inches long, ten inches above the ground ; but six 
 inches of its length should be firmly thrust into 
 the earth; in all, its length to be sixteen inches. 
 The pillar in front should be an inch shorter than 
 the other two, and the three pillars should be 
 within twelve or fourteen inches of the outer edge 
 of the board to, exclude rats and mice. For the 
 same reason no tall-growing plant, no wall, nor 
 any means for ascent should be within three or 
 four feet of the hive. In fine weather the en- 
 trance to the hive mu?t be four inches long and 
 an inch and a half in depth. 
 
 Fowls do not eat bees, but are useful to them 
 by destroying worms. Ducks sometimes eat them 
 and are killed thereby. 
 
 In the beginning of the fine season, when the 
 bees *>an get food, or have stores remaining, the 
 bee-master has nothing to do but to keep the 
 ground about the hives clear from weeds and 
 from whatever might enable vermin to climb 
 there. Yet as a thriving stock inclines very soon 
 to swarm, the hives must be frequently looked 
 after, from eight in the morning till five in the 
 afternoon. The symptoms are generally thus : 
 The little city seems crowded with inhabitants j 
 they are continually in motion during the day; 
 and after working-time they make loud noises. 
 The drones may be seen flying about in the heat 
 of the day, and the working bees go with a reel- 
 ing motion- and busy hum. When the bees come 
 regularly out of the hives let no noise, no inter- 
 ruption incommode them ; but if they fly long, as 
 if they were unsettled, some tinkling noise or the 
 loud report of a gun will make the fugitives repair 
 to the nearest lodgings. If there is an empty 
 hive with combs and some honey in it they will 
 readily go there. If a new hive is used, remember 
 to smooth it well within and singe off loose straws. 
 Perpendicular sticks should never be employed. 
 Four cross sticks at equal distances will support 
 the combs. Old hives do very well for bite swarms 
 that are not to be preserved through the winter; 
 but box hives are best for them, as the bees work 
 fastest there. They are not, however, fit for being 
 kept through the cold seasons. 
 
 The first spontaneous swarming is only to be 
 anticipated by finding the royal cells sealed up. 
 
 It is to be observed that great haste in forcing 
 a swarm into the hive may disperse them. Give 
 them time to settle undisturbed, though keep a 
 steady eye on their motions; but whenever they 
 gather into a cluster lose no time in placing the 
 hive over them. If the swarm rest on anything 
 that can be brought to the ground, spread a clean 
 
BEES. 
 
 103 
 
 linen cloth ; lay two sticks on it, two feet asunder ; 
 lay the booty on which the swarm have fixed gen- 
 tly on the sticks, covering it with the hive by a 
 motion the least perceptible, and taking care that 
 the edges of the hive rest upon the sticks. Cover 
 hive and all with a cloth, for the sun might allure 
 the bees to rise again. When they have gone into 
 the hive, cover it with its own board and carry it 
 cautiously to its station. Bees are apt to leave 
 their hive even after they begin to work, so they 
 must be watched till evening and throughout the 
 ensuing day. Whenever they are sure to remain, 
 fix the hive to its board with a little lime round 
 the edges, and crown it with green sods to keep 
 out too great heat or rain. 
 
 It' a hive divides into two swarms it is a sign 
 that each swarin has a queen. Put each into old 
 hives or boxes ; but they must he kept separate. 
 If a cluster of bees about the size of a smalj plum 
 is seen together, the queen will generally be 
 found there. Separate them, and with a drinking 
 glass turned down you may seize the queen. Put 
 her and a score or two of her subjects into a box 
 full of holes, large enough to admit air, and yet 
 not to allow the bees to escape. Feed her with 
 honey combs, and keep her in reserve in case of 
 the death of a queen in one of the hives. When 
 a hive ceases to work it is a sure sign the queen 
 is no more. Then the bee-master may wait an 
 hour and not see a loaded bee enter the habitation. 
 But if the spare queen be taken late in the even- 
 ing, wetting her wings to prevent her escape, and 
 introduce her to the desponding society, they will 
 receive her gladly and begin to work. 
 
 If the bees of a hive fight among themselves, 
 be assured there are two queens : and they will de- 
 stroy each other if one is not taken away to keep. 
 
 When bees are to swarm a second or more times, 
 they do not come out in clusters, but they make 
 a sound called bellings, which may be heard, 
 ceasing for a little, and renewed again and again. 
 If there are different tones it is certain there are 
 several young queens in the hive. It is only by 
 putting the ear close to it that the sound can be 
 heard distinctly. 
 
 To keep large Hives for Winter. 
 
 They must not be more than three years old 
 and well stocked with bees. A hive for preserving 
 should weigh from thirty to forty pounds. Place 
 them in October where they are to remain, ob- 
 serving the usual precautions against vermin or 
 winds, and giving them if possible a distance of 
 six or eight yards asunder, that they may not rob 
 each other. Set the hive after sunset Plaster 
 the edge firmly round with plaster lime, all except 
 the entrance. Fit a piece of hard wood to the 
 aperture, cut two holes a quarter of an inch square, 
 and fix the board as a daor with plaster lime. 
 Cover the hive with drawn straw tied together at 
 the top, and fix it with straw ropes around. Cut 
 the straw a quarter of an inch below the board, 
 for a few lengths may conduct vermin into the 
 torpid community. Once in four or five weeks 
 raise the hive from the board after sunset. Scrape 
 the board clean and brush away dead bees. Ob- 
 serve when turning them up if they move their 
 wings ; if not, bring them into a warmer situation, 
 free from noise, and the light excluded. Keep 
 them there till the extreme rigor of the season is 
 past, and then return them to their old situation 
 after sunset. 
 
 Sunshine in snow is destructive to bees if they 
 get out. Put a planting of twigs across the holes 
 to give air and yet confine the inmates. Never 
 confine them more than eight or ten days, and ex- 
 cept in snow in the sunshine, their own sagacity 
 
 will direct when it is safe to go out. It is abso- 
 lutely necessary for their health to have leave for 
 going in and out in tolerably mild weather. 
 
 To manage Bee-Hives of Mr. Thorley't Construc- 
 tion. 
 
 The bottom part is an octangular bee-box, made 
 of deal boards about an inch in thickness, the 
 cover of which is externally seventeen inches in 
 diameter but internally only fifteen inches, and 
 its height ten. In the middle of the cover of this 
 octangular box is a hole, which may be opened or 
 shut at pleasure by means of a slider. In one of 
 the panels is a pane of glass, covered with a 
 wooden door. The entrance at the bottom of the 
 box is about three and a half inches broad and 
 half an inch high. Two slips of deal, about half 
 an inch square, cross each other in the centre of 
 the box, and are fastened to the panel by means 
 of small screws: to these slips the bees fasten 
 their combs. In this octangular box the bees arc 
 hived after swarming in the usual manner, and 
 then suffered to continue till they have built their 
 combs and filled them with honey, which may be 
 known by opening the door and viewing their 
 works through the glass pane, or by the weight 
 of the hive. When the bee-master finds his la- 
 borious insects have filled their habitation, he is 
 to place a common bee-hive of straw, made either 
 flat on the top or in the common form, on the 
 octangular box, and drawing out the slider a com- 
 munication will be opened between the box and 
 the straw hive; in consequence of which the bees 
 will fill this hive also with the product of their 
 labors. 
 
 When the straw-hive is well filled the s^der 
 may be pushed in, and the hive taken away and 
 another placed in its room, with the slider drawn 
 out. This new hive will also be filled in the same 
 manner. 
 
 Mr. Thorley assured the Society of Arts that 
 he had taken three successive hives filled with 
 honey and wax from a single hive during the 
 same summer, and that the food still remaining in 
 the octangular box was sufficient for the support 
 of the bees during the winter. He says that if 
 this method were pursued in every part of the 
 kingdom, instead of the cruel method of destroy- 
 ing these useful insects, he is persuaded, from 
 long experience, that wax would be collected in 
 such plenty that candles made with it might be 
 sold as cheap as those of tallow are sold at 
 present. 
 
 Mr. Thorley has also added another part to his 
 bee-hive, consisting of a glass reservoir eighteen 
 inches high, eight inches in diameter at the bottom 
 and in the greatest part thirteen ; this receiver 
 has a hole at the top about one inch in diameter, 
 through which a square piece of deal is extended 
 nearly to the bottom of the vessel, having two 
 cross bars, to which the bees fasten their combs. 
 Into the other end of this square piece is screwed 
 a piece of brass, which serves as a handle to the 
 receiver or glass hive. When the bees have filled 
 their straw hive, which must have a hole in the 
 centre, covered with a piece of tin, Mr. Thorley 
 places the glass receiver upon the top of the straw 
 hive and draws out the piece of tin. The bees, 
 now finding their habitation enlarged, pursue 
 their labors with such alacrity that they fill their 
 glass hives likewise with their stores, the whole 
 progress of their works. It will, however, be ne- 
 cessary to cover the glass with an empty hive of 
 straw, or at least with a cloth, lest too much light 
 prevent their working. In this way Mr. Thorley 
 in a good season has had a glass hive filled in 
 thirty days, containing thirty-eight pounds of fine 
 
104 
 
 FARRIERY. 
 
 honey. When the glass is completely filled slide 
 a tin plate between the hive or box, so as to cover 
 the passage, and in half an hour the glass may 
 be taken away with safety. The few bees that 
 remain will readily go to their companions. 
 
 Mr. Thorley has added a glass window to his 
 straw hives, in order to observe the progress of 
 the bees, and this contrivance is useful, especially 
 if one hive is to be removed whilst the season 
 continues favorable for their collecting of honey, 
 for when the combs are filled with honey the cells 
 are sealed up, and the bees forsake them, and re- 
 Bide mostly in the hives in which their works are 
 chiefly carried on. Observing also that the bees 
 were apt to extend their combs through the pas- 
 Bage or communication into the upper hive, which 
 rendered it necessary to divide the comb when the 
 upper hive was taken away, he puts in the pas- 
 sage a wire screen or netting, the meshes of which 
 are large enough for a loaded bee to pass easily 
 through them, and thus he prevents the junction 
 of the combs from one box to the other, and 
 consequently obviates the necessity of cutting 
 them and of spilling some honey, which, running 
 down among a crowd of bees, incommoded them 
 much. 
 
 Langstroth's patent hive is now much recom- 
 mended. In it each comb has a separate frame. 
 You can cut out the queen cells in the spring and 
 thus prevent swarming. A hive ought not to be 
 used for more. than eight years. But the bees 
 need not be destroyed ; you may drive them from 
 one hive to another by rapping on the occupied 
 one. 
 
 To manage Sees on Mr. Cobbett's plan. 
 
 The best hives are those made of clean, un- 
 blighted rye-straw. A swarm should always be 
 put into a new hive, and the sticks should be new 
 that are put into the hive for the bees to work on, 
 for if the hive be old it is not so wholesome, and a 
 thousand to one but it contains the embryos of 
 moths and other insects injurious to bees. Over 
 the hive itself there should be a cap of thatch, 
 made also of clean rye-straw, and it should not 
 only be new when first put on the hive, but a new 
 one should be made to supply the place of the 
 former one every three or four months, for when 
 the straw begins to get rotten, as it soon does, in- 
 sects breed in it, its smell is bad, and its effect on 
 the bees is dangerous. 
 
 The hives should be placed on a bench, the legs 
 of which mice and rats cannot creep up. Tin 
 round the legs is best. But even this will not keep 
 down ants, which are mortal enemies to bees. To 
 
 keep them away if they infest the hive, take a 
 green stick and twist it round the leg of the bench, 
 and at a few inches from it, and cover this stick 
 with tnr. This will keep away the ants. 
 
 Besides the hive and its cap there should be a 
 sort of shed, with top, back and ends, to give ad- 
 ditional protection in winter, though in summer 
 hives may be kept too hot, and in that case the 
 bees become sickly and the produce light. Th 
 situation of the hive is to face the southeast, or 
 at any rate to be sheltered from the north and the 
 west. From the north always, and from the west 
 in winter. If it be a. very dry season in summer 
 it contributes greatly to the success of the bees to 
 place clear water near their home in a thing that 
 they can conveniently drink out of, for if they 
 have to go a great way for drink they have not 
 much time for work. 
 
 It is supposed that bees live only a year ; at 
 any rate it is best never to keep the same stall or 
 family over two years, except it be wanted to in- 
 crease the number of hives. The swarm of this 
 summer should be always taken in the autumn of 
 the next year. If you save the bees when the 
 honey is taken, they must be fed, and if saved 
 they will die of old age before the next fall, and 
 though young ones will supply the place of the 
 dead, this is nothing like a good swarm put up 
 during the summer. 
 
 A good stall of bees, that is to say the produce 
 of one, is always worth about two bushels of good 
 wheat. The cost is nothing to the laborer. He 
 must be a stupid countryman, indeed, who cannot 
 make a bee-hire, and a lazy one, indeed, if he 
 will not if he can. In short, there is nothing 
 but care demanded, and there are very few situ- 
 ations in the country where a laboring man 
 may not have half a dozen stalls of bees to 
 take every year. The main things are to keep 
 away insects, mice and birds, and especially a 
 little bird called the bee-bird, and to keep all 
 clean and fresh as to the hives and coverings. 
 Never put a swarm into an old hive. If wasps 
 or hornets annoy you, watch them home in the 
 day time, and in the night kill them by fire or by 
 boiling water. 
 
 The new Italian bee is more industrious than 
 the common bee. It has, too, a larger proboscis, 
 and can suck the red clover. It is more docile 
 than the common bee. A new queen can be best 
 introduced ir.to a hive in a small cage of wire 
 gauze, with about a hundred bees of her own kind, 
 or else she may be put in while unhatched in the 
 royal cell. 
 
 FARRIERY. 
 
 [Attention is called to valuable articles upon RINDERPEST and TRICHINA, on pages 467, 468, 469, which could not b 
 finished in time to insert here, owing to delay in receiving the latest European iuformation (May 15, 1866).] 
 
 The Teeth of a Horse. 
 
 At five years of age the horse has forty teeth 
 twenty-four molar or jaw teeth, twelve incisor or 
 front teeth and four tusks or canine teeth between 
 the molars and incisors, but usually wanting in 
 tiiu mare. 
 
 At birth only the two nippers or middle inci- 
 sors appear. 
 
 At one year old the incisors are all visible of 
 the first or milk set. 
 
 Before three years the permanent nippers have 
 eome through. 
 
 At four years old the permanent dividers next 
 to the nippers are oat. 
 
 At five the mouth is perfect, the second set of 
 teeth having been completed. 
 
 At six the hollow under the nippers, called the 
 mark, has disappeared from the nippers, and di- 
 minished in the dividers. 
 
 At seven the mark has disappeared from the 
 dividers, and the next teeth, or corners, are level, 
 though showing the mark. 
 
 At eight the mark has gone from the corners, 
 and the horse is said to be aged. After this time, 
 indeed good authorities say after five years, the 
 age of a horse can only be conjectured. But the 
 teeth gradually change their form, the incisors be- 
 coming round, oval, and then triangular. Dealers 
 
HORSES AND CATTLE. 
 
 sometimes bishop the teeth of old horses; that is, 
 scoop them out, to imitate the mark: but this can 
 be known by the absence of the white edge of 
 enamel which always surrounds the real mark, 
 by the shape of the teeth, and other marks of age 
 about the animal. 
 
 When a Horse in Unsound. 
 
 Any of the following defects constitute unsound- 
 ness in a horse: 
 
 Lameness, of all kinds and degrees. Diseases 
 of any of the internal organs. Cough of all kinds, 
 as long <is it exists. Colds or catarrhs, while they 
 last. Roaring; broken wind; thick wind; grease; 
 inange ; farcy and glanders ; megrims or staggers ; 
 founder; convex feet; contracted feet; spavins 
 and ringbones; enlargements of the sinews or 
 ligaments ; cataracts and other defects of the eyes, 
 impairing sight. 
 
 The following may or may not occasion un- 
 eouudness, according to the state or degree in 
 which they exist : Corns, splints, thrushes, bog- 
 spavins, throughpins, wind-galls, crib-biting. 
 Curbs are unsoundness unless the horse has 
 worked with them for some months without in- 
 convenience. 
 
 Cutting, particularly speedy cutting, constitutes 
 unsoundness when it cannot be remedied by care 
 and skill. Quidding, when a confirmed habit, in- 
 jures the soundness of a horse. 
 
 Defects, called blemishes, are: Scars, from bro- 
 ken knees; capped hocks, splints, bog-spavins, 
 and throughpins; loss of hair, from blisters or 
 scars ; enlargements from blows or cutting ; specks 
 or streaks on the corner of the eye. 
 
 Vices are : Restiveness, shying, bolting, run- 
 ning away, kicking, rearing, weaving or moving 
 the head from side to side, stringhalt, quidding, 
 slipping the halter. 
 
 Wounds in Horses or Cattle, 
 
 When horses, cattle, or any of our domestic an- 
 imals are wounded, the treatment may be very 
 simple, and much the same as in the human race. 
 It is extremely improper to follow a practice that 
 is common in many parts of the country among 
 furriers, cow-doctors, and even shepherds that 
 of applying to the wound, or putting into the sore 
 part, common salt, powder of blue vitriol, or tar, 
 or cloths dipped in spirits, as brandy, rum, etc., 
 or turpentine, or any other stimulant articles; for 
 all such very much increase the pain, and, by irri- 
 tating the sore, may increase the inflammation, 
 even to the length of inducing mortification. 
 Though the treatment may be varied according 
 to circumstances, yet, in most cases, it may be 
 sufficient to take notice of the following particu- 
 lars : It will be proper to wash away any foulness 
 or dirt about the part, and to examine particularly 
 its condition. 
 
 To stop the Bleeding. 
 
 Should any large bloodvessel be cut, and dis- 
 charging copiously, it will be right to stop it, by 
 some lint or sponge, with moderate compression 
 or bandaging, at the same time, and not taking it 
 off for two or three days. Should the pressure 
 fail of effect, caustic applications, such as the lunar 
 caustic, or even the actual cautery, the point of a 
 thick wire, sufficiently heated, may be tried; or, 
 if a surgeon be at hand, the vessel may be taken 
 up by the crooked needle, with waxed thread, and 
 then tied. 
 
 Adhesive Plaster and Serving. 
 
 Where there is no danger of excessive bleeding, 
 and a mere division of the parts, or a deep gash 
 or cut, it will be right to adjust the parts, and keep 
 them together by a strip of any common adhesive 
 piaster; or, when this will not do by itself, the 
 
 105 
 
 lips of the wound, especially if it be a clean cut, 
 may be closed by one or more stitches, with a 
 moderately coarse needle and thread, which in 
 each stitch may be tied, and the ends left of a 
 proper length, so that they can be afterwards re- 
 moved, when the parts adhere. It is advised to 
 tie the threads, because sometimes the wounded 
 part swells so much that it is difficult to get them 
 cut and drawn oat, without giving pain and doing 
 some mischief. 
 
 Bandages. 
 
 If the part will allow a roller or bandage to be 
 used, to keep the lips of it together, this may 
 likewise be employed; for, by supporting the sides 
 of the wound, it would lessen any pain which the 
 stitches occasion. With this treatment the wound 
 heals often in a short time, or in a few days, rarely 
 exceeding five or six, and sooner in the young and 
 healthy than in the old and relaxed, and sooner 
 in the quiet and motionless than in the restless 
 and active. 
 
 Should the wound be large and inflammation, 
 with the discharge of matter, likely to take place, 
 it may still be proper, by gentle means, to bring 
 the divided parts near to each other, and to retain 
 them in their natural situation by means of a 
 bandage. This should not be made too tight, but 
 merely to support the part. In this way, and by 
 avoiding stimulant applications, the wound will 
 heal more readily than otherwise, and the chance 
 of any blemishes following will be diminished. 
 Washes of spirits, brandy, and the like, Friar'i 
 balsam, spirit of wine and camphor, turpentine, 
 or any other such irritating applications, are 
 highly improper, and sometimes makes a fresh, 
 clean wound (that would readily heal almost of 
 itself] inflame and perhaps mortify, or become a 
 bad sore. 
 
 Sores and Bruises. 
 
 Over the whole sore, or where the part is bruised 
 or where there is a tendency to suppuration,, a 
 poultice should be applied and kept on by suitable 
 bandages. The poultice may be made of any kind 
 of meal, fine bran, bruised linseed, or of mashed 
 turnips, carrots, etc. The following has been 
 found useful as a common poultice : " Fine bran, 
 1 quart; pour on a sufficient quantity of boiling 
 water to make a thin paste; to this add of linseed 
 powder enough to give it a proper consistence." 
 The poultice may be kept on for a week or ten 
 days, or even longer, if necessary, changing it 
 once or twice a day, and cleaning the wound, when 
 the poultice is removed, by washing it by means 
 of a soft rag or linen cloth, with water not more 
 than blood warm (some sponges are too rough for 
 this purpose); or, where the wound is deep, the 
 water may be injected into it by a syringe, in 
 order to clean it from the bottom. 
 
 Ointment. 
 
 In the course of a few days, when the wound, 
 by care and proper management with the poul- 
 tices, begins to put on a healthy appearance, and 
 seems to be clean and of a reddish color, not 
 black or bloody, then there may be applied an 
 ointment made of tallow, linseed oil, beeswax, 
 and hogs' lard, in such proportions as to make it 
 of a consistence somewhat firmer than butter. 
 The ointment should be spread on some soft clean 
 tow, and when applied to the sore it ought never 
 to be tied hard upon it (which is done too fre- 
 quently and very improperly), but only fixed by 
 a bandage of a proper length and breadth (for a 
 mere cord is often improper), so close and se- 
 curely as to keep it from slipping off. This appli- 
 cation may be changed once a day, or, when nearly 
 well and discharging but little, once in two days. 
 
106 
 
 FARRIERY. 
 
 Green Ointment for Woundt. 
 
 Put into a well-glazed earthen vessel 2 ounces 
 of beeswax; melt it over a clear fire, and add 2 
 ounces of resin ; when that is melted, put in half 
 a pound of hogs' lard; to this put 4 ounces of 
 turpentine; keep stirring all the time with a clean 
 stick or wooden spatula. When all is well mixed, 
 stir in 1 ounce of finely powdered verdigris. Be 
 careful it does not boil over. Strain it through a 
 coarse cloth, and preserve it in a gallipot. This 
 ointment is very good for old and recent wounds, 
 whether in flesh or hoof; also galled backs, 
 crucked heels, mallenders, sallenders, bites, broken 
 knees, etc. 
 Treatment, according to Appearance of the Part. 
 
 When the wounded part begins to discharge a 
 Whitish, thick matter, and is observed to fill up, 
 the general treatment and dressings to the sore 
 now mentioned should be continued; and in the 
 course of the cure the animal, when free of fever, 
 may be allowed better provision, and may take 
 gentle exercise. If the animal be feeble from the 
 loss of blood originally, or from the long continu- 
 ance of a feverish state, produced by the inflam- 
 mation attending the wound, or from weakness 
 arising from confinement, or connected with its 
 constitution naturally, and if the wound appear to 
 be in a stationary state, very pale and flabby on 
 its edges, with a thin discharge, then better food 
 may be given to it; and if still no change should 
 be observed, along with the better food, the wound 
 may be treated somewhat differently from what 
 has been already advised. The ointment may be 
 made more stimulant, by adding to it some resin 
 and leys beeswax, or, what would be more stimu- 
 lant still, some common turpentine; for it is only 
 in very rare cases that oil of turpentine can be 
 requisite. The effects of an alteration in the mode 
 of treatment should be particularly remarked, and 
 stimulants should be laid aside, continued, or in- 
 creased, according as may be judged proper. Be- 
 fore changing the dressings applied to the wound, 
 or before rendering them more stimulant and 
 active by using heating applications, the effect of 
 closer bandaging may be tried; for sometimes, by 
 keeping the parts a little more firmly together, 
 the cure is promoted. 
 
 Food and Regimen. 
 
 In case of severe wounds attention should be 
 paid to the condition of the animal in other re- 
 spects. There being always when such happen a 
 tendency to violent inflammation and fever, that 
 may end fatally, means should be employed to 
 moderate both. The apartment should be cool and 
 airy, and so quiet that the animal should not be 
 disturbed; the drink should not be warm, but 
 rather cold, and given freely, though not in too 
 large quantities at a time; the food should be 
 sparingly given, and of a lighter quality than 
 usual, and should be rather succulent and laxa- 
 tive, than dry or apt to produce costiveness. 
 Bleeding may be employed, either generally from 
 a vein, or in some cases, when it can be done, by 
 cupping from the hurt part, as in the case of a 
 bruise (though this last will seldom be requisite 
 or found convenient). Laxative medicines also 
 ought to be given and repeated, as there may be 
 occasion. 
 
 Abscesses. 
 
 These are swellings containing matter, that 
 make their appearance in different parts of the 
 body. The remedies are, to wash the swollen part 
 with a quart of vinegar, in which are dissolved 
 two ounces of sal ammoniac and half an ounce of 
 sugar of lead. If the swelling does not abate in 
 two or three days, apply the suppurating poultice. 
 
 When the tumor becomes soft and points, open it 
 with a lancet, and let out the matter. Then dress 
 it with basilicon ointment. 
 
 Anbury or Wart. 
 
 Tie a strong silk, or two or three horse-hairs, 
 round the neck of the wart, tightening it gradually 
 till it falls away. Then dip a piece of tow in alum- 
 water and bind it on the spot for a whole day. 
 Heal the sore with the green ointment. 
 Balls for Horses. 
 
 These should always be made fresh fcr using, 
 lest they become too hard. They should be about 
 three-eighths of an inch in diameter, and from two 
 and a half to four inches long. 
 
 Inflamed Bladder. 
 
 Make the animal drink largely of flaxseed tea, 
 barley or rice water, or any mucilaginous liquid, 
 and inject a portion of the same frequently. 
 Bleeding is sometimes useful, and a dose of castor 
 oil is never to be omitted. After the oil has ope- 
 rated, give the following ball every sixth hour : 
 Powdered nitre, half an ounce ; camphor, 1 
 drachm : liquorice powder, 3 drachms ; honey 
 sufficient to form the ball. Should these means 
 not relieve the animal, omit the half, and give 1 
 drachm of opium twice a day. 
 Bog Spavin. 
 
 This is an enlargement of the hock-joint, with 
 fluid, common in young horses, from violent ex- 
 ercise. 
 
 Clip off the hair from the swelling, and rub all 
 round outside of the swelling with a piece of hard 
 brown soap, then apply to the swelling a blister 
 made of the following 
 
 Blistering Ointment. 
 
 Hogs' lard, half an ounce ; beeswax, 3 drachms ; 
 Spanish flies, 2 drachms. Mix them all well, and 
 spread it on white leather, and apply it to the 
 spavin. 
 
 Oil of cantharides, with four times its weight of 
 olive oil, may be used, instead of the ointment. 
 The blistered surface should be dressed with sim- 
 ple cerate. 
 
 Bone Spavin. 
 
 This maybe treated like the former; it is, how- 
 ever, generally incurable. The operation of firing 
 (which should be done by a professed farrier), 
 and turning to grass, afford the only reasonable 
 chances of relief. 
 
 The lameness in this disease of the hock is pe- 
 culiar ; the limb being drawn with great celerity. 
 Bota. 
 
 Several kinds of worms infest the bowels of 
 horses. The bot infests the stomach and intes- 
 tine; it is a small, reddish worm, with a large 
 head, and may be frequently observed in the dung. 
 
 The truncheon is short and thick, with a black- 
 ish head, and is found in the maw, where, if suf- 
 fered to remain, it sometimes pierces through, and 
 thus is many a fine horse destroyed. 
 
 The maw-worm is of a pale red color, resem- 
 bling an earth-worm, from two to three inches 
 long, occupying, also, the maw. 
 
 Symptoms of Worms in Horses. 
 
 Stamping forcibly on the ground with either of 
 his fore- feet, and frequently striking at his belly 
 with his hind ones. Belly projecting and hard 
 looking frequently behind him, and groaning as 
 if in great pain. 
 
 Remedies for Worms. 
 
 Keep the horse from all kinds of food for one 
 day ; at night give him a small quantity of warm 
 bran mash, made as usual, and directly after, a 
 
DISEASES OP HORSES. 
 
 107 
 
 ball made of 1 scruple of calomel, 1 scruple of 
 turpeth mineral, and as much crumb of bread and 
 honey as will form the mass. Next evening give 
 him a pir.t of castor, and half a pint of linseed 
 oil. The animal is then, to be fed as usual for two 
 or three days, and the same plan again to be em- 
 ployed. 
 
 In the fall, when the horses are first taken from 
 grass, bots may often be expelled by giving them 
 brine (four or five ounces of salt to one quart of 
 water) following a drench of sweetened milk. Oil 
 of turpentine is also a powerful vermifuge; four 
 ounces may be given in a pint of gruel, fasting 
 previously. An almost certain cure for bots is the 
 nux vomica, called vulgarly dog-buttons. Rasp 
 the whole of one of the nuts, and pour upon it a 
 pint of boiling water. Let it cool to blood-heat, 
 and then drench the horse with it; having, about 
 half an hour before, bled him in the mouth, so 
 that he would swallow the blood, which draws the 
 worms into the stomach from the mucous mem- 
 brane, into which they fasten themselves. 
 
 Inflammation of the Bowels. 
 
 This not very common, but when it does occur 
 dangerous, disorder i.s of two kinds. The first or 
 peritoneal inflammation begins with an appear- 
 ance of dullness and uneasiness in the animal; 
 appetite diminished or totally gone; constant 
 pawing with the fore feet; he lies down, rises 
 suddenly, looks round to his flanks countenance 
 strongly expressive of pain ; urine small, high 
 colored, and voided with great pain ; pulse quick 
 and small; legs and ears cold; profuse sweats; 
 mortification and death. 
 
 The second species of the disorder is when the 
 inflammation attacks the internal coat of the in- 
 testines, and is generally accompanied by a vio- 
 lent purging and some fever the symptoms of 
 the latter, however, are much less violent, nor 
 does the animal appear to be in so much pain. 
 Treatment. 
 
 In the first or peritoneal inflammation, the only 
 dependence is on .early and lartre bleeding. In 
 addition to this rub the whole belly well with the 
 mustard embrocation, clothe the animal warmly 
 (with fresh sheep-skins if possible), insert several 
 rowels about the chest and belly, putting into them 
 the blistering ointment. As the horse is generally 
 costive give him a pint of castor oil, and inject 
 clysters of warm flnxseed tea, give him warm 
 water or thin gruel or flaxseed tea to drink, rub 
 his legs with the hands well, and see that he has 
 plenty of clean fresh litter. If in six hours the 
 disease is not relieved, bleed him again, and should 
 the costiveness continue, repeat the oil and clys- 
 ters. If, after giving all these remedies a faithful 
 and continued trial, the pain should continue, re- 
 course may be had to the anodyne clyster. 
 
 In the second species of this disorder, bleeding 
 need not be resorted to unless the febrile symp- 
 toms run high. Clothe the horse warmly, use the 
 mustard embrocation freely, and omit the oil. 
 Give him frequently, by means of a bottle (if he 
 will not drink it), quantities of very thin gruel or 
 flaxseed tea. If, in spite of this, the disease con- 
 tinue, use the anodyne clyster ; if that fail, the 
 astringent draught. The pain occasioned by 
 physicking, is to be relieved by large clysters of 
 thin gruel or flaxseed, which produce copious 
 evacuations, and relief. 
 
 Broken Wind. 
 
 This is an incurable disease; all that can be 
 done is to relieve the animal for a time so as to 
 enable him to perform a day's work. To do this 
 make the following ; 
 
 Paste-Ball for Broken- Winded Horses. 
 
 Assafoetida, 2 ounces; powdered squills, 2 
 drachms; linseed powder, 1 ounce ; honey, as much 
 as will make the mass. Divide it into fnur balls, 
 and give one, morning and evening. Much bene- 
 fit may result from bleeding in this disorder at an 
 early period of the complaint. His food should 
 be carrots or turnips. The hay, oats, or whatever 
 is given, should be in small quantities at a time, 
 and always sprinkled with clean, soft water. 
 Broken Knees. 
 
 Apply a poultice of bread and milk or bread 
 and warm water to reduce the inflammation, then 
 dress the wound with basilicon. 
 Burns or Scalds. 
 
 If slight, apply cold lead water: if extensive, 
 a liniment made of equal parts of linseed oil and 
 lime water. If there is much fever, bleed. 
 Canker. 
 
 Cut away freely all the diseased parts, and if 
 necessary draw the frogs, then apply the 
 Liniment for Canker. 
 
 Warm 6 ounces of tar, mix with it drop by drop 
 1 oz. by measure of oil of vitriol, then add 1 oz. 
 of oil of turpentine. Bind this firmly on the part, 
 destroying all the diseased protuberances with lu- 
 nar caustic. When the wound looks healthy, dress 
 it with the green ointment. 
 
 Chapped Hocks. 
 
 If the swelling proceed from a bruise or a blow, 
 bathe it three or four times a day with salt and 
 vinegar made warm. If it threaten abscess, apply 
 the suppurating poultice, and when matter is 
 formed let it out, then use the green ointment. 
 Cold. 
 
 Take a quart of blood from the neck, then give 
 warm mashes with a scruple of nitre in them. 
 Purge with castor and linseed oil, and keep the 
 stable warm. 
 
 Convulsions. 
 
 Symptoms. The horse raises his head higher 
 than usual and pricks up or thrusts back his ears 
 neck stiff and immovable, skin tight. He stands 
 in a straddling posture, pants and breathes with 
 difficulty. 
 
 Cure. Bleed him if his strength will permit it, 
 and his pulse is high, eye red, etc., otherwise not, 
 If you observe bots or any other kind of wormSj 
 pursue the treatment recommended for them. 
 Acute Cough. 
 
 Take a quart of blood from the neck, and give 
 t^ie following 
 
 Ball for Cough. 
 
 Half an ounce of Venice soap, half an ounce of 
 nitre, ten grains of tartar emetic, and ten grains 
 of opium. Make these into a ball with honey, and 
 give one every other night. Keep the horse warm 
 and remedy costiveness by castor oil. 
 Corns. 
 
 Let the farrier cut them out with a sharp knife. 
 Should they show a disposition to grow again, 
 touch them with oil of vitriol or caustic and dress 
 them with green ointment. Be careful in shoeing 
 not to let the shoe press on the corn. 
 
 Curb. 
 
 This is a swelling, from sprain, in the back and 
 lower part of the hock. Cauterize the curb in a 
 line down its middle or apply the blistering oint- 
 ment; or iodine ointment. 
 
 Cracked Heels. 
 Poultice the parts with carrots or turnips boiled 
 
108 
 
 FARRIERY. 
 
 eoft, three or four times, then anoint them with 
 yellow basilicon mixed with a little green oint- 
 ment. 
 
 The Gripes. 
 
 As soon as the disease is observed, give the 
 draught below, and a clyster composed of 8 oz. 
 common salt in six quarts of water gruel or warm 
 water. If there is great pain with quick pulse, 
 take away three quarts of blood. The belly should 
 be well rubbed with the mustard or other stimu- 
 lating embrocation. If no relief is obtained in 
 two hours repeat the draught and embrocation, 
 and should even this fail give him a pint of castor 
 oil with one and a half ounces of laudjinum. If 
 castor oil cannot be had a pint and a quarter of 
 linseed oil may be used. 
 
 Draught for Gripes. 
 
 Balsam copaiva 1 ounce, oil of juniper 1 drachm, 
 spirit of nitrous ether half an ounce, mint wafer 
 
 1 pint. Mix for one dose. 
 
 Another. Allspice, bruised, pound; brandy, 
 
 2 quarts. Dose, 2 to 4 ounces, in water, ale, or 
 mint tea. 
 
 Diabetes. 
 
 This disorder, which consists in an involuntary 
 discharge of the urine, which is pale and thin, fre- 
 quently proves fatal. To treat it, give the follow- 
 ing 
 
 Ball for Diabetes. 
 
 Peruvian bark 4 drachms, ginger 1 drachm, if 
 costive after it, give a pint of castor oil. Repeat 
 if necessary. 
 
 Eyes. 
 
 Inflammation of the eye is often cured by scari- 
 fying with a lancet the inside of the upper and 
 lower brow, and the distended vessels of the eye 
 itself. It is to be remembered that in treating an 
 inflammation of this important organ, we should 
 proceed precisely as if treating a human being 
 laboring under the same complaint and keep the 
 animal on short allowance, prevent costiveness, 
 keep the stable cool and dark. 
 
 Soreness or weakness of the eye is cured by 
 bleeding from the neck and using the following 
 
 Eye-water. 
 
 To 1 quart of water put 3 drachms of the 
 sugar of lead or two drachms of white vitriol. 
 When dissolved let it settle and pour off the clear 
 liquor for use. A drop may be put into each eye 
 three times a day with a feather. 
 
 Film or Cataract. 
 
 There is no remedy for this but an operation by 
 a surgeon. There is a variety of washes, etc., 
 recommended by various authors, but they are 
 
 Farcy. 
 
 This disease commences in small hard knots, 
 which soon become soft and ulcerous, generally 
 eituated on the lymphatic vessels and extending 
 upwards. It not unfrequently ends in the glan- 
 ders. 
 
 Cure for Farcy. 
 
 Open the ulcers and touch the inside of the 
 edges slightly with powdered verdigris, by 
 means of a camel's hair pencil. At the same time 
 give the following ball : White arsenic 8 grains, 
 or corrosive sublimate 6 grains, powdered and 
 mixed with flour or bread or any other vehicle 
 that will form a ball with molasses. Keep the 
 animal warm, mix chopped carrots with his 
 mashes. Intermit one day and give a similar ball 
 if it purge add 10 grains of opium to it. Attend 
 constantly to the ulcers; wash them with warm 
 
 soap-suds, and keep the animal by himself if the 
 disease gains the nostrils and head, and becomes 
 glanders there is no remedy. 
 
 Grease. 
 
 This is a white offensive discharge from the 
 skin of the heels. Wash the part well with warm 
 soap-suds twice a day, and if the swelling be great 
 apply a poultice to it, when the sores are cleansed 
 touch them with a rag or feather dipped in a solu- 
 tion of chloride of zinc, 1 grain to the ounce of 
 water. 
 
 Foundered Feet. 
 
 This is known by the contraction of the hoof, 
 which will appear considerably smaller than the 
 sound one. The horse just touches the ground 
 with the toe of the foundered foot on account of 
 pain, and stands in such a tottering way that you 
 may shove him over with your hand. 
 
 Cure. Take off the shoe, bleed freely from the 
 thigh vein, and purge two or three times. Keep 
 the hair close trimmed and the parts clean. 
 
 Hoof-bound. 
 
 Cut down several lines from the coronet to 
 the toe all round the hoof and fill the cuts with 
 tallow and soap mixed. Take off the shoes and 
 (if you can spare him) turn the animal into a wet 
 meadow, where his feet will be kept moist. Never 
 remove the sole nor burn the lines down, as this 
 increases the evil. 
 
 Lampas* 
 
 This consists in a swelling of the first bar of the 
 upper palate. It is cured by rubbing the swelling 
 two or three times a day with half an ounce of 
 alum and the same quantity of double refined sugar 
 mixed with a little honey. In young horses it 
 hardly amounts to a disease. 
 
 Laxity. 
 
 Never attempt to stop the discharge too suddenly 
 or too scon; this common but erroneous practice 
 has killed many fine horses. To begin the cure 
 give him the following 
 
 Mild Purging Ball. 
 
 Rhubarb in powder 1 ounce; magnesia half an 
 ounce ; calomel 1 scruple ; oil of aniseed 1 drachm. 
 Mix up a ball with honey and liquorice powder. 
 Next day give the horse 1 fluidounce of laud- 
 anum in a pint of water. On the third day repeat 
 the drench until the animal is well. 
 
 Inflammation of the .Lungs. 
 Bleed the animal copiously as soon as the com- 
 plaint is perceived, and repeat it in six hours if 
 the fever, quickness of breathing, etc., do not 
 abate. Blister his sides, rowel the chest, and give 
 the following ball, which is to be taken morning 
 and evening until the staling is considerably in- 
 creased ; one a day will then be sufficient. Grass 
 or bran mashes should be the food. 
 
 The Ball. 
 
 Powdered nitre 6 drachms ; camphor 1 drachm ; 
 as much syrup and linseed oil as will form the 
 ball ; or, a drachm of tartar emetic, 3 drachms of 
 nitre and 1 drachm of digitalis. 
 
 Mallenders. 
 
 This is a scabby eruption in the bend of the 
 knee-joint, causing lameness. Wash the cracks 
 well with warm soap-suds and a sponge, and then 
 with the vulnerary water twice every day; wipe 
 the parts dry and apply the citrine ointment, or 
 white lead cerate. 
 
 Mange. 
 This is a kind of itch. Wash with soap-suda 
 
DISEASES OF HORSES. 
 
 109 
 
 and purge with castor oil, and then apply strong 
 sulphur ointment freely and repeatedly. Feed the 
 horse well, and work him moderately. 
 
 Molten Grease, or Dysentery. 
 Bleed and purge moderately, feed regularly on 
 a diminished allowance, and use back-raking and 
 large injections. 
 
 PolleviL 
 
 This is a swelling of the back of the head from 
 a bruise. Bring the swelling to a head, as any 
 other tumor, by the suppurating poultice, which 
 is made as follows : 
 
 Suppurating Poultice. 
 
 Take four handsful of bran and three middling 
 sized turnips, boil them till soft, beat them well 
 together; then boil them again in milk to a thick 
 poultice, adding to it 2 ounces of linseed and half 
 a pound of hog's lard. 
 
 Quittor. 
 
 Quittor is a severe bruise of the coronet by the 
 other foot, followed after by suppuration. Make 
 an opening for the matter to descend from all the 
 neighboring sinuses. Keep the parts well cleaned 
 with warm soap-suds, then inject alum water into 
 the sinuses. If there be a core, touch it with 
 caustic ; when this is discharged dress with the 
 green ointment. 
 
 Ring Bone. 
 
 If recent, blister the part ; if an old affection, 
 recourse must be had to firing. 
 
 Sand-Crack. 
 
 Remove the shoe and ascertain carefully the 
 extent of the injury ; if the crack be superficial, 
 fill it with the composition below, and keep the 
 foot cool and moist. If the crack has extended 
 to the sensible parts, and you can see any fungous 
 flesh, with a small drawing knife remove the 
 edges of the cracked horn that press upon it. 
 Touch the fungus with caustic, dip a roll of tow 
 or linen in tar and bind it firmly over it. The 
 whole foot is to be kept in a bran poultice for a 
 few days, or until the lameness is removed. A 
 shoe may then be put on, so as not to press on the 
 diseased part. The pledget of tow may now be 
 removed, the crack filled with the composition, 
 and the animal turned into some soft meadow. 
 Composition for Sand-Crack. 
 
 Beeswax 4 ounces; yellow rosin 2 ounces; com- 
 mon turpentine 1 ounce; tallow or suet i ounce. 
 To be melted together. 
 
 Sit-fast* 
 
 Are horny substances on the back, under the 
 saddle. Take hold of them with a pair of pincers 
 and cut them out radically; leave no part behind, 
 or they will grow again. Dress the wound with 
 the green ointment. 
 
 Sallendera 
 
 Require the same treatment as mallenders, which 
 ee. They differ only in being at the bend of the 
 hock-joint. 
 
 Staggers. 
 
 Three disorders often receive this name : mad 
 9taggers, or inflammation of the brain; megrims, 
 or epilepsy, and stomach staggers, or palsy of the 
 stomach. In the first the animal is very violent; 
 young horses are most frequently affected. Bleed- 
 ing is the usual treatment. Megrims is attended 
 by the signs of vertigo and confusion, lasting for 
 a few minutes at a time. Moderate feeding and 
 gentle purgation are recommended for it. Stomach 
 ttaggers generally proceeds from distension of the 
 stomach with indigestible food, especially when 
 
 the horse is otherwise in a bad condition. The 
 great object of treatment must be to empty the 
 alimentary canal by the use of cordial purga- 
 tives and clysters, as of salt and water, used re- 
 peatedly. 
 
 Drench for Staggers. 
 
 Barbadoes aloes 6 drachms ; calomel 2 drachms ; 
 oil of peppermint 20 drops; warm water 1 pint; 
 tincture of cardamons 2 ounces. Mix for one 
 dose. 
 
 Another. 
 
 Common salt 4 ounces; ginger 2 drachms car- 
 bonate of soda 1 ounce ; water 1 quart. 
 
 Strains. 
 
 In whatever part of the body this accident oc- 
 curs, the treatment should be perfect rest, mode- 
 rate bleeding and purging till the inflammation is 
 reduced, when any stimulating embrocation may 
 be used. 
 
 Strangury. 
 
 Take away a quart of blood and throw up a 
 laxative clyster : then give one ounce of saltpetre 
 and one fluidounce of sweet spirits of nitre in a 
 pint of water. 
 
 Strangles. 
 
 This is known by a swelling between the jaw- 
 bone and the root of the tongue. If a large ru- 
 mor appear under the jaw, apply the suppurating 
 poultice. When it is ripe open it, squeeze out the 
 matter and apply a warm poultice. In a few days 
 it will run off. Give warm bran mashes and gen- 
 tle exercise. 
 
 Thrush. 
 
 Remove the shoe and pare off all the ragged 
 parts so as to expose the diseased parts ; after 
 cleaning the frog nicely apply a solution of blue 
 vitriol, and shortly after pour some melted tar 
 ointment into the cleft of the frog, and cover ita 
 whole surface with tow soaked in the same, and 
 on the tow a flat piece of wood about the width of 
 the frog, one of its ends passing under the toe of 
 the shoe, the other extending to the back part of 
 the frog and bound down by cross pieces of wood, 
 the ends of which are placed under the shoe. Re- 
 peat the dressing every day. 
 
 Vives. 
 
 This is- a disease most common to young horses, 
 and consists in a long swelling of the parotid 
 gland, beginning at the root of the ears and de- 
 scending downwards. If it is painful and in- 
 flamed, apply the poultice; if it suppurates, open 
 the lump, let out the matter and dress with the 
 green ointment. If it is hard and indolent apply 
 strong mercurial ointment to disperse it and bleed 
 moderately. 
 
 Wind Galls. 
 
 These swellings appear on each side of the back 
 sinew, above the fetlock. It is dangerous to 
 puncture them as is sometimes done, as it may 
 produce an incurable lameness. Tight bandages 
 and moistening the parts frequently with a strong 
 solution of sal ammoniac in vinegar may do some 
 good. 
 
 Wounds. 
 
 All the rules laid down in this book for the 
 treatment of wounds in the human subject, apply 
 strictly to horses. As in simple cuts, however, 
 sticking plaster cannot be used, the edges of the 
 wound should be neatly stitched together. Much 
 can be done als-o by the judicious application of 
 bandages. Farriers, generally, are in the habit of 
 pursuing such absurd, cruel, and fatal practices 
 in these cases, either by cutting off a part that 
 appears to be partly torn from its connection, or 
 
110 
 
 FAKKIERY. 
 
 by using stimulating applications, that it becomes 
 necessary to repeat again that all the rules laid 
 down for the treatment of wounds in this work 
 as applicable to man are equally so to the noble 
 animal of which we are speaking. Read over 
 these rules. Substitute the word "horse" for 
 "patient" and you will be at no loss how to pro- 
 ceed. 
 
 Bleeding in General. 
 
 Bleeding is often the most useful and efficacious 
 means of curing diseases in horses, etc. In in- 
 flammatory affections it is generally the first 
 remedy resorted to, and its immediate salutary 
 effects are often surprising. But it is often abused 
 by being practised where it is not required, or 
 where the animal is too weak to bear it, or by 
 being done too largely or too often in the same 
 case. It is a great error to suppose that all dis- 
 eases or cases of diseases require bleeding. 
 
 When it is necessary to lessen the whole quan- 
 tity of blood in the system, open the jugular or 
 neck vein. If the inflammation is local, bleed 
 where it can be conveniently done, either from the 
 part affected, or in its vicinity, as by opening the 
 plate vein, superficial vein of the thigh, or tempo- 
 ral arteries. 
 
 In fevers of all kinds in the horse, and when 
 inflammation attacks any important organ, as the 
 brain, eyes, lungs, stomach, intestines, liver, kid- 
 neys, bladder, etc., bleeding is of the greatest use. 
 It diminishes the quantity of blood in the body ; 
 and by this means prevents the bad consequences 
 of inflammation. The quantity of blood to be 
 taken varies according to the age, size, condition, 
 and constitution of the horse, and urgency of the 
 symptoms. 
 
 From a large strong horse, four or six quarts 
 will generally be requisite, and this may be re- 
 peated in smaller quantities if symptoms demand 
 it. The blood, in these diseases, must flow from 
 a large orifice made in the vein. A horse should 
 never be suffered to bleed upon the ground, but 
 into a measure in order that the proper quantity 
 may be taken. Young horses, also, while shed- 
 ding their teeth, have sometimes much constitu- 
 tional irritation, which bleeding relieves. But in 
 these affections it is very rarely necessary to bleed 
 to the same extent as in fevers, etc. ; two or three 
 quarts generally suffice to be taken away. 
 Fullness of Blood. 
 
 Moderate bleeding, as from two to three or four 
 quarts, is also used to remove fullness of habit, or 
 plethora, attended with slight inflammatory symp- 
 toms. In this case the eyes appear heavy, dull, 
 red or inflamed, frequently closed as if asleep; the 
 pulse small and oppressed; the heat of the body 
 somewhat increased; the legs swell; the hair also 
 rubs off. Horses that are removed from grass to 
 a warm stable, and full fed on hay and corn, and 
 not sufficiently exercised, are very subject to one 
 or more of these symptoms. Regulating the quan- 
 tity of food given to him, proper exercise, and oc- 
 casional laxatives, as the following powder, will 
 be commonly found sufficient after the first 
 bleeding, and operation of an aloetic purge. In 
 slight affections of this kind, a brisk purge will 
 often alone be sufficient. 
 
 Laxative and Diaphoretic Powder. 
 
 Take of nitre, cream of tartar, and flower of 
 sulphur, of each, 4 ounces. 
 
 Powder and mix them well together for use. 
 
 One tablespoonful of this mixture may be given 
 every night and morning, in as much scalded 
 bran, or a feed of corn moistened with water, that 
 the powders may adhere thereto. 
 
 This powder will be found excellent for such 
 
 horses as are kept on dry food, whether they b 
 in the stable, or travel on the road; also for stal- 
 lions in the spring of the year, as they not only 
 keep the body cool and open, but cause him to 
 cast his coat, and make his skin appear as bright 
 as silk. 
 
 Purging. 
 
 In obstinate grease and swellings of the legs, 
 accompanied with lameness of the joints, dry 
 coughs, worms, diseases of the skin, farcy, apo- 
 plexy or staggers, affections of the liver, and sev- 
 eral other diseases treated of in this book, mercu- 
 rial purges are of the greatest service. They, 
 purge ; destroy worms ; generally increase the flovr 
 of urine; operate upon the skin, liver, and other 
 viscera in a peculiar manner; cause a healthful 
 action in these parts; and remove many chronic 
 complaints incident to the horse. Great caution 
 is necessary during their operation, lest the horse 
 take cold. The water given him must be warm, 
 and when exercised he should be properly clothed. 
 
 Horses that are kept on dry food, and are full 
 fed, with little or no exercise, require regular 
 purging every six months. 
 
 To prepare Horses for Physic. 
 
 Previously to administering a purge, the body 
 should be prepared. 
 
 The proper method of preparing a horse for 
 physic is to give him two or three mashes of the 
 sc;>lded bran and oats and warm water, for three 
 or four days together. This will soften the faeces, 
 and promote the operation of the medicine. But 
 if a strong purge be given to a horse of costive 
 habit, without preparation, it will probably occa- 
 sion a violent inflammation. 
 
 Often the bran mashes will move the bowels 
 sufficiently, without other physic. The mash is 
 made by pouring boiling water on fresh sweet bran 
 in a pail, so that the mixture, when stirred, may 
 be of about the consistence of a soft poultice. 
 Purgative Balls for Horses. 
 
 Take of Barbadoes aloes, 7J ounces; Castile 
 soap, 1 ounces; powder ginger, 1 ounces; oil 
 of aniseed, 5 drachms; syrup, a sufficient quan- 
 tity to make 6 bulls, each of which is a dose. 
 Drink to check Over-purging. 
 
 Take of prepared chalk, ginger, and aniseeds, 
 in powder, each 1 ounce ; essential oil of pepper- 
 mint, 15 drops ; rectified spirit of wine, an ounce. 
 
 Mix the whole in a pint and a half of warm lin- 
 seed gruel, and give it. 
 
 Another. 
 
 Take of prepared chalk, 2 ounces; aniseeds, 
 and caraway seeds, in powder, each, l t ounce; 
 opium, i a drachm. Mix, and give it in a. pint of 
 linseed gruel. 
 
 Astringent Drink after Looseness. 
 
 If the looseness continue, after the above drink 
 has been administered for two or three days, the 
 following astringent drink may be given : 
 
 Take of pomegranate shell, in powder, and pre- 
 pared testaceous powder, each, 1 ounce ; Dover's 
 powders, and ginger powdered, each 2 drachms. 
 Mix, and give in a pint of warm gruel, and repeat 
 twice a day. 
 
 Cough. Drink. 
 
 Take of Barbadoes tar and gum ammoniac, 
 each, 1 ounce. Incorporate them with the yolk 
 of an egg, then add, nitre 1 ounce; ginger half 
 an ounce; tincture of opium 1 ounce. Mix them 
 together. 
 
 Let this drink be gradually mixed in a pint of 
 warm ale or linseed tea, and give it in the morn- 
 ing fasting; let the horse stand without food for 
 two hours after, then give him a mash of scalded 
 
DISEASES OF HORSES. 
 
 Ill 
 
 bran and oats and warm water. Repeat every 
 other morning, for three or four times. 
 Fever Ball for Horses. 
 
 Take of antimonial powder, tartarized anti- 
 mony, and camphor, each 1 drachm; nitre and 
 Castile soap, each 2 drachms ; Barbadoes aloes, 2 
 drachms. Mix, and beat them into a ball^ with 
 syrup of buckthorn. 
 
 Let this ball be given to the horse about two 
 hours after bleeding; and in six hours after giv- 
 ing him the ball, let him have the following 
 Purgative Drink. 
 
 Take of Epsom salts, 4 ounces; nitre, an 
 ounce ; coarse sugar, two tablespoonsful. Dis- 
 solve them in a quart of gruel; then add 10 
 ounces of castor oil. Mix, and give it while new- 
 milk warm. 
 
 After the first ball is given the aloes may be 
 
 left out, and then the ball and drink may be given 
 
 once a day (one in the morning and the other in 
 
 the evening), until a proper passage be obtained. 
 
 Powerful Mixture for Fevers. 
 
 If the fever still continue to increase it will be 
 proper to take a little more blood from him, and 
 then to have recourse to the following fever 
 powder : 
 
 Take of tartar emetic, 1 ounce ; calcined harts- 
 horn, 1 ounce. Mix, and grind them in a mortar 
 to a fine powder; then put them in a bottle for 
 use ; two drachms of these powders are a proper 
 dose for a horse. 
 
 A dose of this powder, with one ounce of nitre, 
 may be given twice or three times a day in a pint 
 of warm gruel, or be made into a ball with con- 
 serve of roses. If the fever be violent, and the 
 horse in a raging state, an ounce of tincture of 
 opium may be added to each dose of powders. 
 Drink for an Inflammatory Fever. 
 
 Take of tartar emetic, 1 drachm; camphor, 1 
 drachm, rubbed into powder, with a few drops of 
 spirit of wine. 
 
 This drink is excellent for all kinds of inflam- 
 matory fevers; especially such as are attended 
 with imminent danger. It may be given every 
 four hours, or three times a day, in a pint of 
 water-gruel. 
 
 Purging Sail for Jaundice. 
 
 Take of Barbadoes aloes, from 4 to 5 drachms ; 
 white antimonial powder and Castile soap, each 
 2 drachms ; calomel, 1 drachm. Mix, and beat 
 them into a ball with a sufficient quantity of syrup 
 of buckthorn. 
 
 The horse should have a couple of mashes the 
 day before this ball is given, by way of prepara- 
 tion, and the ball should be given fasting the 
 morning following; let him fast for two hours 
 after, then give him a mash of scalded bran and 
 oats with warm water, and treat him in the same 
 manner as for other physic. 
 
 Restorative Balls after Jaundice. 
 
 Take of gentian and caraway seeds, in powder,, 
 of ench 8 ounces; powdered ginger, 6 drachms; 
 Castile soap, H ounces; and honey sufficient to 
 form into 6 balls. 
 
 One of these balls should be given every other 
 day for some time. 
 
 Pectoral Balls for Broken Wind. 
 
 Take of Barbadoes tar, Venice turpentine, and 
 Castile soap, each 2 ounces; squills, in powder, 1 
 ounce. Beat them well together ; then add nitre, 
 2 ounces ; aniseeds and caraway seeds, fresh pow- 
 dered, each 1 ounce. Beat them into a mass with 
 honey and liquorice powder, and divide into ten 
 balls. 
 
 Alterative Balls for Surfeit, Mange, etc. 
 
 Take of precipitated sulphur of antimony, gen- 
 tian root, and socotrine aloes, each 1 ounce in fine 
 powder; nitre, 2 ounces; calomel, in powder, 2 
 drachms. Mix, and make them into a mass for 
 balls with honey or treacle. Each ball to weigh 
 1 ounce and a half. 
 
 These balls will be found sometimes useful in 
 many diseases ; such as surfeit, hidebound, mange, 
 grease or swelled legs, lameness of the joints, 
 molten-grease, inflammation of the eyes; and, 
 indeed, in all lingering and obstinate diseases. 
 One ball may be given every other morning for a 
 week together. 
 
 Astringent Ball for Profuse Staling. 
 
 Take of galls, in fine powder, 2 drachms; Pe- 
 ruvian bark, $ ounce. Make into a ball with 
 honey or treacle. 
 
 It will be proper to repeat*this ball every morn- 
 ing, and,.if the disease is obstinate, every night 
 and morning, and continue until the urine is di- 
 minished to about its natural quantity. 
 
 Restorative B nils for Profuse Staling. 
 Take of gentian root, in powder, ^ an ounce j 
 ginger, powdered, 2 drachms; alum, 1 drachm j 
 treacle, sufficient to make into a ball. 
 
 Mercurial Ball for Worms, 
 Take of calomel and Castile soap, each 1 
 drachm ; wormseed, in powder, an ounce. Be A 
 them into a ball with syrup of buckthorn. 
 
 This ball should be given at night, and the fol- 
 lowing drink, or purging ball, the next morning: 
 
 Drink for Womw. 
 
 Take of Barbadoes aloes, from 3 to 6 drachms 
 (according to their size and strength); wormseed 
 and gentian, in powder, each an ounce; caraway 
 seeds, in powder, 1 ounce. Mix, and give in a 
 pint of strong decoction of wormwood, and repeat 
 in about' four or five days; but omit giving the 
 mercurial ball after the first time. 
 
 Purging Ball for the Worms 
 Take of Barbadoes aloes, 8 drachms; ginger, 
 Castile soap, and oil of savin, each 2 drachms; 
 syrup of buckthorn, sufficient to make them into 
 a ball. 
 
 This purge is calculated for a strong horse; but 
 it may be made weaker by lessening the quantity 
 of aloes to 6 or 7 drachms, which are, in general, 
 sufficient after a mercurial ball. The horse should 
 have mashes, warm water, and proper exercise. 
 
 Stomach Drink after the Expulsion of the Worms. 
 
 Take of aromatic spirit of ammonia and sweet 
 spirit of nitre, each 1 ounce; gentian root, in 
 powder, li ounces ; Peruvian bark and hiera picra, 
 in powder, each an ounce; horse-spice, 2 ounces. 
 Mix the whole in three pints of ale, and divide 
 into three parts, and give one every morning 
 fasting. 
 
 Two hours after give him a mash and warm 
 water. The virtues of this drink deserve the 
 highest commendation in restoring those horses 
 which have been much reduced by some long- 
 continued disease ; as in lowness of spirits, debility 
 and relaxation of the solids, a loss of appetite, and 
 for such also as are over-ridden, either in the field 
 or on the road. 
 
 Clyster for Convulsions. 
 
 Take of linseed and valerian root, each 4 
 ounces ; boil them in 3 quarts of water to 4 pints ; 
 add Epsom salts, 4 ounces; assafoetida, ounce; 
 opium, 2 drachms. Dissolve the whole in the 
 above while hot, and apply it new milk-warm. 
 
112 
 
 FAKKIEEY. 
 
 This is a most powerful clyster in all disorders 
 of the intestines, that are attended with pain and 
 convulsions or spasms in those parts, such as a 
 violent attack of the colio, proceeding from an 
 obstruction in the urinary passage. 
 
 To cure Gripes in Horses, 
 
 This disorder goes by different names in differ- 
 ent districts of the country ; as fret, from the un- 
 easiness attending it; bots, from its being thought 
 to arise from these animals or worms, etc. The 
 animal looks dull and rejects his food; becomes 
 restless and uneasy, frequently pawing ; voids his 
 excrements in small quantities, and often tries to 
 stale; looks round, as if towards his own flank or 
 the seat of complaint; soon appears to get worse, 
 often lying down, and sometimes suddenly rising 
 up, or at times trying to roll, even in the stable, 
 etc. As the disorder goes on the pain becomes 
 more violent, he appears more restless still, kicks 
 at his belly, groans, rolls often, or tumbles about, 
 with other marks of great agitation ; becomes fe- 
 A r erish, and has a cold moisture at the roots of his 
 ears and about his flanks, and when he lies at rest 
 a little space begins to perspire strongly, and to 
 get covered with sweat more or less profuse. 
 
 In most cases of ordinary gripes signs of flatu- 
 lence, or of the presence of air confined in the 
 bowels, occur and constitute a part of the disease, 
 or increase it. The removal of it is, therefore, an 
 object to which the attention of most grooms has 
 been in a chief degree directed; and as it can fre- 
 quently be got rid of, and the disease cured, by 
 exciting the powerful action of the intestines, cor- 
 dial and stimulating medicines are had recourse 
 to, and, no doubt, in many have afforded relief. 
 Some farriers, indeed, without much care in dis- 
 tinguishing cases, almost exclusively rely upon 
 such, and employ them too freely. This, however, 
 should not be done; for it sometimes happens tha.t 
 disorders not unlike flatulent colic or gripes do 
 occur, when there is neither pent-up air present 
 nor any relaxation or want of energy and action 
 in the intestines themselves, and stimulating Mied- 
 icines might then do no good, but often much n.>s- 
 ehief. 
 
 When the disorder is early discovered, or has 
 newly come on, it will be proper to lose no time 
 to get ready a clyster, and likewise a medicinal 
 draught for removing the wind and abating the 
 pain. After removing with the hand any excre- 
 ment in the great gut that can be reached by it, a 
 clyster, -made of five or six quarts of water, or 
 water-gruel, blood warm, and six or eight ounces 
 of common salt, may be injected; and one or other 
 of the following draughts may be given, before or 
 about the same time. 
 
 Draught for the Same. 
 
 Take of table-beer, a little warmed, 1$ pints 
 (English); common pepper or powdered ginger, 
 1 teaspoonful; gin, whiskey, or rum, from 2 to 4 
 ounces, or from 1 to 2 glassesful. These mixed 
 together for one dose. 
 
 Another. Oil of turpentine, 1 ounce, and 
 water-gruel, li pints (English). Mixed for a 
 dose. 
 
 Another. Take of opium, 1 ounce; cloves, 
 bruised, 2 ounces; ginger, 3 ounces; brandy, rum, 
 or gin, 1 quart. Digest these in a corked bottle, 
 shaking it every day, for 3 weeks; then strain 
 through blotting paper. Dose, 2 ounces. 
 
 These and the like preparations may be given 
 either out of a bottle or drench-horn, one or two 
 persons raising and keeping properly up the 
 horse's head; while another, who administers the 
 medicine, pulls out and a little aside the tongue, 
 
 with his left hand, and with the other pours in 
 the draught. 
 
 Further Treatment. 
 
 Cordial drenches of the kinds recommended, 
 with the clyster, will have the effect in ordinary 
 cases to relieve the disorder; but should this not 
 be the case, after waiting an hour or two (longer 
 or shorter, according to the severity of the ailment 
 or the period since its commencement), then the 
 medicine should be repeated, but in a less dose 
 than at first perhaps one-half or two-thirds of 
 the former quantity. The horse should be occa- 
 sionally walked out, properly covered with clothes, 
 lest the chill air bring on shivering and give rise 
 to feverishness; and his belly should be now and 
 then rubbed a considerable time at once five or 
 ten minutes but with intervals of rest, so that he 
 may have time to stale or dung. If the disorder 
 does not yield to these remedies, then others must 
 be employed of a more active nature. Some per- 
 sons recommend castor oil, in the proportion of 
 half a pint to a pint, with an ounce or two of 
 laudanum, or tincture of opium, mixed with water- 
 gruel, in the quantity of a pint or rather less. 
 In case the horse has lain down, and continued 
 so for some time, and is covered with sweat 
 when he rises, two or more persons should bo 
 employed to rub him dry, and he should also be 
 kept well clothed. The stable should be airy, 
 moderately cool, and his place in it roomy and 
 well littered, to keep him from hurting himself 
 should he roll about. 
 
 White's Ball for Gripes.. 
 
 Draughts of liquid medicine operate more speed- 
 ily than any other form ; but as the disorder may 
 attack ahorse during a journey, where such cannot 
 readily be procured, Mr. White has given a receipt 
 for a ball for the convenience of those who travel; 
 and if it be wrapped up closely in a piece of blad- 
 der it may be kept a considerable time without 
 losing its power. The ball is composed of the fol- 
 lowing ingredients, viz., Castile soap, 3 drachms; 
 camphor 2 drachms; ginger, 1 drachm and a half; 
 and Venice turpentine, 6 drachms. To be made 
 into a ball for one dose. 
 
 Laudanum Draught. 
 
 Laudanum may be used in cases of urgency, 
 especially in the wet or lax gripes. Take a quart 
 of beer, and make it a very little warmer than 
 blood heat; then put a tablespoonful of powdered 
 ginger into it, and a small wineglassful of lauda- 
 num, just before it is given to the horse. This, in 
 most cases, will give ease in a short time; but if 
 the complaint is exceedingly violent, give about 
 half the above quantity in fifteen or twenty min- 
 utes. As soon as the pain seems to be abated, if 
 the belly is costive, give the horse a purgative. 
 In case of looseness no purgative must be given; 
 the laudanum, which is of a binding nature, will 
 correct it. 
 
 When pain is occasioned by inflammation, it is 
 seldom proper to employ opium or any medicine 
 of that kind; but when it depends upon spasm 
 or irritation, no medicines are so beneficial. In 
 inflammation of the bowels, for example, opium 
 might do injury, but in flatulent or spasmodic 
 colic, or gripes, it seldom fails of success. 
 
 Another Anodyne Medicine. 
 
 When horses are affected with colic, or where 
 the use of anodynes is requisite, the following 
 preparation may be given, namely : opium, 1 
 drachm, or 60 grains; Castile soap, 2 drachms; 
 and powdered aniseed, ounce, or 4 drachms. To 
 be made into a ball with syrup, for one dose. 
 
 In speaking of the medicines for gripes, or the 
 
DISEASES OF HORSES. 
 
 113 
 
 flatulent colic, sometimes termed fret, Mr. White 
 mentions, domestic remedies may be employed 
 when proper medicines cannot be procured in 
 time. For this purpose a draught may be readily 
 made up of a pint of strong peppermint water, 
 with about four ounces of gin, and any kind of 
 cpice. 
 
 Another. A pint of port wine, with spice or 
 ginger. 
 
 Another. Half a pint of gin diluted with 4 
 ounces of water and a little ginger. 
 
 Another. Take of Epsom salt, 6 ounces,- Cas- 
 tile soap, sliced, 2 ounces. Dissolve them in !$ 
 pints of warm gruel; then add tincture of opium, 
 \ ounce,- oil of juniper, 2 drachms. Mix, and 
 give them new-milk warm. 
 
 This drink may be repeated every four or five 
 hours till the symptoms begin to abate. 
 
 The Same when on a Journey. 
 
 Take of tincture of opium and oil of juniper, 
 each, 2 drachms ; sweet spirit of nitre, tincture of 
 benzoin, and aromatic spirit of ammonia, each 
 ounce. Mix them together in a bottle for one 
 drink, and give it in a pint of warm gruel. 
 
 For the colic, flatulency, and colicky pains of 
 the intestines this drink will be found a valuable 
 cordial. It may be repeated every two hours until 
 the symptoms abate. 
 
 Another. The complaint may be removed by 
 warm beer and ginger, or a cordial ball, mixed 
 with warm beer. 
 
 It is necessary to repeat the caution given re- 
 specting the necessity of distinguishing the flatu- 
 lent, or windy, or spasmodic colic from the in- 
 flammatory one, and from that which depends on 
 costiveness. It is always necessary to empty the 
 bowels by means of clysters, and should the horse 
 have appeared dull and heavy previous to the at- 
 tack, it will be advisable to bleed. If costiveness 
 attends it, give a laxative drench after the par- 
 oxysm, which will prevent its return. 
 
 Diuretic Balls for Horses. 
 
 Mix together 1 ounce of oil of juniper; 1 ounce 
 of balsam of sulphur ; 2 ounces of Venice tur- 
 pentine ; 4 ounces of sal prunella ; 1 pound of 
 black resin. 
 
 Melt all together gently over a slow fire, in an 
 iron pot, and make up into balls of the size of a 
 nutmeg. 
 
 Another. Take of nitre, 3 pounds ; resin, 3 
 pounds; soap, 1 pounds; juniper berries, 1 
 pound ; oil of juniper H ounces. 
 
 To be made up into balls of the common size, 
 with spirits of turpentine. 
 
 To cure Diseases in Horses' Feet. 
 Every person may see, upon turning up the bot- 
 tom of a horse's foot, an angular projection point- 
 ing towards the toe, termed the frog and its bars, 
 the remainder or hollow part being technically 
 termed the sole, though the entire bottom of the 
 foot might better receive this name. It is certain, 
 however, that " the frog and sole " require pres- 
 sure a congenial kind of pressure without con- 
 cussion that shall cause the sensible, inside, or 
 quick-sole to perform its functions of absorbing 
 the serous particles secreted or deposited therein 
 by the blood vessels. If the frog and its bars are 
 permitted to remain in such a state as to reach 
 the ground, wherever the sod happens to be soft 
 or yielding the hollow part of the solo receives 
 its due proportion of pressure laterally, and the 
 whole sole or surface of the foot is thereby kept 
 in health. 
 
 Prevention. 
 
 Every veterinarian of sense will perceive th 
 necessity of keeping the heels apart, yet although 
 the immediate cause of their contracting is go uni- 
 versally known and recognized, the injudicious 
 method (to call it by no harsher name) of paring 
 away the frog and sole, which prevents the bars 
 from ever touching the ground, is still continued 
 to an alarming extent. 
 
 So much for prevention. When disease comes 
 on, which may be accelerated by two other species 
 of mismanagement, another course is usually fol- 
 lowed not less injudicious than the first mentioned 
 original cause of all the mischief. 
 
 Horses' hoofs are of two distinct kinds or shape, 
 the one being oval, hard, dark-colored and thick, 
 the other round, palish, and thin in the wall, or 
 crust of the hoof. The first has a different kind 
 of frog from the latter, this being broad, thick 
 and soft, whilst the oval hoof has a frog that is 
 long, acute and hard. The rags, which hard 
 work and frequent shoeing occasion on the horny 
 hoof of the round foot, produce ragged frogs also, 
 both being thus pared away to make a fair bot- 
 tom to receive the shoe (burning hot!), the whole 
 support is so far reduced, and the sensible sole 
 coming much nearer the ground, becomes tender 
 and liable to those painful concussions which 
 bring on lameness principally of the fore feet. 
 Contraction of those kinds of heels which belong 
 to the cart-horse, and pommice-foot, are the con- 
 sequence. 
 
 The oval foot pertains to the saddle-horse, the 
 hunter, and bit of blood-kind whose bold project- 
 ing frogs the farriers remove, and these being 
 compelled to perform long and painful journeys 
 ever starting or going off with the same leading- 
 leg, and continuing the same throughout, lame- 
 ness is contracted in that foot, which none can ac 
 count for, nor even find out whereabout it may ba 
 seated. Applications of "the oyals-" (thnt egre- 
 gious compound of folly, ignorance and brutality), 
 follow the first appearance of lameness, and are 
 made alike to the shoulder, the leg. and the sole, 
 under the various pretences of rheumatism, strain 
 in the shoulder, and founder. The real cause, 
 however, is not thought of, much less removed, 
 but, on the contrary, the evil is usually augmented 
 by removing the shoe and drawing the sole to the 
 quick nearly in search of suppositions corns, sur- 
 batings, etc. pretended remedies that were never 
 known to cure, but which, might have been all 
 prevented by the simplest precautions imaginable. 
 These are : 
 
 1st. Let the frog and sole acquire their natural 
 thickness. 
 
 2d. Lead off sometimes with one leg, sometimes 
 with the other. 
 
 3d. Stuff the hollow of the hoofs (all four of 
 them) with cow-dung, or tar ointment, changing 
 it entirely once a day. In every ease it is advi- 
 sable that he be worked moderately, for it is 
 useless to talk to the owners of horses about 
 giving the afflicted animal an entire holiday at 
 grass. 
 
 Should the proprietor of the beast be a sordid 
 customer; the farrier can expect no fee for such 
 simple advice as is here given, so he must procure 
 a phialful of water, and putting therein a little 
 saltpetre and a little coloring matter, to be either 
 mixed with the stuffing, or to wash the sole clean 
 daily, though the remedy will do as well (nearly) 
 without such addition. A more efficacious aux- 
 iliary will be found in procuring a patch of clay, 
 to be kneaded on the ground, on which the ani- 
 mal (which is worth so much trouble) may be al- 
 lowed to stand, and if a small patch be made for 
 
114 
 
 FARRIERY. 
 
 each foot, the horse himself will prove their value 
 (in most cases) by feeling for them as it were, and 
 showing hy his manner how gratified he is at the 
 coldness they afford to his heated feet. Herein it 
 must be observed that stuffing with clay is not re- 
 commended, this being one of the numerous blun- 
 ders of those farriers who, having found the 
 benefit of any application or remedy, push it to a 
 ridiculous extremity. 
 
 Remedy for Lameness in Horses. 
 
 Mr. Sewell, of the Veterinary College, stated 
 his having discovered a method of curing horses 
 which are lame in the fore-feet. It occurred to 
 him that this lameness might originate in the 
 nerves of the foot, near the hoof, and in conse- 
 quence he immediately amputated about an inch 
 of the diseased nerve, taking the usual precaution 
 of guarding the arteries and passing ligatures, 
 etc. By this means the animal was instantly 
 relieved from pain, and the lameness perfectly 
 cured. 
 
 To cure the Thrush in Horses' Feet. 
 
 Simmer over the fire till it turns brown equal 
 parts of honey, vinegar, and verdigris, and apply 
 it w'ith a feather or brush occasions! lly to the feet. 
 The horse at the same time should stand hard, 
 and all soft dung and straw be removed. 
 
 Shoeing Horses in Winter. 
 
 In Canada, where the winter is never of a less 
 duration than five months, they shoe their horses 
 in the following manner, which serves for the 
 whole winter: The smith fixes a small piece of 
 steel on the fore part of each shoe, not tempered 
 too hard, which turns up about a quarter of an 
 inch, in the shape of a horse's lancet; the same to 
 the hinder part of the shoe, turned up a little 
 higher than the fore part, tempered in the same 
 manner. In going up a hill the fore part gives a 
 purchase that assists the horse, and in going down 
 prevents him sliding forwards. 
 
 Shoes having a number of downward points are 
 still better, though more expensive. 
 
 To prevent the Feet of Horses from Balling with 
 
 Snow. 
 
 If the frog in the hoofs of horses and the fetlock 
 be cleaned, and well rubbed with soft soap, pre- 
 viously to their going out in snowy weather, it 
 will effectually prevent their falling from what is 
 termed balling with snow. A number of accidents 
 might be prevented by this simple precaution. 
 
 Ointment for the Mange. 
 
 Take of common turpentine 1 pound ; quicksil- 
 rer, 4 ounces ; hogs' lard, ^ a pound ; flour of sul- 
 phur, 4 ounces; train-oil, a pint. 
 
 Grind the silver with the turpentine, in a mar- 
 ble mortar, for five or six hours, until it completely 
 di&vppears, and add a little oil of turpentine to 
 make it rub easier; then add the remainder, and 
 work them all well together till united. 
 
 This ointment must be well rubbed on every 
 part affected, in the open air, if the sunshine and 
 the weather be warm : but if it be winter, take 
 the horse to a blacksmith shop, where a large bar 
 of iron must be heated, and held at a proper dis- 
 tance over him, to warm the ointment. 
 
 Liniment for the Mange. 
 
 Take of white precipitate, 2 ounces ; strong 
 mercurial ointment, 2 ounces; flowers of sulphur, 
 i a pound; rape-oil, 2 quarts. 
 
 First grind the white precipitate in a little oil ; 
 afterwards add the remainder, taking care that 
 they are well mixed. 
 
 This liniment must be well rubbed in with a 
 
 hard brush, in the open air, provided (he dayj>e 
 fine and the weather warm. If the horse draws 
 in a team the inside of the collar must be washed, 
 or the inside of the saddle, if a saddle-horse, for 
 the disease is highly contagious. 
 
 Eye-water. 
 
 Take of camphor, 2 drachms, dissolved in 2 
 ounces of rectified spirit of wine; Goulard's ex- 
 tract, 1 ounce; rose-water, 1 quart. 
 
 Shake all together in a bottle for use. 
 
 Let the eye and the eyelids be well bathed three 
 or four times a day, with a clean linen rag dipped 
 in the eye-water. 
 
 For Inflammation of the Lungs. 
 
 Take of white antimonial powder, 2 drachms; 
 nitre, an ounce; Castile soap, 2 drachms; aro- 
 matic confection, an ounce. 
 
 Beat them into a ball. 
 
 This ball must be given to the horse as soon as 
 it can be prepared, after he has been bled ; and 
 continue it two or three times a day as long as the 
 inflammation continues. About six hours after, 
 give him a purging drink, and repeat it every 
 night and morning until a passage is obtained, or 
 the bowels are sufficiently opened. 
 
 Embrocation for Sprains. 
 
 Take of soap liniment and camphorated spirit 
 of wine, of each, 8 ounces ; oil of turpentine, i an 
 ounce. 
 
 Mix and shake when used. 
 
 This evaporating and discutient embrocation is 
 well calculated to remove pain and inflammation, 
 which is generally effected in the course of a fort- 
 night or three weeks. During that time the horse 
 should not be allowed to go out of the stable or 
 farm -yard. 
 
 Bracing Mixture for Sprains. 
 
 After the above embrocation the following 
 bracing mixture must be rubbed on the part once 
 a day : 
 
 Take of Egyptiacum (liniment of verdigris), 2 
 ounces; oil of turpentine, 1 ounce. 
 
 Shake well together; then add camphorated 
 spirit of wine and compound tincture of benzoin, 
 each 2 ounces; vinegar, 11 ounces. 
 
 Mix, and shake well together every time they 
 are used. 
 
 Paste to stop Bleeding. 
 
 Take of fresh nettles 1 handful ; bruise them in 
 a mortar; add blue vitriol, in powder, 4 ounces; 
 wheaten flour, 2 ounces; wine vinegar, ounce; 
 oil of vitriol, i ounce. 
 
 Beat them all together into a paste. 
 
 Let the wound be filled up with this paste, and 
 a proper pledget of tow laid over the mouth, in 
 order to prevent it from falling out, and then 
 bandage it on with a strong roller. This dressing 
 must remain in the wound ten or twelve hours. 
 
 Ointment for Scratched Heels. 
 
 Take of hog's lard, 1 pound; white lead, 4 
 ounces; white vitriol, 1 ounce; sugar of lead, 
 ounce; olive oft, 3 ounces. 
 
 Grind all the powders in a marble mortar with 
 the oil, or on a marble slab; then add the lard, 
 and work the whole together till united. 
 
 This is a neat composition, and very proper to 
 keep in the stable during the winter. It will not 
 only be found useful for greasy and scratched 
 heels, but also for stubs and treads of every de- 
 scription. A small quantity must be rubbed on 
 the part affected every night and morning, in 
 slight cases ; but in treads, or wounds upon the 
 heels, it will be best to spread the ointment on 
 pledgets of tow, and secure them with bandages. 
 
DISEASES OF HOUSES. 
 
 115 
 
 Ointment for Greasy Heels. 
 
 Take of white ointment, 1 pound ; white vitriol, 
 blue vitriol, and sugar of lead, in powder, each, 
 ounce. 
 
 Mix well together. 
 
 This ointment, when used, must be spread on 
 strong brown paper, and applied over the part 
 that greases, and bandaged on with listing. The 
 horse may, after dressing, be turned into a dry- 
 straw yard, and a few diuretic balls given to him ; 
 one may be given every third day. Once dressing 
 is, in general, sufficient to perform a cure; if not, 
 it may be repeated in a week after. 
 
 Astringent Embrocation for Strains in Different 
 Parts. 
 
 Take of camphor 2 drachms, dissolved in an 
 ounce of strong rectified spirit of wine; nitre, 1 
 ounce, dissolved in ^ a pint of wine vinegar; spi- 
 rits of turpentine, 4 ounces ; white lead, or arme- 
 nian bole, in powder, an ounce; aqua fortis, 1 
 ounce. 
 
 Mix, and shake them all together in a bottle for 
 use. 
 
 Mixture for Canker in the Mouth. 
 
 Take of wine vinegar, a pint; burnt alum and 
 common salt, each 1 ounce; armenian bole, an 
 ounce. 
 
 Mix. and shake them together in a bottle for use. 
 
 It will be proper to dress the horse's mouth with 
 this mixture, every morning and evening, in the 
 following manner: Take a small cane, or a piece 
 of whalebone, half a yard long, and tie a linen 
 rag, or a little tow round one end; then dip it 
 into the mixture, and pass it up his mouth, and 
 gently remove it to all the affected parts ; let him 
 champ it well about in his mouth : after which let 
 him fast an hour, then give him food as usual. 
 
 Glanders. 
 
 This disease is contagious, destructive, and sel- 
 dom cured. It is known by a discharge from one 
 or both nostrils, and a swelling of the gland under 
 the jaw ; coming on rather slowly, and followed 
 after a time by ulceration. Catarrh or influenza 
 may be mistaken for it; but this is a much more 
 rapid disorder. Ozcena is a disease attended with 
 an offensive discharge; in glanders the discharge 
 is not offensive unless at an advanced stage. In 
 doubtful cases, sometimes, the inoculation of a 
 donkey with the matter is used as a test. Glan- 
 ders may be communicated to a human being; and 
 is then also fatal and seldom cured. Every horse 
 suspected of glanders should be kept carefully 
 apart from all others. If the disorder is slow in 
 its progress, and the animal can be prevented from 
 giving it to others, he may be kept for moderate 
 work, upon good feeding, in some instances, for 
 several years. If hard worked, ill-fed or exposed, 
 a glandered horse will run down very fast. 
 
 Tetanus, or Lock-Jaw. 
 
 This may follow punctured wounds of the foot, 
 as in shoeing, or docking, nicking, or gelding; oc- 
 curring two or three weeks after the accident or 
 operation. Sometimes it has followed violent ex- 
 ertion ; and it is not unfrequently produced by cold. 
 If the stiffness of the muscles be confined to the 
 head or neck, it is much more curable than when 
 general. Two or three out of five out of all the 
 cases are said to get well under good treatment. 
 Mild purgatives, sheep-skin clothing, clysters con- 
 taining from a quarter to half an ounce ot opium, 
 'repeated according to the symptoms, and nourish- 
 ing injections, if the jaws cannot be opened so as 
 to swallow, constitute the best means of manage- 
 ment. 
 
 Rupture in the Horse. 
 
 Rupture or hernia is the protrusion of a bowel 
 or some other part from its proper cavity. It is 
 sometimes congenital, and may then be reduced 
 at the same time that castration is performed. 
 At other times rupture may be produced by blows, 
 kicks, or falls. A hernia is dangerous to life 
 when it becomes strangulated or compressed by a 
 stricture at the orifice of protrusion. Skilful 
 surgical aid should always be obtained in any 
 such case at once. But, sometimes, in the ab- 
 sence of a veterinarian, any one may restore the 
 gut by introducing the hand into the bowel and 
 drawing it up; the other hand, at the same time, 
 making gentle pressure upon the swelling in the 
 abdomen. No violence should ever be us<ed in at- 
 tempting this : and the bowels should first be 
 emptied by a clyster, to which, sometimes, to re- 
 lax the parts, half an ounce or an ounce of tobacco 
 is added. Too large a quantity of the latter would 
 be dangerously prostrating. 
 
 Purging Ball DOGS. 
 
 Take of jalap, in powder, 1 scruple ; Barbadoes 
 aloes, 1 drachm; ginger, in powder, 10 grains; 
 conserve of hips, or S3 r rup, enough to form a ball. 
 
 Liniment for the Mange. 
 
 Take of flowers of sulphur, 4 ounces ; white 
 precipitate, 1 ounce ; strong mercurial ointment, 
 1 ounce ; Cape aloes, in powder, ounce ; neat's- 
 foot oil, li pints. 
 
 First rub the powders together in a mortar; 
 then put in the ointment, and gradually add the 
 oil ; it must be stirred when used. The affected 
 part must be well anointed with this liniment, 
 every third day, for three or four times. 
 
 Mercurial Liniment for the Red Mange. 
 
 Take of mild mercurial ointment, 4 ounces; oil 
 of turpentine, 3 ounces; Cape aloes, in powder, 
 ounce. 
 
 Mix well together, and anoint the parts every 
 third day for three or four times. Many sports- 
 men have their dogs regularly dressed with this 
 liniment two or three weeks before the hunting 
 season commences ; it is supposed to improve 
 their scent, and make them more fit for the chase. 
 
 Mild Ointments for the Mange. 
 
 Take of oil of vitriol, i an ounce ; hog's lard, 
 8 ounces. Mix, and anoint the dog every day for 
 three or four times, or oftener if required. 
 
 This ointment is used in surfeit, and slight cases 
 of mange. 
 
 Lotion for the Mange. 
 
 Take of white hellebore root, bruised, 2 ounces; 
 water, 3 pints, boil down to 2 pints and strain; 
 sal ammoniac, 2 drachms; sublimate, 1 drachm; 
 Cape aloes, half an ounce. 
 
 Dissolve the sal ammoniac and other ingre- 
 dients in the decoction. 
 
 This lotion is sometimes used to cure the 
 mange, when greasy applications are objected to. 
 Distemper in Dogs. 
 
 The following prescriptions are each about a 
 dose for a full-grown pointer. They must, of 
 course, be increased or diminished in proportion 
 to the size and strength of the dog. 
 
 Take of opium, 3 grains; tartar emetic, 5 grains. 
 To be given at night. 
 
 Repeat the dose every third night, till the dog 
 is recovered; taking care to keep him in a warm 
 place, and always feed with a warm liquid diet, 
 such as broth, gruel, etc. 
 
 If the nostrils should discharge, have then* 
 washed or syringed twice a day, with a lotion of 
 
116 
 
 FARRIERY. 
 
 alum or sugar of lead ; putting about half an ounce 
 of either to a pint of water. 
 
 Another. For a Half -Grown Pointer. 
 Take of jalap powder, 25 grains ; calomel, 5 
 grains. Made into a pill with a little gum-water. 
 
 For a Full- Grown Pointer. 
 Take of jalap powder, 30 grains; calomel, 8 
 grains. Mixed as above. 
 
 One of these doses, mixed with butter, or in a 
 small piece of meat, should be given to the dog, 
 every morning, on an empty stomach. The food 
 should be light, and easy to digest; and the lotion, 
 if required for the nostrils, should be observed 
 here, as before mentioned. 
 
 Distemper among Cattle. 
 
 Examine your cow's mouth, though she appears 
 very well; and if you find any pimple in it, or on 
 the tongue, or if you perceive any within the skin 
 ready to couie out, immediately house her, keep 
 her warm, and give her warm tar-water. To a 
 large beast give a gallon ; to a small one three 
 quarts. Give it four times every day ; but not 
 every time the quantity you first gave. Lessen 
 the dose by degrees ; but never give less than two 
 quarts to a large beast, nor less than three pints 
 to a small one ; and house her every night for some 
 time, and give her warm gruel and malt mash. 
 
 To make Tar- Water for Cows. 
 Take one quart of tar, put to it 4 quarts of 
 water, and stir it well ten or twelve minutes ; 
 let it stand a little while, and then pour it off for 
 use. You must not put water to the same tar 
 more than twice. Let the first dose be made of 
 fresh tar. Continue to give it till the beast is 
 veil. Don't let her go too soon abroad. 
 
 For the Garget in Cows. 
 
 This disorder is very frequent in cows after 
 ceasing to be milked ; it affects the glands of the 
 udder with hard swellings, and often arises from 
 the animal not being clean milked. It maybe re- 
 moved by anointing the part three times a day 
 with a little ointment, composed of camphor and 
 blue ointment. Half a drachm or more of calo- 
 mel may be given in warm beer, from a horn or 
 bottle, for three or four mornings, if the disorder 
 is violent 
 
 To cure the Redwater in Cattle. 
 Take 1 ounce of armenian bole, half an ounce 
 of dragon's blood, 2 ounces of Castile soap, and 1 
 drachm of alum. Dissolve these in a quart of hot 
 ale or beer, and let it stand until it is blood-warm ; 
 give this as one dose, and if it should have the 
 desired effect, give the fame quantity in about 
 twelve hours after. This is an excellent medicine 
 for changing the water, and acts as a purgative; 
 every farmer that keeps any number of cattle, 
 should always have doses of it by him. 
 To cure the Scouring in Cattle. 
 The following composition has been found to 
 gucceed in many cases which were apparently 
 drawing to a fatal termination. 
 
 Take of powdered rhubarb, 2 drachms ; castor 
 oil, 1 ounce; prepared chalk, 1 teaspoonful. 
 
 Mix well together in a pint of warm milk. If 
 the first dose does not answer, repeat it in thirty- 
 six or forty-eight hours. If the calf will suck, it 
 will be proper to allow him to do it. 
 
 Cure for Cattle swelled with Green Food. 
 When any of your cattle happen to get swelled 
 with an over-feed of clover, frosty turnips, or such 
 like, instead of the usual method of stabbing in 
 the side, apply a dose of train oil, which, after re- 
 peated trials, has been found completely success- 
 
 ful. The quantity of oil must vary according to 
 the age or size of the animal. For a grown-up 
 beast, of an ordinary size, the quantity recom- 
 mended is about a pint, which must be adminis- 
 tered to the animal with a bottle, taking care, at 
 the same time, to rub the stomach well, in order 
 to make it go down. After receiving this medi- 
 cine, it must be made to walk about until such 
 time as the swelling begins to subside. 
 Lung Fever. 
 
 This affection is epidemic among horses as well 
 as cattle; airy stables and great cleanliness are 
 important. There is no specific remedy. The 
 same may be said of typhoid fever; known by 
 great uneasiness, scouring, and nervous twitch- 
 ings, with fever. 
 
 Treatment of Cattle and Fowls. 
 
 The experiment has often been tried of the 
 benefit derived to horses from being well combed 
 and kept clean. It has been found that a horse 
 neglected as to cleanliness will not be so well con- 
 ditioned, either for fatness or strength, though he 
 gets abundance of corn ; at least, it is certain that 
 it would be worth trying. This everybody knows, 
 that the most neglected of the horse race are kept 
 cleaner than the cleanest of the horned cattle, 
 particularly those shut up in houses. 
 
 " I have two hints to give," says a contempo- 
 rary writer; "as the expense can be nothing and 
 the advantage may be great; I read in a descrip- 
 tion of Norway, that when the cows drink at the 
 hot springs they give more milk than those that 
 drink cold water. Cows drink so much at a time 
 that there is no doubt, when the water is nearly 
 at freezing, they must feel sensibly cooled all 
 over, which will naturally affect their produce of 
 milk. I would therefore propose the experiment 
 of warming the water for milch cows in cold 
 weather." 
 
 The next proposal is that the corn given to fowls 
 should be crushed and soaked in water; this helps 
 the digestion, and hens will lay in winter when 
 so fed that they would not otherwise. 
 
 In a time of scarcity, and when the food of man 
 is dear, such experiments as proposed are well 
 worth making; and the practice proposed with 
 the fowls ought to become general, as it costs 
 nothing. 
 
 To cure the Measles in Swine. 
 
 It" sometimes happens, though seldom, that 
 swine have the measles; while they are in this 
 state their flesh is very unwholesome food, having 
 been ascertained to produce tape-worm in those 
 who feed upon it, especially if not well cooked. 
 This disorder is not easily discovered while the 
 animal is alive, and can only be known by its not 
 thriving or fattening as the others. After the 
 animal is killed and cut up its fat is full of little 
 kernels about the size of the roe or eggs of a 
 salmon. When this is the case, put into the food 
 of each hog, once or twice a week, as much crude 
 pounded antimony as will lie on a shilling. A 
 small quantity of the flour of brimstone, also, 
 may be given with their food when they are not 
 thriving, which will be found of great service to 
 them. But the best method of preventing disor- 
 ders in swine is to keep their sties perfectly clean 
 and dry, and to allow them air, exercise and plenty 
 of clean straw. 
 
 Kidney Worm. 
 
 The sign of this is dragging of the hind legs; 
 which, in the hog, never occurs otherwise unless 
 from an injury. An experienced farmer asserts 
 that arsenic will always cure it. Give as much 
 as a dime will hold, in dough or any other vehicle. 
 If once is not sufficient, the dose may be repeated. 
 
DISEASES OP SWINE. 
 
 Rupture in Swine. 
 
 Where a number of swine are bred, it will fre- 
 quently happen that some of the pigs will have 
 what is called a 'rupture/ i. e. a hole broken in 
 the rim of the belly, where part of the guts comes 
 out and lodges betwixt the riin of the belly and 
 the skin, having an appearance similar to a swell- 
 ing in the testicles. The male pigs are more liable 
 to this disorder than the females. It is cured by 
 the following means : 
 
 Geld the pig affected, and cause it to be held up 
 with its head downwards ; flay back the skin from 
 the swollen place, and from the situation in which 
 the pig is held the guts will naturally return to 
 their proper place. Sew up the hole with a needle, 
 which must have a square point, and also a bend 
 in it, as the disease often happens between the 
 hinder legs, where a straight needle cannot be 
 used. After this is done, replace the skin that 
 was flayed back and sew it up, when the opera- 
 tion is finished. The pig should not have much 
 food for a few days after the operation, until the 
 wound begins to heal. 
 
 Sore Throat in Swine. 
 This is a swelling of the glands of the throat, 
 attended by wheezing, and general weakness of 
 the animal. Indigo is useful for it; a piece as 
 large as a hickory nut mashed up in water and 
 poured down. Once is generally enough. 
 
 Hog Cholera. 
 
 Though usually incurable when it occurs, it 
 
 may nearly always be prevented by putting ashes 
 
 in the trough with the food once a week. 
 
 For the Foot- Rot in Sheep. 
 
 Take a piece of alum, a piece of green vitriol, 
 and some white mercury the alum must be in 
 the largest proportion; dissolve them in water, 
 and after the hoof is pared anoint it with a feather 
 and bind on a rag over all the foot. 
 
 Another. Pound some green vitriol fine, and 
 apply a little of it to the part of the foot affected, 
 binding a rag over the foot as above. Let the 
 sheep be kept in the house a few hours after this 
 is done, and then turn them out to a dry pasture. 
 This is the most common way of curing the foot- 
 rot in Middlesex.. 
 
 Another. Others anoint the part with a feather 
 dipped in aqua fortis or weak nitrous acid, which 
 dries in at once. Many drovers that take sheep 
 to market-towns, carry a little bottle of this about 
 with them, which, by applying to the foot with a 
 feather, helps a lame sheep by hardening its hoof 
 and enabling it to travel better. Some may think 
 aqua fortis is of too hot a nature, but such a des- 
 perate disorder requires an active cure, which, no 
 doubt, is ever to be used cautiously. 
 
 Another. Spread some slacked quick-lime over 
 a house floor pretty thick ; pare the sheep's feet 
 well, and turn them into this house, where they 
 may remain for a few hours, after which turn them 
 into a dry pasture. This treatment may be re- 
 peated two or three times, always observing to 
 keep the house clean, and adding a little more 
 quick-lime before putting them in. 
 
 The foot must be often dressed, and the sheep 
 kept as much as possible upon dry land. Those 
 animals that are diseased should be kept separate 
 frcm the flock, as the disorder is very infectious. 
 
 Prevention and Cure of the Foot-Rot in Sheep. 
 
 On suspected grounds, constant and careful ex- 
 amination ought to take place; and when any fis- 
 sures or cracks, attended with heat, make their 
 appearance, apply oil of turpentine and common 
 brandy. This, in general, produces a very bene- 
 
 117 
 
 ficial effect, but where the disease has been long 
 seated, and becomes, in a manner, confirmed af- 
 ter cleaning the foot, and paring away the infected 
 parts, recourse is had to caustics, of which the 
 best seem to be sulphuric acid and the nitrate of 
 mercury. After this pledgets are applied, the 
 foot bound up, and the animal kept in a clean, dry 
 situation, until its recovery is effected. 
 
 But it often happens, where the malady is ia- 
 veterate, that the disease refuses to yield to any 
 or all of the above prescriptions. 
 
 The following mode of treatment, however, if 
 carefully attended to, may be depended upon as a 
 certain cure. Whenever the disease makes its ap- 
 pearance, let the foot be carefully examined, and 
 the diseased part well washed, and pared as close 
 as possible, not to make it bleed; and let the floor 
 of the house, where the sheep are confined, be 
 strewn three or four inches thick with quick-lime 
 hot from the kiln ; and let the sheep, after having 
 their feet dressed in the manner above described, 
 stand in it during the space of six or seven 
 hours. 
 
 In all cases, it is of great importance that the 
 animal be afterwards exposed only to a moderate 
 temperature be invigorated with proper food 
 and kept in clean, easy, dry pasture; and the dis- 
 ease will be effectually remedied in the course of 
 a few days. 
 
 To prevent Sheep from catching Gold after being 
 Shorn. 
 
 Sheep are sometimes exposed to cold winds and 
 rains immediately after shearing, which exposure 
 frequently hurts them. Those farmers who have 
 access to the sea should plunge them into the salt 
 water; those who have not that opportunity, and 
 whose flocks are not very large, may mix salt with 
 water and rub them all over, which will in a great 
 measure prevent any mishap befalling the animal 
 after having been stripped of its coat. 
 
 It is very common in the months of June and 
 July, for some kinds of sheep, especially the fine 
 Leicester breed, which are commonly thin-skinned 
 about the head, to be struck with a kind of fly, 
 and by scratching the place with their feet, they 
 make it sore and raw. To prevent this, take tar, 
 train oil, and salt, boil them together, and when 
 cold, put a little of it on the part affected. This 
 application keeps off the flies, and likewise heals 
 the sore. The salt should be in very small quan- 
 tity, or powdered sulphur may be used instead of it. 
 
 To prevent the Scab. 
 
 Separating the wool, lay the before-mentioned 
 ointment in a strip, from the neck down the back 
 to the rump; another strip down each shoulder, 
 and one down each hip ; it may not be unnecessary 
 to put one along each side. Put very little of the 
 ointment on, as too much of it may be attended 
 with danger. 
 
 To destroy Maggots in Sheep. 
 Mix with 1 quart of spring water, a table spoon- 
 ful of the spirits of turpentine, and as much of the 
 sublimate powder as will lie upon a dime. Shake 
 hem well together, and cork it up in a bottle, with 
 a quill through the cork, so that the liquid may 
 come out of the bottle in small quantities at once, 
 The bottle must always be well shaken when it is 
 to be used. When the spot is observed where the 
 maggots are, do not disturb them, but pour a little 
 of the mixture upon the spot, as much as will wet 
 the wool and the maggots. In a few minutes after 
 the liquor is applied the maggots will all creep to 
 the top of the wool, and in a short time drop off 
 dead. The sheep must, however, be inspected mxt 
 day, and if any of the maggots remain undestroyed, 
 
118 
 
 FARKIERY. 
 
 shake them off, or touch them with a little more 
 of the mixture. 
 
 A little train oil may be applied after the mag- 
 gots are removed, as sometimes the skin will be 
 hard by applying too much of the liquid. Besides, 
 the fly is not so apt to strike when it finds the 
 smell of tho oil, which may prevent a second at- 
 tack. 
 
 This method of destroying maggots is superior 
 to any other, and it prevents the animal from being 
 disfigured by clipping off the wool, which is a 
 common practice in some countries. 
 
 Cure for the Scab in Sheep. 
 
 The simplest and mot efficacious remedy for 
 this disease, was communicated to the Society for 
 the Encouragement of Arts, etc., by the late Sir 
 Joseph Banks; and is as follows: 
 
 Take 1 pound of quicksilver, a pound of Venice 
 turpentine, J a pint of oil of turpentine, 4 pounds 
 of hog's lard. 
 
 Let them be rubbed in a mortar till the quick- 
 silver is thoroughly incorporated with the other 
 ingredients. For the proper mode of doing which, 
 it may be right to take the advice or even the as- 
 sistance of some apothecary, or other person used 
 to make such mixtures. 
 
 The method of using the ointment is this : Be- 
 ginning at the head of the sheep, and proceeding 
 from between the ears, along the back, to the end 
 of the tail ; the wool is to be divided in a furrow, 
 till the skin can he touched, and as the furrow is 
 made, the finger, slightly dipped in the ointment, 
 is to be drawn along the bottom of it, where it 
 will leave a blue stain on the skin and adjoining 
 wool. 
 
 From this furrow, similar ones must be drawn 
 down the shoulders and thighs to the legs, as far 
 as they are woolly ; and if the animal is much in- 
 fected, two more should be drawn along each side, 
 parallel to that on the back, and one down each 
 side, between the fore and hind legs. 
 
 Immediately after being dressed, it is usual to 
 turn the sheep among other stock, with out any fear 
 of the infection being communicated ; and there is 
 scarcely an instance of a sheep suffering any injury 
 from the application. In a few days the blotches 
 dry up, the itching ceases, and the animal is com- 
 pletely cured. It is generally, however, thought 
 proper not to delay the operation beyond Michael- 
 mas. 
 
 The hippobosca ovina, called in Lincolnshire 
 Sheep-fjigg, an animal well known to all shepherds, 
 which lives among the wool, and is hurtful to the 
 thriving of sheep, both by the pain its bite occa- 
 sions, and the blood it sucks, is destroyed by this 
 application, and the wool is not at all injured. 
 Our wool-buyers purchase the fleeces on which 
 the stain of the ointment is visible, rather in pre- 
 ference to others, from an opinion, that the use of 
 it having preserved the animal from being vexed, 
 either with the scab or faggs, the wool is less lia- 
 ble to the defects of joints or knots; a fault ob- 
 served to proceed from very sudden stop in the 
 thriving of the animal, either from want of food, 
 or from disease. 
 
 To cure the Water in the Heads of Sheep. 
 " Of all the various operations by which this dis- 
 temper may be eradicated, I must, from experience, 
 give th^ preference to one which will, perhaps, 
 astonish such readers as form their opinions 
 more from theory than practice. A number of 
 medical men have already controverted the fact, 
 and, with the utmost presumption, disputed my 
 veracity to my face, after I had witnessed its efn- 
 cacj in a thousand instances. It is no other than 
 
 that of putting a sharpened wire up the nostril 
 quite through the middle of the brain, and by that 
 means perforating the bag which contains the fluid 
 causing the disease. This is, of all other methods, 
 the most certain to succeed : but it has this un- 
 pleasant appendage annexed to it, if it do not cure ; 
 it is certain to kill. 
 
 This method of cure is not only the most expe- 
 dient, but it is in every shepherd's power, and one 
 which he can scarcely perform amiss, if he attend 
 to the following plain directions : 
 
 The operation must be performed with a stiff 
 steel wire, such as is used for knitting the coarsest 
 stockings. It must be kept clean, and free of rust, 
 oiled, and sharpened at the point. Care must be 
 taken, however, that its point be only one- eighth 
 of an inch in length, for if it is tapered like a 
 needle, it is apt to take a wrong direction in going 
 up the nostrils, fix in the gristle below the brain, 
 and torment the animal to no purpose. If blunt 
 in the point, it often fails to penetrate the bladder, 
 which is of considerable toughness, shoving it only 
 a little to one side ; the safest way, of course, is to 
 have the point of the wire sharp and short. 
 
 The shepherd must first feel with his thumbs 
 for the soft part in the skull, which invariably 
 marks the seat of this disease. If that is near the 
 middle of the head above, where, in two cases out 
 of three at least, it is sure to be, let him then fix 
 the animal firm betwixt his knees, hold the head 
 with one hand, laying his thumb upon the soft or 
 diseased part, and with the other hand insert the 
 wire through the nostril, on a parallel with the 
 seat of the distemper, aiming directly at the point 
 where his thumb is placed. The operation is per- 
 formed in one second, for if he feels the point of 
 the wire come in contact with his thumb, let him 
 instantly set the animal to its feet, and if the 
 weather is at all cold, let it stand in the house 
 over-night. 
 
 If the disease is seated exactly in that part 
 where the divisions of the skull meet, and conse- 
 quently in a right line with the top of the nose, 
 he must probe both nostrils, when, should he raisa 
 the bulb on the one side, he will be sure to hit it 
 on the other. If the seat of the disease cannot 
 at all be found, and if the animal have all the 
 symptoms of the malady the water is then en- 
 closed among the ventricles in the middle of the 
 brain, and must be treated as above. Nothing 
 can be done in the last case save with the wire, 
 but it is hard to cure when so affected. I have 
 found, on dissection, the fluid contained in many 
 little cells in the centre of the brain, and though 
 the wire had penetrated some of these cells, it had 
 missed others. 
 
 By this simple operation alone I have cured 
 hundreds, and though I never kept an exact re- 
 gister, I think I have not known it to fail above 
 once in four times as an average in all the in- 
 stances which have come under my observation, 
 and some of these I knew to be injudiciously 
 performed, the disease not being seated in a point 
 which the wire could reach. I have at times 
 cured a dozen, and ten, in regular succession, 
 without failing once, and I have again in some 
 cold seasons of the year, killed three or four suc- 
 cessively. 
 
 Sir George M'Kenzie has insinuated in his book 
 on sheep that I was the inventor of this mode of 
 cure, but it is by no means the case. The prac- 
 tice, I understand, has been in use amon.jj shep- 
 herds for ages past, but they were often obliged 
 to perform it privately, their masters, like the pro- 
 fessors about Edinburgh, always arguing that- tho 
 piercing of the brain must necessarily prove fatal. 
 Sir George has, however, misunderstood my ac~ 
 
DISEASES OF SHEEP. 
 
 119 
 
 eonnt in this matter in the Highland Society's 
 Transactions; I did not mean to insinuate that it 
 was with pleasure I discovered the art of curing 
 ttiem in this way, but only my success in that art. 
 A mentioned in these Transactions that when I 
 was a. shepherd boy, for a number of years I 
 probed the skull of every sturdied sheep that I 
 could lay my hands on, without any regard to 
 whom they belonged, and likewise took every op- 
 portunity of visiting my patients as often as pos- 
 sible; and, as the country around me swarmed 
 with them every spring and summer, my practice, 
 of course, was of prodigious extent. It was sev- 
 eral years before I was sensible of failing in one 
 instance, which, however, it was often impossible 
 to ascertain, they having left the spot sometimes 
 before I could again go that way : but many a 
 valuable young sheep I cured for different owners 
 without ever acknowledging it, having no authority 
 to try such experiments. 
 
 The following symptoms, after the operation, 
 may be depended on : If the animal becomes con- 
 siderably sick, it is a good sign that it will re- 
 cover. If it continues to grow sicker and abstains 
 from feeding for the space of two days, it is 
 likely to die, and if in a condition to be fit for 
 family use ought to be killed forthwith. The 
 flesh of the animal is nothing the worse for this 
 disease; on the contrary, it is universally sup- 
 posed by the country people that their flesh is 
 sweeter, more delicate and palatable than any 
 other. This, I suppose, must be owing to their 
 tender age, it being unusual to kill any sheep so 
 young, save lambs. 
 
 The first symptom of recovery is their bleat- 
 ing. If once they begin to bleat occasionally, 
 they are sure to recover, however stupid they may 
 appear at that time. It seems that they are then 
 becoming sensible of the want of society, the only 
 thing which causes sheep to bleat, and which, for 
 a long time previous to that they had totally dis- 
 regarded. 
 
 I must mention here that the most successful 
 curer of this distemper I ever knew, performed 
 the operation in a different manner from the one 
 practised by me, and above recommended. In- 
 stead of a wire he carried always a large corking- 
 pin in his bonnet, and, like me, tapped every stur- 
 died sheep he found, but always above, putting 
 the point of the pin through the skull at the place 
 where it was most soft, in the same manner as the 
 trocar is used. As this does not at all endanger 
 the sheep's life, I frequently tried this plan pre- 
 vious to that of probing with the wire; but, as 
 far as I can recollect, I never cured one by that 
 means. I remember once conversing with him 
 on the subject, when he told me that he seldom or 
 never failed in curing them upon their own farms, 
 but that in sundry neighboring farms he rarely 
 cured any. From this it would appear that on 
 different soils the animals are differently affected. 
 I am now convinced that he must generally have 
 inserted the pin so far as to penetrate the bottom 
 of the sac, which I never had the sense to try, 
 and which, if we reason from analogy must prove 
 as effective and less hazardous than the other, for 
 it appears to me that in order to insure a recovery 
 it is necessary that the bottom or lowest part of 
 the sac be penetrated. 
 
 Undoubtedly the best mode of curing this dis- 
 ease would be to extract the sac and all that it 
 contains entirely. There is little doubt but that if 
 this were performed by gentle and skilful hands, 
 it would prove the most effectual cure; but as it 
 is I can attest that it seldom proves successful. 
 The shepherds have not skill and ingenuity suffi- 
 cient to close the skull properly up again, or 
 
 in such a manner as is requisite to defend it 
 from external injury; of course I would rather 
 recommend the mode in which they cannot easily 
 go wrong, and which I have seen prove most 
 beneficial, when performed by men of like ac- 
 quirements themselves." Farmer's Magazine. 
 
 To prevent the " Sturdy" or Water in the heads of 
 Sheep. 
 
 With regard to the causes inducing water in 
 the head of sheep, there is but one opinion enter- 
 tained among shepherds, which is that it is occa- 
 sioned by a chilliness in the back of the animal, 
 on account of its being exposed to the winds, and 
 the sleety showers of winter. These cause it to 
 acquire a kind of numbness and torpidity, which, 
 if often repeated, are apt to terminate in an af- 
 fection to giddiness, and finally in a water in the 
 head. 
 
 That the disease is occasioned solely by a chilli- 
 ness in the back, appears from the following facts: 
 
 1. It is always most general after a windy and 
 sleety winter. 
 
 2. It is always most destructive on farms that 
 are ill sheltered, and on which the sheep are most 
 exposed to those blasts and showers. 
 
 3. It preys only on sheep rising their first year, 
 the wool of whom separates above, leaving the back 
 quite exposed to tho wet and to the cold. 
 
 4. If a piece of cloth or hide is sewed to the 
 wool, so as to cover the back, such a sheep will not 
 be affected with the disease. The experiment is a 
 safe, a cheap, and an easy one ; and, exclusive of 
 its good effects in preventing the fatal disease 
 under consideration, it is more beneficial to a 
 young sheep that is not over-high in condition, 
 and administers more to its comfort during the 
 winter than any other that I know of. It keepa 
 the wool from opening, and the sheep always dry 
 and warm on the back ; which, exposed to cold, 
 either in man or beast, it is well known, affects the 
 vitals materially. When thus shielded, the young 
 sheep will feed straight in the wind on the worst 
 days, without injury, and, indeed, without much 
 regarding the weather. This covering keeps them 
 from the rain, prevents them from beins^ shelled 
 and loaded with frozen snow, and from destruction 
 by cold, by leanness, and the water in the head. 
 The expense attending it is so trifling, that it is 
 scarcely worth mentioning. One pair of old blan- 
 kets will furnish coats for forty sheep; and if 
 these are carefully taken off on the. return of 
 spring, and laid aside, they will serve tho same 
 purpose for two or three successive years. 
 
 Practice of the Spanish Shepherds. 
 The first care of the shepherd on coming to the 
 spot where his sheep are to spend the summer, is 
 to give to his ewes as much salt as they will eat. 
 For this purpose he is provided with twenty-five 
 quintals of salt for every thousand head, which is 
 consumed in less than five months; but they eat 
 none on their journey or in winter. The method 
 of giving it to them is as follows : The shepherd 
 places fifty or sixty flat stones about five steps 
 distance from each other. He strews salt upon 
 each stone, then leads his flock slowly through 
 the stones, and every sheep eats at pleasure. This 
 is frequently repeated, observing not to let them 
 eat on those days in any spot where there is lime- 
 stone. When they have eaten the salt they are 
 led to some argillaceous spots, where, from the 
 craving they have acquired, they devour every- 
 thing they meet with, and return again to the salt 
 with redoubled ardor. 
 
 Cure of Dropsy in the Crops of Young Turkeys. 
 " This kind of dropsy is announced by a dull 
 
120 
 
 FARRIEKY. 
 
 look, paleness of the head, loss of appetite, and 
 aversion to food. The birds allow themselves to be 
 approached and seized with facility, and they are 
 without strength. Very soon a slight swelling of 
 the crop is added to these symptoms, which in ten 
 days becomes very considerable. I have taken 
 nearly a pint of water from one. By pressing 
 upon the crops of some of them a certain quantity 
 of matter is discharged by the bill, but never 
 enough entirely to ease the crop. All these symp- 
 toms increase, and the bird dies at the end of fif- 
 teen or eighteen days' illness. 
 
 I sought after the cause of this disorder, and it 
 was easy to find that it was occasioned by the 
 stagnant water of which these animals had drunk ; 
 in the course of the year the heat had been great, 
 and there was little rain. The heat had hatched 
 a vast swarm of small red worms, resembling 
 ascarides. It is quite certain that these in- 
 sects must have been swallowed by the tur- 
 keys, and from this cause, and the bad quality 
 of the water which they had drunk a great de- 
 gree of inflammation in the crop would ensue, 
 with a stoppage of the passage which conducts 
 to the gizzard. I divided the turkeys into two 
 classes ; for those who were still sound I or- 
 dered grain and good wateij; with all that were 
 diseased I practised the operation of tapping with 
 a lancet, in the lowest part of the crop. I in- 
 jected at the opening, by means of a small syringe, 
 a slight decoction of Jesuit's bark, mixed with a 
 little brandy ; which was repeated twice in the 
 course of the day. Next day the wound was bet- 
 ter marked. I made again the same injection, 
 and two hours after, I forced them to eat a little 
 of the yolk of an egg, mixed with some crumbs of 
 bread. At the end of three days the wound in 
 the crop was closed; which I might have pre- 
 vented, but finding a natural opening in the bill, 
 I made them take, during eight days, in their 
 drink the same substance which had been in- 
 jected; and they were, by degrees, put on their 
 usual diet. I need not add that clear water was 
 given them, instead of that of the standing pools. 
 Ten of these animals had died before my arrival ; 
 two perished during the treatment, and the rest 
 of the flock, which might be about forty, either 
 escaped the disease or were cured." M. Ligneau. 
 
 To cure Colds of every description in Cattle. 
 
 The first attempt should be to remove the cause, 
 by giving to the animal a warm cordial drink ; 
 which, acting as a stimulant on the stomach and 
 intestines, will give fresh motion to these parts, 
 and enable nature to resume her former course. 
 
 Take of sweet fennel-seeds and cummin-seeds, 
 each 2 ounces, in powder; long pepper, turmeric, 
 ginger each 1 ounce, in powder. Mix for one drink. 
 
 The method of giving this drink is as follows : 
 Put it into a pitcher with 2 ounces of fresh butter 
 and 2 tablespoonsful of treacle or coarse sugar; 
 then pour one quart of boiling ale upon the whole ; 
 cover them down till new-milk warm, and then 
 give the drink to the beast. 
 
 In two hours after giving the drink let the ani- 
 mal have a good mash made of scalded bran, or 
 pr- nnd malt, with a handful or two of ground 
 0.1;^ or barley meal added to it, and warm water 
 that day. In slight colds, during the summer, 
 these drinks may be given to cattle while in their 
 pasture; and, where it can be made convenient, 
 let them fast two hours after, and then graze as 
 usual. It is also necessary to examine the sick 
 animals every day, to watc-h them while they both 
 dung and stale, and to see whether the body be of 
 a proper heat and the nose or muzzle of a natural 
 breeze. 
 
 If these be regular there is not much danger. 
 If, however, feverish symptoms should appear 
 (which frequently happens), the animal will be- 
 come costive. In such cases give one of the fol- 
 lowing: 
 
 Purging Drink. 
 
 Take of Glauber salts, 1 pound; ginger, in pow- 
 der, 2 ounces ; treacle, 4 ounces. 
 
 Put all the ingredients into a pitcher and pour 
 3 pints of boiling water upon them. When new- 
 milk warm give the whole for one dose. 
 
 Another. 
 
 Take of Epsom salts, 1 pound ; anise-seeds and 
 ginger, in powder, each 2 ounces; treacle, 4 
 ounces. 
 
 Let this be given in the same manner as the 
 preceding. 
 
 In most cases these drinks will be sufficient to 
 purge a full-grown animal of this kind. By strict 
 attention to the above method of application, a 
 fever may be prevented, and the animal speedily 
 restored. 
 
 If the fever continue, after the intestines have 
 been evacuated (which is seldom the case), it will 
 be proper to take some blood from the animal, and 
 the quantity must be regulated according to the 
 disease and habit of body. 
 
 To cure the Yellows or Jaundice in Neat Cattle. 
 
 As soon as the disease makes its first appear- 
 ance, it may, for the most part, be removed by ad- 
 ministering the following drink : 
 
 Reduce to powder cummin-seeds, anise-seeds, 
 and turmeric root, each 2 ounces ; grains of para- 
 dise, and salt of tartar, each 1 ounce. 
 
 Now slice 1 ounce of Castile soap, and mix it 
 with 2 ounces of treacle ; put the whole into a 
 pitcher, then pour a quart of boiling ale upon the 
 ingredients, and cover them down till new-milk 
 warm, then give the drink. It will often be pro- 
 per to repeat this, two or three times, every other 
 day, or oftener if required. If the beast be in good 
 condition, take away from two to three quarts of 
 blood ; but the animal should not be turned out 
 after bleeding that day, nor at night, but the 
 morning following it may go to its pasture as 
 usual. After this has had the desired effect, let 
 the following be given : 
 
 Take of balsam copaiva, 1 ounce; salt of tartar, 
 1 ounce; Castile soap, 2 ounces. Beat them to- 
 gether in a marble mortar; and add of valerian 
 root, in powder, 2 ounces; ginger root and Peruvian 
 bark, in powder, each 1 ounce; treacle, 2 ounces. 
 
 Mix for one drink. 
 
 Let this drink be given in a quart of warm gruel, 
 and repeated if necessary every other day. It 
 will be proper to keep the body sufficiently open 
 through every stage of the disease ; for if costive- 
 ness be permitted, the fever will increase, and if 
 not timely removed, the disorder will terminate 
 fatally. 
 
 Frenzy, or Inflammation of the Brain, 
 
 Is sometimes occasioned by wounds or contu- 
 sions in the head, that are attended with violent 
 inflammations of the vessels, and if not speedily 
 relieved, may terminate in a gangrene or a morti- 
 fication, which is very often the case, and that in a 
 few days. 
 
 Method of Cure. 
 
 In the cure of this disease, the following method 
 must be attended to : First lessen the quantity of 
 blood by bleeding, which may be repeated if re- 
 quired, and by which the great efflux of blood 
 upon the temporal arteries will be lessened and 
 much retarded. The following purgative drink 
 
AGES OF ANIMALS. 
 
 121 
 
 will be found suitable for this disease, and like- 
 wise for most fevers of an inflammatory nature. 
 
 Take of Glauber salts, 1 pound ; tartarized an- 
 timony, 1 drachm; camphor, 2 drachms; treacle, 
 4 ounces. 
 
 Mix, and put the whole into a pitcher, and pour 
 3 pints of boiling water upon them. 
 
 When new-milk warm add laudanum, half an 
 ounce, and give it all for one dose. 
 
 This drink will in general operate briskly in the 
 space of 20 or 24 hours ; if not, let one half of the 
 quantity be given to the beast every night and 
 morning, until the desired effect be obtained. 
 To cure Hoven or Blown in Cattle. 
 
 This complaint is in general occasioned by the 
 animal feeding for a considerable time upon rich 
 succulent food, so that the stomach becomes over- 
 charged, and they, through their greediness to eat, 
 forget to lie down to ruminate or chew their cud. 
 Thus the paunch or first stomach is rendered in- 
 capable of expelling its contents ; a concoction and 
 fermentation take place in the stomach, by which 
 a large quantity of confined air is formed in the 
 part that extends nearly to the anus, and for want 
 of vent at that part, causes the animal to swell 
 even to a state of suffocation, or a rupture of some 
 part of the stomach or intestines ensues. As sud- 
 den death is the consequence of this; the greatest 
 caution is necessary in turning cattle into a fresh 
 pasture, if the bite of grass be considerable; nor 
 should they be suffered to stop too long at a time 
 in such pastures before they are removed into a 
 fold yard, or some close where there is but little 
 to eat, in order that the organs of rumination and 
 digestion may have time to discharge their func- 
 tions. 
 
 If this be attended to several times, it will take 
 away that greediness of disposition, and prevent 
 this distressing complaint. 
 
 Treatment. 
 
 As soon as the beast is discovered to be either 
 hoven or blown, by eating too great a quantity of 
 succulent grasses, let a purging drink be given; 
 this will, for the most part, check fermentation in 
 the stomach, and in a very short time force a pas- 
 sage through the intestines. 
 
 Paunching. 
 
 This is a method frequently resorted to in dan- 
 gerous cases. The operation is performed in the 
 following manner : Take a sharp penknife and 
 gently introduce it into the paunch between the 
 haunch bone and the last rib on the left side. This 
 will instantly give vent to a large quantity of fetid 
 air; a small tube of a sufficient length may then 
 be introduced into the wound, and remain until 
 the air is sufficiently evacuated ; afterwards, take 
 out the tube, and lay a pitch plaster over the ori- 
 fice. Wounds of this kind are seldom attended 
 with danger ; where it has arisen, it has been oc- 
 casioned by the injudicious operator introducing 
 his knife into a wrong part. After the wind is ex- 
 pelled, and the body has been reduced to its na- 
 tural state, give an opiate drink. 
 
 To cure Swimming in the Head. 
 This disease mostly attacks animals that have 
 been kept in a state of poverty and starvation du- 
 ring the winter season ; and which have in the 
 spring of the year been admitted into a fertile pas- 
 ture; hence is produced a redundancy of blood 
 
 and other fluids, pressing upon the contracted ves- 
 sels, while the animal economy, on the other hand, 
 is using its utmost endeavor to restore reduced na- 
 ture to its original state. If it be not checked in 
 its infancy by bleeding, evacuating, etc., inflam- 
 mation in all probability must take place; in which 
 case the beast is attended with all the symptoms 
 of one that is raving mad. 
 
 The cure must first be attempted by taking from 
 two to three or four quarts of blood from the ani- 
 mal, according to size and strength ; two or three 
 hours after, give a purging drink. 
 
 Purging is generally necessary in this disease. 
 
 Age of Cattle, etc. 
 
 The age of the ox or cow is told chiefly by the 
 teeth, and less perfectly by the horns. The tem- 
 porary teeth are in part through at birth, and all 
 the incisors are through in twenty days; the first, 
 second and third pairs of temporary molars are 
 through in thirty days; the teeth have grown 
 large enough to touch each other by the sixth 
 month : they gradually wear and fall in eighteen 
 months; the fourth permanent molars are through 
 at the fourth month; the fifth at the fifteenth; 
 the sixth at two years. The temporary teeth be- 
 gin to fall at twenty-one months, and are entirely 
 replaced by the thirty-ninth to the forty-fifth 
 month. The development is quite complete at 
 from five to six years. At that time the border of 
 the incisors has been worn away a little below the 
 level of the grinders. At six years, the first grind- 
 ers are beginning to wear, and are on a level with 
 the incisors. At eight years, the wear of the first 
 grinders is very apparent. At ten or eleven years, 
 used surfaces of the teeth begin to bear a square 
 mark surrounded by a white line ; and this is pro- 
 nounced on all the teeth by the twelfth year; be- 
 tween the twelfth and the fourteenth year this 
 mark takes a round form. The rings on the horns 
 are less useful as guides. At ten or twelve months 
 the first ring appears ; at twenty months to two 
 years the second; at thirty to thirty-two months 
 the third ring; at forty to forty-six months the 
 fourth ring ; at fifty-four to sixty months the fifth 
 ring, and so on. But, at the filth year, the three 
 first rings are indistinguishable, and at the eighth 
 year all the rings. Besides, the dealers file the 
 horns. 
 
 Age of the Sheep. 
 
 In the sheep, the temporary teeth begin to ap- 
 pear in the first week, and fill the mouth at three 
 months ; they are gradually worn, and fall at about 
 fifteen or eighteen months. The fourth permanent 
 grinders appear at three months, and the fifth pair 
 at twenty to twenty-seven months. A common 
 rule is, " two broad teeth every year." The wear 
 of the teeth begins to be marked about six years. 
 
 Age of the Pig. 
 
 The age of the pig is known up to three years 
 by the teeth; after that there is no certainty. 
 The temporary teeth are complete in three or four 
 months; about the sixth month the premolars be- 
 tween the tusks and the first pair of molars ap- 
 pear; in six to ten months tbe tusks and posterior 
 incisors are replaced; in twelve months to two 
 years the other incisors; the fourth permanent 
 molars appear at sixth months; the fifth pair at 
 ten months ; and the sixth and last at eighteen 
 months. 
 
122 
 
 MEDICINE. 
 
 MEDICINE. 
 
 General Rules for tr?xting Diseases. 
 Rule 1. In every complaint, whatever it may 
 be called, if you find the pulse quick, hard, full, 
 and strong, the head aching, tongue foul, skin hot, 
 or those marks which denote it to be of an inflam- 
 matory nature, remember the plan is to reduce ex- 
 citement by purging, low diet, drinking plentifully 
 of cold water and lemonade, rest, etc. 
 
 Rule 2. If, on the contrary, the pulse be small, 
 Boft, feeble, and intermitting, the tongue dark, and 
 great debility or weakness is evident, reverse the 
 whole pbin; the diet must be generous and nou- 
 rishing, the bowels opened with gentle laxatives, 
 and the strength supported by bark, sulphate of 
 quinine, wine, and tonics of various kinds. 
 
 It is necessary, however, to be careful in distin- 
 guishing the weakness which is here meant, from 
 that state of debility which arises from excessive 
 action, from the stuffing up of the vessels, and 
 which requires the lancet. As a mistake might 
 prove fatal, attention should be paid to the pulse, 
 by which they can be known. In that state 
 which requires tonics, the pulse is small, soft 
 sometimes like a thread, and quick. In the other, 
 it is slower and full, giving considerable resist- 
 ance to the pressure of the finger. 
 
 Rale 3. If, in addition to those symptoms men- 
 tioned in the second rule, the tongue be covered 
 with a black coat foul, dark-looking sores form 
 about the gums and insides of the cheeks the 
 breath be offensive, etc., the same class of remedies 
 is to be vigorously employed, with a free use of 
 acids and other antiseptic articles. 
 
 Rule 4. Severe local pains, as in the head, 
 side, etc., may require the use of the lancet, purg- 
 ing, and blisters to the part. 
 
 Rule 5. Incessant and earnest entreaties on the 
 part of the sick for, or longing after, any particu- 
 lar article of diet, if steadily persevered in, may 
 be safely indulged, whether the use of it agrees or 
 not with our preconceived ideas on the subject. 
 
 Rule 6. In all fevers, where the pulse is 
 quick, full and strong, the skin burning to the 
 touch, and there is no perspiration, apply gently 
 cold water over the head and limbs of the patient, 
 wipe him dry and cover him in bed. If, in con- 
 sequence of this, a chill be experienced, and the 
 pulse sink, give warm wine, etc., and omit the 
 water for the future. Should a pleasant glow, 
 over the whole frame, follow the affusion, and the 
 patient feel relieved by it, repeat it as often as 
 may be necessary. 
 
 Rule 7. Observe carefully, the effects of vari- 
 ous articles of food, as well as physic, upon your 
 own body, and choose those which experience 
 proves to agree best with you. It is a vulgar, but 
 true saying, that "What is one man's meat is 
 another's poison." When, however, the stomach 
 is out of order, do not conclude hastily that a par- 
 ticular article is injurious; as, at such a time, 
 everything may seem to disagree, and the simplest 
 things are then the best. 
 
 Rule 8. Keep a sick room always well venti- 
 lated. Plenty of fresh air is an important reme- 
 dial agent in all diseases. 
 
 It is not meant by this that the patient should 
 be exposed to a direct current of air, which should 
 be always avoided by well and sick. 
 
 OF THE PULSE. 
 The pulse is nothing more than the beating of 
 
 an artery. Every time the heart contracts, a por. 
 tion of blood is forced into the arteries, which di- 
 late or swell to let it pass, and then immediately 
 regain their former size, until by a second stroke 
 of the same organ, a fresh column of blood is 
 pushed through them, when a similar action is re- 
 peated. This swelling and contracting of the ar- 
 teries then constitutes the pulse, and consequently 
 it may be found in every part of the body where 
 those vessels run near enough to the surface to 
 be felt. Physicians look for it at the wrist from 
 motives of convenience. 
 
 The strength and velocity of the pulse vary 
 much in different persons, even in a state of per 
 feet health. It averages about seventy beats a 
 minute in adults. It is much more frequent in 
 children than in adults; and in old men it grows 
 more slow and feeble, owing to the decreased en- 
 ergy of the heart. The pulse is increased both in 
 strength and velocity by running, walking, riding, 
 and jumping ; by eating, drinking, singing, speak- 
 ing, and by joy, anger, etc. It is diminished, in 
 like manner, by fear, want of nourishment, melan- 
 choly, excessive evacuations, or by whatever tends 
 to debilitate the system. 
 
 In feeling the pulse, then, in sick persons, al- 
 lowance should be made for these causes, or, what 
 is better, we should wait until their temporary 
 effects have ceased. 
 
 A full, tense, and strong pulse is when the ar- 
 rery swells boldly under the finger, and resists its 
 pressure more or less; if, in addition to this, the 
 pulsation be very rapid, it is called quick, full, 
 and strong; if slow, the contrary. 
 
 A hard, corded pulse is that in which the ar- 
 tery feels like the string of a violin, or a piece of 
 tightened cat-gut, giving considerable resistance 
 to the pressure of the finger. 
 
 The soft and intermitting pulses are easily 
 known by their names. In cases of extreme de- 
 bility, on the approach of death, and in some par- 
 ticular diseases, the artery vibrates under the fin- 
 ger like a thread. 
 
 In feeling the pulse, three or four fingers should 
 be laid on it at once. The most convenient spot 
 to do this, as already mentioned, is the wrist, but 
 it can be readily done in the temple, just before, 
 and close to the ear, in the bend of the arm, at the 
 under part of the lower end of the thing, among 
 the hamstrings, and on the top of the foot. 
 
 There are two kinds of large blood-vessels in 
 the human body : arteries and veins. The arte- 
 ries carry the blood from the heart to the ex- 
 tremities of the body, where they are connected 
 through the capillaries with the veins which bring 
 it back again. An artery pulsates or beats; a 
 vein does not. 
 
 OF FEVER. 
 
 Fever is by far the most common complaint to 
 which the human body is subject. It may be 
 briefly described as a combination of heat, loss 
 f appetite, weakness, and inability to sleep. It 
 makes its appearance in two ways: either sud- 
 denly and violently, or gradually and gently. 
 When it comes on in the first manner, a cold 
 shaking, attended with sickness at the stomach, 
 or vomiting, marks its access ; the cold is more 
 severe than in the latter, as is also the pain in the 
 head, and other symptoms. When its attack is 
 gradual, a feeling of soreness over the whole 
 
FEVERS. 
 
 123 
 
 body such as is experienced after a hard day's 
 Work by one not accustomed to it, shows its ap- 
 proach. Nausea, pains in the head, chills, and 
 more or less heat and thirst soon follow. 
 
 As these symptoms vary infinitely in their de- 
 grees of violence, the treatment to be pursued 
 must differ accordingly. Thus the same direc- 
 tions that are given for simple inflammatory 
 fever must be adhered to, in one whose symptoms 
 are lighter, though similar, only there is no ne- 
 cessity for pushing them to so great an extent. 
 
 Simple Inflammatory Fever. 
 
 Symptoms. Chills, flushed face, skin hot, eyes 
 red, pulse quick, full, strong, and regular, great 
 thirst, tongue white, urine high-colored and small 
 in quantity, bowels costive, breathing quick, etc. 
 
 Cannes. Cold, violent exercise while exposed 
 to the heat of the sun, intemperance, the indul- 
 gence of unruly passions. 
 
 Treatment. Bleed the patient, if he be robust, 
 at the very beginning of the attack. The quan- 
 tity of blood to be taken should be regulated by 
 the strength and age of the person, and the violence 
 of the symptoms. In this country, where diseases 
 are very acute, from twelve to fifteen ounces is an 
 average quantity for a robust man. If there be great 
 pain in the head, shave it and apply a blister, or 
 cloths wrung out of iced vinegar and water, fre- 
 quently renewed. The bowels are to be freely opened 
 with Epsom salts or citrate of magnesia, and the 
 diet should consist of plenty of cold water, rice 
 water, or lemonade. If the heat of the body be 
 excessive and burning to the touch, and there is 
 no perspiration, let cold water be applied with a 
 sponge to his head and limbs, and then wipe him 
 dry and cover him in bed. If there be intense 
 pain in the head or side, apply a blister. The 
 saline mixture, below, will be found useful through- 
 out. An emetic, at the very onset, sometimes cuts 
 short the disease. The room should be kept quiet, 
 cool, and dark, every source of excitement being 
 removed. 
 
 S/ine Mixture. Carbonate of potassa, 2 
 drachms ; water, 6 ounces. When the salt is dis- 
 solved, add by degrees portions of fresh lemon 
 juice till it ceases to effervesce. A tablespoonful 
 may be taken every half hour. 
 
 Intermittent, or Fever and Ague. 
 
 Of this fever, there are several varieties, which 
 differ from each other only in the length of time 
 that elapses between their attacks. There is one 
 called quotidian, in which it comes on every 
 twenty-four hours; another named tertian, in 
 which it arrives every forty-eight hours, and the 
 third quartan, because the intermission lasts 
 seventy-two hours. 
 
 Symptoms. The symptoms of fever and ague 
 are, unfortunately, too well known among us, com- 
 mencing with yawning, stretching and uneasi- 
 ness; this is succeeded by slight chills or shiver- 
 ings, that end in a violent or convulsive shaking 
 of the whole body. This is the cold fit, and is 
 immediately followed by the fever or hot fit. The 
 pulse rises, the skin becomes hot, with pain in the 
 head, tongue white, and all the marks of fever, 
 terminating in a profuse sweat, which gradually 
 subsiding, leaves the patient in his natural state, 
 though somewhat weakened. 
 
 Treatment. On the first alarm that is given by 
 a chill, or any of those feelings indicative of its 
 approach, take 50 or 60 drops of laudanum in a 
 glass of warm wine, with a little sugar and a few 
 drops of the essence of peppermint, get into bed, 
 and cover yourself with several blankets; this 
 seldom fails to cut short the disease. If the cold 
 
 fit, however, has passed by, the next accession 
 should be carefully watched, and the same remedy 
 resorted to. If the inflammatory symptoms seem 
 to require it, open the bowels with senna aud 
 salts ; when this is done, in the intervals use a 
 quinine pill of one grain every hour; if it cannot 
 be procured take as large doses PeruvJ/m b irk as 
 the stomach will bear ; in addition to this, endeavor 
 during the cold fit to bring on the hot one, as 
 speedily as possible, by warm drinks, bladders or 
 bottles filled with warm water applied to the soles 
 of the feet and the stomach. Weak whiskey 
 punch answers this purpose very well, it also is 
 of use by inducing sweat when the hot stage is 
 formed. If the disease resists this treatment, try 
 six drops of Fowler's Solution of Arsenic three 
 times a day, with the bark, gradually increasing 
 it to nine or ten drops at each dose. As this is a 
 powerful remedy, care must be taken to watch its 
 effects ; if it produce sickness at the stomach, head- 
 ache, or swelling of the face, it must be laid aside. 
 To restore the tone of the system when getting 
 better, remove to a healthy pure air, use gentle 
 and daily exercise, with a generous diet, iron and 
 bitters. If the liver or spleen become affected, 
 recourse may sometimes be had to mercury. 
 
 Much mischief is done by giving either the 
 quinine or the bark too early in the disease, 
 and before its inflammatory stage is passed. It 
 should never be employed until the bowels have 
 been well opened and the excitement reduced. 
 Ji eminent Fever. 
 
 This is a kind of fever which occasionally abates, 
 but does not entirely cease, before a fresh attack 
 comes on, so that the patient is never completely 
 free from it. The most usual form of it is called 
 bilious fever, or bilious remittent. 
 Bilioux Fever. 
 
 Symptoms. In this disease all the marks of 
 great excitement and a superfluity of bile are 
 visible; the skin is hot, the pulse tense and full, 
 tongue white in the commencement, changing to 
 brown, as the fever increases, breathing hurried 
 and anxious, bowels very costive, and skin of a 
 yellowish hue. In bad cases, there is great pain 
 in the head, delirium, the patient picks at the bed 
 clothes, a convulsive jerking of the tendons at the 
 wrist, tongue black and furred, a deep yellow skin, 
 vomiting, and hiccup. 
 
 Causes. A peculiar poisonous vapor from ponds, 
 marshes, and decaying vegetable matter. 
 
 Treatment. This must be conducted on our 
 general principles. As the inflammatory and 
 bilious symptoms are the most prevalent at the 
 commencement, bleed the patient if he be ro- 
 bust. The next step is to open his bowels. Ten 
 grains of calomel, combined with a portion of 
 jalap, may be given in molasses, and repeated or 
 followed by a saline purgative, until copious 
 evacuations are produced. If the pain in the 
 head be very great, shave it and apply a blister. 
 Should the skin be very hot, and great thirst and 
 restlessness prevail, apply cold water over the 
 body, as directed in simple inflammatory fever. 
 The diet should consist of rice-water, lemonade, 
 etc., taking care to keep up a moderate discharge 
 from the bowels by purgatives, during the whole 
 of the disease. 
 
 If, however, in spite of all endeavors to the con- 
 trary, the complaint seems advancing, the patient 
 should be brought carefully under the influence 
 of quinine. As soon as symptoms of exhaustion 
 or a typhoid state make their appearance, no mer- 
 cury should be given internally; on the contrary, 
 bark, wine, acids, etc., are necessary to support 
 the patient, who should be kept clean, cool, and 
 
124 
 
 MEDICINE. 
 
 comfortable, excluding all noise. The extreme irri- 
 tability of the stomach, which is frequently found 
 in bilious fever, may be overcome by the saline 
 draught, in a state of effervescence (to be found 
 on page 123), and in the latter stage of it, when 
 the pulse flags, and the system appears sinking, 
 the quinine mixture, below, has been found ex- 
 tremely useful. Blisters and mustard poultices 
 may also be applied in this case to the ankles, 
 thighs, and wrists. The internal use of the qui- 
 nine is an invaluable remedy in all such cases, 
 and should never be omitted. 
 
 There are in fact two distinct stages in this dis- 
 ease that require two different plans of treatment. 
 The first is bilious and inflammatory, and should 
 be met by bleeding, vomiting, purging with calo- 
 mel, blisters to the head, and the affusion of cold 
 water. 
 
 The second is typhoid and bilious, and must be 
 treated by wine, brandy, the quinine mixture, 
 sound porter, and the peculiar plan recommended 
 in typhoid fever. 
 
 Quinine Mixture. 
 
 Sulphate of quinine 32 grains; elixir of vitriol 
 1 drachm ; peppermint water 4 ounces. The dose 
 is a teaspoonful every hour or two. 
 
 Typhoid or Low Nervous Fever. 
 
 Symptoms, Languor, debility, dejection of mind, 
 alternate flushes of heat and chills, bleeding at 
 the nose, loathing of food, confusion of ideas. 
 These are succeeded by vertigo, pain in the head, 
 cough, frequent weak and sometimes intermitting 
 pulse, the tongue dry and covered with a brown 
 fur, the teeth and gums being encrusted with the 
 same, the forehead is covered w : t!i sweat, while 
 the hands are dry and glow with heat, the patient 
 talks wildly. There is diarrhoea and swelling of 
 the abdomen, 
 
 Causes Grief, hom%-sickness, whatever tends to 
 weaken the system, a poor diet, living in close, 
 filthy apartments. Distinguish it from typhus fe- 
 ver by the attack coming on more gradually, and 
 by the greater mildness of the symptoms and the 
 want of those marks mentioned in the former. 
 
 Treatment. If the bowels be costive give some 
 gentle laxative, as rhubarb or castor oil. As soon 
 as this has operated, or even before (if the weak- 
 ness of the patient seem to require it), exhibit 
 wine whey and beef-tea, always remembering that 
 if the strength of the patient be not supported by 
 these means, he may die of debility. Applying 
 cold water gently over the body is a remedy in 
 this disease, of great value. If delirium or insen- 
 eibility come on, shave the head and apply a blis- 
 ter tc it, or cloths wrong out of iced vinegar and 
 water. If a copious purging ensue it must be 
 stopped, or it will prove fatal ; this may be done by 
 the mixture No. 1, or by opium. Musk mixture, 
 No 2, and the camphor mixture, No. 3, will also 
 be found useful. Great reliance is sometimes 
 placed upon the sulphate of quinine, which may 
 be taken in doses of two or three grains four 
 times a day, dissolved in a little gum arabic tea, or 
 in pills. 
 
 The order of remedies, then, in typhoid fever, is 
 to open the bowels with the mildest laxatives, to 
 use wine or sometimes brandy, to apply cold water 
 over the body, to give milk, chicken water, jellies, 
 tapioca, sago, etc.; to check purging, keep the room 
 cool and clean, use the quinine mixture, one or all 
 of the diflerent mixtures of camphor or musk, and 
 If delirium come on to apply blisters to the head. 
 Bleeding is, at best, a doubtful remedy in typhoid, 
 and should never be allowed without being ordered 
 by a physician ; nine times out of ten it is certain 
 death to the patient. 
 
 No. 1. Astringent Mixture. Chalk mixture 4 
 ounces ; tincture of kino 1 drachm ; lavender com- 
 pound 1 drachm; laudanum 30 drops. Dose, a 
 tablespoonful every two or three hours, as may be 
 required. 
 
 No. 2. Music Mixture. Musk 1 drachm; gum 
 arabic, powdered, 1 drachm : loaf suga, the same; 
 water 6 ounces. Rub up the musk and sugar, ad- 
 ding the water very gradually. The di:se is a ta- 
 blespoonful every two hours. 
 
 No. 3. Camphor Mixture. Camphor 30 grains; 
 powdered gum arabic 2 drachms; loaf sugar 1^ 
 drachms, peppermint water 6 ounces. Moisten 
 the camphor with a few drops of spirits of wine, 
 and rub it to a powder. The gum arabic and 
 sugar beat to a paste, add the camphor, and pour 
 in the water gradually. The dose is a tablespoon- 
 ful every two or three hours. 
 
 Typhus Fever. 
 
 Symptoms. Severe chills, astonishing and sud- 
 den loss of strength, countenance livid and ex- 
 pressive of stupor, the skin sometimes burning to 
 the touch, at others the heat is moderate, the pulse 
 is quick, small and rarely hard, violent pain in the 
 head, redness of the eyes, low, muttering delirium, 
 the tongue is covered with a dark brown or black- 
 looking crust, blackish sores form about the gums, 
 the breath .is very offensive, and, in the latter 
 stage, the urine also, which deposits a dark sedi- 
 ment; in extremely bad cases blood is poured out 
 under the skin, forming purple spots, and breaks 
 out from the nose and different parts of the body, 
 the pulse flutters and sinks, hiccup comes on, and 
 death closes the horrid scene. 
 
 Treatment. As severe cases of this disease are 
 apt to run their career with fatal rapidity, no time 
 should be lost; bleeding is not admissible, the loss 
 of a few ounces of blood being equivalent to a 
 sentence of death. The first medicine given may 
 be a mild purgative; castor oil will answer the 
 purpose. If the heat of the patient's body be 
 great, sponge him with vinegar and water. This 
 practice produces the happiest results. As foon 
 as he is wiped dry, and has taken the wine if 
 chilled, give four drops of nitro-muriatic acid in 
 a wine glass of the cold infusion of bark every 
 four hours. Wine and water should generally be 
 liberally given in this disease as soon as the ty- 
 phus symptoms show themselves. Liquid food,, 
 as milk or beef tea, should be given at short 
 intervals. The sulphate of quinine in the same 
 doses as mentioned in typhoid \s a valuable 
 remedy. 
 
 As a wash for the mouth, nothing is better than 
 an ounce of alum dissolved in a pint of water. 
 Rest at night must be procured by opium, if ne- 
 cessary. If towards the end of the complaint 
 there arise a gentle looseness, accompanied with 
 a moisture on the skin, that seems likely to prove 
 critical, it should not be meddled with ; but other- 
 wise it must be stopped by astringents. As this 
 is a contagious disease, all unnecessar^ commu- 
 'cation with the sick should be forbidden. The 
 chamber should be kept cool, clean, and frequently 
 sprinkled with vinegar, and all nuisances be im- 
 mediately removed. Much advantage will result 
 from taking the patient, on the very commence- 
 ment of the attack, into a new and healthy atmo- 
 sphere. 
 
 Hectic Fever. 
 
 This is never a primary disease, but is always 
 found as a symptom of some other one, as con- 
 sumption. 
 
 Symptoms. Night sweats, bowels costive at 
 first, then loose, alternate chills and flushes, a cir- 
 cumscribed spot on the cheeks, especially in the 
 
INFLAMMATION. 
 
 125 
 
 afternoon, a peculiar delicacy of complexion, and 
 emaciation to so great a degree that the patient 
 sometimes looks like a living skeleton. 
 
 Treatment. Remove the cause, if possible, by 
 curing the disease of which it is a symptom; and 
 support the strength of the patient. 
 
 Inflammation of the Brain. 
 
 Symptoms. Intense pain in the head, the eyes 
 incapable of bearing the light, delirium, face 
 flushed, oppression at the breast, the pulse hard 
 and very rapid, tongue at first of a fiery red, then 
 yellow, brown or black. 
 
 Causes. Exposure to excessive heat of the sun 
 blows on the head, intense application to study 
 intemperance. Distinguish it from inflammatory 
 fever by the pulse, which in the one is full, strong 
 and regular, in the other hard, quick and corded 
 and by the raving delirium. From typhus by the 
 two latter marks. 
 
 Treatment. Bleed the patient (as quickly as 
 possible) until he nearly faints. Upon the reso- 
 lute employment of the lancet in the onset we 
 must place our chief dependence. The bowels 
 should be freely opened with Epsom salts, the 
 head shaved, and a blister or cloths dipped in iced 
 vinegar and water, or pounded ice, be applied to 
 it, and the room kept perfectly cool, dark and 
 quiet. Rice-water, lemonade, or cold water is to 
 be the only diet. Should the violence of the dis- 
 ease not give way to these remedies, repeat the 
 purging, blistering, etc., as often as may be ne- 
 cessary. The most vigorous measures to reduce 
 the inflammation are required, or death will be 
 the consequence. Quietness of mind and body is 
 also essential throughout the attack. 
 
 Headache. 
 
 Causes. Some particular disorder of which it 
 is a symptom. Indigestion, a foul stomach, tight 
 cravats or shirt collars, exposure to the heat of 
 the sun, a rushing of blood into the head, neu- 
 ralgia, etc. 
 
 Treatment. This will vary according to the 
 cause. If it arises from indigestion, that must be 
 attended to. A foul stomach is one of the most 
 usual causes of headache. In this case, from 
 three to six grains of blue mass may be adminis- 
 tered, which, at a day's or night's interval, should 
 be followed by a purgative. If from the beating 
 of the artery in the temples, and a sense of ful- 
 ness in the head, we suspect it to originate from 
 an undue determination to that part, bleed freely, 
 or cup or leech, and apply cloths dipped in cold 
 water to it. Long-continued and obstinate head- 
 ache has been frequently benefited by a seton on 
 the back of the neck. 
 
 Inflammation of the Eye. 
 
 Symptoms. Pain, heat and swelling of the 
 parts, which appear bloodshot, the tears hot and 
 scalding, fever, intolerance of light; sometimes 
 when the lids are affected the edges become ulce- 
 rated. . 
 
 Causes. External injuries, as blows, particles 
 of sand, etc., getting into them, exposure to cold, 
 a strong light, intemperance. 
 ^ Treatment. If the complaint is caused by for- 
 eign bodies, they must be removed with the point 
 of a paint brush, or the end of a piece of wire cov- 
 ered with lint, or washed out by injecting warm 
 milk and water into the eye with a small syringe. 
 If particles of iron stick in it they may be drawn 
 out by a magnet. From whatever circumstance 
 it may originate, the inflammation is to be sub- 
 dued by taking blood from the neighborhood of 
 the eye by a dozen or more leeches. The bowels, 
 should be freely opened with Epsom salts, and a 
 
 cold lead-water poultice, enclosed hi a piece of 
 thin gauze, be laid over he part. The room 
 should be perfectly dark and the diet extremely 
 low. Rose-water may be used as a lotion. If 
 the pain is very severe, a small quantity of equal 
 parts of laudanum and water may be dropped 
 into the eye. If the eye-lids are ulcerated, touch 
 them with the white vitriol ointment. Bathing 
 the eye frequently with clear cold water is a re- 
 freshing and useful practice. If the eye-ball be 
 ulcerated over the pupil, lead-water must be 
 avoided ; as, in that case, it might cause opacity. 
 There are many other diseases incident to the 
 eyes, but none that can be managed by any but a 
 physician or surgeon. When, therefore, any alter- 
 ation in the structure of the eye is perceived, no 
 time should be lost in having recourse to the one 
 or the other. 
 
 Inflammation of the Ear. 
 
 Symptoms. Pain in the ear, which at last either 
 gradually ceases, or matter is discharged through 
 the opening. 
 
 Causes. The accumulation of hard wax, in- 
 sects getting into it, injuries from blows, etc. 
 
 Treatment. A little warm olive oil or glycerin, 
 with an equal part of laudanum, dropped into the 
 ear, and retained there by a piece of wool or cotton, 
 will frequently procure almost instant relief. If it 
 be caused by hard wax, inject warm soapsuds or salt 
 water to soften it, and then, with care, endeavor 
 to extract it, when the oil and laudanum may 
 again be employed. In cases of great severity a 
 blister may be applied behind the ear. A tempo- 
 rary deafness frequently results from this com- 
 plaint, and sometimes, when matter is formed, the 
 bones of the organ are destroyed, and hearing is 
 lost forever. 
 
 Bleeding from the Nose. 
 
 Causes. Fullness of blood, violent exercise, 
 particular positions of the bedy, blows, etc. 
 
 Treatment. Keep the patient erect or sitting, 
 with his head thrown a little backwards, take off" 
 his cravat, unbutton his shirt collar, and expose 
 him freely to the cold air; apply ice or cold vin- 
 egar arid water to the back of his neck. If the 
 pulse be full, bleed him from the arm. If these 
 are not sufficient, moisten a plug of linen or cot- 
 ton with brandy, roll it in powdered alum, and 
 screw it up the nostril. A piece of catgut may 
 also be passed through the nostril into the throat, 
 drawn out at the mouth, and a bit of sponge be 
 fastened to it and drawn back again, so as to make 
 the sponge block up the posterior nostril. In doing 
 this it is necessary to leave a piece of the catgut 
 so as to be got hold of, in order to withdraw the 
 sponge. It is seldom, however, that the first rem- 
 edies will not answer the purpose. The patient 
 should avoid removing the clots which form until 
 the bleeding has entirely ceased. 
 
 Polypus. 
 
 The nose is subject to two species of this tumor, 
 the pear-shaped or pendulous polypus, and a flat- 
 tened, irregular excrescence, which is extremely 
 painful and is of a cancerous nature. As soon aa 
 any affection of this kind is suspected, apply to a 
 surgeon. 
 
 Cancer of the Lip. 
 
 This kind of cancer generally commences in a 
 small crack, which, after a while, becomes exqui- 
 sitely painful. If closely examined, this crack is 
 found to be seated in a small, hard tumor, which 
 soon ulcerates, and, if not checked, extends the 
 disorder to the throat, thereby endangering life. 
 
 Treatment. The knife is the only remedy for 
 his, as well as every other species of cancer, and 
 no time should be lost in resorting to a surgeon. 
 
126 
 
 MEDICINE. 
 
 Mercurial Ulcers in the Mouth. 
 
 Large, dark-looking ulcers in the mouth are a 
 common effect of the abuse of mercury. They may 
 be known by the horrid smell of the breath, by the 
 teeth being loosened from the gums, and by a cop- 
 pery taste in the mouth. 
 
 Treatment, Omit all mercurial preparations, 
 wash the mouth frequently with sage tea or brandy 
 and water, and keep the bowels open with sulphur. 
 
 Ulcers and Pimples on the Tongue. 
 
 Small pimples are occasionally found on the 
 tongue, which at last form ulcers. Sometimes 
 they are occasioned by the rough and projecting 
 edge of a broken or decayed tooth : when this is 
 the cause, the part must be rounded by a file or 
 the tooth extracted, when the sore will heal with- 
 out further trouble. Whitish-looking specks, 
 which seem inclined to spread, are also met with 
 on the inside of the cheeks and lips. They are 
 easily removed by touching their surfaces with 
 burnt alum. 
 
 Cancer of the Toiigue. 
 
 Cancer of the tongue commences like that of 
 the lip, being a crack or fissure in a small, hard, 
 deep seated tumor on the side of the tongue. 
 
 Treatment. No time should be lost in useless 
 attempts to cure it by medicines. The only safety 
 for the patient is in the knife, and that at an early 
 period. 
 
 Enlargement of the Uvula. 
 
 The uvula is that little tongue-like appendage 
 that hangs down from the middle of the fleshy 
 curtain which divides the mouth from the throat. 
 It is very subject to inflammation, the consequence 
 of which is that it becomes so long that its point 
 touches, and sometimes even lies along the tongue, 
 which creates considerable uneasiness, and is now 
 and then the cause of a constant cough, which 
 finally ends in consumption. It is commonly 
 called the falling of the palate. 
 
 Treatment. Strong gargles of vinegar and 
 water, or a decoction of black-oak bark, or a wa- 
 tery solution of alum, will frequently cure the 
 complaint. It happens very frequently, however, 
 that in consequence of repeated attacks it becomes 
 permanently lengthened, and then the only re- 
 source is to cut off the end of it. If you are near 
 a physician apply to him ; if not, the operation is 
 so simple that any man of common dexterity can 
 perform it, particularly as little or no blood fol- 
 lows the incision. All that is requisite is to seat 
 the patient, seize the part with a hook, or a slender 
 pair of pincers, draw it a little forward, and snap 
 off its point with a pair of scissors. 
 
 Swelling of the Tonsils. 
 
 The tonsils are two glands situated in the throat, 
 one on each side, which are very apt to swell from 
 inflammation by colds. They sometimes become 
 so large as to threaten suffocation. 
 
 Treatment. In the commencement this is the 
 same as directed for inflammatory sore throat, 
 which see. If it does not succeed, apply to a sur- 
 geon to take them away. 
 
 Inflammatory Sore Throat. 
 
 Symptoms. Chills and flushes of heat succeed- 
 ing each other; fever ; the inside of the mouth, 
 the throat and tonsils much inflamed; swallowing 
 is painful ; hoarseness ; heat and darting pains in 
 the throat. 
 
 Causes. Coli; sitting in damp clothes; wet 
 feet ; excessive exertions of voice. 
 
 Distinguish it from diphtheria by the fever being 
 inflammatory, the absence of ash-colored patches 
 Bear the tonsils, etc. 
 
 Treatment. An emetic taken at a very early 
 stage of this disorder will frequently prevent it 
 from forming. The next step is to leech the pa- 
 tient freely and give him a large dose of Epsom 
 salts. A mustard poultice or blister to the throat 
 is an invaluable application, and should never be 
 neglected. The room should be kept cool and 
 quiet, and the diet consist of barley or rice-water. 
 The throat may be gargled several times in the 
 day with alum and water; inhaling the steam of 
 hot water from the spout of a tea pot is of use. 
 
 Putrid Sore Throat or Diptheria. 
 ^ Symptoms. Difficulty of swallowing; respira- 
 tion hurried; breath hot; skin dry and burning; 
 a quick, weak and irregular pulse ; scarlet patches 
 break out about the lips, and the inside of the 
 mouth and throat is of a fiery red color. About 
 the second or third day, upon examining the 
 throat, a number of specks or patches between 
 an ash and a dark brown color are observed on 
 the palate, uvula, tonsils, etc. ; a brown fur covers 
 the tongue ; the lips are covered with little vesi- 
 cles or bladders, which burst and give out a thin, 
 acrid matter that produces ulceration wherever it 
 touches. In bad cases the inside of the mouth 
 and throat become black, and are covered with 
 foul spreading ulcers, and all the symptoms that 
 characterize low fever ensue. 
 
 Distinguish it from scarlet fever by the fever 
 being a typhus and not inflammatory, and by 
 the peculiar sore throat, and from measles by 
 the absence of cough, sneezing, watering of the 
 eyes, etc. 
 
 Treatment. Bleeding in this disease is abso- 
 lutely forbidden. The same may be said of active 
 or strong purgatives. The bowels, however, 
 should be kept open by mild laxatives or clysters. 
 
 Emetics are used in the beginning with advan- 
 tage, but the great and evident indication is to 
 prevent and counteract the disposition to putres- 
 cency, and to support the strength. For thii 
 purpose the cold infusion of bark, or bark in sub- 
 stance, with ten or twelve drops of muriatic acid 
 and eight or nine drops of laudanum, should be 
 taken frequently, and in large doses. Chlorate 
 of potassa is a valuable article; it may be taken 
 in solution, twenty grains for an adult every two 
 hours, in a teaspoonful of water. To cleanse the 
 throat, gargle frequently with vinegar or muri- 
 atic acid and water or glycerin. The diet should 
 consist of milk, arrow-root, jelly, panada, tapioca 
 and gruel, and the drink of wine whey, wine and 
 water, etc., increasing the quantity of the wine 
 according to the weakness and age of the patient. 
 The greatest cleanliness is to be observed in the 
 chamber. As this disease is thought by some to 
 be contagious, all unnecessary communication 
 with the sick room should be prevented. 
 
 Strictures in the Throat. 
 
 Symptoms. The first mark of an obstruction or 
 stricture in the throat is a slight difficulty in 
 swallowing solids, which continues increasing for 
 months, or until the passage becomes so contracted 
 that the smallest particle of food cannot pass, but 
 having remained an instant in the strictured part 
 is violently rejected. If the obstacle is not re- 
 moved the patient starves. 
 
 Treatment. Meddle not with the complaint 
 yourself, for you can do nothing to relieve it, but 
 apply with all speed to a surgeon, and remember 
 that life is at stake. 
 
 Catarrh or Cold. 
 
 Symptoms. A dull pain in the head ; swelling 
 and redness of the eyes; the effusion of a thin, 
 
CONSUMPTION, ASTHMA, PLEURISY. 
 
 127 
 
 acrid mucus from the nose ; hoarseness j cough ; I 
 fever, etc. 
 
 Treatment. If the symptoms be violent, bleed 
 and give twenty drops of hartshorn in half a pint 
 of warm vinegar whey. Hoarhound and boneset 
 tea, taken in large quantities, are very useful. 
 The patient should be confined to his bed, and be 
 freely purged. If there is great pain in the 
 breast, apply a blister to it. To ease the cough 
 take one teaspoonful of No. 1 every thirty min- 
 utes, or till relief is obtained. 
 
 The Influenza is nothing more than an aggra- 
 vated and epidemic state of catarrh, and is to be 
 cured by the same remedies. No cough or cold is 
 too light to merit attention. Neglected colds lay 
 the foundations for diseases that every year send 
 thousands to the grave. 
 
 No. 1. Cough Mixture. Paregoric i an ounce ; 
 syrup of squills 1 ounce; antimonial wine 2 
 drachms ; water 6 ounces. Dose is one teaspoon- 
 ful every thirty minutes, or at longer intervals, 
 till the cough abates. 
 
 Asthma. 
 
 Symptoms. A tightness across the breast; fre- 
 quent short breathing, attended with a wheezing, 
 increased by exertion and when in bed. It comes 
 on in fits or paroxysms. 
 
 Treatment. If the cough be violent and fre- 
 quent, with great pain in the breast, and the pa- 
 tient be young and robust, it may be necessary to 
 bleed or cup him. In old people it should be re- 
 sorted to with caution. The tincture* of lobelia is 
 highly recommended in asthma. It should be 
 taken in doses of a very few drops at first, and 
 cautiously increased. If the pulse sinks under it, 
 or nausea, giddiness, etc., is produced, it must be 
 laid aside. In fact, it is hardly prudent to take 
 this active and dangerous article, except under a 
 physician's care. The dried roots of the thorn- 
 apple and skunk-cabbage are sometimes smoked 
 through a pipe for the same purpose, soaked in a 
 solution of nitre and dried. Asthma is a disease 
 that is seldom completely cured by art; nature, 
 however, occasionally effects it. 
 
 Pleurisy. 
 
 Symptoms. A sharp pain or stitch in the side, 
 increased upon breathing, inability to lie on the 
 affected side, pulse hard, quick and corded, tongue 
 white. 
 
 Treatment. Take away at once from twelve to 
 fifteen ounces of blood, place a large blister over 
 the side, and give a full dose of Epsom salts. 
 Follow the bleeding by cups if relief is not ob- 
 tained ; and afterwards a blister. All the remedies 
 for the reduction of inflammation must be ac- 
 tively employed. The patient should be confined 
 to his bed, with the head and shoulders a little 
 elevated, and if pain be severe, especially at night, 
 10 grains of Dover's powder may be given. The 
 diet should always consist of rice or barley-water, 
 gruel, etc. 
 
 Spitting of Blood. 
 
 Symptoms. Blood of a bright red color, often 
 frothy, brought up by coughing. 
 
 Causes. Consumption, a fulness of blood, rup- 
 ture of a blood vessel from any cause. Distinguish 
 it from vomiting of blood by its bright color, and 
 being brought up with coughing. 
 
 Treatment. Give the patient at once a table- 
 epoonful of common salt, and direct him to swal- 
 low it slowly. If the pulse be full, and he be ro- 
 hust, bleed him. The sugar of lead has much 
 
 * Take a sufficient quantity of the leaves, stem and 
 pods of the plant, put them into a bottle and fill it up 
 With brandy or spirits, and let it remain for a few days. 
 
 reputation in this complaint : two or three grains 
 of it, with from a half to a whole grain of opium, 
 may be taken every three or four hours, and in. 
 severe cases, where the blood flows rapidly, five or 
 six grains, with two of opium, may be taken at 
 once. The most perfect rest should be strictly en- 
 joined, and the diet should be cooling and simple. 
 Consumption. 
 
 Symptoms. A short, dry cough, languor and 
 gradual loss of strength, pulse small, quick, and 
 soft, pain in the breast, expectoration of a frothy 
 matter, that at last becomes solid and yellow, the 
 breathing grows more anxious and hurried, the 
 emaciation and pain increase, hectic fever, night 
 sweats, and a looseness of the bowels come on, 
 and the patient, unsuspicious of danger, dies. 
 
 Causes. Neglected colds, dissipation, heredi- 
 tary tendency, etc. Distinguish it by the long- 
 continued cough, pain in the breast, and great 
 emaciation, by the substance thrown up contain- 
 ing pus, in common language, matter. It is 
 known by its being opaque, mixing with water, 
 and heavier than it, so that if thrown into a vessel 
 containing that fluid it sinks to the bottom. When 
 thrown upon hot coals it yields an offensive odor. 
 
 Treatment. In a confirmed state of consump- 
 tion, nothing that art has hitherto been able to do 
 can afford us any solid hopes of a cure. W'ren 
 once the disease is firmly seated in the lungs all 
 that is possible is to smooth the passage to the 
 grave, and perhaps for a while to retard it. If, 
 however, the disease is taken in its very bud, much 
 may be done by a change of climate, a milk diet, 
 cod-liver oil, moderate daily exercise on horse- 
 back, and by carefully avoiding cold and all ex- 
 citing causes. A removal to a warm climate 
 should be the first step taken, if practicable; if 
 not, a voyage to sea or a long journey on horse- 
 back. A complete suit of flannel, worn next the 
 skin, is an indispensable article for every one who 
 is even inclined to this most fatal disorder. 
 Palpitation of the Heart. 
 
 The symptoms of this complaint must be ob- 
 vious from its name. When it arises from organic 
 disease of the heart or its vessels, nothing can be 
 done to cure it. The patient should be careful to 
 awid a full habit of body, and abstain from vio- 
 ler . exercise and sexual indulgences. He should 
 live low, and keep as quiet and composed a.s pos- 
 sible. A fit of anger, or any imprudence, may 
 cost him his life. There is a milder kind of this 
 disease, resulting from debility, nervousness, indi- 
 gestion, etc., which must be remedied by restoring 
 the strength of the general system. It is also 
 symptomatic of other diseases, and must be 
 treated accordingly. 
 
 Dropsy of the Chest. 
 
 Symptoms. Great difficulty of breathing, which 
 is increased by lying down, oppression and weight 
 at the breast, countenance pale or livid, and ex- 
 tremely anxious, great thirst, pul.e irregular and 
 intermitting, cough, violent palpitation of the 
 heart, the patient can lie on one side only, or can- 
 not lie down at all, so that he is obliged to sleep sit- 
 ting, frightful dreans, a feeling of suffocation, etc. 
 
 Treatment. All that can be done is to follow 
 the same plan that is laid down for the treatment 
 of dropsy in general, which consists of purging 
 and diuretics. When the water appears to be con- 
 fined to one cavity of the chest, and the oppres- 
 sion cannot be borne, some relief may be obtained 
 by a surgical operation. 
 
 Inflammation of the Stomach. 
 Symptoms. A fixed, burning pain in the sto- 
 mach, small, very quick hard pulse, sudden and 
 
128 
 
 MEDICINE. 
 
 great weakness, the pain in the stomach increased 
 on the slightest pressure, vomiting, hiccup. 
 
 Onuses. Cold suddenly applied to the body or 
 stomach, drinking largely of cold water while very 
 warm. The striking in of eruptions, poisons, 
 gout, rheumatism. Distinguish it from inflam- 
 mation of the bowels by the seat of the pain, 
 which is just below the breast bone, in what is 
 called the pit of the stomach, the burning heat 
 and pain {here, by the hiccup and vomiting. 
 
 Treatment. The softness of the pulse is here 
 no rule to go by, for it is caused by the disease. 
 The rule is to bleed or leech over the pit of the 
 stomach. From ten to twenty ounces may be 
 taken in a lull stream from a robust man at the 
 beginning. As soon as he is bled, or while the 
 blood is flowing, put him into a warm bath, and 
 have a large blister prepared, which, after he has 
 remained some time in the bath, should be applied 
 directly over the stomach. A warm laxative 
 clyster is now to be thrown up, and when the sto- 
 mach will retain it, give him small quantities of 
 arrow root je*lly or gum arable tea from time to time, 
 with a few drops of laudanum. The most rigid diet 
 must be observed, and the patient kept very quiet; 
 
 When the inflammation is reduced, and the sto- 
 mach will bear it, a grain of solid opium may be 
 given occasionally with advantage. If the disease 
 has been brought on by poison taken into the sto- 
 mach, apply the remedies directed in such cases. 
 If mortification ensues, death is the inevitable 
 consequence. It is known to exist when from 
 the state of torture we have just described there 
 is a sudden change to one of perfect ease. 
 Cramp in the Stomach. 
 
 Symptoms. Violent spasmodic pain in the 
 stomach, which is so severe as nearly to occasion 
 fainting. 
 
 Treatment. Give thirty to sixty drops of lauda- 
 num, in a teaspoonful of ether, with a little hot 
 wine. Apply a mustard plaster over the stomach, 
 bladders or bottles filled with warm water to the 
 soles of the feet, or put the patient into the warm 
 bath. If the first dose of laudanum does not re- 
 lieve the pain, repeat it. 
 
 Hiccups. 
 
 Symptoms. A spasmodic affection of the stom- 
 ach and diaphragm, producing the peculiar noise 
 which gives rise to the name. 
 
 Treatment. When hiccups occur at the close 
 of any disease, they may be considered the har- 
 bingers of death ; they, however, frequently arise 
 from acidity in the stomach and other causes. A 
 long draught of cold water, a sudden surprise or 
 fright puts an end to them. A blister over the 
 stomach may be applied for the same purpose. I 
 have succeeded in relieving a violent case of hic- 
 cups, that resisted every other remedy, by the oil 
 of amber, in doses of five drops every ten minutes. 
 It may be taken in a little mint-water. Camphor 
 is also useful. 
 
 Heartburn. 
 
 This common and distressing affection is gene- 
 rally connected with indigestion. To relieve it for 
 the moment, magnesia, soda, or Seltzer water, or 
 water acidulated with sulphuric acid, may be em- 
 ployed. To cure the complaint requires the di- 
 gestive powers to be strengthened by tonics, bit- 
 ters, and the different preparations of iron, etc., 
 as directed for indigestion. The application of a 
 blister over the stomach may be of use. The white 
 oxide of bismuth in six grain doses, three times 
 a day, taken in milk, has been found of service. 
 
 Indigestion, or Dyspepsia. 
 Symptoms. Want of appetite; low spirits ', 
 
 pains and fullness in the stomach; belching; a 
 sour water rising in the mouth; heartburn; tho 
 bowels irregular and generally costive; weak- 
 ness and emaciation ; pulse small and slow ; pain 
 in the head; skin dry; great uneasiness after 
 eating. 
 
 Causes. All those which induce debility; eat- 
 ing too rapidly, without chewing the food; exces- 
 sive indulgence in the pleasures of the table, or 
 intemperance in any way; a sedentary life, or 
 want of exercise; a diseased liver. 
 
 Treatment. In every case of indigestion, the 
 first thing the patient should do is to abstain from 
 whatever may have tended to produce it. The diet 
 should consist of animal food that is light, nour- 
 ishing, and easily digested. Roasted beef or mut- 
 ton is perhaps preferable to any other. Country air 
 and constant exercise on horseback are invaluable 
 remedies in this disease, which, as it is generally 
 occasioned by a departure from natural habits and 
 employments, must be relieved by a return to 
 them. Flannel should be worn next the skin, and 
 care taken to avoid cold or exposure to wet. A 
 wine-glass of the infusion of bark and quassia 
 (made by placing one ounce of powdered bark 
 and one of ground quassia in a close vessel, to 
 which is added a quart of boiling water ; to be 
 kept simmering near the fire until the whole is re- 
 duced to a pint), with ten or twelve drops of the 
 elixir of vitriol, should be regularly taken, three 
 times a day, for months. The bowels are to be 
 kept open by some warm laxative as rhubarb, and 
 the whole frame braced by the daily use of the cold 
 bath. Weak spirits and water, or a single glass 
 of sound old Madeira may be taken at dinner. 
 Much benefit has been found to result from a 
 long-continued use of the wine of iron (made by 
 taking iron-filings 4 ounces, and pouring on it 
 4 pints of Madeira wine ; let it stand for a 
 month, shaking it frequently), a glass of which 
 may be taken twice a day. If the complaint arise 
 from a diseased liver, recourse must be had to tho 
 plan laid down for its cure. 
 
 An attack of temporary indigestion may be 
 treated by abstinence, rest, and a teaspoonful of 
 magnesia, if the bowels be costive,otherwise a quar- 
 ter of a teaspoonful of the bicarbonate of soda. 
 Vomiting of Blood. 
 
 Symptoms. A flow of dark blood from the 
 stomach, preceded by a sense of weight and op- 
 pression in that organ. The blood is generally 
 mixed with particles of food, etc. 
 
 Distinguish it from spitting of blood, by ita 
 dark color, and being mixed with food. 
 
 Treatment. If the accompanying symptoms be 
 inflammatory, bleed or cup, and use some cooling 
 purge ; if otherwise, try fifteen drops of the mu- 
 riated tincture of iron, with six of laudanum, in a 
 glass of water, every hour till the bleeding ceases, 
 If the cause be a diseased liver, or tumor in the 
 neighborhood, treat it accordingly. 
 
 Inflammation of the Liver. 
 
 Symptoms. A dull pain in the right side below 
 the rib, which is more sensible on pressure; an 
 inability to lie on the left side; pain in the right 
 shoulder ; a sallow complexion. Such are the 
 symptoms of an acute attack of this disease. 
 There is another species of it called chronic, in 
 which its approaches are so gradual that it is a 
 diflicult matter to determine its nature. It com- 
 mences with all the symptoms of indigestion, and 
 ends in jaundice or dropsy. 
 
 Causes. Long-continued fever and ague ; drunk- 
 enness, or a free use of spirituous liquors is a very 
 common cause; injuries from blows, etc. 
 
 Distinguish it from pleurisy by the pain not 
 

 JAUNDICE, CHOLEKA MORBUS. 
 
 129 
 
 being so severe, and by its extending to the top 
 of the shoulder ; by not being able to rest on the 
 left side, 
 
 Treatment. Bleed or cup the patient according 
 to his age, strength, and the violence of the pain, 
 and, if necessary, apply a blister over the part 
 which may be kept open by dressing it with the 
 savin ointment. The bowels should be opened by 
 Epom salts or calomel and jalap. If this does 
 not abate the symptoms in a few days, give a 
 calomel pill of one-half grain every five hours, or 
 rub a drachm of the strongest mercurial ointmeni 
 into the side until the gums are found to be a 
 little sore, when the frictions or pills must be dis 
 continued until the mouth is well, and then again 
 resorted to as before. If an abscess points out 
 wardly, apply bread and milk poultices to the tu- 
 mor, omit the mercury, use wine, bark, and a 
 generous diet. As soon as matter is to be fel 
 within it, open it at its lowest and most project- 
 ing part with the point of a sharp lancet, and lei 
 out its contents very slowly, taking care not to 
 close the wound till this is completely effected, 
 The nitromuriatic acid, in doses of four drops 
 three times a day, steadily persevered in, will 
 sometimes produce a cure. A tea made of the 
 root or leaves of the dandelion is sometimes me- 
 dicinal in liver complaint. 
 
 Jaundice. 
 
 Symptoms Languor; loathing of food ; a bitter 
 taste in the mouth ; vomiting ; the skin and eye 
 of a yellow color; the stools clayey, and the urine 
 giving a yellow tinge to rags dipped in it. There 
 is a full pain in the right side, under the last rib 
 which is increased by pressure. When the pain is 
 severe, there is fever; the pulse hard and full, etc. 
 
 Causes. An interruption to the regular passage 
 of the bil* ; which is retained in or carried into the 
 blood. It may be occasioned by gall-stones, a 
 diseased liver, etc. Intemperance is a very com- 
 mon cause, hence tipplers are more subject to 
 than others. 
 
 Treatment. If the pulse be full and hard, the 
 pain great, and other inflammatory symptoms be 
 present, blood is to be taken away as freely as the 
 age and strength of the patient, and the violence 
 of the pain, seems to demand. He should then be 
 placed in a warm bath, and allowed to remain 
 there some time; when removed to bed, a grain or 
 two of opium may be given every few hours until 
 the pain is relieved. Bladders partly filled with 
 warm water, or cloths wrung out of hot decoctions 
 of herbs, may also be applied to the seat of the 
 pain. If the stomach be so irritable as not to re- 
 tain anything on it, try fomentations and the 
 effervescing mixture, or a blister to the part. As 
 soon as some degree of ease is obtained by these 
 means, purgatives must be employed, and steadily 
 persevered in; calomel and jalap or Epsom salts, 
 in the ordinary doses, answer very well. If, how- 
 ever, this cannot be done, and, from the pain being 
 acute at one particular spot, there is reason to sup- 
 pose that a gall-stone is lodged there, the follow- 
 ing remedy may be tried, of which one-fifth or a 
 little less may be taken every morning, drinking 
 freely of chicken broth, flaxseed tea, or barley 
 water after it. 
 
 Ether 3 drachms; spirits of turpentine, 2 
 drachms. Mix them. 
 
 The diet ought to be vegetable, and should the 
 disease have arisen from a neglected inflammation 
 of the liver, it must be treated accordingly. (See 
 Inflammation of the Liver.) Regular exercise (on 
 horseback, if possible) should never be neglected 
 by persons subject to this disease in its chronic 
 form. 
 
 9 
 
 Ague Cake. 
 
 This is the vulgar appellation for an enlarged 
 spleen, and expresses, with much brief meaning, 
 the cause of the complaint, as it generally results 
 from ill-treated or obstin'ate intermittents. It is, 
 however, not productive of much uneasiness, and 
 frequently disappears of itself. The plan of treat- 
 ment, if there is acute pain in the part, is to purge 
 and blister. If it remains enlarged after this, 
 mercury may be carefully resorted to, aa directed 
 in chronic inflammation of the liver. 
 
 Inflammation of the Intestines. 
 Symptoms. Sharp pain in the bowels, which 
 shoots round the navel, and which is increased by 
 pressure, sudden loss of strength, vomiting of 
 dark-colored, sometimes excrementitious matter, 
 costiveness, small, quick, and hard pulse, high- 
 colored urine. 
 
 Distinguish it from colic, by the pain being in- 
 creased by pressure, whereas in colic it is relieved 
 by it. 
 
 Treatment. This is another of those formidable 
 diseases that require the most actively reducing 
 measures in the onset. From ten to twenty 
 ounces of blood ought to be taken away at once, 
 and the patient placed in a warm bath, after which 
 a large blister should be applied to the belly. 
 Emollient and laxative clysters may be injected 
 from time to time, and if the vomiting and irrita- 
 bility of the stomach permit it to be retained, give 
 a dose of castor oil. If this be rejected too, the 
 oil mixture No. 1. This, however, though one of 
 great importance, is a secondary consideration; 
 to subdue the inflammation, by bleeding or leech- 
 ing, being the great object. The diet should con- 
 sist of barley or rice-water only. If in the latter 
 stages of the disease, when the inflammation haa 
 somewhat subsided, an obstinate costiveness be 
 found to resist all the usual remedies, dashing 
 cold water over the belly will sometimes succeed. 
 Remember that this complaint frequently runs 
 its course in a day or two, and that, unless treat- 
 ment be promptly employed in the very beginning, 
 mortification and death will ensue. If a strangu- 
 lated rupture occasion the disease, the same, and, 
 if possible, still stronger reasons exist for bleed- 
 ing, previously to any attempts at reduction. 
 When certain quantities are mentioned, it is al- 
 ways to be understood that they are applicable to 
 robust men. Common sense will dictate the ne- 
 cessity of diminishing them, as the patient may 
 fall more or less short of this description. If 
 strangulated rupture be feared, surgical aid 
 should be early obtained. 
 
 No. 1. OH Mixture. The yolk of one egg; cas- 
 tor oil, 2 ounces. Mix them well, and add laven- 
 der compound, 2 drachms; sugar, 1 ounce; water, 
 5 ounces. Mix them well. The dose is a table- 
 spoonful every hour till it operates, or half the 
 quantity at once ; the remainder, in divided doses, 
 if no passage is obtained after a space of four 
 hours. 
 
 Cholera Morbiia 
 
 Symptoms. A violent vomiting and purging of 
 bile, preceded by a pain in the stomach and bow- 
 els; quick, weak, and fluttering pulse; heat, thirst, 
 cold sweats, hiccups, and sometimes death in a few 
 urs. 
 
 Treatment. Bladders or bottles containing hot 
 water should be applied to the feet, and flannel 
 loths wrung out of hot spirits, or a mustard 
 plaster, be laid over the stomach. When it is 
 supposed that the stomach is sufficiently cleared, 
 ive two grains of solid opium in a pill, and re- 
 peat half the quantity every few hours, as the 
 case may require. If the weakness be very 
 
130 
 
 MEDICINE. 
 
 great, and the spasms so alarming as to cause 
 a fear of the immediate result, the quantity 
 of opium may be increased carefully. If the 
 pill will not remain in the stomach, give eighty 
 or ninety drops of laudanum, in a tablespoonful 
 of thin starch, by clyster, and repeat it as often 
 as may be necessary. Fifty or sixty drops of 
 laudanum in a small quantity of strong mint tea, 
 or the effervescing draught, will frequently suc- 
 ceed in allaying the irritation. If all these means 
 fail, apply a blister to the stomach. For thirst, 
 give ice ; a little at once. To complete the recov- 
 ery, and to guard against a second attack, a com- 
 plete casing of flannel is requisite, together with 
 the use of vegetable bitters and tonics. Persons 
 subject to this disease should be cautious in their 
 diet and avoid exposure to moist, cold air. 
 Dysentery. 
 
 Symptoms. Fever; frequent small stools, ac- 
 companied by griping, bearing down pains, the 
 discharge consisting of pure blood or blood and 
 matter, sometimes resembling the shreds or wash- 
 ings of raw flesh ; a constant desire to go to stool. 
 
 Distinguish it from diarrhoea or lax by the fe- 
 ver, griping pains, and the constant desire to 
 evacuate the bowels, by the discharge itself being 
 blood, or matter streaked with blood, etc. 
 
 Treatment. As dysentery or bloody flux is al- 
 most always in this country connected with con- 
 siderable inflammation, it will be proper, in some 
 oases, to bleed the patient at the beginning of the 
 ittack. Whether it be thought prudent to bleed 
 or not, an early dose of castor oil, with clysters 
 of the same, and the application of blisters to the 
 belly should never be omitted. The stomach and 
 bowels may be cleansed by barley or rice-water 
 taken by the mouth and in clysters. As soon as 
 this is effected give half a grain of opium with 
 half a grain of ipecac every two, three or four 
 hours. The diet should consist of gum arabic dis- 
 solved in milk, arrow-root jelly, barley-water, etc. 
 Clysters of the same articles, with the addition of 
 an ounce of olive oil nnd twenty drops of lauda- 
 num, may be likewise injected. Towards the lat- 
 ter end of the complaint, opium and astringents 
 are proper, and indeed necessary. I say the lat- 
 ter end of it, for in the commencement they would 
 be hurtful. In this stage of it also, if a severe 
 tenesmus (or constant desire to go to stool) re- 
 mains, anodyne clysters, as of forty to eighty 
 drops of laudanum in an ounce of starch will be 
 found useful, or what is more effectual, a couple 
 of grains of opium placed just within the funda- 
 ment. The various astringents which are proper 
 for dysentery in its latter stages, are found below, 
 and may be used, with port wine and water, as a 
 drink : 
 
 Astringents, Acetate of lead 1 scruple ; opium 
 10 grains. Divide into twenty pills. Take one 
 every two, three or four hours. 
 
 Tincture of catechu 2 ounces. Take two tea- 
 spoonsful in a little port wine every hour, or oft- 
 ener if required ; or. 
 
 Extract of logwood 20 grains; cinnamom water 
 2 ounces; tincture of kino 1 drachm; sugar 2 
 draehma. To be taken at once. 
 
 Diarrhoea or Lax. 
 
 Symptoms. Repeated and large discharges of 
 a thin excrementitious matter by stool, sometimes 
 attended with griping and a rumbling noise in the 
 bowels. 
 
 Ti-entment. If the disease arises from cold, a 
 few doses of the chalk mixture, No. 1, will fre- 
 quently put an end to it. It is, however, some- 
 times necessary to begin with an emetic of twenty 
 grains of ipecacuanha, and then open the bowels 
 
 by some mild purgative, as castor oil or rhubarb. 
 Bathing the feet in warm water, and copioua 
 draughts of boneset tea, will be found of great 
 benefit' if it originate from suppressed perspira- 
 tion. For the same purpose, also, from six to ten 
 grains of Dover's powder may be taken at night, 
 being careful not to drink much for some time 
 after it. If worms are the cause, treat it as di- 
 rected. When it is occasioned by mere weakness, 
 and in the latter stages of it (proceed from what 
 it may), when every irritating matter is expelled, 
 opium, combined with astringents, is necessary as 
 in the similar period of dysentery. The diet 
 should consist, in the beginning, of rice, arrow-root, 
 sago, etc., and subsequently of roasted chicken. 
 Weak brandy and water, or port wine and water, 
 may accompany the chicken for a common drink. 
 Persons subject to complaints of this kind should 
 defend their bowels from the action of cold by a 
 flannel shirt; the feet and other parts of the body 
 should also be kept warm. 
 
 No. 1. Chalk Mixture. Prepared chalk 2 
 drachtns; loaf sugar 1 drachm. Rub them well 
 together in a mortar, and add gradually of muci- 
 lage of gum arabic 1 ounce; water 6 ounces; lay- 
 ender compound 2 drachms ; laudanum 30 drops. 
 The dose is a tablespoonful every hour, or oftener. 
 Shake the bottle well before pouring out the liquid, 
 or the chalk will be at the bottom. 
 
 Colic. 
 
 Symptoms. Violent shooting pain that twists 
 round the navel; the skin of the belly drawn into 
 balls; obstinate costiveness; sometimes a vomit- 
 ing of excrement. 
 
 Distinguish it from inflammation of the bowels 
 by the pain being relieved by pressure, and from 
 other diseases by the twisting round the navel, the 
 skin being drawn into balls, etc. 
 
 Treatment. The first thing to be done in this 
 disease is to give a dose of oil or magnesia with 
 laudanum in a little peppermint water, and apply 
 a mustard poultice over or below the navel. Forty, 
 sixty or seventy drops of laudanum may be given 
 at once, as the pain is more or less violent, and the 
 dose may be repeated in a half hour, or less time, 
 if ease is not procured. During this time, if the 
 first doses of laudanum are found ineffectual in 
 reducing the pain, and it is very great, eighty or 
 ninety drops may be given as a clyster in a gill 
 of gruel or warm water. One great rule in the 
 treatment of colic, where the pain is excessive, is 
 to continue the use of opium in such increased 
 doses as will relieve it. When this result is ob- 
 tained, castor oil by the mouth and clyster must 
 be employed to open the bowels. 
 
 In bilious colic, when there is vomiting of bile, 
 the effervescing draught, with thirty drops of 
 laudanum, may be taken to quiet the stomach, to 
 which flannels wrung out of warm spirits may be 
 applied. When the vomiting has abated, the oil 
 mixture or the pills below should be taken until a 
 free discharge is procured. If, notwithstanding 
 our endeavors, the disease proceeds to such an 
 extent as to induce a vomiting of excrement, the 
 tobacco clyster must be tried, or an attempt be 
 made to fill the intestines with warm water. This 
 is done by forcibly injecting it in large quantities, 
 at the same time the patient swallows as much as 
 he is al-le. In this way, with a proper syringe, 
 two gallons have been successfully introduced. 
 In all cases of colic, when there is obstinate cos- 
 tiveness, an examination of the fundament should 
 be made with the finger. If there are any hard, 
 dry pieces of excrement there, they may be re- 
 moved either by the finger or the handle of a spoon. 
 Examination of the groin and navel should also 
 
MEDICINE. 
 
 131 
 
 le made, to see if there be a rupture which may 
 be strangulated. 
 
 Those who are subject to colic should jivoid 
 fermented liquors and much vegetable food; be 
 always well clothed, and take care not to expose 
 themselves to cold and wet. The bowels should 
 sever be allowed to remain costive. 
 
 Pnryallve Pill*. Of calomel and jalap each 10 
 grains ; opium li grain ; tartar emetic i a grain ; 
 oil of aniseed 1 drop. Make the whole into amass. 
 To be taken at once, or divided into pills, if the 
 patient prefer it. 
 
 Painter's Colic. 
 
 Symptoms. Pain and weight in the belly ; belch- 
 ing; constant desire to go to stool, which is inef- 
 fectual; quick, contracted pulse; the belly be- 
 comes painful to the touch, and is drawn into 
 knots; constant colic pains; the patient sits in a 
 bent position : after awhile palsy of part or of the 
 whole body. 
 
 Treatment. This disease is too apt to end in 
 palsy, leaving the hands and limbs contracted and 
 useless. In every case of colic, whose symptoms 
 resemble the above, if the person has been ex- 
 posed to lead in any of its shapes, all doubt on 
 the subject vanishes. 
 
 Give laudanum in moderate doses, and rub the 
 belly well with warm spirits, and place him in a 
 bath as hot as he can bear. As soon as he is 
 well dried, and has rested in bed a few minutes, 
 take him up and dash a bucket of cold water over 
 his belly and thighs, or mix an ounce of sulphate 
 of magnesia in a pint of water, and give a wine- 
 glassful every half hour until ease is obtained. 
 If this, with castor oil by the mouth and in clys- 
 ters will not produce a stool, apply a large blister 
 to the belly. As soon as the symptoms are some- 
 what abated, castor oil or laxative clysters may 
 be resorted to for the purpose of keeping the 
 bowels open, and to guard against a return small 
 doses of opium should be taken from time to time. 
 Bitters, the different preparations of iron, bark, 
 etc., are necessary to restore the strength of the 
 system. 
 
 Worms. 
 
 Symptoms. Intolerable itching at the nose, 
 sometimes at the fundament ; disagreeable breath ; 
 grinding of the teeth and starting during sleep-; 
 hardness of the belly ; gradual emaciation ; colic, 
 and sometimes convulsions. 
 
 Treatment. This will vary according to the 
 kind of worm that is to be destroyed. They are 
 of three kinds : 
 
 The White Thread- Worm 
 Resembles a small piece of white thread, and is 
 usually found near the fundament, at the lower 
 end of the guts, where it produces a contraction 
 of the parts, and a most intolerable itching. Clys- 
 ters of lime-water will frequently bring the whole 
 nest of them away, and procure instant relief. 
 The tincture of aloes below, however, is one of 
 the best remedies known for not only this, but the 
 round worm. 
 
 Tincture of Aloes. Socotrine aloes 1 ounce ; 
 liquorice 2 ounces ; coriander-seed ^ an ounce ; 
 gin 1 pint. Digest in a bottle for a week, shaking 
 the bottle frequently; then strain. The dose for 
 a child is a teaspoonful every morning; for an 
 adult two tablespoonsful, with half the quantity 
 of a strong decoction of the Carolina pink root. 
 
 Santonin suppositories (three grains to a suffi- 
 cient amount of cacao butter) are a certain cure for 
 seat-worms. 
 
 The Round Worm 
 
 Occupies the small intestines, and sometimes 
 the stomach. It is of various lengths, from three 
 
 to eight or more inches. If the tincture of aloes 
 fail to remove it, the pink root may be taken in 
 decoction, or in powder, in doses of sixty or eighty 
 grains, to be followed after three or four days by 
 ten or fifteen grains of calomel. Cowhage, in mo- 
 lasses ~or honey, with a dose of castor oil every 
 third day, has been very highly extolled. In 
 cases where all other means have failed, tobacco 
 leaves, pounded with vinegir and applied to the 
 belly, have produced the desired effect. They aro 
 dangerous, however, especially with young chil- 
 dren. 
 
 The Tape- Worm 
 
 Inhabits the whole of the internal canal, and 
 sometimes defies all our efforts to get him out of 
 it. Large doses of spirits of turpentine, from one 
 to two ounces, in barley water, have been advan- 
 tageously employed for this purpose. If the spirits 
 of turpentine be tried, large quantities of gruel or 
 barley water should be used with it in order to 
 prevent its irritating the stomach and kidneys. 
 Pumpkin seeds, taken largely on an empty stomach, 
 will often expel the worm. 
 
 By whatever means these troublesome guests 
 are got rid of, the patient should be careful to 
 strengthen his system and bowels by a course of 
 barks, bitters, wine, etc., and to use a gfeat pro- 
 portion of animal food in his diet. Repeated 
 purging with calomel is, perhaps, as effectual a 
 remedy for worms as we have, particularly if suc- 
 ceeded by the pink root tea. 
 
 Inflammation of the Kidneyt. 
 
 Symptoms. Deep seated pain in the small of 
 the back; urine high-colored and small in quan- 
 tity, sometimes bloody; sickness at the stomach; 
 vomiting. 
 
 Treatment. This will depend upon the cause. 
 If it proceed from gravel, the plan to be pursued 
 will be detailed under that head. If it arise from 
 any other, cup the back freely, repeat it in ten or 
 twelve hours, if necessary, and put him into a 
 warm bath. Twenty grains or more of the uva 
 ursi, with half a grain of opium three times a day, 
 accompanied by small quantities of warm barley 
 or rice-water, is one of the most valuable reme- 
 dies we are in possession of. The diet during the 
 attack should consist of mucilaginous drinks only, 
 which must be frequently taken, notwithstanding 
 they may be rejected by vomiting. 
 
 Gravel. 
 
 Symptoms. A fixed pain in the loins; numb- 
 ness of the thigh ; constant vomiting ; retraction 
 of the testicle; urine small in quantity, voided 
 with pain and sometimes bloody. As the gravel 
 passes from the kidney into the bladder the pain 
 is so acute as to occasion fainting, etc. 
 
 Treatment. Put him into a warm bath, where 
 he should remain some time. Meanwhile an emol- 
 lient and anodyne clyster should be got ready, 
 which must be given to him as soon as he leaves 
 it. Cloths wrung out of decoctions of herbs or 
 spirits and water should be applied to the .part, 
 and small quantities of warm gum arabic tea or 
 barley-water be taken frequently. A grain of 
 opium every two hours will be found useful. Bi- 
 carbonate of soda in twenty-grain doses every 
 three hoursj often gives great relief. Strong 
 coffee, without sugar or cream, sometimes acts like 
 a charm in soothing the pain ; twenty drops of 
 the spirits of turpentine taken on a lump of sugar 
 every half hour, is said by high authority to do 
 the same. If the irritation of the stomach is very 
 great, the effervescing draught, with thirty or 
 forty drops of laudanum, may be tried. When 
 the pain, etc., is somewhat abated, the bowels 
 
182 
 
 MEDICINE. 
 
 hould be opened with castor oil. The uva ursi, 
 as before mentioned, is one of the most valuable 
 remedies in all diseases of the kidneys that we 
 have. Blisters in all such cases are never to be 
 applied. Persons subject to this distressing com- 
 plaint should be careful to avoid acids and fer- 
 mented liquors of all kinds, including the red 
 wines, beer, pickles, etc. For a common drink 
 soft water, or the seltzer and soda waters, are to 
 be preferred. When any threatening symptoms 
 are perceived, recourse should be had to the soda 
 and uva ursi, with half a grain of opium three 
 times a day, to be continued for weeks. 
 
 Inflammation of the Bladder. 
 
 Symptoms. Pain and swelling of the bladder, 
 the pain increased by pressure ; a frequent desire 
 to make water, which either comes away in small 
 quantities, or is totally suppressed. 
 
 Treatment. Cup the patient freely, according 
 to his age and strength, and put him into the warm 
 bath. Inject mucilaginous and laxative clysters, 
 and pursue the exact plan of treatment that is re- 
 commended for the cause from which it may pro- 
 ceed. See Suppression of Urine, etc. 
 
 Difficulty of Urinating, etc. 
 
 Symptoms. A frequent desire to make water, 
 attended with pain, heat, and difficulty in doing 
 so; a fullness in the bladder. 
 
 Treatment. If it arise from simple irritation 
 by blisters, etc., plentiful draughts of warm liquids, 
 as gum arabic or barley-water, will be sufficient 
 to remove it; if from any other cause, a bladder 
 half filled with warm water, or cloths wrung out 
 of a warm decoction of herbs, should be kept con- 
 stantly applied over the parts, and occasionally 
 clysters of thin starch with laudanum be injected. 
 Retention of Urine. 
 
 Symptoms. Pain and swelling of the bladder; 
 violent and fruitless attempts to make water, at- 
 tended with excruciating pain, etc. 
 
 Treatment. As a total retention of urine is 
 always attended with considerable danger, there 
 should be no delay in endeavoring to remove it. 
 The first step is to place the patient immediately 
 in the warm bath. While he is there a laxative 
 and anodyne clyster must be got ready, which is 
 to be given as soon as he leaves it, and soon re- 
 peated. In the mean time the warm fomentations 
 and bladder of hot water must be kept applied, and 
 the mixture below be taken every three or four 
 hours. If there be any difficulty in procuring it, 
 twenty drops of laudanum in a little warm barley 
 or rice-water, or a decoction of the dandelion, will 
 answer instead. Warm sweet oil or milk and 
 water may be injected up the urethra, and three or 
 four grains of camphor, in a little milk, be taken 
 every hour. 
 
 If no relief is obtained by these means, leech 
 the perineum, apply snow or ice to the bladder, or 
 make the patient stand on a cold brick or stone 
 pavement, and dash cold water over his thighs, 
 and, if this fail, try the tobacco clyster, which 
 sometimes succeeds after everything else has been 
 resorted to in vain. If a catheter can be procured, 
 try gently to pass it into the bladder while in the 
 bath. If the patient himself cannot do it, let a 
 handy friend attempt it; if foiled in one position, 
 try another. Success is of the utmost importance, 
 for there is nothing but an operation, in the event 
 of its not being obtained, that can save life. 
 
 In every case of retention of urine the order of 
 remedies then is: the warm bath, laxatives and 
 anodyne clysters, fomentations or bladders half 
 filled with T,arm water over the lower belly, cam- 
 phor and milk every hour or every three hours, 
 
 passing the catheter, leeching, dashing cold water 
 over the thighs and legs, or applying snow or ice 
 to the bladder, and, lastly, the tobacco clyster. 
 
 Mixture. Mucilage of gum arabic, 1 ounces; 
 olive oil, 2 drachms. Rub them well together, 
 and add ether, 1 drachm ; laudanum, 30 drops. 
 Incontinence of Urine. 
 
 Symptoms. An involuntary dribbling or flow 
 of urine. 
 
 Treatment. If it arises from a relaxation or 
 weakness of the parts, use the cold bath daily. 
 Apply blisters between the fundament and the 
 bag, and have recourse to bark and the different 
 tonics^ as iron, etc., recommended in indigestion. 
 Twenty or thirty grains of the uva ursi, twice or 
 three times a day, with half a pint of lime-water 
 after each dose, may also be tried. If the disease 
 is occasioned by a palsy of the parts, the tincture 
 of Spanish flies may be of service. If a stone in 
 the bladder is the cause, apply to a surgeon to cut 
 it out. In the mean time some kind of vessel 
 should be attached to the yard, to receive the 
 urine, in order to prevent it from excoriating the 
 parts. 
 
 Stone in the Bladder. 
 
 Symptoms. A frequent desire to make water, 
 which comes away in small quantities at a time, 
 and is often suddenly interrupted, the last drops 
 of it occasioning pain in the head of the yard; 
 riding over a rough road, or any irregular motion 
 or jolting, causes excruciating pain and bloody 
 urine, accompanied with a constant desire to go 
 to stool; itching of the fundament; a numbness 
 in the thighs, etc; retraction or drawing up of 
 the testicle. 
 
 Treatment. Cutting out or crushing the stone 
 is the only remedy. 
 
 Diabetes, or an Immoderate Flow of Urine. 
 
 Symptoms. Frequent discharges of large quan- 
 tities of urine, which is sometimes of a sweet taste; 
 skin dry, bowels costive, appetite voracious, weak- 
 ness, and gradual emaciation of the whole body. 
 
 Treatment. The principal remedy for the cure 
 of this disease consists in confining the patient to 
 a diet composed almost exclusively of anitnal food. 
 Blisters may, also, be applied over the kidneys, and 
 kept open with the savin ointment. The prescrip- 
 tion below has proved sometimes successful. The 
 carbonate of ammonia, in doses of 11 or 12 grains 
 three times a day, is strongly recommended, upon 
 high authority. In addition to these, opium in, 
 liberal doses, exercise on horseback, the flesh- 
 brush, and flannel next the skin, are not to be 
 neglected. The bowels should be kept open by 
 rhubarb. 
 
 Prescription. Peruvian bark, uva ursi, of each 
 20 grains ; opium, i grain. Make a powder, to 
 be taken three times a day with lime-water. 
 
 Dropsy of the Belly. 
 
 Symptoms. A swelling of the belly, from water 
 contained in it, preceded by a diminution of urine, 
 dry skin, and oppression at the breast. 
 
 Treatment. One of the most valuable remedies 
 for dropsy is found in the elaterium, one-fourth of 
 a grain of which is a dose. As it is a most active 
 article, it is proper to begin with one-sixteenth of 
 a grain daily, which may be cautiously increased 
 to a fourth, or till it is found to exert its full pow- 
 ers by bringing away large watery stools. From 
 an ounce to an ounce and a half of cream of tartar, 
 dissolved in water, and taken daily, has frequently 
 succeeded in removing the complaint. A tea made 
 by stewing an ounce of bruised juniper berries in 
 a pint of water may be freely drunk with advan- 
 tage. Bathing the feet before going to bed, and 
 
MEDICINE. 
 
 133 
 
 taking immediately after 20 grains of Dover's 
 powder, by producing copious sweating, has pro- 
 duced the same effect. ** 
 
 Dropsy is, notwithstanding, a difficult disease to 
 cure. It must be attempted, however, by the use 
 of such articles as we have mentioned, beginning 
 with the first, and, if it fail, proceeding to the next 
 and so on. If the swelling increases to such an 
 extent as to be absolutely insupportable, send for 
 a surgeon to draw off" the water. At the decline 
 of the disease the strength must be supported and 
 restored by bark, wine, and the tonic plan recom- 
 mended for indigestion. Elaterium or other pur- 
 gatives must not be resorted to, if the patient be 
 debilitated. 
 
 Tympany. 
 
 Symptoms. The symptoms of tympany, or a 
 collection of air either in the intestines themselves, 
 or in the cavity of the belly, are more or less gra- 
 dual in their approach. When the disease lies 
 within the intestines, it commences with wind in 
 the stomach and bowels, which keeps up a con- 
 stant rumbling, belching, etc., colic, costiveness, 
 diminution of urine, want of appetite, etc. When 
 it is in the cavity of the belly, and outside the in- 
 testines, the swelling is much greater, and very 
 elastic, when it is struck, giving a hollow sound 
 like a drum ; there is no belching, etc. 
 
 Treatment. If the complaint is within the in- 
 testines, keep the nozzle of a clyster-pipe up the 
 fundament, to permit the wind to pass through it, 
 in order to diminish the pressure on the bowels. 
 Warm mint tea, ginger, horseradish, ether, Cay- 
 enne pepper, spices and essential oils, with laxa- 
 tive medicines and clysters, should be freely used, 
 with a moderately tight broad bandage round the 
 belly. If these means do not answer the end, 
 warm and active purges must be resorted to, such 
 as the compound tincture of senna or jalap. Ptub- 
 bing with turpentine may also prove useful. It is 
 very apt to terminate in death. 
 
 Gonorrhoea, or Clrtp. 
 
 Symptoms. A tingling; sensation at the end of 
 the yard, which swells, looks red and inflamed, 
 followed by a discharge of matter that stains the 
 linen, first of a whitish, then of a yellow or green 
 color, a scalding pain in making water, involun- 
 tary and painful erections. 
 
 Treatment. There are two kinds of this affec- 
 tion, the mild and the virulent. The first is of so 
 trivial a nature, that plentiful draughts of any 
 soothing liquid, as barley-water or flaxseed tea, 
 with a low diet, are sufficient, to remove it. The 
 second produces effects more or less violent on 
 different persons, and occasionally resists for 
 months every remedy that can be thought of. If 
 there be much pain and inflammation in the pe- 
 nis, apply a bread and milk poultice to it, take a 
 dose of salts, and lose some blood. This is the 
 more necessary if, in consequence of the swelling 
 of the foreskin, it cannot be drawn back, or being 
 back, Cannot be drawn forward. In the mean- 
 time, take pretty large doses of the balsam copaiva 
 daily. A very low diet should be adhered to, and 
 the patient should remain perfectly quiet. 
 
 A painful incurvation of the yard, called a 
 chordee, may be relieved by dipping it into cold 
 water, or surrounding it with cloths soaked in 
 laudanum. To prevent it, take fifty or sixty 
 drops of the latter article, or two or three grains 
 of camphor on going to bed. 
 
 If, in consequence of violent exercise, or strong 
 injections, the testicles swell, confine the patient 
 on his back, leech and purge him. Pounded ice 
 or snow, or cloths dipped in cold vinegar or water, 
 or lead-water should also be applied to the parts, 
 
 and a very low diet strictly observed. If, from 
 the same cause, the glands in the groin are en- 
 larged, treat them in like manner. 
 
 Gleet. 
 
 Symptoms. The weeping of a thin glairy fluid, 
 like the white of an egg, from the penis, caused 
 by a long-continued clap. 
 
 Treatment. A gleet is exceedingly difficult to 
 get rid of, and frequently defies every effort that 
 is made for that purpose. It must be attempted, 
 however, by the daily use of the cold bath, and 
 thirty drops of the muriated tincture of iron, taken 
 three times a day, for months, in a glass of the 
 cold infusion of bark. The best advice to be given 
 in this case is to apply at once to an intelligent 
 surgeon, who will prescribe injections of alum, 
 sulphate of zinc, or nitrate of silver. 
 
 Involuntary Emissions. 
 
 Symptoms. An involuntary emission of semen 
 during sleep, inducing great emaciation and de- 
 bility. 
 
 Treatment. Abstain from all sexual indulgence 
 and lascivious ideas or books, sleep on a hard bed, 
 use the cold bath daily, with a generous and 
 nourishing diet. Chalybeate water and all the 
 different preparations of iron, with the cold infu- 
 sion of bark and elixir of vitriol, as directed for 
 indigestion, should be freely employed. 
 
 Strictures. 
 
 Symptoms. A difficulty in passing water, 
 which, instead of flawing in a full stream, either 
 dribbles away, twists like a corkscrew, or splits 
 and forks in two or three directions. They are 
 occasioned by strong injections, long-continued or 
 ill-treated clap. The cause, however, is not al- 
 ways to be satisfactorily ascertained. 
 
 Treatment. Procure several bougies of differ- 
 ent sizes. Take the largest one, dip it in sweet 
 oil, and pass it into the urethra till it meets with 
 the stricture, then make a mark on the bougie, so 
 that when it is withdrawn you can tell how far 
 down the passage the obstruction exists, and hav- 
 ing ascertained this, take the smallest one, well 
 oiled, and endeavor to pass it an inch or two be- 
 yond the stricture. If this can be accomplished, 
 let it remain so a few minutes. This must be re- 
 peated every day, letting the instrument remain 
 somewhat longer each time it is passed, and after 
 a few days using one a little larger, and so on 
 progressively until the largest one can be intro- 
 duced. If this fails, apply to a surgeon,, who may 
 destroy it with caustic or the knife. 
 
 Syphilis, or Pox. 
 
 Symptoms. Chancres and buboes are among 
 the first symptoms of this dreadful malady, which, 
 if not checked, goes on to cause an ulcerated 
 throat, nodes, a destruction of the bones and car- 
 tilages of the nose, and the palate. The voice ig 
 lost, the hair falls off, foul spreading ulcers show 
 themselves all over the body, the stench of which 
 is insupportable, and before he dies the miserable 
 victim to it becomes a loathsome mass of corrup- 
 tion. 
 
 A chancre at first resembles a pimple, with a 
 little pit or depression containing matter, which 
 soon becomes an ulcer, with an irregular thick- 
 ened edge, covered with a tough, ash-colored mat- 
 ter, the basis of which is hard and surrounded by 
 inflammation. It is generally found on the fore- 
 skin or head of the yard. 
 
 A bubo is an enlargement of a gland in the 
 groin, beginning in a small hard lump, not big- 
 ger than a bean, and increasing to the size of a 
 hen's egg. 
 
134 
 
 MEDICINE. 
 
 A node is a bard tumor formed on a bone. 
 
 Treatment. Apply at once to an intelligent 
 pbysician. If this be impossible, confine the pa- 
 tient to a simple diet, and keep the part clenn. 
 Two or three grains of blue mass may be used 
 daily, and all stimulating substances must be 
 avoided. Every one has some infallible receipt to 
 cure this disorder; but in nine cases out of ten the 
 remedy proves worse than the disease. As for 
 the chancres, touch them freely wi!h lunar caus- 
 tic, nnd apply a little piece of rag to them, 
 Btteared with red precipitate ointment. If they 
 are eituatcd under the foreskin, which is held over 
 the head of the yard by a permanent phymosis, it 
 (the foreskin) may have to be slit up. If there is 
 ft bubo, apply thirty leeches. If this does not pre- 
 vent its increasing, and the formation of matter is 
 inevitable, apply poultices to it, and as soon as a 
 fluctuation can be felt, let out its contents by sev- 
 eral small punctures through the skin with a 
 sharp lancet. To assist in the evacuation, press a 
 soft sponge gently on the tumor. 
 
 Cancer of the Yard. 
 
 Symptoms. A small tumor, like a wart, upon 
 the head of the yard or foreskin, followed by in- 
 flammation and ulceration, which discharges a 
 thin, disagreeable fluid; after a time a cancerous 
 fungus is produced, attended by a most intoler- 
 able burning and darting pain. 
 
 Treatment. Apply at once to a surgeon, who 
 will cut it out; death is the only alternative. 
 
 Venereal Warts. 
 
 Crops of these animal mushrooms sometimes 
 spring up round the head of the yard or on the 
 foreskin. If flat, they may be destroyed by 
 caustic or nitric acid; if mounted on a stem or 
 foot-stalk, by tying a piece of thread tightly 
 round it. 
 
 Dropsy of the Bag. 
 
 Symptoms. A collection of water, which is first 
 perceived at the bottom of the bag, increasing in 
 size as it advances upwards, and forming a tumor 
 of the shape of a pear. If examined as directed 
 for dropsj 7 of the belly, the wavy motion may be 
 felt, and if a candle be placed behind it, it becomes 
 partly transparent. 
 
 Treatment. The only certain cure is an opera- 
 tion, for which, as there is no pressing danger, 
 apply to a surgeon. There are three species of 
 this dropsy, in one of which the water is contained 
 within the lining of the bag; another, within the 
 covering of the spermatic cord; and the third, in 
 the cellular membrane of the bag. The first we 
 have mentioned. The second occurs most fre- 
 quently in children; it sometimes, however, is 
 found in adults, and very much resembles a rup- 
 ture. The treatment is the same as in the fir^t. 
 The third may be distinguished by a doughy feel 
 and irregular shape. It is to be cured by punc- 
 tures to let out the water, and by suspending the 
 testicle. 
 
 Enlarged Spermatic Vein. 
 
 Symptoms. A hard knotty and irregular swell- 
 ing of the vein, which sometimes increases to a 
 large size. When lying down the swelling di- 
 minishes, which distinguishes it from a dropsy of 
 the parts. 
 
 Treatment. Suspend the testicles, or keep the 
 pa.tient on his back, apply lotions of lead-water 
 to the parts ; the cold bath. 
 
 Cancer of the Testicle. 
 
 Symptomn. The testicle is enlarged, hardened, 
 eraggy and unequal in its surface, painful on be- 
 ing handled, with irregular pains shooting up the 
 
 groin, into the back, without any previous inflam- 
 mation, disease, or external violence. 
 
 Treatment. Apply immediately to a surgeon. 
 Castration, and that at an early state of the dis- 
 ease, is the only remedy that can save life. Be 
 careful, however, to distinguish it from simple 
 swelling of the testicle by inflammation, blows, 
 etc., which see. 
 
 Impotency. 
 
 This is of three kinds. The first arises from an 
 original defect in the organs of generation. The 
 second, from local debility of the parts, brought 
 on by excessive venery, self-abuse, or some pre- 
 ceding disease, while the third originates from 
 fear, excess of passion, or want of confidence at 
 the moment of coition. 
 
 The first is incurable. The second must be 
 treated by the general principles and remedies 
 pointed out for restoring the strength of the 
 system, consisting of the cold bath, preparations 
 of iron, bark, elixir of vitriol, generous diet, exer- 
 cise, and by steadily avoiding the causes which 
 may have produced it. The remedies for the third 
 must be sought for in calming excessive agitation, 
 and acquiring, by habits of intimacy, that confi- 
 dence they are sure to produce. 
 
 Gout. 
 
 Symptoms. Pain in the small joints, generally 
 in the ball of the great toe, the parts swollen and 
 red. the attack coming on in the night. Such are 
 the striking symptoms of this disease, and gene- 
 rally the first that are noticed. It is occasionally, 
 however, preceded by all those attendant on indi- 
 gestion. In the advanced stages chalky lumps 
 are formed in the joints. 
 
 Treatment. If the patient be young, vigorous, 
 having the disease for the first time, bleed and 
 purge him, confine him to a low diet, and treat it 
 exactly as an inflammation arising from any other 
 cause. To procure sweating, Dover's powder may 
 be taken on going to bed. As soon as the inflam- 
 mation, by these means, is reduced, use the cool or 
 cold bath, and take strong exercise on foot daily; 
 avoid high-seasoned food, feather beds, wine, acids 
 and fermented liquors, for the remainder of your 
 life! Gout is the child of indolence and intem- 
 perance, and to avoid it the above means must be 
 employed and steadily persevered in. 
 
 If, however, the patient is old or infirm, and 
 subject to regular fits of it, he must not be han- 
 dled so roughly. The most perfect rest should be 
 observed, and the parts lightly covered with 
 fleecy hosiery, and flannel cloths wetted with the 
 lotion below, made milk- warm, or with pure laud- 
 anum. The bowels should be opened with some 
 warm laxative. Then give the alkaline mixture 
 below. The degree of warmth that is applied to 
 the part must be regulated by the feelings of the 
 patient, who, if weak, may use a nourishing diet, 
 if strong, a more abstemious one. 
 
 If from any cause the disease leaves the extre- 
 mities and flies to the stomach, apply mustard 
 poultices and blisters to the soles of the feet and 
 ankles, give large doses of ether and laudanum, 
 hot wine, brandy, etc., and endeavor by all such 
 means (including the hot bath) to send it back 
 again. 
 
 If the head be the part it is transferred to, and 
 apoplexy is produced by it, take away fifteen or 
 twenty ounces of blood immediately, ind give 
 active purgatives, as 10 or 15 grains of calomel, 
 followed by senna tea or Epsom salts. If, in a 
 few hours, the patient is not relieved, the head 
 continuing confused and painful, and the pulse 
 full and throbbing, cup him to the amount of 
 
RHEUMATISM. 
 
 135 
 
 ight or ten ounces, and apply cold vinegar and 
 water constantly to the part. 
 
 Gout Lotion. Alcohol 3 ounces ; camphor mix- 
 ture 9 ounces. Render the whole milk-warun by 
 adding a sufficient quantity of boiling water. 
 
 Alkaline Mixture. Carbonate of potassa 2 
 drachms; wine of colchicum root H fluidrachms; 
 water 6 ounces. Take a tablespoonful three times 
 daily. 
 
 Inflammatory Rheumatism. 
 
 Symptoms. Pain ; swelling and inflammation 
 in some one (or several) of the larger joints, the 
 pain shifting from one part to another ; all the 
 symptoms of fever, pulse full and hard, tongue 
 white, bowels costive, and urine high-colored. 
 
 Treatment. First purge with salts and mag- 
 nesia; then give the alkaline mixture as above, 
 but without the colehicum, if the patient be not 
 of a gouty habit. The Dover's powder should be 
 taken to procure sweating, and a low diet should 
 be strictly observed. In severe cases I have known 
 it necessary to bleed. When the disease is over- 
 come, if in consequence of the bleeding, etc., the 
 patient is left very low and weak, wrap him up in 
 blankets, give him warm, nourishing food, wine, 
 etc., etc. 
 
 Chronic Rheum at! urn. 
 
 Symptom*. A chronic rheumatism is nothing 
 more than one of 'long standing. It is unaccom- 
 panied by fever, and makes its attacks on every 
 change of weather, on getting wet, etc., etc. It is 
 frequently caused by inflammatory rheumatism, 
 and sometimes seems to exist as a primary affec- 
 tion. 
 
 Treatment. I have found no one plan of treat- 
 ment in this species of the disease so effectual as 
 the following : Purge moderately with senna and 
 salts, rub the parts well with the volatile liniment, 
 and use Cayenne pepper and mustard at dinner in 
 large quantities, and on going to bed thirty drops 
 of laudanum with a teaspoonful of the tincture of 
 gnaiacum. It is to bo recollected that this is ap- 
 plicable only to chronic cases; if there is fever, 
 etc., it will do much damage. Should there be 
 any cause to suspect that a venereal taint is con- 
 nected with it, have recourse to the iodide of po- 
 tassium, five or ten grains thrice daily, in water, 
 Warm liniments are useful. A large blister fre- 
 quently relieves the whole of the symptoms in 
 the course of a night. The best safeguard against 
 the complaint is the use of flannel next to the skin, 
 winter and summer. 
 
 Hip -joint Disease. 
 Symptoms. Excruciating pain in the hip-joint 
 hod knee; the leg becomes longer, then shorter 
 than its fellow; when lying down the foot rolls 
 outwards, the buttocks appearing flatter than 
 usual; lameness; after a while abscesses in vari- 
 ous prrts of the thigh ; hectic fever, etc. 
 
 Treatment. Apply blisters to the part, and if 
 there be much inflammation leech or cup ; make a 
 caustic tissue in the little hollow at the top and 
 outside of the thigh, and use all the remedies di- 
 rected for scrofula. The diet should be nourish- 
 ing, and the limb kept at rest. Cod-liver oil, frorr 
 a teaspoonful to a tablespoonful thrice daily, mny 
 be given. When matter is formed, bark, wine 
 and a generous diet must be employed. It often 
 proves incurable. 
 
 Dropsy of the Knee-joint. 
 
 Symptoms. The joint swells, the skin remain 
 ing of a natural color. By placing the hand on 
 one side of it, and striking it gently on the other 
 tbe wavy or fluctuating motion is perceptible 
 steady pressure on one side will raise the othe 
 above its natural level. 
 
 Treatment. Keep a perpetual blister en the 
 joint, or make a caustic issue below it, on the in- 
 side of the leg; cold water from the spout of a 
 ,ea-kettle is a useful application. Camphorated 
 mercurial ointment to the knee, and iodine taken 
 nternally, have sometimes been of service. 
 
 White Swelling. 
 
 Symptoms. Deeply seated pains in the knee, 
 unattended at first by swelling, which at last 
 oraes on with increase of pain. After a while 
 he joint enlarges, matter is sometimes dis- 
 harged, hectic fever follows, and cuts off the pa- 
 ient. 
 
 Treatment. If from scrofula, use the general 
 remedies directed for that disease, and apply a 
 lister to the part, which may be kept open by 
 the savin ointment for months; if from blows, 
 pply the blister as before; leech and purge 
 Teely, and act as directed in cases of similar ac- 
 cidents. If in spite of these precautions the dis- 
 jase continues to advance, amputation may be the 
 mly resource. 
 
 Pieces of Cartilage in the Joints. 
 Portions of cartilage are sometimes displaced 
 n the joints, when they act like any other foreign 
 body of a similar texture. While in the hollows 
 of the part they give no uneasiness, but as they 
 frequently slip in between the ends of the bones, 
 ausing excruciating pain, it is sometimes, though 
 rarely, necessary to cut them out. For this pur- 
 pose apply to a surgeon. As all openings into 
 the cavities of the joints are attended with much 
 danger, unless the pain be insupportable it is bet- 
 ter to endure the inconvenience than to run the 
 risk of the operation. 
 
 Scrofula, or King's Evil. 
 
 Symptoms. Hard and indolent swellings of the 
 glands of the neck, that when ripe, instead of 
 matter discharge a whitish curd. It mostly occurs 
 in persons of a fair complexion, blue eyes, and 
 delicate make. In bad cases the joints swell with 
 great pain, the limbs waste away, the ligaments 
 and bones are destroyed, when hectic fever soon 
 relieves the patient from his misery. 
 
 Treatment. Sea-water is generally considered 
 a great remedy in scrofula. It is to be used daily 
 as a bath. Made milk warm it forms one of the 
 most excellent local applications that we have. 
 When the swellings break, a very strong decoction 
 of hemlock may be advantageously used for the 
 same purpose. The diet should be nourishing. 
 After a fair trial of the waters of the ocean, re- 
 course should be had to iodine and cod-liver oil. 
 The former may be taken in Lugol's Solution, the 
 dose of which is from three to six drops, accord- 
 ing to age, twice or thrice daily. 
 Inflamed Glands. 
 
 Every gland in the body is subject to inflamma- 
 tion. Whenever one of them is perceived to be 
 in this state, which may be known by the swelling 
 and pain, measures should be taken to reduce It. 
 Leeches, blisters and all the remedies directed for 
 such purposes, should be actively employed, among 
 which purging and a low diet must not be ne- 
 glected. 
 
 Scirrhus. 
 
 Symptoms. A hard tumor, unequal on its sur- 
 face, and not very sensible, giving but little or no 
 pain on being handled. 
 
 Treatment. Do not meddle with the tumor, but 
 apply to a surgeon as soon as possible. 
 
 Cancer. 
 
 Symptoms. A tumor, differing from the pre- 
 ceding one, by being surrounded with enlarged 
 
136 
 
 MEDICIXE. 
 
 Teins. It is, also, more painful, the skin being 
 sometimes discolored and puckered. The whole 
 tumor is particularly heavy, and at last breaks 
 into a malignant ulcer, or sore, whose edges are 
 raised, ragged, uneven, and curl over like the 
 leaves of a fl..wer ; white streaks or bands cross it 
 from the centre to the circumference. Acute and 
 darting pains accompany both this and the pre- 
 ceding stage of the disease. 
 
 Treatment. There is but one remedy that can 
 be depended on for the cure of this painful and 
 inveterate complaint, and even that should be re- 
 sorted to early, in order to ensure success. All 
 the diseased parts must be cut out. Arsenic, cor- 
 rosive sublimate, phosphate of iron, and a thou- 
 sand other articles have been recommended, both 
 externally and internally, but without any effec- 
 tual advantage. To relieve the pain, opium may 
 be taken in large doses. The sore should be de- 
 fended from the air, by some mild ointment. 
 Powdered chalk, scraped carrots, fresh hemlock 
 leaves and powdered charcoal may be used for the 
 same purpose. 
 
 Goitre. 
 
 Symptoms. A tumor in the fore part of the 
 throat, seated in a gland close to the projection 
 called "Adam's apple." 
 
 Treatment. Goitre is sometimes incurable. 
 When taken at the very beginning of the com- 
 plaint, however, and in young persons, it is said 
 to have been dispersed by a course of iodine joined 
 to frictions of the part, with strong mercurial oint- 
 ment. As it seldom causes any inconvenience, 
 and is always unattended by pain, it is not a mat- 
 ter of much consequence. The inhabitants of the 
 Alps consider it a mark of beauty, and there are 
 some cantons where every man, woman and child 
 is adorned with a tumor of this nature, of which 
 they would feel very sorry to be deprived. It 
 aannot be cut out, on account of the great num- 
 ber of blood-vessels of which it is composed. 
 
 Fainting. 
 
 Causes. Sudden and violent emotions of the 
 mind; bleeding; diseases of the heart and its 
 great vessels. 
 
 Treatment. Lay the person on his back, take 
 off his cravat, then open the doors and windows, 
 and sprinkle cold water in his face. Smelling 
 salts may be held to his nose. 
 
 Apoplexy. 
 
 Symptoms. Falling without sense or motion, 
 profound sleep ; face livid or flushed ; eyes wide 
 open or half closed, and immovable ; breathing 
 slow, laboring, and irregular; pulse full and slow. 
 
 Causes. A rushing of blood to the head, ex- 
 cessive fat in persons with a short neck, gluttony, 
 violent exercise, intense heat, anger, hearty meat 
 suppers, blows on the head, intoxication, etc., etc. 
 
 Treatment. If the pulse remains full, the face 
 flushed, etc., take away twenty ounces or more of 
 blood on the spot, remove the cravat, unbutton 
 the shirt-collar, and place the patient in bed, with 
 his head and shoulders a little elevated. The 
 windows and doors must be thrown open, and no 
 more persons than are necessary, be allowed to re- 
 main in the room. The head is to be shaved and 
 ci'pped, a blister applied to the back of the neck 
 and the head, and mustard poultices to the feet. 
 An active purgative should always be adminis- 
 tered as soon as the patient is bled, and its opera- 
 tion assisted by repeated clysters. If the patient 
 cannot swallow pills, try liquids, if neither, have 
 recourse to a strong purgative clyster. If, by 
 these means, the breathing is not easier, and the 
 pulse softer, bleed again, or cup the back of the 
 neck. 
 
 If, however, the patient is old and infirm, and 
 the attack has come on more gradually, if the 
 pulse is weak, and the face pale, bleed moderately 
 or not at all, and give immediately a warm pur- 
 gative, npply the blisters, etc. If it arises from 
 swallowing vegetable poisons, give an active 
 emetic, as thirty grains of white vitriol, and act as 
 directed in cases of similar accidents. In this 
 second kind of apoplexy, stimulants, as harts- 
 horn to the nose, etc., may be used ; in the first 
 they are very injurious, and should never be em- 
 ployed. 
 
 Stroke of the Sun. 
 
 This proceeds from exposure to the sun's rays, 
 and exhibits the same symptoms as apoplexy, 
 commencing with vertigo, loss of sight, ringing in 
 the ears, etc., and must be treated by cupping or 
 bleeding, and in every other respect as directed 
 for apoplexy. Extreme heat sometimes, however, 
 produces a state of prostration without head symp- 
 toms ; for which cold affusion and rest are the 
 best remedies. 
 
 Epilepsy. 
 
 Symptoms. A fit, in which the patient falls to 
 the ground in a convulsion ; the eyes are distorted 
 and turned up, hands clenched, foaming at the 
 mouth, convulsions, the whole ending in a deep 
 sleep. 
 
 Treatment. Keep the patient from hurting him- 
 self, by holding gently his hands, legs, and particu- 
 larly his head, which he is apt to dash violently 
 against the ground, or surrounding objects. A 
 piece of soft wood should be placed between his 
 teeth, to prevent his tongue from being bitten. 
 This is, in general, all that can be done during 
 the fit. If, however, there are symptoms of great 
 determination of blood to the head, bleeding 
 should not be neglected. White vitriol, the mis- 
 tletoe, carbonate of iron, etc., etc., have been re- 
 commended and tried for the cure of this com- 
 plaint, but in vain. 
 
 The valerian ate of zinc may, however, be tried. 
 It is taken in pills of a grain each, one three 
 times a day, gradually increasing this dose to 
 five at a time. To reap any benefit from this 
 medicine, it is necessary to persevere in it for 
 months. If it fails, iron or some other tonic may 
 be resorted to. Large doses of spirits of turpen- 
 tine are said to have afforded relief. The diet, in 
 all cases, should be vegetable, and if symptoms 
 of fulness of blood be present, it will be proper to 
 bleed. Persons subject to these fits, should never 
 be left alone, or ride on horseback, for obvious 
 reasons. It should be known that sexual excesses 
 often produce or keep up this complaint. 
 
 Palsy. 
 
 Symptoms. A partial or complete loss of the 
 powers of motion, and the sensibility of particu- 
 lar parts of the body; the pulse soft and slow. 
 
 Treatment. In a young and robust person, it 
 may be proper to bleed, and give an active pur- 
 gative. In old people, or where the powers of 
 the body are much weakened, warm laxative 
 medicines, with stimulating applications, as the 
 flesh-brush, blisters, mustard poultices, and rub- 
 bing the spine with the volatile liniment, form the 
 best plan of treatment. If it affect different parts 
 of the body at once, horseradish, mustard, and 
 Cayenne pepper should be used liberally, as they 
 are prepared for table. If a swelling or tumor be 
 found on the back-bone, or any injury has been 
 done it, which may have caused the disease, caus- 
 tic issues may be placed on each side of it, and as 
 near the injured part as possible. The diet should 
 be light and nourishing. The warm bath must 
 not be neglected. 
 
LOCK-JAW. 
 
 137 
 
 Tetanus. 
 
 There are several very long and very learned 
 names affixed tc this disease, as it may happen to 
 attack one part of the body or another. When it 
 is confined to the muscles of the neck and jaws, 
 lock-jaw is the common and expressive term for 
 it. The affection, however, is always the same, 
 requires similar treatment, and consists in an in- 
 voluntary contraction and stiffening of a part of 
 the muscles, the senses remaining perfect. 
 
 Lock-jaw. 
 
 Symptoms. A stiffness in the hack of the neck, 
 which renders it first painful, and at last impos- 
 sible to turn the head round; difficulty in swal- 
 lowing; pain in the breast, shooting to the 
 back; the lower jaw becomes stiff and gradually 
 closes. 
 
 Treatment. If the disease is supposed to arise 
 from a wounded nerve, or from an injury done to 
 tendinous parts, by a pointed instrument, enlarge 
 the wound with a sharp lancet or penknife, and 
 pour laudanum or turpentine into it, as directed 
 for similar accidents. Give 2 or 3 grains of opium 
 at once, and repeat it every two hours, increasing 
 the dose according to the violence of the symptoms 
 and the effects produced by it, without too much 
 regarding the quantity that has been taken. Cases 
 are on record where 60 grains (a drachm) of solid 
 opium have been taken at once, and with the 
 happiest effect. This, however, is a large dose, 
 and should never be ventured on but under the 
 most desperate and alarming circumstances. Ac- 
 tive purging with castor oil and senna tea must 
 not be omitted, and if the power of swallowing be 
 lost, laudanum, etc., most be given in clysters. 
 Drawing a tooth is generally recommended by 
 physicians in th-;se cases where the jaws are firmly 
 closed, for the purpose of transmitting medicines 
 and food to the stomach. This has always ap- 
 peared to me as every way calculated to increase 
 the evil. If no opening exists between the teeth, 
 access can always be obtained by casters, and in 
 this way nourishment and remedies may be in- 
 jected. It is always proper, however, when the 
 disease is perceived to be coming on, to place two 
 small pieces of soft wood between the grinders of 
 the upper and lower jaw, one on each side, so that 
 they may be kept asunder. 
 
 Madeira wine, in doses of a wineglassful every 
 hour, continued for several days, and combined 
 with the internal use of opium and the warm, 
 bath, has been found of great service. Cold water 
 dashed freely over the patient every two or three 
 hours may likewise be tried. After every affusion 
 he .^h uld be well wiped and put into a warm bed, 
 when a large dose of laudanum in warm Madeira 
 wine should be given. The tobacco clyster has 
 sometimes succeeded when ererything else has 
 failed. So has chloroform by inhalation. Blis- 
 tering the whole length of the spine, and caustic 
 issues on its sides, as nearly on a line with the 
 parts affected as possible, are strongly recom- 
 mended. 
 
 Although a valuable addition to our means of 
 cure, the tobacco clyster is not to be employed 
 lightly, or on common occasions. It should al- 
 ways be reserved to the last moment, never using 
 it until everything else has failed. The prostra- 
 tion of the system, and other alarming symptoms 
 it sometimes causes, renders this caution neces- 
 sary. 
 
 Painful Affection of the Nerves of the Face. 
 This disease is also called tic-doloureux, neu- 
 ralgia, etc. 
 
 Symptoms. A very severe pain darting in par- 
 
 ticular directions, not lasting more than a second, 
 but very rapidly repeated, and excited by the 
 slightest touch ; during tho intervals there is no 
 pain whatever. There is no inflammation or 
 swelling of the cheek, as in toothache, nor doe 
 the pain seem so deeply seated. 
 
 Treatment. Blisters, tincture of aconite, mer- 
 curial ointment, opium, iron, and Fowler's Solu- 
 tion of Arsenic, with many other remedies of tho 
 same class, have been all recommended and used 
 for the cure of this most painful of all the af- 
 fections to which the human body is subject. 
 Where the pains are so excessive as not to be 
 borne, one or two grains of the extract of bella- 
 donna may be taken every three hours. When 
 the pain is somewhat relieved, this quantity must 
 be diminished. For a cure apply to a skilful sur- 
 geon, who may divide the nerves. 
 
 Angina Pectoris. 
 
 Symptoms. An acute pain at the lower end of 
 the breast-bone, shooting into the left arm ; great 
 difficulty of breathing; anxiety; palpitation of the 
 heart; a feeling of suffocation. It usually comes 
 on while ascending a hill or going up stairs. 
 
 Treatment. During the fit place the patient's 
 feet in a hot mustard foot-bath, and apply mus- 
 tard plasters to the chest and back. Give one or 
 two teaspoonfuls of Hoffmann's anodyne, in 
 water, or forty drops of laudanum. If fainting, 
 dash cold water in his face. Strips of linen, 
 moistened with the solution below, applied seve- 
 ral times a day to the breast-bone for a month, are 
 said to have effected complete cures. They act 
 by producing a crop of pimples, on the appear- 
 ance of which the disease sometimes declines. 
 
 Persons subject to this complaint should avoid 
 all fermentable food, and excess in eating or 
 drinking, taking care to live quietly and to keep 
 the bowels open. Cupping and purging, followed 
 by opium, to lessen the spasm, with the warm 
 bath, and a perpetual blister or plaster of the tar- 
 tar emetic ointment to the chest, are perhaps the 
 best remedies that can be employed. 
 
 Tartar emetic, 1 drachm; spirits of camphor, i 
 an ounce; boiling water, 1 pint. Mix. 
 
 Dance of St. Vitus. 
 
 Symptoms. Irregular and convulsive motions 
 of the limbs and head, usually occurring in chil- 
 dren. It varies, however, in different persons, and 
 is frequently counterfeited by beggars. 
 
 Treatment. The daily use of the cold bath, 
 with the Peruvian bark, has often succeeded in 
 curing the complaint in young subjects. In addi- 
 tion to these, any of the preparations of iron com- 
 bined with moderate doses of musk, opium, cam- 
 phor, etc., may be tried. The disease is generally 
 recovered from. 
 
 Scarlet Fever. 
 
 Symptoms. Chills, heat, thirst, headache; the 
 skin is marked with large red or scarlet patches, 
 which at last unite, disappearing in a kind of 
 branny scurf; sore throat. 
 
 Distinguish it from measles by the spots coming 
 out on the second day of the fever. In measles 
 they seldom appear until the fourth day. By their 
 color, which is that of a boiled lobster, whereas 
 in measles it is of a dark red. 
 
 Treatment. An emetic (ipecacuanha) maybe 
 given on the first appearance of the disease, to be 
 followed by a dose of salts, or eight grains of cal- 
 omel, with as many of rhubarb. If the pulse is full 
 and strong, the head aches, and the heat is great, 
 draw blood, and apply cold water over the body 
 freely and frequently. There is no disease in 
 which the advantages of cold affusion are morn 
 
138 
 
 MEDICINE. 
 
 striking. In order to reap the full benefit of it, 
 however, it must be freely employed, that is, as 
 often as heat, etc., seem to require it, or eight or 
 ten times in the twenty-four hours. The saline 
 mixture, p. 123, is of great use. If there is any 
 soreness of the throat, the gargles recommended 
 for that complaint should be used, and a mustard 
 poultice be applied to the parts. If symptoms of 
 putrescency appear, have recourse to the plan re- 
 commended for putrid sore throat. As scarlet 
 fever is undoubtedly contagious, the usual precau- 
 tions should of course be adopted. 
 
 Wr'ters on this subject generally consider scar- 
 let fever as consisting of three kinds, viz., the 
 simple fever, the fever witli sore throat, and the 
 malignant fever. The treatment of the first 
 should be like that of any other inflammatory 
 fever; that of the second has been detailed in 
 speaking of inflammatory sore throat; and the 
 last is precisely that of putrid sore throat 
 
 Erysipelas, or St. Anthony's Fire. 
 
 Symptoms. Fever, delirium, vomiting; pulse 
 strong or weak, as the fever inclines to the inflam- 
 matory or typhous kind. On the fourth day 
 sometimes on the second or third the skin in 
 some one part becomes red and inflamed, which is 
 soon extended to others, the parts affected being 
 swollen and of a bright scarlet. If the face is at- 
 tacked, it spreads itself on the scalp, and the eye- 
 lids sometimes swell so as to prevent the patient 
 from seeing. After a longer or shorter period, the 
 eruption ends in small watery vesicles, or in branny 
 scales. At this period the fever sometimes abates; 
 at others, drowsiness or delirium comes on, which 
 increases it, and destroys the patient by the elev- 
 enth day. 
 
 Treatment. This disease is of two kinds, one 
 of which is principally confined to the skin, while 
 the other affects the whole system. If the accom- 
 panying fever is inflammatory bleeding will be 
 proper, otherwise not. This operation is to be 
 cautiously employed in erysipelas, as it sometimes 
 runs into a typhous state. If, however, the pa- 
 tient is robust, his head aches, and great marks 
 of fullness and inflammation are evident, which is 
 generally the dbse in this country, bleeding, purg- 
 ing with salts, and cooling drinks should be em- 
 ployed, to which, also, may be added Dover's 
 powders, boneset tea, etc., to produce sweating. 
 The room should be kept cool. If, on the con- 
 trary, the fever is typhous, or the patient is of a 
 weak and irritable habit of body, bleeding should 
 never be resorted to. Opium, wine, bark, elixir 
 of vitriol, and tincture of chloride of iron (20 
 drops every three hours) are necessary in this case, 
 to guard against mortification, which sometimes 
 ensues. 
 
 As local applications, bathing the parts with 
 laudanum or lead-water, or dusting them with 
 rye meal or wheat flour, are the best. Should the 
 disease evidently be confined to the skin, the ap- 
 plication of a blister will sometimes put an end to 
 it. If it affect the face, it may be prevented from 
 extending to the scalp, by painting a line just be- 
 yond the eruption quite thickly with tincture of 
 iodine. If abscesses form, large openings must 
 be made, to let out the matter and the dead parts. 
 When the first or inflammatory kind prevails, the 
 diet should be barley, sago, or panada, etc., with 
 lemonade, tamarind water, etc., for drink; and, 
 on the Contrary, when the second or typhous form 
 of it (especially if accompanied by putrid symp- 
 toms) shows itself, a more generous diet, with a 
 moderate quantity of wine, etc., must be employed. 
 
 It may not be useless again to observe, that in 
 the United States erysipelas often calls for re- 
 
 ducing and cooling measures. Among the various 
 articles which are employed in this, as well us all 
 inflammatory diseases, none ranks higher than 
 lemonade, which should always, if possible, be 
 made from the fresh fruit. When taken cold, and 
 in liberal quantities, it is not only delicious to the 
 palate of the patient, but tends powerfully 4o cure 
 the complaint. 
 
 Measles. 
 
 Symptoms. Inflammatory fever; dry cough 
 and hoarseness; sneezing, watering of the eyes, 
 which itch ; a running from the nose ; great drow- 
 siness. On the fourth day small red points break 
 out, first on the face, and then gradually over the 
 body. They are in clusters, and, on passing the 
 hand over them, are found to be a little raised. 
 On the fifth or sixth day the vivid red is changed 
 to a brown, and the eruption goes off. 
 
 Distinguish it from small-pox and all other dis- 
 j eases by the dry cough and hoarseness, by the 
 appearance of the eyes, which are red, swollen, 
 and loaded with tears. 
 
 Treatment. The patient must be confined to a 
 low diet, and kept in bed, with as much covering, 
 but no more, as may be agreeable to his feelings. 
 The room should be cool, and, if there is much 
 fever and pain in the head, bleeding may be ne- 
 cessary. Should there be pain and oppression at 
 the breast, apply a blister. The bowels may be 
 opened by salts. The mild form of measles ought 
 to be treated like any other inflammatory com- 
 plaint, taking care, however, not to repel the erup- 
 tion by cold. If this happens, place the patient 
 in a warm bath, give him warm wine, etc., inter- 
 nally, and apply mustard poultices and blisters to 
 the feet and ankles. 
 
 There is another and more 'dangerous kind of 
 this disease, which may be known by the fever 
 being typhous, and by all the symptoms showing 
 a depressing tendency. The moment this is per- 
 ceived have recourse to bark wine, muriatic acid, 
 etc., etc., as directed in typhus fever. 
 
 Chicken-Pox. 
 
 Symptoms. Fever; inability to sleep; pain in 
 different parts of the body; a crop of small pim- 
 ples or points on the back, which, by the second 
 day, are changed into little blisters, which are 
 ripe on the third and disappear before the fifth 
 day, without forming true pus or matter, and 
 leaving no marks or pits behind them. 
 
 Distinguish it from small-pox by the eruption 
 coming out on the back, by the mildness of the 
 fever, by the fluid contained in the vesicles or 
 blisters not being true pus, and by the whole fall- 
 ing off in scales on the fifth day. 
 
 Treatment. Confine the patient to his bed, keep 
 him cool and quiet, and give him a dose of salts. 
 This is all that is necessary. 
 
 Cow-Pox. 
 
 Symptoms. A pimple at the spot where the 
 matter was inserted, which gradually undergoes 
 certain regular changes that characterize the com- 
 plaint. 
 
 Changes of genuine Cow-Pox. On the fourth 
 day, or sooner, from the time of the operation, a 
 small speck of inflammation is to be perceived, 
 which, on the fifth day is a pimple, surrounded by 
 a circle of inflammation. On the sixth this pim- 
 ple changes to a vesicle containing a thin fluid. 
 On the seventh this vesicle is more perfect, its 
 margin forming a regular circle ; it is also a little 
 flattened on the top, the centre of which is of a dark 
 color. On the eighth or ninth day slight chills, 
 flushes of heat, etc., are sometimes felt, accompa- 
 nied by swelling of the pustule and pains shoot- 
 
SMALL POX. 
 
 139 
 
 ing up into the arm-pit, the glands or kernels of 
 which occasionally swell. 
 
 On the tenth or eleventh day the pustule is sur- 
 rounded by a circular, vivid, inflammatory blush 
 that is very beautiful. This is regarded as a de- 
 cisive proof of the presence of the genuine cow- 
 pox t On the eleventh day the centre of the pus- 
 tule begins to grow of a dark color, which gradu- 
 ally increases to a brown or mahogany one by the 
 end of the second week, when it begins to leave 
 the skin, from which it is finally separated. 
 
 Treatment. If the pain, inflammation and swel- 
 ling are excessive, reduce them by cold applica- 
 tions, a dose of salts, low diet and rest. 
 
 Small-Pox. 
 
 Symptoms. Inflammatory fever; drowsiness,' 
 pain in the pit of the stomach, increased by pres- 
 rure; pain in the back; vomiting; on the third 
 day the eruption breaks out on the face, neck and 
 breast in little red points that look like flea-bites, 
 and which gradually appear over the whole body. 
 On the fifth day little round vesicles filled with a 
 transparent fluid appear on the top of each pim- 
 ple. The eruptive fever now declines. On the 
 ninth day the pustules are perfectly formed, being 
 round and filled with a thick, yellow matter, the 
 bead and face also swelling considerably. On the 
 eleventh day the matter in the pustules is of a 
 dark yellow color, the head grows less, while the 
 feet and hands begin to swell. The secondary 
 fever now makes its appearance. The pustules 
 break and dry up in scabs and crusts, which at 
 last fall off, leaving pits, which sufficiently mark 
 the cause. 
 
 Such are the symptoms of the distinct or mild 
 Bmall-pox, but it frequently assumes a more terri- 
 ble shape, in what is called the confluent. In the 
 latter all the symptoms are more violent from the 
 beginning. The fever is typhous ; there is de- 
 lirium, preceded by great anxiety, heat, thirst, 
 vomiting, etc. The eruption is irregular, coming 
 out on the second day in patches, the vesicles of 
 which are flatted in ; neither does the matter they 
 contain turn to a yellow, but to a brown color. 
 Instead of the fever going off on the appearance 
 of the eruption, it is increased after the fifth day, 
 and continues throughout the complaint. The 
 face swells in a frightful manner, so as to close 
 the eyes; sometimes putrid symptoms prevail 
 from the commencement. 
 
 Treatment. Place the patient in a cool, airy 
 foom, and let him be but lightly covered with bed 
 clothes. Purge him moderately with salts, and 
 give him thirty drops of laudanum every night. 
 The diet should consist of panada, arrow-root, 
 etc., and his drink consist of lemonade or water. 
 If from any cause the eruption strikes in, put him 
 into a warm bath, give a little warm wine whey, 
 or the wine alone, and apply blisters to the feet. 
 Obstinate vomiting is to be quieted by the effer- 
 vescing draught, with the addition of a few drops 
 of laudanum. 
 
 In the confluent small-pox the treatment must 
 be varied as it inclines more or less to the inflam- 
 matory or putrid type. If it inclines to the first, 
 act as directed for the distinct kind ; if to the last, 
 employ all those means directed in typhus fever. 
 If the eyes are much aftected, it will be necessary 
 to bathe them frequently with warm milk, and to 
 smear the lids with some simple ointment. 
 
 Itch. 
 
 Symptoms. An eruption of small pimples be- 
 tween the fingers, on the wrists, and over the 
 whole body, which form matter, and are attended 
 with an intolerable itching. 
 
 Treatment. The remedy is sulphur. It should 
 
 be used internally with cream of tartar, so as to 
 purge moderately, and at the same time be ap- 
 plied externally in the form of an ointment. The 
 following practice is said to be effectual: Take of 
 flour of sulphur 2 ounces, and mix it well with 
 2 drachms of nitre; throw the mixture into a 
 warming-pan containing live coals, and pass the 
 pan between the sheets in tne usual manner. The 
 patient, stripped to his skin, now gets into bed 
 (taking care not to let the fumes escape), when 
 the clothes should be tucked in all round him. 
 Repeat the process ten or twelve times. The sul- 
 phur ointment, applied after a prolonged tepid 
 bath, will generally answer. 
 
 Herpes. 
 
 Symptoms. Broad, itchy spots of a reddish or 
 white color breaking out in different places, which 
 at last run into each other, forming extensive 
 ulcers: after a time they become covered with 
 scales, which fall off, leaving the surface below 
 red ; while the disease heals in one part it breaks 
 out in another. 
 
 Treatment. The ointment of the oxide of zino 
 is a very common applicati >n. Washing the part 
 with a solution of corrosive sublimate in water, 
 one grain to the ounce, is, however, to be pre- 
 ferred. The citrine ointment may also be tried. 
 If these fail, apply a strong solution of blue vit- 
 riol to the ulcers, and take a grain of calomel 
 morning and evening. The decoction of sarsa- 
 parilla and guaiacum maybe used with them. If 
 the disease resists the mercury, try Fowler's Solu- 
 tion of Arsenic in doses of five drops three times 
 a day, to be cautiously increased as directed for 
 intermitting fevers. The warm bath should never 
 be neglected in cutaneous complaints. 
 
 Scald- Head. 
 
 Symptoms. Inflammation of the skin of the 
 head, which ends in a scabby eruption that ex- 
 tends over the whole scalp. 
 
 Omises. -r- Want of cleanliness, putting on the 
 hat, using the comb, or sleeping in the bed of a 
 person who has it. 
 
 Treatment. Shave the head close, wash it well 
 with warm soap and water, and cover it thickly 
 with fresh powdered charcoal. The bowels must 
 be kept open by magnesia or Epsom salts. If 
 this fails, try the citrine or tar ointment to the 
 parts, with a liberal use of the compound decoc- 
 tion of sarsaparilla. The diet should be whole- 
 some and nourishing, avoiding spirituous liquors 
 and salted meats. The warm bath should not he 
 neglected. 
 
 Ringicorm. 
 
 Symptoms. An eruption running in curved 
 lines, generally in a circle, that itches" when 
 rubbed, or when the body is heated. 
 
 Treatment. Into one ounce of water throw 
 more blue vitriol than it will dissolve, so as to 
 form what is technically called a saturated solu- 
 tion. Touching the ulcerated parts with this 
 liquid several times through the day, will alone 
 frequently cure it. If this fails, apply the citrine 
 or tar ointments. In very obstinate cases, re- 
 course may be had to the usual doses of Fowler's 
 Solution. If it affects the head, shave it. In this, 
 as well as all other diseases of the skin, the great- 
 est cleanliness is necessary. 
 
 Nettie-Rash. 
 
 Symptoms. An eruption similar to that caused 
 by the stinging of nettles, whence its name. On 
 rubbing the skin which itches, the eruption will 
 suddenly appear, remain for a moment, and then 
 vanish, breaking out in some other spot. Th 
 parts affected are swelled, at one time presenting 
 
140 
 
 MEDICINE. 
 
 the appearance of welts, as from the stroke of 
 a whip-lash, and at another, that of white solid 
 lumps. 
 
 Treatment. A few doses of magnesia or Epsom 
 salts, and a little attention to the diet, which 
 should be mild, are generally (sufficient to remove 
 it. If it proceed from eating poisonous fish, or 
 any unwholesome food, take an emetic, etc., as 
 directed in such cases. 
 
 Blotched- Face. 
 
 Symptom*. An eruption of hard, distinct tu- 
 bercles or pimples, generally appearing on the 
 face, but sometimes on the neck, breast, and 
 shoulders. 
 
 Treatment. There are a great many varieties 
 of this affection, some of which have been sepa- 
 rately treated of by Wilson and other writers on 
 diseases of the skin, to whom I would refer any 
 one who is particularly interested therein. Not- 
 withstanding all that has been said on the sub- 
 ject, there is no disease more difficult to get rid 
 of than this. Where it arises from suppressed 
 perspiration, high-seasoned food, or intemperance, 
 it may indeed be relieved by the warm bath, by 
 sweating, purging, and a low diet; but when it 
 exists in persons who have always led temperate 
 lives, and in whom it seems constitutional, medi- 
 cine has but little effect on it. In all cases, how- 
 ever, the following plan may be adopted : Take a 
 dose of Epsom salts once or twice a week, use 
 the wartn bath daily, live on mush and milk ex- 
 clusively, and drink nothing but water. The 
 parts may be touched frequently with the lotion 
 below. If, after a trial of several months, this 
 should not succeed, try Fowler's solution, or the 
 pills for scald head, with the decoction of guaia- 
 curn and sarsaparilla. The various cosmetics and 
 astringent applications recommended for these 
 affections are always prejudicial, for although they 
 sometimes repress the eruption, they occasion 
 more severe and dangerous complaints. 
 
 Lotion. Take of corrosive sublimate, 4 grains ; 
 of spirits of wine, an ounce; when the salt is 
 dissolved, add of common gin and of water, each, 
 3 ounces. 
 
 ^, Scurvy. 
 
 Symptoms. Bleeding of the gums, teeth loose, 
 spots of various colors on the skin, generally livid, 
 debility, countenance pale and bloated, pulse 
 small, quick, and intermitting. In its advanced 
 stage the joints swell, and blood bursts out from 
 different parts of the body. 
 
 Treatment. Remove the patient to a new and 
 healthy situation, where the air is dry and pure, 
 give him plenty of fresh vegetables, such as pota- 
 toes, spinach, lettuce, beets, carrots, and scurvy- 
 grass. A small proportion of fresh animal food 
 should be taken with them. This, with oranges, 
 lemons and sugar, or lemonade, spruce-beer, with 
 wine and water, are generally sufficient to cure the 
 complaint. If there is much pain in the bowels, 
 laudanum must be used to relieve it. If the 
 breathing is difficult, or there is much pain in the 
 breast, apply a blister to it, for on no account 
 should blood be drawn in scurvy. A teaspoonful 
 of charcoal, well mixed with half a pint of vine- 
 gar, forms an excellent gargle to clean the gums 
 and ulcers in the mouth. Those on the body may 
 be washed with the same, or lemon-juice, pure, or 
 mixed with water. The yeast or charcoal poultice 
 may also be applied to them with advantage. To 
 restore the tone of the system, recourse must be 
 had to the Peruvian bark, with the elixir of vitriol, 
 the rnuriated tincture of iron, exercise, etc., etc. 
 Of Tumors. 
 
 By the word tumor is meant a swelling of any 
 
 part of the body. They are of different kinds, 
 arise from various causes, and are more or less 
 dangerous, according to the nature of their con- 
 tents, and the spot they occupy. Unless cancer- 
 ous, they are generally not dangerous to life. 
 Of Ruptures. 
 
 Ruptures are tumors caused by the protrusion 
 of a part of the bowels through certain natural 
 openings. They are divided into reducible, irre- 
 ducible, and strangulated. They mostly occur in 
 men in the groin and bag. 
 
 Causes. Straining in any way, as at stool, 
 vomiting, lifting heavy weights, violent exercise, 
 as jumping, running, etc.: a natural weakness of 
 the parts. 
 
 Reducible Ruptures. 
 
 Symptoms. A small swelling, free from pain, 
 and generally soft, the color of the skin over it 
 remaining unaltered. While standing up the 
 swelling increases, on lying down it decreases, 
 the patient being able to return the parts himself, 
 while in that position. The swelling is also in- 
 creased by coughing, sneezing, or straining as if 
 at stool. If he is flatulent, a rumbling sensation 
 may be felt in it. 
 
 Treatment. The patient should place himself 
 on his back, with his head and shoulders a little 
 elevated. Draw up his knees to his belly, and (if 
 in this position the parts do not return of them- 
 selves) endeavor to push or knead them gently up 
 into the belly, through the opening at which they 
 come out, and which, if the tumor be in the groin 
 or bag, is an oval ring or slit in the groin, at the 
 precise spot where the swelling first appeared. 
 When this is effected, he should remain quiet until 
 a truss can be procured, the spring of which must 
 be passed round his body, the pad be applied di- 
 rectly over the spot just mentioned, and held there 
 with one hand, while the other pnsses the strap 
 into the buckle and draws it sufficiently tight. 
 Having done this, he should get up and' walk 
 about. If the swelling no longer appears, the 
 truss is properly applied ; if otherwise, take it off, 
 return the parts as before, and apply it again; 
 when, if, on rising, walking about, slightly cough- 
 ing, etc., the parts are found to be well kept up, 
 he may resume his ordinary business. The truss 
 should be worn night and day, as long as he lives. 
 
 Irreducible Ruptures. 
 
 Symptoms. A rupture in which there is no pain, 
 yet that cannot be returned into the belly, caused 
 by an increased bulk of the parts, or their having 
 formed adhesions, or grown fast to adjoining parts. 
 
 Treatment. A rupture thus situated must be 
 simply supported by a bag or bandage, and left 
 to itself. The patient should be extremely cau- 
 tious in his diet, and in avoiding costiveness, by 
 the use of clysters, or, if necessary, laxative med- 
 icines. He should also be very careful to protect 
 the tumor from blows, always recollecting that it 
 is in danger of strangulation. 
 
 Strangulated Ruptures. 
 
 Symptoms. The first mark of a rupture being 
 strangulated, or of pressure being made on it, is 
 costiveness. The turnor, which before was insen- 
 sible, becomes painful, the pain being most severe 
 at the spot where the strangulation or sLicture 
 exists, and extending from thence ae: -o-s the belly, 
 which becomes swollen and hard. The pain re- 
 sembles that which the patient would suppose to 
 arise if a cord was drawn tightly across it. The 
 pain continues to increase, and is augmented by 
 pressure; sneezing, coughing, nausea, and vomit- 
 ing, first of the contents of the stomach, and af- 
 terwards of the intestines, ensue ; great anxiety, 
 
ANEURISM, BOILS AND CARBUNCLES. 
 
 141 
 
 restlessness, and a quick hard pulse. Hiccups, 
 cold clammy sweats, weakened respiration, and a 
 pulse so feeble as hardly to be perceived, announce 
 the approach or presence of mortification. 
 
 Treatment. Lose not a moment in sending for 
 the best medical aid that may be within reach. In 
 the mean time, having placed the patient as di- 
 rected for reducible ruptures, apply both hands on 
 the tuuior with gentle pressure, or grasp the tumor 
 gently but steadily with one hand, while with the 
 fingers of the other you endeavor to knead or 
 push up the parts nearest the ring in the groin, 
 applying the pressure in the same course the parts 
 have taken in their descent. If this fails, seize 
 the tumor between the finger and thumb of the 
 left hand, close to whore it enters the belly, and 
 carry them downwards, with a moderate pressure, 
 go as to dislodge any excrement which may be 
 there, while with the right you endeavor to push 
 in the gut. 
 
 If you cannot succeed in two or three attempts, 
 place the patient in a warm bath and try it again. 
 If still foiled (you have no time to waste in un- 
 availing attempts) cover the tumor with pounded 
 ice, snow, or any very cold application. Should 
 this fail, bleed the patient until he nearly faints, 
 regardless of the small thready pulse ; if fainting 
 actually occurs, seize that moment to return the 
 parts, as before directed. 
 
 Should the rupture still remain irreducible, 
 there are but two resources left, the tobacco clys- 
 ter and an operation. One-half of the clyster 
 should be injected; if it occasions sickness and a 
 relaxation of the parts, endeavor to return them. 
 If the first half does not produce these effects, 
 throw up the remainder of it, and when relaxa- 
 tion cornes on endeavor, as before, to push up the 
 gut. As regards the operation, no one should 
 ever attempt it but a surgeon. Large doses of 
 laudanum allay vomiting, and are otherwise ben- 
 eficial ; in all cases of this kind they should never 
 be omitted. 
 
 Remarks. Ruptures are liable to be confounded 
 with some other diseases, as dropsy of the bag, 
 enlarged spermatic vein, etc. The modes of dis- 
 tinguishing them have already been pointed out, 
 although it must be confessed that with respect to 
 the latter considerable difficulty exists. If the 
 disease is a rupture, by placing the patient on his 
 back, returning the tumor, and holding the fingers 
 firmly over the opening, and then desiring him to 
 rise, the swelling will not appear. If, on the con- 
 trary, it is an enlarged spermatic vein, it will be 
 found to be greater than ever. The latter has 
 also a peculiar ropy feel, as if a bundle of cords 
 were in the bag. 
 
 Aneurism. 
 
 Symptoms. At first a small tumor without pain 
 or redness, attended by a peculiar throbbing; it 
 disappears on pressure, and returns the moment 
 it is removed. As the tumor increases in size, 
 the throbbing or beating of the artery grows less 
 perceptible. It is generally found in the ham, 
 thigh, neck, groin, and arm. Distinguish it by 
 the beating or throbbing, which is diminished by 
 pressing on the artery above the tumor, and by 
 the latter disappearing on pressure, and returning 
 when it is removed. 
 
 Treatment. In the early stage apply a soft and 
 elastic cushion to the tumor, and bind it tightly 
 over it by a bandage. If the patient is of a full 
 habit he should be bled and purged. This plan, 
 steadily and vigorously pursued for a long time, 
 has sometimes effected complete cures. There is 
 nothing, however, but an operation that can be 
 depended on ; wherefore, as soon as any swelling 
 of this nature is perceived, no time should be lost 
 
 in procuring surgical assistance. If the tumor is 
 left to itself it will finally burst, and death be the 
 inevitable consequence. 
 
 Fleshy Tumors. 
 
 Symptoms. Small warty projections, which, as 
 they increase in size, drag down the skin from 
 the neighboring parts, which forms a kind of stem 
 or foot-stalk, on which the tumor hangs. They 
 are hard, full of vessels, and are neither painful 
 nor inflamed. 
 
 Treatment. When very small, they may be fre- 
 quently touched with caustic, which will destroy 
 them ; if large, the ligature or knife must be em- 
 ployed, for which purpose have recourse to a sur- 
 geon. 
 
 Steatomatous Tumors. 
 
 Symptoms. A small, fatty swelling, which 
 gradually increases, and sometimes grows to an 
 enormous size. It is soft and free from pain, the 
 color of the skin remaining unaltered. 
 
 Treatment. These tumors, technically called 
 steatomatous, are merely inconvenient from their 
 bulk. They can only be removed by the ligature 
 or knife, for which purpose apply to a surgeon. 
 Encysted Tumors. 
 
 Symptoms. A distinct, hard, circumscribed 
 swelling, gradually growing larger until a slight 
 inflammation comes on, when it becomes a little 
 painful, soon after which a fluctuation is distinctly 
 to be perceived. As it progresses the vessels be- 
 come enlarged ; it seldom exceeds the size of an 
 egg- 
 
 Treatment. Apply to a surgeon. 
 Ganglion. 
 
 Symptoms. A small, movable, elastic swelling, 
 with little or no pain, or alteration in the skin, 
 situated under or between tendons or sinews, and 
 generally near to a joint; it sometimes hinders 
 the motions of the part. 
 
 Treatment. Apply pressure, blisters or frictions 
 of strong camphorated mercurial ointment to the 
 tumor. If these are of no avail, make a small 
 puncture in it with the point of a sharp lancet, 
 let out its contents and apply pressure to the part, 
 so as to make the two sides of the sack or bag 
 grow together. 
 
 Boils. 
 
 Symptoms. A hard, circumscribed, inflamed and 
 very painful tumor, of a conical shape, seldom 
 exceeding in size a pigeon's egg. 
 
 Treatment. If the patient is of a full habit, 
 bleed and purge him with Epsom salts. A soft 
 poultice of warm bread and milk, or rye or flax- 
 seed meal, should always be applied to the boil, 
 and frequently changed. If the pain is exces- 
 sive, a teaspoonful of laudanum may be mixed 
 with each one. In a few days matter will be 
 formed, when it may be let out with a sharp 
 lancet. 
 
 Carbuncle. 
 
 A deeply seated, hard, immovable and circum- 
 scribed tumor, which appears generally on the 
 back, shoulders, etc. About the middle it is of a 
 dark red or purple color, being much paler or 
 mottled round its edges. It is attended with an 
 intolerable itching and burning pain, and at last 
 becomes a kind of sloughing ulcer. 
 
 Treatment. This will depend upon the state of 
 the constitution. Most generally there is great 
 weakness, in which case the diet must be gener- 
 ous. Bark, with the elixir of vitriol and opium, 
 to relieve the pain, are to be frequently employed. 
 As a local remedy, a blister ranks very high. It 
 should be placed directly on the part. After be- 
 ing cut, it may be succeeded by a basilicon plus- 
 
142 
 
 MEDICINE. 
 
 ter. A modern writer strongly recommends the 
 solution of arsenic as a local remedy in this dis- 
 ease. Pledgets of linen dipped in the liquor, are 
 to be laid on the swelling and frequently renewed. 
 When matter begins to form, apply a bread and 
 milk poultice, and treat it in every respect as a 
 common ulcer. Surgeons mostly advise the early 
 use of deep incisions of carbuncle entirely across 
 it, in two directions, at right angles to each other. 
 
 Whitlow, or Felon. 
 
 Symptoms. An inflamed tumor at the end of 
 the finger. It is of three kinds. The first is 
 situated immediately under the skin, around the 
 nail; the second in the cellular membrane, the 
 pain and swelling of which is much greater than 
 in the first, arid the matter much longer in form- 
 ing; the third lies under the sheath or covering 
 of the tendons of the fingers, and is infinitely 
 more violent, painful and dangerous than either 
 of the others. 
 
 Treatment. If of the first description, open the 
 little abscess with a needle and let out the matter, 
 which should be prevented from forming, if pos- 
 sible, by bathing the part with camphorated 
 spirits. The second should be dispersed by purg- 
 ing, and by leeches and blisters. If the inflam- 
 mation is not reduced by these means, with a very 
 sharp penknife make an early and free incision 
 in the middle of the last joint of the finger down 
 to the bone. Suffer the blood to run for a few 
 minutes, and then treat it as a common cut. The 
 same practice should be followed with regard to 
 the third. 
 
 Piles. 
 
 Symptoms. A pain in the fundament when going 
 to stool; on examination small tumors are per- 
 ceived to project beyond its verge, They are of 
 two kinds the blind and bleeding. They may 
 also be internal and external. 
 
 Blind Piles. 
 
 Treatment. A diet of rye mush and milk, 
 strictly adhered to for a length of time, will very 
 frequently cure the disease. If they project, are 
 swelled and painful, apply twenty or thirty 
 leeches to them, and cold applications. The com- 
 mon gall ointment is a very soothing application. 
 Balsam copaiva in doses sufficiently large to 
 purge freely is also highly recommended. A radi- 
 cal cure, however, is only to be sought for in the 
 knife or ligature, for which apply to a surgeon. 
 If the pain is very great, laudanum may be taken 
 to ease it. 
 
 Bleeding Piles. 
 
 Treatment. If the bleeding is considerable, in- 
 ject a solution of alum or a decoction of ouk bark, 
 or make pressure upon the vessels by introducing 
 a sheep's gut, tied a 1 one end, into the fundament, 
 and then tilling it with any astringent fluid by a 
 clyster pipe. This evacuation is sometimes salu- 
 tary, and it often requires much judgment to 
 know if it should be stopped or not. 
 
 Of Abscess. 
 
 Symptoms. The formation of matter under the 
 skin, or in any part of the body, preceded by in- 
 flammation, and marked by a dull, heavy weight; 
 by the pain becoming more acute and darting ; by 
 a peculiar throbbing; by the swelling becoming 
 more elevated and soft to the touch. If the tu- 
 mor is not opened it bursts. 
 
 Treatment. Apply a soft and warm bread and 
 uiilk or linseed poultice to the part> and endeavor 
 to hasten the formation of matter. When this is 
 evident, let it out with a sharp lancet. If the pa- 
 
 tient is weak, let him have a generous diet, with 
 wine, porter, bark, etc. 
 
 Pitoas Abscens. 
 
 Symptoms. A weakness across the loins, ac- 
 companied by a dull pain. After a while the 
 pain shifts from the back to the thigh and hip, 
 becoming more darting and severe. The glands 
 in the groin swell, and at last a soft tumor is 
 perceived at the lower edge of the groin, or by 
 the side of the fundament; the swelling increases 
 to a large size, and sometimes extends itself down 
 the thigh. 
 
 Treatment. In the early stage purge the pa- 
 tient; keep him on a low diet and apply a large 
 blister over the lower part of the back. Confine- 
 ment in bed is absolutely necessary. When mat- 
 ter is formed make an opening into the tumor in 
 the following manner: Push a sharp lancet first 
 through the skin, then obliquely upwards under 
 it, and then, by depressing the point, pierce the 
 swelling itself. In this way the abscess is opened 
 without the danger that attends wounds of large 
 cavities. If it is small, the whole of the matter 
 may be allowed to flow away at once; if large, 
 after drawing a pint, close the wound for a few 
 hours, and then finish the operation. The lips of 
 the wound must be kept together by sticking plas- 
 ter. As there are many vessels of importance in 
 the groin, care must be taken to avoid wounding 
 them, and, if a surgeon can be had, he should al- 
 ways be applied to for this purpose. 
 
 Of Fistula. 
 
 Symptoms. An abscess or ulcer in the neigh- 
 borhood of the fundament, preceded by an in- 
 flamed swelling, whidi gives much pain. If there 
 is no communication between the gut and the sore, 
 it is called an incomplete, if there is, a complete 
 fistula. 
 
 Treatment. As the tumor is often taken for 
 piles, attention should be paid to distinguish them. 
 In all cases apply forty or fifty leeches to the part, 
 keep the bowels perfectly loose by a diet of rye 
 mush, and confine the patient to his bed. If, 
 however, the formation of matter cannot be hin- 
 dered, the swelling must be opened early and a 
 poultice applied to it, when the disease occasion- 
 ally heals like any other sore; but nine times out 
 of ten it forms a callous winding abscess, through 
 which (if it is complete) excrement, etc., often 
 passes. When it arrives at this point, nothing 
 but an operation can ever be of any service. 
 
 There is another species of fistulous opening, 
 which follows the obstruction caused by stric- 
 tures, etc., in the urinary passage. The water 
 not being able to flow through the natural canal, 
 makes its way out between the bag and the fun- 
 dament, constituting what is called fistula in pe- 
 rineo. It may almost be called an incurable dis- 
 ease ; at all events, none but a surgeon can do 
 anything to relieve it. 
 
 Of Ulcers. 
 
 By ulcers are meant holes or sores in the skin 
 and flesh, which discharge matter. They are di- 
 vided into inflamed, fungous, sloughing, and in- 
 dolent ulcers in the neighborhood of carious bone, 
 and those attended by a peculiar diseased action. 
 
 Inflamed Ulcers. 
 
 Symptoms. The margin of the sore is ragged, 
 the skin ending in a sharp edge round it. The 
 neighboring parts are red, swelled and painful, 
 the bottom of the ulcer is uneven and covered with 
 a white spongy substance. In place cf healthy 
 yellow matter, it discharges a thin fluid j the Bur- 
 face of it bleeds on the slightest touch. 
 
ULCERS, ACCIDENTS. 
 
 143 
 
 Treatment. Confine the patient to bed, purge 
 him occasionally, let his diet be low, and apply a 
 soft bread and milk or linseed poultice to the 
 ulcer. When healthy yellow matter is formed, 
 omit the poultice, keep the sore very clean, and 
 apply a plaster of simple ointment. 
 Fungous Ulcers. 
 
 Symptoms. The presence of large round gran- 
 ulations, rising above the level of the adjoining 
 parts, or what is commonly called proud flesh, 
 marks this species of ulcer. 
 
 Treatment. Sprinkle red precipitate over the 
 proud flesh, or touch it with lunar caustic, apply 
 dressings of simple cerate to the sore, and pass a 
 bandage tightly over the whole. Burnt alum and 
 blue vitriol may also be used to destroy the proud 
 flesh. Pressure by adhesive plaster or a bandage 
 will often succeed when all other means fail. 
 Slouyhing Ulcer. 
 
 Symptoms. The doath of parts of nn ulcer 
 which mortify and fall off, generally attended by 
 fever and pain. 
 
 Treatment. The diet should be generous, laud- 
 anum must be taken to relieve pain, and bark, 
 wine, porter, etc., to strengthen the system. The 
 carrot poultice is the best local application. TMfe 
 sore may also be washed with a solution of bro- 
 mine, or of nitric acid, fifty drops to the pint of 
 water. When the dead portions have all fallen off, 
 treat it as a simple ulcer, paying attention, how- 
 ever, to the state of the system. 
 
 Indolent Ulcer. 
 
 Symptoms. The edges of the skin are thick, 
 raised, smooth and shining. The points of new 
 flesh are glossy, and the appearance of the whole 
 ulcer is that of an old one in which the healing 
 process is at a stand. 
 
 Treatment. Touch the whole surface, sides and 
 edges of the sore with caustic, blue vitriol, or pow- 
 der it with Spanish flies or red precipitate, and 
 endeavor in this way to rouse the parts to action. 
 If one article fails, try .another. Strips of stick- 
 ing plaster may be passed over the ulcer, about 
 an inch apart, so as to draw its edges nearer to- 
 gether, and a long bandage be applied over the 
 whole. 
 
 Carious Ulcer. 
 
 Symptoms. Ulcers situated over or near cari- 
 ous (or dead) bones, are thereby prevented from 
 healing; they frequently penetrate deep into ihe 
 parts, forming a canal with hard and indolent 
 sides, that discharges an offensive, unhealthy 
 matter. 
 
 Treatment. Keep the sore clean, repress any 
 proud flesh that may arise, and pay attention to 
 the general health of the patient, taking care that 
 his strength be kept up, if necessary, by wine, 
 bark, porter, etc., etc. The ulcer will not heal 
 until all the pieces of dead bone are thrown off. 
 This process sometimes lasts for years, in which 
 case patience is the only remedy and nature the 
 best physician. 
 
 Cases of ulceration frequently occur, proceeding 
 from various causes, whose ravages seem to bid 
 defiance to medical power. In all cases of ulcera- 
 tion, too much stress cannot be laid upon the 
 necessity of keeping the parts clean. 
 
 OP ACCIDENTS. 
 
 If, in consequence of a broken bone or other 
 injury, the patient is unable to walk, take a door 
 from its hingea, lay him carefully on it, and have 
 him carried by assistants to the nearest house. 
 If no door or sofa can be procured, two boards, 
 sufficiently long and broad, should be nailed to 
 
 two cross pieces, the ends of which must project 
 about a foot, so as to form handles. If in the 
 woods, or where no boards can be procured, a 
 litter may be formed from the branches of trees. 
 In this way a hand-barrow may be constructed in 
 a few minutes, on which the sufferer may be pro- 
 perly carried. 
 
 If he has been wounded and bleeds, the bleed- 
 ing must be stopped before he is removed. 
 
 Having reached a house, lay him on a bed, and 
 undress him with care and gentleness. If any 
 difficulty arises in getting off his coat or panta- 
 loons, rip up the seams rather than use force. 
 This being done, proceed to ascertain the nature 
 of tho injury. 
 
 This may be either simple or compound ; that 
 is, it may be a contusion or bruise, a wound, 
 fracture, or dislocation, or it may be two or all of 
 them united in one or several parts. 
 
 A contusion is the necessary consequence of 
 every blow, and is known by the swelling and 
 discoloration of the skin. 
 
 Wounds are self-evident. 
 
 Fractures are known by the sudden and severe 
 pain, by the misshapen appearance of the limb, 
 sometimes by its being shortened, by the patient 
 being unable to move it without excruciating pain, 
 but most certainly, by grasping the limb above and 
 below the spnt where the fracture is supposed to 
 exist, and twisting it different ways, when a grating 
 will be felt, occasioned by the broken ends of the 
 bone rubbing against each other. If the swelling, 
 however, is very great, this experiment should not 
 be made until it is reduced.- 
 
 Dislocations, or bones being out of joint, are 
 known by the deformity of the joint when com- 
 pared with its fellow, by the pain and inability to 
 move the limb, by its being longer or shorter tLan 
 usual, and by the impossibility of moving it in 
 particular directions. 
 
 Of Sprains. 
 
 Plunge the part sprained into very cold water, 
 and hold it there as long at a time as you can bear 
 it for several hours then rub it well with cam- 
 phorated spirits. If the accident has happened to 
 a joint, as in the ancle, and it remains weak, pour 
 cold water on it from the spout of a tea-kettle, held 
 at a distance, several times in the day. 
 Of Contusions. 
 
 If slight, bathe the part frequently with cold 
 vinegar and water for a few hours, and then rub it 
 well with brandy, or spirits of any kind. Should 
 it be very great, or so as to affect the whole 
 body, which may be known by a general soreness, 
 bleed and purge the patient, and confine him to a 
 diet of rice-water, lemonade, panada, etc. If fever 
 comes on, repeat the purging, etc. In all cases of 
 this nature, be sure the water is regularly evacu- 
 ated, for it sometimes happens that in consequence 
 of the nerves of the bladder being palsied by the 
 blow, the patient feels no desire to pass it, though 
 the bladder be full. If a suppression ensues, pass 
 a catheter, if possible, or procure assistance for 
 that purpose. The most serious effects, however, 
 resulting from contusion, are when the blow is 
 applied to the head, producing either concussion 
 or compression of the brain. 
 
 Concussion of the Brain. 
 
 Symptoms. The patient is stunned, his breath- 
 ing slow, drowsiness, stupidity, the puprl of the 
 eye rather contracted, vomiting. After a time he 
 recovers. 
 
 Treatment. Apply cloths dipped in cold vine- 
 gar and water to his heal, and when the stupor 
 is gone and the pulse rises, bleed him, and open 
 his bowels with Epsom salts. He should be con- 
 
144 
 
 MEDICINE. 
 
 fined to bed, kept on a low diet, in a quiet situ- 
 ation, and every measure taken to prevent an in- 
 flammation of the brain, which, if it comes on, 
 must be treated by bleeding, blisters, etc. 
 Compression of the Brain. 
 
 Symptoms. Loss of sense and motion, slow, 
 noisy, and laborious breathing, pulse slow and ir- 
 regular, the muscles relaxed, as in a person just 
 dead, the pupil of the eye enlarged and will not 
 con tract even by a strong light, the patient lies 
 like one in an apoplectic fit, and cannot be roused. 
 
 Treatment. Open a vein and draw off sixteen 
 or twenty ounces of blood, shave the head, and if 
 possible, procure surgical assistance without de- 
 lay, as there is nothing, unless an operation, that 
 can be of any avail. 
 
 Of Wounds. 
 
 Wounds are of three kinds, viz., incised, punc- 
 tured, and contused ; among the latter are included 
 gun-shot wounds. The first step in all wounds, is 
 
 To Stop the Bleeding. 
 
 If the flow of blood is but trifling, draw the 
 edges of the wound together with your hand, and 
 hold them in that position some time, when it will 
 frequently stop. If, on the contrary, it is large, 
 of a bright red color, flowing in spirts or with a 
 jerk, clap your finger on the spot it springs from, 
 and hold it there with a firm pressure, while you di- 
 rect some one to pass a handkerchief round the limb 
 (supposing the wound to be in one) above the cut, 
 and to tie its two ends together in a hard knot. A 
 cane, whip-handle, or stick of any kind, must now 
 be passed under the knot (between the upper sur- 
 face of the limb and the handkerchief), and turned 
 round and round until the stick is brought down to 
 the thigh, so as to make the handkerchief encircle 
 it with considerable tightness. You may then take 
 off your finger; if the blood still flows, tighten the 
 handkerchief by a turn or two of the stick, until it 
 ceases. The patient may now be removed (taking 
 care to secure the stick in its position) without run- 
 ning any risk of bleeding to death by the way. 
 
 As this apparatus cannot be left on for any length 
 of time, without destroying the life of the parts, 
 endeavor as soon as possible to secure the bleed- 
 ing vessels, and take it off. Having waxed toge- 
 ther three or four threads of a sufficient length, 
 cut the ligature they form into as many pieces as 
 you think there are vessels to be taken up, each 
 piece being about a foot long. Wash the parts 
 with warm water, and then with a sharp hook, or 
 a slender pair of pincers in your hand, fix your 
 eye steadfastly upon the wound, and direct the 
 handkerchief to be relaxed by a turn or two of the 
 stick ; you will now see the mouth of the artery 
 from which the blood springs, seize it with your 
 hook or pincers, draw it a little out, while some one 
 passes a ligature round it, and ties it uptight with 
 a double knot. In this way take up in succession 
 every bleeding vessel you can see or get hold of. 
 
 If the wound is too high up in a limb to apply 
 the handkerchief, don't lose your presence of 
 mind, the bleeding can still be commanded. If it 
 is the thigh, press firmly in the groin; if in the 
 arm, with the hand end or ring of a common door 
 key, make pressure above the collar bone, and about 
 its middle against the first rib which lies under it. 
 The pressure is to be continued until assistance is 
 procured, and the vessel tied up. 
 
 If the wound is on the head, press your finger 
 firmly on it, until a compress can be brought, 
 which must be bound firmly over the artery by a 
 bandage. If the wound is in the face, or so situat- 
 ed that pressure cannot be effectually made, or you 
 ?annot get hold of the vessel, and the blood flows 
 
 fast, place a piece of ice directly over the wound, 
 and let it remain there till the blood coagulates, 
 when it may be removed, and a compress and 
 bandage be applied. 
 
 Incised Wounds. 
 
 By an incised wound is meant a clean cut Hav- 
 ing stopped the bleeding, wash away all dirt, etc 
 that may be in it with a sponge and warm water, 
 then draw the sides of the wound together, and 
 keep them in that position by narrow strips of 
 sticking plaster, placed on at regular distances, or 
 from one to two inches apart. A soft compress of 
 old linen or lint may be laid over the whole. 
 
 Should much inflammation follow, remove the 
 strips, and purge the patient (who should live 
 very low, and be kept perfectly quiet) according 
 to the exigency of the case. If it is plah. that 
 matter must form before the wound will heal, ap- 
 ply a soft poultice or wet lint (water dressing) 
 until that event takes place, when dressing of 
 some simple ointment may be substituted for it. 
 
 Although narrow strips of linen, spread with 
 sticking-plaster, form the best means of keeping 
 the sides of a wound together, when they can be 
 applied, yet in the ear, nose, tongue, lips, and 
 eye-lids, it is necessary to use stitches, which are 
 made in the following manner: Having armed a 
 common needle with a double waxed thread, pass 
 the point of it through the skin, at a little distance 
 from the edge of the cut, and bring it out of the 
 opposite one at the same distance. If more than 
 one stitch is required, cut off the needle, thread it 
 again, and proceed as before, until a sufficient 
 number are taken, leaving the threads loose until 
 all the stitches are passed, when the respective 
 ends of each thread must be tied in a hard double 
 knot, drawn in such a way that it bears a little on 
 the side of the cut. When the edges of the 
 wound are partly united, cut the knots carefully, 
 and withdraw the threads. 
 
 From what has been said, it must be evident 
 that in all wounds, after arresting the flow of 
 blood and cleansing the parts, if necessary, the 
 great indication is to bring their sides into con- 
 tact throughout their whole depth, in order that 
 they may grow together as quickly as possible, 
 and without the intervention of matter. To ob- 
 tain this very desirable result, in addition to the 
 means already mentioned, there are two things to 
 be attended to, the position of the patient and the 
 application of the bandage. The position of the 
 patient should be such as will relax the skin and 
 muscles of the part wounded, thereby diminishing 
 their tendency to separate. 
 
 A common bandage of a proper width, passed 
 over the compresses moderately tight, not only 
 serves to keep them in their place, but also tends 
 by its pressure to forward the great object already 
 mentioned. If, however, the wound is so exten- 
 sive and painful that the limb or body of the patient 
 cannot be raised for the purpose of applying or 
 removing it, the best way is to spread the two ends 
 of one or two strips of linen or leather with stick- 
 ing-plaster, which may be applied in place of the 
 bandage, as follows : Attach one end of a strip to 
 the sound skin, at a short distance from the edge 
 of the compress, over which it is to be drawn with 
 moderate firmness, and secured in a similar man- 
 ner on its opposite side. A second or third may, 
 if necessary, be added in the same way. 
 
 In all wounds, if violent inflammation come on, 
 reduce it by bleeding, purging, etc., but if there it 
 reason to fear lock-jaw, give wine, porter, brandy, 
 opium, and a generous diet. 
 
 Punctured Wounds. 
 These are caused by sharp pointed instruments, 
 
WOUNDS AND BITES. 
 
 145 
 
 as needles, awls, nails, etc. Having stopped the 
 bleeding, withdraw any foreign body, as part of a 
 needle, splinters, bit of glass, etc., that may be in 
 it, provided it can be done easily ; and if enlarg- 
 ing the wound a little will enable you to succeed 
 in this, do so. Though it is not always necessary 
 to enlarge wounds of this nature, yet in hot 
 weather it is a mark of precaution which should 
 never be omitted. As soon as this is done, apply 
 wet lint or soft linen, covered with oiled silk, or 
 cover the wound with a poultice, moistened with 
 laudanum. This practice may prevent lock-jaw, 
 which is but too frequent a consequence of 
 wounds of this description. When matter forms, 
 cover the part with mild dressings, as a common 
 sore. Laudanum may be given in large doses to 
 relieve pain, and should the inflammation be exces- 
 sive, bleed and purge. In hot weather, however, 
 or in feeble persons, bleeding should be avoided. 
 Contused Wounds. 
 
 Wounds of this nature are caused by round or 
 blunt bodies, as musket-balls, clubs, stones, etc. 
 They are in general attended by but little bleed- 
 ing ; if, however, there should be any, it must be 
 stopped. If it arises from a ball which can be 
 easily found and withdrawn, it is propr to do so, 
 as well as any piece of the clothing, etc., that may 
 be in it j or if the ball can be distinctly felt directly 
 under the skin, make an incision across it, and 
 take it out, but never allow of any poking in the 
 wound to search for such things ; the best extractor 
 of them, as well as the first and best application 
 in contused wounds, proceed from what they may, 
 being a soft bread and milk poultice. 
 
 Should the inflammation be great, bleed and 
 purge. Pain may be relieved by laudanum, and 
 if the parts assume a dark look, threatening a mor- 
 tification, cover them with a carrot poultice. 
 
 If the wound is much torn, wash the parts very 
 nicely with warm water, and then (having secured 
 every bleeding vessel) lay them all down in a.s 
 natural a position as you can, drawing their edges 
 gently together, or as much so as possible, by 
 strips of sticking-plaster, or stitches if necessary. 
 A soft poultice or water dressing is to be applied 
 over the whole. 
 
 Poisoned Wounds from lites of Mad Dogs, Rattle- 
 snakes, etc. 
 
 The instant a person is bitten either by a mad 
 dog, rattlesnake, or any rabid animal or reptile, 
 he should apply a ligature by means of the stick, 
 above the wound, as tightly as he can well bear 
 it, -and without hesitation or delay, cut out the 
 parts bitten, taking along with them a portion of 
 the surrounding sound flesh. The wound should 
 then be freely touched with caustic, or have tur- 
 pentine poured into it. A decoction of Spanish 
 flies in turpentine may also be applied to the skin 
 surrounding the wound. By these means inflam- 
 mation will be excited, and suppuration follow, 
 which may prevent the usual dreadful consequences 
 of such accidents. As soon as the parts are cut 
 out take off the ligature. 
 
 Should the patient be too timid to allow the use 
 of the knife apply a cupping-glass, and then burn 
 the wound very freely with, caustic, and place in 
 it a tuft of tow or cotton, well moistened with the 
 above decoction. The discharge of matter that 
 follows should be kept up for some time. The 
 only reasonable chance for safety is found in the 
 above plan, all the vegetable and mineral produc- 
 tions that have been hitherto recommended as 
 internal remedies, being of very doubtful, if of 
 any, efficacy. 
 
 It is asserted, however, that not more than one 
 in ten persona bitten bv mad dogs have the 
 
 hydrophobia. When it occurs it is incurable ; but 
 nervous symptoms produced by fear are sometimes 
 mistaken for it. Rattlesnake bites are now com- 
 monly treated by giving the sufferer intoxicating 
 doses of whiskey. Ammonia, locally applied im- 
 mediately after the bite, may be of some use; and 
 the same has been said of iodine and bromine. 
 (Bibron's Antidote.) 
 Stings of Bees and Wasps, Bites of Musquitoes, etc. 
 
 Nothing relieves the pain arising from the sting 
 of a hornet, bee, or wasp so soon as plunging the 
 part in extremely cold water, and holding it there 
 for some time. Water of ammonia may antago- 
 nize the poison. A cold lead-water poultice is also 
 a very soothing application. If a number of these 
 insects have attacked you at onee, and the parts 
 stung are much swollen, lose some blood, and take 
 a dose of salts. 
 
 Musquito-bites may be treated in the same man- 
 ner, although I have found a solution of common 
 salt and water, made very strong, speedy and ef- 
 fectual in relieving the pain. Camphorated spi- 
 rits, vinegar, etc., may also be used for the same 
 purpose. A solution of Prussian blue in soft 
 water, with which the parts are to be kept con- 
 stantly moist, is a highly celebrated remedy for 
 the stings of bees, wasps, etc., etc. 
 
 Wounds of the Ear, Nose, etc. 
 
 Wash the parts clean, and draw the edges of 
 the wound together by as many stitches as are 
 necessary. If the part is even completely sepa- 
 rated, and has been trodden under feet, by wash- 
 ing it in warm water, and putting it accurately in 
 the proper place, by the same means, it may still 
 adhere ; and so may teeth that have been knocked 
 out, if replaced. 
 
 Wounds of the Scalp, 
 
 In all wounds of the scalp it is necessary to 
 shave off the hair. When this is done, wash the 
 parts well, and draw the edges of the wound to- 
 gether with sticking-plaster. If it has been vio- 
 lently torn up in several pieces, wash and lay 
 them all down on the skull again, drawing their 
 edges as nearly together as possible by sticking- 
 plaster, or, if necessary, by stitches. Cover the 
 whole with a soft compress, smeared with simple 
 cerate, or with water dressing. 
 
 Wounds of the Throat. 
 
 Seize and tie up every bleeding vessel you can 
 get hold of. If the windpipe is cut only partly 
 through, secure it with sticking-plaster. If it w 
 completely divided, bring its edges together by 
 stitches, taking care to pass the needle through 
 the loose membrane that covers the windpipe, and 
 not through the windpipe itself. The head should 
 be bent on the breast, and secured by bolsters and 
 bandages in that position, to favor the approxi- 
 mation of the edges of the wound. 
 Wounds of the Chest. 
 
 If it is a simple incised wound, draw the edgei 
 of it together by sticking-plaster, cover it with a 
 compress of wet linen, and pass a bandage round 
 the chest. The patient is to be confined to his bed, 
 kept on a very low diet, and to be bled and purged 
 in order to prevent inflammation. If the latter 
 comes on, reduce it by bleeding. 
 
 Should the wound be occasioned by a bullet, ex- 
 tract it and any pieces of cloth, etc., that may be 
 lodged in it, if possible, and cover the part with 
 a piece of linen smeared with some simple oint- 
 ment, taking care that it is not drawn into the 
 chest. If a portion of the lung protrudes, return 
 it without any delay, but as gently as possible. 
 Wounds of the Belly. 
 
 Close the wound by strips of sticking-plaster, 
 
MEDICINE. 
 
 and stitches passed through the skin, about half 
 an inch from its edges, and cover the whole with 
 a soft compress, secured by a bandage. Any in- 
 flammation that may arise is to be reduced by 
 bleeding, purging, and a blister over the whole 
 belly. 
 
 Should any part of the bowels come out at the 
 wound, if clean and uninjured, return it as quickly 
 as possible; if covered with dirt, clots of blood, 
 etc., wash it carefully in warm water previous to 
 so doing. If the gut is wounded, and only cut 
 partly through, draw the two edges of it together 
 by a stitch, and return it; if completely divided, 
 connect the edges by four stitches at equal dis- 
 tances, and replace it in the belly, always leaving 
 the end of the ligature to project from the external 
 wound, which must be closed by sticking-plaster. 
 In five or six days, if the threads are loose, with- 
 draw them gently and carefully. 
 
 Wounds of Joints. 
 
 Bring the edges of the wound together by stick- 
 ing-plaster, without any delay, keep the part per- 
 fectly at rest, bleed, purge, and live very low, to 
 prevent inflammation. Should it come on, it must 
 be met at its first approach by bleeding or leech- 
 ing to as great an extent as the condition of the 
 patient will warrant. If a permanent stiffening 
 of the joint seems likely to ensue, keep the limb 
 in that position which will prove most useful, 
 that is, the leg should be extended, and the arm 
 bent at the elbow. Wounds of joints are always 
 highly dangerous, and frequently terminate in 
 death. 
 
 Wounds of Tendons. 
 
 Tendons or sinews are frequently wounded and 
 ruptured. They are to be treated precisely like 
 any other wound, by keeping their divided parts 
 together. The tendon which connects the great 
 muscle forming the calf of the leg, with the heel, 
 called the tendon of Achilles, is frequently cut 
 with the adze, or ruptured in jumping from 
 heights. This accident is to be remedied by draw- 
 ing up the heel, extending the foot, and placing a 
 splint on the fore part of the leg, extending from 
 the knee to beyond the toes, which being secured 
 in that position by a bandage, keep the foot in the 
 position just mentioned. The hollows under the 
 eplint must be filled up with tow or cotton. If the 
 skin falls into the space between the ends of the 
 tendon, apply a piece of sticking-plaster, so as to 
 draw it out of the way. It takes five or six weeks 
 to unite, but no weight should be laid on the limb 
 for several months. 
 
 OP FRACTURES. 
 
 The signs by which fractures may be known 
 having been already pointed out with sufficient 
 minuteness, it will be unnecessary to dwell there- 
 on ; it will be well, however, to recollect this gen- 
 eral rule : In cases where, from the accompany- 
 ing circumstances and symptoms, a strong sus- 
 picion exists that the bone is fractured, it is 
 proper to act as though it were positively ascer- 
 tained to be so. 
 
 Fractures of the Bones of the Nose. 
 The bones of the nose from their exposed situa- 
 tion are frequently forced in. Any smooth arti- 
 cle that will pass into the nostril should be imme- 
 diately introduced with one hand, to raise the 
 depressed portions to the proper level, while the 
 other is employed in moulding them into the re- 
 quired shape. If violent inflammation follow, 
 bleed, purge, and live on a low diet. 
 
 Fractures of the Lower Jaw. 
 This accident ia easily discovered by looking 
 
 into the mouth, and is to be remedied by keeping 
 the lower jaw firmly pressed against the upper 
 one by means of a bandage passed under the chin 
 and over the head. If it is broken near the angle, 
 or that part nearest the ear, place a cushion or roll 
 of linen in the hollow behind it, over which the 
 bandnge must pass, so as to make it push that 
 part of the bone forward. The parts are to be 
 confined in this way for twenty daya, during 
 which time all the nourishment that ia taken 
 should be sucked between the teeth. If, in con- 
 sequence of the blow, a tooth is loosened, do not 
 meddle with it, for if let alone, it will grow fast 
 again. 
 
 Fractures of the Collar-Bone. 
 
 This accident is a very common occurrence, 
 and is known at once by passing the finger along 
 it, and by the swelling, etc. To reduce it, seat 
 the patient in a chair, without any shirt, and 
 place a pretty stout compress of linen, made in 
 the shape of a wedge, under his arm, the thick 
 end of which should press against the arm-pit. 
 His arm, bent to a right angle at the elbow, is 
 now to be brought down to his side, and secured 
 in that position by a long bandage, which passes 
 over the arm of the affected side and round the 
 body. The forearm is to be supported across the 
 breast by a sling. It takes from four to five weeks 
 to re-unite. 
 
 Fractures of the Arm. 
 
 Seat the patient on a chair, or the side of a bed. 
 Let one assistant hold the sound arm, while an- 
 other grasps the wrist of the broken one and 
 steadily extends it in an opposite direction, bend- 
 ing the forearm a little, to serve as a lever. You 
 can now place the bones in their proper situation. 
 Two splints of shingle or stout pasteboard, long 
 enough to reach from below the shoulder to near 
 the elbow, must be then well covered with tow or 
 cotton, and laid along each side of the arm, and 
 kept in that position by a bandage. The forearm 
 is to be supported in a sling. Two small splints 
 may, for better security, be laid between the first 
 ones, that is, one on top and the other underneath 
 the arm, to be secured by the bandage in the same 
 way as the others. 
 
 Fractures of the Bones of the Forearm. 
 These are to be reduced precisely in the same 
 way, excepting the mode of keeping the upper 
 portion of it steady, which is done by grasping 
 the arm above the elbow. Apply two splints, one 
 extending to the palm and one to the back of the 
 hand, and over them a bandage. When the splints 
 and bandage are applied, support it in a sling. 
 
 Fractures of the Wrist. 
 
 This accident is of rare occurrence. When it 
 does happen the injury is often so great as to 
 require amputation. If you think the hand can 
 be saved, lay it on a splint well covered with tow , 
 this extends beyond the fingers. Place another 
 splint opposite to it, lined with the same soft ma- 
 terial, and secure them by a bandage. The hand 
 is to be carried in a sling. 
 
 The bones of the hand are sometimes broken. 
 When this is the case fill the palm with soft 
 compresses or tow, and then lay a splint on it 
 long enough to extend from the elbow to beyond 
 the ends of the fingers, to be secured by a bandage, 
 as usual. 
 
 When a finger is broken, extend the end of it 
 until it becomes straight, place the fractured por- 
 tion in its place, and then apply two small paste- 
 board splints, one below and the other above, 
 to be secured by a narrow bandage or adhesive 
 straps. The toj: splint should extend from the 
 
FRACTURES. 
 
 end af the finger over the back of the hand. It 
 may sometimes be proper to have two additional 
 splints for the sides of the finger. 
 
 Fractures of the Ribs. 
 
 When, after a fall or blow, the patient com- 
 plains of a pricking in his side, we may suspect a 
 rib is broken. It is ascertained by placing the 
 tips of two or three fingers on the spot where the 
 pain is, and desiring the patient to cough, when 
 the grating sensation will be felt. All that is 
 necessary is to pass a broad bandage round the 
 chest, so tight as to prevent the motion of the ribs 
 in breathing, and to observe a low diet. 
 
 Fractures of the Thigh. 
 
 This bone is frequently broken, and hitherto 
 has been considered the most difficult of all frac- 
 tures to manage. To the ingenuity, however, of 
 the late Dr. J. Hartshorne, of this city, the world 
 is indebted for an apparatus which does away 
 the greatest impediments that have been found 
 to exist in treating it, so as to leave a straight 
 limb, without lameness or deformity. Nor is it 
 the least of its merits, that any man of common 
 sense can apply it nearly as well as a surgeon. 
 
 It consists of two splints made of half or three- 
 quarter inch well-seasoned stuff, from eight to ten 
 inches wide, one of which should reach from a 
 little above the hip to fifteen or sixteen inches 
 beyond the foot, while the other extends the same 
 length from the groin. The upper end of the inner 
 splint is hollowed out and well padded or stuffed. 
 Their lower ends are held together by a cross- 
 piece, having two tenons, which enter two vertical 
 mortices, one in each splint, and secured there by 
 pins. In the centre of this cross-piece (which 
 should be very solid) is a female, screw. Imme- 
 diately above the vertical mortices are two hori- 
 zontal ones of considerable length, in which slide 
 the tenons of a second cross-piece, to the upper 
 side of which is fastened a foot-block, shaped like 
 the sole of a shoe, while in the other is a round 
 hole for the reception of the head of the male 
 screw, which passes through the female one just 
 noticed. On the top of this cross-piece, to which 
 the foot-block is attached, are two pins, which fall 
 into grooves at the head of the screw, thereby 
 firmly connecting them. The foot-block, as be- 
 fore observed, is shaped liks the sole of a shoe. 
 Near the toe is a slit, through which passes a strap 
 and buckle. Near the heel are a couple of straps, 
 with two rings, arranged precisely like those of a 
 skate, of which, in fact, the whole foot-block is an 
 exact resemblance. A long male screw, of wood 
 or other material, completes the apparatus. 
 
 To apply it, put a slipper on the foot of the 
 broken limb, and lay the apparatus over the leg. 
 By turning the screw the foot-block will be forced 
 up to the foot in the slipper, which is to be firmly 
 strapped to it, as boys fasten their skates. By 
 turning the screw the contrary way, the padded 
 extremity of the inner splint presses against the 
 groin, and the foot is gradually drawn down, until 
 the broken limb becomes of its natural length 
 and appearance, when any projection or little in- 
 equality that may remain can be felt and reduced 
 by a gentle pressure of the hand. 
 
 The great advantages of this apparatus, I again 
 repeat, are the ease with which it is applied, and 
 the certainty with which it acts. The foot once 
 secured to the block, in a way that every school- 
 boy understands, nothing more is required than 
 to turn the screw until the broken limb is found 
 to be of the same length as the sound one. It is 
 right, to observe that this should not be effected 
 at once, it being better to turn the screw a little ( 
 every day, until the limb is sufficiently extended. 
 
 As this apparatus may nofl( always be at hand, 
 it is proper to mention the next best plan of 
 treating the accident. It is found in the splint* 
 of Desault, improved by Dr. Physick, consisting 
 of four pieces. The first has a crutch head, and 
 extends from the arm-pit to six or eight inches 
 beyond the foot. A little below the crutch are 
 two holes, and near the lower end, on the inside, 
 is a block, below which there is also a hole. The 
 second reaches from the groin, the same length 
 with the first, being about three inches wide above 
 and two below. Two pieces of stout pasteboard, 
 as many handkerchiefs or bands of muslin, with 
 some tow or raw cotton, and a few pieces of tape, 
 form the catalogue of the apparatus. 
 
 It is applied as follows. Four or five pieces of 
 tape are to be laid across the bed, at equal dis- 
 tances from each other. Over the upper two is 
 placed one of the short pasteboard splints, well 
 covered with tow. The patient is now to be care- 
 fully and gently placed on his back, so that big 
 thigh may rest on the splint. One of the hand- 
 kerchiefs, or a strong soft band, is to be passed 
 between the testicle and thigh of the affected side, 
 and its ends held by an assistant standing near 
 the head of the bed. The second handkerchief is 
 to be passed round the ankle, crossed on the in- 
 step, and tied under the sole of the foot. Instead 
 of this, a number of long strips of adhesive plas- 
 ter, two inches wide, may be applied to the ankle 
 and up the 'eg, and tied together below the foot. 
 By steadily pulling these two handkerchiefs, the 
 limb is to be extended, while, with the hand, the 
 broken bones are replaced in their natural posi- 
 tion. The long c.plint is now to be placed by the 
 side of ihe patient, the crutch in the arm-pit 
 (which is defended with tow), while the short one 
 is laid along the inside of the thigh and leg. The 
 ends of the first handkerchief, being passed 
 through the upper holes, are to be drawn tight 
 and secured by a knot, while the ends of the 
 second one pass over the block before mentioned, 
 to be fastened in like manner at the lower one. 
 All that remains is the short pasteboard splint, 
 which, being well covered with tow, is to be laid 
 on the top of the thigh. The tapes being tied so 
 as to keep the four splints together, completes the 
 operation. 
 
 Tow or raw cotton is to be everywhere inter- 
 posed between the splints and the limb, and a 
 large handful of it placed in the groin, to prevent 
 irritation from the upper or counter extending 
 band. It is necessary to be careful, while tying 
 the two handkerchiefs, that they are not relaxed, 
 so that if the operation is properly performed, the 
 two limbs will be nearly of an equal length. 
 
 The superior advantages of Hartshorne's appa- 
 ratus over this, as well as all others, must be evi- 
 dent to every one acquainted with the difficulty 
 of keeping up that constant extension which is so 
 absolutely necessary to avoid deformity and lame- 
 ness, and which is so completely effected by the 
 screw. Next to that, however, stands the one 
 just described, which can be made by any car- 
 penter in a few minutes, and which, if carefully 
 applied, will be found to answer extremely well. 
 While waiting for apparatus, the thigh may be 
 kept extended by attaching a weight of a few 
 pounds to the extending band below the foot, and 
 suspending it beyond the foot of the bed. 
 
 Fractured thighs and legs generally reunite in 
 six or eight weeks ; in old men, however, they re~ 
 quire three or four months. 
 
 In cases of fracture of the thigh or leg, the pa- 
 tient should always, if possible, be laid on a mat- 
 tress, supported by boards instead of the sacking, 
 which, from its elasticity and the yielding of 
 
148 
 
 MEDICINE. 
 
 the cords, is apt to derange the position of the 
 limb. 
 
 Fractures of the Knee-pan. 
 
 This accident is easily ascertained on inspection. 
 It may be broken in any direction, but is most 
 generally so across or transversely. It is reduced 
 by bringing the fragments together, and keeping 
 them in that position by a long bandage passed 
 carefully round the leg, from the ankle to the 
 knee, then pressing the upper fragment down so 
 as to meet its fellow (the leg being extended), and 
 placing a thick compress of linen above it, over 
 which the bandage is to be continued. 
 
 The extended limb is now to be laid on a broad 
 splint, extending from the buttock to the heel, 
 thickly covered with tow to fill up the inequalities 
 of the leg. For additional security, two strips of 
 muslin may be nailed to the middle of the splint, 
 and one on each side, and passed above the joint, 
 the one below, the other above, so as to form a 
 figure of eight. In twenty or thirty days the 
 limb should be moved a little to prevent stiffness. 
 But it usually requires two or three months for 
 perfect union of this bone. 
 
 If the fracture is through its length, bring the 
 parts together, place a compress on each side, and 
 keep them together with a bandage, leaving the 
 limb extended and at rest. Any inflammation in 
 this or other fracture is to be combated by bleed- 
 ing, low diet, etc., etc. 
 
 Fractures of the Leg. 
 
 From the thinness of the parts covering the 
 principal bone of the leg, it is easy to ascertain if 
 it be broken obliquely. If, however, the fracture 
 be directly across, no displacement will occur, but 
 the pain, swelling, and the grating sensation will 
 sufficiently decide the nature of the accident. 
 
 If the fracture is oblique, let two assistants ex- 
 tend the limb, while the broken parts are placed 
 by the hand in their natural position. Two splints, 
 that reach from a little above the knee to nine or 
 ten inches below the foot, having near the upper 
 end of each four holes, and a vertical mortice near 
 the lower end, into which is fitted a cross-piece, 
 are now to be applied as follows : Lay two pieces 
 of tape about a foot long on each side of the leg, 
 just below the knee-joint, and secure them there 
 by several turns of a bandage ; pass a silk hand- 
 kerchief round the ankle, cross it on the instep, 
 and tie it under the sole of the foot. The two 
 splints are now placed one on each side of the leg, 
 the four ends of the pieces of tape passed through 
 the four holes and firmly tied, and the cross-piece 
 placed in the mortice. By tying the ends of the 
 handkerchief to this cross-piece the business is 
 finished. 
 
 If the fracture is across, and no displacement 
 exists, apply two splints of stout pasteboard, 
 reaching from the heel to the knee, and well cov- 
 ered with tow, one on each side of the leg, secur- 
 ing them by a bandage passing round the limb, 
 and outside the splints. Instead of splints, how- 
 ever, a fracture-box is often used, made by fas- 
 tening, with hinges, to a bottom-piece rather 
 longer than the leg, two side-pieces about six 
 inches high, and reaching above the knee. The 
 leg may rest in this on a pillow. A footboard 
 fastened to the bottom-piece may serve to fix the 
 foot by the aid of a bandage. 
 
 In cases of oblique fracture of the leg close to 
 the knee, Hartshorne's apparatus for fractured 
 thighs may be applied, as already directed. 
 
 Fractures of the Bones of the Foot. 
 The bone of the heel is sometimes, though 
 "iirely, broken. It is known by a crack at the 
 
 moment of the accident, a difficulty in standing, 
 by the swelling, and by the grating noise on 
 moving the heel. To reduce, take a long bandage, 
 lay the end of it on the top of the foot, carry it 
 over the toes under the sole, and then by several 
 turns secure it in that position. 
 
 The foot being extended as much as possible, 
 carry the bandage along the back of the leg above 
 the knee, where it is to be secured by several 
 turns, and then brought down on the front of the 
 leg, to which it is secured by circular turns. In 
 this way the broken pieces will be kept in contact, 
 and in the course of a month or six weeks will be 
 united. 
 
 Fractures of the foot, toes, etc., are to be treated 
 like those of the hand and fingers. 
 
 Of Dislocations. 
 
 The signs by which a dislocation may be known 
 have been already mentioned. It is well to recol- 
 lect that the sooner the attempt is made to reduce 
 it the easier it will be done. The strength of one 
 man, properly applied, at the moment of the acci- 
 dent, will often succeed in restoring the head of a 
 bone to its place, which in a few days would have 
 required the combined efforts of men and pulleys. 
 If after several trials with the best apparatus that 
 can be mustered, you find you cannot succeed, 
 make the patient drink strong solution of tartar 
 emetic until he is very sick. In this way, owing 
 to the relaxed state of the muscles, a very slight 
 force will often be sufficient, where a very great 
 one has been previously used without effect. 
 
 If any objections are made to this proceeding, 
 or if the patient will not consent to it, having 
 your apparatus (which is presently to be men- 
 tioned) all ready, make him stand up, and bleed 
 him in that position until he faints ; the moment 
 this happens, apply your extending and counter- 
 extending forces. Another important rule is to 
 vary the direction of the extending force. A 
 slight pull in one way will often effect what has 
 been in vain attempted by great force in another. 
 
 Dislocation of the Lower Jaw. 
 
 This accident, which is occasioned by blows or 
 yawning, is known by an inability to shut the 
 mouth, and the projection of the chin. To reduce 
 it, seat the patient in a chair, with his head sup- 
 ported by the breast of an assistant, who stands 
 behind him. Your thumbs being covered with 
 leather, are then to be pushed between the jaws, 
 as far back as possible, while with the fingers out- 
 side you grasp the bone, which is to be pressed 
 downwards at the same time that the chin is 
 raised. If this is properly done, the bone will be 
 found moving, when the chin is to be pushed 
 backwards and the thumbs slipped between the 
 jaws and the cheeks. If this is not done, they 
 will be bitten by the sudden snap of the teeth as 
 they come together. The jaws should be kept 
 closed by a bandage for a few days, and the pa- 
 tient live on soup. 
 
 Dislocation of the Collar-bone. 
 
 This bone is rarely dislocated. Should it occur, 
 apply the bandages, etc., directed for a fracture of 
 the same part. 
 
 Dislocation of the Shoulder. 
 Dislocations of the shoulder are the most com- 
 mon of all the accidents of the kind. It is very 
 easily known by the deformity of the joint, and 
 the head of the bone being found in some unnatu- 
 ral position. To reduce it, lay the patient on the 
 ground, place your heel in his arm-pit, and steadily 
 and forcibly extend the arm by graspin'g it at the 
 wrist. The same thing may be tried in various 
 
DISLOCATIONS. 
 
 149 
 
 positions, as placing yourself on the ground with 
 him, laving him on a low bed, while you are 
 standing near the foot of it, etc. 
 
 If this fails, pass a strong band over the shoul- 
 der, carry it across the breast, give the ends to as- 
 sistants, 01 fasten them to a staple in the wall; 
 the middle of a strong band or folded towel is now 
 to be laid on the arm above the elbow, and secured 
 there by numerous turns of a bandage. The two 
 ends of the towel being then given to assistants, 
 or connected with a pulley, a steady, continued, 
 and forcible extension is to be made for a few 
 moments, while with your hands you endeavor to 
 push the head of the bone into its place. 
 Dislocation of the Elbow. 
 
 If the patient has fallen on his hands, or holds 
 his arm bent at the elbow, and every endeavor to 
 straighten it gives him pain, it is dislocated back- 
 wards. Seat him in a chair, let one person grasp 
 the arm near the shoulder and another the wrist, 
 and forcibly extend it, while you interlock the 
 fingers of both hands just above the elbow, and 
 pull it backwards, remembering that under those 
 circumstances, whatever degree of force is re- 
 quired, should be applied in this direction. The 
 elbow is sometimes dislocated sideways or later- 
 ally. To reduce it, make extension by pulling at 
 the wrist, while some one secures the arm above, 
 then push the bone into its place, either inwards 
 or outwards, as may be required. After the re- 
 duction of a dislocated elbow keep the joint at 
 perfect rest for five or six days, and then move it 
 gently. If inflammation comes on, bleed, purge, 
 etc., etc. Dislocation of the elbow is often ac- 
 companied by fracture, in which case it will not 
 bear violence. 
 
 Dislocation of the Wrist, Fingers, etc. 
 Dislocations of the wrist, fingers and thumb are 
 readily perceived on examination; they are all 
 to be reduced by forcibly extending the lower ex- 
 tremity of the part, and pushing the bones into 
 their place. If necessary, smajl bands may be se- 
 cured to the fingers by a narrow bandage to facili- 
 tate the extension. These accidents should be at- 
 tended to without delay, for if neglected for a little 
 time they become irremediable. 
 
 Dislocation of the Thigh. 
 
 Notwithstanding the hip-joint is the strongest 
 one in the body, it is sometimes dislocated. As a 
 careful examination of the part, comparing the 
 length and appearance of the limb with its fellow, 
 etc., sufficiently mark the nature of the accident, 
 we will proceed to state the remedy. 
 
 Place the patient on his back upon a table cov- 
 ered with a blanket. Two sheets, folded like cra- 
 vats, are then to be passed between the thigh and 
 testicle of each side, and their ends (one half of 
 each sheet passing obliquely over the belly to the 
 opposite shoulder, while the other half passes un- 
 der the back in the same direction) given to sev- 
 eral assistants, or what is much better, tied very 
 firmly to a hook, staple, post, or some immovable 
 body. A large, very strong napkin, folded as 
 before, like a cravat, is now to be laid along the 
 top of the thigh, so that its middle will be just 
 above the knee, where it is to be well secured by 
 many turns of a bandage. The two ends are then 
 to be knotted. If you have no pulleys, a twisted 
 eheet or rope may be passed through the loop 
 formed by the napkin. If you can procure the 
 former, however, cast the loop over the hook of 
 the lower block and secure the upper one to the 
 wall, directly opposite to the hooks or men that 
 hold the sneets that pass between the thighs. A 
 steadily increasing and forcible extension of the 
 
 thigh is then to be made by the men who are sta- 
 tioned at the pulleys or sheet while you are turn- 
 ing and twisting the limb to assist in dislodging 
 it from its unnatural situation. By these means, 
 properly applied, the head of the bone will fre- 
 quently slip into the socket with a loud noise. 
 
 If, however, you are foiled, change the direction 
 of the extending force, recollecting always that it 
 is not by sudden or violent jerks that any benefit 
 can be attained, but by a steady, increasing and 
 long-continued pull. Should all your efforts prove 
 unavailing (I would not advise you to lose much 
 time before you resort to it), make the patient, as 
 before directed, very sick or drunk, and when he 
 cannot stand apply the pulleys. If this fails, or 
 is objected to, bleed him till he faints, and then 
 try it again. 
 
 Dislocation of the Knee-pan. 
 
 When this little bone is dislocated it is evident 
 on the slighest glance. To reduce it, lay the pa- 
 tient on his back, straighten the leg, lift it up to 
 a right angle with his body, and in that position 
 push the bone back to its place. The knee should 
 be kept at rest for a few days. 
 
 Dislocation of the Leg. 
 
 As these accidents cannot happen without tear- 
 ing and lacerating the soft parts, but little force 
 is required to place the bones in their natural 
 situation. If the parts are so much torn that 
 the bone slips again out of place, apply Harts- 
 home's or Desault's apparatus, as for a fractured 
 thigh. 
 
 Dislocation of the Foot. 
 
 The foot is seldom dislocated. Should it hap- 
 pen, however, let one person secure the leg and 
 another draw the foot, while you push the bone 
 in the contrary way to that in which it was forced 
 out. The part is then to be covered with com- 
 presses dipped in lead-water and a splint applied 
 on each side of the leg that reaches below the foot. 
 Accidents of this nature are always dangerous; 
 all that can be done to remedy them consists in 
 the speedy reduction of the bone, keeping the 
 parts at rest and subduing the inflammation by 
 bleeding, low diet, etc., etc. 
 
 Of Compound Accidents. 
 
 Having spoken of the treatment to be pursued 
 for a bruise, wound, fracture, and dislocation, as 
 happening singly, it remains to state what is to 
 be done when they are united. 
 
 We will suppose that a man has been violently 
 thrown from a carriage. On examination, a wound 
 is found in his thigh, bleeding profusely, his ankle 
 is out of joint, with a wound communicating with 
 its cavity, and the leg broken. 
 
 In the first place stop the bleeding from the 
 wound in the thigh, reduce the dislocation next, 
 draw the edges of the wounds together with stick- 
 ing plaster, and lastly, apply Hartshorne's or Des- 
 ault's apparatus to remedy the fracture. 
 
 If, instead of a wound, fracture, and dislocation, 
 there is a concussion or compression of the brain, 
 a dislocation and fracture, attend to the concussion 
 first, the dislocation next, and the fracture the iaat 
 
 Of Amputation. 
 
 As accidents sometimes happen at sea, or in 
 situations where it is impossible to obtain a sur- 
 geon, and which require the immediate amputa- 
 tion of a limb, it is proper to say a few words on 
 that subject. To perform the operation is one 
 thing, to know when it ought to be performed is 
 another. Any man of common dexterity and 
 firmness can cut off a leg, but to decide upon the 
 necessity of doing so, requires much judgment, in- 
 
150 
 
 MEDICINE. 
 
 stances having occured where, under the most 
 seemingly desperate circumstances, the patient 
 through fear or obstinacy has refused to submit to 
 the knife, and yet afterwards recovered. 
 
 Although in many cases much doubt mny exist 
 in determining whether it is proper to amputate or 
 not, yet in others, all difficulty vanishes, as when 
 a ball has carried away an arm. Supposing for a 
 moment while rolling in a heavy sen, during a gale, 
 tie lashings of a gun give way, by which a man 
 hah his knee, leg, or ankle completely mashed, or 
 that either of those parts is crushed by a fall from 
 the topgallant yard, a falling tree, etc. The great 
 laceration of blood vessels, nerves, and tendons, 
 the crushing and splintering of the bones, almost 
 necessarily resulting from such accidents, render 
 immediate amputation an unavoidable and impe- 
 rious duty. 
 
 If there are none of the regular instruments at 
 hand, you must provide the following, which are 
 always to be had, and which answer extremely well 
 being careful to have the knives as sharp and 
 smooth as possible. 
 
 Instruments. The handkerchief and stick, a 
 carving or other large knife, with a straight blade, 
 a penknife, a carpenter's tenon or mitre saw, a slip 
 of leather or linen, three inches wide and eighteen 
 or twenty long, slit up the middle to the half of its 
 length, a dozen or more ligatures, each about a 
 foot long, made of waxed thread, bobbin, or fine 
 twine, a hook with a sharp point, a pair of slender 
 pincers, several narrow strips of sticking-plaster, 
 dry lint, a piece of linen, large enough to cover the 
 end of the stump, spread with simple ointment or 
 lard, a bandage three or four yards long, the width 
 of your hand ; sponges and warm water. 
 
 Amputation of the Arm. 
 
 Operation. Give the patient ninety drops of 
 laudanum, or let him breathe ether from a large 
 sponge till sound asleep, and seat him on a 
 narrow and firm table or chest, of a convenient 
 height, so that some one can support him, by 
 clasping him round the body. If the handker- 
 chief and stick have not been previously ap- 
 plied, place it as high up on the arm as possi- 
 ble (the stick being very short) and so that the 
 knot may pass on the inner third of it. Your 
 instruments having been placed regularly on a 
 table or waiter, and within reach of your hand, 
 while someone supports the lower end of the arm, 
 and at the same time draws down the skin, take 
 the large knife and make one straight cut all round 
 the limb, through the skin and fat only, then with 
 the penknife separate as much of the skin from 
 the flesh above the cut, and all round it, as will 
 form a flap to cover the face of the stump ; when 
 you think there is enough separated, turn it back, 
 where it must be held by an assistant, while with 
 the large knife you make a second straight inci- 
 sion round the arm and down to the bone, as close 
 as you can to the doubled edge of the flap, but tak- 
 ing great care not to cut it. The bone is now to 
 be passed through the slit in the piece of linen be- 
 fore mentioned, and pressed by its ends against the 
 upper surface of the wound by the person who 
 holds the flap, while you saw through the bone as 
 near to it as you can. With the hooks or pincers, 
 you then seize and tie up every vessel that bleeds, 
 the largest first, and smaller ones next, until they 
 are all secured. When this is done, relax the stick 
 a little ; if an artery springs, tie it as before. The 
 wound is now to be gently cleansed with a sponge 
 and warm water, and the stick to be relaxed. If it 
 is evident that the arteries are all tied, bring the flap 
 over the end of the stump, draw its edges together 
 with strips of sticking-plaster, leaving the ligature 
 
 hanging out at the angles, lay the piece of linen 
 spread with ointment over the straps, a pledget of 
 lint over that, and secure the whole by the band- 
 age, when the patient may be carried to bed, and 
 the stump laid on a pillow. 
 
 The handkerchief and stick are to be left loosely 
 round the limb, so that if any bleeding happens to 
 come on, it may be tightened in an instant by the 
 person who watches by the patient, when the 
 dressings must be taken off, the flap raised, and 
 the vessel be sought for and tied up, after which, 
 every thing must be placed as before. 
 
 It may be well to observe that in sawing through 
 the bone, along and free stroke should be used, to 
 prevent any hitching, as an additional security 
 against which, the teeth of the saw should be well 
 sharpened and set wide. 
 
 There is also another circumstance, which it is 
 essential to be aware of: the ends of divided arte- 
 ries cannot at times be got hold of, or being dis- 
 eased their coats give way under the hook, so that 
 they cannot be drawn out; sometimes also, they 
 are found ossified or turned into bone. In all these 
 cases, having armed a needle with a ligature, pass it 
 through the flesh round the artery, so that when 
 tied, there will be a portion of it included in the 
 ligature along with the artery. When the liga- 
 ture has been made to encircle the artery, cut off 
 the needle and tie it firmly in the ordinary way. 
 
 The bandages, etc., should not be disturbed for 
 five or six days, if the weather is cool ; if it is very 
 warm, they may be removed in three. This is to 
 be done with the greatest care, soaking them well 
 with warm water until they are quite soft, and can 
 be taken away without sticking to the stump. A 
 clean plaster, lint, and bandage are then to be ap- 
 plied as before, to be removed every two days. At 
 the expiration of ten or fifteen days the ligatures 
 generally come away ; and in three or four weeks, 
 if every thing goes on well, the wound heals. 
 
 Amputation of the Thigh. 
 
 This is performed in precisely the same manner 
 as that of the arm, care being used to prevent the 
 edges of the flap from uniting until the surface of 
 the stump has adhered to it. 
 
 Amputation of the Leg. 
 
 As there are two bones in the leg which have a 
 thin muscle .between, it is necessary to have an 
 additional knife to those already mentioned, to 
 divide it. It should have a long narrow blade, with 
 a double-cutting edge, and a sharp point; a carv- 
 ing or case knife may be ground down to answer 
 the purpose, the blade being reduced to rather less 
 than half an inch in width. The linen or leather 
 strip should also have two slits in it instead of one. 
 The patient is to be laid on his back, on a table co- 
 vered with blankets or a matress, with a sufficient 
 number of assistants to secure him. The handker- 
 chief and stick being applied on the upper part of 
 the thigh, one person holds the knee, and another 
 the foot and leg as steadily as possible, while with 
 the large knife the operator makes an oblique in- 
 cision round the limb, through the skin, and be- 
 ginning at five or six inches below the knee pan, 
 and carrying it regularly round in such a manner 
 that the cut will be lower down on the calf than 
 in front of the leg. As much of the skin is then 
 to be separated by the penknife as will cover the 
 stump. When this is turned back, a second cut is 
 to be made all round the limb and down to the 
 bones, when, with the narrow-bladed knife just 
 mentioned, the flesh between them is to be divided. 
 The middle piece of the leather strip is now to be 
 pulled through between the bones, the whole being 
 held back by the assistant, who supports the flap 
 while the bones are sawed, which should be ao 
 
AMPUTATIONS. 
 
 151 
 
 managed that the smaller one is completely cut 
 through by the time the other is only half so. The 
 arteries are then to be taken up, the flap brought 
 down and secured by adhesive plasters, etc. as 
 already directed. 
 
 Amputation of the Forearm. 
 
 As the forearm has two bones in it, the narrow 
 bladed knife, and the strip of linen with three 
 tails, are to be provided. The incision should be 
 straight round the part, as in the arm, with this 
 exception, complete it as directed fur the preced- 
 ing case. 
 
 Amputation of Fingers and Toes. 
 
 Draw the skin hack, and make an incision round 
 the finger, a little below the joint it is intended 
 to remove, turn back a little flap to cover the 
 stump, then cut down to the joint, bending it so 
 that you can cut through the ligaments that con- 
 nect the two bnes, the under one fir>t, then that 
 on the side. The head of the bone is then to be 
 turned out, while you cut through the remaining 
 soft parts. If you see an artery spirt, tie it up, 
 if not, bring down the flap and secure it by a strip 
 of sticking-plaster, and a narrow bandage over 
 the whole. 
 
 Remarks. To prevent the troublesome conse- 
 quences of secondary bleeding, before the strips 
 of plaster are applied over the edges of the flap, 
 give the patient, if he is faint, a little wine and 
 water, and wait a few minutes to see whether the 
 increased force it gives to the circulation, will 
 occasion a flow of blood ; if it does secure the ves- 
 sel it comes from. If there is a considerable flow 
 of blood from the hollow of the bone, place a small 
 cedar plug in it. Should violent spasms of the 
 Stump ensue, have it carefully held by assistants, 
 and give the patient large doses of laudanum ; it 
 may in fact be laid down as a general rule, that 
 after every operation of the kind, laudanum should 
 be given in greater or less doses, as the patient 
 may be in more or less pain. 
 
 Of Siinpended Animation. 
 
 From Drowning. The obminon methods of roll- 
 ing the body of a drowned person on a barrel, or 
 holding it up by the heels, etc., are full of danger, 
 and should never be permitted. If a spark of life 
 should happen to remain, this violence would ex- 
 tinguish it forever. As soon, therefore, as the 
 body is found, convey it as gently as possible to 
 the nearest house, strip it of the wet clothes, dry 
 it well, and place it on a bed between warm 
 blankets. First draw the tongue out for a few 
 moments while the body is prone, to open the 
 windpipe. Every part is now to be well rubbed 
 with flannels dipped in warm brandy, or spirits of 
 any kind, while a warming-pan, hot bricks, or 
 bottles or bladders filled with warm water, are 
 applied to the stomach, back, and soles of the feet. 
 During these operations a certain number of the 
 assistants (no more persons are to be allowed in 
 the room than are absolutely necessary) should 
 try to inflate the lungs by blowing through the 
 nozzle of a common bellows, or a pipe of any kind, 
 placed in one nostril, while the other with the 
 mouth is kept closed. This should be done at 
 intervals about sixteen times a minute. Raising 
 both arms forward and upward, over the he;id, at 
 the same time and at the same intervals, will aid 
 in expanding the chest. If a warm bath can be 
 procured, place the body in it. Clysters of warm 
 brandy and water, salt and water, or peppermint- 
 Water may be injected. 
 
 All these operations, particularly rubbing the 
 body, and trying to inflate the lungs should be 
 continued for six or eight hours, and when the 
 patieut has come to himself, small quantities of 
 
 warm wine, wine whey, brandy and water, etc., 
 may be given to him from time to time. If, after 
 he has recovered, a stupor or drowsiness remains 
 (but not before) bleed him very moderately. 
 
 Should the accident occur in winter, and the 
 body feel cold, as if frozen, previously to apply- 
 ing warmth, rub it well with snow, ice, or very 
 cold water. Above all things remember that per- 
 severance for many hours in the remedies pointed 
 out, may give you the unspeakable pleasure of 
 restoring a fellow creature to life. 
 
 From Cold. Take the body into a room, the 
 doors and windows of which are open, and where 
 there is no fire, and rub it with snow or cold water; 
 if this can be procured hi plenty, the patient, with 
 the exception of his face, which should be left out, 
 may be completely covered with it to the thick- 
 ness of two feet. After a while, friction with flan- 
 nels and hot spirits is to be used, as in the pre- 
 ceding case, and warmth very gradually applied. 
 The lungs are to be inflated, as directed in cases 
 of drowning, and when the patient is able to 
 swallow, warm wine, etc., may be given in small 
 quantities. 
 
 If a limb is frost-bitten, the cold applications 
 should be continued longer, and warmth be more 
 gradually applied than when the whole body is 
 frozen. Care should be taken to handle the parts 
 carefully, so as not to break off the ear, tip of the 
 nose, etc. 
 
 From Hanging. The remedies for this accident 
 are the same as in drowning, with the addition of 
 taking away a small quantity of blood, by cupping 
 glasses, from the neck, or by opening the jugular 
 vein. 
 
 From Foul Air. Throw open the doors and 
 windows, or take the patient into the open air, 
 and seat him, undressed, well wrapped in a blanket, 
 in a chair, leaning a little to the right side, place 
 his feet or whole body in a bath, and sprinkle his 
 stomach with cold vinegar or water, and rub it im- 
 mediately with flannels dipped in oil. Clysters 
 of vinegar and water are to be injected, and when 
 animation returns, continue the frictions, and give 
 warm mint tea, etc. 
 
 Of Swallowing Poisons. 
 
 The first thing to be done when a person is dis- 
 covered to have swallowed poison is to ascertain 
 what it is he has taken, the next to be speedy in 
 resorting to its appropriate remedies. If any one 
 of these cannot be had, try some other without loss 
 of time. An emetic is generally safe and proper. 
 Acids. 
 
 Oil of vitriol, aqua fortis, muriatic acid, oxalie 
 acid. 
 
 Symptoms. A burning heat in the mouth, throat, 
 and stomach, stinking breath, an inclination to 
 vomit, or vomiting various matters mixed with 
 blood, hiccups, costiveness, or stools more or less 
 bloody, pain in the belly, so great that the weight 
 of a sheet cannot be borne, burning thirst, diffi- 
 culty of breathing, suppression of urine, etc. 
 
 Remedies. Mix an ounce of calcined magnesia 
 with a pint of water and give a glassful every two 
 minutes. If it is not at hand, use flaxseed tea, 
 rice-water, or water alone, in large quantities, 
 until the former can be procured. If it cannot be 
 obtained, dissolve an ounce of soap in a pint of 
 water and take a glassful every two minutes; 
 chalk or whiting may also be taken by the mouth, 
 and clysters of milk be frequently injected. If 
 the patient will not vomit, put him in the warm 
 bath, bleed him freely and apply leeches and blis- 
 ters over the parts pained. If the cramps and 
 convulsions continue, give him a cup of common 
 tea, with an ounce of sugar, forty drops of Hoff- 
 
152 
 
 MEDICINE. 
 
 man's Anodyne, and fifteen or twenty of lauda- I 
 num, every quarter or half hour. No nourishment ' 
 but sweetened rice-water is to be taken for several 
 days. In these cases never give tartar emetic, 
 ipecacuanha, or tickle the throat with a feather 
 they only increase the evil. For oxalic acid, some 
 preparation of lime is the antidote. 
 Alkalies. 
 
 Caustic potash, caustic soda, volatile alkali. 
 
 Symptoms. These substances occasion the same 
 effects as acids. 
 
 Remedies. Take two tablespoonsful of vinegar 
 or lemon-juice in a glass of water at once ; follow 
 it up by drinking large quantities of water. Pur- 
 sue the same treatment otherwise as in poisoning 
 from acids. 
 
 Mercury. 
 
 Corrosive sublimate, red precipitate, vermilion. 
 
 Symptoms. Constriction and great pain in the 
 throat, stomach and bowels, vomiting of various 
 matters mixed with blood, unquenchable thirst, 
 difficulty of urine, convulsions. 
 
 Remedies. Mix the whites of a dozen or fifteen 
 eggs with two pints of cold water, and give a glass- 
 ful every two minutes, with as much milk as can 
 be swallowed, and large doses of ipecacuanha. If 
 after the egg mixture is all taken the vomiting 
 does not stop, repeat the dose, with the addition 
 of more water. Leeches, the warm bath, blisters, 
 etc., are to be used to reduce the pain and inflam- 
 mation, as before directed. 
 
 Arsenic. 
 
 Symptom*. These are the same as produced by 
 the mercurial poisons. 
 
 Remedies. Give large quantities of warm water 
 until a plentiful vomiting is induced, to assist 
 which ipecacuanha may be taken in considerable 
 doses at the same time. The antidote for arsenic 
 is hydrated peroxide of iron. It may be prepared 
 by adding spirits or water of ammonia to solution 
 of persulphate of iron. The hydrated peroxide 
 may be given freely after straining out the liquid 
 in a bag. If it cannot be had, magnesia will be 
 useful as a partial antidote. Barley, rice-water, 
 flaxeeed tea, milk, etc., should afterwards be em- 
 ployed. Oil is never to be used in this case until 
 the symptoms have considerably abated, or the 
 poison has been ejected. 
 
 Copper. 
 
 The symptoms occasioned by swallowing verdi- 
 gris are nearly the same as those of the mercurial 
 poisons. The great remedy is large quantities 
 of the white of eggs. In addition to this use 
 all the means recommended for corrosive subli- 
 mate, etc. 
 
 Antimony. 
 
 Antimonial wine, tartar emetic, butter of anti- 
 mony, etc. 
 
 Symptoms. Excessive vomiting, pain and cramp 
 in the stomach, convulsions, etc. 
 
 Remedies. Encourage the vomiting by warm 
 water, and if after awhile it does not stop, give 
 a grain of opium in a glass of the sweetened wa- 
 ter every fifteen minutes. To relieve the pain, 
 apply leeches to the stomach, throat, or parts af- 
 i." led. Infusion of galls may be given also quite 
 freely. 
 
 Salts of Tin. 
 
 Give as much milk as can be got down, and if 
 it is not at hand use large quantities of cold wa- 
 ter to induce vomiting. If the symptoms do not 
 abate, pursue the plan directed for acids. 
 Salts of Bismuth, Gold and Zinc. 
 
 Pursue the plan recommended for copper. 
 
 Lunar Caustic. 
 
 Dissolve two tablespoonsful of common table 
 salt in two pints of water; a few glasses of this 
 will induce vomiting. If not relieved, drink flax- 
 seed tea, apply leeches, etc., as for acids. 
 Saltpetre. 
 
 Pursue the plan recommended for copper. 
 Sal Ammoniac. 
 
 Symptoms. Vomiting: pain in the belly ; a stiff 
 ness of the whole body convulsions. 
 
 Remedies. Introduce your finger ir a feather 
 into the throat to induce vomiting, and give plenty 
 of sweetened water. To relieve the convulsions, 
 give the ten, laudanum, etc., as for acids, or the 
 laudanum alone, and to ease the pain in the belly 
 apply leeches, etc. 
 
 Phosphorus. 
 
 The symptoms and remedies are the same as by 
 poisons from acids, with the addition of olive oil 
 or lard oil by the tablespoonful. 
 Spanish Flies. 
 
 Symptoms. Great pain in the stomach, with ob- 
 stinate and painful erections, accompanied by a 
 difficulty or suppression of urine, or if any is passed 
 it is bloody ; a horror of swallowing liquids; fright- 
 ful convulsions. 
 
 Remedies. Make the patient swallow as much 
 sweet oil as be can possibly get down. Milk and 
 sugared water are also to be freely used. In ad- 
 dition to the plan recommended for acids, solu- 
 tions of gum arable or flaxseed tea are to be in- 
 jected into the bladder. If no vomiting is in- 
 duced, put him in the warm bath, continue the 
 sweetened water, and rub his thighs and legs with 
 two ounces of warm oil, in which a quarter of an 
 ounce of camphor has been dissolved. Eight or 
 ten grains of camphor may be mixed with the 
 yolk of an egg and taken internally. If there is 
 acute pain in the bladder, apply leeches over it. 
 Powdered Glass. 
 
 Stuff the patient with thick rice, bread, pota- 
 toes, or any other vegetable ; then give him five 
 grains of tartar emetic to vomit him, after which 
 use milk freely, clysters and fomentations to the 
 belly, with the warm bath; leeches, etc., are not 
 to be neglected. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 Sugar of lead, extract of eaturn, white lead, li- 
 tharge, minium. 
 
 Symptoms. A sweet, astringent taste in the 
 mouth; constriction of the throat; pain in the 
 stomach ; bloody vomiting, etc. 
 
 Remedies. Dissolve a handful of Epsom or 
 Glauber salts in a pint of water, and give it at 
 once; when it has vomited him use gum-water, 
 If the symptoms continue, act as directed for 
 acids. 
 
 Opium, or Laudanum. 
 
 Symptoms. Stupor; an insurmountable incli- 
 nation to sleep; delirium; convulsions, etc. 
 
 Remedies. Endeavor to excite vomiting by two 
 grains of tartar emetic, or four grains of blue or 
 thirty of white vitriol. Thrust a feather down the 
 throat for the same purpose, or use the stomach 
 pump. Never give vinegar or other acids until 
 the poison is altogether or nearly evacuated. 
 After this has taken place, give repeatedly a cup 
 of very strong coffee. The coffee, etc., are to be 
 continued until the drowsiness is gone off, which, 
 if it continues and resembles that of apoplexy, 
 must be relieved by bleeding. The patient is to 
 be forcibly kept in constant motion. Tlie galvanic 
 battery and artificial respiration are sometimes 
 necessary. 
 
 
MEDICINE. 
 
 153 
 
 Toadstools. 
 
 Remedies. Give the patient immediately two 
 grains of tartar emetic, twenty-five or thirty of 
 ipecacuanha, and an ounce of salts, dissolved in a 
 glass of water, one-third to be taken every fifteen 
 minutes, until he vomits freely. Then purge with 
 castor oil. If there is great pain in the belly, ap- , 
 ply leeches, blisters, etc. 
 
 Tobacco, Hemlock, Nightshade, Spurred Rye, etc. 
 Remedies. An emetic as directed for opium. 
 If the poison has been swallowed some time, purge 
 with castor oil. Brandy or ammonia may be re- 
 quired for stimulation in tobacco poisoning. 
 
 Poisonous Fish. 
 
 Remedies. An emetic. If it has been eaten 
 gome time, give castor oil by the mouth and clys- 
 ter. After these have operated, twenty drops of 
 ether may be taken on a lump of sugar. 
 
 Foreign Bodies in the Throat. 
 Persons are frequently in danger of suffocation 
 from fish-bones, pins, etc., which stick in the 
 throat. The moment an accident of this kind oc- 
 curs, desire the patient to be perfectly still, open 
 his mouth, and look into it. If you can see the 
 obstruction, endeavor to seize it with your finger 
 and thumb, or a long slender pair of pincers. If 
 it cannot be got up, or is not of a nature to do any 
 injury in the stomach, push it down with the han- 
 dle of a spoon, or a flexible round piece of whale- 
 bone, the end of which is neatly covered with a 
 roll of linen, or anything that may be at hand. 
 If you can get it neither up nor down, place two 
 grains of tartar emetic in the patient's mouth. 
 As it dissolves, it will make him excessively sick, 
 and in consequence of the relaxation, the bone, or 
 whatever it may be, may descend into the stomach 
 or be ejected from the mouth. 
 
 If a pin, button, or other metallic or pointed 
 body has been swallowed (or pushed into the stom- 
 ach), make the patient eat plentifully of thick rice 
 pudding, and afterwards give him a dose of castor 
 oil, to carry it off by the bowels. 
 
 Of Burns and Scalds. 
 
 There are three kinds of remedies generally 
 employed in accidents of this nature. Cooling 
 applications, such as pounded ice, snow, cold 
 water, lime-water and oil. Stimulants, as warm 
 spirits of turpentine, and carded or raw cotton. 
 
 Any one of these articles that happens to be 
 nearest at hand may be tried, although the pref- 
 erence is due to the lime-water and linseed or sweet 
 oil, equal parts, applied on strips of soft linen or 
 muslin, and laid over the parts burned, and cov- 
 ered with oiled silk. Raw cotton may be used if 
 the burn is extensive but not deep. Sprinkling 
 wheat, rye, or starch flour is preferred by some ; 
 fresh lard by others, or glycerin. Equal parts of 
 lime-water and linseed oil, well mixed, form one 
 of the most soothing of all applications. Should 
 the system seem to sink, wine, bark, etc. must be 
 employed. 
 
 Of Mortification. 
 
 From what has been already stated, it is evident 
 that in treating wounds, etc., as well as diseases, 
 one great and important indication is to repress 
 excessive inflammation, which, if allowed to pro- 
 ceed to a certain point, sometimes produces mor- 
 tification or death of the parts. 
 
 If the fever and pain suddenly cease; if the part 
 which before was red, swollen and hard becomes 
 purple and soft, abandon at once all reducing 
 measures, lay a blister over the whole of the parts, 
 and give wine, porter, bark, etc., freely and with- 
 out delay. If the blisters do not put a stop to the 
 disease, and the parts become dead and offensive, 
 
 cover them with the charcoal or fermenting poul- 
 tice until nature separates the dead parts from 
 the living, during which process a generous diet, 
 bark, etc., must be allowed. A wash of dilute 
 solution of nitric acid, 50 drops to a pint, may be 
 poured over the parts daily ; or a dressing of so- 
 lution of bromine. 
 
 There is a particular kind of mortification which 
 comes of itself, or without any apparent cause. 
 It attacks the small toes of old people, and com- 
 mences in a small bluish or black spot, which 
 spreads to different parts of the foot. To remedy 
 it place a blister over the spot, and give two 
 grains of opium night and morning, taking car* 
 to keep the bowels open by castor oil, and to di- 
 minish the quantity of opium, if it occasions any 
 unpleasant effects. 
 
 In extensive mortifications of the forearm it is 
 necessary to amputate. This, however, should 
 never be done, until by the repeated application 
 of stimulating poultices or washes to the sound 
 parts adjoining the mortified ones, they are dis- 
 posed to separate, which may be easily known by 
 inspection. 
 
 Directions for Bleeding. 
 
 Tie up the arm, placing the bandage at least 
 two inches above the projection of the elbow joint, 
 and then feel for the pulse at the wrist. If it is 
 stopped, the bandage is too tight, and must be 
 relaxed. Select the most prominent vein, and 
 feel with the tip of your finger if an artery lies 
 near it. If you feel one pulsating so close to the 
 vein that you are fearful of wounding it, choose 
 another. Having set your lancet (I allude, of 
 course, to the spring lancet, the only one that can 
 be used with safety), bend the arm in the precise 
 position it is to be kept in while the blood flows. 
 The cutting edge of the lancet is now to be placed 
 on the vein, while you depress the handle or 
 frame just as much as you wish the cut to be 
 deep. By touching the spring on the side with 
 your thumb, the business is done. To stop the 
 bleeding, relax the bandage, press the two edges 
 of the wound together, place a little compress of 
 linen on it, and bind up the whole with a bandage 
 passing round the joint in a figure of eight. 
 
 Directions for Passing the Catheter. 
 Take the penis of the patient near its head be- 
 tween the finger and thumb of your left hand 
 (standing beside him), while with your right you 
 introduce the point of the instrument into the uri- 
 nary passage, its convex side towards his knees. 
 While you push the catheter down the urethra, 
 endeavor, at the same time to draw up the penis 
 on it. When you first introduce it the handle will 
 of course be near the belly of the patient, and as 
 it descends will be thrown further from it, until 
 it enters the bladder, which will be known by the 
 flow of the urine. If you cannot succeed while 
 the patient is on his back, make him stand up, or 
 place him with his shoulders and back on thfc 
 ground, while his thighs and legs are held up by 
 assistants. If still foiled, place him again on his 
 back, and, when you have got the catheter as far 
 down as it will go, introduce the forefinger, well 
 oiled, into the fundament, and endeavor to push 
 its point upwards, while you still press it forward 
 with the other hand. Force is never, on any ac- 
 count, to be used. Vary your position as often aa 
 you please; let the patient try it himself; but al- 
 ways remember it is by humoring the instrument, 
 and not by violence, that you can succeed. 
 
 Directions for Passing Bongivs. 
 Take the penis between your finger and thumb, 
 and pass the point of the instrument (which should 
 
154 
 
 MEDICINE. 
 
 be well oiled) down the urethra, as directed for 
 the catheter. When it has entered three or four 
 inches, depress the penis a little, and, by humor- 
 ing the bougie with one hand and the penis with 
 the other, endeavor to pass it as far as may be 
 wished. The patient himself will frequently suc- 
 ceed, when every one else fails. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES. 
 To diminish Inordinate Inflammation, 
 
 Mix 1 dracntn of Goulard's extract of lead, or 
 solution of sugar of lead in water, with 4 ounces 
 of rectified spirit, and 6 ounces of distilled water. 
 Make a lotion, which is to be applied to those sur- 
 faces where inflammation is very rapid. 
 
 Another Method. Dissolve 2 drachms of sul- 
 phate of zinc (white vitriol) in a pint of distilled 
 water. To be applied as above. 
 
 Ma rsh-mallow Fomentation, 
 
 Boil together for a quarter of an hour 1 ounce 
 of d-''ed marsh-mallow root, with i an ounce of 
 charaomile flowers, in a pint of water; strain 
 through a cloth. The fomenting flannels should 
 be sprinkled with spirits just before they are ap- 
 plied to the inflamed part. 
 
 Fomentation of Poppies. 
 
 Bruise 4 ounces of dried poppy heads, and then 
 boil them in 6 pints of water, until a quart only 
 remains after straining. This fomentation is to 
 be applied to inflamed parts, where there is much 
 pain, but which are required to suppurate. 
 Refrigerant Lotion, 
 
 Mix together equal parts of acetated water of 
 ammonia and tincture of camphor, which apply to 
 the inflamed joint or other part. 
 
 Another. Dissolve 1 ounce of muriate of am- 
 monia in 4 ounces of common vinegar, and add 
 10 ounces of water. To be applied with or with- 
 out a cloth to inflamed surfaces. 
 
 Another. Mix together 2 ounces of rectified 
 spirit, and 5 ounces of acetated water of ammonia. 
 Sedative Lotion* 
 
 Dissolve half a drachm of sugar of lead in 4 
 ounces of distilled vinegar, and then add 1 ounce 
 of common spirits with a pint of water. Linen 
 cloths dipped in this lotion are to be applied to 
 inflamed joints, etc. 
 
 Cold and Sedative Cataplasm. 
 
 Take of goulard water, 1^ drachms; rectified 
 spirits, 2 ounces; water, 1 pint. These are to be 
 mixed with a sufficient quantity of the crumb of 
 a new loaf to form a cataplasm. To be applied at 
 night to inflamed parts. 
 
 Another. Mix with crumb of bread as above, 
 one drachm of goulard water (or solution of sugar 
 of lead) and a pint of common water that has 
 been boiled. 
 
 Cataplasm to hasten Suppuration. 
 
 Make two quarts of finely-powdered bran, and 
 one part of linseed meal, into a poultice, with 
 boiling water. A little oil should be spread over 
 the surface just before it is applied. 
 
 Another. Take of crumb of bread and linseed 
 meal equal parts ; make them into a poultice with 
 boiling milk. 
 
 Linseed Cataplasm, 
 
 Stir linseed flour into boiling water in sufficient 
 quantity to form a cataplasm of proper consistency, 
 and before application smear the surface with a 
 little olive or linseed oil. If irritation, with great 
 pain and tension, or hardness should prevail, it 
 will be necessary to substitute a decoction of poppy 
 heads for the common water. This poultice is in 
 general use in all the hospitals. 
 
 Embrocation for Sprains. 
 
 Shake in a phial until they become white lik 
 milk, 10 drachms of olive oil, with 2 drachms of 
 spirits of hartshorn i water of ammonia) ; then add 
 4 drachms of oil of turpentine. When properly 
 mixed, they may be directly used as an embroca- 
 tion for sprains and bruises. 
 
 Where weakness remains in consequence of a 
 sprain, cold water ought to be pumped on the part 
 every morning; and a long calico roller should be 
 bound firmly (but not too tightly) round it imme- 
 diately after. By these means strength will soon 
 be restored. 
 
 Another. Digest fifteen ounces of white hard 
 soap scraped with a knife, in four pints of spirits 
 of wine, and one pint of water of ammonia, or 
 hartshorn (liquor ammonite), previously mixed in 
 a large bottle. When dissolved, add five ounces 
 of camphor. When this last is entirely dissolved 
 the embrocation is fit for use. 
 
 This excellent and powerful stimulant was 
 selected from the Pharmacopoeia of the Middle- 
 sex Hospital: for private use the above quantities 
 of the ingredients are to be reduced in proportion 
 to each other, according to the quantity likely to 
 be used in a family. If one-third only is required, 
 use five ounces of soap, one of camphor, sixteen 
 ounces of spirit of wine, and four ounces of water 
 of ammonia. 
 
 Application of Leeches. 
 
 In the applying of leeches to the human body, 
 success is rendered more certain by previously 
 drying them, or allowing them to creep over a dry 
 cloth. To attract them the part should be moist- 
 ened with cream, sugar, or blood, and if this 
 should be insufficient, the leech may be cooled by 
 touching it with a cloth dipped in cold water. 
 The escape of leeches from the part is to be pre- 
 vented by covering them with a wineglass or 
 tumbler. 
 
 Cataplasm for Ulcers, 
 
 Boil any quantity of fresh carrots until they 
 are sufficiently soft to be beaten up into a smooth 
 pulp. This cataplasm is equally beneficial in the 
 cure of sloughing, as well as scorbutic ulcers. The 
 latter are known by a brown color, the discharge 
 being thin and corroding, whilst the fungous ex- 
 crescences which shoot out, bleed on the slightest 
 touch. The ulcer is surrounded by a livid ring, 
 or areola, in which small spots are frequently ob- 
 served. The former are known by their very 
 dark and flabby surface, from several parts of 
 which offensive matter exudes. They are attend- 
 ed by prostration, and have a fetid discharge. 
 
 Another. Boil any quantity of the bottom 
 leaves of the common meadow sorrel, until they 
 are sufficiently soft, then beat them into a smooth 
 pulp, which is to be applied as a cataplasm to 
 ulcers of the above-mentioned nature. 
 
 Another. Poultices of the pulp of apples have 
 been successfully employed on the continent for 
 these ulcers. They are made by mixing two ounces 
 of the pulp of boiled apples with the same weight 
 of the crumb of bread. 
 
 Lotion for Scorbutic Ulcers, 
 Mix from one to two drachms of muriatic acid 
 (spirit of salt) with a pint of water. This lotion 
 is very useful in cleansing and stimulating the 
 above-mentioned ulcers. 
 
 Another. Make a lotion by dissolving half an 
 ounce of nitrate of potass (saltpetre) in half a pint 
 of common vinegar ; with which cleanse the ulcers 
 in question. 
 
 Lotion for Cancerous Ulcers. 
 Mix together an ounce and a half of the tine- 
 
WHITLOW, WHITE SWELLING. 
 
 155 
 
 ture of muriate of iron, with seven ounces of dis- 
 tilled water. Apply as a lotion. 
 Contagious Ulcer peculiar to Soldiers and Seamen. 
 
 This ulcer generates a poison capable of con- 
 verting other healthy ulcers into its own nature. 
 It generally appears on the inner side of the leg, 
 near the ankle. It exhales a putrid smell, whilst 
 a thin acrimonious humor is discharged, which 
 excoriates the neighboring parts; and fungous ex- 
 crescences frequently shoot out. The limb be- 
 comes much swelled and very painful, whilst the 
 sore bleeds on the slightest touch. If not checked 
 the most fatal consequences are to be apprehended. 
 
 Treatment. The following remedies have been 
 found most efficacious, viz., the carrot and yeast 
 poultice as mentioned before; a lotion of tincture 
 of myrrh, 1 ounce, with 7 ounces of decoction of 
 bark, in equal parts; 1 scruple of sulphate of cop- 
 per, or blue vitriol, in solution with distilled water, 
 or with 8 ounces of lime-water; camphorated 
 spirit of wine; cauiphonited vinegar; the cold salt- 
 water bath; and the application of :he juice of 
 limes. If the sores remain irritable and painful, 
 the hemlock and poppy fomentations are to be 
 used; accompanied with the internal administra- 
 tion of Peruvian bark, and other tonic remedies. 
 Ulcers and Sore Legs of Poor People, 
 
 Pure lime-water is one of the best dressings for 
 ulcers. 
 
 The lotion made according to the following 
 recipe, has been found very beneficial in cases of 
 foul ulcers and sore legs of poor people. It has 
 also succeeded (applied warm) in curing a fistu- 
 lous ulcer: Take of green vitriol, } ounce; alum, 
 i ounce; verdigris, i drachm; crude sal ammo- 
 niac, 2 scruples. 
 
 After reducing them to powder, put them into 
 a new glazed pipkin, holding about a quart. Set 
 it upon a slow fire, and increase* by degrees till 
 the ingredients boil up to the top two or three 
 times. Then take it from the fire and set it to 
 cool. Break the pipkin to get the stone out. 
 Stir them round all the time they are on the fire 
 with a lath. The dust and the smoke should not 
 come near the eyes, nose, or mouth. Put a piece 
 of the stone, the size of a walnut, to a quart bottle 
 of soft water. To use, shake the bottle and wet a 
 piece of fine linen four times doubled. Lay it 
 upon a new burn or old ulcer. The linen should 
 always be kept wet with it. [For this receipt the 
 late Emperor of France gave 10,000 louis-d'ors, 
 after it had been approved of in his hospitals.] 
 Malt Poultice. 
 
 Mix as much ground malt with half a pint of 
 yeast as will make a cataplasm of moderate con- 
 sistence. This poultice is gently stimulating, and 
 very serviceable in destroying the fetid and dis- 
 agreeable smell which arises from foul ulcers and 
 gangrenous wounds. 
 
 Another. A similar poultice, and for the same 
 purpose, is prepared by stirring into an infusion 
 of malt as much oatmeal as may be required to 
 make it of a proper thickness, and afterwards add- 
 ing about a spoonful of yeast. 
 
 Strong Beer Poultice. 
 Stir into half a pint of ale, or strong beer- 
 grounds, as much oatmeal or linseed-meal as will 
 make a cataplasm of proper thickness. This will 
 prove an excellent stimulant and antiseptic for 
 foul ulcers. It should be applied as warm as the 
 parts will bear, and should be renewed every six 
 hours. 
 
 Yeast Poultice. 
 
 Mix well together 1 pound of linseed-meal, and 
 a pint of ale yeast. Expose this cataplasm to a 
 
 gentle heat until a certain degree of fermentation 
 takes place. This poultice is excellent f _>r stimu- 
 lating and cleansing foul ulcers. 
 
 Charcoal Poultice. 
 
 To half a pound of the common oatsneal cata- 
 plasm, add two ounces of fresh burnt charcoal 
 finely pounded and sifted. Mix the whole well 
 together, and apply it to foul -Ucers and venereal 
 sores ; the fetid smell and unhealthy appearance 
 of which it speedily destroys. 
 
 Treatment of Whitlow. 
 
 This is a small tumor which appears under or 
 around the finger nail; it is attended with redness 
 and pain, and very quickly advances to suppura- 
 tion. After the abscess is evacuated of the white 
 matter contained in it, it very soon heals of itself. 
 The loss of the nail, however, is sometimes, through 
 improper management, the consequence of the 
 disease. 
 
 In order to check the inflammation ia the first 
 instance, and thereby at once stop tho i'sease, it 
 will be proper frequently to apply tb* following 
 lotion, that is, until the pain and heaf re abated : 
 Dissolve one ounce of sal ammoniac iu two ounces 
 of common vinegar ; adding one of n jtified spirit, 
 and twelve ounces of distilled water. 
 
 Another Application. It sometimes happens 
 that the ulcer, which remains after the discharge 
 of the matter, is very indolent and difficult to 
 heal. In such a case the following application 
 will be of great service : Rub ^ an ounce of cam- 
 phor, in a mortar, with an ounce of olive oil. Now 
 melt over a gentle fire 8 ounces of olive oil, 
 with 4 ounces of yellow wax, and stir it in i 
 an ounce of a solution of sugar of lead (liquor 
 plumbi aceta'.is) ; when this mixture is cold, pour 
 the cainpho- and oil in the mortar into it, taking 
 care to stir the whole well until quite cold. If 
 suppuration should ensue, marked by a white 
 prominent spot, an opening should immediately 
 be made, that the matter may escape. 
 
 Whitlow at the extremity of the Finger. 
 
 This kind of whitlow being more deeply seated 
 than that of the nail, is more severe, and is at- 
 tended by throbbing and acute pain. The matter, 
 likewise, often insinuates itself beneath the nail. 
 To prevent suppuration it will be proper to keep 
 the finger immersed for a long time in warm water, 
 and to apply the lotion, recommended for the same 
 purpose in common whitlow. If these fail in 
 effecting a resolution of the tumor, an early and 
 free incision should be made through the integu- 
 ments, and carried to the bottom of the diseased 
 part; after which the blood may be allowed to flow 
 for some time : the opening is to be treated after- 
 wards as a common wound, viz., by the applica- 
 tion of adhesive plaster. 
 
 Another Remedy. Dr. Balfour, of Edinburgh, 
 has found the application of pressure in incipient 
 cases of whitlow to succeed in preventing the for- 
 mation of matter, and speedily to cure the dis- 
 ease. He applies compression with the hand in a 
 degree which the patient can easily bear, with the 
 view of preventing extensive suppuration, and 
 then a narrow fillet. This operation, in severe 
 cases, is repeated three or four times in the course 
 of the day, when the pain and swelling disappear, 
 leaving a single speck of pus at the point of the 
 thumb immediately under the skin. If vent be 
 given to this by the slightest touch of the lancet, 
 the wound will heal up immediately. 
 
 White Swelling. 
 
 Dr. Kirkland recommends a volatile plaster for 
 this disease, made after the following manner: 
 Melt together in an iron ladle, or earthern pipkin, 
 
156 
 
 MEDICINE, 
 
 two ounces of soap and half an ounce of litharge 
 plaster. When nearly cold, stir in one drachm 
 of sal ammoniac in fine powder: spread upon 
 leather, and apply to the joint as above. 
 
 If the above method fail, and ulceration bake 
 place, a surgeon should be applied to without 
 delay. 
 
 Ointment for Chaps and Eruptions of the Skin. 
 
 Simmer ox marrow over the fire, and afterwards 
 strain it through a piece of muslin into gallipots. 
 When cold rub the part affected. 
 
 Ringworm. 
 
 Mr. T. G. Graham, of Cheltenham, recommends 
 the lime-water which has been used for purifying 
 gas, as a very efficacious remedy in the above 
 troublesome disease. The head is to be well 
 cleaned, morning and evening, with soap and 
 water, and afterwards washed with the lime-water 
 from the gas works. The above lime-water is a 
 very heterogeneous compound, so that it is impos- 
 sible to say which of its ingredients is effectual. 
 It contains lime, ammonia, sulphuretted hydrogen, 
 vol.-itile oil, and probably several other compounds 
 of a more complex nature. 
 
 Scald Head. 
 
 Take of sulphur, 1 ounce; lard, 1 ourice; sal 
 ammoniac, 2 drachms: Mix for an ointment, to 
 be rubbed upon the part affected two or three 
 times a day. 
 
 Ointment for Scald Head, Ringworm, etc. 
 
 The following ointment for scald head, ring- 
 worm, and tetter, has uniformly succeeded in 
 speedily effecting a cure. 
 
 Take of subacetate of copper (in very fine 
 powder), a drachm ; prepared calomel, 1 
 drachm ; fresh spermaceti ointment, 1 ounce. 
 Mix well together. To be rubbed over the parts 
 affected every night and morning. This ointment 
 is also very efficacious in cases of foul and languid 
 ulcers. 
 
 Leprous Affections of the Skin. 
 
 Dr. Hufeland praises the excellent effects of the 
 oil of the walnut kernel in leprous and other cuta- 
 neous complaints. It is one of the safest, simplest, 
 and most efficacious external remedies that can be 
 employed, as it mitigates the pains, and that burn- 
 ing sensation, sometimes almost insupportable, 
 which accompany these obstinate diseases; it 
 never seems to have any ill effect, if attention be 
 given to the eruption suddenly disappearing, or 
 diving, as it is said, by repulsion a circumstance 
 which frequently happens by the application of 
 of metallic ointments, and which is often attended 
 with much danger to the constitution; although 
 it cures the cutaneous affection in a short time, it 
 is not followed by any bad consequences, provided 
 the eruption does not originate in any obstinate 
 internal or general disease. In a child, which was 
 almost covered with chronic and suppurating 
 pimples, against which internal remedies, baths 
 and mercurial ointments had been employed with- 
 out producing a perfect cure, the oil of walnut 
 kernel was used with complete success. It is like- 
 wise an excellent remedy in small cutaneous erup- 
 tions that are now and then observed in children. 
 The oil ought to be fresh, expressed without heat, 
 and applied to the affected places twice or thrice 
 a day. 
 
 Itch Ointment. 
 
 Take of flowers of sulphur 1 ounce; essence of 
 lemon 1 ounce ; hogs' lard 2 ounces. Make it into 
 an ointment. Smear all the joints for three nights 
 with this; wash it off in the morning with soap 
 and water. Repeat the smearing three times at 
 
 the interval of two -days, and the most inveterate 
 itch is certain to disappear. It will be well at th 
 same time to take night and morning a teaspoon- 
 ful of an electuary of flowers of sulphur, mixed 
 with honey or treacle. 
 
 To remove Chilblains. 
 
 Take an ounce of white copperas dissolved in a 
 quart of water, and occasionally apply it to the 
 affected parts. This will ultimately remove the 
 most obstinate blains. This application must 
 be used before they break, otherwise it will do 
 injury. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 Take a piece of fresh wood of the fir, made flat 
 and smooth, and hold it to the fire until it becomes 
 moderately warm, and all the turpentine begins 
 to exude ; then place the part affected upon this 
 board and keep it there as long as it can well be 
 borne, after which let the part be washed with 
 warm water, wrapped up in flannel and kept free 
 from cold. This application is improper if the 
 chilblains be broken, but if applied before it has 
 arrived a,t that stage, it has never failed in re- 
 moving the complaint after two or three applica- 
 tions. 
 
 Another. Crude sal ammoniac 1 ounce ; vine- 
 gar i a pint; dissolve, and bathe the part, if not 
 yet broken, two or three times a day. If sal am- 
 moniac is not at hand, alum or common salt will 
 do, but not so effectually. If the chilblains are 
 of very long continuance and obstinate, touch them 
 with equal parts of liquid opodeldoc (linimentum 
 sapoiiis] and tincture of Spanish flies, or rather 
 less of the latter. If the chilblains break, poul- 
 tice or dress them with basilicon, and add turpen- 
 tine if necessary. 
 
 Another. The following ointment for this an- 
 noying disease has been attended with the most 
 beneficial effect : Take of citron ointment 1 ounce; 
 oil of turpentine 2 drachms ; olive oil 4 drachms. 
 Mix. To be well rubbed over the parts affected 
 every night and morning. 
 
 Another. The following has also been found 
 very beneficial in the cure of chilblains both in 
 the incipient or inflammatory stage or when ad- 
 vanced to uleeration. When in the former state, 
 the part should be well rubbed over with it by 
 means of a warm hand, and afterwards kept cov- 
 ered with soft, thin leather. When ulcerated it 
 should he applied on lint sufficiently large to cover 
 the surrounding inflammation: Take of sperma- 
 ceti ointment 6 drachms ; prepared calomel 2 
 scruples ; rectified oil of turpentine 1 drachm. 
 Mix. Pure glycerin is a very good mild applica- 
 tion for chilblains. 
 
 Treatment of Corns. 
 
 When small in size they are to be removed 
 either by stimulants or escharotics, as the appli- 
 cation of nitrate of silver (lunar caustic), merely 
 by wetting the corn and touching it with a pencil 
 of the caustic every evening. Previous to this 
 the skin may be softened by immersion of the feel 
 in warm water. 
 
 Another Mode. 
 
 Rub together in a mortar 2 ounces of powder 
 of savin leaves, an ounce of verdigris and % an 
 ounce of red precipitate. Put some of this powder 
 in alinen rag and apply it to the com ;it bed-time. 
 
 Removal by Cutting, etc. 
 
 If the corn has attained a large size, removal 
 by cutting, or by ligature, will be proptr; if it 
 hangs by a small neck, the latter method is pre- 
 ferable. It is done by tying a silk thread i Mind 
 the corn, and on its removal next day tying aa- 
 
TREATMENT OF THE EYE. 
 
 157 
 
 other still tighter, and so on till completely re- 
 moved. When the base is broad, a cautious di* 
 section of the corn from the surrounding parts by 
 means of a sharp knife or razor is necessary. 
 This is done by paring gently until the whole is 
 removed. In all cases of cutting corns the feet 
 ought to be previously washed, as in case of 
 making a wound in the toe great danger may re- 
 sult from want of cleanliness in this respect. Mor- 
 tification has in some instances been the effect of 
 uch neglect. 
 
 Prevention, etc. Corns should be secured from 
 pressure by means of a thick adhesive plaster, in 
 the centre of which a hole has been made for the 
 reception of the projecting part. This, with fre- 
 quent immersion in water and occasional paring, 
 has often been found to remove them, and always 
 prevents their enlargement. An effectual mode 
 of extirpation is by the application of a small 
 blister, the effect of which will be, generally, to 
 raise them with the skin out of their bed. When 
 rest from labor can be obtained, this is an excel- 
 lent method. Dress the blister (which need not 
 exceed the size of a silver dime) with hog's lard, 
 or simple wax ointment. 
 
 To remove Warts. 
 
 Nitrate of silver (lunar caustic) cures those 
 troublesome excrescences called warts in an ex- 
 tremely simple and harmless manner. Caustic po- 
 tassa is still more certain. 
 
 The method of using it is to dip the end of the 
 caustic in a little water and to rub it over the 
 warts. After doing so a few times they will be 
 gone. The muriate of ammonia (sal ammoniac) 
 is likewise a very useful remedy. " Out of twenty 
 years' practice," says a medical correspondent in 
 the Monthly Magazine, "I never knew the above 
 remedies to fail." 
 
 Ward's Paste for the Piles. 
 
 Pulverize finely in an iron mortar 1 ounce of 
 black pepper, 1 ounce of elecampane root and 
 three ounces of fennel seed, and mix them inti- 
 mately together. Now melt together over a clear 
 fire 2 ounces of sugar and 2 ounces of clarified 
 honey, so as to form a clear syrup, which add to 
 the mixed powder in the mortar, and heat the 
 whole into a mass of uniform consistence. This 
 medicine is to be taken when the irritation of piles 
 runs so high as to threaten fistula. The dose is a 
 piece of the size of a nutmeg, to be taken three 
 times a day : this is to be washed down by a glass 
 of cold water, or white wine. 
 
 Extraneous Bodies in the Ear, 
 These are to be extracted by means of a small 
 forceps, or by syringing the ear with warm or 
 tepid water. But should such means prove un- 
 successful, they may be suffered to remain with- 
 out danger, if they do not produce pain, as in a 
 very short time they will be forced out by the ac- 
 cumulating wax. Insects may be killed by filling 
 the ear with oil and afterwards removed by syr- 
 inging with warm water. 
 
 To check Haemorrhage consequent upon the Ex- 
 traction of Teeth. 
 
 A good surgeon recommends the following 
 method for the treatment of the above frequent 
 and sometimes serious accident : " Take a small, 
 fine phial cork, of a size adapted to the socket 
 whence the tooth has been extracted and the 
 haemorrhage proceeds ; then with a small dos- 
 sil of lint wet with tincture of chloride of iron, 
 and put on the smallest end of the cork, push the 
 cork into the bleeding orifice, pressing it firmly 
 la till it be, aa it wore, wedged in the socket, and 
 
 keep it there as long as may be necessary, desi- 
 ring the patient to press against it with the teeth 
 of the opposite jaw till the bleeding be stopped, 
 which is almost instantly. This acts ns a tour- 
 niquet, and gives time to use whatever other 
 means may be deemed requisite; but it is seldom 
 that anything else is required." Solution of per- 
 sulphate of iron, alum, and powder of tannin ary 
 also good styptics. 
 
 Remedies for Diseases of the Teeth. 
 
 If hollow or decayed, apply compound tincture 
 of benzoin, or some essential oil, on cotton, to 
 the part; or pills with camphor and opium: or 
 chew the roots of pellitory of Spain. Some burn 
 the nerv with sulphuric or nitric acid, or a hot 
 iron. 
 
 Collyria, or Eye-waters. [See page 125.] 
 
 Take of extract of lead, 10 drops; rose-wa!>r, 
 6 ounces. Mix, and wash the eyes night and 
 morning. 
 
 Another. Take of extract of lead, 10 drops; 
 spirit of camphor, 20 drops ; rose-water. J a pint. 
 Mix. This eye-water is extremely useful in oph- 
 thalmia, attended with much inflammation. 
 
 Another. Take of opium, 10 grains; camphor, 
 6 grains; boiling water, 12 ounces. Rub the 
 opium and camphor with the boiling water and 
 strain. This'collyrium abates the pain and irri- 
 tation attendant on severe cases of inflammation 
 of the eyes. 
 
 Another. Take of white vitriol, ^ drachm; 
 spirits of camphor, 1 drachm ; warm water, 2 
 ounces ; rose-water, 4 ounces. Dissolve the vit- 
 riol in the warm water, and add the spirit of cam- 
 phor and rose-water. This is a useful collyrium 
 in the chronic state of ophthalmia, or what is 
 
 fenerally called weakness of the eyes after in- 
 ammation. 
 
 Another. Dissolve 10 grains of soft extract of 
 opium in 6 ounces of warm distilled water; strain 
 through fine linen, and then add 2 ounces of liquor 
 of acetate of ammonia, Where the pain is great, 
 this collyrium will be productive of great relief. 
 
 Another. Make a lotion for the inflamed eyes 
 with 20 drops of tincture of camphor, 10 drops of 
 solution of sugar of lead, 1 of Goulard's extract, 
 and 7 ounces of distilled water. If the pain is 
 very distressing, a drop of the vinous tincture of 
 opium may be conveyed twice a day into the eye 
 by means of a feather. This is an effectual means 
 of obtaining relief. 
 
 Another. Mix together 1 ounce of the liquor 
 of acetate of ammonia, and 7 ounces of distilled 
 rose-water. 
 
 Another. When the eye is merely weak, fre- 
 quent ablution with cold water, by means of an 
 eye-cup of green glass, will be of great use. Still 
 better is the application to the lids, very frequently, 
 of lead-water, with a camel's hair pencil. At 
 night a very cooling cataplasm, or poultice, may 
 be made of crumb of bread soaked in a pint and a 
 half of cold water, in which a drachm of alum has 
 previously been dissolved. This is to be applied 
 over the eyes in a handkerchief when going to bed. 
 
 For Inflammation of the Eyelids. 
 The following ointment has been found exceed- 
 ingly beneficial in inflammation of the eyeball 
 and edges of the eyelids, which has become 
 very prevalent. Take of prepared calomel, 1 
 scruple ; spermaceti ointment, i an ounce. Mix 
 them well together in a glass mortar; apply a 
 small quantity to each corner of the eye, every 
 night and morning, and also to the edges of the 
 lids, if they are affected. Another good ointment 
 is composed of carbonate of lead, 2 drachms ; siiu- 
 
158 
 
 MEDICINE. 
 
 pie cerate, an ounce. If this should not eventu- 
 ally remove the inflammation, the following lotion 
 may be applied three or four times a day, by 
 means of an eye cup. The bowels should be kept 
 in & laxative state, by taking occasionallr i of an 
 ounce i f the Rochelle or Epsom salts. 
 
 Lotion to be used at the same time. 
 Take of acetated zinc, 6 grains; rose-water 
 (fresh), 6 ounces. Mix. Before the ointment is 
 applied to the corners of the eyes, wash them with 
 this lotion. These remedies have succeeded in 
 almost every case of inflammation of the eyes to 
 which they have been applied. 
 
 Treatment of Styes. 
 
 These are small abscesses seated in the edge of 
 the eyelid, and produced by the obstruction of 
 very minute glands. They are often attended with 
 much heat and pain, and always with great incon- 
 venience. The application of ice to the part will 
 sometimes check them in the beginning. If they 
 do not suppurate quickly, a small poultice of bread 
 and milk is to be applied warm. When the mat- 
 ter is formed, an opening should be made with 
 the point of a lancet, or a needle, and a small por- 
 tion of weak citrine ointment is afterwards to be 
 applied. 
 
 Infusion of Senna. 
 
 Take of senna, 3 drachms ; lesser cardamom 
 seeds, husked and bruised, drachm ; boiling 
 water, as much as will yield a filtered infusion of 
 6 ounces. Digest for an hour, and filter, when 
 cold. 
 
 This is a well contrived purgative infusion, the 
 aromatic correcting the drastic effects of the sen- 
 na. It is of advantage that it should be used fresh 
 prepared, as it is apt to spoil very quickly. 
 
 Electuary of Senna. 
 
 Take of senna, 8 ounces ; coriander seeds, 4 
 ounces; liquorice, 4 ounces ; figs, 1 pound; pulp 
 of tamarinds, cassia fistula, and prunes, of each, i 
 pound ; double refined sugar, 2 pounds. Powder 
 the senna with the coriander seeds, and sift out 
 10 ounces of the mixed powder; boil the remainder 
 with the figs and liquorice, in 4 pounds of water, 
 to one-half; express, and strain the liquor, which 
 is then to be evaporated to the weight of about 
 1J pounds ; dissolve the sugar in it, add this 
 syrup, by degrees, to the pulps; and, lastly, mix 
 in the powder. 
 
 This electuary is a very convenient laxative, 
 and has long been in common use among prac- 
 titioners. Taken to the size of a nutmeg, or more, 
 as occasion may require, it is an excellent laxative 
 for loosening the belly in costive habits. 
 
 Compound Colocynth Pills. 
 
 Take of pith of colocynth, cut small, 6 drachms ; 
 hepatic aloes, 1 ounces ; scamrnony, an ounce ; 
 lesser cardamom seeds, husked and bruised, 1 
 drachm ; Castile soap, softened with warm water, 
 so as to have a gelatinous consistence, 3 drachms ; 
 warm water, 1 pint. Digest the colocynth in the 
 water, in a covered vessel, with a moderate heat, 
 for 4 days. To the liquor, expressed and filtered, 
 add the aloes and scammony, separately, reduced 
 to powder ; then evaporate the mixture to a proper 
 thickness for making pills, having added, towards 
 the end of the evaporation, the soap-jelly and 
 powdered seeds, and mix all the ingredients 
 thoroughly together. 
 
 These pills are much used as warm and stom- 
 achic laxatives; they are well suited for costive- 
 ness, so often attendant on people of sedentary 
 lives, and, upon the whole, are among the most 
 useful articles in the materia medica. 
 
 Aloetic Pilh. 
 
 Take of socotrine aloes, powdered, 1 ounce ; ex- 
 tract of gentian, ounce; oil of caraway seeds, 2 
 scruples; syrup of ginger, as much as is sufficient. 
 Beat them together. The dose is from five to ten 
 grains. 
 
 Compound Aloetic Pills. 
 
 Take of hepatic aloes, 1 ounce; ginger root, in 
 powder, 1 drachm ; soap, an ounce ; essence of 
 peppermint, \ a drachm. Powder the aloes with 
 the ginger, then add the soap and the oil, so as to 
 form an intimate mixture. This is an excellent 
 purge for costive habits, in the dose of from 5 to 
 10 grains. 
 
 Compound Rhubarb Pilh. 
 
 Take of rhubarb, in powder, 1 ounce ; socotrine 
 aloes, 6 dnichms; myrrh, ^ ounce; volatile oil of 
 peppermint, drachm. Make them into a mass, 
 with a sufficient quantity of syrup of orange peel. 
 These pills are intended for moderately warming 
 and strengthening the stomach, and gently open- 
 ing the bowels. A scruple of the mass may be 
 taken night and morning. 
 Purgative Powder, formerly called Hiera Picra. 
 
 Take of socotrine aloes, 1 pound ; white canella, 
 3 ounces. Powder them separately, and then mix 
 them. The spicy canella acts as a corrigent to 
 the aloes: but the compound is more adapted to 
 be formed into pills than to be used in the state of 
 powder. It is a convenient medicine for costive 
 habits, not subject to the piles. Dose from 10 
 grains to a scruple at bed-time. 
 
 Mild Purgative Emulsion. 
 
 Take of mnnna and oil of almonds, each 1 ounce; 
 carbonate of potassa, 12 grains ; cinnamon and 
 rose-water, each 3 ounces. Mix carefully the oil, 
 potassa and manna together, gradually pouring 
 the liquids to form an emulsion, of which take two 
 tablespoonsful night and morning. 
 Electuary for the Piles. 
 
 Take of the electuary of senna, 1J ounces; 
 washed flowers of sulphur, 4 drachms ; syrup of 
 roses, as much as is sufficient. Make into an elec- 
 tuary, of which take the size of a nutmeg, going 
 to bed, as may be required. This is an excellent 
 remedy for persons who have the piles, or are sub- 
 ject to their return. 
 
 Castor Oil Clyster. 
 
 Take of castor oil, 2 ounces; 1 egg; mix them 
 well, and then add gruel, 8 ounces; which will 
 operate very mildly, and is efficacious in case of 
 worms. 
 
 Purging Clyster. 
 
 Take of manna, 1 ounce. Dissolve in 10 ounces 
 by measure, of compound decoction of chamomile; 
 then add of olive oil, 1 ounce; sulphate of mag- 
 nesia, i ounce. Mix and let it be given directly. 
 
 REMEDIES FOR COUGHS AND COLDS. 
 
 Paregoric Elixir, or Camphorated Tincture of 
 
 Opium. 
 
 Take of hard purified opium, in powder, benzoio 
 acid, each 1 drachm; camphor, 2 scruples; essen- 
 tial oil of aniseed, 1 drachm ; proof spirit of wine, 
 2 pints. Digest for ten days and strain. In this 
 formula, the virtues of the opium and the camphor 
 are combined. It derives an agreeable flavor 
 from the acid of benzoin and essential oil. The 
 latter will also render it more stimulating. It was 
 originally prescribed under the title of elixir asth- 
 maticum, which it does not ill deserve. It con- 
 tributes to allay the tickling which pr <vokes fre- 
 quent coughing, and at the same time, it soothes 
 the breast, and gives greater Hberty of breathing. 
 
COUGHS AND COLDS. 
 
 159 
 
 It is given to children against the chincough, etc. 
 in doses of from 5 drops to 20; to adults, from 20 
 to 100. Half an ounce, by measure, contains 
 about a grain of opium. 
 
 Expectorant Pills. 
 
 Take of dried root of squills, in fine powder. 1 
 scruple ; gum ammoniac, le.-ser cardamom seeds, 
 in powder, extract of liquorice, each 1 drachm. 
 Form them into a mass with simple sj'rup. This 
 is an elegant and commodious form for the exhi- 
 bition of squills, whether for promoting expector- 
 ation, or for the other purposes to which that 
 medicine is applied. The dose is from 10 grains 
 to 1 scruple, three times a day. 
 
 Napoleon's Pectoral Pills. 
 
 The following recipe was copied from one in the 
 possession of the late Emperor of France, and was 
 a very favorite remedy with Napoleon for diffi- 
 culty of breathing, or oppression of the chest, 
 arising from a collection of mucus in the air cells 
 and vessels of the lungs, and in the gullet. Con- 
 siderable benefit has been derived from it in 
 many similar cases. Take of ipecacuanha root, in 
 powder, 30 grains; squill root, in powder, gum 
 ammoniac, in powder, each 2 scruples ; mucilage 
 of gum arabic, sufficient to form a mass. To be 
 divided into 24 pills; two to be taken every night 
 and morning. 
 
 Dr. Ratcliff's Cough Mixture. 
 
 Mix together 4 drachms of syrup of squills; 4 
 drachms of elixir of paregoric : 4 drachms of syrup 
 of poppies. Of this take a teaspoonful in a little 
 tea or warm water, as occasion requires. 
 
 Dr. Munro's Cough Medicine. 
 
 Take 4 drachms of paregoric elixir; 2 drachms 
 of sulphuric ether; 2 drachms of tincture of tolu. 
 Mix, and take a teaspoonful night and morning, 
 or when the cough is troublesome, in a little milk- 
 warm water. 
 
 Simple Remedy for Coughs. 
 
 Take of boiling water, half a pint; black cur- 
 rant jelly, a desertspoonful ; sweet spirits of nitre, 
 a teaspoonful. Mix the jelly in the water first, 
 till it is quite dissolved, and add the nitre last. 
 Take a desertspoonful of the mixture at night, 
 going to bed, or when the cough is troublesome. 
 The mixture should be made and kept in a tea- 
 pot, or other covered vessel. 
 
 Remedy for Chronic Cough. 
 
 The following is very serviceable in common 
 obstinate coughs, unattended with fever. Take of 
 tincture of tolu, 3 drachms; elixir of paregoric, 
 an ounce; tincture of squills, 1 drachm. Two 
 teaspoonsful to be taken in a tumbler of barley- 
 water going to bed, and when the cough is trou- 
 blesome. 
 
 For Coughs in Aged Persons. 
 
 In the coughs of aged persons, or in cases where 
 there are large accumulations of purulent or viscid 
 matter, with feeble expectoration, the following 
 mixture will be found highly beneficial : Pour 
 gradually 2 drachms of nitric acid, diluted in half 
 a pint of water, on 2 drachms of gum ammoniac, 
 and triturate them in a glass mortar, until the 
 gum is dissolved. A tablespoonful to be taken, 
 in sweetened water, every two or three hours. 
 Cough Emulsion. 
 
 Take of oil of almonds, 6 drachms ; milk of al- 
 monds, 5 ounces; rose water, gum arabic, and 
 purified sugar, equal parts, 2 drachms. Let these 
 be well rubbed together, and take two tablespoons- 
 ful four times a day, and a teaspoonful upon 
 coughing. This is far preferable to the common 
 
 white emulsions formed by an alkali, which, unit- 
 ing with the oil, produces a kind of soap, and 
 readily mingling with the water, forms the white 
 appearance observed, and is commonlj disgusting 
 to patients, and unpleasant to the stomach j 
 whereas this suits every palate, and removes that 
 tickling in the throat so very distressing to 
 patients. 
 
 Emulsion for a Cold, etc. 
 
 Take of milk of almonds, 1 ounce; syrup of 
 tolu, 2 drachms; rose-water, 2 drachms ; tincture 
 of squills, 16 drops. Make into a draught. Four 
 to be taken during the day. This is an admirable 
 remedy in colds, and also in chronic cough, as well 
 as in asthma. 
 
 Gargle for Thrush. 
 
 Thrush or aphthae in the mouth, will be greatly 
 benefited by the frequent use of the following 
 gargle : Mix together 20 drops of muriatic acid 
 (spirits of salts); 1 ounce of honey of rose? ; and 4 
 ounces of decoction of barley. 
 
 Another. Make a gargle of 2 drachms of borax ; 
 1 ounce of honey of roses, and 7 ounces of rose- 
 water. To be used three or four times a day. 
 
 Gargle for Sore Throat. 
 
 Take of decoction of bark, 7 ounces; tincture 
 of myrrh, 2 drachms; purified nitre, 3 drachms. 
 Make into a gargle. This is a sovereign method 
 to disperse a tumefied gland, or common sore 
 throat. By taking upon such occasions a small 
 lump of purified nitre, putting it into the muuth, 
 and letting it dissolve there, then removing it, 
 and applying it again in a few seconds, and swal- 
 lowing the saliva, I have, says Dr. Thornton, for 
 many years prevented a sore throat from forming. 
 
 For Putrid Sore Throat. 
 
 Take of decoction of bark, 6 ounces; diluted 
 muriatic acid, 1 drachm ; honey of roses, 1 ounce. 
 Make into a gargle. To be used, mixed with port 
 wine, frequently during the day. 
 
 For Inflammatory Sore Throat. 
 
 Take of nitre, 2 drachms; honey, 4 drachms j 
 rose-water, 6 ounces. Mix. To be used fre- 
 quently. 
 
 Another. Dissolve 2 teaspoonsful of alum in 1 
 pint of sage tea. 
 
 Another. Take of muriatic acid, 20 drops j 
 glycerin, 1 ounce; water, 3 ounces. Mix. 
 
 For Ulcerated Sore Throat. 
 The chlorate of potassa, in cases of putrid ulcer- 
 ated sore throat, has been used with the most 
 decisive success. Its internal exhibition more ef- 
 fectually allays thirst and abates fever than any 
 other medicine; and, when applied as a gargle to 
 inflamed or ulcerated sore throats, it has been 
 found to disperse the inflammation and to deterge 
 the ulcers more effectually than the infusion of 
 rose-leaves with the sulphuric acid, the gargle 
 generally resorted to in those cases. The chlorate 
 of potassa may be given in the dose of from 20 to 
 30 grains in a half glass of water, three or four 
 times a day. For the purpose of gargling the 
 throat, 4 drachms of the chlorate may be added 
 to half a pint of water. 
 
 MEDICINE FOR WORMS. 
 
 The Male Fern. 
 
 The root of male fern has long been esteemed a 
 powerful remedy for worms; and its powder has 
 been sold under a fictitious name as an infallible 
 specific for the broad or tape-worm. Sometimes 
 it has been ordered to be taken without any mix- 
 ture; at other times gamboge, scatuuiony mer- 
 
160 
 
 MEDICINE. 
 
 cury, and other purgative medicines have been 
 ordered to be taken with it. 
 
 In the year 1755 the king of France purchased, 
 for a large sum of money, the recipe of a medi- 
 cine which was said to be an effectual cure for the 
 tape-worm, from the widow of a surgeon in Swit- 
 zerland, whose husband used to administer it. 
 On discovery it proved to be fern-root reduced to 
 powder, which is to be taken in the following 
 manner : The day before the patient is to begin 
 to take the fern he is to take a dose of some open- 
 ing medicine, and after its operation to make a 
 very light supper. Next morning he is to take 3 
 drachms of the powder of the fern-root, in a cup 
 of lime-flower water, and after it a little orange- 
 peel, or some other grateful aromatic, and, if he 
 vomits it up, to take soon after another full dose 
 of the powder of the fern-root. Two hours after 
 this is swallowed the following purging powders are 
 to be taken, viz., 12 grains of resin of scaminony, 
 mixed with as much of the panacea mercurialis 
 (calomel digested in spirit of wine), and 5 grains 
 of gamboge, in powder; the dose being made 
 stronger or weaker, according to the strength of 
 the patient. Soon after taking this dose, the pa- 
 tient is to drink tea, and as soon as the physic 
 begins to operate, if he perceives that the taenia 
 is coming away, he is to remain on the close-stool 
 till it has entirely passed. If the purgative should 
 prove too weak, the patient is to take a dose of 
 Epsom salts, and to drink freely of broth. If the 
 first dose of the fern powder and of the purging 
 medicine has not the desired effect, the powder 
 and purge are to be repeated next day; and if at 
 any time the taenia is observed to be coming away, 
 the greatest care must be taken not to break it. 
 
 Worm-seed. 
 
 "Worm-seed is one of the oldest and most com- 
 mon anthelmintics, especially in the lumbrici of 
 children. On account of its essential oil, it 
 is heating and stimulating. It is given to chil- 
 dren to the extent of ten grains or half a drachm, 
 finely powdered, and strewed on bread and butter; 
 or made into an electuary with honey or treacle; 
 or candied with sugar; or diffused through milk, 
 and taken in the morning when the stomach is 
 empty. After it has been used for some days, 
 it is customary to give a cathartic ; or it is com- 
 bined from the beginning with rhubarb, jalap, or 
 calomel. 
 
 To destroy Ascarides. 
 
 Take of socotrine aloes, 2 drachms; new milk, 
 8 ounces. Rub them together for a clyster. This 
 is useful to destroy the ascarides, er little seat- 
 worm. Still more effectual are suppositories con- 
 taining each 3 grains of santorin, in a sufficient 
 amount of cacao butter. 
 
 Powder of Tin. 
 
 In a teaspoonful of honey, or currant jelly, mix 
 a drachm of powder of tin, and take it twice a day 
 for six successive mornings and evenings, making 
 altogether 12 drachms, or~l ounces of the tin. A 
 little rhubarb, or any mild aperient medicine, may 
 be taken each alternate night of the six. This is 
 the quantity for an adult person, but would not 
 prove too much for a child, we apprehend, as the 
 tin does not act upon the bowels, but upon the 
 worm itself. 
 
 Oil of Turpentine. 
 
 Dr. Gibney, of Cheltenham, observes that th'e 
 oil of turpentine is almost a specific in every spe- 
 cies of worms, and its failure, in the practice of 
 many physicians, he attributes to the improper 
 exhibition of it. When the dose is not sufficiently 
 large, it affects the kidneys and skin, and produces 
 
 no effect on the worm or intestinal canal. He pre- 
 scribes 1 or 2 drachms, at intervals, for children 
 of three years of age, and 6 drachms for older chil- 
 dren, and more for adults. He directs it to bo 
 taken when the stomach is most empty, and en- 
 joins strict abstinence during its use. Bein with 
 a good dose early in the morning, and repeat it 
 every hour for three or four hours, as circum- 
 stances may indicate. Combine with it mucilage 
 of gum arabic, simple cinnamon water, and syrup. 
 And, in case it should not operate on the bowels 
 as an aperient, take a dose of castor oil. This 
 treatment is renewed about every four or five 
 days, for some time after the evacuation <if 
 worms, or until the faeces become healthy. 
 
 Essence of Bergamot. 
 
 An Italian physician, of great eminence, has 
 found the " essentia de cedra" (essence of berga- 
 mot), in the dose of one or two drachms, mixed 
 with honey, more efficacious in destroying the 
 tape, and also the long round worm, than the oil 
 of turpentine or naphtha. 
 
 For Tape-worm in Children. 
 Beat up 5J drachms of rectified oil of turpen- 
 tine with the yolk of an egg and some sugar and 
 water, or common syrup. Give this to a child 
 having tape-worms. Two doses are sure of ex- 
 pelling them. Pumpkin seeds, made into an elec- 
 tuary with honey or molasses, and taken rather 
 copiously on an empty stomach, will generally kill 
 and remove tape-worm. 
 
 For the Long, Round Worm. 
 Take of pink-root and senna each an ounce, 
 and infuse two hours in hot water. Take one or 
 two glasses each morning on an empty stomach. 
 
 MEDICINES FOR INDIGESTION. 
 
 Gentian Wine. 
 
 Take gentian root and dried lemon-peel, fresh, 
 of each 1 ounce, 2 drachms of long pepper and 2 
 pints of light wine ; infuse without heat for a 
 week and strain out the wine for use. In com- 
 plaints of the stomach arising from weakness or 
 indigestion, a glass of this wine may betaken an 
 hour before dinner and supper. 
 
 Chalybeate Wine. 
 
 Take 2 ounces of filings of iron, cinnamon and 
 mace, each 2 drachms, and 2 pints of Rhenish 
 wine. Infuse for three or four weeks, frequently 
 shaking the bottle; then pass the wine through a 
 filter. This wine is a remedy for obstruction of 
 the menses. The dose is half a wine glass taken 
 twice or thrice a day. Lisbon wine, if sharp- 
 ened with half an ounce of cream of tartar, is also 
 beneficial. 
 
 Powerful Tonic. 
 
 Take of decoction of bark 6 ounces ; compound 
 tincture of bark 1 ounce; bark in powder 1 
 drachm; calcined magnesia 1 drachm. Forma 
 mixture. Two tablespoonsful are to be given three 
 times a day. 
 
 For Debility of the Stomach. 
 
 Take of chamomile flowers, lemon -peel, orange- 
 peel, each 4 drachms ; boiling wat^r 1 pint. Let 
 them remain for four hours, and strain. To the 
 strained liquor add syrup of ginger 6 drachms. 
 The dose is a wineglassful in the morning early 
 and repeat an hour before dinner for habits debili- 
 tated by drinking or natural weakness of the 
 stomach. 
 
 Stomachic Aperient Pills. 
 
 The pills made according to the following re- 
 cipe have been long prescribed as a dinner pill 
 with success : Take of rhubarb-root powdered li 
 
INDIGESTION. 
 
 161 
 
 drachms ; Turkey myrrh. 1 drachm ; socotrine 
 aloes i a drachm; extract of chamomile flowers 
 2i drachms ; essential oil of chatnomile flowers 
 16 drops. Mix well together, and divide into 80 
 pills. Two or three to be taken about an liour 
 before dinner. 
 
 Tonic Draught in cases of General Debility. 
 Take of the decoction of bark 12 drachms; 
 tincture of bark 1 drachm; syrup of Tolu ^ 
 drachm ; aromatic sulphuric acid 8 drops. Make 
 into a draught, to be taken three times a day. 
 
 Abernethy's Prescription for Indigestion. 
 
 Take of calomel (or proto-chloride of mercury), 
 precipitated sulphuret of antimony, each 1 scru- 
 ple; powder of gum guaiacum 2 scruples ; Span- 
 ish soap as much as will be sufficient to form into 
 twenty pills, which are to be taken night and 
 morning. 
 
 For Indigestion and Costiveness. 
 
 The following remedies for indigestion, attended 
 with heartburn and costiveness, were prescribed 
 by Dr. Gregory, of Edinburgh : Take of carbonate 
 of potassa 4 drachms ; simple cinnamon-water, 
 pure water, each 6 ounces ; compound tincture of 
 gentian J of an ounce. Mix. Three large spoons- 
 ful are to be taken twice a day. 
 
 Accompanying Purgative. 
 
 Take of compound pill of aloes, with colocynth, 
 2 drachms. To be divided into 24 pills, two to be 
 taken twice a week. 
 
 Jtemedy for flatulency. 
 
 Take of bay-berries 6 drachms; grains of para- 
 dise 2 scruples ; socotrine aloes and filings of iron 
 each 2 scruples; oil of turpentine 2 drachms; 
 simple syrup sufficient to form an electuary. 
 Dr. Reese's Remedy for Flatulence and Cramp in 
 the Stomach. 
 
 Take of carbonate of soda 1 drachm ; compound 
 tincture of rhatany 1 ounce; compound tincture 
 of ginger and chamomile 3 drachms ; camphor- 
 ated julep 7 ounces. Mix. Three tablespoonsful 
 are to be taken twice a day. 
 
 Night-mare. 
 
 Great attention is to be paid to regularity and 
 choice of diet. Intemperance of every kind is 
 hurtful, but nothing is more productive of this 
 disease than drinking bad wine. Of eatables those 
 which are most prejudicial are all fat and greasy 
 meats and pastry. These ought to be avoided, or 
 eaten with caution. The same may be said of salt 
 meats, for which dyspeptic patients have fre- 
 quently a remarkable predilection, but which are 
 not on that account the less unsuitable. 
 
 Moderate exercise contributes in a superior de- 
 gree to promote the digestion of food and prevent 
 flatulence ; those, however, who are necessarily 
 confined to a sedentary occupation, should par- 
 ticularly avoid applying themselves to study or 
 bodily labor immediately after eating. If a strong 
 propensity to sleep should occur after dinner, it 
 will be certainly better to indulge it a little, as 
 the process of digestion frequently goes on much 
 better during sleep than when awake. 
 
 Going to bed before the usual hour is a frequent 
 eause of night-mare, as it either occasions the pa- 
 tient to sleep too long or to lie long awake in the 
 night. Passing a whole night or part of a night 
 without re.^t likewise gives birth to the disease, as 
 it occasions the patient, on the succeeding night, 
 to sleep too soundly. Indulging in sleep too late 
 in the morning, is an almost certain method to 
 bring on the paroxysm, and the more frequently 
 it returns, the greater strength it acquires; the 
 
 propensity to sleep at this time is almost irresisti- 
 ble. Those who are habitually subject to attacks 
 of the night-mare ought never to sleep alone, 
 but should have some person near them, so as to be 
 immediately awakened by their groans and strug- 
 gles, and the person to whom this office may be 
 entrusted should be instructed to rouse the patient 
 as early as possible, that the paroxysm may not 
 have time to gain strength. 
 
 Digestive Pillt. 
 
 Take of soft extract of quassia, 1 drachm ; es- 
 sential oil of peppermint, 1 drop. Make into 12 
 pills, of which take 3 an hour before dinner. 
 These pills are excellent to create digestion in 
 habits injured by hard drinking. 
 
 To improve Digestion. 
 
 Eat a small crust of bread every morning, fast- 
 ing, about an hour before breakfast. 
 To restore the Appetite. 
 
 Take of shavings of quassia, 2 drachms ; boil- 
 ing water, 1 pint. Let this remain in a close ves- 
 sel until cold, then strain off, and add to the 
 strained liquor, compound tincture of cardamoms, 
 
 2 ounces; spirit of lavender, 4 drachms; powder 
 of rhubarb, 1 scruple. Take three tablespoonfuls 
 an hour before dinner to create an appetite. 
 
 Aloetic and Assafcetida Pills. 
 
 Take of socotrine aloes, in powder, assafcetida, 
 soap, equal parts. Form them into a mass with 
 mucilage of gum arabic. These pills, in doses of 
 about 10 grains twice a day, produce the most sal- 
 utary effects in cases of dyspepsia, attended with 
 hysteria, flatulence, and costiveness. 
 For Heartburn. 
 
 This complaint is an uneasy sensation in the 
 stomach, with anxiety, a heat more or less vio- 
 lent, and sometimes attended with oppression, 
 faintness, an inclination to vomit, or a plentiful 
 discharge of clear lymph, like saliva. 
 
 This pain may arise from various causes : such 
 as wind, sharp humors, and worms gnawing the 
 coats of the stomach ; also from acrid and pun- 
 gent food; likewise from rheumatic and gouty hu- 
 mors, or surfeits, and from too free a use of tea. 
 
 The diet should be of a light animal kind; the 
 drink brandy and water, toast and water, Bristol 
 water; no vegetables should be allowed; very lit- 
 tle bread, and that well toasted. 
 
 If heartburn has arisen from acidity in the sto- ' ' 
 mach, it will be necessary to take two tablespoon- 
 fuls of the following mixture three times a day : 
 
 3 drachms of magnesia, 1 scruple of rhubarb, in 
 powder; 1 ounce of cinnamon water, a drachm 
 of spirits of lavender, and 4 ounces of distilled 
 water. 
 
 For Heartburn, attended by Pain and Flatulence. 
 
 Mix together 12 grains of prepared chalk, i an 
 ounce of peppermint water, 1 ounce of pure water, 
 2 drachms of spirits of pimento, and 12 drops of 
 tincture of opium. This draught is to be taken 
 three times a day. 
 
 Another. Mix together 10 grains of bicarbon- 
 ate of soda, 1 fluidrachm of compound tincture 
 of cardamom, 20 drops of paregoric, and a table- 
 spoonful of water. Take this occasionally. 
 For Heartburn, attended by Costivenest. 
 
 In this case, gentle laxatives, combined with car- 
 minatives, are to be administered, until the cause 
 is entirely removed. Take of confection of senna, 
 2 ounces; jalap, in powder, 2 drachms: compound 
 powder of cinnamon, 20 grains ; cream of tartar, 1 
 drachm, and syrup of ginger as much as will form 
 an electuary; of which the bulk of a walnut is to 
 be taken every night on going to bed. 
 
162 
 
 MEDICINE. 
 
 DIARRHCEA, GOUT, RHEUMATISM, ETC. 
 To check Diarrhoea, or Looseness. 
 
 Take of the soft extract of bark, 15 grains ; puri- 
 fied alum, in powder, 5 grains; tincture of opium, 
 6 drops. Make into a bolus, to be taken three 
 times a day, in half a glass of red wine. 
 Another Method. 
 
 Take of tincture of opium, 15 drops; chalk mix- 
 ture, 6 ounces; cinnamon water, 1 ounce. Make 
 into a mixture, of which take a large tablespoon- 
 ful every six hours. 
 
 Another. Take of powder of rhubarb, 10 grains ; 
 powder of chalk, with opium, 1 scruple ; powder 
 of chalk without opium, 1 drachm. Make into 
 four pnpers, of which take one night and morning. 
 
 Another. Take of tincture of opium, 20 drops; 
 chalk mixture, 4 ounces; tincture of cinnamon, 
 Bounce; cinnamon water, 2 ounces. Make a mix- 
 ture, of which take two tablespoonsful after every 
 liquid motion. Given in diarrhoea, and the loose- 
 ness often attendant upon consumption. 
 Treatment of Obstinate Diarrhoea. 
 
 Take of tannin, 1 drachm; opium, 10 grains. 
 Divide into 20 pills, one to be taken three or four 
 times a day. This is excellent in obstinate diar- 
 rhoea, first evacuating with rhubarb and columbo, 
 equal parts, 3 grains every four hours. 
 Anodyne Clyster. 
 
 Take of tincture of opium, drachm ; decoc- 
 tion of barley, 8 ounces. Make a clyster, to be 
 thrown up directly, to stop diarrhoea and remove 
 
 Opiate Enema. 
 Take of milk of assafoetida, 8 ounces; tincture 
 of opium, i drnchm. To be injected as a clyster 
 at bed-time. This is useful in disorders of the 
 anus, which induce insufferable pain. 
 
 Remedy for Piles. 
 
 Take of galls, in powder, 2 drachms ; hogs' lard, 
 an ounce. Make into an ointment, to be applied 
 by means of lint to the external piles, or even 
 pressed somewhat up the fundament every night. 
 This has done wonders in the piles, taking, at the 
 same time, the following: Take of quassia, in rasp- 
 ings, 2 drachms; boiling water, 1 pint. Let it re- 
 main three hours, strain ; to 7 ounces of the strained 
 liquor, add aromatic confection, 1 drachm ; ginger, 
 in powder, 2 scruples. Take of this mixture, two 
 tablespoonsful at twelve and seven every day. 
 Pills for Rheumatism. 
 
 Take of guaiacum (gum resin) in powder, soap, 
 equal parts, 1 drachm; essential oil of juniper 
 berry, 4 drops. Make into 28 pills ; take two four 
 times a day. This is an admirable remedy. 
 Ointment for the same. 
 
 In America, an ointment of stramonium, made 
 by gently boiling 6 ounces of the recent leaves 
 (bruised) in a pound and a half of fresh hog's lard, 
 till they become crisp, is in high repute as a remedy 
 for this disease. The size of a nutmeg, Dr. Turner, 
 of Philadelphia, has found to remove rheumatic 
 pains, after electricity and powerful liniments, 
 with internal remedies, had totally failed ; and Dr. 
 Zollickoffer says, that he has known the stramo- 
 mium ointment to succeed in cases of rheumatism, 
 after the internal exhibition of the tincture of stra- 
 monium had failed. For internal use he prefers 
 n tincture of the leaves (made in the proportion of 
 an ounce and a half of the dried leaves to a pint 
 of proof spirit) to the extract. 
 
 Draught for Lumbago and Sciatica. 
 
 At a meeting of the Medical Society of London, 
 oil of turpentine was strongly recommended, as 
 
 being almost a panacea for acute rheumatism, ct<v 
 The formula in which it was administered is as 
 follows : Oil of turpentine, 20 drops ; decoction 
 of bark, 1 ounces. To be taken ever^ four hours. 
 The use of the lancet and purgatives were gene- 
 rally premised. No sensible operation ensued 
 from the medicine ; but the patients were quickly 
 relieved of the complaint. 
 
 Rheumatic Pains in the Face. 
 
 M. Double has administered the sulphate of 
 quinia in several cases of acute pains in the 
 face, approaching to tic doloureux, with complete 
 success. He advises it to be given in the dose of 
 6 grains, dissolved in camphorated jalap, three 
 times a day. This dose, however, is large. 
 Friction, Compression, and Percussion. 
 
 Not only rheumatism, but the cramp and gout, 
 which bear affinity to each other, have long been 
 greatly relieved by friction, wherever it was bear- 
 able, but some cures were performed upon patients 
 slightly attacked, by pertinaciously rubbing the 
 parts day after day; to this method of obtaining 
 relief, Dr. Balfour has recently added those of 
 compression and percussion, with complete suc- 
 cess. Percussion at the sole of the foot relieves 
 pain there and higher up the limb, and compres- 
 sion affords a certain degree of ease. Compression, 
 alone upon the tendon of the heel (grasping by 
 the warm hand between the finger and thumb), is 
 sure to afford relief, as long as the pressure is con- 
 tinued, at least so far as the knee. A bandage 
 round the thigh gives instant relief to that part of 
 the member; grasping, or repeated pinchings, 
 leave the patient in comparative ease. Percus- 
 sion, by the patient himself, with his crutch, upon 
 the spot most affected, is very beneficial. Dr. 
 Balfour "pummels" the same part daily, until the 
 cure is effected. 
 
 Tremor, caused by lifting up the limb, is always 
 to be checked by passing a bandage round the 
 ancle; and the reason assigned for this whole 
 series of remedies is the excitement of certain 
 nerves to action, or arresting that of others. This 
 practice is by no means a novelty; it has long 
 been employed by the negroes upon their Euro- 
 pean masters, by whom it is termed " shampooing." 
 
 Remedy for the Gout. 
 
 Wine of colchicurn root, 15 drops; carbonate of 
 potassa, 15 grains, in a tablespoonful of water, 
 thrice daily. 
 
 Another. Take of rhubarb, powdered, guaiac 
 gum, nitrate of potass, flowers of sulphur, each, 1 
 ounce; treacle, 1 pound. Mix well together. 
 From one to two teaspoonsful (according to its 
 aperient effects) to be taken every night, with a 
 little warm gin and water. 
 
 The Chelsea Pensioner's remedy for Gout and 
 Rheumatism. 
 
 Gum guaiacum, 2 drachms ; rhubarb, pulverized, 
 i drachm ; flowers of sulphur, J ounce; cream of 
 tartar, 2 drachms; nutmeg, or ginger powder, 
 drachm. Made an electuary with treucle, and 
 two teaspoonsful taken night and morning. 
 
 CHOLERA. 
 
 History. 
 
 This disease, sometimes confounded with cholera 
 morbus, is an epidemic ; that is, it occurs at certain 
 times, and moves from place to place; some part* 
 of the world never having been visited by it. It 
 prevails especially in cities; and follows the routes 
 of travel, from India, where it is an annual scourge, 
 westward across the globe, once in a number of 
 
CHOLERA, ETC. 
 
 163 
 
 years. It is not contagious from person to person, 
 but is always propagated by human or other ani- 
 inal filth, in the air or water. An absolutely clean 
 and pure locality will always be free from cholera* 
 Symptoms. 
 
 After watery diarrhoea, generally, of a few 
 hours' duration, vomiting begins, of a clear color- 
 less fluid ; which, as well as the copious passages 
 from the bowels, resembles rice-water. There is, 
 also, coldness of the skin, which gradually in- 
 creases ; with cramps, thirst, great feebleness of 
 the pulse, and general prostration, deepening into 
 collapse. In this last condition the patient is blue 
 all over, with the skin shrunken, and the pulse at 
 the wrist imperceptible; sometimes the breath is 
 cold. Few recover from this state. 
 Treatment. 
 
 Medical men vary infinitely in their mode of 
 management of this disease; as no specific remedy 
 for it has been discovered. Considerable experi- 
 ence with it, in 1849, 1850, and 1854, enables the 
 writer of this article to express a confident opinion 
 in favor of the following mode of practice; by 
 which, although it cannot be claimed to be infalli- 
 ble, ke believes that he has saved a number of lives. 
 
 Apply a large mustard-plaster over the abdo- 
 men, and another on the back. Rub the limbs 
 well with brandy mixed with Cayenne pepper. 
 If the cramps continue, substitute for the mus- 
 tard-plaster over the abdomen, a poultice of hops 
 steeped in hot-water. Let the patient have, very 
 frequently, small pieces of ice to dissolve in the 
 mouth; and, every Jive minutes, a dose of the fol- 
 lowing anodyne and cordial tincture: 
 
 Take of aromatic spirits of ammonia, laudanum, 
 chloroform, and spirits of camphor, each, 1 fl. 
 drs. ; creasote, 8 drops; oil of cinnamon, 2 drops; 
 alcohol, enough to make 1 oz. of the tincture. 
 
 Put 1 teaspoonful of this into a winegla^sful of 
 ice-water, and give 1 teaspoonful of the solution 
 every five minutes until the patient decidedly im- 
 proves ; then lengthen the intervals by degrees 
 till the symptoms all abate. 
 
 It is important to know that epidemic cholera is 
 not a disease of the bowels or stomach particu- 
 larly, but of the whole system. In this it differs 
 from common cholera rnorbus. When an epi- 
 demic of cholera is prevailing, it is not well to 
 live on a thin or weak diet, of rice, etc., as this 
 "will not promote immunity from the disease. 
 Neither is it prudent to indulge at such a time in 
 spirituous or other stimulants, as intemperance 
 increases the danger. The true plan is, to live 
 regularly, according to one's usual habits and 
 needs, so as to keep the system steadily up to par 
 in every way, without excess or reduction. 
 
 Another important fact is, that the diarrhoea, 
 which commonly, though not invariably, precedes 
 an attack of cholera, may be checked often by 
 very mild means. During a cholera epidemic no 
 one should neglect even a slight looseness of the 
 bowels. Paregoric, in doses varying from 20 drops 
 to 1 dr., at intervals, according to the case, will 
 usually be suitable ; or the following mixture, used 
 much in Turkey, will be found serviceable: tinc- 
 ture of opii, camphor, and rhubarb, each 2 fluid- 
 drs. Dose, 18 to 20 drops every two hours in a 
 little sugar-water. But medical advice should be 
 early obtained. 
 
 FUMIGATION AND VENTILATION. 
 To Purify the Air in Halls, Hospitals, etc. 
 Dr. Van Marum has discovered a very simple 
 method, proved by repeated experiments, of pre- 
 serving the air pure in large halls, theatres, hospi- 
 tals, etc. The apparatus for this purpose is nothing 
 
 but a common lamp, made according to Argand'g 
 construction, suspended from the roof of the hall, 
 and kept burning under a funnel, the tube of which 
 rises above the roof without, and is furnished with 
 a ventilator. For his first experiment he filled hig 
 large laboratory with the smoke of oak shavings. 
 In a few minutes after he lighted his lamp, the 
 whole smoke disappeared, and the air was perfectly 
 purified. 
 
 Simple mode of Ventilation. 
 Ships' holds are well ventilated when there is 
 wind, by means of a sail, rigged out from the deck 
 to below, like a funnel, whose largest orifice points 
 to leeward. But in some situations, as prisons, 
 where foul air stagnates, this method cannot be 
 adopted. Therefore, the plan has been adopted 
 of making two holes in the side of the building or 
 ship, communicating with the open air by a tin 
 tube. Two pair of bellows are fitted up, the nozzle 
 of one being introduced air-tight into one of the 
 tin tubes, and a leathern pipe nailed on the wall, 
 over the other tube, to which it may be fastened 
 by wax thread. The other end of this pipe is to 
 be made fast to the clicker-hole of the second pair 
 of bellows; a luting of plaster of Paris, rendering 
 both ends air-tight. A common blacksmith's 
 forge-bellows will thus empty a space containing 
 thirty hogsheads of foul air, and supply its place 
 with good fresh air in a very few minutes. 
 
 Air- Pipes for Ventilating Ships, etc. 
 Air-pipes are used for drawing foul air out of 
 ships, or other close places, by means of fire. One 
 extremity is placed in a hole in the side of a fur- 
 nace (closed in every part excepting the outlet for 
 the smoke) ; the other in the place which it is de- 
 signed to purify. .The rarefaction produced by 
 the fire, causes a current of air to be determined 
 to it, and the only means by which the air can 
 arrive at the fire being through the pipe, a quick 
 circulation in the place where the extremity of the 
 pipe may be situated, is consequently produced. 
 
 The Air Trunk. 
 
 This apparatus was contrived by Dr. Hales, to 
 prevent the stagnation of putrid effluvia in jails 
 and other places, where a great number of people 
 are crowded together. It consists merely of an 
 oblong trunk open at both ends, one of which is 
 inserted into the ceiling of the room, the air of 
 which is to be kept pure : and the other extends a 
 good way beyond the roof. Through this trunk 
 a continued circulation is carried on ; and the rea- 
 son why vapors of this kind ascend more swiftly 
 through a long trunk th'-m a short one is, that 
 the pressure of fluids is always according to their 
 different depths, without regard to the diameter 
 of their basis, or of the vessel that contains them. 
 When the column of putrid effluvia is long and 
 narrow, the difference between the column of at- 
 mosphere pressing on the upper end of the trunk, 
 and that which presses on the lower end, is much 
 greater than if the column of putrid effluvia was 
 short and wide; and consequently the ascect is 
 much swifter. One pan of a single pair of scales, 
 which was two inches in diameter, being held 
 within one of these trunks over the House of Com- 
 mons, the force of the ascending air made it rise 
 so as to require four grains to restore the equilib- 
 rium, and this when there was no person in the 
 house; but when it was full, no less than twelve 
 grains were requisite to restore the equilibrium; 
 hich clearly shows that these trunks must be 
 of real and very great efficacy. 
 
 German Method of Cooling and Purifying the Air 
 
 in Summer. 
 In the hot days of summer, especially in house! 
 
 * "The discharge* of cholera patient* contain the generative principle of cholera." .European Cholera Conference, Constantinople. 
 May 21, 1866. Hence utennil* and waier-cloieti used by cholera patieaU ihould be carefully scalded, or disinfected with chloride ni lim* 
 or cnppera*. See 7 
 
 Index for Disiufectants. 
 
164 
 
 MEDICINE. 
 
 exposed to the meridian sun, a capacious vessel 
 filled with cold water is placed in the middle of a 
 room, and a few green branches (or as many as it 
 will hold) of lime, birch, or willow-tree, are plunged 
 with the lower ends into the fluid. By this easy 
 expedient the apartment is, in a short time, ren- 
 dered much cooler ; the evaporation of the water 
 producing this desirable effect in sultry weather 
 without any detriment to health. Besides, the 
 exhalation of green plants, under the influence of 
 the solar rays, greatly tends to purify the air; but 
 care must be taken that they do not remain in the 
 apartment after night-fall, or in the shade. 
 Ta Fumigate Font Rooms. 
 
 To one tablespoonful of common salt, and a little 
 peroxide of manganese, in a glass cup, add four 
 or five different times, a quarter of a wine-glass 
 of strong sulphuric acid. Place the cup on the floor 
 and go out, taking care to shut the door. The 
 vapor will come in contact with the malignant 
 miasma and destroy it. Prepared chloride of 
 lime will do as well. 
 
 Caution in Visiting Sick Rooms. 
 
 Never venture into a sick room in a violent per- 
 spiration (if circumstances require a continuance 
 there for any time), for the moment the body be- 
 comes cold it is in a state likely to absorb the in- 
 fection and receive the disease. Nor visit a sick 
 person (especially if the complaint be of a conta- 
 gious nature) with an empty stomach, as this dis- 
 poses the system more readily to receive the infec- 
 tion. In attending a sick person, stand where the 
 air passes from the door or window to the bed of 
 the diseased, not betwixt the diseased person and 
 any fire that is in the room, as the heat of the fire 
 will draw the infectious vapor in that direction, and 
 danger would occasionally arise from breathing 
 in it. 
 
 Fumigating Powder. 
 
 Take of cascarilla reduced to a coarse powder, 
 chamomile flowers, aniseed, each equal parts, two 
 ounces. Put some hot cinders in a shovel, sprinkle 
 this gradually on it, and fumigate the chambers 
 of the sick. It takes away all smell, and keeps off 
 infection. 
 
 Disinfecting Liquid. 
 
 Make a strong solution either of nitrate or ace- 
 tate of lead ; and sprinkle with it the floor and 
 walls of a foul apartment. The first of the above 
 is Ledoyen's liquid. 
 
 Preparation of Acetic Acid. 
 
 Put 4 ounces of acetate of lead, in powder, into 
 a tubulated glass retort, and pour over it 4 ounces 
 of sulphuric acid. Place the retort in a sand-bath, 
 the heat of which should be kept as uniform as 
 possible. Adapt a common receiver, over which 
 there must be constantly kept a piece of wet flan- 
 nel or cotton for the condensation of the gas as it 
 comes over. Sometimes sulphurous acid gas will 
 be found to adulterate the acetic acid; this is easily 
 known by the suffocating odor which it emits. 
 The best way to prevent this is by a slow distilla- 
 tion ; or the whole may be distilled a second time. 
 The acetic acid possesses a very pungent odor, 
 owing to its volatility; consequently it should be 
 kept in a well stopped phial. It is used as the 
 basis of all the aromatic vinegars. 
 
 Aromatic Vinegar. 
 
 Acetic acid may be mixed with camphor and 
 aroma tics, as in Henry's Aromatic Vinegar, in a 
 quantity sufficient for a small smelling bottle, at 
 no great expense. But it is the acetic acid which 
 is useful in preventing infection, and not the aro- 
 matics, which are added for the pleasure of the 
 perfume. 
 
 Cheap Aromatic Vinegar for Pitn -vlng large 
 Buildings, Manufactories, tec. 
 
 Take of common vinegar any quantity; mix 
 powdered chalk or common whiting with it, as 
 long as bubbles of carbonic acid gas arise. Let 
 the white matter subside, and pour off the insipid 
 supernatant liquor; afterwards let the white pow- 
 der be dried either in the open air or by a fire. 
 When dry pour upon it, in a glass or stone vessel, 
 sulphuric acid as long as white acid fumes con- 
 tinue to ascend. This product is similar to the 
 acetic acid known in the shops by the name of 
 Aromatic Vinegar. The simr- i: - :i ~ p Al --'~ - 
 
 points it out as a very useful and convenient one 
 for purifying prisons, hospital ships, and houses 
 where contagion is presumed or suspected, the 
 white acid fumes diffusing themselves quickly 
 around. 
 
 To prevent and Destroy the Mephitism of Plastered 
 Walls. 
 
 Wherever a number of people are assembled, 
 either in health or sickness, the walls become in- 
 sensibly impregnated with infectious exhalations. 
 Currents of air, when admitted, sweep and cleanse 
 the atmosphere, but do not carry away the mias- 
 mata concealed in the porosity of the walls, which 
 retain the infectious humidity of the perspiration 
 of bodies, gradually condensing on their surface. 
 Quick-lime may be substituted to destroy such 
 mephitism of walls, and also to prevent the evil. 
 The most infected tans and sieves lose their smell 
 when mixed with the whiting or size of lime. 
 Lime enters whitewashing, and may become the 
 principal substance of it, by substituting it for 
 Spanish white. When made the principal ingre- 
 dient of whitewashing, it will prevent walls from 
 being impregnated with infectious miasmata. The 
 addition of milk and oil are requisite, for lime has 
 no adhesion on walls, nor can a body or substance 
 be given to the layer. The slightest rubbing with 
 a pencil brush will rub it off, and leave the wall 
 aaked. The cheesy part of the milk, with the ad- 
 dition of oil, which makes a soapy body with lime, 
 form, after the evaporation of the humidity, a 
 dense coherent layer, or sort of varnished plaster, 
 which overcomes the porosity of stone, plaster, 
 brick, and wood. This wash has another advan- 
 tage, that of checking the nitrification of walls, 
 which the painting of them in water colors has a 
 tendency to accelerate. 
 
 To deodorize Privies. 
 
 Chloride of lime (bleaching powder) will effect 
 
 this. So will chloride of zinc, or sulphate of iron. 
 
 The first is the most convenient, although the last 
 
 is also used, with fifteen times its weight of water 
 
 Ridgewood's Disinfectant. 
 
 In 100 parts, use of carbolic acid 5 to 8 per 
 cent. ; lime from magnesia limestone, 5 per cent. ; 
 fuller's earth, 70 to 80 per cent. ; with a little sul- 
 phate of potash and sulphate of soda. 
 To disinfect Letters. 
 
 A common method of disinfecting letters, and 
 other articles coming from places that are sup- 
 posed to be visited by the plague, is to expose 
 them to the fumes of b..uing sulphur, mixed with 
 saltpetre. A high temperature, short of combus- 
 tion, will answer the same purpose. 
 
 CAUTIONS TO GLAZIERS. PAINTERS, AND 
 
 PLUMBERS. 
 
 The following medical cautions were recom- 
 mended by the physicians and surgeons of the 
 Bath Hospital, to those who have received benefit 
 by the use of the Bath waters, in cases where the 
 poison of lead is concerned, as plumbers, glaziers, 
 
DISEASES OF FEMALES. 
 
 165 
 
 painters, and other artificers, who work in trades 
 which expose them to similar hazards from the 
 game cause; to be observed by them at their re- 
 turn to the exercise of their former occupation. 
 
 1. To maintain the strictest temperance, par- 
 ticularly respecting distilled spirits, which had 
 better be altogether forborne. 
 
 2. To pay the strictest attention to cleanliness; 
 and never suffer paint to remain upon their 
 hands; and particularly never to eat their meals, 
 or go to rest, without washing their hands and face 
 with soap, perfectly clean. 
 
 3. Not to eat or drink in the room or place 
 wherein they work ; and much less to suffer any 
 food or drink to remain unused, even for the 
 shortest space of time, in any part of a room while 
 painting, or where color stands; and not to work 
 on an empty stomach. 
 
 4. As the clothes of persons in this line (paint- 
 ers, particularly) are generally much soiled with 
 color, it is recommended for them to perform 
 their work in frocks of ticking, which may be 
 frequently washed, and conveniently laid aside 
 when the workmen go to their meals, and again 
 put on when they resume their work. 
 
 5. Every business which can, in these branches, 
 should be performed with gloves on their hands. 
 Painters, in performing clean light work, would 
 find gloves an inconvenience; but to avoid the 
 evil here mentioned, the handle of the brush 
 should be often scraped. Woollen or worsted 
 gloves are recommended, as they may and should 
 be often washed, after being soiled with the paint, 
 or even with much rubbing against the metal. 
 
 6. Caution is necessary, in mixing, or even in 
 unpacking, the dry colors, that the fine powder do 
 not get into their mouths, or be drawn in by the 
 breath. A crape covering over the face might be 
 of service; but care should be taken to turn al- 
 vays the same side of the crape towards the face, 
 and to clean or wash it frequently. 
 
 7. All artificers should avoid touching lead 
 when hot ; and this caution is especially necessary 
 for printers or compositors, who have often lost 
 the use of their limbs by handling the types when 
 drying by the fire, after being washed. 
 
 8. Glaziers' putty should never be made or 
 moulded by the hand. An iron pestle and mortar 
 would work the ingredients together, at least 
 equally as well, and without hazard. It is neces- 
 sary in working putty to handle it, nor is it 
 usually pernicious. Cleanliness is therefore the 
 best recommendation. 
 
 9. If any persons, in any of the above employ- 
 ments, should feel pain in. the bowels, with cos- 
 tiveness, they should immediately take 20 drops 
 of laudanum, and when the pain is abated 2 
 tablespoonsful of castor oil, or ^ an ounce of Ep- 
 som salts, dissolved in warm charnomile tea. If 
 this does not succeed, a pint or two pints of warm 
 soapsuds should be thrown up as a clyster. 
 
 10. As a preventive, ten or fifteen drops of 
 aromatic sulphuric acid (elixir of vitriol), is likely 
 to be of service, if taken daily. 
 
 DISEASES PECULIAR TO FEMALES. 
 Hysteric Fits. 
 
 This complaint, called also the hysteric passion, 
 appears under various shapes, and is often owing 
 to a lax, tender habit, obstruction of the menses, 
 fluor albus, etc. 
 
 In the fit the patient is seized with an oppres- 
 sion in the breast, and difficult respiration, accom- 
 panied with a sensation of something like a ball 
 ascending into the throat, which puts her under 
 
 great apprehensions of being suffocated. There 
 is a loss of speech, and generally violent convul- 
 sive motions. These, with a train of hypochon- 
 driac symptoms, are sufficient to determine the 
 disease; to which may be added frequent laugh- 
 ing and crying, and various wild, irregular ac- 
 tions : after which a general soreness all over the 
 body is felt; the spirits are low; the feet are cold. 
 The urine is clear and limpid, and discharged in 
 great quantity. The hysteric fit may be easily 
 distinguished from fainting; for in this the pulse 
 and respiration are entirely stopped ; in that they 
 are both perceivable. 
 
 Cure and Prevention. 
 
 Nothing recovers a person sooner out of the 
 hysteric fit than putting the feet and legs in warm 
 water. 
 
 When low spirits proceed from a suppression 
 of the piles or the menses, these evacuations must 
 be encouraged, or repeated cuppings substituted. 
 When they take their origin from long-continued 
 grief, anxious thoughts, or other distresses of 
 mind, nothing has done more service, in these 
 cases, than agreeable company, daily exercise, 
 and especially long journeys, and a variety of 
 amusements. 
 
 Regimen. A light animal food, red wine, 
 cheerful company, and a good clear air, with 
 moderate exercise, are of great importance in this 
 disorder. Drinking tea, and such like tepid re- 
 laxing fluids, should be but moderately indulged in. 
 
 The cure consists in whatever tends to strength- 
 en the solids, and the whole habit in general; and 
 nothing will effect this more successfully than a 
 long-continued use of the mineral chalybeate wa- 
 ters, and riding on horseback. Assaf'oetida pills, 
 3 grains each, are often temporarily useful. 
 
 Anti-hysteric Spirits. 
 
 Take of proof spirit, 1 pint; sal ammoniac, 2 
 ounces; assafoetida, 6 drachms: potash, 3 ounces. 
 Mix them, and draw off, by distillation, 1 pint, 
 with a slow fire. 
 
 The spirit is pale when newly distilled, but ac- 
 quires a considerable tinge by keeping. The dose 
 is a teaspoonful, in some water, during hysterics, 
 and the same to be taken occasionally. 
 Anti -hysteric Pills. 
 
 Take of compound pills of galbanum, 2 drachms; 
 rust of iron, 4 scruples; syrup of ginger, as much 
 as is sufficient. Form a mass, which is to be mad'.' 
 into 40 pills, of which take 4 at noon and at seven 
 in the evening every day, drinking after them 
 half a glass of port wine. These pills are good 
 in hysteric affections. 
 
 Feet id Enema. 
 
 This is made by adding to the ingredients of 
 the common clyster 2 drachms of the tincture of 
 assafoetida. 
 
 In cases of hysterics and convulsions, the foetid 
 enema is of singular use. 
 
 Opiate Draught. 
 
 Mix together cinnamon water, 1 ounce ; spirit 
 of caraways, i an ounce; sulphuric ether, a 
 drachrn; tincture of castor, i a drachm. Let this 
 draught be taken every six hours, if the stomach 
 should be affected by cramp. If the feet are cold, 
 bottles filled with warm water should be applied 
 to them. 
 
 Tonic for Debility in Females. 
 
 Take of soft extract of bark, 2 drachms; co- 
 lumbo and rust of iron, each 1 drachm; simple 
 syrup, as much as is sufficient. Make into fifty 
 pills; tnke two, and gradually increase to five, 
 three times a day. 
 
166 
 
 MEDICINE. 
 
 Compound Galbanum Pills. 
 
 Take of galbanum, myrrh, sagapenum, each 1 
 ounce; assafoetida, i an ounce; syrup of saffron, 
 as much as is sufficient. Beat them together. 
 These pills are excellent as anti-hysterics and em- 
 menagogues: from five grains to half a scruple 
 may be taken every night, or oftener. 
 
 Compound Spirit of Lavender. 
 
 Take of spirit of lavender, 3 pounds; spirit of 
 rosemary, 1 pound ; cinnamon, | an ounce : nut- 
 meg, the same ; red sanders, 3 drachms. Digest 
 for ten days and then strain off. This is often 
 taken upon sugar, and is a salutary cordial, far 
 preferable to drams, which are too often had re- 
 course to by persons feeling a great sinking or 
 depression of the spirits. 
 
 Infusion of Senna, with Tamarinds. 
 
 Add to the infusion of senna, before it is 
 strained, an ounce of tamarinds; then strain. 
 This forms a mild and useful purge, excellently 
 suited for delicate stomachs and inflammatory 
 diseases. The taste of the senna is well covered 
 by the aromatic sugar, and by the acidity of the 
 tamarinds. An ounce is a convenient purge. 
 Mild Purgative. 
 
 Take of manna, 2 ounces; tamarinds, 1 ounce; 
 rose-water, 1 ounce. Boil the rose-water and tam- 
 arinds together for a quarter of an hour, then add 
 the manna. Three tablespoonfuls to be taken 
 every three hours, until a motion is obtained. 
 Less is to be given to a child. 
 
 Fluor Albus, or Whites. 
 
 The fluor albus is a flux of thin matter, of a pel- 
 lucid or white color; sometimes it is greenish or 
 yellow, sharp and corroding, often foul and foetid, 
 especially if it be of any long standing. 
 
 Tedious labors, frequent miscarriages, immod- 
 erate flowings of the menses, profuse evacuations, 
 poor diet, an inactive and sedentary life, are the 
 causes which generally produce this disease. 
 
 Regimen, etc. The diet should be nourishing: 
 milk, jellies, sago, broths and light meats, red port 
 wine in moderation, chalybeate waters, moderate 
 exercise, and frequent ablution of the parts should 
 be recommended. A standing posture of body 
 long continued, violent dancing, or much walk- 
 ing, must be forbidden. 
 
 AH triii gent Injection. 
 
 To restore tone to the parts, it will be necessary 
 three or four times a day to inject a portion of 
 the following mixture by means of a syringe: 
 
 Rub together in a mortar white vitriol, 1 drachm ; 
 sugar of lead, 10 grains; water, 2 drachms. Mix 
 the whole with a pint of distilled water. 
 
 Another. Mix together 1 drachm of powdered 
 alum with 1 pint of decoction of oak-bark. Inject 
 as above. 
 
 Tonic and Astringent Pills. 
 
 Take of gum kino, and extract of Peruvian 
 bark, each, 1 drachm; grated nutmeg, 1 scruple; 
 powdered alum, drachm; syrup, in sufficiency to 
 form a mass, which is to be divided into 36 pills. 
 Three of these are to be taken at eleven, forenoon, 
 and five in the afternoon ; being taken two hours 
 before dinner, three hours afterwards washed down 
 by a glassful of good port wine. Recourse may, 
 at the same time, be had to tincture of Peruvian 
 bark, to preparations of steel, and mineral waters. 
 
 Prevention. Females afflicted with this disor- 
 der should by no means indulge in the too free use 
 of tea, or other warm slops of a relaxing nature. 
 They should sleep on a mattress, rise early, and 
 take such exercise as may be convenient, and, if 
 possible, on horseback. Cold bathing should also 
 be used as often as convenient. In white* a flan- 
 nel shift ought to be worn. 
 
 Immoderate Flow of the Menses. 
 
 When the menses continue too long, or come on 
 too frequently for the strength of the patient, they 
 are said to be immoderate, and are generally oc. 
 casioned by weak vessels, thin blood, or a pie- 
 thoric habit. This often happens in delicate 
 women, who use enervating liquids too freely, 
 especially tea. It also arises in consequence of 
 abortion, and sometimes attends women who arf 
 obliged to work hard. 
 
 Where the haemorrhage is excessive, opiates are 
 of great use. Tincture of the chloride of iron 
 may be given, 20 drops three times daily in water. 
 
 Astringent fomentations. 
 
 Astringent fomentations may often be very pro- 
 perly prescribed. Cloths dipped in decoction of 
 oak or Peruvian bark, with the addition of a 
 small quantity of brandy, or red wine and vine- 
 gar, will answer the purpose extremely well. 
 Astringent Injection. 
 
 Where the haemorrhage is profuse, and resists 
 the usual means now recommended, it will be ne- 
 cessary to throw up the following astringent in- 
 jection into the uterus from time to time. Take 
 of decoction of bark, 1 pint; alum, in powder, 3 
 drachms. Mix, and use as an injection, three 
 times if necessary. 
 
 Regimen, etc. To confirm the cure, and pre- 
 vent a relapse, the body should be strengthened 
 by proper exercise, mineral waters, a light but 
 nourishing diet; such as light broths, red port 
 wine in moderation, and an easy cheerful mind. 
 
 When an immoderate flux of the menses, or 
 floodings after abortion, is either attended with or 
 preceded by acute pain, not inflammatory, in the 
 lower part of the back or belly, and returns with 
 greater violence, as the discharge comes on, opium 
 will, in such a case, answer better than astrin- 
 gents, and may be given in clysters, composed of 
 water or 3 ounces of infusion of roses, with i a 
 drachm of laudanum. 
 
 Green Sickness. 
 
 This disease is commonly attended with listless- 
 ness to motion, a heaviness, paleness of complex- 
 ion, and pain in the back and loins, also haemor- 
 rhages at the nose, pains in the head, with a great 
 sense of weight across the eyes, loathing of food, 
 a quick and weak pulse, fluor albus, hectic heats, 
 coughs, and hysteric fits. 
 
 There is often indigestion and costiveness, with 
 a preternatural appetite for chalk, lime and other 
 absorbents. 
 
 Regimen, etc. The diet ought to be nutritive 
 and generous, with a moderate use of wine. Ex- 
 ercise ought also to be daily used, and particu- 
 larly on horseback. The mind should likewise 
 be kept amused by associating with agreeable 
 company. 
 
 " Chalybeate Pills. 
 
 Mix together extract of bark and sulphate of 
 iron (green vitriol), each 1 scruple; sub-carbonate 
 of soda 15 grains; powdered myrrh 30 grains. 
 Add syrup of ginger to form the whole into a mass, 
 which divide into thirty-four pills. After the 
 stomach has been cleansed by a gentle emetic, 
 two of these are taken two or three times a day, 
 taking care to wash them down with nearly a 
 wineglassful of the following 
 
 Tonic Draught. 
 
 Mix together compound ttncture of Peruvian 
 bark and compound tincture of cardamoms, each 
 1 ounce ; compound infusion of gentian 1 pint. 
 
 Chalybeate Draught. 
 Pour fifteen drops of tincture of muriate of irofc 
 
DISEASES OF FEMALES. 
 
 167 
 
 into a glassful of cold water, or a decoction of 
 Peruvian bark. Drink this twice or thrice a day, 
 an hour before or two hours after eating, 
 
 Tincture of Iodine, 
 
 In many cases of green sickness, attended with 
 symptoms of approaching consumption, and also 
 in incipient phthisis, the saturated tincture of 
 iodine may be administered with great effect. 
 
 When taken internally it is very beneficial in 
 dispersing wen. Ten drops of the saturated tinc- 
 ture taken three times a day, may effectually re- 
 move the complaint in the course of five or six 
 weeks. The Lugol's Solution of Iodine will do as 
 well as the above for the same uses. Dose five or 
 six drops twice daily. 
 
 Cessation of the Menses. 
 
 The constitution undergoes a very considerable 
 change at the critical period when menstruation 
 ceases, and it often happens that chronic, and 
 sometimes fatal complaints arise, if care is not 
 taken when this natural discharge terminates. It 
 seldom stops all at once, but gradually ceases, 
 being irregular both as to quantity and time. 
 
 liey linen, etc. When the disappearance is sud- 
 den in females of a plethoric habit, malt liquors, 
 wine and animal food ought for a time to be ex- 
 cluded from their diet. They should likewise 
 avoid all liquors of a spirituous nature. Regular 
 exercise should be taken and the body constantly 
 kept open by the tincture of senna, Epsom salts, 
 or any other mild laxative medicine. 
 
 If giddiness and occasional pain in the head 
 affect the patient, or if there be a visible fulness 
 in the vessels, the application of leeches to the 
 temple will be found very beneficial, and if ulcers 
 should break out in the legs, etc., they ought by 
 no means to be healed up, unless a salutary drain 
 by means of an issue be established in some other 
 part. 
 
 Dropsy. 
 
 Dissolve an ounce of acetate of potassa in a 
 pint of cold water ; take a wineglassful every 
 morning and evening. 
 
 For Vomiting during Pregnancy* 
 
 The morning sickness is one of the most pain- 
 ful feelings attendant on the pregnant state, and 
 it is one of those which medicine commonly fails 
 to relieve. A cup of chamomile or peppermint 
 tea taken when first waking, and suffering the pa- 
 tient to be still for an hour, will sometimes alle- 
 viate the distressing sickness, but should it recur 
 during the day these means seldom succeed. 
 
 Two or three teaspoonfuls of the following mix- 
 ture should then be taken, either occasionally or 
 when the vomiting and heartburn are more con- 
 tinual immediately after every meal: Take of cal- 
 cined magnesia 1 drachm ; distilled water 6 ounces ; 
 aromatic tincture of rhatany 6 drachms ; water, 
 pure ammonia, 1 drachm. Mix. 
 
 Another. Dr. Scellier extols the following mix- 
 ture as a remedy for nausea and vomiting during 
 the period of pregnancy: Take of lettuce-water 
 4 ounces; gum arabic 1 scruple; syrup of white 
 poppies, syrup of marsh-meadow root, each 2 
 ounces ; Prussic acid 4 drops. Let an apothecary 
 prepare the mixture. A tablespoon ful is to be 
 taken every half hour when the vomiting is 
 present. 
 
 If the lettuce-water cannot be obtained, 8 grains 
 of the inspissated white juice (lactuarium) dis- 
 solved in 4 ounces of water, may be substituted 
 for it. 
 
 Another. The saline mixture in a state of effer- 
 vescence, with a pill of one or two grains of lac- 
 
 tuarium, is by some preferred to the above com- 
 position. When the matter brought up is acid, a 
 weak solution of the carbonate of soda may be 
 substituted for the saline mixture. 
 
 To relieve Sickness and Qnalin* in Pregnancy. 
 
 Take of infusion of quassia, 1 ounce; cinnamon- 
 water, 4 drachms ; aromatic spirit of ammonia, 28 
 drops; prepared oyster-shells, 2 grains. To be 
 taken at a draught, at twelve and seven o'clock 
 every day. 
 
 For Heartburn during Pregnancy. 
 
 Take of solution of ammonia, calcined magne- 
 sia, each I drachm; cinnamon-water 2 ounces; 
 common water 6 ounces. The dose is a table- 
 spoonful as often as required. 
 Head-ache. 
 
 When head-ache or drowsiness proves trouble- 
 some to a pregnant woman of robust habit, a few 
 ounces of blood should be taken from the arm. 
 If she be of a weak or irritable habit, leeches 
 ought to be applied to the temples. In both cases 
 the bowels should be opened by magnesia, rhu- 
 barb, or some other gentle laxative medicine. 
 Hysteria. 
 
 When hysteria or fainting occurs, the pregnant 
 patient should be placed in a horizontal position 
 in the open air. When she is a little recovered a 
 glass of wine in a little cold water should be ad- 
 ministered, or what is perhaps better, a few drops 
 of the spirits of hartshorn in a glass of water. 
 Costiveness and Piles. 
 
 To prevent these, women in a pregnant state 
 should make frequent use of the following elec- 
 tuary : 
 
 Mix together in a, marble mortar 2 ounces of the 
 electuary of senna, a drachm of powder of jalap; 
 2 drachms of cream of tartar, and i an ounce of 
 syrup of roses. Half a teaspoonful to be taken 
 every night at bed-time, or oftener, as long as the 
 above complaints continue. 
 
 Pregnant women should be particularly careful 
 not to use aloes as a purgative, this medicine 
 being very apt to increase the piles. The same 
 caution is necessary with respect to Anderson's 
 and Scott's pills, the basis of both of which is 
 aloes. If the piles should prove so very trouble- 
 some as to prevent the patient from sitting com- 
 fortably, leeches ought to be applied to the part; 
 in all other cases simple ablution with cold water, 
 with the use of purgatives as above directed, will 
 be sufficient. 
 
 Troublesome Itchings. 
 
 Cooling laxatives are likewise proper in this 
 place ; also frequent ablution with cold or luke- 
 warm water. If the itching does not speedily 
 abate, a lotion is to be applied to the parts twice 
 a day, consisting of a drachm of sugar of lead in 
 a pint of distilled water. 
 
 Swelling of the Feet and AnTc.les. 
 
 Pregnant women are usually free from this com- 
 plaint in the morning, but suffer a good deal from 
 it towards night. 
 
 Prevention. In the commencement it will bo 
 merely requisite for the patient to use a footstool, 
 when sitting, so that her feet may never be in a 
 hanging position for any length of time. 
 
 liewedy. If there should be great distension, 
 so as to give the sensation of almost bursting, 
 slight scarification may be made with the edge of a 
 lancet; and flannels, wrung out of a hot fomenta- 
 tion of chamomile, are soon after to be applied. A 
 teaspoonful of cream of tartar mixed in water may 
 be taken once or twice daily, to act on the kidneys. 
 It is almost unnecessary to state that this com- 
 
168 
 
 MEDICINE. 
 
 plaint invariably disappears at the period of de- 
 livery. 
 
 Cramp of the Legs and Thighs. 
 
 This complaint may be speedily relieved by 
 rubbing the p :it affected with the following lini- 
 ment: Mix together (by shaking in a phial) laud- 
 anum, i an ounce; tincture of camphor, I ounce; 
 and sulphuric ether, an ounce. 
 
 Cramp in the Stomach. 
 
 This is to be avoided by proper attention to 
 diet, which should not be of a flatulent nature, or 
 too hard of digestion. Attention is likewise to be 
 paid to the state of the bowels. 
 
 Distention and Cracking of the Skin. 
 This is very apt to occur in the latter months 
 of gestation, accompanied sometimes with con- 
 siderable soreness. It is to be relieved by fre- 
 quent friction with warm oil. 
 
 Distention of Veins. 
 
 The veins of the legs, thighs, and belly are apt 
 to become enlarged in the latter stages of preg- 
 nancy. Although no bad consequences ever at- 
 tend this, it will be necessary sometimes to relieve 
 it by moderate bleeding, and by repeated small 
 doses of infusion of senna, mixed with Epsom 
 salts; at the same time using a spare diet. The 
 distended vein may frequently be relieved by the 
 application of a pretty tight bandage. 
 
 Incontinence of Urine. 
 
 This very uncomfortable complaint is to be re- ' 
 lieved by a frequent horizontal position, but can- 
 not be entirely remedied except by delivery. Strict 
 attention, however, ought to be paid to cleanli- 
 ness, and much comfort will be felt by the use of 
 a large sponge properly fastened. 
 
 Restlessness and Want of Steep. 
 
 In this case, cooling laxative medicines, as the 
 infusion of senna, with Epsom salts, ought fre- 
 quently to be used. If relief be not soon obtained, 
 small quantities of blood are to be taken from the 
 patient. Opiates ought seldom to be used, as they 
 tend sometimes to increase the febrile state of the 
 t>atient. 
 
 Convulsions. 
 
 "When a female is disposed to this complaint 
 from a plethoric habit, there will be great fullness 
 and giddiness in the head, in the latter months of 
 gestation ; also drowsiness, with a sensation of 
 weight in the forehead when she stoops, or bends 
 forward, accompanied sometimes by imperfect 
 vision, and the appearance of atoms floating before 
 the eyes. In such a case, ten or twelve ounces of 
 blood ought to be taken from the arm, and the 
 bowels are afterwards to be kept open by frequent 
 and small doses of infusion of senna, mixed with 
 cream of tartar, until the above symptoms entirely 
 disappear. Wine, spirituous and malt liquors, and 
 solid or animal food are likewise to be avoided. 
 
 When convulsions have occurred, and when 
 there is reason to believe that they are owing to 
 irritation, rather than plethora, it will likewise Joe 
 necessary to bleed the patient in a small degree, 
 both from the arm. and by the application of 
 leches to the temples. The bowels are also to be 
 kept perfectly open, and a common clyster, con- 
 taining from half a drachm to a drachm of lauda- 
 num, is to be administered. The warm bath is 
 likewise exceedingly useful ; at the same time 
 taking care to strengthen the habit as much as 
 possible. 
 
 The Milk Fever. 
 
 This fever generally arises about the third or 
 fourth day after delivery. The symptoms are 
 
 pain and distention of the breasts, shooting fre- 
 quently towards the arm-pit. Sometimes th 
 breasts become hard, hot, and inflamed. It gene- 
 rally continues a day or two, and ends sponta- 
 neously by copious sweats, or a large quantity of 
 pale urine. 
 
 Remedies. If it should prove violent, especially 
 in young women of a plethoric constitution, we 
 should abate the inflammation by bleeding; this, 
 however, is rarely necessary. But, in every con- 
 stitution, the body must be kept open by gentle 
 cooling laxatives, or clysters. The breasts should 
 be often drawn either by the child, or, if the mother 
 does not design to give suck, by some proper per- 
 son. If the breasts are hard, very turgid, or in- 
 flamed, emollient fomentations ought to be ap- 
 plied to them. The common poultice of bread 
 and milk, with the addition of a little oil, may ba 
 used on this occasion; and warm milk, or a de- 
 coction of elder flowers, for a fomentation. 
 
 Reyimen. The patient should use a simple diet, 
 consisting only of panada, or some other farina- 
 ceous substances. Her drink may be barley-water, 
 milk and water, gruel, or the like. 
 
 Inflamed Breasts. 
 
 When the breasts tumefy, and begin to be un- 
 easy, a few days after delivery, from the milk 
 stagnating, gentle diaphoretics and purgatives 
 are to be used, and camphorated spirits of wine is 
 to be applied, or warm cloths dipped in brandy, 
 are to be put to the arm-pits. Should pain with 
 inflammation come on, apply a poultice of bread, 
 milk and oil, and an emollient fomentation ; and 
 in case suppuration cannot be prevented, it must 
 be opened with a lancet. The ulcer is afterwards 
 to be treated according to the common rules for 
 disorders of that kind. 
 
 If there be only a hardness in the breast, from 
 coagulated milk., emollient cataplasms and fomen- 
 tations are to be used, likewise fresh linseed oil, 
 by way of liniment. 
 
 Sore Nipples. 
 
 Chapped or sore nipples are very frequent with 
 those who give suck. In this case the olive oil ia 
 a very proper application ; or fresh cream spread 
 upon fine linen ; or a solution of gum arabic in 
 water. Collodion, applied with a camel's hair 
 pencil, is the most effectual remedy. 
 
 It is almost needless to observe that, whatever 
 applications be made use of to the nipples, they 
 ought to be washed off before the child is permit- 
 ted to suck. This is not always necessary with 
 collodion. 
 
 Puerperal Fever. 
 
 Puerperal fever commonly begins with a rigor, 
 or chilliness, on the first, second, or third day 
 after delivery; followed by a violent pain and 
 soreness over the belly. There is much thirst; 
 pain in the head, chiefly in the forehead and parts 
 about the eyebrows; a flushing in the face; anx- 
 iety ; a hot, dry skin ; quick and weak pulse, 
 though sometimes it will resist the finger pretty 
 strongly; a shortness in breathing : high-colored 
 urine, and a suppression of the natural discharge. 
 Sometimes a vomiting and purging attend from 
 the first, but in general, in the beginning, the 
 belly is costive; however, when the disease proves 
 fatal, a diarrhoea generally supervenes, and the 
 stools at last become involuntary. 
 
 The cause of this fever has been commonly 
 ascribed either to a suppression of the natural 
 discharge, an inflammation in the womb, or a 
 retention of the milk. 
 
 Remedies. If the belly be costive, an emollient 
 opening clyster is to be administered; and, if 
 
DISEASES OP CHILDREN. 
 
 169 
 
 stools and an abatement of the pain be not pro- 
 cured thereby, immediate recourse is to be had 
 to cathartics, and bleeding from the arm. Those 
 to be recommended are, infusion^of senna, or cas- 
 tor oil ; either in sufficient quantity. 
 
 After the intestinal canal is sufficiently cleared, 
 a gentle diaphoresis is to be encouraged by such 
 medicines as at the same time promote the relief 
 f pain. This intention is best answered by small 
 doses of ipecacuanha, tartar emetic, or antimo- 
 nial wine, combined with opium in pill or lauda- 
 num, and given about four times in the course of 
 the twenty- four hours. In the intermediate spaces 
 of time, interpose saline draughts. It is proper to 
 state, that when child-bed fever is epidemic, es- 
 pecially in cities or hospitals, it is more malig- 
 nant and prostrating, and will not bear reducing 
 treatment. 
 
 Reghnen. The patient's drink should consist of 
 pure water with toast in it; barley-water, either 
 by itself or with the addition of a little nitre ; 
 whey made with rennet or vinegar; milk and wa- 
 ter ; lemonade ; a slight infusion of malt ; and mint 
 or sage tea. 
 
 MANAGEMENT AND DISEASES OF 
 CHILDREN. 
 
 Infant Nursing. 
 
 A child, when it conies into the world, should 
 be laid (for the first month) upon a thin mattress 
 rather longer than itself, which the nurse may 
 sometimes keep upon her lap, that the child may 
 always lie straight, and only sit up as the nurse 
 slants the mattress. To set a child quite upright 
 before the end of the first month is hurtful. 
 Afterwards the nurse may begin to set it up and 
 dance it by degrees j and it must be kept as dry 
 as possible. 
 
 Friction. 
 
 The clothing should be very light, and not much 
 longer than the child, that the legs may be got at 
 with ease, in order to have them often rubbed in 
 the day with a warm hand or flannel, and in par- 
 ticular the inside of them. Rubbing a child all 
 over, takes off scurf, and makes the blood cir- 
 culate. 
 
 Rubbing the anklebones and inside of the knees 
 will strengthen those parts, and make the child 
 stretch its knees and keep them flat. 
 Position. 
 
 A nurse ought to keep a child as little in her 
 arms as possible, lest the legs should be cramped, 
 and the toes turned inwards. Let her always keep 
 the child's legs loose. The oftener the posture is 
 changed the better. 
 
 Exercise. 
 
 By slow degrees the infant should be accustomed 
 to exercise, both wiMiin doors and in the open air; 
 but he never should be moved about immediately 
 after sucking or feeding; it will be apt to sicken 
 him. Exercise should be given by carrying him 
 about and gently dandling him him in his mother 
 or nurse's arms; but dancing him up and down 
 on the knee is very fatiguing for a young child. 
 
 To prevent Distortion. 
 
 Tossing a child about, and exercising it in the 
 open air in fine weather, is of the greatest service. 
 lu cities children are not to be kept in hot rooms, 
 but to have as much air as possible. Want of ex- 
 ercise is the cause of rickets, large heads, weak 
 joints, a contracted breast, and diseased lungs, 
 besides a numerous train of other evils. 
 
 Rendering Children Hardy. 
 
 Endeavor to harden the body, but without ro- 
 sorting to any violent means. All attempts to 
 render children hardy, must be made by gradual 
 steps. Nature admits of no sudden transitions. 
 For instance, infants should, by imperceptible de- 
 grees, be inured to the cool, and then to the cold 
 bath; at the same time attention must be paid t 
 their previous management. If they have hitherto 
 been accustomed to an effeminating treatment, 
 and should be suddenly subjected to an opposite 
 extreme, such a change would be attended with 
 danger. When children have once been accus- 
 tomed to a hardy system of education, such a 
 plan must be strictly adhered to. 
 
 Cleanliness and Bathing. 
 
 The child's skin is to be kept perfectly clean by 
 washing its limbs morning and evening, and like- 
 wise its neck and ears ; beginning with warm water, 
 till by degrees he will not only bear, but like to 
 be washed with cool or cold water. 
 
 Alter he is a month old, if he has no cough, 
 fever, or eruption, the bath should be colder and 
 colder (if the season be mild), and gradually it may 
 be used as it comes from the fountain. After 
 carefully drying the whole body, head and limbs, 
 another dry soft cloth, a little warmed, should be 
 used gently to take all the damp from the wrinkles 
 or fat parts that fuld together. Then rub the 
 limbs; but when the body is rubbed, take special 
 care not to press upon the stomach or belly. On 
 these parts the hand should move in a circle, be- 
 cause the bowels lie in that direction. If the skin 
 is chafed, starch-powder is to be used. The utmost 
 tenderness is necessary in drying the head, and 
 no binding should be made close about it. Squeez- 
 ing the head, or combing it roughly, may cause 
 dreadful diseases, and even the loss of reason. A 
 small soft brush, lightly applied, is safer than a 
 comb. Clean clothes every morning and evening 
 will tend greatly to a child's health and comfort. 
 Dress. 
 
 With regard to the child's dress in the day, let 
 it be a shirt, a petticoat of fine flannel, reaching 
 two or three inches below the child's feet, with a 
 dimity top (commonly called a bodice-coat), to tio 
 behind. Over this put a robe or frock or what- 
 ever may be convenient, provided it is fastened 
 behind, and not reaching much below the child's 
 feet, that his motions may be strictly observed. 
 
 Caps are, as a general rule, undesirable. The 
 head should be kept cool. 
 
 The dress for the night may be a shirt, a blanket 
 to tie on, and a thin gown to tie over the blanket. 
 The Act of Dressing. 
 
 Some people in dressing an infant seem in such 
 haste as to toss him in a way that must fatigue 
 and harass him. The most tender deliberation 
 should be observed. In addition to this hurried 
 dressing, his clothes are often so tight that he frets 
 and roars. Pins should never be used in an in- 
 fant's clothes; and every string should be so 
 loosely tied that one might get two fingers be- 
 tween it and the part where it is fixed. Bandages 
 round the head should be strictly forbidden. 
 Many instances of idiocy, fits, and deformity, are 
 owing to tight bandages. 
 
 Sleep. 
 
 Infants cannot sleep too long; and it is a favor- 
 able symptom, when they enjoy a calm and long- 
 continued rest, of which they should by no means 
 be deprived, as this is the greatest support granted 
 to them by nature. A child lives comparatively 
 much faster than an adult; its blood flows more 
 rapidly ; and every stimulus operates more power- 
 
170 
 
 MEDICINE. 
 
 fully. Sleep promotes a more calm and uniform 
 circulation of the blood, and it facilitates assimi- 
 lation of the nutriment received. The horizontal 
 posture, likewise, is the most favorable to the 
 growth and bodily development of the infant. 
 
 Duration of, and time for Sfeep. 
 Sleep ought to be in proportion to the age of the 
 infiint. A t'ter an uninterrupted rest of nine months 
 in the womb, this salutary refreshment should 
 continue to fill up the greater part of a child's ex- 
 istence. A continued wakefulness of twenty-four 
 hours would prove destructive. After the age of 
 six months, the periods of sleep, as well as all 
 ether animal functions, may in some degree be 
 regulated ; yet, even then, a child should be suffer- 
 ed to sleep the whole night, and several hours both 
 in the morning and afternoon. Mothers and 
 nurses should endeavor to accustom infants from 
 the time of their birth, to sleep in the night pre- 
 ferably to the day, and for this purpose they ought 
 to remove all external impressions which may dis- 
 turb their rest, such as noise, light, etc., but espe- 
 cially they should not obey every call for taking 
 them up and giving food at improper times. After 
 the second year of their oge, they will not instinct- 
 ively require to sleep in the forenoon, though 
 after dinner it may he continued till the third 
 and fourth year, if the child shows a particular 
 inclination to repose; because till that age, the full 
 half of its time may safely be allotted to sleep. 
 From that period, however, it ought to be short- 
 ened for the space of one hour with every succeed- 
 ing year; so that a child seven years old may 
 sleep about eight, and not exceeding nine hours; 
 this proportion may be continued to the age of 
 adolescence, and even manhood. 
 
 Awaking Suddenly. 
 
 To awaken children from their sleep with a 
 noise, or in an impetuous manner, is extremely in- 
 judicious and hurtful, nor is it proper to carry 
 them from a dark room immediately into a glaring 
 light, against a dazzling wall; for the sudden im- 
 pression of light debilitates the organs of vision, 
 and lays the foundation of weak eyes, from early 
 infancy. In fact it is a sound precept, never to 
 waken a young child from sleep at all. 
 
 Restlessness at ii!<jlit. 
 
 An infant is sometimes very restless at night, and 
 it is generally owing either to cramming him with 
 a heavy supper, tight night-clothes, or over-heat- 
 ing by too many blankets. It may als > proceed from 
 putting him to sleep too early, t ndressing and 
 bathing will weary and dispose him for sleep, and 
 the universal stillness will promote it. This habit 
 and all others depend on attention at first. Accus- 
 tom him to regular hours, and if he has a good sleep 
 in the forenoon and afternoon, it will be easy to 
 keep him brisk all the evening. It is right to 
 offer him drink when a young infant; and more 
 solid, though simple food, when he is going to bed, 
 after he is two or three months old, but do not 
 force him to receive it; and never let anything 
 but the prescription of a physician in sickness, 
 tempt the nurses to give him wine, spirits, or any 
 drug to make him sleep. Milk and water, whey, 
 or thin gruel, is the only fit liquor for little ones, 
 even when they can run about. The more simple 
 and light their diet and drink, the more they will 
 thrive. In the night a drink of water will often 
 do better than the breast. Such food will keep 
 their bowels regular, and they cannot be long well 
 If that essential point be neglected. 
 Amusements, etc. 
 
 The bodily education of boys and girls ought in 
 
 every respect to be uniform. A great difference 
 usually prevails in the education of the sexes dur- 
 ing infancy. Parents being too anxious for the 
 accomplishment of girls, imagine that they must 
 be kept under a certain restraint. Boys, in 
 general, are not laced, but girls are compressed 
 tight enough to suffocate them ; because it is erro- 
 neously supposed, that this injudicious practice 
 contributes to an elegant shape, though, ultimate- 
 ly, the contrary effect is obvious ; as it is the surest 
 way of making children round shouldered and 
 deformed. Girls are, from their cradles, com- 
 pelled to a more sedentary life; and with this 
 intention, dolls, and other playthings, are early 
 procured ; yet boys are permitted to take more 
 frequent exercise. Thus, girls are confined in 
 their apartments, while boys amuse themselves in 
 the open air. Such absurd constraints impede the 
 free and progressive evolution of the different 
 faculties and powers. 
 
 The Yellow Gum. 
 
 The yellow gum is known by a yellow tinge of 
 the skin, with languor and a tendency to sleep. It 
 is to be relieved by giving a teaspoonful or more 
 of castor oil, to clear the intestines. When the 
 disease does not give w ( ay to this treatment, give 
 half a grain of calomel, or 4 grains of rhubarb. 
 Vomiting. 
 
 When the food is vomited in an unaltered state, 
 it is generally a sign of over-feeding ; but when the 
 vomiting is bilious, or when the food is partly 
 digested, the diet ought to be changed, and the 
 bowels opened by 1 grain of calomel, given in 
 sugar. This is to be followed by a teaspoonful of 
 castor oil on the following morning. If the vom- 
 iting should still continue, give lime-water or the 
 calomel powder (containing 1 or 2 grains, accord- 
 ing to the age) a second time. If there be much 
 irritation, apply a spice-plaster to the stomach, 
 and, if possible, give a teaspoonful of the saline 
 medicine, in a state of effervescence, and contain- 
 ing 1 or 2 drops of laudanum. 
 Hiccups. 
 
 These generally arise from acidity in the sto- 
 mach, and may be remedied by the administration 
 of 6 grains of prepared chalk with 2 grains of 
 powdered rhubarb, given in a little syrup or gruel. 
 If very severe, the stomach is to be rubbed with a 
 little soap liniment, or opodeldoc, to which a little 
 laudanum has been added. 
 
 Griping and Flatulency. 
 
 These are known by continual crying, restless- 
 ness, and drawing up of the legs. When attended 
 by diarrhoea and green stools, it is to be relieved, 
 in general, by the administration of a few grains 
 of rhubarb and magnesia. If sour belchings, etc. 
 still continue, it will be proper to give a teaspoon- 
 ful every quarter of an hour, of equal parts of 
 camphor-water and cinnamon-water. After this, 
 particularly if there be any purging, it will be pro- 
 per to give a little rhubarb and magnesia again, 
 and now and then a little chalk mixture. 
 Absorbent Mixture. 
 
 If the pains are very great so as to make the 
 child scream violently, two teaspoonsful of the 
 following mixture, with 1 or 2 drops of laudanum, 
 may be given directly : Mix together, prepared 
 chalk, 1 scruple; tincture of caraway seeds, 3 
 drachms; compound spirits of lavender, I drachm, 
 and of peppermint-water, 2 ounces. 
 
 As soon as there is diminution of pain, a purga- 
 tive should be given, particularly if the bowels 
 happen to be in a costive state. The best will be 
 castor oil. The above mixture may afterwards be 
 occasionally continued, but without the laudanum. 
 
DISEASES OF CHILDREN". 
 
 171 
 
 Diarrhoea. 
 
 This may, in general, if the stools are green, 
 be relieved by a brisk purgative, of from 1 to 2 
 grains of calomel, with 4 or 5 grains of rhubarb, 
 according to the age of the child. The absorbent 
 mixture is then to be given as before directed. 
 
 Further Remedies. 
 
 When the stools are very frequent, and are 
 either slimy or tinged with blood, it will be proper 
 to give 5 grains of rhubarb every six hours, the 
 food being beef tea, sago, isinglass in milk or 
 calfsfoot jelly, the body being wrapped in warm 
 flannel. A spice plaster may likewise be applied 
 to the belly, and a dessertspoonful of the follow- 
 ing tonic and astringent mixture is to be given 
 every six hours. Mix together chalk mixture, 2 
 ounces; laudanum, 12 drops; and cinnamon water, 
 1 ounce. 
 
 Opiate Clyster. 
 
 If the fluid stools are ejected with great force a 
 clyster should be given composed of half a tea- 
 cupful of boiled starch, and 2 to 5 drops of lau- 
 danum. This may be repeated at intervals of 
 eight hours, if the symptoms do not abate. 
 
 Excoriations of the Skin. 
 
 Children are apt to be chafed between the 
 thighs, behind the ears, and in the wrinkles of 
 the neck, from w;mt of proper attention to clean- 
 liness. In such cases it will be necessary to bathe 
 the parts twice a day (or every time that the 
 Child's things are changed) with a little warm 
 milk and water, and to apply a puff with a lit- 
 tle powder of pure starch, arrow-root, or rye- 
 meal, immediately afterwards, so as to keep the 
 parts dry. When discharges take place behind 
 the ears they must not be dried up too suddenly, 
 as such a circumstance might produce a diversion 
 to the brain. In such cases it will be always best 
 to give frequent doses of castor oil, or calomel, 
 every other night, in the proportion of 1 grain 
 to 3 grains of rhubarb. 
 
 Cutaneous Eruptions. 
 
 No real danger attends these eruptions, which 
 are generally known by the names of red-gum, 
 nettle-rash, etc. All that is required to be done 
 is to keep the bowels open by such means as are 
 prescribed in the foregoing article, and to guard 
 against cold, which might drive the eruption in- 
 wardly, and so produce internal inflammations of 
 a critical nature. If the milk or food be consid- 
 ered the cause, the nurse or diet ought to l>e 
 changed; and if sickness and vomiting should 
 prevail, it will be proper to give the absorbent 
 mixture mentioned under the head of Griping and 
 Flatulency. 
 
 The Thrush. 
 
 This disease makes its appearance with little 
 ulcerations in the mouth, tongue, etc., of a white 
 color, and sometimes of a yellow appearance. 
 They are generally owing to acidities in the 
 stomach, etc. 
 
 In this disorder nothing avails more than an 
 emetic at first, aiai then a little magnesia and rhu- 
 barb (if there be diarrhoea), with thin chicken- 
 water as drink. Chlorate of potassa, or the ab- 
 sorbent mixture (see Griping and Flatulency), will 
 also be proper. If there is no looseness, it will be 
 proper to give a grain or two of calomel, with 3 
 or 4 grains of rhubarb. The mouth and throat 
 should at the same time be cleansed by gargles. 
 
 Syrup of Black Currant*. 
 
 Take of the juice of black currants, strained, 1 
 pint; double refined sugar, 24 ounces. Dissolve 
 the sugar, and boil to make a syrup. 
 
 A teaspoonful of this may be given to children 
 in the thrush. 
 
 Falling Down of the Fundament. 
 
 This happens frequently to children who cry 
 much, or who have had a diarrhoea, or from 
 straining on going to stool. If it proceed from 
 costiveness. give lenitive clysters. In case the 
 gut be swelled or inflamed, foment with warm 
 milk, or decoction of oak bark, or wash frequently 
 with cold water. The protruded parts are now to 
 be replaced by the finger, and supported by a truss 
 or bandage. The internal use of tonics will be 
 proper. A child subject to this should not be al- 
 lowed to sit on a low vessel or chair when the 
 bowels are moved. 
 
 Dentition. 
 
 When children are about cutting their teeth 
 they slaver much, are feverish, hot, and uneasy; 
 their gums swell, and are very painful; they are 
 sometimes loose in the bowels, and at other times 
 costive; now and then convulsions come on. 
 
 Leeches are often of use applied behind the 
 ears ; also blisters. 
 
 Scarifying the Gums. 
 
 Instead of giving narcotics to children cutting 
 their teeth, it is strenuously recommended to have 
 the tumid gums divided by a lancet down to the 
 tooth; an operation at once safe and unattended 
 with pain. If done in time, from removing the 
 cause of the complaint, all the symptoms will 
 disappear of themselves. Instead of giving prep- 
 arations of opium, it will be found, in the majority 
 of cases far better to administer calomel, in mi- 
 nute doses, sis this medicine is well known to pos- 
 sess peculiar efficacy m promoting absorption in 
 these parts. The bowels, if costive, should be kept 
 regularly open, and if there should be looseness 
 of the bowels, it should by no means be discour- 
 aged. Instead of coral or any other hard body, 
 let the child nibble at a ring of gum-elastic. 
 Convulsions. 
 
 Children are particularly liable to convulsions 
 at the period of teething, small pox, measles, and 
 other eruptive diseases; sometimes, also, from ex- 
 ternal causes, such as tight clothes, bandages, 
 etc. When they proceed from any of these, bath- 
 ing the feet, or the whole body, in warm water, 
 of 92 or 94, and administering a mild clyster, 
 will almost immediately relieve them. To shorten 
 the duration of the fit, cold water should be poured 
 over the face and neck, while the rest of the body 
 is in the bath. Afterwards a mustard plaster, 
 weakened with flour, may be applied for a short 
 time to the back. 
 
 The return of convulsions is to be prevented 
 only by the removal of the cause of the existing 
 irritation; but, in general, when the body is kept 
 carefully open, there will be little cause to fear a 
 return. 
 
 Inward Fits. 
 
 In these fits the infant appears as if asleep; the 
 eyelids, however, are not quite closed, but fre- 
 quently twinkle, and show the whites turned up- 
 wards. The muscles of the face are sometimes 
 slightly distorted, the mouth having the appear- 
 ance of a laugh or smile. The breath is some- 
 times very quick, and at others stops for a time; 
 while the eyelids and lips are pale and dark al- 
 ternately. The infant startles on the least noise, 
 and sighs deeply or breaks wind. This relieves 
 him for a little, but he soon relapses into a doze. 
 Whenever the above-mentioned symptoms are ob- 
 served, it will be right to awaken the infant, by 
 stirring or otherwise, and to rub its back and belly 
 well before the fire, until wind escapes. At the 
 
172 
 
 MEDICINE. 
 
 same time it will be proper to give half a tea- 
 spoonful of drink or pap, containing 2 drops of 
 oil of Jnise or caraways. As soon after as possi- 
 ble, a purgative of castor oil, or a grain or two of 
 calomel (according to the age), with 2 or 3 grains 
 of rh xbarb, is to be given, to empty the bowels of 
 whatever crude matter may occasion the dis- 
 order. 
 
 The Rickets. 
 
 This disorder affects the bones of children, and 
 causes a considerable protuberance, incurvation, 
 or distortion of them. It may arise from various 
 causes, but more particularly when proper care 
 has not been taken with children ; when they have 
 been too tiirhtly swathed in some parts, and too 
 loosely in others; keeping them too long in one 
 and the same position; and not keeping them 
 clean and dry. Sometimes it may proceed from a 
 lax habit, at others from costiveness. 
 
 It usually appears about the eighth or ninth 
 month and continues to the sixth or seventh year 
 of the child's age. The head becomes large and 
 the fontanel keeps long open; the countenance 
 is fuil and Horid; the joints knotty and distorted, 
 especially about the wrists, less near the ankles. 
 The ribs protuberate and grow crooked ; the belly 
 swells ; cough and disorder of the lungs succeed, 
 and there is, withai, a very early understanding, 
 and the child moves but weakly, and waddles in 
 walking. 
 
 Regimen, etc. The regimen should be light and 
 properly seasoned; the air dry and clear; exer- 
 cise and motion should be encouraged, and band- 
 ages as well as instruments contrived to keep the 
 limbs in a proper situation ; but wo should take 
 care that they be so formed as not to put the child 
 to pain or restrain it too much. 
 
 Cold sea-bathing is of infinite use, after which 
 friction should be used, and the child placed be- 
 tween two blankets, so as to encourage perspira- 
 tion. The back should be well rubbed with opo- 
 deldoc or good old rum every night. .Chalybeates 
 are also very serviceable. 
 
 A decoction of Peruvian bark is also good, with 
 red wine ; it is to be used with moderation in the 
 forenoon and after dinner. 
 
 Distortion of the Spine. 
 
 Dr. Weitch, an eminent physician of Berlin, has 
 published in Hufeland's journal a simple remedy 
 for weakness of the back-bone of infants, and 
 which he considers capable of preventing distor- 
 tion. This method consists, first, in frequent and 
 close examination of the child's back-bone, and 
 secondly, on the slightest trace of any distortion, 
 to wash the same with brandy every morning and 
 night, and to pay the strictest attention to the 
 child's keeping a straight posture both sleeping 
 and waking, and if it can be bathed from time to 
 time it will be so much the better. 
 
 Jelly from the Raspings of Ivory. 
 
 The raspings of ivory impart to boiling water a 
 very pleasant jelly, which has been found more 
 easy of digestion and more nutritious than that 
 of the hartshorn shavings or isinglass. Mixed 
 with the jelly of the arrow-root in the proportion 
 of one part to seven, it has been recommended for 
 weakly and rickety children and consumptive or 
 emaciated invalids. 
 
 Ringworm and Scald Head. 
 
 It is well known that these disorders, which are 
 in many respects similar, are contagious; there- 
 fore no comb or hair-brush used by a child af- 
 fected by them is to be used by another child 
 either in a school or in the same family. Nor 
 
 should the hat or cap of such a child be worn oy 
 any other. 
 
 Treatment. The intractableness of most chil- 
 dren, when attempted to be controlled or gov- 
 erned by the accustomed mode of treatment, 
 proves in most instances a material obstacle in the 
 way of curing this malignant disease, and the 
 quickness with which the hair of the scalp grows 
 in children, has hitherto in many instances ren- 
 dered every effort ineffectual. It was a constant 
 failure under these inauspicious circumstances 
 that led Mr. Barlow, a medical professor in Lan- 
 cashire, to adopt the subjoined lotion : Take of 
 sulphate of potassa, recently prepared, 3 drachms ; 
 Spanish white soap 1 drachms; lime-water 7 
 ounces, and spirits of wine 2 drachms. Mix by 
 shaking well in a phial. 
 
 By bathing the affected head with this lotion a 
 few times, morning and evening, and suffering the 
 parts to dry without interruption, the scabs will 
 loosen and peel off from the scalp, and leave the 
 parts underneath perfectly healed, without tor- 
 turing the patient by shaving the head, though 
 the hair should be kept short. 
 
 Ointment for the same. 
 
 Take of spermaceti ointment 1 ounce ; tar oint- 
 ment 1 ounce ; powdered angustura bark 3 drachms. 
 Rub the whole well in a marble mortar and apply 
 to the parts affected. 
 
 Alterative Medicines. 
 
 In six cases out of ten this disease is aggrava- 
 ted by a scrofulous taint of system, and when 
 this is the case the following alterative medicines 
 accelerates the cure : 
 
 Iodide of potassium 1 drachm ; water Bounces. 
 Give a ten spoonful night and morning. 
 
 Instead of the above 1 grain of calomel maybe 
 given going to rest, and repeated every night for 
 a few nights; also, the use of arsenic and of salt 
 water, externally and internally as an alterative, 
 has been found very useful. 
 
 In all cases the bowels ought to be kept open, 
 and the diet should consist of wholesome and nu- 
 tritive food, avoiding fish and salt meats. Clean- 
 liness and occasional use of the warm bath will 
 likewise be of service. 
 
 Hooping Cough. 
 
 This convulsive cough is occasioned by a viscid 
 matter which cannot be easily expectorated. The . 
 poor infant, in endeavoring to bring it up, strains 
 violently, till he becomes almost suffocated and 
 convulsed. 
 
 Remedies. In this complaint, next to occa- 
 sional vomiting, the daily use of the warm bath 
 is most useful. Bleeding may sometimes be used 
 to prevent inflammation of the internal mem- 
 branes, or cupping between the neck and shoul- 
 ders. Gentle emetics may be given early. 
 
 Give a tablespoonful of milk of assafoetida 
 every four hours, or half as much, with five or 
 ten drops of wine of ipecac, or, in violent cases, 2 
 or 3 grains of musk as often. 
 
 To the above may be added, as auxiliaries, a 
 Burgundy pitch plaster on the pit of the stomach, 
 a flannel waistcoat or shirt next the skin, and a 
 change of air when practicable. The diet should 
 be light and easy of digestion, avoiding every- 
 thing of a fat and oily nature. 
 
 Embrocation for Hooping Cough. 
 Take of tartar emetic 2 drachms; boiling wa. 
 ter 2 ounces: tincture of cantharides 1 drachm; 
 oil of thyme 3 drachms. Mix. A dessertspoon- 
 ful to be rubbed upon the chest every night and 
 morning till it becomes soro. 
 
USEFUL DOMESTIC MEDICINES. 
 
 173 
 
 Regimen, etc.., for Hooping Cough. 
 A frequent change of air is exceedingly useful 
 Sn hooping cough, particularly short voyages at 
 eea; at the same time flannel is to be worn next 
 the skin. Young children should lie with their 
 beads and shoulders raised, and when the cough 
 occurs they ought to be placed on their feet and 
 bent a little forward, to guard against suffocation. 
 The diet should be light and the drink warm and 
 mucilaginous. 
 
 The Croup. 
 
 This disease is almost peculiar to children, and 
 sometimes fatal, if care is not taken in the com- 
 mencement. It commonly approaches with the 
 usual signs of a catarrh, but sometimes the pecu- 
 liar symptoms occur at the first onset/; namely, a 
 hoarseness, with a shrill ringing sound both in 
 speaking and coughing, as if the noise came from 
 a brazen tube. At the same time there is a sense 
 of pain about the larynx, and some difficulty of 
 respiration, with a whizzing sound in inspiration, 
 as if the passage of air was diminished, which is 
 actually the case. The cough is generally dry, 
 but if anything is spit up, in the worst cases it is 
 a matter, sometimes resembling small portions of 
 a membrane. There is also a frequent pulse, rest- 
 lessness, and an uneasy sense of heat. The in- 
 side of the mouth is sometimes without inflam- 
 mation, but frequently a redness, and even a 
 swelling, exists. Sometimes there is an appear- 
 ance of matter on them, like that ejected by 
 coughing. 
 
 Remedies. As soon as possible a brisk emetic 
 should be administered, for the purpose of freeing 
 the patient from the coagulable lymph which is 
 already secreted. The powder, wine or syrup of 
 ipecac will generally answer. In obstinate cases 
 a teaspoonful of alum powder with one of ipecac 
 is recommended. Topical bleeding, by means of 
 leeches, should immediately succeed, and the dis- 
 charge be encouraged. As soon as it diminishes, 
 a blister so large as to cover the whole throat 
 should be applied, and suffered to lie on for thirty 
 hours or longer. Then warm steam should be 
 inhaled, and the bowels should be evacuated by 
 calomel. 
 
 As soon as the emetic has operated sufficiently, 
 1 grain dosos of calomel with 5 grains of nitre 
 may be administered, by which means the breath- 
 ing will in general be soon relieved; but should 
 it become more difficult in the course of a few 
 hours the emetic is to be again repeated, and after 
 its operation the opium again employed. This 
 practice is to be alternately used till such time as 
 the patient is out of danger, which will in general 
 be" in the course of three or four days. The child 
 should be kept nearly upright in bed. 
 
 The warm bath is very useful in this complaint. 
 As an adjunct, apply an ointment to the breast, 
 composed of 5 grains of tartar emetic, and 5 grains 
 of powdered opium, to a drachm of spermaceti 
 oerate, until eruptions are excited on the skin. 
 
 USEFUL DOMESTIC MEDICINES. 
 Dover's Sudorific Powder. 
 
 Take of ipecacuanha in powder, opium (puri- 
 fied), each 1 part; sulphate of potass, 8 parts. 
 Triturate them together into a fine powder. 
 
 The dose is from two to five or ten grains, re- 
 peated according as the patient's stomach and 
 strength can bear it. It is proper to avoid much 
 drinking immediately after taking it, otherwise it 
 is very apt to be rejected by vomiting before any 
 other effects are produced. Perspiration should 
 be kept up by diluents. 
 
 Aloetic Powder with Iron. 
 
 Take of socotrine aloes, powdered, 1 ounces; 
 myrrh, powdered, 2 ounces; extract of gertian 
 and sulphate, each in powder, 1 ounce. Mix 
 them. 
 
 In this powder we have an aloetic and chaly- 
 beate conjoined. It is a useful medicine, and is 
 particularly employed in cases of obstructed men- 
 struation. 
 
 Compound Assafoetida Pills. 
 Take of assafoetida, galbanum and myrih, each 
 1 ounce ; rectified oil of amber, 1 drachtn. Beat 
 them into a mass with simple syrup. 
 
 These pills are anti-hysteric and emmenagogue, 
 and are very well calculated for answering those 
 intentions. Half a scruple, a scruple, or more, 
 may be taken every night or oftener. 
 Compound Aloetic Pill*. 
 
 Take of hepatic aloes, 1 ounce ; ginger powder, 
 1 drachm; soap, ^ ounce ; essential oil of pepper- 
 mint, 4 drachm. 
 
 Let the aloes and the ginger be rubbed well to- 
 gether, then add the soap and the oil, so as to 
 form a mass. 
 
 These pills may be advantageously used for ob- 
 viating the habitual costiveness of sedentary per- 
 sons. The dose is from ten to fifteen grains. 
 
 Aloetic and Myrrh Pills. 
 
 Take of socotrine aloes, 4 drachms ; myrrh, 2 
 drachms; saffron, 1 drachm. Beat them into a 
 mass with simple syrup. 
 
 These pills have been long employed to stimu- 
 late and open the bowels in chlorotic, hypochon- 
 driacal, and long-diseased habits. The dose ia 
 from ten grains to a scruple, twice a day. 
 
 Plummer's Pills. 
 
 These pills are alterative, diaphoretic, purga- 
 tive,-and beneficial in cutaneous eruptions, etc. 
 
 Take of calomel, 1 drachm ; sulphate of anti- 
 mony, 1 drachm ; gum guaiacum, 2 drachms. 
 
 Mix these assiduously with mucilage, and divide 
 into sixty pills, two pills forming the dose. To 
 be taken at night. 
 
 Compound Soap Liniment. 
 
 Take of camphor, 1 ounce; soap, 3 ounces; 
 spirit of rosemary, 1 pint. 
 
 Digest the soap in the spirit of rosemary until 
 it be dissolved, and add to it the camphor. This 
 is useful to excite action on the surface, and is 
 used to disperse scrofulous enlargements, and to 
 moisten flannel which is applied to the throat in 
 cases of quinsy. 
 
 Cajeput Opodeldoc. 
 
 Take of almond soap, 2 ounces; alcohol, 1 pint; 
 camphor, 1 ounce; cajeput oil, 2 ounces. 
 
 First dissolve the soap and camphor in the alco- 
 hol in a retort, by means of a sand heat, and 
 when the solution is about to congeal, or becomes 
 nearly cold, add the oil of cajeput : shake them 
 well together, and put it into bottles to congeal. 
 
 This composition is a great improvement on the 
 opodeldocs in general use, and in cases of rheu- 
 matism, paralytic numbness, chilblains, enlarge- 
 ments of joints, and indolent tumors, where the 
 object is to rouse the action of absorbent vessels, 
 and to stimulate the nerves, it is a very valuable 
 external remedy. 
 
 In several cases of lumbago and deep-seated 
 rheumatic pains, it has been known to succeed in 
 the almost immediate removal of the disease. 
 
 Liniment of Ammonia. 
 
 Take of water of ammonia, an ounce; olive 
 oil, li ounces. 
 
 Shake them together in a phial till they are 
 mixed. 
 
174 
 
 MEDICINE. 
 
 In the inflammatory quinsy, a piece of flannel, 
 moistened with this mixture, applied to the throat, 
 and renewed every four or five hours, is one of the 
 most efficacious remedies. By means of this warm 
 stimulating application, the neck, and sometimes 
 the whole body, is put into a sweat, which, after 
 bleeding, either .'arries off or lessens the inflam- 
 mation. Where the skin cannot bear the acri- 
 mony of this mixture, a larger proportion of oil 
 may be used. 
 
 Eau-de-luce. 
 
 Ten or 12 grains of white soap are dissolved in 
 4 ounces of rectified spirit of wine; after which 
 the solution is strained. A drachm of rectified 
 oil of amber is then added, and the whole filtered. 
 With this solution should be mixed such a pro- 
 portion of the strongest volatile spirit of ammonia, 
 in a clear glass bottle, as will, when sufficiently 
 shaken, produce a beautiful milk-white liquor. 
 If a kind of crenm should settle on the surface, it 
 will be requisite to add a small quantity of the 
 spirituous solution of soap. Those who may wish 
 to have this liquor water perfumed, may employ 
 lavender or Hungary water instead of the spirit 
 of wine. 
 
 This composition is, however, seldom obtained 
 in a genuine state when purchased at the shops. 
 Its use as an external remedy is very extensive; 
 for it has not only been employed for curing the 
 bites of vipers, wasps, bees, gnats, ants, and other 
 insects, but also for burns, and even the bite of a 
 mad dog, though not always with uniform success. 
 Besides, it affords one of the safest stimulants in 
 cases of suffocation from mephitic vapors, and in 
 that state of apoplexy which is termed serous, as 
 likewise after excessive intoxication, and in all 
 those paralytic complaints where the vessels of 
 the skin or the muscular fibre require to be excited 
 into action. 
 
 Simple Ointment. . 
 
 Take of olive oi!, 5 ounces ; white wax 2 ounces. 
 This is a useful emollient ointment for softening 
 the skin. 
 
 Ointment of Hog's Lard. 
 
 Take of prepared hog's lard, 2 pounds; rose- 
 water. 3 ounces. Beat the lard with the rose-wa- 
 ter un'il they be mixed: then melt the mixture 
 with a slow fire, and set it apart that the water 
 may subside; after which, pour off the lard from 
 the water, constantly stirring until it be cold. 
 
 This ointment may be used for softening the 
 skin, and healing the chaps. 
 Lip Salve. 
 
 Melt together 2 ounces of white wax; 3 ounces 
 of spermaceti ; 7 ounces oil of almonds ; 1 drachm 
 of balsam of Peru; and li ounces of glycerin 
 wrapped up in a linen bag. 
 
 Pour the salve into small gallipots or boxes, and 
 cover with bladder and white leather. 
 
 Baeilicon, or Yefloio Resinous Ointment. 
 
 Take of yellow resin, 1 pound; yellow wax, 1 
 pound; olive oil, 1 pint. Melt the resin and wax 
 with a gentle heat; then add the oil, and strain 
 the mixture while yet warm. 
 
 This plaster is employed for the dressing of 
 broken chilblains, and other sores that require 
 stimulating; it is also used to drive milk away, 
 being placed over the tumid breasts when the 
 ehild is weaned. 
 
 Turners' Cerate. 
 
 This ointment is known by the vulgar name of 
 Turners' cerate, as curing the wounds of Turners. 
 It is generally used for broken chilblains. 
 
 Take of prepared calamine, yellow wax, each 
 i pound; olive oil, 1 pint. 
 
 Melt the wax with the oil, and as soon as they 
 
 begin to thicken, sprinkle in the prepared cala- 
 mine and keep it stirring till the cerate is cool. 
 Savin Ointment. 
 
 Take of fresh savin leaves, separated from the 
 stalks, and bruised, i pound ; prepared hog's lard, 
 2 pounds; yellow wax, i pound. Boil the leaves 
 in the lard until they become crisp; then filter 
 with expression ; lastly, add the wax, and melt 
 them together. 
 
 This is an excellent issue ointment, being, in 
 many respects, preferable to that of cantharides. 
 It is mixed with equal parts of blistering oint- 
 ment, in order to keep up a discharge. 
 Mercurial Ointment. 
 
 Take of mercury, and mutton suet, each, 1 part; 
 hogs' lard, 3 parts. Rub the mercury diligently 
 in a mortar with a little of the hogs' lard, until the 
 globules disappear; then add the remainder of the 
 lard, and rub until the ointment is completely pre- 
 pared. 
 
 One drachm of this ointment contains twelve 
 grains of mercury. 
 
 The preparation of mercurial ointment requires 
 much labor, care, and patience. During the tri- 
 turation, the mercury is mechanically divided into 
 minute globules, which are prevented from running 
 together again by the viscosity of the fat. These 
 globules at length disappear, being oxidized, or 
 rendered black by intimate mixture with the lard. 
 Whatever tends to favor this (for instance, a slight 
 degree of rancidity of the lard) shortens the time, 
 and lessens the labor required for the preparation 
 of the ointment. It is not uncommon, however, 
 to use other means, which are not admissible, to 
 facilitate the process, such as the use of sulphur 
 or turpentine. The first may be detected by the 
 very black color of the ointment, and also by the 
 sulphurous odor exhaled when a paper covered 
 with a little of it is held over the flame of a can- 
 dle. The turpentine is detected by its odor also, 
 when the ointment containing it is treated in the 
 same manner. 
 
 When newly prepared, mercurial ointment has 
 a light gray or bluish color, owing to its contain- 
 ing some unoxidized metal, which separates in 
 globules when it is liquefied by a gentle heat; 
 when kept for some time the color is much deep- 
 ened, and less metallic mercury is seen, owing to 
 the more complete oxidizement of the metal. 
 
 Cerate of Spanish Flies. 
 
 Take of cerate of spermaceti, softened with, 
 heat, 6 drachms; Spanish flies, finely powdered, 
 1 drachm. Mix them by melting over a gentle 
 fire. 
 
 Under this form cantharides may be made to 
 act to any extent that is requisite. It may sup- 
 ply the place either of the blistering plaster or 
 cintment, and there are cases in which it is pre- 
 ferable to either. It is particularly more conve- 
 nient than the plaster of cantharides, where the 
 skin to which the blister is to be applied is pre- 
 viously much affected, as in cases of small-pox, 
 and in supporting a drain under the form of issue 
 it is less apt to spread than the softer ointment. 
 
 Compound Burgundy Pitch Plaster. 
 
 Take of Burgundy pitch 2 pounds ; labdanum 1 
 pound; yellow resin and yellow wax each 4 
 ounces ; expressed oil of mace 1 ounce. 
 
 To the pitch, resin and wax melted together, 
 add first the labdanum and then the oil of mace. 
 
 After a long-continued cough in the winter, a 
 Burgundy pitch plaster should be put over the 
 breast-bone. 
 
 Compound Labdanum Plaster. 
 
 Take of labdanum 3 ounces; frankincense 1 
 
USEFUL DOMESTIC MEDICINES. 
 
 175 
 
 ounce; cinnamon, powdered, expressed oil of 
 mace, each an ounce ; essential oil of mint 1 
 drachm. 
 
 To the melted frankincense add first the labda- 
 num, softened by heat, then the oil of mace. 
 Mix these afterwards with the cinnamon and oil 
 of mint and beat them together in a warm mor- 
 tar into a plaster. Let it be kept in a close 
 vessel. 
 
 This has been considered as a very elegant 
 stomach plaster. It is contrived so as to be 
 easily made occasionally (for such compositions, 
 on account of their volatile ingredients, are not 
 fit for keeping), and to be but moderately adhe- 
 sive, so as not to offend the skin, also that it may 
 without difficulty be frequently renewed, which 
 these applications, in order to their producing 
 any considerable effect, require to be. They keep 
 up a perspiration over the part affected, and create 
 a local action, which diverts inflammation ; con- 
 sumption from colds in delicate habits is by such 
 means frequently obviated. 
 
 Adhesive Plaster. 
 
 . Take of common, or litharge plaster, 5 parts, 
 white resin, 1 part. 
 
 Melt them together, and spread the liquid com- 
 pound thin on strips of linen by means of a spa- 
 tula or table knife. 
 
 This plaster is very adhesive, and is used for 
 keeping on other dressings, etc. 
 Court- Plaster. 
 
 ^Bruise a sufficient quantity of fish glue, and letf 
 it soak for twenty-four hours in a little warm 
 water; expose it to heat over the fire, to dissipate 
 the greater part of the water, and supply its place 
 by colorless brandy, which will mix the gelatine 
 of the glue. Strain the whole through a piece of 
 open linen ; on cooling it will form a trembling 
 jelly. 
 
 Now extend a piece of black silk on a wooden 
 frame, and fix it in that position by means of tacks 
 or pack thread. Then with a brush made of 
 badger's hair apply the glue, after it has been ex- 
 posed to a gentle heat to render it liquid. When 
 this stratum is dry, which will soon be the case, 
 apply a second, and then a third if necessary, to 
 give the plaster a certain thickness ; as soon as the 
 whole is dry cover it with two or three strata of a 
 strong tincture of balsam of Peru. 
 
 This is the real English court-plaster; it is plia- 
 ble and never breaks, characters which distin- 
 guish it from so many other preparations sold 
 under the same name. 
 
 Compound Tincture of Rhubarb. 
 
 Take of rhubarb, sliced, 2 ounces ; liquorice root, 
 bruised, ^ ounce ; ginger, powdered, saffron, each 
 2 drachms; distilled water, 1 pint; proof spirits of 
 wine, 12 ounces by measure. 
 
 Digest for 14 days, and strain. Dose, J an 
 ounce as an aperient, or 1 ounce in violent diarrhoea. 
 Tincture of Ginger. 
 
 Take of ginger, in coarse powder 2 ounces ; 
 proof spirit, 2 pints. 
 
 Digest in a gentle heat for 7 days, and strain. 
 
 This tincture is cordial and stimulant, and is 
 generally employed as a corrective to purgative 
 draughts. 
 
 Compound Tincture of Senna. 
 
 Take of senna leaves, 2 ounces; jalap root, 1 
 ounce ; coriander seeds, i ounce ; proof spirits, 2J 
 pints. 
 
 Digest for 7 days, and to the strained liquor 
 add 4 ounces of sugar candy. 
 
 This tincture is a useful carminative and ca- 
 thartic, especially to those who have accustomed 
 
 themselves to the use of spirituous liquors ; it often 
 relieves flatulent complaints and colics where the 
 common cordials have little effect; the dose ia 
 from one to two ounces. It is a very useful addi- 
 tion to castor oil, in order to take off its mawk- 
 ish taste ; and, as coinciding with the virtues of 
 the oil, it is therefore much preferable to brandy, 
 shrub, and such like liquors, which otherwise are 
 often found necessary to make the oil sit on the 
 stomach. 
 
 Solution of Citrate of Magnesia. 
 
 Take of magnesia, 120 grains; citric acid, 450 
 grains; bicarbonate of potassa, 40 grains; dis- 
 solve the citric acid in 4 fluidounces of water, and, 
 having added the magnesia, stir until it is dis- 
 solved. Filter the solution into a strong twelve- 
 ounce bottle, into which has been poured 2 fluid- 
 ounces of syrup of citric acid. Then add the bi- 
 carbonate of potassa, and enough water almost to 
 fill the bottle, which must be closed with a cork, 
 and this secured with twine. Shake moderately 
 till all is dissolved. This is a very pleasant drink, 
 and in the dose of a tumblerful a pretty active 
 and cooling purgative. 
 
 Duffy's Elixir. 
 
 Take of senna, 2 pounds; rhubarb shavings, 2 
 pounds; jalap root, 1 pound; caraway seeds, 1 
 pound; aniseeds, 2 pounds; sugar, 4 pounds; 
 shavings of red sanders-wood, pound. 
 
 Digest these in 10 gallons of spirits of wine for 
 14 days, and strain for use. 
 
 This elixir possesses almost the same qualities 
 as the Compound Tincture of Senna. The above 
 quantities may be reduced to as small a scale as 
 may be required. 
 
 The Black Drop. 
 
 Take a pound of opium, sliced; 3 pints of 
 good verjuice; 1 ounces of nutmeg; and i an 
 ounce of saffron ; boil them to a proper thickness, 
 then add a i of a pound of sugar and 2 spoonsful 
 of yeast. Set the whole in a warm place near the 
 fire for 6 or 8 weeks, then place it in the open air 
 until it becomes of the consistence of a syrup j 
 lastly, decant, filter, and bottle it up, adding a 
 little sugar to each bottle. Dose, 5 to 15 drops. 
 
 The above ought to yield about two pints of the 
 strained liquor. 
 
 Godfrey's Cordial. 
 
 Dissolve i an ounce of opium, 1 drachm of oil 
 of sassafras, in 2 ounces of spirits of wine. Now 
 mix 4 pounds of treacle with 1 gallon of boiling 
 water, and when cold mix both solutions. This 
 is often used to soothe the pains of children, 
 etc. It must be employed with caution, however, 
 as it contains opium. It is an injurious error to 
 keep children quiet by stupifying them constantly 
 or frequently with opiates, or other narcotics. 
 Balsam of Honey. 
 
 Take of balsam of Tolu, 2 ounces ; gum storax, 
 2 drachms; opium, 2 drachms; honey, 8 ounces. 
 Dissolve these in a quart of spirits of wine. 
 
 This balsam is exceedingly useful in allaying 
 the irritation of cough. The dose is 1 or 2 tea- 
 spoonsful in a little tea or warm water. 
 Tincture of the Balsam of Tolu. 
 
 Take of balsam of Tolu, 1 ounce ; alcohol, 1 pint. 
 Digest until the balsam be dissolved, and then 
 strain the tincture through a paper. 
 
 This solution of the balsam of Tolu possesses 
 all the virtues of the balsam itself. It may b 
 taken internally, with the several intentions for 
 which that balsam is proper, to the quantity of a 
 teaspoonful or two in any convenient vehicle. 
 
 Mixed with simple syrup it forms an agreeable 
 balsamic syrup. 
 
176 
 
 MEDICINE. 
 
 Tincture of Peruvian Baric. 
 
 Take of Peruvian bark, 4 ounces ; proof spirit, 
 2 pints. Digest for 10 days and strain. 
 
 It may be given from a teaspoon ful to an 
 ounce, or an ounce, according to the different pur- 
 poses it is intended to answer. 
 
 Huxham's T'ncture of Bark. 
 
 Take of Peruvian bark, powdered, 2 ounces: 
 the peel of Seville oranges, dried, 1^ ounces ; Vir- 
 ginian snakeroot, bruised, 3 drachms; saffron. 1 
 drachm : cochineal, powdered, 2 scruples ; proof 
 spirit, 20 ounces. Digest for 14 days and strain. 
 
 As a corroborant and stomachic, it is given in 
 doses of 1 to 8 drachms; but when employed for 
 the cure of intermittent fevers, it must be taken 
 to a greater extent. 
 
 Tincture of Guaiaeum, 
 
 Take of guaiacum, 4 ounces; rectified spirits of 
 wine, 2 pints. Digest for 7 days and filter. 
 
 What is called gum guaiacum is, in fact, a resin, 
 and perfectly soluble in alcohol. This solution \a 
 a powerful stimulating sudorific, and maybe given 
 in doses of about an ounce in rheumatic and 
 asthmatic cases. 
 
 Ammoniated Tincture of Guaiacum. 
 
 Take of resin of guaiacum, in powder, 4 ounces ; 
 ammoniated alcohol, in powder, 1 pounds. Digest 
 for 7 days and filter through a paper. 
 
 This is a very elegant and efficacious tincture; 
 the ammoniated spirit readily dissolving the resin, 
 and, at the same time, promoting its medical vir- 
 tues. In rheumatic cases, a tea, or even table- 
 epoonful, taken every morning and evening, in 
 any convenient vehicle, particularly in milk, has 
 proved of singular service. 
 
 Compound Tincture of Benzoin. 
 
 Take of benzoin, 3 ounces ; purified storax, 2 
 ounces; balsam of Tolu, 1 ounce; socotrine aloes, 
 Jan ounce; rectified spirits of wine, 2 pints. Digest 
 for 7 days and filter. 
 
 This preparation may be considered as an ele- 
 gant simplification of some very complicated com- 
 positions, which were celebrated under different 
 names; such as Baume de Commandeur, Wade's 
 Balsam, Friar's Balsam, Jesuit's Drops, etc. These, 
 in general, consisted of a confused farrago of dis- 
 cordant substances. The dose is a teaspoonful in 
 some warm water four times a day, in chronic 
 bronchitis and spitting of blood. It is useful, also, 
 when applied on lint, to recent wounds, and serves 
 the purpose of a scab, but must not be soon re- 
 moved. Poured on sugar it sometimes checks 
 spitting of blood immediately. 
 
 Tincture of Catechu. 
 
 Take of extract of catechu, 3 ounces ; cinnamon, 
 bruised, 2 ounces; diluted alcohol, 2 pints. Digest 
 for seven days, and strain through paper. 
 
 The cinnamon is a very useful addition to the 
 catechu, not or-ly as it warms the stomach, but 
 likewise as it co-vers its roughness and astringency, 
 
 This tincture is of service in all kinds of deflux- 
 ions, catarrhs, loosenesses, and other disorders 
 where astringent medicines are indicated. From 
 one to three teaspoonsful may be taken every now 
 and then, in red wine, or any other proper vehicle 
 Godbold's Vegetable Balsam. 
 
 A pound of sugar candy, dissolved by heat, in 
 a quantity of white wine vinegar, and evaporated 
 to the measure of 1 pint, during which operation 
 as much garlic as possible is dissolved with it, an- 
 swers all the purposes of Godbold's Vegetable Bal- 
 sam, and is probably the same medicine. 
 Spirit of Nutmeg. 
 
 Take of bruised nutmegs, 2 ounces; proof spirit, 
 
 1 gallon; water sufficient t; prevent burning. 
 Distil off a gallon. 
 
 This is used to take off the bad flavor of medi- 
 cine, and is a grateful cordial. 
 
 Lavender Water. 
 
 The common mode of preparing this, is to put 
 
 3 drachms of the essential oil of lavender, and a 
 drachm of the essence of ambergris, into 1 pint of 
 spirit of wine. 
 
 Water of pure Ammonia. 
 
 Take of sal ammoniac, 1 pound; quick-lime, 2 
 pounds; water, 1 gallon. Add to the lime two 
 pints of the water. Let them stand together an 
 hour; then add the sal ammonia, and the other 
 six pints of water, boiling, and immediately cover 
 the vessel. Pour out the liquor when cold, and 
 distil off, with a slow fire, one pint. This spirit 
 is too acrimonious for internal use, and has there- 
 fore been chiefly employed for smelling in faint- 
 ings, etc., though, when properly diluted, it may 
 be given inwardly with safety. 
 
 Water of Acetated Ammonia. 
 
 Take of ammonia, by weight, 2 ounces; dis- 
 tilled vinegar, 4 pints ; or as much as is sufficient 
 to saturate the ammonia. 
 
 This is an excellent diaphoretic saline liquor. 
 Taken warm in bed, it proves commonly a power- 
 ful sudorific; and as it operates without heat, it 
 is used in febrile and inflammatory disorders, 
 where medicines of the warm kind, if they fail of 
 ^procuring sweat, aggravate the distemper. Its 
 action may likewise be determined to the kidneys, 
 by walking about in cool air. The common dose 
 is half an ounce, either by itself, or along with 
 other medicines adapted to the intention. Its 
 strength is not a little precarious, depending on 
 that of the vinegar. 
 
 Black Pectoral Lozenges. 
 
 Take of extract of liquorice, gum arabic, each, 
 
 4 ounces ; white sugar, 8 ounces. 
 
 Dissolve them in warm water, and strain ; then 
 evaporate the mixture over a gentle fire till it be 
 of a proper consistence for being formed into 
 lozenges, which are to be cut out of any shape. 
 White Pectoral Lozenges. 
 
 Take of fine sugar, 1 pound; gum arabic, 4 
 ounces; starch, 1 ounce; flowers of benzoin, of 
 a drachm. 
 
 Having beaten them all in a powder, make them 
 into a proper mass with rose-water, so as to form 
 lozenges. 
 
 These compositions are very agreeable pecto- 
 rals, and may be used at pleasure. They are cal- 
 culated for promoting expectoration, and allay- 
 ing the tickling in the throat, which provokes 
 coughing. 
 
 Syrup of Ginger. 
 
 Take of ginger, bruised, 4 ounces ; boiling dis- 
 tilled water, 3 pints. 
 
 Macerate four hours, and strain the liquor; 
 then add double refined sugar, and make into a 
 syrup. 
 
 This syrup promotes the circulation through 
 the extreme vessels; it is to be given in torpid 
 and phlegmatic habits, where the stomach is sub- 
 ject to be loaded with slime, and the bowels dis- 
 tended with flatulency. Hence it enters into the 
 compound tincture of cinnamon and the aromatic 
 powder. 
 
 Dyspeptic patients, from hard drinking, and 
 those subject to flatulency and gout, have been 
 known to receive considerable benefit from the use 
 of ginger tea, taking two or three cupful s for 
 breakfast, suiting it to theii palate. 
 
USEFUL DOMESTIC MEDICINES. 
 
 177 
 
 Syrup of Poppies, 
 
 Take of the heads of white poppies, dried, 5J 
 pounds; double refined sugar, 6 pounds; distilled 
 water, 8 gallons. 
 
 Slice and bruise the heads, then boil them in 
 the water to three gallons, and press out the de- 
 eoction. Reduce this, by boiling, to about four 
 pints, and strain it while hot through a sieve, 
 then through a thin woollen cloth, and set it aside 
 fcr twelve hours, that the grounds may subside. 
 Boil the liquor poured off from the grounds to 
 three pints, and dissolve the sugar in it, that it 
 may be made a syrup. 
 
 This syrup, impregnated with the narcotic 
 matter of the poppy-head, is given to children in 
 doses of two or three drachms, and to adults of 
 from half an ounce to one ounce and upwards, 
 for easing pain, procuring rest, and answering the 
 other intentions of mild medication. Particular 
 care is requisite in its preparation, that it may be 
 always made, as nearly as possible, of the same 
 strength. 
 
 Syrup of Violets. 
 
 Take of fresh flowers of the violet, 1 pound; 
 boiling distilled water, 3 pints. 
 
 Macerate for twenty-five hours, and strain the 
 liquor through a cloth, without pressing, and add 
 double refined sugar, to make the syrup. This 
 is an agreeable laxative medicine for young chil- 
 dren. 
 
 Syrup of Squills. 
 
 Take of vinegar of squills, 2 pounds; double 
 refined sugar, in powder, 3i pounds. 
 
 Dissolve the sugar with a gentle heat, so as to 
 form a syrup. 
 
 This syrup is used chiefly in doses of a spoon- 
 ful or two for promoting expectoration, which it 
 does very powerfully. It is also given as an 
 emetic to children. 
 
 Oxymel of Squills. 
 
 Take of clarified honey, 3 pounds; vinegar of 
 squills, 2 pints. 
 
 Boil them in a glass vessel, with a slow fire, to 
 the thickness of a syrup. 
 
 Oxymel of squills is a useful aperient, deter- 
 gent, and expectorant, and of great service in hu- 
 moral asthmas, coughs, and other disorders where 
 thick phlegm abounds. It is given in doses of 
 two or three drachms, along with some aromatic 
 water, as that of cinnamon, to prevent the great 
 nausea which it would otherwise be apt to excite. 
 In large doses it proves emetic. 
 
 Vinegar of Squills. 
 
 Take of squills, recently dried, 1 pound; vine- 
 gar, 6 pints ; proof spirit, pint. 
 
 Macerate the squills with the vinegar, in a glass 
 vessel, with a gentle heat, for twenty-four hours, 
 then express the liquor, and set it aside until the 
 faeces subside. To the decanted liquor add the 
 spirit,. 
 
 Vinegar of squills is a medicine of great anti- 
 quity. It is a very powerful promoter of secretion, 
 and hence it is frequently used with great success 
 as a diuretic and expectorant. The dose of it 
 is from a drachm to half an ounce. Where crudi- 
 ties abound in the first passages, it may be given 
 at first in a larger dose, to evacuate them by vom- 
 iting. It, is most conveniently exhibited along 
 with cinnamon, or other agreeable aromatic wa- 
 ters, wnich prevent the nausea it would otherwise, 
 even in small doses, be apt to occasion. 
 
 Tar-water. 
 
 Take of tar, 2 pints ; water, 1 gallon. Mix, by 
 Stirring them with a wooden rod for a quarter of 
 12 
 
 an hour, and, after the tar has subsided, strain th 
 liquor, and keep it in well-corked phials. ^ 
 
 Tar-water should have the color of white wine, 
 and an empyreumatic taste. It is frequently 
 used as a remedy in chronic bronchitis. It acts 
 as a stimulant, raising the pulse and increasing 
 the discharge by the skin and kidneys. It may 
 be drunk to the extent of a pint or two in the 
 course of a day. 
 
 Decoction of Sarsaparilla. 
 
 Take of sarsaparilla root, cut, 6 ounces; dis- 
 tilled water, 8 pints. 
 
 After macerating for two hours with a heat about 
 195, then take out the root and bruise it ; add it 
 again to the liquor, and macerate it for two hours 
 longer; then boil down the liquor to 4 pints, and 
 strain it. The dose is from 4 ounces to half a 
 pint, or more, daily. 
 
 Compound Decoction of Sarsaparilla. 
 
 Take of sarsaparilla root, cut and bruised, 6 
 ounces ; the bark of sassafras root, the shavings 
 of guaiacum wood, liquorice root, each 1 ounce; 
 the bark of mezereon root, 3 drachms; distilled 
 water, 10 pints. 
 
 Digest with a gentle heat for six hours; then 
 boil down the liquor to one-half (or five pints), 
 adding the bark of the mezereon root towards the 
 end of boiling. Strain off the liquor. The dose 
 is the same as the last, and for the same purposes. 
 
 These decoctions are of use in purifying the 
 blood, and resolving obstructions in scorbutic 
 and scrofulous cases ; also in cutaneous eruptions, 
 and many other diseases. Obstinate swellings, 
 that had resisted the effects of other remedies 
 for above twelve months, have been said to be 
 cured by drinking a quart of decoction of this 
 kind daily for some weeks. Decoctions of sarsa- 
 parilla ought to be made fresh every day, for they 
 very soon become quite fetid, and unfit for use, 
 sometimes in less than twenty-four hours, in 
 warm weather. 
 
 Decoction of the Woods. 
 
 Take of guaiacum raspings, 3 ounces; raisins, 
 stoned, 2 ounces; sassafras root, sliced, liquorice 
 root, bruised, each 1 ounce; water, 10 pounds. 
 
 Boil the guaiacum and raisins with the water, 
 over a gentle fire, to the consumption of one-half, 
 adding, towards the end, the sassafras and liquor- 
 ice, and strain the decoction without expression. 
 
 This decoction is of use in some rheumatic and 
 cutaneous affections. It may be taken by itself, to 
 the quantity of a quarter of a pint, twice or thrice 
 a day, or used as an assistant in a course of mer- 
 curial or antimonial alteratives ; the patient in 
 either case keeping warm, in order to promote the 
 operation of the medicine. 
 
 Water-grueL 
 
 Put a large spoonful of oatmeal into a pint of 
 water, stir it well together, and let it boil 3 or 4 
 minutes, stirring it often. Then strain it through 
 a sieve, put in some salt according to taste, and, if 
 necessary, add a piece of fresh butter. Stir with 
 a spoon until the butter is melted, when it will be 
 fine and smooth. Raisins are often added to it. 
 
 Panada. 
 
 Put a blade of mace, a large piece of the crumb 
 of bread, and a quart of water, in a clean sauce- 
 pan. Let it boil two minutes, then take out the 
 bread, and bruise it very fine in a basin. Mix 
 with it as much of the warm water as it will re- 
 quire, pour away the rest, and sweeten it to the 
 taste of the patient. If necessary, put in a piece 
 of butter of the size of a walnut, but add no wine. 
 Grate in a little nutmeg if requisite. 
 
178 
 
 MEDICINE. 
 
 Isinglass Jelly, etc. 
 
 Put an ounce of isinglass and half an ounce of 
 cloves into a quart of water. Boil it down to a 
 pint, strain it upon a pound of loaf sugar, and 
 when cold add a little wine, when it will be fit for 
 use. A very nourishing beverage may be made 
 by merely boiling the isinglass with milk, and 
 sweetening with lump sugar. 
 
 Wine Whey. 
 
 Boil a pint of milk, and put into it a glass of 
 sherry or Madeira wine. Set it over the fire till 
 it boils again ; then put it aside till the curd has 
 settled; then strain it, and sweeten to taste. 
 
 Beef-tea. 
 
 Cut a pound of lean beef into small pieces, pour 
 over it a pint of cold water, and let it soak two 
 hours; then boil it half an hour. Remove the 
 scum that rises and all the fat or oil from the top. 
 Pour off, and season with salt, but do not strain it. 
 
 Beef-essence. 
 
 Put a pound of lean beef, cut into pieces, into a 
 porter bottle, without water; cork it loosely, and 
 place it in a pot of water, which should be made 
 to boil around it for an hour. The essence of the 
 meat will thus be drawn out in the liquid state, 
 
 Transparent Soup for Convalescents. 
 Cut the meat from a leg of veal into small pieces, 
 and break the bone into several bits. Put the meat 
 into a very large jug, and the bones at top, with 
 a bunch of common sweet herbs, a quarter of an 
 ounce of mace, and half a pound of Jordan al- 
 monds, finely blanched and beaten. Pour on it 
 4 quarts of boiling water, and let it stand all 
 night covered, close by the fireside. The next day 
 put it into a well-tinned saucepan, and let it boil 
 slowly, till it is reduced to 2 quarts. Be careful, 
 at the time it is boiling, to skim it, and take off 
 the fat as it rises. Strain into a punch-bowl, and 
 when settled for two hours pour it into a clean 
 saucepan, clear from the sediments, if any. Add 
 3 ounces of rice or 2 ounces of vermicelli, previ- 
 ously boiled in a little water. When once more 
 bciled, it will be fit for use. 
 
 Seidlitz Powders. 
 
 Take of Rochelle salts, 1 drachm; carbonate of 
 soda, 25 grains; tartaric acid, 20 grains. 
 
 Dissolve the two first in a tumbler of water; 
 then add the latter, and swallow without loss of 
 time. 
 
 SALUTARY CAUTIONS. 
 Purification of Water by Charconl. 
 
 Nothing has been found so effectual for preserv- 
 ing water sweet at sea, during long voyages, as 
 charring the insides of the casks well before they 
 are filled. Care ought at the same time to be 
 taken that the casks should never be filled with 
 sea-water, as sometimes happens, in order to save 
 the trouble ef shifting the ballast, because this 
 tends to hasten the 'corruption of the fresh water 
 afterwards put into them. When the water be- 
 comes impure and offensive at sea, from ignorance 
 of the preservative effect produced on it by char- 
 ring the casks previous to their being filled, it 
 may be rendered perfectly sweet by putting a 
 little fresh charcoal, in powder into each cask be- 
 fore it is tapped, or by filtering it through fresh- 
 burnt and coarsely powdered charcoal. 
 
 Cleanliness. 
 
 To preserve seamen in health and prevent the 
 prevalence of scurvy and other diseases, it will be 
 
 further necessary to keep the ship perfectly clean 
 and to have the different parts of it daily purified 
 by a free admission of air when the weather will 
 admit of it, and likewise by frequent fumigations. 
 This precaution will more particularly be neces- 
 sary for the purification of such places as are re- 
 markably close and confined. 
 
 Prevention of Dampness and Cold. 
 
 The coldness and dampness of the atmosphere 
 are to be corrected by sufficient fires. 
 
 Cleanliness on board of a ship is highly neces- 
 sary for the preservation of the health of seamen, 
 but the custom of frequent swabbings or washings 
 between the decks, as is too frequently practised, 
 is certainly injurious, and greatly favors the pro- 
 duction of scurvy and other diseases by a constant 
 dampness being kept up. 
 
 Exercise and Amusements. 
 
 The men should be made to air their hammocks 
 and bedding every fine day; they should wash 
 their bodies and apparel often, for which purpose 
 an adequate supply of soap ought to be allowed, 
 and they should change their linen and other 
 clothes frequently. In rainy weather, on being 
 relieved from their duty on deck by the succeed- 
 ing watch, they should take off their wet clothes 
 instead of keeping them on and lying down in 
 them, as they are too apt to do. Two sets of ham- 
 mocks ought to be provided for them. In fine, 
 pleasant weather, and after their usual duty is 
 over, they should be indulged in any innocent 
 amusement that will keep their minds as well as 
 bodies in a state of pleasant activity, and perhaps 
 none is then more proper than dancing. Thig 
 makes a fiddle or a pipe and tabor desirable ac- 
 quisitions on board of every ship bound on a long 
 voyage. 
 
 Effects of Climate, etc. 
 
 In warm climates the crews of ships are heal- 
 thier at sea when the air is dry and serene, and 
 the heat moderated by gentle breezes, than when 
 rainy or damp weather prevails ; and they usually 
 enjoy better health when the ship is moored at a 
 considerable distance from the shore, and to wind- 
 ward of any marshy ground or stagnant waters, 
 than when it is anchored to leeward of these and 
 lies close in with the land. Masters of vessels 
 stationed at or trading to any parts between the 
 tropics, will therefore act prudently when they 
 have arrived at their destined port, to anchor at a 
 considerable distance from the shore, and as far to 
 windward of all swamps, pools and lakes as can 
 conveniently be done, as the noxious vapors 
 which will be wafted to the crew when the ship is 
 in a station of this nature will not fail to give rise 
 to disease among them. 
 
 Caution to be observed when on Shore. 
 
 When unavoidably obliged to submit to such an 
 inconvenience, some means ought to be adopted 
 to prevent disagreeable consequences from ensu- 
 ing. For this purpose a large sail should be 
 hoisted at the foremast, or most windward part 
 of the ship, so as to prevent the noxious vapors 
 from coming abaft; the cabin, steera.ee and be- 
 tween the decks should be fumigated now and 
 then, and the seamen allowed to smoke tobacco 
 moderately. 
 
 Unless absolutely necessary it will be improper 
 to permit any of the crew to sleep from on board 
 when stationed off an unhealthy shore, but whea 
 necessity obliges them to do so for the purpose 
 of wooding or watering, a tent or marquee should 
 be erected, if a proper house cannot be procured, 
 and this should be pitched on the dryest and 
 highest spot that can be found, being so situated 
 
SALUTABY CAUTIONS. 
 
 179 
 
 as that the door shall open towards the sea. Un- 
 der cover of this a sufficient number of hammocks 
 are to be suspended for the accommodation of the 
 men by night, as they she uld by no means be suf- 
 fered to sleep on the open ground. 
 
 If the tent happens unfortunately to be in the 
 neighborhood of a morass, or has unavoidably 
 been pitched on flat, moist ground, it will be ad- 
 visable to keep up a constant fire in it by day as 
 well as by night, and as a further preventive 
 against those malignant disorders which are apt 
 to arise in such situations, the men should be di- 
 rected to smoke moderately of tobacco, and to 
 take a half or a quarter of a wineglassful of the 
 compound tincture of Peruvian bark every morn- 
 ing on an empty stomach, and the same quantity 
 again at night. 
 
 Cautions when in Tropical Climates. 
 In tropical climates the healthiness of seamen 
 will much depend upon avoiding undue exposure 
 to the sun, rain, night air, long fasting, intempe- 
 rance, unwholesome shore duties, especially du- 
 ring the sickly season, and upon the attention paid 
 to the various regulations and preventive meas- 
 ures. The bad effects of remaining too long in 
 port at any one time (independent of irregulari- 
 ties of harbor duties, particularly after sunset, as 
 well as during his meridian power) cannot be too 
 strongly adverted to by the commander of every 
 ship, and therefore a measure of the highest im- 
 portance in the navy is the employment of ne- 
 groes and natives of the country, or at least men 
 accustomed to the torrid zone, in wooding, water- 
 ing, transporting stores, rigging, clearing, careen- 
 ing ships, etc., and in fine in all such occupations 
 as might subject the seamen to excessive heat or 
 noxious exhalations, which cannot fail to be highly 
 dangerous to the health of the unacclimated 
 seaman. 
 
 The practice of heaving down vessels of war in 
 the West Indies, in the ordinary routine of ser- 
 vice at least, cannot be too highly deprecated, as 
 well from the excessive fatigue and exertion it 
 demands as because it is a process which requires 
 for its execution local security, or in other words 
 a land that is locked, and therefore generally an 
 unhealthy harbor. The instances of sickness 
 and mortality from the effects of clearing a foul 
 hold in an unhealthy harbor are too numerous to 
 be specified. 
 
 Intoxication. 
 A very productive source of disease in warm 
 climates among seamen is an immoderate use of 
 spirituous and fermented liquors, as they are too 
 apt, whilst in a state of intoxication, to throw 
 themselves on the bare ground where, perhaps 
 they lie exposed for many hours to the influence 
 of the meridian sun, the heavy dews of the eve- 
 ning or the dam\i, chilling air of the night. The 
 commander of a ship who pays attention to the 
 health of his crew, will therefore take every pos 
 Bible precaution to prevent his men from being 
 guilty of an excess of this nature, and likewise 
 from lying out in the open air when overcome by 
 fatigue and hard labor. 
 
 The different voyages of that celebrated navi- 
 gator, Captain Cook, as well as that of the unfor- 
 tunate La Perouse, incontestibly prove that by due 
 care and a proper regimen seamen may be pre- 
 eerved from the scurvy and other diseases which 
 have formerly been inseparable from long sea 
 voyages, and that they can thus support the fa- 
 tigues of the longest navigations in all climates 
 and under a burning sun. It has been thoroughly 
 proved, also, that grog is not at all necessary, or 
 in the long run, beneficial to seamen. In times 
 
 f the greatest exposure and fatigue, as during 
 severe storms, hot coffee has been found a moro 
 effective stimulant than spirits, without the dan- 
 gers connected with the use of the latter. 
 
 Noxious Vapors. 
 
 Smoking or fumigating ships with charcoal or 
 sulphur, is the most effectual means of killing all 
 kinds of vermin, and is therefore always resorted 
 ;o; but it is recommended that no sailor or boy 
 be allowed to go under the decks until the hatches, 
 and all the other openings, have been for three 
 aours uncovered; in that time all noxious vapors 
 will be effectually dissipated. 
 
 Captain Cook's Rules for Preserving the Health 
 of Seamen. 
 
 1. The crew to be at three watches. The men 
 will by this means have time to shift and dry 
 themselves, and get pretty well refreshed by sleep 
 before called again to duty. When there is no 
 pressing occasion, seamen ought to be refreshed 
 with as much uninterrupted sleep as a common 
 day laborer. 
 
 2. To have dry clothes to shift themselves after 
 getting wet. One of the officers to see that every 
 man, on going wet from his watch, be immediately 
 shifted with dry clothes, and the same on going 
 to bed. 
 
 3. To keep their persons, hammocks, bedding, 
 and clothes clean and dry. This commander 
 made his men pass in review before him one day 
 in every week, and saw that they had changed 
 their linen, and were as neat and clean as circum- 
 stances would admit. He had also every day the 
 hammocks carried on the booms, or some other 
 airy part of the ship, unlashed, and the bedding 
 thoroughly shaken and aired. When the weather 
 prevented the hammocks being carried on deck, 
 they were constantly taken down, to make room, 
 for the fires, the sweeping, and other operations. 
 When possible, fresh water was always allowed to 
 the men to wash their clothes, as soap will not 
 mix with sea-water, and linen washed in brine 
 never thoroughly dries. 
 
 4. To keep the ship clean between decks. 
 
 5. To have frequent fires between decks, and at 
 the bottom of the well. Captain Cook's method 
 was to nave iron pots with dry wood, which he 
 burned between decks, in the well, and other parts 
 of the ship; during which time some of the crew 
 were employed in rubbing, with canvas or oakum, 
 every part that had the least damp. Where the 
 heat from the stoves did not readily absorb the 
 moisture, loggerheads, heated red hot, and laid on 
 sheets of iron, speedily effected the purpose. 
 
 6. Proper attention to be paid to the ship's 
 coppers, to keep them clean and free from ver- 
 
 7. The fat that is boiled out of the salt beef or 
 pork, never to be given to the men. 
 
 8. The men to be allowed plenty of fresh water, 
 at the ship's return to port; the water remaining 
 on board to be started, and fresh water from the 
 shore to be taken in its room. 
 
 By means of the above regulations (in addition 
 to rules relative to temperance, and supplying the 
 crews as much as possible with fresh meat and 
 vegetables), this celebrated navigator performed a 
 voyage of upwards of three years, in every climate 
 of the globe, with the loss of only one man. 
 To obtain Fresh Water from the Sea. 
 
 The method of obtaining fresh water from the 
 sea by distillation, was introduced into the Eng- 
 lish navy in the year 1770, by Dr. Irving, for 
 which he obtained a parliamentary reward oi 
 5000. 
 
180 
 
 MEDICINE. 
 
 In order to give a clear notion of Dr. Irving's 
 method, let us suppose a teakettle to be made 
 without a fpout, and with a hole in the lid in the 
 place of the knob; the kettle being filled with 
 sea-water, the fresh vapor, which arises from the 
 water as it boils, will issue through the hole in 
 the lid ; into that hole fit the mouth of a tobacco 
 pipe, letting the stem have a little inclination 
 downwards, then will the vapor of fresh water 
 take its course through the stem of the tube, and 
 tnay be collected by fitting a proper vessel to its 
 end. 
 
 This would be an apt representation of Dr. Ir- 
 ving's contrivance, in which he has luted or 
 adapted a tin, iron, or tinned copper tube, of suit- 
 able dimensions, to the lid of the common kettle 
 used for boiling the provisions on board a ship; 
 the fresh vapor which arises from boiling sea- 
 water in the kettle passes, as by common distil- 
 lation, through this tube into a hogshead, which 
 serves as a receiver; and in order that the vapor 
 may be readily condensed, the tube is kept cool 
 by being constantly wetted with a mop dipped in 
 cold sea-water. The waste water running from 
 the mop may be carried off by means of two 
 boards nailed together, like a spout. Dr. Irving 
 particularly remarks, that only three-fourths of 
 the sea-water should be distilled; the brine is 
 then to be let off and the copper replenished, as 
 the water distilled from the remaining concen- 
 trated brine is found to have a disagreeable taste, 
 and as the farther continuation of the distillation 
 is apt to be injurious to the vessels. When the 
 water begins to boil, likewise, the vapor should be 
 allowed to pass freely for a minute; this will 
 effectually cleanse the tube and upper part of the 
 boiler. 
 
 To render Sea-water capable of Washing Linen. 
 
 It is well known that sea-water cannot be em- 
 ployed for washing clothes. It refuses to dissolve 
 soap, and possesses all the properties of hard 
 water. 
 
 This is a great inconvenience to seamen, whose 
 allowance of fresh water is necessarily limited, 
 and it prevents them from enjoying many of those 
 comforts of cleanliness which contribute not a 
 little to health. The method of removing this 
 defect is exceedingly simple, and by no means 
 expensive. It was pointed out by Dr. Mitchell, 
 of New York: Drop into sea-water a solution 
 of soda or potash. It will become milky, in con- 
 sequence of the decomposition of the earthy salts, 
 and the precipitation of the earths. This addi- 
 tion renders it soft, and capable of washing. Its 
 milkiness will have no injurious effect. 
 
 PRESERVATION FROM DROWNING AND 
 SHIPWRECK. 
 
 When a Man falls Overboard. 
 
 The instant an alarm is given that a man is 
 overboard, the ship's helm should be put down, 
 and she should be hove in stays; a hen-coop or 
 other object that can float should also be thrown 
 oreiboard as near the nuin as possible, with a 
 rope tied to it, and carefully kept sight of, as it 
 will prove a beacon towards which the boat may 
 pull as soon as lowered down. A primary object 
 is, having a boat ready to lower down at a mo- 
 ment's notice, which vshould be hoisted up at the 
 stern if most convenient; the lashings, tackle, 
 etc., to be always kept clear, and a rudder, tiller, 
 and spare spar to be kept in her. When dark, 
 she should not be without a lantern and a com- 
 pass. 
 
 There should also be kept in her a rope with a 
 
 running bowline, ready to fix in or to throw to 
 the person in danger. Coils of small rope, with 
 running bowlines, should also be kept in the 
 chains, quarters and abaft, ready to throw over, 
 as it most generally occurs that men pass close 
 to the ship's side, and have often been miracu- 
 lously saved by clinging to ropes. 
 Upsetting of a Boat. 
 
 If a person should fall out of a boat, or the boat 
 upset by going foul of a cable, etc., or should he 
 fall off the quays, or indeed fall into any water, 
 from which he cannot extricate himself, but must 
 wait some little time for assistance had he pres- 
 ence of mind enough to whip off his hat, and hold 
 it by the brim, placing his fingers within side of 
 the crown (top upwards), he would be able, by 
 this method, to keep his mouth above water till 
 assistance should reach him. It often happens 
 that danger is apprehended long before we are in- 
 volved in the peril, although there may be time 
 enough to prepare this, or adopt any other method. 
 Travellers, in fording rivers at unknown fords, or 
 where shallows are deceitful, might make use of 
 this method with advantage. 
 
 Cork Waistcoats. 
 
 Provide a cork waistcoat, composed of four 
 pieces, two for the breast, and two for the back, 
 each pretty near in length and breadth to the 
 quarters of a waistcoat without flaps; the whole 
 is to be covered with coarse canvas, with two 
 holes to put the arms through. There must be a 
 space left between the two back pieces, and the 
 same betwixt each back and breast piece, that 
 they may fit the easier to the body. By this 
 means the waistcoat is open only before, and may 
 be fastened on the wearer by strings ; or if it 
 should be thought more secure, with buckles and 
 leather straps. This waistcoat may be made up 
 at a small expense. 
 
 If those who use the sea occasionally, and espe- 
 cially those who are obliged to be almost con- 
 stantly there, were to use these waistcoats, it 
 would be next to impossible that they should be 
 drowned. 
 
 Further means. 
 
 It will likewise be proper to prepare an oil-skin 
 bag, on going to sea, for a temporary supply of 
 provisions, in case of shipwreck. If suddenly 
 plunged into the water, and unable to swim, it 
 will be necessary to keep the hands and arms 
 under the water few animals being capable of 
 drowning, owing to their inability to lift their fore 
 legs over their heads. 
 
 The legs, therefore, being necessarily immersed 
 in the water, the difference between the specific 
 gravity of the animal and the water is sufficient to 
 enable it to keep its nostrils and mouth above the 
 water, and therefore it is not suffocated by the 
 fluid, but breathes freely. But man, on the con- 
 trary, being able to lift his hands over his head, 
 and generally doing so in case of this accident, his 
 hands and arms make up the difference in specific 
 gravity, and his head, impelled by the weight of 
 his hands and arms below the water, his body 
 fills, and he is consequently choked and suffocated. 
 The remedy therefore is, in all such cases, to keep 
 down the hands and arms, and as a further secu- 
 rity, to act with them under and against the 
 water, it will then be impossible to sink, unless 
 the weight of clothes or other circumstances ope- 
 rate to the contrary. 
 
 The Marine Spencer. 
 
 The marine spencer is made in the form of a 
 girdle, of a proper diameter to fit the body, and 
 six inches broad, composed of ab< ut 500 old tav- 
 
MEDICINE. 
 
 181 
 
 irn corks, strung upon a strong twine, well lashed 
 Together with lay-cord, covered with canvas, and 
 painted in oil so as to make it water-proof. Two 
 tapes or cords, about two feet long, are fastened 
 to the back of the girdle with loops at the ends. 
 Another tape or cord of the same length, having 
 a few corks strung to the middle of it, is covered 
 with cnnvas painted. A pin of hard wood, three 
 inches long, and half an inch in diameter, is fast- 
 ened to the front of the girdle by a tape or cord, 
 about three inches long. To use the spencer, it- 
 should be slipped from the feet close up to the 
 arms, the tapes or cords are to be brought one 
 over each shoulder, and fastened by the loops to 
 the pin ; those between the legs are to be fastened 
 to the other pin. A person thus equipped, though 
 unacquainted with swimming, may safely trust 
 himself to the waves; for he will float, head and 
 shoulders above water, in any storm, and by pad- 
 dling with his hands, may easily gain the shore. 
 Such a spencer may also be made of cork shavings 
 put into a long canvas bag. 
 
 It has also been suggested, that every part of 
 the usual dress of the sailor should be made with 
 a view to preserving his life, in eases of accident; 
 and for this purpose that a quantity of cork shav- 
 ings or clippings should be quilted into his jacket 
 about the collar and neck, between the outside and 
 inside lining; or as a belt of considerable breadth 
 across the back and shoulders, then principally 
 omitted under the arms, and resumed over the 
 chest and stomach, yet not so much as to create 
 inconvenience. If in these, and other parts of 
 his dress, so much cork could be conveniently 
 worked, as would give the sailor an opportunity 
 of recovering himself, and making use of his own 
 powers in cases of contingency, many valuable 
 lives might be saved. 
 
 Bamboo Habit. 
 
 The bamboo habit is an invention of the Chi- 
 nese, by the use of which a person, unskilled in the 
 art of swimming, may easily keep himself above 
 water. The Chinese merchant?, when going on a 
 voyage, are said always to provide themselves 
 with this simple apparatus, to save their lives in 
 eases of danger from shipwreck. It is constructed 
 by placing four bamboos horizontally, two be- 
 fore, and two behind the body of each person, so 
 that they project about twenty-eight inches; 
 these are crossed on each side by two others, and 
 the whole properly secured, leaving an interme- 
 diate space for the body. When thus formed, the 
 person in danger slips it over his head, and ties it 
 securely to the waist, by which simple means he 
 cannot possibly sink. 
 
 To extricate Persons from broken Ice. 
 Let two or more persons hold a rope or ropes, 
 at both ends, stretched over the broken ice; so 
 that the drowning person may catch hold of it. 
 
 The Life-Boat. 
 
 The life-boat is generally thirty feet long, and 
 in form much resembles a common Greenland 
 boat, except the bottom, which is much flatter. 
 She is lined with cork, inside and outside of the 
 gunwale, about two feet in breadth, and the seats 
 underneath are filled with cork also. 
 
 She is rowed by ten men, double banked, and 
 steered by two men with oars, one at each end, 
 both ends being alike. Long poles are provided 
 for the men, to keep the boat from being driven 
 broadside to the shore, either in going off or land- 
 ing. About six inches from the lower poles, it 
 increases in diameter, so as to form a flat surface 
 against the sand. The weight of the cork used in 
 the boat seven hundredweight. 
 
 She draws very little water, and when full is 
 able to carry twenty people. The boat is able to 
 contend against the most tremendous sea and 
 broken water ; and never, in any one instance, 
 has she failed in bringing the crew in distress 
 into a place of safety. The men have no dread in 
 going off with her in the highest sea and broken 
 water; cork jackets were provided for them ; but 
 their confidence in the boat is so great, that they 
 do not use them. 
 
 The success attending this expedient for dimin- 
 ishing the number of unhappy individuals almost 
 daily lost in a watery grave appears to have been 
 more than equal to the most sanguine expecta- 
 tions formed of its utility; and the great object in 
 view, viz., the safety of those persons who hazard 
 their own security to preserve others, has been 
 fully accomplished. 
 
 Safe and readily constructed Life-boat. 
 
 In London Eng. a model of a life-boat was ex- 
 hibited before the Royal Humane Society, which 
 may be put together in the space of half an hour, 
 in any case of shipwreck, and which cannot sink 
 or overset, let the sea run ever so high. All that 
 is necessary to be provided is a keel or plank of 
 any convenient length, and a few pigs of iron, 
 such as vessels usually carry out for ballast. The 
 officers of the ship are to take care to keep two or 
 three empty water-casks, perfectly tight, the bung- 
 holes corked up, and a piece of tin or leather 
 nailed over them. These casks are to be lashed 
 with ropes to the keel, along with the pigs of iron 
 for ballast ; and any spare poles or spars may be 
 also lashed to the sides, so as to give the raft the 
 form of a vessel, and at each end make a lodgement 
 for the men. Any of the square sails of the ship 
 will form a lug-sail, and may speedily be adapted 
 to the new life-boat, and a strong and broad spar 
 may be lashed on as a rudder. 
 
 Another. Let a quantity of ballast, even more 
 than what is commonly used for sailing, be laid in 
 the bottom of the boat; over this lay bags filled 
 with cork, prepared for the purpose, and num- 
 bered according to their places, and if considera- 
 bly higher than the gunwales, so much the better. 
 A sail or part of one, folded, may be thrown over 
 from stem to stern, to combine and unite the sev- 
 eral parts; and, lastly, the whole is to be secured 
 together by passing ropes by so many turns as 
 may be deemed sufficient round and round over 
 the gunwales and under the keel, and these, if 
 necessary, may be hitched by a turn or two taken 
 lengthwise. 
 
 Every person either on board or holding by the 
 boat, so prepared, may be absolutely certain of 
 being carried safe through any beach whatever. 
 
 When no such preparation of cork has been 
 made, the following is proposed as a substitute: 
 
 Let a quantity of ballast, as coals in canvas, be 
 secured in its place, as well as circumstances will 
 admit; then take an empty water-cask (beer-cask, 
 or any others that are tight) and fill the boat with 
 them, and if the bilge of the cask rises considera- 
 bly higher than the gunwales, it will be so much 
 the better; let a sail then be thrown in to jam the 
 cask and ballast in their places, as well as to com- 
 bine and unite the several parts by covering all 
 fore and aft; and, lastly, let the whole be lashed 
 and secured together, in the manner" above stated. 
 It is believed the boat in this trim would always 
 continue upright on her keel, be lively and buoy- 
 ant on the water, and have sufficient efficacy to 
 support the crew of any ordinary vessel, till 
 drifted within their own depth. 
 
 It frequently happens that after men have 
 gained the shore, they perish of cold for want of 
 
182 
 
 MEDICINE. 
 
 dry clothes. As a remedy for this, every man 
 should try to secure one or two flannel or woollen 
 shirts, by wrapping them up tightly in a piece of 
 oiled cloth or silk ; and, to guard against tearing, 
 the last might be covered with canvas, or inclosed 
 in a tin box. 
 
 Further Method of Preservation in Cases of Ship- 
 wrecks. 
 
 It being the great object, in cases of shipwreck, 
 to establish a communication betrwixt the vessel 
 and the shore with the least possible delay, va- 
 rious methods have been invented and pointed out 
 for this purpose. 
 
 A common paper kite launched from the vessel, 
 and driven by the wind to the shore, has been 
 supposed capable of conveying a piece of pack- 
 thread, to which a larger rope might be attached 
 and drawn on board. 
 
 A small balloon, raised by rarefied air, might 
 be made to answer the same purpose. 
 
 A sky-rocket, of a large diameter, has also been 
 considered as capable of an equal surface, and, in- 
 deed, this method seems the best: for, besides the 
 velocity of the discharge, could it be brought to 
 act during the night, it must both point out the 
 situation of the ship, and the direction that the 
 line took in flying ashore. 
 
 Useful Hints when a Leak is Sprung. 
 
 When a vessel springs a leak near her bottom, 
 the water enters with all the force given by the 
 weight of the column of water without, which force 
 is in proportion to the difference of the level be- 
 tween the water without and that within. It enters 
 at first therefore with more force, and in greater 
 quantity than it can afterwards, when the water 
 within is higher. The bottom of the vessel, too, 
 is narrower, so that the same quantity of water, 
 coming into that narrow part, rises faster than 
 when the space for it is larger. This helps to ter- 
 rify : but, as the quantity entering is less and less 
 as the surfaces without and within become more 
 nearly equal in height, the pumps that could not 
 keep the water from rising at first, might after- 
 wards be able to prevent its rising higher, and the 
 people might remain on board in safety, without 
 hazarding themselves in an open boat on the wide 
 ocean. 
 
 Besides the equality in the height of the two 
 surfaces, there may sometimes be other causes 
 that retard the farther sinking of a leaky vessel. 
 The rising water within may arrive at quantities 
 of light wooden works, empty chests, and partic- 
 ularly empty water-casks, which, fixed so as not 
 to float themselves, may help to sustain her. 
 Many bodies which compose a ship's cargo may 
 be specifically lighter than water. All these, when 
 out of water, are an additional weight to that of 
 the ship, and she is in proportion pressed deeper 
 in the water, but as soon as these bodies are im- 
 mersed, they weigh no longer on the ship; but, 
 on the contrary, if fixed, they help to support her, 
 in proportion as they are specifically lighter than 
 the water. 
 
 Temporary Nautical Pump. 
 
 Captain Leslie, in a voyage from North America 
 lo Stockholm, adopted an excellent mode of emp- 
 tying water from his ship's hold, when the crew 
 were insufficient to perform that duty. About ten 
 or twelve feet above the pum^ he rigged out a spar, 
 one end of which projected jverboard, while the 
 other was fastened, as a lever, to the machinery 
 of the pump. To the end which projected over- 
 board was suspended a water-butt, half full, but 
 corked down; so that when the coming wave 
 raised the butt-end, the other end depressed the 
 piston of the pump; but at the retiring of the 
 
 wave this was reversed, for, by the weight of the 
 butt, the piston came up again, and with it the 
 water. Thu, without the aid of the crew, the 
 ship's hold was cleared of the water in a few 
 hours. 
 
 Another. When a vessel springs a leak at sea, 
 which cannot be discovered, instead of exhausting 
 the crew by continual working at the pumps, they 
 may form, with very little trouble, a machine to 
 discharge the water, which will work itself, with 
 out any assistance from the hands on board. 
 
 Let a spar, or spare top -mast, be cut to th 
 length of eight or ten feet, or more, according to 
 the size of the vessel; 'nortise four holes through 
 the thickest end, through which run four oars, 
 fixing them tight, exactly in the middle. To the 
 four handles nail on four blades (made of staves), 
 the size of the other ends, which will form a very 
 good water-wheel, if the oars be strong; then fix 
 into the opposite end what is commonly called a 
 crank : the iron handle of a grindstone would suit 
 extremly well ; if this is not to be had, any strong 
 bar of iron may be bent into that form, wedging 
 it tight to prevent its twisting round. Then nail 
 up a new pair of chaps on the fore part of the 
 pump, for a new handle to be fixed in, which will 
 point with its outer end to the bow of the vessel. 
 This handle will be short on the outside, but as 
 long on the inside as the diameter of the bore of 
 the pump will admit, in order that the spear may 
 be plunged the deeper, and of course the longer 
 stroke. The handle must be large enough to have 
 a slit sawed up it, sufficient to admit a stave edge- 
 ways, which must be fastened with a strong iron 
 pin, on which it may work. The lower end of the 
 stave must be bored to admit the round end of the 
 crank; then fix the shaft, with the oars (or arms) 
 over the gunwale, on two crotchets, one spiked to 
 the gunwale, and the other near the pump, cut- 
 ting in the shaft a circular notch, as well to make 
 it run easier, by lessening the friction, as to keep 
 the whole steady. A bolt is now to be fixed in 
 each crotchet close over the shaft, to keep it from 
 rising. As soon as the wheel touches the water it 
 will turn round, and the crank, by means of the 
 stave fixed on its end, will work the handle of the 
 pump. 
 
 To render the Sinking of a Ship Impossible. 
 According to the present plan of ship-building, 
 in case of a leak at sea, which cannot be kept 
 under by pumping, the ship and crew must in- 
 evitably be lost, to the great affliction and loss of 
 thousands of families. In order to prevent such 
 accidents in future, which hitherto have been too 
 common, a gentleman of the name of Williams 
 suggests an easy arrangement which, if univer- 
 sally adopted, even under the worst circumstances, 
 will enable the crew to save not only themselves, 
 but the ship and cargo likewise: 
 
 It is that every ship should be divided into four 
 equal compartments, with partitions of sufficient 
 strength ; the probability in case of a leak is that 
 it would take place in one of them, and, allowing 
 it to fill, the safety of the ship would not be en- 
 dangered, for three-fourths of the cargo would 
 remain undamaged. To prove this we will sup- 
 pose a vessel of 100 tons so divided (though the 
 plan is as applicable to a ship of 1000 tons as to 
 a canal boat), and that one of the compartments 
 filled with water; this would not increase her 
 weight more than from six to eight tons from the 
 cargo previously occupying the space and redu- 
 cing her buoyancy about one-third. Tie same 
 effect would take place was she sent out of port 
 with only one-fourth of her hull above water, 
 though vessels are commonly sent out with one- 
 third, and even more. Packets, as they carry lit- 
 
BATHING. 
 
 183 
 
 tie or no cargo, may with safety be divided into 
 three compartments. In cases of fire the advan- 
 tage is equally obvious, as any of the quarters 
 might be inundated with safety. 
 
 BATHING. 
 
 The Art of Swimming. 
 
 It has been observed before that men are 
 drowned by raising their arms above water, the 
 unbuoyed weight of which depresses the head ; 
 all other animals have neither motion nor ability 
 to act in a similar manner, and therefore swim 
 naturally. When a man therefore falls into deep 
 water, he will rise to the surface and continue 
 there if he does not elevate his hands. If he 
 move his hands under the water in any manner he 
 pleases his head will rise so high as to allow him 
 liberty to breathe, and if he move his legs as in 
 the act of walking (or rather of walking upstairs), 
 his shoulders will rise above the water, so that he 
 may use less exertion with his hands, or apply 
 them to other purposes. These plain directions 
 are recommended to the attention of those who 
 have not le;irned to swim in their youth, and they 
 will, if attended to, be found highly advantageous 
 in preserving life. 
 
 If a person falls into the water or gets out of 
 his depth and cannot swim, and if he wishes to 
 drown himself, let him kick and splash as vio- 
 lently as possible, and he will soon sink. On the 
 contrary, if impressed with the idea that he is 
 lighter than the water, he avoids all violent ac- 
 tion and calmly but steadily strives to refrain 
 from drawing his breath while under the water, 
 and keeps his head raised as much as possible, 
 and gently but constantly moves his hands and 
 feet in a proper direction, there will be a great 
 probability of his keeping afloat until some aid 
 arrives. 
 
 Cramp in Bathing. 
 
 For the cure of the eramp when swimming, Dr^ 
 Franklin recommends a vigorous and violent 
 shock of the part affected by suddenly and forci- 
 bly stretching out the leg, which should be darted 
 out of the water into the air if possible. 
 
 Precautions in Bathing. 
 
 Never venture into cold water when the body 
 is much exhausted or relaxed with heat. 
 
 Dr. Franklin relates an instance within his own 
 knowledge of four young men who, having worked 
 at harvest in the heat of the day, with a view of 
 refreshing themselves plunged into a spring of 
 cold water; two died upon the spot, a third the 
 next morning, and the fourth recovered with great 
 difficulty. 
 
 Be very careful where you bathe, even though 
 ever so good a swimmer, lest there should be weeds 
 to entangle the feet, or any thing else to endanger 
 life. It is by the neglect of this precaution that 
 many good swimmers expose themselves to greater 
 danger than those who cannot swim at all, their 
 very expertness thus becoming fatal to them by 
 tempting them into places where their destruction 
 is inevitable. 
 
 Sea-bathing. 
 
 The use of the tepid salt water bath, or indeed 
 of sea-bathing itself, when the water is warm, 
 (that is) betwen 60 and 70 of heat, is in many 
 cases beneficial, when a colder temperature would 
 be decidedly injurious. 
 
 It may be satisfactory to know that in situa- 
 tions distant from the shore, where sea- water can- 
 not be had, artificial sea-water, made by dissolv- 
 ing 4 pounds of bay-salt in 16 gallons of fresh 
 water, possesses all the properties of the water of 
 
 the sea, a small portion of sulphate of magnesia 
 excepted. 
 
 The Shower-bath. 
 
 The cold shower-bath is less alarming to ner- 
 vous persons and less liable to produce cramps 
 than cold immersion ; it may be considered as the 
 best and safest mode f cold bathing, and is re- 
 commended in many nervous complaints. 
 
 It has also afforded relief in some cases of in- 
 sanity. 
 
 Substitute for a Shower-bath. 
 
 Where the saving of expense is an object, it 
 may be effectually answered by filling a common 
 watering pot with cold water. Let the patient 
 sit undressed upon a stool, which may be placed 
 in a large tub, and let the hair, if not cut short, 
 be spread over the shoulders as loosely as possi- 
 ble. Now pour the water from the pot over the 
 patient's head, face, neck, shoulders, and all parts 
 of the body, progressively down to the feet, until 
 the whole has been thoroughly wetted. 
 
 A large sponge may, in some measure, be sub- 
 stituted for the shower bath; particularly in affec- 
 tions of the head which arise from intemperance, 
 night-watching, study, or other perplexity. Head- 
 ache, from these causes, will be greatly alleviated 
 by wiping the top and fore-part of the head with 
 a sponge frequently dipped in water. The cold 
 thus produced will check the determination of 
 blood to the head, and has often been known to 
 prevent delirium and insanity. 
 
 The Tepid-bath. 
 
 On immersing the body in a tepid-path, which 
 takes its range from 85 to 90, no striking sen- 
 sation either of heat or cold is felt. But a person 
 much chilled, will on entering the tepid-bath feel 
 the water warm, while another who has been 
 heated by exercise, will find it insensibly cold. 
 
 The tepid-bath is attended with several advan- 
 tages : the surface of the skin is by it freed from 
 that scaly matter, which always collects more or 
 less on the healthiest person; the pores of the 
 skin thus being free, the natural perspiration is 
 promoted, the limbs are rendered supple, and any 
 stiffness which may have been produced by exer- 
 tion or fatigue, is removed. Such immersion has 
 been found to allay thirst; a proof that a quantity 
 of water is absorbed, and enters the body through 
 the skin. 
 
 The tepid-bath seems the best adapted to the 
 purposes of cleanliness and healthy exercise. To 
 delicate females and young children, it is <f pri- 
 mary importance. Nothing can be more absurd 
 than the common practice of mothers and nurses 
 in washing children, no matter how sickly or un- 
 well, with cold water, under the idea of bracing 
 the constitution : whereas the use of tepid water 
 alone, is not only the most agreeable, but the most 
 proper fluid to excite the energies of the system in 
 young children. 
 
 Affusion with tepid water has generally the same 
 result, except, that if the body continue exposed 
 to the air after the affusion, a sensation of cold is 
 produced, which ought to be avoided by wiping 
 dry the upper part of the body whilst the lower 
 extremities are still covered with water. 
 
 There can be little doubt that human existence, 
 by tepid bathing, temperance, and proper exer- 
 cise, may be made more agreeable and also b 
 prolonged. 
 
 GENERAL RULES FOR PRESERVING 
 
 LIFE AND HEALTH. 
 
 Sir R. Phillip'* Rule*. 
 
 1. Rise early, and never sit up late. 
 
 2. Wash the whole body every morning with 
 
184 
 
 MEDICINE. 
 
 cold water, by means of a large sponge, and rub 
 it dry with a rough towel, or scrub the whole body 
 for ten or fifteen minutes with flesh brushes. 
 
 3. Drink water generally, and avoid excess of 
 spirits, wine, and fermented liquors. 
 
 4. Keep the body open by the free use of the 
 syringe, and remove superior obstructions by ape- 
 rient pills. 
 
 5. Sleep in a room which has free access to the 
 open air. 
 
 6. Keep the head cool by washing it when ne- 
 eessary with cold water, and abate feverish and 
 inflammatory symptoms when they arise by per- 
 severing stillness. 
 
 7. Correct symptoms of plethora and indigestion 
 by eating and drinking less per diem for a few days. 
 
 8. Never eat a hearty supper, .especially of ani- 
 mal food ; and drink wine, spirits, and beer, if 
 these are necessary, only after dinner. 
 
 Dr. Boerhaave's Rules. 
 
 This great man left, as a legacy to the world, 
 the following simple and unerring directions for 
 preserving health; they contained the sum and 
 substance of his vast professional knowledge dur- 
 ing a long and useful life : " Keep the feet warm, 
 the hend cool, and the body open." If these were 
 generally attended to the physician's aid would 
 seldom be required. 
 
 Clothing. 
 
 To adapt the dress with a scrupulous nicety to 
 the fluctuations of temperature every day, would 
 indeed require such minute attention as hardly 
 any person can bestow; but every person may 
 comply with the general rules of clothing, as far 
 as not to lay aside too early the dress of the win- 
 ter, nor to retain that of the summer too late : from 
 a neglect of which precaution thousands of lives 
 are every year sacrificed to mortality. The per- 
 fection of dress, considered merely as such, is to 
 fit without fettering the body 
 
 Air. 
 
 Nothing is more pernicious than the air of a 
 place where a numerous body of people is col- 
 lected together within doors, especially if to the 
 breath of the crowd there be added the vapors 
 of a multitude of candles, and the consumption 
 of the vital air by fires in proportion. Hence it 
 happens that persons of a delicate constitution 
 are liable to become sick or faint in a place of this 
 kind. These ought to avoid, as much as possible, 
 the air of great towns; which is also peculiarly 
 hurtful to the asthmatic and consumptive, as it is 
 likewise to hysteric women and men of weak 
 nerves. Where such people cannot always live 
 without the verge of great towns, they ought at 
 least to go out as often as they can into the open 
 air, and if possible pass the night in the whole- 
 some situation of the suburbs. 
 
 Ventilation. 
 
 Air that has long stagnated becomes extremely 
 unwholesome to breathe, and often immediately 
 fatal. Such is that of mines, wells, cellars, etc. 
 People ought therefore to be very cautious in 
 entering places of this description which have 
 been long shut up. The air of some hospitals, 
 jails, ships, etc., partakes of the same unwhole- 
 some and pernicious nature, and they ought never 
 to be destitute of ventilators those useful con- 
 trivances for expelling foul and introducing fresh 
 air into its place. The same may be said of all 
 places where numbers of people are crowded to- 
 gether; or where fires, especially charcoal fires, 
 are burning. 
 
 It is found that most plants have the property 
 of correcting bad air within a few hours, when 
 
 they are exposed to the light of the sun; but 
 that on the contrary, during the night or when 
 flowering they corrupt the common air of the at- 
 mosphere. Hence it is an unwholesome practice 
 to have shrubs in an apartment that is slept in, at 
 least when in bloom. 
 
 Ventilation of Churches. 
 
 Both in public and private buildings there are 
 errors committed which affect in an extraordinary 
 degree the salubrity of the air. Churches are 
 seldom open during all the week; they are never 
 ventilated by fires, and rarely by opening the 
 windows, while, to render the air of them yet 
 more unwholesome, frequently no attention is paid 
 to keeping them clean. The consequence of 
 which is that they are damp, musty, and apt to 
 prove hurtful to people of weak constitutions; 
 and it is a common remark that a person cannot 
 pass through a large church or cathedral, even in 
 summer, without a strong feeling of chilliness. 
 Ventilation of House*. 
 
 The great attention paid to making houses close 
 and warm, though apparently well adapted to the 
 comfort of the inhabitants, is by no means favor- 
 able to health, unless care be taken every day to 
 admit fresh air by the windows. Sometimes it 
 may be proper to make use of what is called 
 pumping the room, or moving the door backward 
 and forward for some minutes together. The prac- 
 tice of making the beds early in the day, however 
 it may suit convenience or delicacy, is doubtless 
 improper. It would be much better to turn them 
 down and expose them to the influence of the air 
 admitted by the windows. 
 
 For many persons to sleep in one room, as in 
 the ward of a hospital, is hurtful to health ; and 
 it is scarcely a less injurious custom, though often 
 practised by those who have splendid houses, for 
 two or more to sleep in a small apartment, especi- 
 ally if it be very close. 
 
 Houses situated in low marshy countries, or near 
 lakes of stagnant water, are likewise unwhole- 
 some ; as they partake of the putrid vapors ex- 
 haled in such places. To remedy this evil, those 
 who inhabit them, if they study their health, ought 
 to use a more generous diet than is requisite in 
 more dry and elevated situations. It is very im- 
 portant, too, in such localities to dry the house 
 with a fire whenever the air is damp, even in the 
 summer. 
 
 Burying in Churches, etc. 
 
 It was formerly, and is now, too common to have 
 church-yards in the middle of populous towns. 
 This is not only reprehensible in point of taste, 
 but, considering how near to the surface of the 
 earth the dead bodies in many places are deposited, 
 there must necessarily arise putrid vapors, which, 
 however imperceptible, cannot fail to contaminate 
 the air. The practice of burying in churches is 
 still more liable to censure; and not many years 
 ago, the pernicious effects of this custom were so 
 severely felt in France, as to occasion a positive 
 edict against it. 
 
 To Dissipate Noxious Vapors in Wetts, etc. 
 
 Procure a pair of smith's bellows, affixed on a 
 wooden frame, so as to work in the same manner 
 as at the forge. This apparatus being placed at 
 the edge of the well, one end of a leathern tube 
 (the nose of a fire engine), should be closely adapt- 
 ed to the nose of the bellows, and the other end 
 thrown into the well, reaching within one foot of 
 the bottom. 
 
 If the well be even so infected, that a candle 
 will not burn at a short distance from the top; 
 after blowing with the bellows only half an hour, 
 
MEDICINE. 
 
 185 
 
 the candlt will burn brightly at the bottom; then, 
 without further difficulty, proceed in the work. 
 
 It is obvious, that in cleaning vaults, or working 
 in any subterraneous place subject to damps, the 
 game method must be attended with the like bene- 
 ficial effects. 
 
 Persons whose business requires them to attend 
 upon large quantities of fermenting liquors, or to 
 work in close places with lighted charcoal, fre- 
 quently experience headache, giddiness, and other 
 disagreeable effects from the noxious vapors 
 which these exhale, and often have their health 
 impaired, or their lives endangered by a continu- 
 ance in the employment. In some cases, the dan- 
 ger, perhaps, cannot be avoided, except by going 
 into the open air, as soon as headache or giddiness 
 begins, and drinking a glass of cold water, or 
 washing the face and neck with the same. In the 
 case of persons whose work requires charcoal fires, 
 their dangerous effects may be prevented, by 
 taking care not to sit near the fire when burning, 
 or to burn it in a chimney, and when there is none, 
 to keep the door open, and place a large tub of 
 lime-water in the room. 
 
 To Protect Gilders, Jewellers, and others from the 
 Pernicious Effects of Charcoal. 
 
 It is advisable for all those who are exposed to 
 the vapors of charcoal, particularly gilders, jew- 
 ellers, refiners of metal, etc., to place a flat vessel, 
 filled with lime-water, near the stove in which the 
 charcoal is burnt. 
 
 The lime combines with the carbonic acid gas 
 evolved by the ignited charcoal, and preserves the 
 purity of the air. When the surface of the water 
 becomes covered with a film, or pellicle, it must 
 be changed for a fresh quantity. 
 
 To Prevent Lamp* from proving Pernicious to 
 Asthmatic People. 
 
 The smoking of lamps is frequently disregarded 
 in domestic life; but the fumes ascending from oil, 
 especially if it be tainted or rancid, are highly 
 pernicious, when inhaled into the lungs of asth- 
 matic persons. To prevent this, let a sponge, 
 three or four inches in diameter, be moistened 
 with pure water, and in that state be suspended be 
 a string or wire, exactly over the flame of the lamp, 
 at the distance of a few inches ; this substance will 
 absorb all the smoke emitted during the evening 
 or night, after which it should be rinsed in warm 
 water, by which means it will be again rendered 
 fit for use. 
 
 To Disinfect Substances or Places. 
 
 Put a saucer full of chloride of lime on the floor 
 of the room, and renew it every two or three days. 
 Or, sprinkle Labarraque's solution of chloride of 
 eoda over the floor or walls. Ledoyen's solution 
 of nitrate of lead will at once remove the odor of 
 most foul air. But the only absolutely certain 
 method of disinfection is by heat; for example, let 
 every person be removed from the tainted build- 
 ing or vessel, and then, by means of stoves, keep 
 up a temperature of 140 Fahr., for two or three 
 days. 
 
 To Protect Gilders from the Pernicious Effects of 
 
 Mercury. 
 
 They should have two doors in their work room, 
 opposite to each other, which they should keep 
 open, that there may be a free circulation of air. 
 They should likewise have a piece of gold applied 
 to the roof of the mouth, during the whole time 
 of the operation. This plate will attract and in- 
 tercept the mercury as they breathe, and when it 
 grows white they must cast it into the fire, that 
 the mercury may evaporate, and replace it when 
 it "j cool again. They should, indeed, have two 
 
 pieces of gold, that one may be put into the mouth 
 whilst the other is purifying and cooling ; by these 
 means they will preserve themselves from th 
 diseases and infirmities which mercury occasions. 
 Hiding and Walking. 
 
 For preserving health, there is no kind of exer- 
 cise more proper than walking, as it gives the moot 
 general action to the muscles of the body ; but, for 
 valetudinarians, riding on horseback is preferable. 
 It is almost incredible how much the constitution 
 may be strengthened by this exercise, when con- 
 tinued for a considerable time; not so much in the 
 fashionable way of a morning ride, but of making 
 long journeys, in which there is the farther advan- 
 tage of a perpetual change of air. Numbers of 
 people, reduced to a state of great weakness, have, 
 by this means, acquired a degree of vigor and 
 health, which all the medical prescriptions in the 
 world could not otherwise have procured. But it 
 is of importance, in travelling for health, that on 
 should not employ his mind in deep reflections, 
 but enjoy the company of an agreeable companion, 
 and gratify his sight with the prospect of the va- 
 rious objects around him. In this exercise, as 
 well as in every other, we ought always to begin 
 gently, and to finish gradually, never abruptly; 
 and proportion the exertion to the strength. 
 Exercise after Meals. 
 
 Exercise is hurtful immediately after meals, 
 particularly to those of nervous and irritable con- 
 stitutions, who are thence liable to heartburn, 
 eructations, and vomiting. Indeed, the instinct of 
 the inferior animals confirms the propriety of this 
 rule ; for they are all inclined to indulge them- 
 selves in rest after food. At all events, fatiguing 
 exercise should be delayed till digestion is per- 
 formed, which generally requires three or four 
 hours after eating a full meal. 
 
 Reading aloud. 
 
 This is a species of exercise much recommended 
 by the ancient physicians; and to this may be 
 joined that of speaking. They are both of great 
 advantage to those who have not sufficient leisure 
 or opportunities for other kinds of exercise. To 
 speak very loud, however, is hurtful to weak 
 lungs. Singing, as by the vibratory motion of the 
 air it shakes the lungs and the bowels of the ab- 
 domen or belly, promotes, in a remarkable degree, 
 the circulation of the blood. Hence, those seden- 
 tary artificers or mechanics, who from habit al- 
 most constantly sing at their work, unintention- 
 ally contribute much to the preservation of their 
 health. 
 
 Wind Instruments. 
 
 All these are more or less hurtful to the lungs, 
 which they weaken, by introducing much air, and 
 keeping that organ too long in a state of disten- 
 tion. On this account, persons of weak lungs, who 
 play much on the flute, hautboy, or French horn, 
 are frequently afflicted with spitting of blood, 
 cough, shortness of breath, and pulmonary con- 
 sumption. Blowing those instruments likewise 
 checks the circulation of the blood through tho 
 lungs, accumulates it towards the head, and dis- 
 poses such persons to a.poplexy. 
 Friction. 
 
 One of the most gentle and useful kinds of ex- 
 ercise is friction of the body, either by the naked 
 hand, a piece of flannel, or, what is still better, a 
 flesh-brush. This was in great esteem among the 
 ancients, and is so at present in the East Indies. 
 The whole body may be subjected to this juild 
 operation, but chiefly the belly, the spine, or back- 
 bone, and the arms and legs. Friction clears the 
 skin, resolves stagnating humors, promotes per- 
 
186 
 
 MEDICINE. 
 
 epiration, strengthens the fibres, and increases 
 the warmth and energy of the whole body. In 
 rheumatism, gout, palsy, and green sickness, it is 
 an excellent remedy. To the sedentary, the hy- 
 pochondriac, and persons troubled with indiges- 
 tion, who have not leisure to take sufficient exer- 
 cise, the daily friction of the belly, in particular, 
 cannot be too much recommended as a substitute 
 for other means, in order to dissolve the thick hu- 
 mors which may be forming in the bowels, by 
 stagnation, and to strengthen the vessels. But, 
 in rubbing the belly, the operation ought to be 
 performed in a circular direction, as being most 
 favorable to the course of the intestines, and their 
 natural action. It should be performed in the 
 morning, on an empty stomach, or, rather, in bed 
 before getting up, and continued at least for some 
 minutes at a time. 
 
 Getting Wet. 
 
 This accident is at all times less frequent in 
 towns than in the country, owing to the almost 
 universal use of the umbrella in the former. 
 
 When a person is wet he ought never to stand, 
 but to continue in motion till he arrives at a place 
 where he may be suitably accommodated. Here 
 he should strip off his wet clothes, to be changed 
 for such as are dry, and have those parts of his 
 body which have been wetted, well rubbed with a 
 dry cloth. The legs, shoulders, and arms, are 
 generally the parts most exposed to wet; they 
 should, therefore, be particularly attended to. It 
 is almost incredible how many diseases may be 
 prevented by adopting this course. Catarrhs, in- 
 flammations, rheumatisms, diarrhoeas, fevers, and 
 consumptions, are the foremost among the train 
 which frequently follow an accident of this kind. 
 Precautions in removing from a Hot to a Cold Sit- 
 uation. 
 
 It should be a determined rule to avoid all rapid 
 transitions from one extreme to another, and 
 never to remove from a room highly heated to a 
 fresh or cold air while the body remains warm, or 
 till the necessary change to a warmer dress has 
 been previously made. If, at any time, the body 
 should be violently heated, during the warm wea- 
 ther, it is sure to suffer by going into vaults, cel- 
 lars, ice-houses, by cold bathing, or by sitting on 
 cold stones, or damp earth ; many lingering and 
 incurable maladies have been brought on by such 
 imprudence, nay, present death has, in some in- 
 stances, been the consequence of such transgres- 
 sion. Pulmonary consumption, which makes an- 
 nually such dreadful ravages among the young 
 and middle aged, has been frequently induced by 
 such apparently trifling causes. 
 
 To keep the Feet Dry. 
 
 One method that has been found to succeed in 
 keeping the feet dry is to wear, over the foot of 
 the stocking, a sock made of oiled silk. To keep 
 it in its proper place, it will be necessary to wear 
 over it a cotton or worsted sock. India-rubber 
 overshoes or boots are now generally worn. But 
 they or oiled silk, as they prevent the evaporation 
 of the insensible perspiration, and thus obstruct 
 the y ores of the skin, should never be worn long 
 at a time. 
 
 To preserve the Eye-sight. 
 
 1. Never sit for any length of time in absolute 
 gloom, or exposed to a blaze of light. The rea- 
 son on which this rule is founded proves the im- 
 propriety of going hastily from one extreme to the 
 other, whether of darkness or of light, and shows 
 us that a southern aspect is improper for those 
 whose sight is weak and tender. 
 
 2. Avoid reading small print, and straining the 
 eyes by looking at minute objects. 
 
 3. Do not read in the dusk, nor, if the eyes b 
 disordered, by candle-light. 
 
 4. Do not permit the eyes to dwell on glaring 
 objects, more particularly on first waking in the 
 morning; the sun should not of course be suf- 
 fered to shine in the room at that time, and a 
 moderate quantity of light only should be ad- 
 mitted. For the same reasons, the furniture, 
 walls, and other objects of a bed-room should not 
 be altogether of a white or glaring color; indeed, 
 those whose eyes are weak, would find considera- 
 ble advantage in having green for the furniture, 
 and as the prevailing color of their bed-chambers. 
 Nature confirms the propriety of this direction, 
 for the light of the day comes on by slow degrees, 
 and green is the universal color she presents to 
 our eyes. 
 
 5. Those individuals who are rather long- 
 sighted should accustom themselves to read with 
 the book somewhat nearer to the eye than what 
 they naturally like; while others, that are rather 
 short-sightfed, should use themselves to read with 
 the book as far off as possible. By these means, 
 both will improve and strengthen their sight, 
 while a contrary course increases its natural im- 
 perfections. It is well to read or sew with the 
 light above or behind, rather than in front of the 
 face, or with a shade to protect the eyes from glare. 
 
 Use of Spectacles. 
 
 From whatever cause the decay of sight arises, 
 an attentive consideration of the following rules 
 will enable any one to judge for himself when his 
 eye-sight may be assisted or preserved by the use 
 of proper glasses : 
 
 1. When we are obliged to remove small ob- 
 jects to a considerable distance from the eje in 
 order to see them distinctly. 
 
 2. If we find it necessary to get more light than 
 formerly, as, for instance, to place the candle be- 
 tween the eye and the object. 
 
 3. If on looking at and attentively considering 
 a near object it fatigues the eye and becomes con- 
 fused, or if it appears to have a kind of dimness 
 or mist before it. 
 
 4. When small, printed letters are seen to ran 
 into each other, and on looking steadfastly at 
 them appear double or treble. 
 
 5. If the eyes are so fatigued by a little exer- 
 cise that we are obliged to shut them from time to 
 time, so as to relieve them by looking at different 
 objects. 
 
 When all these circumstances concur, or any of 
 them separately takes place, it will be necessary 
 to seek assistance from glasses, which will ease 
 the eyes, and in some degree check their tendency 
 to become worse, whereas if they be not assisted 
 in time the weakness will be undoubtedly in- 
 creased and the eyes be impaired by the efforts 
 they are compelled to make. When weakness of 
 the sight is not remedied by glasses, it will be ne- 
 cessary to avoid all use of the eyes which gives 
 pain or causes fatigue, especially at night. 
 Cosmetics. 
 
 To set off the complexion with all the advan- 
 tage it can attain, nothing more is requisite than 
 to wash the face with pure water, or if anything 
 farther be occasionally necessary, it is only the 
 addition of a little soap. [See pages 306, 465.] 
 
 THE TEETH. 
 
 An object very subservient to health, and which 
 merits due attention, is the preservation of the 
 teeth, the care of which, considering their impor- 
 tance in preparing the food for digestion, is, in 
 general, far from being sufficiently attended to. 
 Many persons neglect to wash their mouths 
 
TEETH. 
 
 187 
 
 in the morning, whicti ought always to be done. 
 Indeed this ought to be practised at the conclu- 
 sion of every meal, where either animal food or 
 vegetables are eaten, for the former is apt to leave 
 behind it a rancid acrimony, and the latter an 
 acidity, both of them hurtful to the teeth. Wash- 
 ing the mouth frequently with cold water is not 
 only serviceable in keeping the teeth clean, but 
 in strengthening the gums, the firm adhesion of 
 which to the teeth is of great importance in pre- 
 serving them sound and secure. The addition 
 of a few drops of tincture of myrrh to the water 
 will make it more cleansing and sweeter to the 
 breath. 
 
 Tooth Powders. 
 
 Many persons, while laudably attentive to the 
 preservation of their teeth, do them hurt by too 
 much officiousness. They daily apply to them some 
 dentifrice powder, which they rub so hard as not 
 only to injure the enamel by excessive friction, but 
 to hurt the gums even more than by the abuse of the 
 the toothpick. The quality of some of the dentifrice 
 powders advertised in newspapers is extremely 
 suspicious, and there is reason to think that they 
 are not altogether free from a corrosive ingre- 
 dient. One of the safest and best compositions 
 for the purpose is a mixture of two parts of pre- 
 pared chalk, one of Peruvian bark, and one of 
 hard soap, all finely powdered, which is calcula- 
 ted not only to clean the teeth without hurting 
 them, but to preserve the firmness of the gums. 
 
 Besides the advantage of sound teeth for their 
 use in mastication, a proper attention to their 
 treatment conduces not a little to the sweetness of 
 the breath. This is, indeed, often affected by 
 other causes existing in the lungs, the stomach, 
 and sometimes even in the bowels, but a rotten 
 state of the teeth, both from the putrid smell 
 emitted by carious bones and the impurities lodged 
 in their cavities, never fails of aggravating an un- 
 pleasant breath wherever there is a tendency of 
 that kind. [See pages.307, 308.] 
 
 Loose Teeth. 
 
 When the teeth are loosened by external vio- 
 lence, by falls and blows, or by the improper use 
 of instruments in pulling diseased teeth in the 
 neighborhood of sound ones, they may again be 
 made tolerably fast by pressing them as firmly as 
 possible into their sockets, and preserving them 
 so with ligatures of cat-gut, Indian weed or waxed 
 silk, and keeping the patient upon spoon-meat till 
 they are firm. When looseness of the teeth is 
 owing to decay, nothing will fasten them till the 
 cause be removed, and this ought to be done early, 
 otherwise it will have no effect. Frequently the 
 teeth become loose from a sponginess of the gums, 
 often attributed to scurvy. The best remedy is 
 scarifying the gums deeply, and allowing them to 
 bleed freely ; this should be repeated till they are 
 fully fastened. Mild astringents, as tincture of 
 bark, are here attended with good effects, though 
 those of a strong nature will certainly do harm. 
 The mouth should be frequently washed with cold 
 water strongly impregnated with these, and the 
 patient should not use the teeth which have been 
 loose till they become firm again. The loosening 
 of the teeth in old age cannot be remedied, as it 
 is owing to the wasting of their sockets, from 
 which the teeth lose their support. 
 
 Foul Teeth. 
 
 The teeth sometimes become yellow or black 
 without any adventitious matter being observed 
 on them ; at other times they become foul, and 
 give a taint to the breath, in consequence of the 
 natwral mucus of the mouth, or part of the food 
 remaining too long about them. The most fre- 
 
 quent cause of foul teeth is the substance called 
 tartar, which seems to be a deposition from the 
 saliva, and with which the teeth are often almost 
 entirely encrusted. When this substance is al- 
 lowed to remain, it insinuates itself between the 
 gums and the teeth, and then gets down upon the 
 jaw in such a manner as to loosen the teeth. 
 When they have been long covered with this or 
 with any other matter, it is seldom they can be 
 cleaned without the assistance of instruments. 
 But when once they are cleaned they may gener- 
 ally be kept so by rubbing them with a thin piece 
 of soft wood made into a kind of brush and dip- 
 ped into distilled vinegar, after which the mouth 
 is to be washed with common water. 
 Cleaning the Teeth, 
 
 When tno teeth are to be cleaned with instru- 
 ments, the operator ought, with a linen cloth or 
 with a glove, to press against the points of the 
 teeth, so as to keep them firm in their sockets 
 with the fingers of the one hand while he cleans 
 them with the necessary instruments held in the 
 other, taking care not to scrape them so hard as 
 to loosen them, or to rub off the enamel. This 
 being done, the teeth should be rubbed Over with 
 a small brush or a piece of sponge dipped in a 
 mixture of cream of tartar and Peruvian bark. 
 The same application may be made to the teeth 
 for a few days, when afterwards they may be kept 
 clean as already directed. 
 
 The teelh are sometimes covered over with a 
 thin dark colored scurf, which has by some been 
 mistaken for a wasting of the enamel, but which 
 is only an extraneous matter covering it. By per- 
 severance thi.-- may be cleaned off as completely aa 
 where the teeth are covered with tartar; but it is 
 apt, after some time, to appear again. When this 
 is observed the same operation must be repeated. 
 
 For the purpose of applying powders or washes 
 to the teeth, a hard or soft brush is commonly em- 
 ployed; the latter is supposed preferable, as being 
 in less danger of wearing down the enamel or of 
 separating the teeth. 
 
 Toothache. 
 
 Toothache may be of either of three kinds : from 
 irritation of the nerve, exposed in the hollow of a 
 decaying tooth ; from inflammation of the jaw, 
 with or without a gathering at the root of a tooth ; 
 and from neuralgia. For the first of these, there 
 is a certain cure: but it requires care in the appli- 
 cation. Wrap a small pledget of raw-cotton around 
 the point of a knitting or darning needle, and dip 
 it in ereasote; then insert the point with the cot- 
 ton directly into the hollow of the aching tooth. 
 If it reach the nerve, it will give relief instantly. 
 The cotton may be left in for a while, covered by 
 a dry piece. Care is needed not to let the creasote 
 drop or run upon the lips or gums, on which it 
 will act as a caustic. If a drop should escape, 
 however, little or no harm will follow if the mouth 
 be at once washed well with cold water. 
 
 Weights and Measures. 
 By the following tables it will be seen that in trie 
 
 Measures of Fluids. 
 
 1 gallon measure contains 8 pints 
 
 1 pint " 16 ounces, 
 
 1 ounce " 8 drachms, 
 
 1 drachm " 60 minims. 
 
 Weight of Dry Substances. 
 
 1 pound contains 12 ounces, 
 
 1 ounce " 8 drachms, 
 
 1 drachm 60 grains, 
 
 1 scruple 20 grs. cr 
 
 1-3 of a drachm. * 
 
188 
 
 CULINARY ARTS. 
 
 It is customary to distinguish quantities of 
 fluids from dry substances, by prefixing the letter 
 f. ( fluid; when an ounce or drachm is mentioned 
 in medical works, but in the foregoing prescrip- 
 
 tions or formulae, this was considered to be un- 
 necessary, as the slightest acquaintance with the 
 substances to be used will point out what is im- 
 plied. 
 
 
 S 3 3 G4r _ 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 ,56 
 
 6 
 
 
 - 
 
 48 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 4, 
 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 2 
 
 - 
 
 
 16 
 
 ! . 
 
 4s 
 
 I- -60 
 --50 
 
 Measuring- Glasses 
 
 In order to measure quantities of fluids, glasses, 
 graduated on their sides (according to the above 
 figures), will be found useful in all families and 
 private laboratories : 
 
 No. 1, Represents a glass calculated to measure 
 any quantity from two drachms to eight ounces. 
 
 No. 2, From one drachm to two ounces. 
 
 No. 3, From half a drachm to one ounce; and 
 
 No. 4, Any quantity from five minims (or drops) 
 to one drachm. 
 
 Scale of Medicinal Doses. 
 
 The following table of the gradations of doses 
 of medicines for different ages, will in general be 
 found pretty correct, and ought never to be devi- 
 ated from, except by professional advice. 
 
 If at the age of manhood the dose be one drachm, 
 the proportions will be at 
 
 From 14 to 21 years, 2 scruples ; 7 to 14 years, 
 half a drachm; 4 to 7 years, 1 scruple; 4 years, 
 15 grains; 3 years, half a scruple; 2 years, 8 grains; 
 1 year, 5 grains ; 6 months, 3 grains; 3 months, 2 
 grains j 1 month, 1 grain. 
 
 .ARTS. 
 
 PLAIN COOKERY. 
 To Boil Meats, etc. 
 
 The most simple of culinary processes is not 
 often performed in perfection, though it does not 
 require so much nicety and attendance as roast- 
 ing; to skim the pot well, and to keep it moder- 
 ately boiling, and to know how long the joint re- 
 quires, comprehends the most useful point of this 
 branch of cookery. The cook must take especial 
 care that the water really boils all the while she 
 is cooking, or she will be deceived in the time. 
 An adept cook will manage with much less fire for 
 boiling than she uses for roasting, and it will last 
 all the time without much mending. When the 
 water is coming to a boil there will always rise 
 from the cleanest meat a scum to the top, this 
 must be carefully taken off as soon as it appears, 
 for on this deperds the good appearance of a 
 boiled dinner. When you have skimmed it well, 
 put in a little cold water, which will throw up the 
 rest of it. If left alone it soon boils down and 
 sticks to the meat, which, instead of looking white 
 and healthful, will have a coarse and uninviting 
 appearance- 
 Many cooks put in milk to make what they boil 
 look white, but this does more harm than good ; 
 others wrap the meat in a cloth; but if it is well 
 skimmed it will have a much more delicate appear- 
 ance than when it is muffled up. 
 
 Put the meat into cold water in the proportion 
 of about a quart to every pound of meat ; it should 
 remain covered Curing the whole process of boil- 
 ing; but only just so. Water beyond what is 
 
 absolutely necessary renders the meat less savory 
 and weakens the broth. 
 
 The water should be gradually heated accord- 
 ing to the thickness, etc., of the article boiled; 
 for instance, a leg of mutton of ten pounds' weight 
 should be placed over a moderate fire, which will 
 gradually heat the water without causing it to 
 boil, for about forty minutes. If the water boils 
 much sooner, the meat will be hardened, and 
 shrink up as if it were scorched. Reckon the 
 time from its first coming to a boil; the slower it 
 boils the tenderer, the plumper, and whiter it will 
 be. For those who choose their food thoroughly 
 cooked, twenty minutes to a pound will not be 
 found too much for gentle simmering by the side 
 of the fire. Fresh killed meat will take much 
 longer time boiling than that which has been kept 
 till what the butchers call ripe ; if it be fresh killed 
 it will be tough and hard if stewed ever so long, 
 and ever so gently. The size of the boiling pots 
 should be adapted to what they are to contain; 
 in small families we recommend block-tin sauce- 
 pans, etc., as lightest and safest, taking care that 
 the covers fit close, otherwise the introduction of 
 smoke may be the means of giving the meat a bad 
 taste. Beef and mutton a little underdone is not 
 a great fault, but lamb, pork, and veal are uneat- 
 able and truly unwholesome, if not thoroughly 
 boiled. Take care of the liquor in which poultry 
 or meat has been boiled, as an addition of peas, 
 herbs, etc., will convert it into a nourishing soup. 
 To Bake Meats, etc. 
 
 This is one of the cheapest and most convenient 
 
MEATS. 
 
 189 
 
 ways of dressing a dinner in small families, and 
 although the general superiority of roasting must 
 be allowed, still certain joints and dishes, such as 
 jtegs and loins of pork, legs and shoulders of mut- 
 ton, and fillets of veal, will bake to great advan- 
 tage if the meat be good. Besides those joints 
 above-mentioned, we shall enumerate a few baked 
 dishes which may be particularly recommended. 
 
 A pig when sent to the baker prepared for 
 baking, should have its ears and tail covered with 
 buttered paper, and a bit of butter tied up in a 
 piece of linen to baste the back with, otherwise it 
 will be apt to blister. If well baked it is con- 
 sidered equal to a roast one. 
 
 A goose prepared the same as for roasting, or a 
 duck placed upon a stand and turned, as soon as 
 one side is done upon the other, are equally good. 
 
 A buttock of beef, prepared as follows, is par- 
 ticularly fine : After it has been put in salt about 
 a week, let it be well washed and put into a brown 
 earthen pan with a pint of water; cover the pan 
 tight over with two or three thicknesses of cap 
 paper, and give it four or five hours in a mod- 
 erately heated oven. 
 
 A ham, if not too old, put in soak for an hour, 
 taken out and baked in a moderately heated oven, 
 cuts fuller of graver, and of a finer flavor, than a 
 boiled one. 
 
 Codfish, haddock, and mackerel should have a 
 dust of flour and some bits of butter spread over 
 them. Eels, when large and stuffed, herrings and 
 sprats are put in a brown pan, with vinegar and a 
 little spice, and tied over with paper. 
 
 A hare, prepared the same as for roasting, with 
 a few bits of butter and a little milk, put into the 
 dish and basted several times, will be found nearly 
 equal to roasting. In the same manner, legs and 
 Bhins of beef will be equally good with proper 
 vegetable seasoning. 
 
 To Roast Meats, etc. 
 
 The first thing requisite for roasting is to have 
 a strong, steady fire, or a clear brisk one, accord- 
 ing to the size and weight of the joint that is put 
 down to the spit. A cook, who does not attend to 
 this, will prove herself totally incompetent to 
 roast victuals properly. All roasting should be 
 done open to the air, to ventilate the meat from 
 its gross fumes; otherwise it becomes baked in- 
 stead of roasted. The joint should be put down 
 at such a distance from the ^re as to imbibe the 
 heat rather quickly; otherwise its plumpness and 
 good quality will be gradually dried up, and it 
 will turn shrivelly, and look meagre. When the 
 meat is first put down, it is necessary to see that 
 it lies level in the pan, otherwise the process of 
 cooking will be very troublesome. When it is 
 warm, begin to baste it well, which prevents the 
 nutritive juices escaping; and, if required, addi- 
 tional dripping must be used for that purpose. 
 
 As to sprinkling with salt while roasting, most 
 able cooks dispense with it, as the penetrating 
 particles of the salt have a tendency to draw out 
 the animal juices. However, a little salt thrown 
 on, when first laid down, is sometimes necessary, 
 with strong meats. When the smoke draws to- 
 wards the fire, and the dropping of the clear gravy 
 begins, it is a sure sign that the joint is nearly 
 done. Then take off the paper, baste well, and 
 dredge it with flour, which brings on that beauti- 
 ful brownness which makes roasted meats look so 
 inviting. 
 
 With regard to the time necessary for roasting 
 rarious meats, it will vary according to the dif- 
 ferent sorts, the time it has been kept, and the 
 temperature of the weather. In summer twenty 
 minutes may be reckoned equal to half an hour in 
 
 winter. A good screen, to keep off the chilling 
 currents of air, is essentially useful. The old 
 housewife's rule is to allow rather more than a 
 quarter of an hour to each pound, and in most 
 instances it proves practically correct. 
 
 In roasting mutton or lamb, the loin, the chine, 
 and the saddle, must have the skin raised, and 
 skewered on, and, when nearly done, take off this 
 skin, and baste and flour to froth it up. 
 
 Veal requires roasting brown, and, if a fillet or 
 loin, be sure to paper the fat, that as little of it 
 may be lost as possible. When nearly done baste 
 it with butter and dredge with flour. 
 
 Pork should be well done. When roasting a 
 loin, cut the skin across with a sharp knife, other- 
 wise the crackling is very awkward to manage. 
 Stuff the knuckle part with sage and onion, and 
 skewer it up. Put a little drawn gravy in the dish, 
 and serve it up with apple-sauce in a tureen. A 
 spare-rib should be basted with a little butter, a 
 little dust of flour, and some sage and onions 
 shred small. Apple-sauce is the only one which 
 suits this dish. 
 
 Wild fowls require a clear brisk fire, and should 
 be roasted till they are of a light brown, but not 
 too much ; yet it is a common fault to roast them 
 till the gravy runs out, thereby losing their fine 
 flavor. 
 
 Tame fowls require more roasting, as the heat 
 is longer in penetrating. They should be often 
 basted, in order to keep up a strong froth, and to 
 improve their plumpness. The seasoning of the 
 dressing or stuffiing of a fowl is important to its 
 flavor. The dressing should consist of bread 
 crumbs, seasoned with black pepper, salt, and no 
 herb but thyme. 
 
 Pigs and geese should be thoroughly roasted 
 before a good fire, and turned quickly. 
 
 Hares and rabbits require time and care, espe- 
 cially to have the ends sufficiently done, and to 
 remedy that raw discoloring at the neck, etc., 
 which proves often so objectionable at table. 
 
 To regulate Time in Cookery. 
 
 Mutton. A leg of 8 pounds will require two 
 hours and a half. A chine or saddle of 10 or 11 
 pounds, two hours and a half, A shoulder of 7 
 pounds, one hour and a half. A loin of 7 pounds, 
 one hour and three quarters. A neck and breast, 
 about the same time as a loin. 
 
 Beef. The sirloin of 15 pounds, from three 
 hours and three-quarters to four hours. Ribs of 
 beef, from 15 to 20 pounds, will take three houra 
 to three hours and a half. 
 
 Veal. A fillet, from 12 to 16 pounds, will take 
 from four to five hours, at a good fire. A loin, 
 upon the average, will take three hours. A shoul- 
 der, from three hours to three hours and a half. 
 A neck, two hours. A breast, from an hour and 
 a half to two hours. 
 
 Lamb. Hind quarter of 8 pounds will take 
 from an hour and three-quarters to two houra. 
 Fore quarter of 10 pounds, about two hours. Leg 
 of 5 pounds, from an hour and a quarter to an 
 hour and a half. Shoulder or breast, with a quick 
 fire, an hour. 
 
 Pork. A leg of 8 pounds will require about 
 three hours. Griskin, an hour and a half. A 
 spare-rib of 8 or 9 pounds will take from two houra 
 and a half to three hours to roast it thoroughly. 
 A bald spare-rib of 8 pounds, an hour and a quar- 
 ter. A loin of 5 pounds, if very fat, from two 
 hours to two hours and a half. A sucking pig, of 
 three weeks old, about an hour and a half. 
 
 Poultry. A very large turkey will require about 
 three hours; one of 10 pounds two hours; a small 
 one an hour and a half. 
 
190 
 
 PLAIN COOKERY. 
 
 A full-grown fowl, an hour and a half; a mod- 
 erate sized one an hour and a quarter. 
 
 A pullet, from half an hour to forty minutes. 
 
 A goose, full grown, two hours. 
 
 A green goose, forty minutes. 
 
 A duck, full size, from an hour and a quarter to 
 one hour and three-quarters. 
 
 Venison. A buck haunch which weighs from 
 20 to 25 pounds will take about four hours and a 
 half roasting ; one from 12 to 18 pounds will take 
 three hours and a quarter. 
 
 To Broil. 
 
 1 This culinary branch is very confined, hut ex- 
 cellent as respects chops or steaks, to cook which 
 in perfection the fire should be clear and brisk, 
 and the grid-iron set on it slanting, to prevent the 
 fat dropping in it.' In addition, quick and fre- 
 quent turning will insure good flavor in the taste 
 of the article cooked. 
 
 To Fnj Meats, etc. 
 
 Be always careful to keep the frying-pan clean, 
 and see that it is properly tinned. When frying 
 any sort of fish, first dry them in a cloth, and then 
 flour them. Put into the pan plenty of dripping, 
 or hog's lard, and let it be boiling hot before put- 
 ting in the fish. Butter is not so good for the 
 purpose, as it is apt to burn and blacken, and 
 make them soft. When they are fried, put them 
 in a dish or hair-seive, to drain, before they are 
 sent to table. Olive oil is the best article for fry- 
 ing, but it is very expensive, and bad oil spoils 
 every thing that is dressed with it. Steaks and 
 chops should be put in when the liquor is hot, and 
 done quickly, of a light brown, and turned often. 
 Sausages should be done gradually, which will 
 prevent their bursting. 
 
 Corned Beef. 
 
 Fifty pounds of beef, three pounds of coarse 
 salt, one ounce of saltpetre, three-quarters of a 
 pound of sugar, two gallons of water. Mix the 
 above ingredients together and pour over the 
 meat. Cover the tub closely. 
 
 To Pot Beef. 
 
 Cut it small, add to it some melted butter, two 
 Anchovies boned and washed, and a little of the 
 best pepper, beat fine. Put them into a marble 
 mortar, and beat them well together till the meat 
 is yellow; put it into pots and cover with clarified 
 butter. 
 
 To Pot Leg of Beef. 
 
 Boil a leg of beef till the meat will come off the 
 bone easily ; then mix it with a cow heel, previ- 
 ously cut into thin pieces, and season the whole 
 with salt and spice ; add a littte of the liquor in 
 which the leg of beef was boiled, put it into a 
 cheese-vat, or cullender, or some other vessel that 
 will let the liquor run off; place a very heavy 
 weight over it, and it will be ready for use in a 
 day or two. It may be kept in souse made of 
 bran boiled in water, with the addition of a little 
 vinegar. 
 
 Dried Beef. 
 
 Have the rounds divided, leaving a piece of the 
 sinew to hang up by ; lay the pieces in a tub of 
 cold water for an hour ; then rub each piece of 
 beef that will weigh fifteen or twenty pounds, with 
 a handful of brown sugar and a tablespoonful of 
 saltpetre, pulverized, and a pint of fine salt; 
 sprinkle fine salt in the bottom of a clean tight 
 .barrel, and lay the pieces in, strewing a little 
 coarse salt between each piece ; let it lie two days ; 
 then make the brine in a clean tub, with cold 
 water and ground alum salt stir it well; it must 
 be strong enough to bear an egg half up ; put in 
 
 half a pound of best brown sugar and a table* 
 poonful of saltpetre to each gallon of the salt and 
 water, pour it over the beef, put a clean large 
 stone on the top of the meat to keep it under the 
 pickle (which is very important), put a cover on 
 the barrel, examine it occasionally to see that the 
 pickle does not leak, and if it should need more, 
 add of the same strength. Let it stand six weeks, 
 then hang it up in the smoke-house, and al'ter it 
 has drained, smoke it moderately for ten days, it 
 should then hang in a dry place. Before cooking 
 let it soak for twenty-four hours ; a piece that 
 weighs fifteen or twenty pounds should boil two 
 hours one half the size, one hour; and a small 
 piece should soak six or twelve hours, according 
 to size. 
 
 Potted Lobster or Crab. 
 
 This must be made with fine hen lobsters when 
 full of spawn, boil them thoroughly ; when cold, 
 pick out all the solid meat, and pound it in a mor- 
 tar; it is usual to add, by degrees, (a very little) 
 finely powdered mace, black or Cayenne pepper, 
 salt, and, while pounding, a little butter. When 
 the whole is well mixed, and beat to the consist- 
 ence of paste, press it down hard in a preserving- 
 pot, pour clarified butter over it, and cover it with 
 wetted bladder. 
 
 To Pot Shad. 
 
 Clean the shad, take off the tail, head, and all 
 the fins, then cut it in pieces, wash and wipe it 
 dry. Season each piece well with salt and Cay- 
 enne pepper. Lay them in layers in a stone-jar, 
 place between each two layers some allspice, cloves, 
 and stick-cinnamon. Cover them with good cider- 
 vinegar, tie thick paper over the jar, place them 
 in a moderate oven, and let them remain three of 
 four hours. 
 
 To make Bologna Sausages. 
 
 Take a pound of beef suet, a pound of pork, a 
 pound of bacon fat and lean, and a pound of beef 
 and veal. Cut them very small. Take a handful 
 of sage leaves chopped fine, with a few sweet herbs. 
 Season pretty high with pepper and salt, take a 
 large well-cleaned gut and fill it. Set on a sauce- 
 pan of water, and when it boils, put it in, first 
 pricking it to prevent its bursting. Boil it one 
 hour. 
 
 To make Oxford Sausages. 
 
 Take 1 pound of young pork, fat and lean, with- 
 out skin or gristle ; 1 pound of beef suet, chopped 
 fine together; put in i pound of grated bread; 
 half the peel of a lemon, shred; a nutmeg grated; 
 6 sage leaves, chopped fine; a teaspoonful of 
 pepper; and 2 of salt; some thyme, savory, and 
 marjoram, shred fine. Mix well together and put 
 it close down in a pan till used. Roll them out 
 the size of common sausages, and fry them, in 
 fresh butter, of a fine brown, or broil them over a 
 clear fire, and send them to table hot. 
 
 To make Epping Sausages. 
 
 Take 6 pounds of young pork, quite free from 
 skin, gristle, or fat; cut it small, and beat it fine 
 in a mortar. Chop 6 pounds of beef suet very fine, 
 shred a handful of sage leaves fine, spread the meat 
 on a clean dresser, and shake the sage over it. 
 Shred the rind of a lemon very fine, and throw it 
 with sweet herbs on the meat. Grate 2 nutmegs, 
 to which put a teaspoonful of pepper, and a table- 
 spoonful of salt. Throw the suet over it, and mix. 
 all well together. Put it down close in the pot, 
 and when used, roll it up with as much egg as 
 will make it smooth. 
 
 Hog's Head Cheese. 
 
 Take off the ears and noses of four heads, and 
 
OYSTEKS. 
 
 191 
 
 pick cut the eyes, and lay them in salt and water 
 all nij;ht, then wash and put them on to boil, take 
 out the bones carefully, chop and season them 
 well, and pack it in bowls ; they will turn out 
 whole, and may be eaten cold with vinegar, or 
 fried as sausage. ' 
 
 Bouilli. 
 
 Take the thin ends of prime ribs; bubble them 
 slowly with a little salt, pepper, 3 bay leaves, 1 
 onion stuck with cloves, and a bunch of sweet 
 herbs. Remove all the scum, and bubble till a 
 skewer will penetrate without force. 
 
 Scrapple. 
 
 Take 8 pounds of scraps of pork, that will not 
 do for sausage, boil it in 4 gallons of water; when 
 tender, chop it fine, strain the liquor and pour it 
 back into the pot; put in the meat, season it with 
 sage, summer savory, salt and pepper to taste, 
 stir in a quart of corn meal; after simmering a 
 few minutes, thicken it with buckwheat flour very 
 thick; it requires very little cooking after it is 
 thickened, but must be stirred constantly. 
 
 To Stew Oysters. 
 
 Put your oysters with all their liquor into a 
 saucepan ; no water ; to every dozen add a lump 
 of butter size of a walnut, salt, black pepper, a 
 blade of mace, two bay leaves ; bubble for five 
 minutes, add a little cream, shake all well together, 
 and turn them out, grating a little nutmeg on 
 each oyster as it lies in the sauce. 
 
 Stewed Oysters. 
 
 One hundred oysters, a pint of cream, 2 ounces 
 of butter, beat the butter smooth with a little flour. 
 Put the oysters in a pan over the fire ; when they 
 become hot, stir in the cream, butter, and flour. 
 Season to your taste with salt, mace, and pepper. 
 They should be served as soon as they are taken 
 off the fire. 
 
 Oysters Roasted. 
 
 Roast your oysters over a quick fire till they are 
 done dry, but not scorched; turn them out on the 
 plate of a brazier, without any of their liquor ; add 
 a large lump of butter. Set the plate over the 
 lamp when the butter is melted, add a gill of Ma- 
 deira, a little salt and Cayenne. 
 
 Another Mode. 
 
 Put the oysters alive in the shell upon a good 
 fire and leave them till their shells open a little ; 
 then take them off, open them on a plate, and 
 season with salt and pepper only. Thus they are 
 excellent for delicate stomachs. 
 
 Scalloped Oysters. 
 
 One hundred oysters, a baker's loaf crumbed, 
 four eggs boiled hard; salt and cayenne pepper 
 to taste. Chop the eggs very fine and mix with 
 the crumbs, which season highly with cayenne 
 and salt. Cover the bottom of a deep pie-dish 
 with the eggs and crumbs ; then with a fork, place 
 a layer of oysters with two or three small pieces 
 of butter, and so continue until all are in, reserving 
 sufficient crumbs for the cover. For those who like 
 it, a little mace may be added. Bake in a quick 
 :>ven three-quarters of an hour. Serve hot. 
 Fried Oysters. 
 
 Take fine large oysters, free them .from all the 
 
 small particles of shell, then place them on a clean 
 
 towel and dry them. Have ready some crackers 
 
 * made very fine, which season with a little salt, 
 
 black and cayenne pepper of equal proportions. 
 
 Beat as many eggs and cream mixed, as will 
 moisten all the oysters required, then with a fork 
 dip each one in the egg a*" 1 lay them on the 
 
 cracker, and with the back of a spoon pat the 
 cracker close to the oyster; lay them on a dish, 
 and so continue until are done. Put in a frying, 
 pan an equal portion of butter and lard or sweet 
 oil boiling hot, then put in as many oysters as the 
 pan will hold without allowing them to touch, and 
 fry quickly a light brown on both sides. A few 
 minutes will cook them. Send to table hot. 
 
 Panned Oysters. 
 
 Take fifty large oysters, remove every particle 
 of shell which may adhere to them, put them in to 
 a colander and pour over a little water to rinse 
 them. After letting them drain, put them into a 
 stewpan with a quarter of a pound of butter, salt, 
 black and red pepper to taste. Put them over a 
 clear fire, and stir while cooking. As soon as they 
 commence to shrink remove them from the fire, 
 and send to table hot in a well (covered) heated 
 dish. 
 
 Codfish- Cakes. 
 
 Wash the fish, and after remaining in water all 
 night, boil it. Take out all the bones, cut up very 
 fine and mix with an equal quantity of potatoes; 
 add a piece of butter, cayenne, and a little more 
 salt, if necessary. Then make it out into small 
 round cakes, and fry in butter or beef drippings, 
 a light brown on both sides. 
 
 To Boil Lobsters. 
 
 The medium sized are best ; put them alive into 
 a kettle of boiling water which has been salted, 
 and let them boil from half an hour to three-quar- 
 ters, according to their size. When done take 
 them out of the kettle, wipe them clean, and rub 
 the shell with a little sweet oil, which will give a 
 clear red appearance. 
 
 Crack the large claws without mashing them, 
 and with a sharp knife split the body and tail 
 from end to end. Send to table and dress as 
 follows : after mincing it very fine add salt, cay- 
 enne pepper, mustard, salad oil, and vinegar to 
 taste, observing to mix all well together. 
 
 To Piclde Oysters. 
 
 Drain off the liquor from one hundred oysters, 
 wash them and put to them a table-spoonful of 
 salt and a tea-cup of vinegar; let them simmer 
 over the fire about ten minutes, taking off the 
 scum as it rises; then take out the oysters and 
 put to their own liquor a tablespoonful of whole 
 black pepper and a teaspoonful of mace and 
 cloves; let it boil five minutes, skim and pour it 
 over the oysters in ajar. 
 
 To Spice Oysters. 
 
 One hundred oysters, one dozen cloves, two 
 dozen allspice, mace, cayenne pepper, and salt to 
 taste. 
 
 Strain the liquor through a sieve, put it in a 
 saucepan, and add the oysters, spice, pepper, salt, 
 and half a pint of cider vinegar. Place them over 
 a slow fire, and as soon as they boil take them off. 
 Pour them into a large bowl and set them away to 
 cool. When cold cover them close. 
 
 Flounders a la creme. 
 
 Scale, clean, and wrap your fish in a cloth, boil 
 it gently in plenty of water well salted; when 
 done drain it carefully without breaking, lay it 
 on your dish and mask it with cream or white 
 onion sauce. 
 
 French Stew of Peas and Bacon. 
 
 Cut about one-quarter of a pound of fresh bacon 
 into thin slices, soak it on the fire in a stewpan 
 until it is almost done ; then put about a quart of 
 peas to it, a good bit of butter, a bunch of parsley, 
 and two spoonfuls of catsup ; simmer on a slow 
 
192 
 
 PLAIN COOKERY. 
 
 fire and reduce the sauce; take out the parsley 
 and serve the rest together. 
 
 New England Chotsder. 
 
 Have a good haddock, cod, or any other solid 
 fish ; cut it in pieces three inches square, put a 
 pound of fat salt pork in strips into the pot, set 
 it on hot coals and fry out the oil ; take out the 
 pork and put in a layer of fish, over that a layer 
 of onions in slices, then a layer of fish with slips 
 of fat salt pork, then another layer of onions; and 
 so on alternately until your fish is consumed; mix 
 some flour with as much water as will fill the pot, 
 season with black pepper and salt to your taste, 
 and boil it for half an hour. Have ready some 
 crackers (Philadelphia pilot bread if you can get 
 it) soaked in water till they are a little softened, 
 throw them into your chowder five minutes before 
 you take it up. Serve in a tureen, 
 
 Daniel Webster's Chowder. 
 Four tablespoonfuls of onions, fried with pork ; 
 a quart of boiled potatoes well mashed ; 1 J pounds 
 of sea biscuit broken; 1 teaspoonful of thyme, 
 mixed with one of summer savory : \ bottle of 
 mushroom catsup; one bottle of port or claret; \ 
 of a nutmeg, grated; a few cloves, mace, and all- 
 spice; 6 pounds fish (sea-bass or cod), cut into 
 slices; 25 oysters, a little black pepper, and a few 
 slices of lemon. The whole put in a pot and 
 covered with an inch of water, boiled for an hour 
 and gently stirred. 
 
 Soup Maigre. 
 
 Take of veal, beef cut into small pieces, and 
 scrag of mutton, 1 pound each; put them into a 
 saucepan, with 2 quarts of water; put into a clean 
 cloth 1 ounce of barley, an onion, a small bundle 
 of sweet herbs, 3 or 4 heads of celery cut small, a 
 little ma,ce, 2 or 3 cloves, 3 turnips pared and each 
 cut in two, a large carrot cut into small pieces, and 
 a young lettuce. Cover the pot close, and let it 
 stew very gently for six hours. Then take out 
 the spice, sweet herbs, and onion, and pour all 
 into a soup-dish, seasoned with salt. 
 
 Another Soup Maigre. 
 
 Quarter of a pound of butter placed in a stew- 
 pan, add to it 2 tablespoonsful of flour, ^ pint of 
 milk. Then add cold vegetables chopped very 
 fine, and stew together a quarter of an hour. Be- 
 fore sent up, beat the yolks of two eggs, add 
 of a pint of cream, and a little pepper and salt to 
 taste. 
 
 Portable Soup. 
 
 Cut into small pieces 3 large legs of veal, 1 of 
 beef, and the lean part of a ham ; lay the meat in 
 a large cauldron, with a quarter of a pound of but- 
 ter at the bottom, 4 ounces of anchovies, and 2 
 ounces of mace. Cut small 6 heads of clean washed 
 celery, freed from green leaves, and put them into 
 the cauldron, with 3 large carrots cut thin. Cover 
 all close, and set it on a moderate fire. When the 
 gravy begins to draw, keep taking it off till it is 
 all extracted. Then cover the meat with water, let 
 it boil gently for four hours, then strain it through 
 a hair-sieve into a clean pan, till it is reduced to 
 one-third. Strain the gravy drawn from the meat 
 into a pan, and let it boil gently, until it be of a 
 glutinous consistence. Tak care and skim off all 
 the fat as it rises. Watch it when it is nearly done, 
 that it does not burn ; next season it with Cayenne 
 pepper, and pour it on flat earthen dishes, a quar- 
 ter of an inch thick. Let it stand till the next day, 
 and then cut it out by round tins larger than a 
 silver dollar. Set the cakes in dishes in the sun 
 to dry, and turn them often. When fully dried, 
 put them into a tiu box with a piece of clean white 
 
 paper between each, and keep them in a dry placo 
 If made in frosty weather it will soon become 
 solid. This kind of soup is exceedingly conve- 
 nient for private families, for by putting one of 
 the cakes in a saucepan with about a quart tf 
 water, find a little salt, a basin of good broth may 
 be made in a few minutes. It will likewise make 
 an excellent gravy for roast turkeys, fowls, and 
 game. 
 
 Asparagus Soup. 
 
 Put a small broiled bone to 1$ pints of peas, 
 and water in proportion, a root of celery, a small 
 bunch of sweet herbs, a large onion, Cayenne 
 pepper, and salt to taste ; boil it briskly for five 
 hours, strain and pulp it; then add a little spin- 
 ach-juice, and asparagus boiled and cut into small 
 pieces. A teaspoonful of walnut soy, and a tea- 
 spoonful of mushroom catsup, answers as well as 
 the bone. 
 
 Giblet Soup. 
 
 Take 4 pounds of gravy beef, 2 pounds of scrag 
 of mutton, and 2 pounds of scrag of veal; boil 
 them in 2 gallons of water, stew them gently till 
 it begins to taste well, pour it out and let it stand 
 till cold, skim off all the fa.t. Take 2 pair of gib- 
 lets well scaled, put them to the broth, and sim- 
 mer them till they are very tender. Take them 
 out and strain the soup through a cloth. Put a 
 piece of butter rolled in flour into the stewpan, 
 with some fine chopped parsley, chives, a little 
 pennyroyal, and sweet marjoram. Place the soup 
 over a slow fire, put in the giblets, fried butter, 
 herbs, a little Madeira wine, some salt, and Cay- 
 enne pepper ; when the herbs are tender, send the 
 soup and giblets intermixed to table. This forms 
 a very savory dish. 
 
 Charitable Sonp. 
 
 Take the liquor of meat boiled the day before, 
 with the bones of leg and shin of beef; add to the 
 liquor as much as will make 130 quarts, also the 
 meat of 10 stones of leg and shin of beef, and 2 
 ox-heads, all cut in pieces ; add 2 bunches of car- 
 rots, 4 bunches of turnips, 2 bunches of leeks, a 
 peck of onions, 1 bunch of celery, ^ a pound of 
 pepper, and some salt. Boil it for six hours. 
 Either oatmeal or barley may be put in to thicken 
 it, if thought necessary. This soup may be used 
 at any gentleman's table. 
 
 Veal Gravy Soup. 
 
 Garnish the bottom of the stewpan with thin 
 pieces of lard, then a few slices of ham, slices of 
 veal cutlet, sliced onions, carrots, parsnips, celery, 
 a few cloves upon the meat, and a spoonful of 
 broth; soak it on the fire in this manner till tho 
 veal throws out its juice ; then put it on a stronger 
 fire, till the meat catches to the bottom of the pan, 
 and is brought to a proper color; then add a 
 sufficient quantity of light broth, and simmer it on 
 a slow fire till the meat is thoroughly done; add 
 a little thyme and mushrooms. Skim and sift it 
 clear for use. 
 
 Beef Gravy Soup. 
 
 Cut slices of lean beef, according to the quan- 
 tity wanted, which place in a stew-pan, upon 
 sliced onions and roots, adding two spoonsful of 
 fat broth ; soak this on a slow fire for half an hour, 
 stirring it well; when it catches a proper color 
 add thin broth made of suitable herbs, with a little 
 salt over it. 
 
 A Cheap Rice and Meat Soup. 
 
 Put a pound of rice and a little pepper and 
 broth herbs into two quarts of water, cover them 
 close, and simmer very softly ; put in a little cin- 
 namon, two pounds of good ox-cheek, and boil tho 
 whole till the goodness is incorporated by the liquor. 
 
SOUPS. 
 
 193 
 
 Another Cheap Soup. 
 
 Take an ox-cheek, 2 pecks of potatoes, J of a 
 peck of onions, of a pound of salt, and 1 ounces 
 of pepper to he boiled in 90 pints of water, on a 
 flow fire until reduced to 60. A pint of this soup, 
 with a small piece of meat, is a good meal for a 
 hearty working man. Some of every vegetable, 
 vrith a few herbs, may be added. 
 Herring Soup. 
 
 Take 8 gallons of water, and mix it with 5 
 pounds of barley-meal. Boil it to the consistence 
 of a thick jelly. Season it with salt, pepper, 
 vinegar, sweet herbs, and, to give it a gratifying 
 flavor, add the meat of 4 red herrings pounded. 
 To prepare a Nutritious Soup. 
 
 A pound of Scotch barley, with sufficient time 
 allowed in the cooking, will make a gallon of water 
 into a tolerable pudding consistency. A pint ba- 
 sin filled with it will hold a spoon upright, when 
 at its proper degree of warmth for eating. Thor- 
 oughly eteeped, it will produce a rich pulp, the 
 form of the grains being nearly lost. Five hours' 
 exposure, in a moderately heated oven, will be 
 sufficient; and it may be improved by an hour or 
 two more. 
 
 Amongst other means for such preparation, 
 when a baker's oven has been emptied of its 
 bread, a pan of 1 gallon size may be put in to 
 steep its contents during the preceding night, and 
 then renew the usual baking in the morning. 
 What has been lost by evaporation, may be re- 
 stored by the addition of warm water. All the 
 seasoning requisite to make it as savory as plain 
 family dishes generally are, will be about 3 large 
 onions, 1 ounce of salt, and J of an ounce of pep- 
 per. This seasoning should be put in before send- 
 ing it to the oven. 
 
 Scotch Broth. 
 
 Set on the fire 4 ounces of pearl barley, with 6 
 quarts of salt water; when it boils skim it, and 
 add what quantity of salt beef or fresh brisket 
 you choose, and a marrow-bone or a fowl, with 
 2 pounds of either lean beef or mutton, and a 
 good quantity of leeks, cabbages, or savoy, or you 
 may use turnips, onions, and grated carrots ; keep 
 it boiling for at least 4 or 5 hours ; but, if a fowl 
 be used, let it not be put in till just time enough 
 to bring it to table when well done, for it must be 
 served separately. 
 
 A Vegetable Soup. 
 
 Take 1 onion, 1 turnip, 2 pared potatoes, 1 car- 
 rot, 1 head of celery; boil them in 3 pints of 
 water till the vegetables are cooked ; add a little 
 Bait ; have a slice of bread toasted and buttered, 
 put it into a bowl, and pour the soup over it. 
 Tomatoes, when in season, form an agreeable 
 addition. 
 
 Pea Soup. 
 
 Leave 1 pint of peas in the pot with the water 
 they were boiled in; make a thickening of flour, 
 milk and butter, seasoned with salt, pepper, par- 
 iley and thyme; toast 2 or 3 slices of bread; cut 
 it up in the tureen ; and when the soup has boiled 
 about 10 minutes, pour it over. 
 
 Children are mostly fond of pea soup, and it 
 eldom disagrees with them. A few slices of fat 
 ham will supply the place of butter. 
 
 Corn Soup. 
 
 To each quart of young corn, cut from the cob, 
 allow 3 pints of water. Put the corn and water 
 on to boil, and as soon as the grains are tender, 
 have ready 2 ounces of sweet butter mixed with 
 1 tablespoonful of flour. Stir the flour and butter 
 into the corn and water, and let it boil 10 or 15 
 13 
 
 minutes longer. Just before the soup is taken out 
 of the pot beat up an egg, and stir into it, with salt 
 and pepper to your taste. 
 
 Noodles for Soup. 
 
 Beat up an egg, and to it add as much flour as 
 will make a very stiff dough. Roll it out in a thin 
 sheet, flour it, and roll it up closely, as you would 
 do a sheet of paper. Then with a sharp knife cut 
 it in shavings about like cabbage for slaw ; flour 
 these cuttings to prevent them from adhering to 
 each other, and add them to your soup whilst it is 
 boiling. Let them boil 10 minutes. 
 
 Pepperpot. 
 
 Cut in small pieces 3 pounds of tripe, put it on 
 to boil in as much water as will cover it, allowing 
 a teaspoonful of salt to every quart of water. Let 
 it boil 3 hours, then have ready 4 calves'-feet, 
 which have been dressed with the tripe, and add 
 as much water as will cover them; also 3 onions 
 sliced, and a small bunch of sweet herbs chopped 
 fine. Half an hour before the pepperpot is done 
 add four potatoes cut in pieces ; when these are ten- 
 der add 2 ounces of butter rolled in flour, and 
 season the soup highly with Cayenne pepper. 
 Make some dumplings of flour and butter and a 
 little water drop them into the soup; when the 
 vegetables are sufficiently soft, serve it. 
 
 The calves'-feet may be served with drawn but- 
 ter. Any kind of spice may be added. If all- 
 spice or cloves are used, the grains should be put 
 in whole. 
 
 Clam Soup. 
 
 Wash the shells and put them in a kettle. Put 
 the kettle where it will be hot enough to cause a 
 steam from the clams, which will open them. Te 
 1 quart of clams put 2 quarts of water, and then 
 proceed as for oyster soup. 
 
 Oyster Soup. 
 
 To 1 quart of oysters add 1 quart of water. 
 Pour the water on the oysters and stir them. 
 Then take them out one at a time, so that no small 
 particles of shell may adhere to them. Strain the 
 liquor through a sieve, put it in a stew-pan over 
 the fire with a little mace, and season with red 
 pepper and salt to your taste. When this boils 
 put in your oysters. Let them boil again ; then 
 add i pint of cream and serve hot. 
 
 Chicken Soup. 
 
 Clean and wash a large fat chicken, put it on to 
 boil in about 4 quarts of water, to which add i a 
 teacupful of rice, 1 onion cut fine, 4 or 5 turnips 
 pared and cut into small pieces, 1 dessertspoonful 
 of white sugar (a little sugar, not more than a 
 tablespoonful to 3 or 4 quarts, may be added, 
 scorched brown, to any soup while boiling, with 
 advantage), a little sweet marjoram, with salt and 
 red-pepper to taste. After boiling over a slow 
 fire for rather more than an hour, put in 6 
 white potatoes, pared, washed, and cut in quar- 
 ters, which, as soon as done, add a little parsley 
 minced fine. When done, if not sufficiently sea- 
 soned, more may be added. Place the chicken on 
 a dish, which garnish with sprigs of double pars- 
 ley, the soup in a tureen, and send to table hot 
 Chicken Broth. 
 
 Take a nice tender chicken, and after cleaning 
 it very nicely, cut it into quarters, and put it into a 
 soup-kettle with 3 quarts of water, 2 tablespoons- 
 ful of rice, or pearl-barley, and salt to taste. Leb> 
 it boil slowly, and as the scum rises remove it. 
 When thoroughly done place the chicken on a dish, 
 garnish with double parsley, and eat with drawn 
 butter, and serve the broth in a deep-covered china 
 bowl or tureen, and send to table hot. 
 
194 
 
 PLAIN COOKERY. 
 
 Mutton Broth. 
 
 Take 3 pounds of the scrag-end of a neck of 
 very fresh mutton, cut it into several pieces, wash 
 them in cold water, and put them into a stewpan 
 with 2 quarts of cold spring water ; place the stew- 
 pan on the fire to boil, skim it well, and then add 
 a couple of turnips cut into slices, a few branches 
 of parsley, a sprig of green thyme, and a little 
 gait. When it has boiled gently by the side of 
 the stove for an hour and a half, skim off the fat 
 from the surface, and then let it be strained 
 through a lawn sieve into a basin and kept for use. 
 
 Drawn Butter. 
 
 Half pint of boiling water, 2 teaspoonsful of 
 flour, and 2 ounces of -butter. Mix the flour and 
 butter together until they are perfectly smooth. 
 Stir this into the boiling water, and add salt to 
 taste. If made with miik in place of water, less 
 butter will answer. 
 
 Common Sauce. 
 
 Soak slices of veal, ham, onions, parsnips, 2 
 cloves of garlic, 2 heads of cloves, then add broth, 
 a glass of white wine, and 2 slices of lemon ; sim- 
 mer it over a slow fire, skim it well, and sift it. 
 
 Miser's Sauce. 
 
 Chop 5 or 6 large onions, mix a little verjuice, 
 or vinegar, pepper, salt, and a little butter; serve 
 it up either warm or cold. 
 
 Parson's Sauce. 
 
 Chop lemon-peel very fine, with 2 or 3 pickled 
 cucumbers, a bit of butter, salt, and coarse pep- 
 per; a little flour, with 2 spoonsful of catsup, and 
 stew it on the fire without boiling. 
 Nonpareil Sauce. 
 
 , Take a slice of boiled ham, as much breast of 
 roasted fowl, a pickled cucumber, a hard yolk of 
 an egg, one anchovy, a little parsley, and a head 
 of shallot, chopped very fine; boil it a moment in 
 good catsup, and use it for meat or fish. 
 Nivernoise Sauce. 
 
 Put in a small stewpan a couple of slices of 
 ham, a clove of garlic, 2 cloves, a laurel -leaf, 
 sliced onions, and roots ; let it catch the fire a 
 little. Then add a small quantity of broth, 2 
 spoonsful of catsup, and a spoonful of the best 
 vinegar. Simmer it for an hour on the side of the 
 stove, then sift it in a sieve, and serve it for a high- 
 flavored sauce. 
 
 Gravy Calces. 
 
 Chop 2 legs of beef in pieces, put them into a 
 pot of water, stew it over a slow fire a day and a 
 night; then add onions, herbs, and spices as for 
 gravy; continue stewing it till the meat is off the 
 bones, and the gravy quite out; then strain the 
 liquor into a milk-pan, to which quantity it should 
 be reduced ; when cold, take off the fat, put it into 
 a saut;e,pan, and add whatever is required to flavor 
 it; simmer it on a slow fire till reduced to about 
 12 saucers 'two-thirds full, put them in an airy 
 place till as dry as leather, put them in paper bags, 
 and keep in a dry place. 
 
 Sailor's Sauce. 
 
 Chop a fowl's liver with 2 or 3 shallots, and a 
 couple of truffles or mushrooms; simmer these in 
 a spoonful of oil, 2 or 3 spoonsful of gravy, a glass 
 of wine, a little salt and coarse pepper; simmer it 
 about half an hour, and skim it very well before 
 using. 
 
 Queen's Sauce. 
 
 Simmer crumbs of bread in good gravy, until it 
 is quite thick, take it off the fire, and add a few 
 sweet almonds pounded, 2 hard yolks of eggs, 
 and a breast of fowl roasted, all pounded very fine ; 
 
 boil a sufficient quantity of cream to your sauce, 
 and sift all together, then add pepper and saltj 
 and warm it without boiling. 
 
 Tomato Catsup. 
 
 Boil tomatoes, full ripe, in their juice, to nearly 
 the consistence of a pulp, pass them through a 
 hair sieve, and add salt to the taste. Aromatize 
 it sufficiently with clove, pepper, and nutmegs. 
 Catsup for Sea-stores. 
 
 Take a gallon of strong stale beer, a pound of 
 anchovies washed from the pickle, the same of 
 shallots peeled; an ounce of mace, an ounce 
 of cloves, i of an ounce of whole pepper, 3 or 4 
 large races of ginger, and 2 quarts of large mush- 
 room flaps, rubbed to pieces. Cover these close, 
 and let it simmer till half wasted. Then strain it 
 through a flannel bag; let it stand till quite cold, 
 and then bottle it. This may be carried to any 
 part of the world ; and a spoonful of it to a pound 
 of fresh butter melted, will make a fine fish sauce, 
 or will supply the place of gravy sauce. The 
 stronger and staler the beer the better will be the 
 catsup. 
 
 Another. Chop 24 anchovies, having first boned 
 them; put to them 10 shallots cut small, and a 
 handful of scraped horse-radish, of an ounce 
 of mace, a quart of white wine, a pint of water, 
 and the same quantity of red wine; a lemon cut 
 into slices, a pint of anchovy liquor, 12 cloves, 
 and the same number of peppercorns. Boil them 
 together till it comes to a quart, then strain it off, 
 cover it close, and keep it in a cold dry place. 
 Two spoonsful of it will be sufficient for a pound 
 of butter. It is a good sauce for boiled fowls, or, 
 in the room of gravy, lowering it with hot water, 
 and thickening it with a piece of butter rolled in 
 flour. 
 
 Fish Sauce. 
 
 Take 1 pound of anchovies, a quart of claret, f 
 of a pint of white wine vinegar, ^ an ounce of 
 cloves and mace, 2 races of ginger sliced, a little 
 black pepper, the peel of a lemon, a piece of horse- 
 radish, a large onion, a bunch of thyme and 
 savory; set all these over a slow fire to simmer 
 an hour, then strain it through a sieve; when 
 cold put it in a bottle with the spice, but not the 
 herbs. To a large coffee-cupful cold, put a pound 
 of butter; stir it over the fire till it is as thick as 
 cream; shake the bottle when used, and put no 
 water to the butter. 
 
 Cream Sauce for a Hare. 
 
 Run the cream over the hare or venison just 
 before frothing it, and catch it in a dish ; boil it 
 up with the yolks of two eggs, some onion, and a 
 piece of butter rolled in flour and salt. Half a 
 pint of cream is the proportion for two eggs. 
 Apple Sauce. 
 
 Pare and core tart apples, cut them in slices, 
 rinse and put them in an earthern stewpan, set 
 them on the fire, do not stir them until they burst 
 and are done; mash them with a spoon, and when 
 perfectly cool sweeten with white sugar to taste. 
 Sweet Sauce. 
 
 Mix 2 glasses of red wine, one of vinegar, 3 tea- 
 spoonsful of cullis, a bit of sugar, 1 sliced onion, 
 a little cinnamon, and a laurel-leaf; boil them a 
 quarter of an hour. 
 
 Nun' 8 Butter. 
 
 Four ounces of butter; six ounces of sugar; as 
 much wine as the butter will take. Beat the but- 
 ter and sugar together, and gradually add the 
 wine and a little nutmeg. 
 
 Brown Sauce. 
 
 Mix together one tablespoonful of moist sugar, 
 
POTATOES. 
 
 195 
 
 two of French vinegar, three of salad oil, a tea- 
 epoonful of mixed mustard, some pepper and salt, 
 and serve. 
 
 A Dish of Macaroni. 
 
 Boil 4 ounces of macaroni till it is quite 
 tender, then lay it on a sieve to drain, and put it 
 into a stewpan with about a gill of cream, and a 
 piece of butter rolled in flour; stew it five min- 
 utes and pour it on a plate. Lay Parmesan cheese 
 toasted all over it, and send it up in a water-plate. 
 
 Cole-Slaw. 
 
 Get a fresh cabbage, take off the outside leaves, 
 cut it in half, and with a sharp knife shave it into 
 fine slips. Put it into a deep dish, and pour over 
 it a dressing prepared in the following manner: 
 
 Beat up 2 eggs, add to it 1 gill of vinegar 
 and water mixed; place it on the range; when it 
 begins to thicken stir in a piece of butter the size 
 of a small walnut, a little salt; when cold pour it 
 over the cabbage and stir it together; and before 
 sending to table sprinkle with a little black 
 pepper. 
 
 To boil Peas. 
 
 Early peas require about half an hour to boil, 
 and the later kinds rather longer; the water 
 should boil when they are put in ; when they are 
 tough and yellow, they may be made tender and 
 green by putting in a little pearl-ash or ashes tied 
 up in a bag, just before they are taken up; this 
 will tender all green vegetables, but do not put 
 too much; when done dip them out; drain and 
 season them with butter, pepper and salt; put a 
 bunch of parsley in the middle of the dish. 
 
 String Beans. 
 
 These, to be tender, should be boiled from three 
 to four hours, after the strings have been very 
 carefully removed. Add a little butter, salt and 
 black pepper when they are dished. 
 
 Potatoes. Fourteen icays of Dressing Them. 
 
 General Instructions. The vegetable kingdom 
 affords no food more wholesome, more easily pre- 
 pared, or less expensive than the potato ; yet, 
 although this most useful vegetable is dressed 
 almost every day, in almost every family for one 
 plate of potatoes that comes to table as it should, 
 ten are spoiled. 
 
 Be careful in your choice of potatoes ; no vege- 
 table varies so much in color, size, shape, consist- 
 ence and flavor. 
 
 Choose those of a large size, free from blem- 
 ishes, and fresh, and buy them in the mould ; they 
 must not be wetted till they are cleaned to be 
 cooked. Protect them from the air and frost by 
 laying them in heaps in a cellar, covering them 
 with mats, or burying them in sand or in earth. 
 The action of frost is most destructive ; if it be 
 considerable, the life of the vegetable is destroyed, 
 and the potato speedily rots. 
 
 1. Potatoes boiled. Wash them, but do not 
 pare'or cut them unless they are very large; fill 
 a saucepan half full of potatoes of equal size (or 
 make them so by dividing the larger ones), put to 
 them as much cold water as will cover them about 
 an inch : they are sooner boiled, and more savory 
 than when drowned in water; most boiled things 
 are spoiled by having too little water, but pota- 
 toes are often spoiled by too much ; they must 
 merely be covered, and a little allowed for waste 
 in boiling, so that they may be just covered at the 
 finish. 
 
 Set them on a moderate fire till they boil, then 
 take them off, and set them by the side of the fire 
 to simmer slowly till they are soft enough to ad- 
 mit a fork (place no dependence on the usual test 
 
 of their skin cracking, which, if they are boiled 
 fast, will happen to some potatoes when they are 
 not half done, and the inside is quite hard); then 
 pour the water off (if you let the potatoes remain 
 in the w;iter a moment after they are done enough 
 they will become waxy and watery), uncover the 
 saucepan, and set it at such a distance from the 
 fire as will secure it from burning ; their super- 
 fluous moisture will evaporate, and the potatoes 
 will be perfectly dry and mealy. 
 
 You may afterwards place a napkin, folded up 
 to the size of the saucepnn's diameter, over the 
 potatoes, to keep them hot and mealy till wanted. 
 
 This method of managing potatoes is in every 
 respect equal to steaming them; and they are 
 dressed in half the time. 
 
 There is such an infinite variety of sorts and 
 sizes of potatoes, that it is impossible to say how 
 long they will take to cook ; the best way is to try 
 them with a fork. Moderate sized potatoes will 
 generally be done in fifteen or twenty minutes. 
 
 2. Cold Potatoes Fried. Put a bit of clean 
 dripping into a fryingpan ; when it is melted, 
 slice in your potatoes with a little pepper and salt, 
 put them on the fire, keep stirring them; when 
 they are quite hot they are ready. 
 
 3. Potatoes Boiled and Broiled. Dress your 
 potatoes as before directed, and put them on a 
 gridiron over a very clear and brisk fire ; turn 
 them till they are brown all over, and send them 
 up dry, with melted butter in a cup. 
 
 4. Potatoes Fried in Slices or Shavings. Peel 
 large potatoes, slice them about a quarter of an 
 inch thick, or cut them in shaving? round and 
 round as you would peel a lemon; dry them well 
 in a clean cloth, and fry them in lard or dripping. 
 Take care that your fat and fryingpan are quite 
 clean ; put the pan on a quick fire, watch it, and as 
 soon as the lard boils, and is still, put in the slices 
 of potatoes, and keep moving them till they are 
 crisp; take them up and lay them to drain on a 
 sieve : send them up with a very little salt sprinkled 
 over them. 
 
 5. Potatoes Fried Whole. When nearly boiled 
 enough, as directed in No. 1, put them into a stew- 
 pan with a bit of butter, or some nice clean beef 
 drippings; shake them about often (for fear of 
 burning them ) till they are brown and crisp ; drain 
 them from the fat. 
 
 It will be an improvement to the three last 
 receipts, previously to frying or broiling the pota- 
 toes, to flour them and dip them in the yolk of an 
 egg, and then roll them, in fine sifted bread- 
 crumbs. 
 
 6. Potatoes Mashed. When your potatoes are 
 thoroughly boiled, drain dry, pick out every 
 speck, etc., and while hot rub them through a col- 
 ander into a clean stewpan ; to a pound of pota- 
 toes put about half an ounce of butter, and a table- 
 spoonful of mil^k ; do not make them too moist; 
 mix them well together. 
 
 7. Potatoes Mashed with Onions. Prepare some 
 boiled onions, by putting them through a sieve, 
 and mix them with potatoes. In proportioning 
 the onions 10 the potatoes, you will be guided by 
 your wish to have more or less of their flavor. 
 
 8. Potatoes Evculoped. Mash potatoes as di- 
 rected in No. 6, then butter some nice clean scal- 
 lop shells, r patty-pans; put in your potatoes, 
 make them smooth at the top, cross a knife over 
 them, strew a few fine bread-crumbs on them, 
 sprinkle them with a paste brush with a few drops 
 of melted butter, and then set them in a Dutch 
 oven ; when they are browned on the top, take 
 them carefully out of the shells, and brown the 
 other side. 
 
 9-. Colcannon. Boil potatoes and greens, or 
 
196 
 
 PLAIN COOKEKY. 
 
 spinach, separately ; mash the potatoes, squeeze 
 the greens dry, chop them quite fine, and mix 
 them with the potatoes with a little butter, pepper 
 and salt; put it into a mould, greasing it well 
 first; le+ it stand in a hot oven for ten minutes. 
 
 10. Potatoes Roasted, Wash and dry your po- 
 tatoes (all of a size), and put them in a tin Dutch 
 oven, or cheese toaster; take care not to put them 
 too near the fire, or they will get burnt on the 
 outside before they are warmed through. 
 
 Large potatoes will require two hours to roast 
 them. 
 
 11. Potatoes Roasted under Meat. Half boil 
 large potatoes, drain the water from them, and 
 put them into an earthern dish, or small tin pan, 
 under meat that is roasting, and baste them with 
 some of the dripping; when they are browned on 
 oiie side, turn them and brown the other; send 
 them up round the meat, or in a small dish. 
 
 12. Potato Balls. Mix mashed potatoes with 
 tie yolk of an egg, roll them into balls, flour 
 them, or egg and bread-crumb them, and fry 
 them in clean drippings, or brown them in a Dutch 
 o%en. 
 
 13. Potato Snow. The potatoes must be free 
 from spots, and the whitest you can pick out; put 
 them on in cold water; when they begin to crack 
 strain the water from them, and put them into a 
 clean stewpan by the side of the fire till they are 
 quite dry and fall to pieces; rub them through a 
 wire sieve on the dish they are to be sent up in, 
 and do not disturb them afterwards. 
 
 14. Potato Pie. Peel and slice your potatoes 
 very thin into a pie dish ; between each layer of 
 potatoes put a little chopped onion (three-quarters 
 of an ounce of onion is sufficient for a pound of 
 potatoes), between each layer sprinkle a little 
 pepper and salt, put in a little water, and cut 
 about two ounces of fresh butter into little bits, 
 and lay it on the top, cover it close with puff 
 paste. It will take about an hour and a half to 
 bake it. 
 
 To Broil Tomatoes. 
 
 Wash and wipe the tomatoes, and put them on 
 the gridiron over live coals, with the stem down. 
 When that side is brown turn them and let them 
 cook through. Put them on a hot dish and send 
 quickly to table, to be there seasoned to taste. 
 
 To Bake Tomatoes. 
 
 Season them with salt and pepper; flour them 
 over, put them in a deep plate with a little butter, 
 and bake in a stove. 
 
 To Steam Potatoes. 
 
 Put them clean-washed, with their skins on, into 
 a steam saucepan, and let the water under them 
 be about half boiling; let them continue to boil 
 rather quickly, until they are done. If the water 
 once relaxes from its heat the potato is sure to be 
 affected, and to become soddened, let the quality 
 be ever so good. A too precipitate boiling is 
 equally disadvantageous, as the higher parts to 
 the surface of the root begin to crack and open, 
 while the centre part continues unheated and un- 
 decomposed. 
 
 Mushrooms. 
 
 Be careful in gathering mushrooms that you 
 have the right kind : they are pink underneath 
 and white on the top, and the skin will peel off 
 easily, hut it sticks to the poisonous ones; and the 
 smell and taste of the good ones are not rank. 
 After you have peeled them, sprinkle them with salt 
 and pepper, and put them in a stewpan, with a little 
 water and a lump of butter. Let them boil fast 
 ten minutes, and stir in a thickening of flour and 
 cream. They may be fried in butter, or broiled 
 
 on a gridiron. They are sometimes very abun- 
 dant in the fall, on ground that has not been 
 ploughed for several years ; they appear after a 
 warm rain. They may be peeled, salted, and al- 
 lowed to stand for some hours before cooking. 
 
 Chicken Pot-pie. 
 
 Take a pair of tender, fat chickens, singe, open, 
 and cut them into pieces, by separating all the 
 joints. Wash them through several waters, with 
 eight or ten pared white potatoes, which put into 
 a pan, and, after seasoning highly with salt and 
 black pepper, dredge in three tablespoonsful of 
 flour. Stir well together; then line the sides 
 (halfway up) of a medium-sized stew-kettle with 
 paste made with two pounds of flour and one of 
 butter. Put the chicken and potato into the kettle, 
 with water just sufficient to cover them. Roll out 
 some paste for a cover, the size of the kettle, and 
 join it with that on the sides; cut a small opening 
 in the centre, cover the kettle, and hang it over a 
 clear fire or set it in the oven, as most convenient; 
 turn the kettle round occasionally, that the sides 
 may be equally browned. Two hours over a clear 
 fire, or in a quick oven, will cook it. When done, 
 cut the top crust into moderate-sized pieces, and 
 place it round a large dish ; then, with a perfor- 
 ated skimmer, take up the chicken and potatoes 
 and place in the centre; cut the side crust and lay 
 it on the top ; put the gravy in a sauce-tureen, 
 and send all to table hot. 
 
 Oatmeal Gruel. 
 
 Boil a handful of raisins in a pint of water for 
 ten minutes. Mix 2 tablespoonsful of good oat- 
 meal with a little cold water, and pour it into a 
 saucepan, and boil fifteen or twenty minutes. Salt 
 a little, and sweeten to taste. 
 
 Arrow-root. 
 
 Mix 2 tablespoonsful of arrow-root (Bermuda is 
 the best) in a little water to a paste. Add a little 
 lemon or orange peel to a pint of boiling water, 
 and stir in the arrow-root while boiling. Cook it 
 till clear, and season with nutmeg and sugar to 
 taste, and wine, if desired. Half milk and half 
 water, or all milk, may be used instead of water. 
 
 Tapioca. 
 
 Cover 3 tablespoonsful of tapioca with water, 
 and soak it two or three hours. Add a little water 
 to it, and boil till clear. Sweeten to taste, and eat 
 alone or with cream. 
 
 Tapioca Jelly. 
 
 Wash thoroughly 2 tablespoonsful of tapioca ; 
 pour over it a pint of water, and soak for three 
 hours. Place it then over a slow fire and simmer 
 till quite clear. If too thick, add a little boiling 
 water. "Sweeten with white sugar, and flavor with 
 a little wine. 
 
 Apple Tapioca. 
 
 Pare, core, and quarter 8 apples; take table- 
 spoonful tapioca which has been all night soaking 
 in water; add % teacupful white sugar, and a little 
 nutmeg or cinnamon. Put the tapioca into a stew- 
 pan to simmer 10 minutes; then add the apples, 
 and simmer ten minutes more. When cold it will 
 form a jelly around the apples. 
 
 To make Dr. Kitchener's Pudding. 
 
 Beat up the yolks and whites of 3 eggs ; strain 
 them through a sieve, and gradually add to them 
 about a quarter of a pint of milk. Stir these well 
 together. Mix in a mortar 2 ounces of moist sugar 
 and as much grated nutmeg as will lie on a six- 
 pence; stir these into the eggs and milk; then 
 put in 4 ounces of flour, and beat it into a smooth 
 batter ; stir in, gradually, 8 ounces of very fine- 
 
PUDDINGS. 
 
 197 
 
 thopped suet and 3 ounces of bread-crumbs. Mix 
 all thoroughly together, at least half an hour be- 
 fore putting the pudding into the pot. Put it into 
 an earthenware mould that is well buttered, and 
 tie a pudding-cloth over it. 
 
 Nottingham Pudding. 
 
 Peel 6 good apples ; take out the cores with the 
 point of a small knife, but be sure to leave the ap- 
 ples whole ; fill up where the core was taken from 
 with sugar, place them in a pie-dish, and pour over 
 them a nice light batter, prepared as for batter 
 pudding, and bake them an hour in a moderate 
 oven. 
 
 To make Yorkshire Pudding. 
 
 This nice dish is usually baked under meat, and 
 is thus made. Beat 4 large spoonsful of flour, 
 2 eggs, and a little salt for fifteen minutes; put 
 to them 3 pints of milk, and mix them well to- 
 gether; then butter a dripping-pan, and set it 
 under beef, mutton, or veal, while roasting. When 
 it is brown, cut it into square pieces, and turn it 
 over, and, when the under side is browned also, 
 send it to the table on a dish. 
 
 Dutch Pudding. 
 
 Cut a round piece out of the bottom of a Dutch 
 loaf, and put that and the piece that was cut out 
 into a quart of cold new milk, in the evening, and 
 let it stand all night. If the milk is all soaked up 
 by the morning, add some more. Put the piece in 
 the bottom again, tie the loaf up in a cloth, and 
 boil it an hour. Eat it with sugar, or with melted 
 butter, white wine, and sugar sauce. 
 
 To make a Dish of Frumenty. 
 
 Boil an approved quantity of wheat; when soft, 
 pour off the water, and keep it for use as it is 
 wanted. The method of using it is to put milk 
 to make it of an agreeable thickness ; then, warm- 
 ing it, adding some sugar and nutmeg. 
 To make a Windsor Pudding. 
 
 Shred half a pound of suet very fine, grate into 
 it half a pound of French roll, a little nutmeg, and 
 the rind of a lemon. Add to these half a pound 
 of chopped apples, half a pound of currants, clean 
 washed and dried, half a pound of jar raisins, 
 stoned and chopped, a glass of rich sweet wine, 
 and 5 eggs, beaten with a little salt. Mix all thor- 
 oughly together, and boil it in a basin or mould 
 for three hours. Sift fine sugar over it when sent 
 to table, and pour white-wine sauce into the dish. 
 A Cheshire Pudding. 
 
 Make a crust as for a fruit pudding, roll it out 
 to fourteen or fifteen inches in length and eight or 
 nine in width; spread with raspberry jam or any 
 other preserve of a similar kind, and roll it up in 
 the manner of a collared eel. Wrap a cloth round 
 it two or three times, and tie it tight at each end. 
 Two hours and a quarter will boil it. 
 To make a Plain Pudding. 
 
 Weigh three-quarters of a pound of any odd 
 scraps of bread, whether crust or crumb, cut them 
 small, and pour on them a pint and a half of boil- 
 ing water to soak them well. Let it stand till the 
 water is cool, then press it out, and mash the bread 
 smooth with the back of a spoon. Add to it a tea- 
 spoonful of beaten ginger, some moist sugar, and 
 three-quarters of a pound of currants. Mix all 
 well together, and lay it in a pan well buttered. 
 Flatten it down with a spoon, and lay some pieces 
 of batter on the top. Bake it in a moderate oven, 
 and serve it hot. When cold it will turn out of 
 the pan, and eat like good plain cheesecakes. 
 Transparent Pudding. 
 
 Beat up 8 eggs, put them into a stew-pan with 
 
 half a pound of sugar, the same of butter, and 
 some grated nutmeg, and set it on the fire, stir- 
 ring it till it thickens; then pour it into a basin 
 to cool. Set a rich paste round the edge of your 
 dish, pour in your pudding, and bake it in a mod- 
 erate oven. A delicious and elegant article. 
 A Potato Rice Pudding. 
 
 Wash a quarter of a pound of whole rice ; dry 
 it in a cloth and beat it to a powder. Set it upon 
 the fire, with a pint and a half of new milk, till it 
 thickens, but do not let it boil. Pour it out, and 
 let it stand to cool. Add to it some cinnaman, 
 nutmeg, and mace, pounded; sugar to the taste; 
 half a pound of suet shred very small, and 8 eggs 
 well beaten with some salt. Put to it either half 
 a pound of currants, clean washed and dried by 
 the fire, or some candied lemon, citron, or orange 
 peel. Bake it half an hour with a puff crust 
 under it. 
 
 Swiss Pudding. 
 
 Butter your dish ; lay in it a layer of bread- 
 crumbs, grated very fine ; then boil 4 or 5 apples 
 very tender; add a little butter, nutmeg, and fine- 
 sifted sugar. Mix all up together, and lay on the 
 bread-crumbs, then another layer of the crumbs; 
 then add pieces of fresh butter on the top, and 
 bake in a slow oven for a quarter of an hour, until 
 it becomes a delicate brown. It may be eaten hot 
 or cold. 
 
 Carrot Pudding. 
 
 Take J peck of carrots, boil and mash them 
 well; then add pound flour, i pound currants, 
 i pound raisins, pound suet chopped fine, i cup 
 of suj;ar, 2 tablespoonsful of cinnamon, 1 tea- 
 spoonful of allspice. Boil four hours, and serve 
 hot with sauce flavored with Madeira wine. 
 T'iain Rice Pudding, 
 
 One quart ol milk, i a teacupful of rice, 2 tea- 
 spoonsful of sugar, ^ of a nutmeg, grated ; a small 
 piece of butter, size of hickory-nut. Pick and 
 wash the rice; add all the ingredients. Stir all 
 well together, and put in a slack oven one and a 
 half to two hours. When done pour it in a pud- 
 ding-dish, and serve when cold. If baked in an 
 oven, take off the brown skin before it is poured 
 
 in the pudding-dish, and replace it on the top of 
 the pudding as before. 
 
 Indian Pone. 
 
 Put on one quart of water in a pot; as soon as 
 it boils stir in as much Indian meal as will make 
 a very thin batter. Beat it frequently while it is 
 boiling, which will require ten minutes ; then take 
 it off, pour it in a pan, and add one ounce of but- 
 ter, and salt to taste. When the batter is luke- 
 warm, stir in as much Indian meal as will make 
 it quite thick. Set it away to rise in the evening; 
 in the morning make it out in small cakes, butter 
 your tins, and bake in a moderate oven. Or the 
 more common way is to butter pans, fill them thre 
 parts full, and bake them. 
 
 This cake requires no yeast. 
 
 Blackberry Mush. 
 
 Put your fruit in a preserving kettle ; mash it 
 to a pulp, with sugar enough to make it quite 
 sweet. Set it over the fire, and, as soon as it be- 
 gins to simmer, stir in very gradually two tea- 
 spoonsful of flour to a quart of fruit. It should 
 be stirred all the time it is boiling. Serve it either 
 warm or cold, with cream. 
 
 Raspberries may be cooked in the same way. 
 
 Potato Pudding. 
 
 Take 5 potatoes, boil, and mash them through 
 a colander, with a little salt and 1 teacupful of 
 milk or cream; i pound of butter, pound of 
 
198 
 
 PLAIN COOKERY. 
 
 sugar, beaten to a cream. Beat 4 eggs, and sti 
 them with the latter; then add the mashed pota 
 toes when cool. Season with 1 tablespoonful o 
 brandy and 1 nutmeg, grnted, with a little cinna 
 mon. Bake in a quick oven. 
 
 Bread Pudding. 
 Take a pint measure of bread broken small o 
 crumbed; boil a quart of milk, with a little salt 
 and pour it over the bread ; cover and let th 
 bread swell till it can be mashed smooth. Beat < 
 eggs and stir into it, with 4 tablespoonsful of flour 
 Sprinkle a bag inside with flour, pour in the pud 
 ding, tie loosely, and boil one hour. 
 
 To make Oldbnry Pudding. 
 Beat 4 eggs well, have ready a pint basin 
 floured and buttered, pour in the eggs, and fill 5 
 up with new milk previously boiled, and when 
 cold bent them together; put a white paper over 
 the basin, cover with a cloth, and boil it twenty 
 minutes. Send it up with wine and butter sauce, 
 
 Quince Pudding. 
 
 Scald the quinces tender, pare them thin, scrape 
 off the pulp, mix with sugar very sweet, and add a 
 little ginger and cinnamon. To a pint of cream 
 put three or four yolks of eggs, and stir it into the 
 quinces till they are of a good thickness. Butter 
 the dish, pour it in, and bake it. 
 
 To make Raspberry Dumplings. 
 
 Make a puff paste, and roll it out. Spread rasp- 
 berry jam, and make it into dumplings. Boil 
 them an hour; pour melted butter into a dish, 
 and strew grated sugar over it. 
 
 To make Raspberry and Cream Tarts. 
 
 Roll out thin puff paste, lay it in a patty-pan ; 
 put in raspberries, and strew fine sugar over them. 
 Put on a lid, and when baked, cut it open, and 
 put in | a pint of cream, the yolks of 2 eggs well 
 beaten, and a little sugar. 
 
 To make Paste for Tarts. 
 
 Put an ounce of loaf sugar, beat and sifted, to 
 1 pound of fine flour. Make it into a stiff paste, 
 with a gill of boiling cream, and 3 ounces of but- 
 ter. Work it well, and roll it very thin. 
 
 Pie Crust. 
 
 Sift a pound and a half of flour, and take out a 
 quarter for rolling, cut in it a quarter of a pound 
 of lard, mixed with water and roll it out ; cut half 
 a pound of butter, and put it in at two rollings 
 with the flour that was left out. 
 
 For making the bottom crust of pies, put half a 
 pound of lard into a pound of flour, with a little 
 salt, mix it stiff, and grease the plates before you 
 make pies; always make your paste in a cold 
 place, and bake it soon. Some persons prefer 
 mixing crust with milk instead of water. 
 
 To make a good Paste for Large Pies. 
 
 Put to a peck of flour 3 eggs, then put in half a 
 p< und of suet and a pound and a half of butter. 
 Work it up well and roll it out. 
 
 Another method. Take a peck of flour, and 6 
 pounds of butter, boiled in a gallon of water, then 
 skim it off into the flour, with as little of the liquor 
 as possible. Work it up well into a paste, pull it 
 into pieces till cold, then make it into the desired 
 form. 
 
 Puff Paste. 
 
 Sift a pound of flour. Divide 1 pound of butter 
 into four parts, cut one part of the butter into the 
 flour with a knife ; make it into dough with water, 
 roll it, and flake it with part of the butter. Do 
 this again and again till it is all in. This will 
 make enough crust for at least ten puffs. Bake 
 With a quick heat, for ten or fifteen minutes. 
 
 To make a. Puff Paste. 
 
 Take a quarter of peck of flour, and rub it into 
 a pound of butter very fine. Make it up into a 
 light paste with cold water just stiff enough to 
 work it up. Then lay it out about as thick as a 
 silver dollar; put a layer of butter all over, then 
 sprinkle on a little flour, double it up, and roll it 
 out again. Double and roll it with layers of but- 
 ter three times, and it will be fit for use. 
 
 Mince Pies, not very rich. 
 
 Take 4 pounds of beef after it has been boiled 
 and chopped, 1 pound of suet, 2 pounds of sugar, 
 2 pounds of raisins, and 4 pounds of chopped ap- 
 ples, mix these together with a pint of wine and 
 cider, to make it thin enough; season to your 
 taste with mace, nutmeg, and orange-peel; if it is 
 not sweet enough, put in more sugar. Warm the 
 pies before they are eaten. Where persons are 
 not fond of suet, put batter instead, and stew the 
 apples instead of so much cider. 
 
 To make a Short Crust. 
 
 Put 6 ounces of butter to 8 ounces of flour, and 
 work them well together; then mix it up with as 
 little water as possible, so as to have it a stiffisb. 
 paste; then roll it out thin for use. 
 
 Lemon Pudding. 
 
 Cut off the rind of 3 lemons, boil them tender, 
 pound them in a mortar, and mix them with a 
 quarter of a pound of Naples biscuits, boiled up in 
 a quart of milk or cream ; beat up 12 yolks and 6 
 whites of eggs. Melt a quarter of a pound of fresh 
 gutter, and put in half a pound of sugar, and a 
 ittle orange-flower water. Mix all well together, 
 stir it over the fire till thick, and squeeze in the 
 juice of half a lemon. Put puff paste round the 
 dish, then pour in the pudding; cut candied sweet- 
 meats, and strew over, and bake it for three quar- 
 ers of an hour. 
 
 Softer Pudding. 
 
 Take 6 ounces of fine flour, a little salt and 3 
 ggs, beat up well with a little milk, added by 
 legrees till the batter is quite smooth, make it 
 ;he thickness of cream, put into a buttered pie- 
 lish, and bake three-quarters of an hour, or into 
 a buttered and floured basin tied over tight with 
 a. cloth, boil one and a half or two hours. 
 
 Newmarket Pudding. 
 
 Put on to boil a pint of good milk, with half a 
 emon peel, a little cinnamon, boil gently for five 
 r ten minutes, sweeten with loaf sugar, break the 
 oiks of 5 and the whites of 3 eggs into a basin, 
 >eat them well, and add the milk, beat all well 
 ogether, and strain through a fine hair sieve, have 
 ome bread and butter cut very thin, lay a layer 
 f it in a pie-dish, and then a layer of currants, 
 nd so on till the dish is nearly full, then pour the 
 ustard over it, and bake half an hour. 
 Newcastle, or Cabinet Pudding. 
 
 Butter a half melon mould, or quart-basin, and 
 tick all round with dried cherries, or fine raisins, 
 nd fill up with bread and butter, etc., as in the 
 bove, and steam it an hour and a half. 
 
 Vermicelli Pudding. 
 
 Boil a pint of milk, with lemon peel and cinna- 
 mon, sweeten with loaf sugar, strain through a 
 eve, and add a quarter of a pound of vermicelli, 
 oil ten minutes, then put in the yolks of 5 and 
 le whites of 3 eggs, mix well together, and steam 
 one hour and a quarter; the same may be baked 
 alf an hour. 
 
 Bread Pudding. 
 Make a pint of bread-crumbs, put them into a 
 
PUDDINGS. 
 
 199 
 
 itewpan w.th as much milk as will cover them, the 
 peel of a lemon, and a little nutmeg grated, a 
 mall piece of cinnamon ; boil about ten minutes; 
 iweeten with powdered loaf sugar ; take out the 
 cinnamon, and put in 4 eggs; beat all well to- 
 gether, and bake half an hour, or boil rather more 
 than an hour. 
 
 Suet Pudding. 
 
 Suet, quarter of a pound ; flour, 3 tablespoon- 
 fnls; eggs, 2; and a little grated ginger; milk, 
 half a pint. Mince the suet as fine as possible, 
 roll it with the rolling-pin so as to mix it well 
 with the flour; beat up the eggs, mix them with 
 the milk, and then mix all together ; wet your 
 cloth well in boiling water, flour it, tie it loose, 
 put into boiling water, and boil an hour and a 
 quarter. 
 
 Custard Pudding. 
 
 Boil a pint of milk, and a quarter of a pint of 
 good cream ; thicken with flour and water, made 
 perfectly smooth, till it is stiff enough to bear an 
 egg on it; break in the yolks of 5 eggs, sweeten 
 with powdered loaf sugar, grate in a little nutmeg, 
 and the peel of a lemon ; add half a glass of good 
 brandy, then whip the whites of the 5 eggs till 
 quite stiff, and mix gently all together; line a pie- 
 dish with good puff paste, and bake half an hour. 
 Ground rice, potato flour, panada, and all pud- 
 dings made from powders, are, or may be, prepared 
 in the same way. 
 
 Boiled Custards. 
 
 Put a quart of new milk into a stewpan, with 
 the pee! of a lemon cut very thin, a little grated 
 nutmeg, a small stick of cinnamon; set it over a 
 quick fire, but be careful it does not boil over; 
 when it boils, set it beside the fire, and simmer 
 ten minutes; break the yolks of 8, and the whites 
 of 4 eggs into a basin, beat them well, then pour 
 in the milk a little at a time, stirring it as quickly 
 as possible to prevent the eggs curdling; set it on 
 the fire again, and stir well with a wooden spoon ; 
 let it have just one boil; pass it through a fine 
 sieve; when cold, add a little brandy, or white 
 wine, as may be most agreeable to palate; serve 
 up in glasses, or cups. 
 
 Pumpkin Pudding. 
 Two and a half pounds of pumpkin, 6 ounces 
 of butter, 6 eggs, 1 tablespoonful of wine, 2 table- 
 spoonfuls of brandy, sugar to taste. 1 teaspoon- 
 ful of cinnamon, and half a teaspoonful of ginger. 
 Cut the pumpkin in slices, pare it, take out the 
 seeds and soft parts; cut it into small pieces, and 
 stew it in very little water, until it becomes tender; 
 then press it in a colander until quite dry, turn it 
 out in a pan, put in the butter and a little salt, 
 mash it very fine. When cool, whisk the eggs 
 until thick and stir in; then add sugar to taste, 
 with the brandy, wine, and spice. This is suffi- 
 ient for three or four puddings. Line your plates 
 With paste, and bake in a quick oven. 
 
 Boiled Pudding. 
 
 One quart of milk, 5 eggs, 12 large tablespoons- 
 ful of flour. 
 
 Whisk the eggs very light, then put in the flour; 
 add a little of the milk, and beat the whole per- 
 fectly smooth. Then pour in the remainder of 
 the milk and enough salt, just to taste. Rinse 
 your f udding-bag in cold water and flour it well 
 inside. Pour in the mixture and allow a vacancy 
 of from two to three inches at the top of the bag, 
 as the pudding will swell aa soon as it begins to 
 boil. 
 
 Be careful to tie the bag tight, and put it imme- 
 diately in a large kettle of boiling water. Let it 
 boil for two hours. As soon as it is taken out of 
 
 the kettle, dip it for an instant into a pan of cold 
 water. This prev?nts the pudding from adhering 
 to the bag. Serve it immediately, as it would spoil 
 3y standing. It may be eaten with wine sauce, or 
 any other sauce which may be preferred. 
 
 Indian Meal Pudding. 
 
 One quart of milk, 4 tablespoonfuls of very fine 
 Indian meal, 3 ounces of butter, 5 eggs, i of a 
 pound of sugar, a little salt, half a gill of brandy, 
 half a grated nutmeg, a little cinnamon. Boil the 
 milk and stir in the meal, as if for mush. 
 
 Let it boil fifteen minutes, and beat it perfectly 
 smooth. 
 
 Add the salt and butter while it is hot. As soon 
 as it becomes cool stir in the eggs, which have 
 been beaten very thick, and then the other ingre- 
 dients. If the quarter of a pound of sugar does 
 not make the mixture sufficiently sweet, more may 
 be added. 
 ' Bake in a light paste like other puddings. 
 
 Rhubarb Pies. 
 
 Take off the skin from the stalks, cut them into 
 small pieces; wash and put them to stew with no 
 more water than that which adheres to them; 
 when done, mash them fine and put in a small 
 piece of butter, and when cool sweeten to taste 
 and add a little nutmeg. Line your plates with 
 paste, put in the filling, and bake in a quick oven. 
 When done sift white sugar over. 
 Apple Dumplings. 
 
 Pare and core large tart apples. An apple-corer 
 is better than a knife to cut out the seeds, as it does 
 not divide the apple. Make a paste of 1 pound 
 of flour and i pound of butter; cover the apples 
 with the paste, tie them in cloths, but do not 
 squeeze them tightly. 
 
 Tender apples will boil in three-quarters of an 
 hour. Send to the table hot. Eat with butter and 
 molasses, or sugar and cream. 
 Pancakes. 
 
 One pound of flour, 3 eggs beaten very light, as 
 much milk as will make it as thick as cream, a 
 little salt. Add the e.2gs to the flour with the 
 milk ; salt to taste. Stir all well together until 
 perfectly smooth. Put in the pan a piece of lard 
 about the size of a chestnut; as soon as it is hot 
 put in two table-spoonsful of the batter, and move 
 the pan about to cause the batter to spread. When 
 done on one side turn it over. Serve them hot 
 with any sauce you please. 
 
 Fritters. 
 
 One pound and a quarter of flour, 3 half pints 
 of milk, 4 eggs. Beat the eggs until thick, to 
 which add the milk. Place the flour in a pan 
 and by degrees stir in the egg and milk, beating 
 the whole until very smooth. Salt to taste. With 
 a tablespoon drop them into hot lard, and fry a 
 light brown on both sides. Send to table hot, and 
 eat with nun's butter, or butter and molasses. 
 
 Cold Custard. 
 
 Take i of a calf's rennet, wash it well, cut it in 
 pieces and put it into a decanter with a pint of 
 Lisbon wine. In a day or two it will be fit for 
 use. To one pint of milk add a teaspoonful of the 
 wine. Sweeten the milk and warm it a little and 
 add the wine and nutmeg, stirring it slightly. 
 Pour it immediately into a dish, move it gently to 
 a cold place, and in a few minutes it will become a 
 custard. It makes a firmer curd to put in the 
 wine omitting the sugar. It may be eaten with 
 sugar and cream. 
 
 Green Gooseberry Cheese. 
 
 Take 6 pounds of unripe rough gooseberries, cut 
 off the blossoms and stems, and put them in cold 
 
200 
 
 PLAIN" COOKERY. 
 
 water for an hour or two ; then take them out, 
 bruise them in a marble mortar, and put them into 
 a brass pan or kettle over a clear fire, stirring 
 them till tender; then add 4 pounds of lump 
 sugar pounded, and boil it till very thick and of 
 a fine green color, stirring it all the time. 
 
 Ale Posset. 
 
 Take a small piece of white bread, put it into a 
 pint of milk and set it over the fire. Then put 
 some nutmeg and sugar into a pint of ale, warm 
 it, and when the milk boils pour it upon the ale. 
 Let it stand a few minutes to clear. 
 
 Coffee for Thirty People. 
 
 Put 1 pound of best coffee into a stewpan suf- 
 ficiently large to hold 7 quarts of water ; put it on 
 the fire to dry, or roast the coffee (be sure to 
 shake it for fear it should burn) ; then take it off 
 the fire and put the whites of two eggs into it, 
 stir it till it is mixed, then pour on it 6 quarts of 
 water boiling ; let it stand J of an hour covered 
 closely, then strain it through a jelly-bag, or let 
 it stand awhile to settle; pour into an urn and 
 serve hot for use. 
 
 Cocoa. 
 
 Grind one teacupful of cocoa into a coffee-mill. 
 Put it in a small bag made of very thin muslin, 
 tie it close; put it in a pot with three half pints 
 of boiling water and 1 pint of boiling milk. Boil 
 the whole for half an hour, then pour it into an- 
 other pot and send it to table. This will be found 
 to suit invalids much better than chocolate, as it 
 contains no butter. 
 
 Wine Whey. 
 
 Boil a pint of milk and pour into it a gill of wine 
 (Madeira or Sherry), and let it boil again; take it 
 from the fire and stand a few moments without 
 stirring. Remove the curd and sweeten the whey. 
 
 Milk Punch. 
 
 Into a tumbler full of milk put! or 2 tablespoons- 
 ful of brandy, whiskey, or Jamaica rum. Sweeten 
 it well, and grate nutmeg on the top. 
 
 Egg and Wine. 
 
 Beat a fresh raw egg well, and add 1 or 2 table- 
 spoonsful of wine. Sweeten to taste. 
 
 Icing for Calces. 
 
 Put 1 pound of fine sifted, treble-refined sugar 
 into a basin, and the whites of three new-laid 
 eggs; beat the sugar and eggs up well with a 
 silver spoon until it becomes very white and thick ; 
 dust the cake over with flour and then brush it 
 off, by way of taking the grease from the outside, 
 which prevents the icing from running; put it 
 on smooth with a palette knife, and garnish ac- 
 cording to fancy; any ornaments should be put 
 on immediately, for if the icing gets dry it will not 
 stick on. 
 
 A Plain Poundcake. 
 
 Beat 1 pound of butter and 1 pound of sugar 
 in an earthen pan until it is like a fine thick 
 cream, then beat in 9 whole eggs till quite light. 
 Put in a glass of brandy, a little lemon-peel 
 shred fine, then work in li pound of flour; put 
 it into the hoop or pan and bake it for an hour. 
 A pound plum-cake is made the same with putting 
 li pound of clean washed currents, and i pound 
 of candied lemon-peel. 
 
 Plain Gingerbread. 
 
 Mix 3 pounds of flour with 4 ounces of moist 
 sugar, $ ounce of powdered ginger, and 1J pounds 
 of warm molasses ; melt i pound of fresh butter 
 in it, put it to the flour and make it a paste ; then 
 form it into nuts or cakes, or bake it in one cake. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 Mix 6 pounds of flour with 2 ounces of caraway 
 seeds, 2 ounces of ground ginger, 2 ounces of 
 candied orange-peeel, the same of candied lemon 
 peel cut in pieces, a little salt, and 6 ounces of 
 moist sugar ; melt 1 pound of fresh butter in about 
 a pint of milk, pour it by degrees into 4 pounds 
 of molasses, stir it well together, and add it, a 
 little at a time, to the flour; mix it thoroughly, 
 make it into a paste; roll it out rather thin and 
 cut it into cakes with the top of a dredger or wine 
 glass; put them on floured tins, and bake them 
 in rather a brisk oven. 
 
 Gingerbread Poundcake. 
 
 Six eggs, 1 pint molasses, ^ pound sugar, pound 
 butter, wineglass of brandy, 1 lemon, 1 nutmeg, 3 
 tablespoon sful of ginger, 2 teaspoonfuls of ground 
 cloves, 1 tablespoonful of cinnamon, 1 teaspoonful 
 of soda. Flour enough to make a stiff batter. 
 Bath Cakes. 
 
 Mix well together i pound of butter, 1 pound 
 of flour, 5 eggs, and a cupful of yeast. Set the 
 whole before the fire to rise, which effected add a 
 J of a pound of fine powdered sugar, 1 ounce of 
 caraways well mixed in, and roll the paste out 
 into little cakes. Bake them on tins. 
 Shrewsbury Cakes. 
 
 Mix i pound of butter well beaten like cream, and 
 the same weight of flour, 1 egg, 6 ounces of beaten 
 and sifted loaf sugar, and ounce of caraway 
 seeds. Form these into a paste, roll them thin, 
 and lay them in sheets of tin ; then bake them in 
 a slow oven. 
 
 Portugal Cakes. 
 
 Mix into a pound of fine flour a pound of loaf 
 sugar, beaten and sifted, and rub it into a pound 
 of butter, till it is thick, like grnted white bread; 
 then put to it 2 tablespoonfuls of rose-water, 2 of 
 sack, and 10 eggs; work them well with a whisk, 
 and put in 8 ounces of currants. Butter the tin 
 pans, fill them half full, and bake them. 
 
 Ginger Cakes without Butter. 
 
 Take 1 pound of sugar, of a pound of ginger, 
 1 pint of water, 2 pounds of flour, and 8 caps of 
 orange-peel. Pound and sift the ginger, and add 
 1 pint of water ; boil it 5 minutes, then let it stand 
 till cold. Pound the preserved orange-peel, and 
 pass it through a hair-sieve ; put the flour on a 
 pasteboard, make a wall, and put in the orange- 
 peel and ginger with the boiled water, mix this 
 up to a paste and roll it out, prick the cakes before 
 baking them. 
 
 Savoy Cakes. 
 
 To 1 pound of fine sifted sugar put the yolks 
 of 10 eggs (have the whites in a separate pan), 
 and set it, if in summer, in cold water, if there is 
 any ice set the pan on it, as it will cause the eggs 
 to be beat finer. Then beat the yolks and sugar 
 well with a wooden spoon for 20 minutes, and put 
 in the rind of a lemon grated ; beat up the whites 
 with a whisk, until they become quite stiff and 
 white as snow. Stir them into the batter by de- 
 grees^ then add f of a pound of well-dried flour; 
 finally, put it in a mould in a slack oven to bake. 
 
 Eice Cakes. 
 
 Beat the yolks of 15 eggs for nearly \ an 
 hour with a whisk, mix well with them 10 ounces 
 of fine sifted loaf sugar, put in a pound of 
 ground rice, a little orange-water or brandy, and 
 the rinds of 2 lemons grated, then add the whites 
 of 7 eggs well beaten, and stir the whole together 
 for J of an hour. Put them into a hoop and set 
 them in a quick oven for an hour, when they 
 will be properly done. 
 
CAKES AND BUNS. 
 
 Banbury Cakes. 
 
 Take 1 pound of dough made for white bread, 
 roll it out, and put bits of butter upon the same as 
 for puff-paste, till 1 pound of the same has been 
 worked in ; roll it out very thin, then cut it into 
 bits of an oval size, according as the cakes are 
 wanted. Mix some good moist sugar with a little 
 brandy, sufficient to wet it, then mix some clean 
 washed currants with the former, put a little upon 
 each bit of paste, close them up, and put the side 
 that is closed next the tin they are to be baked 
 upon. Lay them separate, and bake them mode- 
 rately, and afterwards, when taken out, sift sugar 
 over them. Some candied-peel may be added, or 
 a few drops of the essence of lemon. 
 
 Cream Cakes. 
 
 Beat the whites of 9 eggs to a stiff froth, stir it 
 gently with a spoon J0st the froth should fall, and 
 to every white of an egg grate the rinds of 2 
 lemons ; shake in gently a spoonful of double re- 
 fined sugar sifted fine, lay a wet sheet of paper on 
 a tin, and with a spoon drop the froth in little 
 lumps on it near each other. Sift a good quantity 
 of sugar over them, set them in the oven after the 
 bread is out, and close up the mouth of it, which 
 will occasion the froth to rise. As soon as they 
 are colored they will be sufficiently baked; lay 
 them by 2 bottoms together on a sieve, and dry 
 them in a cool oven. 
 
 Crumpets. 
 
 Set 2 pounds of flour with a little salt before the 
 fire till quite warm ; then mix it with warm milk 
 and water till it is as stiff as it can be stirred; let 
 the milk be as warm as it can be borne with the 
 finger, put a cupful of this with 3 eggs well beaten, 
 and mixed with 3 teaspoonfuls of very thick yeast; 
 then put this to the batter and beat them all well 
 together in a large pan or bowl, add as much milk 
 and water as will make it into a thick batter; 
 cover it close and put it before the fire to rise ; 
 put a bit of butter in a piece of thin muslin, tie it 
 up, and rub it lightly over the iron hearth or fry- 
 ing-pan, then pour on a sufficient quantity of 
 batter at a time to make one crumpet; let it do 
 slowly, and it will be very light. Bake them all 
 the same way. They should not be brown, but of 
 a fine yellow. 
 
 Muffins. 
 
 Mix a quartern of fine flour, 1J pints of warm 
 milk and water, with J of a pint of good yeast, 
 and a little salt; stir them together for i of an 
 hour, then strain the liquor into i of a peck of 
 fine flour; mix the dough well and set it to rise 
 for an hour, then roll it up and pull it into small 
 pieces, make them up in the hand like balls and 
 lay a flannel over them while rolling, to keep 
 them warm. The dough should be closely covered 
 up the whole time; when the whole is rolled into 
 balls, the first that are made will be ready for 
 baking. When they are spread out in the right 
 form for muffins, lay them on tins and bake them, 
 and as the bottoms begin to change color turn 
 them on the other side. 
 
 Another Recipe. 
 
 One quart of milk, 1 ounce of butter, 3 eggs, 4 
 tablespoonfuls of yeast; -salt to taste; flour suffi- 
 cient to make a thick bather. Warm the milk and 
 butter together; when cool, whisk the eggs, and 
 Btir in. Then put 1 pounds of flour in a pan, to 
 which add the milk and eggs gradually. If not 
 sufficiently thick for the batter to drop from the 
 spoon, more flour may be added until of proper 
 consistence, after beating well ; then add the salt 
 and yeast. Cover, and set the batter to rise in a 
 Warm place ; when light, grease the muffin-rings 
 
 and griddle, place the ringslfnTInWnff tliem half- 
 full of batter: when thoy nre a lijrht-hrown, turn 
 them over, ring and muffin tacethi^r.y The griddle 
 should not be too hot, or else 1 tlie muffin will be 
 sufficiently browned before cooked through. Send 
 to table hot; split open, and eat withbutter. 
 
 Flannel Cakes. 
 
 One pint of fine Indian meal, 1 pint of wheat 
 flour, 1 teaspoonful of salt, 2 gills of yeast. Mix 
 the wheat and Indian meal together, with as much 
 tepid water as will make it into a batter, not quite 
 as thin as for buckwheat cakes; then add the salt 
 and yeast, and set them in a moderately warm 
 place to rise. When light, bake them on a grid- 
 dle ; butter, and send to table hot. 
 
 Common Buns. 
 
 Rub 4 ounces of butter into 2 pounds of flour, a 
 little salt, 4 ounces of sugar, a dessertspoonful of 
 caraways, and a teaspoonful of ginger; put some 
 warm milk or cream to 4 tablespoon sful of yeast; 
 mix all together into a paste, but not too stiff; cover 
 it over and set it before the fire an hour to rise, 
 then make it into buns, put them on a tin, set 
 them before the fire for J of an hour, cover over 
 with flannel, then brush them with very warm 
 milk and bake them of a nice brown in a mode- 
 rate oven. 
 
 Cross Buns. 
 
 Put 2 pounds of fine flour into a wooden bowl, 
 and set it before the fire to warm ; then add a 
 pound of sifted sugar, some coriander seed, cinna- 
 mon and mace, powdered fine ; melt a pound of 
 butter in a pint of milk ; when it is as warm as 
 the finger can bear, mix with it 3 tablcspoonfuls 
 of very thick yeast, and a little salt ; put it to the 
 flour, mix it to a paste, and make the buns as di- 
 rected in the last receipt. Put a cross on the top, 
 not very deep. 
 
 Busks. 
 
 Beat up 7 eggs, mix them with a pint of warm 
 new milk, in which J of a pound of butter has been 
 melted, add i of a pint of yeast, and 3 ounces of 
 sugar ; put them gradually into as much flour as 
 will make a light paste nearly as thin as batter; 
 let it rise before the fire i an hour, add more flour 
 to make it a little stiffer, work it well and divide 
 it into small loaves or cakes, about 5 or 6 inches 
 wide, and flatten them. When baked and cold put 
 them in the oven to brown a little. These cakes, 
 when first baked, are very good buttered for tea; 
 they are very nice cold. 
 
 Buckwheat Cakes. 
 
 One quart of buckwheat meal, 1 pint of wheat 
 flour, J a teacupful of yeast; salt to taste. Mix 
 the flour, buckwheat and salt with as much water, 
 moderately warm, as will make it into a thin bat- 
 ter. Beat it well, then add the yeast; when well 
 mixed, set it in a warm place to rise. As soon as 
 they are very light, grease the griddle, and bake 
 them a delicate brown, butter them with good 
 butter, and eat while hot. 
 
 Sugar Biscuit. 
 
 Three pounds of flour; three- quarters of a pound 
 of butter; one pound of sugar; one quart of 
 sponge. Rub the flour, butter and sugar together, 
 then add the sponge, with as much milk as will 
 make a soft dough. Knead well and replace it in 
 the pan to rise. This must be done in the after- 
 noon ; next morning knead lightly, make it into 
 small cakes about the size of a silver dollar, and 
 half an inch in thickness; place them on slightly 
 buttered tins, one inch apart each way, set them 
 in a warm place to rise; when light bake them in 
 a quick oven j when done wash them over with a 
 
202 
 
 PLAIN COOKERY. 
 
 little water, not having the brush 'too wet, and let 
 thorn remain on the tins until cool. 
 
 Dried Husks. 
 
 Take sugar biscuits which have been baked the 
 day previous ; cut them in half between the upper 
 and under crusts with a sharp knife. Place them 
 on tins, and soon after the fire has ignited in the 
 oven put them in, and as the heat increases they 
 become grndually dried through. When a light 
 brown they are done. These are universally liked 
 by the sick. 
 
 English Macaroons. 
 
 One pound of sweet almonds; 1 pound and a 
 quarter of sugar; 6 whites of eggs; and the rasp- 
 ings of 2 lemons. Pound the almonds very fine 
 with 6 whites of eggs, feel the almonds, and if 
 they are free from lumps they will do ; then add 
 the powdered sugar, and mix it well with the 
 lemon raspings. Dress them in wafer paper of 
 the required shape; bake them in a moderate 
 heat, then let them stand till cold, cut the wafer 
 paper round them, but leave it on the bottoms. 
 
 Sponge Biscuits. 
 
 Beat the yolks of 12 eggs for half an hour ; then 
 put in lip unds of beaten sifted sugar, and whisk 
 it till it rises in bubbles; beat the whites to a 
 strong froth, and whisk them well with the sugar 
 and yolks; work in 14 ounces of flour, with the 
 rinds of 2 lemons grated. Bake them in tin 
 moulds buttered, in a quick oven, for an hour; 
 before they are baked sift a little fine sugar over 
 them. 
 
 Bread Cheesecakes. 
 
 Slice a penny loaf as thin as possible; pour on 
 it a pint of boiling cream, and let it stand two 
 hours. Beat together 8 eggs, half a pound of 
 butter, and a grated nutmeg; mix them into the 
 cream and bread with half a pound of currants, 
 well washed and dried, and a spoonful of white 
 wine or brandy. Bake them in patty-pans, on a 
 raised crust. 
 
 Rice Cheesecakes. 
 
 Boil 4 ounces of rice till it is tender, and then 
 put it into a sieve to drain ; mix with it 4 eggs 
 well beaten up, half a pound of butter, half a pint 
 of cream, 6 ounces of sugar, a nutmeg grated, a 
 glass of brandy or ratafia water. Beat them all 
 well together, then put them into raised crusts, 
 and bake them in a moderate oven. 
 
 Apple Cakes. 
 
 Take half a quartern of dough, roll it out thin ; 
 spread equally over it 5 ounces each of coffee and 
 sugar, a little nutmeg or allspice, and 2 ounces of 
 butter; then fold and roll it again two or three 
 times, to mix well the ingredients. Afterwards 
 roll it out thin, and spread over it 4 rather large 
 apples, pared, cored, and chopped small ; fold it 
 up, and roll until mixed. Let it stand to rise 
 after. Half a pound of butter may be added. 
 
 Bread Cakes. 
 
 Take 1 quart of milk; stir in enough bread- 
 crumbs to make a thin batter. Beat 8 eggs well 
 and stir them in, adding a little salt; add 2 table- 
 spoonfuls of flour. Bake them on the griddle 
 and serve hot. 
 
 Waffles. 
 
 One quart of milk ; 5 eggs: 2 ounces of butter. 
 Warm the milk sufficiently to melt the butter; 
 when cool separate the eggs and beat the yolks in 
 the milk, with as much flour as will make it into 
 a thick batter, then salt to taste ; lastly, beat the 
 whites until stiff and dry, which stir in, half at a 
 time, very lightly. Bake in irons. This method is 
 very good ; by it they may be made in a short time. 
 
 Sally Lunn. 
 
 Hub 3 ounces of butter into a pound of flour; 
 then add 3 eggs beaten very light, a little salt, 1 
 gill of yeast, and as much milk as will make it 
 into a soft dough. Knead it well. Put it in a 
 buttered pan, cover it, and set it in a warm place 
 to rise. Bake in a moderate oven, and send to 
 table hot. To be eaten with butter. 
 A Cheap Fruit-Cake. 
 
 Take 4 pounds of flour, 3 of butter, 3 of sugar, 
 2 of raisins, 1 of currants, 2 dozen eggs, an ounce 
 of mace, 3 nutmegs, and a half pint of brandy. 
 If you want it dark put in a little molasses. Mix 
 the ingredients together, and bake it from two to 
 three hours. 
 
 Common Jumbles. 
 
 Take a pound of flour, half a pound of butter, 
 and three-quarters of a pou^id of sugar, 3 eggs, a 
 little nutmeg, and rose brandy. Mix the butter 
 and sugar together, and add the flour and eggs; 
 mould them in rings, and bake them slowly. 
 Ginger-Nuts. 
 
 Half a pound of butter, half a pound of sugar, 
 1 pint of molasses, 2 ounces of ginger, half an 
 ounce of ground cloves and allspice mixed, 2 
 tablespoonfuls of cinnamon, as much flour as will 
 form a dough. Stir the butter and sugar together; 
 add the spice, ginger, molasses, and flour enough 
 to form a dough. Knead it well, make it out in 
 small cakes, bake them on tins in a very moderate 
 oven. Wash them over with molasses and water 
 before they are put in to bake. 
 
 TO MAKE PUNCH. 
 
 For a gallon of punch take six fresh Sicily lem- 
 ons; rub the outsides of them well over with 
 lumps of double-refined loaf-sugar, until they be- 
 come quite yellow; throw the lumps into the 
 bowl; roll your lemons well on a clean plate or 
 table; cut them in half and squeeze them with a 
 proper instrument over the sugar; brui.se the 
 sugar, and continue to add fresh portions of it, 
 mixing the lemon pulp and juice well with it. 
 Much of the goodness of the punch will depend 
 upon this. The quantity of sugar to be added 
 should be great enough to render the mixture 
 without water pleasant to the palate even of a 
 child. When this is obtained, add gradually a 
 small quantity of hot water, just enough to render 
 the syrup thin enough to pass through the strainer. 
 Mix all well together, strain it, and try if there be 
 sugar enough; if at all sour add more. When cold 
 put in a little cold water, and equal quantities of 
 the best cogniac brandy and old Jamaica rum, 
 testing its strength by that infallible guide the 
 palate. A glass of calves'-foot jelly added to the 
 syrup when warm will not injure its qualities. 
 
 The great secret of making good punch may be 
 given in a few words: a great deal of fresh lemon- 
 juice more than enough of good sugar a fair 
 proportion of brandy and rum, and very little 
 water. 
 
 To make Nectar. 
 
 Put half a pound of loaf sugar into a large 
 porcelain jug; add one pint of cold water; bruise 
 and stir the sugar till it is completely dissolved; 
 pour over it half a bottle of hock and one bottle 
 of Madeira. Mix them well together, and grate 
 in half a nutmeg, with a drop or two of the es- 
 sence of lemon. Set the jug in a bucket of ice for 
 one hour. 
 
 TO MAKE COFFEE. 
 
 The best coffee is imported from Mocha. It is 
 said to owe much of its superior quality to being 
 
COFFEE. 
 
 203 
 
 kept long. Attention to the following circum- 
 Btances is likewise necessary. 1. The plant should 
 be grown in a dry situation and climate. 2. The 
 berries ought to be thoroughly ripe before they 
 are gathered. 3. They ought to be well dried in 
 the sun ; and 4. Kept at a distance from any sub- 
 stance (as spirits, spices, dried fish, etc.) by which 
 the taste and flavor of the berry may be injured. 
 
 To drink coffee in perfection, it should be made 
 from the best Mocha or Java, or both mixed, care- 
 fully roasted, and after cooling for a few minutes, 
 reduced to powder, and immediately infused; the 
 decoction will then be of a superior description. 
 But for ordinary use, Java, Laguayra, Maracaibo, 
 Rio and other grades of coffee may be used. An 
 equal mixture of Mocha, Java and Laguayra 
 make an excellent flavor. We have been recently 
 shown (1865) some samples of African coffee from 
 Liberia, which is said to possess a very superior 
 flavor. The following mode of preparing it may 
 be adopted : 
 
 1. The berries should be carefully roasted, by a 
 gradual application of heat, browning, but not 
 burning them. 
 
 2. Grinding the coffee is preferable to pounding 
 because the latter process is thought to press out 
 and leave on the sides of the mortar some of the 
 richer oily substances, which are not lost by 
 grinding. 
 
 5. A filtrating tin or silver pot, with double 
 sides, between which hot water must be poured, to 
 prevent the coffee from cooling, as practised in 
 Germany, is good. Simple decoction, in this im- 
 plement, with boiling water, is all that is required 
 to make a cup of good coffee; and the use of isin- 
 glass, the white of eggs, etc., to fine the liquor, is 
 quite unnecessary. By this means, also, coffee is 
 made quicker than tea. 
 
 Generally, too little powder of the berry is 
 given. It requires about one small cup of ground 
 coffee to make four cups of decoction for the table. 
 This is at the rate of an ounce of good powder 
 to four common coffee cups. When the powder is 
 put in the bag, as many cups of boiling water are 
 poured over it as may be wanted, and if the quan- 
 - tity wanted is very small, so that after it is fil- 
 trated it does not reach the lower end of the bag, 
 the liquor must be poured back three or four 
 times, till it has acquired the necessary strength. 
 
 Another Method. Pour a pint of boiling water 
 on an ounce of coffee; let it boil five or six min- 
 utes, then pour out a cupful two or three times, 
 and return it again; put two or three isinglass 
 chips into it, or a lump or two of fine sugar; boil 
 it five minutes longer. Set the pot by the fire to 
 keep hot for ten minutes, and the coffee will be 
 beautifully clear. Some like a small bit of va- 
 nilla. Cream or boiled milk should always be 
 served with coffee. 
 
 In Egypt, coffee is made by pouring boiling 
 water upon ground coffee in the cup ; to which 
 only sugar is added. For those who like it ex- 
 tremely strong, make only eight cups from three 
 ounces. If not fresh roasted, lay it before a fire 
 till hot and dry; or put the smallest bit of fresh 
 butter into a preserving-pan; when hot throw 
 the coffee into it, and toss it about till it be fresh- 
 ened. 
 
 Coffee most certainly promotes wakefulness, or, 
 in other words, it suspends the inclination to sleep. 
 
 A very small cup of coffee, holding about a 
 wineglassfull, called by the French une demi tasse, 
 drunk after dinner very strong, without cream or 
 milk, is apt to promote digestion. 
 
 Persons afflicted with asthma have found great 
 relief, and even a cure, from drinking very strong 
 coffee, and those of a phlegmatic habit would do 
 
 well to take it for breakfast. It is of a rather 
 drying nature, and with corpulent habits it would 
 also be advisable to take it for breakfast. 
 
 Arabian Method of Preparing Coffee. 
 The Arabians, when they take their coffee off 
 the fire, immediately wrap the vessel in a* wet 
 cloth, which fines the liquor instantly, makes it 
 cream at the top, and occasions a more pungent 
 steam, which they take great pleasure in snuffing ^ 
 up as the coffee is pouring into the cups. They, 
 like all other nations of the East, drink their coffee 
 without sugar. 
 
 People of the first fashion use nothing but Sul- 
 tana coffee, which is prepared in the following 
 manner: Bruise the outward husk or dried pulp, 
 and put it into an iron or earthen pan, which is 
 placed upon a charcoal fire; then keep stirring it 
 to and fro, until it becomes a little brown, but not 
 of so deep a color as common coffee ; then throw 
 it into boiling water, adding at least the fourth 
 part of the inward husks, which is then boiled to- 
 gether in the manner of other coffee. The husks 
 must be kept in a very dry place, and packed up 
 very close, for the least humidity spoils the flavor. 
 The liquor prepared in this manner is esteemed 
 preferable to any other. The French, when they 
 were at the court of the king of Yemen, saw no 
 other coffee drank, and they found the flavor of it 
 very delicate and agreeable. There was no occa- 
 sion to use sugar, as it had no bitter taste to cor- 
 rect. Coffee is less unwholesome in tropical than 
 in other climates. 
 
 In all probability the Sultana coffee can only be 
 made where the tree grows; for, as the husks have 
 little substance if they are much dried, in order 
 to send them to other countries, the agreeable fla- 
 vor they had when fresh is greatly impaired. 
 
 Improvement in malting Coffee. 
 The process consists in simmering over a small 
 but steady flame of a lamp. To accomplish this 
 a vessel of peculiar construction is requisite. It 
 should be a straight-sided pot, as wide at the top 
 as at the bottom, and inclosed in a case of similar 
 shape, to which it must be soldered air-tight at the 
 top. The case to be above an inch wider than the 
 pot, and descending somewhat less than an inch 
 below it. It should be entirely open at the bot- 
 tom, thus admitting and confining a body of hot 
 air round and underneath the pot. The lid to be 
 double, and the vessel, of course, furnished with a 
 convenient handle and spout. 
 
 The extract may be made either with hot water 
 or cold. If wanted for speedy use, hot water, not 
 actually boiling, will be proper, and the powdered 
 coffee being added, close the lid tight, stop the 
 spout with a cork, and place the vessel over the 
 lamp. It will soon begin to simmer, and may re- 
 main unattended, till the coffee is wanted. It 
 may then be strained through a bag of stout, close 
 linen, which will transmit the liquid so perfectly 
 clear as not to contain the smallest particle of the 
 powder. 
 
 Though a fountain lamp is preferable, any of 
 the common small lamps, seen in every tin shop, 
 will answer the purpose. Alcohol, pure sperma- 
 ceti oil, or some of the recent preparations of 
 petroleum are best, and if the wick be too high, or 
 the oil not good, the consequence will be smoke, 
 soot, and extinction of the aroma. The wick 
 should be little more than one-eighth of an inch 
 high. In this process, no trimming is required. 
 It may be left to simmer, and will continue sim- 
 mering all night without boiling over, and with- 
 out any sensible diminution of quantity. 
 
 Parisian Method of making Coffee. 
 In the first place, let coffee be of the prime quality, 
 
204 
 
 COOKERY. 
 
 grain small, round, hard, and clear; perfectly 
 dry and sweet; and at least three years old let it 
 be gently roasted until it be of a light brown 
 color ; avoid burning, for a single scorched grain 
 will spoil a pound. Let this operation be per- 
 formed at the moment the coffee is to be used ; 
 then grind it while it is yet warm, and take of the 
 powder an ounce for each cup intended to be made ; 
 put this along with a small quantity of shredded 
 saffron into the upper part of the machine, called 
 a grecque or biggin ; that is, a large coffee-pot with 
 an upper receptacle made to fit close into it, the 
 bottom of which is perforated with small holes, 
 and containing in its interior two movable metal 
 strainers, over the second of which the powder is to 
 be placed, and immediately under the third ; upon 
 this upper strainer pour boiling water, and con- 
 tinue doing so gently until it bubbles up through 
 the strainer; then shut the cover of the machine 
 ck>sc down, place it near the fire, and so soon as 
 the water has drained through the coffee, repeat 
 the operation until the whole intended quantity 
 be passed. Thus all the fragrance of its perfume 
 will be retained with all the balsamic and stimu- 
 lating powers of its essence: and in a few mo- 
 ments will be obtained without the aid of isin- 
 glass, whites of eggs, or any of the substances 
 with which, in the common mode of preparation, 
 it is mixed a beverage for the gods. This is the 
 true Parisian mode of preparing coffee; the in- 
 vention of it is due to M. de Belloy, nephew to 
 the Cardinal of the same name. 
 
 A coffee-pot upon an entirely new plan, called 
 the Old Dominion, and made in Philadelphia, Pa,, 
 is very much liked by some. Perhaps, however, 
 the old mode of boiling and clearing with egg, or 
 the French mode, with the biggin or strainer, is 
 the best. 
 
 Sufficient attention is not, however, paid to 
 the proper roasting of the berry, which is of the 
 utmost importance ; to have the berry done just 
 enough and not a grain burnt. It is customary 
 now in most large cities for grocers to keep coffee 
 ready roasted, which they have done in large wire 
 cylinders, and generally well done, but not always 
 fresh. 
 
 Coffee Milk. 
 
 Boil a dessertspoonful of ground coffee in about 
 a pint of milk a quarter of an hour; then put in 
 it a shaving or two of isinglass, and clear it; let 
 it boil a few minutes, and set it on the side of the 
 fire to fine. Those of a spare habit, and disposed 
 towards affections of the lungs, would do well to 
 use this for breakfast, instead of ordinary coffee. 
 
 COOKERY. 
 
 It was the intention in our article on Cookery 
 to divide it into two parts, separating fine from 
 plain, every-day receipts; but this was found im- 
 practicable, no two judgments agreeing upon the 
 proper division, hence our abandonment of the 
 plan, and leaving to each reader his or her own 
 judgment. 
 
 To make a Savory Dish of Veal. 
 
 Cut some large scallops from a leg of veal, 
 spread them on a dresser, dip them in rich egg 
 batter; season them with cloves, mace, nutmeg, 
 and pepper beaten fine: make force-meat with 
 some of the veal, some beef suet, oysters chopped, 
 sweet herbs shred fine; strew all these over the 
 collops, roll and tie them up, put them on skewers 
 and roast them. To the rest of the force-meat 
 add two raw eggs, roll them in balls and fry them. 
 Put them into the dish with the meat when 
 roasted; and make the sauce with strong broth, 
 an anchovy or a shallot, a little white wine and 
 
 some spice. Let it stew, and thicken it with a 
 piece of butter rolled in flour. Pour the sauce 
 into the dish, lay the meat in with the force-meat 
 balls, and garnish with lemon. 
 
 Lamb's Kidneys, an vin. 
 
 Cut your kidneys lengthways, but not through, 
 put 4 or 5 on a skewer, lay them on a gridiron 
 over clear, lively coals, pouring the red gravy into 
 a bowl each time they are turned; five minutes 
 on the gridiron will do. Take them up, cut them 
 in pieces, put them into a pan with the gravy you 
 have saved, a large lump of butter, with pepper, 
 salt, a pinch of flour, glass of Madeira (champagne 
 is better), fry the whole for two minutes, and serve 
 very hot. 
 
 Breast of Veal, glacee. 
 
 Cut your breast as square as possible; bone it 
 and draw the cut pieces together with a thread; 
 put it into a pan with a ladle of veal bouillon, 
 cover it with slices of salt pork and a buttered 
 paper, previously adding 2 carrots in bits, 4 onions 
 in slices, 2 bay leaves, 2 cloves, pepper and salt; 
 put some coals on the lid as well as below; when 
 two-thirds done take out the vegetables, reduce 
 your gravy to jell} 7 , turn your meat, and set on 
 the cover till done ; it takes in all two hours and 
 a half over a gentle fire. 
 
 Shoulder en Galantine. 
 
 Bone a fat, fleshy shoulder of veal, cut off the 
 ragged pieces to make your stuffing, viz., 1 pound 
 of veal to 1 pound of salt pork minced extremely 
 fine, well seasoned with salt, pepper, spices, and 
 mixed with 3 eggs, spread a layer of this stuffing 
 well minced over the whole shoulder to the depth 
 of an inch; over this mushrooms, slips of bacon, 
 slices of tongue, and carrots in threads, cover this 
 with stuffing as before, then another layer of 
 mushrooms, bacon, tongue, etc., when all your 
 stuffing is used, roll up your shoulder lengthways, 
 tie it with a thread, cover it with slips of lardino 
 and tie it up in a clean white cloth ; put into a pot 
 the bones of the shoulder, 2 calves'-feet, slips of 
 bacon, 6 carrots, 10 onions, 1 stuck with 4 cloves, 
 4 bay leaves, thyme, and a large bunch of parsley 
 and shallots, moisten the whole with bouillon; 
 put in your meat in the cloth and boil steadily for 
 three hours. Try if it is done with the larding 
 needle ; if so, take it up, press all the liquor from 
 it and set it by to grow cold ; pass your jelly 
 through a napkin, put 2 eggs in a pan, whip them 
 well and pour the strained liquor on them, mixing 
 both together, add peppercorns, a little of the 4 
 spices, a bay leaf, thyme, parsley ; let all boil 
 gently for half an hour, strain it through a nap- 
 kin, put your shoulder on its dish, pour the jelly 
 over it and serve cold. 
 
 Shoulder of Mutton. 
 
 Bone the larger half of your shoulder, lard the 
 inside with well seasoned larding, tie it up in the 
 shape of a balloon, lay some slips of bacon in your 
 pan, on them your meat, with 3 or 4 carrots, 5 
 onions, 3 cloves, 2 bay leaves, thyme, and the 
 bones that have been taken out moisten with bouil- 
 lon, set all on the fire and simmer for three hours 
 and a half; garnish with small onions. 
 
 Sheep's Tongues. 
 
 Fifteen tongues are sufficient for a dish wash 
 and clean them well, throw them into hot water 
 for twenty minutes, wash them again in cold 
 water, drain, dry and trim thorn neatly, lard them 
 with seasoned larding and the small needle; lay 
 in your pan slips of bacon, 4 carrots in pieces, 4 
 onions, 1 stuck with 2 cloves, slips of veal, 2 bay 
 leaves, thyme, and a faggot of shallots and 
 parsley; put your tongues in, cover them with 
 
MEATS. 
 
 205 
 
 Blips of larding, moisten the whole with bouillon 
 and let it simmer five hours. 
 
 To make an Excellent Ragout of Cold Veal. 
 Either a neck, loin, or fillet of veal will furnish 
 this excellent ragout, with a very little expense o 
 trouble. 
 
 Cut the veal into handsome thin cutlets; put a 
 piece of butter or clean dripping into a fryingpan 
 as soon as it is hot, flour and fry the veal of a ligh 
 brown ; take it out, and if you have no gravy ready 
 put a pint of boiling water into the fryingpan, give 
 it a boil up fur a minute, and strain it into a basin 
 while you make some thickening in the following 
 manner : Put about an ounce of butter into a stew- 
 pan ; as soon as it melts, mix with it as much 
 flour as will dry it up ; stir it over the fire for a 
 few minutes, and gradually add to it the gravy 
 you made in the fryingpan ; let them simmer 
 together for ten minutes (till thoroughly incor- 
 porated); season it with pepper, salt, a little mace 
 and a wineglass of mushroom catsup, or wine 
 strain it through a tammy to the meat: and stew 
 very gently till the meat is thoroughly warmed 
 If you have any ready boiled bacon, cut it in 
 slices, aud put it to warm with the meat. 
 
 To make Veal Cake. 
 Take the best end of a breast of veal, bone and 
 cut it into three pieces ; take the yolk out of eight 
 eggs boiled hard, and slice the whites, the yolks 
 to be cut through the middle, two anchovies, a 
 good deal of parsley chopped fine, and some lean 
 ham cut in thin slices; all these to be well sea- 
 soned separately with Cayenne, black pepper, salt 
 and a little nutmeg ; have ready a mug the size 
 of the intended cake, with a little butter rubbed 
 on it, put a layer of veal on the- bottom, then a 
 layer of egg and parsley, and ham to fancy; re- 
 peat it till all is in, lay the bones on the top and 
 let it be baked three or four hours ; then take off 
 the bones and press down the cake till quite cold. 
 The mug must be dipped in warm water and the 
 cake turned out with great care, that the jelly may 
 not be broken which hangs round it. 
 
 To make Dry Devils. 
 
 These are usually composed of the broiled legs 
 and gizzards of poultry, fish bones, or biscuits, 
 sauce piqnante. Mix equal parts of fine salt, Cay- 
 enne pepper and curry powder, with double the 
 quantity of powder of truffles; dissect a brace of 
 woodcocks rather under roasted, split the heads, 
 subdivide the wings, etc., etc., and powder the 
 whole gently over with the mixture; crush the 
 trail and brains along with the yolk of a hard 
 boiled egg, a small portion of pounded mace, the 
 grated peel of half a lemon and half a spoonful 
 of soy, until the ingredients be brought to the 
 consistence of a fine paste; then add a table- 
 spoonful of catsup, a full wineglass of Madeira 
 and the juice of two Seville oranges; throw the 
 sauce along with the birds into a stew-dish, to be 
 heated with spirits of wine; cover close up, light 
 the lamp and keep gently simmering, and occa- 
 sionally stirring until the flesh has imbibed the 
 greater part of the liquid. When it is completely 
 saturated, pour in a small quantity of salad oil, 
 stir all once more well together, put out the light 
 and serve it round instantly. 
 
 To make an Olio. 
 
 Boil in a broth pot a fowl, a partridge, a small 
 Iftg of mutton, five or six pounds of large slices 
 of beef and a knuckle of veal; soak all these 
 without broth for some time, turn the meat to give 
 it a good color, and add boiling water; when it 
 has boiled about an hour, add all sorts of best 
 broth herbs ; this broth, when good, is of a fine 
 brown color. 
 
 To make Beef a la Mode. 
 
 Take 11 pounds of the mouse buttock, or clod 
 of beef, cut it into pieces of 3 or 4 ounces each; 
 put 2 or 3 large onions and 2 ounces of beef drip- 
 ping into a large, deep stewpan : as soon as it ia 
 quite hot flour the meat and put it into the stew- 
 pan ; fill it sufficiently to cover the contents with 
 water and stir it continually with a wooden spoon ; 
 when it has been on a quarter of an hour, dredge 
 it with flour, and keep doing so till it h;is been 
 stirred as much as will thicken it; then cover it 
 with boiling water. Skim it when it boils, and 
 put in 1 drachm of black ground pepper, 2 of all- 
 spice and 4 bay leaves ; set the pan by the side 
 of the fire to stew slowly about 4 hours. This is 
 at once a savory and economical dish. 
 
 Beef a la Mode. 
 
 Take out the bone from a round, and with a 
 sharp knife cut many deep incisions in the meat. 
 Then wash and season well with salt and pepper. 
 Crumb the soft part of a loaf of bread, to which 
 add one teaspoonful of sweet marjoram, the same 
 of sweet basil, one small onion minced fine, two 
 or three small blades of mace finely powdered, 
 with sufficient salt and pepper to season it. Rub 
 all well together with five ounces of fresh butter 
 Mix all these ingredients well together. With 
 this dressing fill all the incisions and fasten well 
 with skewers. Tie a piece of tape round the meat 
 to keep it in shape. Cut 3 or 4thin slices of pickled 
 pork, which place in a large stewkettle with 3 
 half-pints of water; put in the meat, stick 6 or 
 8 cloves over the top; cover the kettle very close 
 and set it in a quick oven. It will take several 
 hours to cook, as it requires to be well done. 
 When sufficiently cooked place it on a heated dish, 
 remove the pork from the kettle, and, if not suffi- 
 cient gravy, add a little boiling water and dredge 
 in sufficient flour to make the gravy of a proper 
 thickness; then stir in 1 dessertspoonful of gugar 
 browned a very dark color, and season to taste. 
 As soon as it comes to a boil add 1 gill of Madeira 
 wine. After letting it simmer a short time put it 
 in a sauce tureen, remove the skewers and tape 
 from the meat, pour over the top 2 or 3 table- 
 spoonfuls of gravy and send all to table hot. 
 
 Bouilli en Matelotte. 
 
 Peel a handful of small onions, fry them in but- 
 ter till they are of alight brown, throw in a hand- 
 ful of flour, shake the pan well, add a glass of red 
 wine, a pint of (bouillon) mace, salt, pepper, thyme, 
 and 2 bay leaves; bubble the whole gently till 
 the onions are tender, and pour it over slices of 
 cold bouilli. Set all in a saucepan well covered 
 on hot ashes, to stand for 15 minutes. Take care 
 it does not boil. 
 
 Beef en Daube. 
 
 Prepare a round or rump as for beef a la mode, 
 well larded wiih the largest needle ; put it into 
 your pot with a spoonful of lard. Set the pot on 
 hot coals, dust it with flour, turn your beef till it 
 is well browned on both sides ; have ready a kettle 
 of boiling water, cover your meat, add in bits 6 
 arge onions, 2 bunches of carrots and an egg 
 plant in slices. Put on your lid and bubble slowly 
 out steadily for 4 hours (for 16 pounds of beef, 
 onger if heavier) or till the skewer will pass easily 
 nto it. About half an hour before serving throw 
 n a pint of small mushrooms, season with pep- 
 jer and salt, a dozen bay leaves and all kinds of 
 pice. Set your beef in a deep dish and cover 
 with the sauce. 
 
 Beef's Tongue aux Champignons. 
 
 Wash your tongue well and boil for half an 
 
 our; season some larding with salt, pepper, all 
 
 unds of spice, shallots and chopped parsley j lard 
 
i06 
 
 COOKERY. 
 
 your tongue across; put it in a stewpan with a few 
 slices of bacon ;md beef, carrots, onions, thyme, 3 
 bay leaves, 3 cloves; cover with bouillon and stew 
 very gently for 4 hours : when done, flam your 
 tongue and cut it up lengthways in the middle and 
 under part, but not through, so that you can bend 
 it up and lay it on your dish in the shape of a 
 heart. Have ready a quantity of button mush- 
 rooms fried in butter, with a sprinkle of lemon 
 juice moistened with bouillon, and bubbled to a 
 proper consistence. Pour it over your tongue and 
 serve hot. 
 
 Fish en Mntelolte. 
 
 Almost every kind of fish answers for this dish. 
 Scale, clean and cut them in pieces ; put them 
 into a pan with a handful of small onions pre- 
 viously fried whole in butter, two bay leaves, a 
 bunch of shallots and parsley, small mushrooms, 
 thyme, salt and pepper; pour over the whole as 
 much red wine as will cover it; set your pan on a 
 quick fire; when the wine is one-half gone, mix a 
 spoonful of flour with a lump of butter, roll it in 
 little balls and put them one by one into your 
 sance, stirring it the whole time. Arrange your 
 fish handsomely on a deep dish, pour over it the 
 sauce and garnish with slices of lemon. 
 To Fry Sweetbreads. 
 
 Boil them in salt and water about a quarter of 
 an hour; then take them out and let them cool. 
 Skin and cut them in half, season with pepper 
 and salt, and dust a little flour over and fry them 
 slowly in equal portions of butter and lard. -When 
 of a fine brown, place them on a dish; then dust 
 a little flour into the pan with the fat they were 
 fried in ; stir it well and pour in about a gill of 
 hot water ; season the gravy to your taste with 
 salt and pepper, and as soon as it boils pour it over 
 the sweetbreads and serve them hot. 
 Veal Cutlets. 
 
 Pound them well with a rolling-pin or potato- 
 masher; then wash and dry them on a clean towel, 
 and season with pepper and salt. Have ready 
 a pint of fine powdered cracker, which season 
 with salt and pepper. Whisk 2 eggs with 1 gill 
 of milk, and pour over the cutlets ; then take 1 at 
 a time and place in the crumbs, pat well with the 
 back of a spoon, in order to make the cracker ad- 
 here close to the meat. Put them into hot lard, 
 and fry slowly until well done and handsomely 
 browned on both sides. 
 
 Steak'a la Soyer. 
 
 The rump-steak to be broiled, and to be dressed 
 with pepper, salt, Cayenne and flour, all in a 
 dredge-box together; keep constantly turning the 
 steak and dredging it; chop up 1 small shallot, 
 put it in a stewpan with a little catsup; when 
 the steak is sufficiently done add a little butter to 
 it; strain the sauce through a small sieve, and 
 serve up very hot. 
 
 Kidneys a la Brochette. 
 
 Let your kidneys steep 5 minutes in cold water 
 to soften the skin; remove it and split each; 
 -through the middle put a wooden or silver skewer, 
 if you have it ; when they are skewered, sea- 
 son them with pepper and salt. Dip each into oil 
 or melted butter, and broil them on a gridiron. 
 Before you serve remove the skewers, unless they 
 are of silver, and serve them on a dish with butter 
 and fine herbs. 
 
 Beef Sanders. 
 
 Mince cold beef small with onions, add pepper 
 and salt and a little gravy; put into a pie-dish or 
 ecallop-shells, until about 3 parts full. Then fill 
 op with mashed potatoes. Bake in an oven or 
 before the fire until done a light brown. Mutton 
 may be cooked in the same way. 
 
 Timballe of Macaroni, with Chicken and Ham. 
 
 Simmer pound macaroni in plenty of water, 
 and a tablespoonful of salt till it is tender; but 
 take care not to have it too soft; strain the water 
 from it; beat up 5 yolks and the whites of 2 
 eggs ; take a pint of the best cream, and the 
 breast of a fowl and some slices of ham. Minoe 
 the breast of the fowl and some slices cf ham; 
 add them, with from 2 to 3 tablespoonful of finely 
 grated Parmesan cheese, and season with pepper 
 and salt. Mix all these with the macaroni, and 
 put into a pudding-mould, well buttered. Let 
 it strain in a stewpan of boiling water about 1 
 hour, and serve quite hot, with rich gravy It is 
 very good cold. 
 
 Sweetbreads, French $tyfe. 
 
 Take 3 large sweetbreads, put them into hot 
 water, and let them boil 10 minutes; when cool, 
 skin, but do not break them. Season with salt 
 and pepper, and dredge over a little flour; then 
 fry them slowly in butter a light brown on both 
 sides. When done, place them on a dish, and re- 
 move all the brown particles from the pan (retain- 
 ing the butter); then pour in, while off the fire, 
 1 gill of boiling water, and dredge in 1 dessert- 
 spoonful of browned flour, stirring it all the time. 
 Then season w.ith salt and water to taste; mix 
 well, and, just before removing it from the fire, 
 stir in gradually 2 tablespoonsful of Madeira wine. 
 After dredging in the flour, and seasoning the 
 gravy, as soon as it comes to a boil, stir in the 
 wine: while boiling hot, pour it over the sweet- 
 breads, and send to table in a well -heated (cov- 
 ered) dish. 
 
 Boiled Leg of Mutton a V Anglaise. 
 Select a leg of mutton, rather fat, and not 
 kept above 3 or 4 days ; trim it, and put it on 
 to boil in a stock-pot or braizing-pan, filled 
 up with cold water; when it boils, remote the 
 scum, and put it on the side of the stove to con- 
 tinue gently boiling for about 2 hours ; a hand- 
 ful of salt and a couple of turnips and carrotg 
 should be put into the pot to boil with the leg. 
 When the mutton is done, drain and di&h it up, 
 garnish it round with mashed turnips, dressed 
 with a little sweet cream, a pat of butter, pepper 
 and salt; mould the mashed turnips in the shape 
 of large eggs, with a tablespoon, and place these 
 closely round the leg of mutton, introducing be- 
 tween each spoonful of mashed turnips a carrot 
 nicely turned, that has been boiled, either with 
 the mutton, or in some broth separately; pour 
 some gravy under it, put a paper ruffle on the 
 bone, and send it to table, accompanied with a 
 sauce-boat of caper-sauce. 
 
 Roasted Sucking-Pig a V Anglaise. 
 In selecting a sucking-pig for the table, those 
 of about 3 weeks old are generally preferred, their 
 meat being more delicate than when allowed to 
 grow larger. Let the pig be prepared for dress- 
 ing in the usual way, that is, scalded, drawn, etc., 
 pettitoes cutoff, and the paunch filled with stuffing 
 previously prepared for the purpose as follows : 
 chop 2 large onions, and 12 sage-leaves, boil them 
 in water for 2 minutes, and after having drained 
 the sage and onions on to a sieve, place it in a 
 stewpan with a pat of butter, pepper and salt, and 
 set the whole to simmer gently for 10 minutes on 
 a very slow fire ; then add a double handful of 
 bread-crumbs, 2 pats of butter, and the yolks of 2 
 eggs; stir the whole over the fire for 5 minutes, 
 and then use the stuffing as before directed. 
 When the sucking-pig is stuffed, sew the paunch up 
 with twine; spit the pig for roasting, carefully 
 fastening it on the spit at each end with email 
 
BRAIZED HAM, ETC. 
 
 207 
 
 iron skewers, which should he run through the 
 shoulders and hips to secure it tightly, so that it 
 may on no account slip round when down to roast. 
 The pig will require about 2 hours to roast thor- 
 oughly, and should he frequently basted with a 
 paste-brush dipped in salad oil. Oil is better 
 adapted for this purpose than either dripping or 
 butter, giving more crispness to the skin ; when 
 basted with oil, the pig will, while roasting, ac- 
 quire a more even and a finer color. When done, 
 take it up from the fire on the spit, and imme- 
 diately cut the head off with a sharp knife, and 
 lay it on a plate in the hot closet. Next, cut the 
 pig in two, by dividing it first with a sharp knife 
 straight down the back to the spine, finishing with 
 a meat-saw; a large dish should be held under 
 the pig while it is thus being divided, into which 
 it may fall when completely cut through ; place 
 the two sides back to back on the dish, without 
 disturbing the stuffing, split the he;id in two ; put 
 the brains in a small stewpan, trim off the snout 
 and jaws, leaving only the cheeks and ears, place 
 these one at each end of the dish, surround the 
 remove with a border of small potatoes, fried of a 
 light color, in a little clarified butter; pour under 
 some rich brown gravy, and send to table with 
 the following sauce : to the brains, put into a small 
 stewpan as before directed, add a spoonful of 
 blanched chopped parsley, pepper and salt, a 
 piece of glaze the size of a large walnut, some 
 well-made butter-sauce, and the juice of a lemon; 
 etir the whole well together over the fire, and when 
 quite hot, send it to table separately, in a boat, to 
 be handed round with the sucking-pig. 
 
 Braized Ham, with Spinach, etc. 
 
 When about to dress a ham, care must be taken 
 after it has been trimmed, and the thigh-bone 
 removed, that it be put to soak in a large pan 
 filled with cold water ; the length of time it should 
 remain in soak depending partly upon its degree 
 of moisture, partly upon whether the ham be 
 new or seasoned. If the ham readily yields to 
 the pressure of the hand, it is no doubt new, and 
 this is the case with most of those sold in the 
 spring season : for such as these a few hours' 
 soaking will suffice; but when hams are properly 
 seasoned, they should be soaked for 24 hours. 
 Foreign hams, however, require to be soaked 
 much longer, varying in time from 2 to 4 days 
 arid nights. The water in which they are soaked 
 should be changed once every 12 hours in win- 
 ter, and twice during that time in summer; it is 
 necessary to be particular also in scraping off the 
 slimy surface from the hams, previously to re- 
 placing them in the water to finish soaking. 
 
 When the ham has been trimmed and soaked, 
 let it be boiled in water for an hour, and then 
 ecrnped and washed in cold water; place it in a 
 braizing-pan with 2 carrots, as many onions, 1 
 head of celery, 2 blades of mace, and 4 cloves; 
 moisten with sufficient common broth to float the 
 ham, and then set it on the stove to braize very 
 gently for about four hours. To obtain tender- 
 ness and mellowness, so essential in a well-dressed 
 ham, it must never be allowed to boil, but merely 
 to simmer very gently by a slow fire. This rule 
 applies also to the braizing of all salted or cured 
 meats. When the ham is done, draw the pan in 
 which it has braized away from the fire, and set 
 it to cool in the open air, allowing the ham to re- 
 main in the braize. By this means it will retain 
 all its moisture; for when the ham is taken out 
 of the braize as soon as done, and put on a dish 
 to get cold, all its richness exudes from it. The 
 ham having partially cooled in its braize, should 
 be taken out and trimmed, and afterwards placed 
 
 in a braizing-pan with some of its own stock ; and 
 about three-quarters of an hour before dinner put 
 either in the oven or on a slow fire. When warmed 
 through place the ham on a baking-dish in the 
 oven to dry the surface, then glaze it; replace it 
 in the oven again for about three minutes to dry 
 it, and glaze it again; by that time the ham, if 
 properly attended to, will present a bright appear- 
 ance. Put it now on its dish, and garnish it with 
 well-dressed spinach, placed round the ham in 
 tablespoonfuls, shaped like so many eggs, pour 
 some sauce round the base, put a ruffle on the 
 bone, and serve. 
 
 Note. Any of our home-cured hams, dressed 
 according to the foregoing directions, may also be 
 served with a garnish of asparagus-peas, young 
 carrots, green peas, broad beans, French beans or 
 Brussels sprouts. 
 
 Roast Turkey, a I'Anglaise. 
 
 Stuff a turkey with some well-seasoned veal 
 stuffing, let.it be trussed in the usual manner, and 
 previously to putting it down to roast cover it 
 with thin layers of fat bacon, which should be 
 secured on with buttered paper tied round the 
 turkey, so as entirely to envelop it on the spit; 
 then roast it, and when done dish it up, garnish 
 with stewed chestnuts and small pork sausages, 
 nicely fried; pour a rich sauce round it, glaze the 
 turkey, and send to table. 
 
 Plain Rump Steak. 
 
 The steak should be cut rather thick, neatly 
 trimmed, seasoned with a little pepper and salt, 
 and broiled over a clear fire; when done remove 
 it carefully from the gridiron, in order to preserve 
 the gravy which collects on its upper surface. 
 Place the steak on its dish, rub a small pat of 
 fresh butter over it, garnish round with grated 
 horse-radish, and send some beef gravy separately 
 in a sauce-boat. Epicures, however, prefer the 
 gravy which runs out of a juicy steak when well 
 broiled to any other addition. Small ribs of beef, 
 and especially steaks cut from between the small 
 ribs, form an excellent substitute for rump steaks; 
 both, when nicely broiled, may be served with 
 cold Mu.\tre d'Hotel butter, anchovy ditto. 
 Beef Steak, a la Franqaisc. 
 
 Cut one pound of trimmed fillet of beef across 
 the grain of the meat into three pieces; flatten 
 these with the cutlet-bat, and trim them of a round 
 or oval form ; then cut and trim three pieces of 
 suet, half the size of the former: dip the steaks 
 in a little clarified butter, season with pepper and 
 salt, and place them on the gridiron over a clear 
 fire to broil; when done glaze them on both sides, 
 dish them up on two ounces of cold Maitre d' Hotel 
 butter, garnish round with fried potatoes, and 
 serve. These potatoes must be cut or turned in the 
 form of olives, and fried in a little clarified butter. 
 Hashed Beef, Plain. 
 
 Slice the beef up in very thin pieces, season 
 with pepper and salt, and shake a little flour over 
 it. Next chop a middle-sized onion, and put it 
 into a stewpan with a tablespoonful of Harvey 
 sauce, and an equal quantity of mushroom catsup; 
 boil these together for two minutes, and then add 
 half a pint of broth or gravy ; boil this down to 
 half its quantity, throw in the beef, set the hash 
 to boil on the stove fire for five minutes longer, 
 and then serve with eippets of toasted bread 
 round it. 
 
 Slices of Braized Beef, a la Claremont. 
 
 Take braized beef remaining from a previous 
 day's dinner, and cut in rather thin round or oval 
 slices, placed in a saucepan in neat order, and 
 warmed with a gravyspoonful of good stock ; these 
 
208 
 
 COOKERY. 
 
 must til en be dishod up in a circle, overlapping 
 each other closely; pour some sauce over them, 
 and serve. 
 
 Note. Slices of braized beef warmed and dished 
 up, as in the foregoing case, may be greatly varied 
 by being afterwards garnished with macaroni 
 prepared with grated cheese, a little glaze and 
 tomato-sauce, also witty all sharp sauces, with 
 purees of vegetables, and with vegetable gar- 
 nishes. 
 
 Bubble and Squeak. 
 
 Cut some slices (not too thin) of cold boiled 
 round or edge-bone, of salt beef; trim them neatly, 
 as also an equal number of pieces of the white fat 
 of the beef, and set them aside on a plate. Boil 
 two summer or Savoy cabbages, remove the stalks, 
 chop them fine, and put them into a stewpan with 
 four ounces of fresh butter and one ounce of 
 glaze ; season with pepper and salt. When about 
 to send to table, fry the slices of beef in a sauce 
 or fryingpan, commencing with the pieces of fat; 
 stir the cabbage on the fire until quite hot, and 
 then pile it up in the centre of the dish ; place 
 the slices of beef and the pieces of fat round it, 
 pour a little brown sauce over the whole, and 
 serve. 
 
 Mutton Cutlets, Plain. 
 
 Choose a neck of mutton that has been killed 
 at least four days, saw off the scrag end, and as 
 much of the rib-bones as may be necessary in 
 order to leave the cutlet-bones not more than 
 three inches and a half long; the spine-bones 
 must also he removed with the saw, without dam- 
 aging the fillet. Next cut the neck of mutton 
 thus trimmed into as many cutlets as there are 
 bones; detach the meat from the upper part of 
 each bone, about three-quarters of an inch, then 
 dip them in water and flatten them with a cutlet- 
 bat, trim away the sinewy part, and any super- 
 fluous fat. The cutlets must then be seasoned 
 with pepper and salt, passed over with a paste- 
 brush dipped in clarified butter, and nicely broiled 
 over or before a clear fire. When they are done 
 dish them up neatly, and serve with plain brown 
 gravy under them. 
 
 Cutlets prepared in this way may also be served 
 with either of the following sauces : Poor-man's, 
 Poivrade ; for which see another page. 
 Mutton Cutlets, Bread-crumbed and Broiled with 
 Shallot Gravy. 
 
 Trim the cutlets in the usual manner, and sea- 
 son them with pepper and salt; then egg them 
 slightly over with a paste-brush dipped in two 
 yolks of eggs, beaten upon a plate for the purpose ; 
 pass each cutlet through some fine bread-crumbs; 
 then dip them separately in some clarified butter, 
 and bread-crumb them over once more; put them 
 into shape with the blade of a knife, and lay them 
 on a gridiron to be broiled over a clear fire, of a 
 light-brown color; then glaze and dish them up, 
 and serve them with plain or shallot gravy. These 
 cutlets may also be served with any of the sauces 
 directed to be used for plain broiled cutlets. 
 Sweetbreads Larded with Stewed Peas. 
 
 Three heart sweetbreads generally suffice for a 
 dish. They must be procured quite fresh, other- 
 wise they are unfit for the table, and should be 
 steeped in water for several hours, and the water 
 frequently changed; the sweetbreads are then to 
 be scalded in boiling water for about 3 minutes, 
 and immersed in cold water for half an hour, 
 after which they must be drained upon a napkin, 
 trimmed free from, any sinewy fat, and put be- 
 tween two dishes to be slightly pressed flat, and 
 then closely larded with strips of bacon in the 
 usual manner. The sweetbreads must next be 
 
 placed in a deep saucepan on a bed of thinly, 
 sliced carrots, celery and onions, with a garnished 
 faggot of parsely and green onions placed in the 
 centre and covered with thin layers of fat bacon. 
 Moisten with about a pint of good stock, place a 
 round of buttered paper on the top, cover with the 
 lid, and after having put the sweetbreads to boil 
 on the stove-fire, remove them to the oven or on 
 a moderate fire (in the latter case live embers of 
 charcoal must be placed on the lid) and allow them 
 to braize rather briskly for about twenty minutes, 
 frequently basting them with their own liquor. 
 When done remove the lid and paper covering 
 and set them again in the oven to dry the surface 
 of the larding; glaze them nicely and dish them 
 up on some stewed peas (which see). 
 
 Sweetbreads prepared in thia way may also be 
 served with dressed asparagus, peas, French beans, 
 scallops of cucumbers, braized lettuce, celery, and 
 also with every kind of vegetable puree. To raise 
 the sweetbreads above the garnish, or sauce served 
 with them, it is necessary to place as many foun- 
 dations as there are sweetbreads in the dish ; these 
 may be made either by boiling some rice in broth 
 until it becomes quite soft, then working it into a 
 paste ; after this has been spread on a dish about 
 an inch thick, a circular tin cutter must be used to 
 stamp it out. They may also be prepared from 
 veal force-meats, or even fried cr6utons of bread 
 will serve the purpose. 
 
 Lamb Cutlets Bread-crumbed, with Asparagus- 
 Peas. 
 
 Trim the cutlets, season with pepper and salt, 
 rub them over with a paste-brush dipped in yolks 
 of eggs and roll them in bread crumbs; then dip 
 them in some clarified butter and bread-crumb 
 them over again ; put them in shape with the 
 blade of a knife and place them in neat order in 
 a saucepan with some clarified butter. When 
 about to send to table fry the cutlets of a light 
 color, drain them upon a sheet of paper, glaze and 
 dish them up ; fill the centre with asparagus-peas, 
 pour some thin sauce around them and serve. 
 
 Pork Cutlets Plain-broiled, with Gravy, etc. 
 
 These cutlets must be cut from the neck or loin 
 of dairy-fed pork, not too fat; they should be 
 trimmed but very little, the rough part of the 
 chine-bone only requiring to be removed ; the skin 
 must be left on and scored in six places. Season 
 the cutlets with pepper and salt, and broil them 
 on a gridiron over a clear fire; coke makes a bet- 
 ter fire than coal for broiling, as it emits no gas 
 and causes less smoke. Take care that they are 
 thoroughly done and not scorched; dish them up 
 with any of the following gravies or sauces, and 
 serve: Sage and onion, shallot, onion, fine herbs, 
 gravies, or essences, tomato sauce. 
 Venison Scallops. 
 
 Venison for this purpose ought to be kept until 
 it has become quite tender; a piece of the end of 
 the neck may be used. Cut the fillet from the 
 bone, with all the fat adhering to it ; remove the 
 outer skin, and then cut it into scallops, taking 
 care not to trim off more of the fat than is neces- 
 sary ;. place them in a saucepan with clarified but- 
 ter, season with pepper and salt, and fry them 
 brown on both sides; pour off all the grease, add 
 some scallops of mushrooms, a piece of glaze and 
 a glass of Port wine; simmer the whole together 
 over a stove-fire for about 3 minutes, and then 
 pour in some Poivrade sauce ; toss the scallops in 
 the sauce on the fire until quite hot, and then 
 dish them up with a border of quenelles of pota- 
 toes and serve. These scallops may also be served 
 with sweet sauce, in which case the mushrooms 
 must be omitted. 
 
Veniscn Chops. 
 
 Cut the chops about an inch thick from the en 
 of the haunch or the best end of the neck, flatten 
 them a little with a cutlet-bat, trim them withou 
 Waste, season with pepper and salt and broil them 
 on a gridiron over a clear fire of moderate heat 
 turning them over every 3 minutes while on the 
 fire ; when done through with their gravy in them 
 lift them carefully off the gridiron without spill 
 ing the gravy that may be swimming on the sur 
 face, dish them up with a little rich brown gravy 
 under them, and serve some currant jelly or veni 
 son sweet sauce separately in a boat. 
 
 Fricassee of Chickens with Mushrooms, etc. 
 Procure 2 fat, plump chickens, and after thej 
 have been drawn singe them over the flame of a 
 charcoal fire, and then cut up into small members 
 or joints in the following manner: First remov 
 the wings at the second joint, then take hold of 
 the chicken with the left hand, and with a sharp 
 knife make 2 parallel cuts lengthwise on the back 
 about an inch and a half apart, so as partly to 
 detach or at least to mark out where the legs anc 
 wings are to be removed; the chicken must nexl 
 be placed upon its side on the table, and after the 
 leg and fillet (with the pinion left on the upper 
 side) have been cut, the same must be repeated on 
 the other, and the thigh-bones must be removed 
 Then separate the back and breast, trim these 
 without waste and cut the back across into 2 
 pieces; steep the whole in a pan containing clear 
 tepid water for about 10 minutes, frequently 
 squeezing the pieces with the hand to extract all 
 the blood. Next strew the bottom of a stewpan 
 with thinly-sliced carrot, onion and a little celery, 
 3 cloves, 12 pepper-corns, a blade of mace and 
 garnished faggot of parsley; place the pieces of 
 chicken in close and neat order upon the vegeta- 
 bles, etc.; moisten with about a quart of boiling 
 broth from the stockpot, or failing this, with wa- 
 ter; cover with the lid and set the whole to boil 
 gently by the side of the stove-fire for about half 
 an hour, when the chicken will be done. They 
 must then be strained in a sieve and their broth 
 reserved in a basin ; next immerse the pieces of 
 chicken in cold water, wash and drain them upon 
 a napkin, and afterward trim them neatly and 
 place them in a stewpan in the larder. Then put 
 2 ounces of fresh butter to melt in a stewpan ; to 
 this add 2 tablespoonfuls of flour, and stir the 
 mixture over the fire for 3 minutes without allowing 
 it to acquire any color ; it should then be removed 
 from the stove, and the chicken broth being 
 poured into it the whole must be thoroughly mixed 
 together into a smooth sauce ; throw in some 
 trimmings of mushrooms and stir the sauce over 
 the fire until it boils, then set it by the side to 
 continue gently boiling to throw up the butter and 
 scum. When the sauce has boiled half an hour 
 kim it ; reduce it by further boiling to its proper 
 consistency, and then incorporate with it a leason 
 of 4 yolks of eggs mixed with a pat of butter and 
 a little cream ; set the leason in the sauce by stir- 
 ring it over the fire until it nearly boils, then pass 
 it through a tammy into the stewpan containing 
 the pieces of chicken, and add thereto half a 
 pottle of prepared button-mushrooms. When 
 about to send to table warm the fricassee without 
 allowing it to boil, and dish it up as follows : 
 First put the pieces of the back in the centre of 
 the dish, place the legs at the angles, the bones 
 pointed inwardly; next place the fillets upon 
 these, and then set the pieces of breast on the 
 top ; pour the sauce over the entree, and place the 
 mushrooms about the fricassee in groups; sur- 
 round the tntrte with eight or ten glazed 0-611- 
 14 
 
 MEATS. 
 
 209 
 
 tons of fried bread cut in the shape of hearts, and 
 serve. 
 
 Note. Truffles cut into scallops, or shaped in 
 the form of olives, crayfish-tails, button-onions, or 
 artichoke-bottoms cut into small pointed quarters, 
 may also be served with a fricassee of chickens. 
 
 Pigeons a la Gauthier. 
 
 Procure 4 young, fat pigeons ; draw, singe and 
 truss them with their legs thrust inside ; next put 
 a half-pound of fresh butter into a small stewpan 
 with the juice of a lemon, a little mignonette, 
 pepper, and salt; place this over a stove-fire, and 
 when it is melted put the pigeons with a gar- 
 nished faggot of parsley in it, cover the whole 
 with thin layers of fat bacon and a circular piece 
 of buttered paper, and set them to simmer very 
 gently on a slow fire for about 20 minutes, when 
 they will be done. The pigeons must then be 
 drained upon a napkin, and after all the greasy 
 moisture has been absorbed place them in the 
 dish in the form of a square, with a large quenelle 
 of fowl (decorated with truffles) in between each 
 pigeon ; fill the centre with a ragout of crayfish- 
 tails ; pour some of the sauce over and round the 
 pigeons, and serve. 
 
 Rabbits a la Bonrguignonne. 
 Cut the rabbits up into small joints, season with 
 pepper and salt, and fry them slightly over the 
 fire without allowing them to acquire much color; 
 adding half a pint of button-onions previously 
 parboiled in water, a very little grated nutmeg, 
 and half a pottle of mushrooms; toss these over 
 the fire for five minutes, then add a tumblerfull 
 of French white wine (Chablis or Sauterne), and 
 set this to boil sharply until reduced to half the 
 quantity ; next add 2 large gravy spoonsful of 
 Poivrade sauce (which see), simmer the whole to- 
 gether gently for ten minutes longer, and finish 
 by incorporating a leason of 4 yolks of eggs, the 
 juice of i a lemon, and a dessertspoonful of 
 chopped parboiled parsley; dish up the pieces of 
 rabbit in a pyramidal form, garnish the entree 
 with the onions, etc., placed in groups round the 
 base, pour the sauce over it and serve. 
 
 Salmi* of Wild Duck. 
 
 Roast a wild duck before a brisk fire for about 
 25 minutes, so that it may retain its gravy, place 
 it on its breast in a dish to get cool, then cut it up 
 into small joints comprising 2 fillets, 2 legs with 
 the breast and back each cut into 2 pieces, and 
 place the whole in a stewpan. Put the trimmings 
 into a stewpan with i pint of red wine, 4 shallots, 
 a sprig of thyme, a bay-leaf, the rind of an orange 
 free from pith, the pulp of a lemon, and a little 
 Cayenne; boil these down to half their original 
 quantity then add a small ladlef'ul of sauce, allow 
 the sauce to boil, skim it and pass it through a 
 tammy on to the pieces of wild duck. When about 
 ;o send to the table warm the salmis without boil- 
 ng, dish it up, pour the sauce over it, garnish the 
 entree with 8 heart-shaped crdutons of fried bread 
 nicely glazed, and serve. 
 
 Roast Hare. 
 
 Skin and draw the hare, leaving on the ears, 
 which must be scalped and the hairs scraped offj 
 pick out the eyes and cut off the feet or pads just 
 above the first joint, wipe the hare with a clean 
 loth, and cut the sinews at the back of the hind- 
 quarters and below the fore legs. Prepare some 
 real stuffing and fill the paunch with it, sew this 
 p with string or fasten it with a wooden skewer, 
 hen draw the legs under as if the hare was in a 
 itting posture, set the head between the shoulders 
 nd stick a small skewer through them, running 
 Iso through the neck to secure its position; run 
 nother skewer through the fore legs gathered up 
 
210 
 
 COOKEKT 
 
 under the paunch, then take a yard of string, 
 double it in two, placing the centre of it on the 
 breast of the hare and bring both ends over the 
 skewer, cross the string over both sides of the 
 other skewer and fasten it over the back. Split 
 the hare and roast it before a brisk fire for about 
 three-quarters of an hour, frequently basting it 
 with butter or dripping. Five minutes before 
 taking the hare up throw on a little salt, shake 
 some flour over it with a dredger, and baste it 
 with some fresh butter; when this froths up and 
 the hare has acquired a rich brown crust take it 
 off the spit, dish it up with water-cresses round it, 
 pour some brown gravy under, and send some 
 currant jelly in a boat to be handed round. 
 Koast Pheasant. 
 
 Draw the pheasant by making a small opening 
 at the vent, make an incision along the back part of 
 the neck, loosen the pouch, etc., with the fingers 
 and then remove it; singe the body of the pheas- 
 ant and its legs over the flame of a charcoal fire 
 or with a piece of paper, rub the scaly cuticle off 
 the legs with a cloth, trim away the claws and 
 spurs, cut off the neck close up to the back leaving 
 the skin of the breast entire, wipe the pheasant 
 clean, and then truss it in the following manner: 
 Place the pheasant upon its breast, run a trussing- 
 needle and string through the left pinion (the 
 wings being removed), then turn the bird over 
 on its back and place the thumb and fore-finger 
 of the left hand across the breast, holding the 
 legs erect; thrust the needle through the middle 
 joint of both thighs, draw it out and then pass 
 it through the other pinion and fasten the strings 
 at the buck; next pass the needle through the 
 legs and body and tie the strings tightly; this 
 will give it an appearance of plumpness. Spit 
 and roast the pheasant before a brisk fire for 
 about half an hour, frequently 'basting it; when 
 done send to table with brown gravy under it and 
 bread sauce (which see) separately in a boat. 
 Wild Fowl, en Salmis. 
 
 Cut up a cold roast duck (wild), goose, brant, 
 or whatever it may be. Put into a bowl or soup- 
 plate (to every bird) a dessertspoonful of well 
 made mustard, a sprinkle of cayenne and black 
 pepper, with about a gill of red wine ; mix them 
 well together, set your pan on the fire with a lump 
 of butter, when it melts add gradually the wine, 
 etc., let it bubble a minute; put in your duck and 
 bubble it for a few minutes. If your duck has 
 proved tough when first cooked, use a saucepan 
 and let it bubble till tender, taking care there is 
 enough gravy to keep it from burning. Serve on 
 dry toast very hot. 
 
 Pigeons. 
 
 Pigeons may be broiled or roasted like chicken. 
 
 They will cook in three-quarters of an hour. Make 
 
 a gravy of the giblets, season it with pepper and 
 
 salt, and thicken it with a little flour and butter. 
 
 Terrapins. 
 
 Plunge them into boiling water till they are 
 dead, take them out, pull off the outer skin and 
 toe-nails, wash them in warm water and boil them 
 with a teaspoonful of salt to each middling-sized 
 terrapin till you can pinch the flesh from off the 
 bone of the leg, turn them out of the shell into a 
 dish, remove the sand-bag and gall, add the yolks 
 of 2 eggs, cut up your meat, season pretty high 
 with equal parts of black and cayenne pepper 
 and salt. Put all into your saucepan with the 
 liquor they have given out in cutting up, but not 
 a drop of water; add i of a pound of butter with 
 a gill of Madeira to every 2 middle-sized terra- 
 pins ; simmer gently till tender, closely covered, 
 thicken with flour and serve hot. 
 
 To Sieio Terrapin*. 
 
 Wash 4 terrapins in warm water, then throw 
 them in a pot of boiling water, which will kill them 
 instantly; let them boil till the shells crack, then 
 take them out and take off the bottom shell, cut 
 each quarter separate, take the gall from the liver, 
 take out the eggs, put the pieces in a stewpan, 
 pour in all the liquor and cover them with water; 
 put in salt, cayenne, and black pepper and a little 
 mace, put in a lump of butter the size of an egg 
 and let them stew for half an hour; make a thick- 
 ening of flour and water which stir in a few min- 
 utes before you take it up with two glasses of 
 wine. Serve it in a deep covered dish, put in the 
 eggs just as you dish it. 
 
 Chicken Stewed with New Corn. 
 
 Cut up the chickens as for pies, season them 
 well, have green corn cut off the cob, put a layer 
 of chicken in the bottom of a stewpan and a layer 
 of corn, and so till you fill all in ; sprinkle in salt, 
 pepper and parsley and put a piece of butter in, 
 cover it with water and put on a crust with slits 
 out in it, let it boil an hour; when done lay the 
 crust in a deep dish. Dip out the chicken and 
 corn and put it on the crust, stir in the gravy a 
 thickening of milk and flour; when this boils up 
 pour it in with the corn and chicken. Chicken 
 and corn boiled together in a pot make very nice 
 soup with dumplings. 
 
 Mayonnaise. 
 
 A cold roast fowl divided into quarters; young 
 lettuce cut in quarters and placed on the dish with 
 salad dressing; eggs boiled hard and cut in quar- 
 ters, placed round the dish as a garnish ; capers 
 and anchovies are sometimes added. 
 Salmon Curry. 
 
 Have 2 slices of salmon, weighing about 1 
 pound each, which cut into pieces of the size of 
 walnuts; cut up 2 middling-sized onions, which 
 put into a stew-pan with 1 ounce of butter and a 
 clove of garlic cut in thin slices ; stir over the fire 
 till becoming rather yellowish, then add a tea- 
 spoonful of curry powder, and half that quantity 
 of curry paste. Mix all well together with a pint 
 of good broth ; beat up and pass through a tammy 
 into a stewpan; put in the salmon, which stew 
 about half an hour; pour off as much of the oil 
 as possible. If too dry, moisten with a little more 
 broth, mixing it gently; and serve as usual, with 
 rice separate. Salmon curry may also be made 
 with the remains left from a previous dinner, in 
 which case reduce the curry sauce until rather 
 thick before putting in the salmon, which only re- 
 quires to be made hot in it. The remains of a 
 turbot may also be curried in the same way, and 
 so may any other kind of fish. 
 Pigeon Pie. 
 
 Truss half a dozen fine large pigeons, as for 
 stewing; season them with pepper and salt, and 
 fill them with veal stuffing or some parsley chop- 
 ped very fine, and a little pepper, salt, and 3 ounces 
 of butter mixed together. Lay at the bottom of 
 the dish a rump steak of about a pound weight, 
 cut into pieces and trimmed neatly, seasoned and 
 beat out with a chopper; on it lay the pigeons, 
 the yolks of 3 eggs boiled hard, and a gill of broth 
 or water; wet the edge of the dish, and cover it 
 over with puff-paste; wash it over with yolk of 
 egg, and ornament it with leaves of paste, and the 
 feet of the pigeons. Bake it an hour and a half 
 in a moderate- heated oven. Before it is sent to 
 table make an aperture in the top, and pour in 
 some good gravy, quite hot. 
 
 Gi'blet Pie. 
 
 Clean well, and half stew 2 or 3 sets of goosa 
 
MEAT PIES. 
 
 211 
 
 giblets; cut the leg in 2, the wing and neck into 
 3, and the gizzard into 4 pieces. Preserve the 
 liquor, and set the giblets by till cold ; otherwise 
 the heat of the giblets will spoil the paste you 
 cover the pie with; then season the whole with 
 black pepper and salt, and put them into a deep 
 dish ; cover it with paste, rub it over with yolk of 
 egg, ornament,, and bake it an hour and a half in 
 a moderate oven. In the mean time take the liquor 
 the giblets were stewed in, skim it free from fat, 
 put it over a fire in a clean stewpan, thicken it 
 a little with flour and butter, or flour and water, 
 season it with pepper and salt and the juice of 
 half a leinon : add a few drops of browning, strain 
 it through a fine sieve, and, when you take the 
 pie from the oven, pour some of this into it through 
 a funnel. Some lay in the bottom of the dish a 
 moderately thick rump-steak. If you have any 
 cold game or poultry, cut it in pieces, and add it 
 to the above. 
 
 Hump Steak Pie. 
 
 Cut 3 pounds of rump steak, that has been kept 
 till tender, into pieces half as big as your hand; 
 trim off" all the skin, sinews, and every part which 
 has not indisputable pretensions to be eaten, and 
 beat them with a chopper. Chop very fine half a 
 dozen eschalots, and mix them with half an ounce 
 of pepper and salt mixed ; strew some of the mix- 
 ture at the bottom of the dish, then a layer of 
 steak, then some more of the mixture, and so on 
 till the dish is full; add half a gill of mushroom 
 catsup, and the same quantity of gravy, or red 
 wine; cover it as in the preceding receipt, and 
 bake it two hours. 
 
 Large oysters parboiled, bearded, and laid alter- 
 nately with the steaks, their liquor reduced and 
 substituted instead of the catsup and wine, will 
 be a variety. 
 
 Chicken Pie. 
 
 Parboil and then cut up neatly two young 
 chickens ; dry them ; set them over a slow fire for 
 a few minutes. Have ready some veal stuffing 
 or forcemeat; lay it at the bottom of the dish, 
 and place in the chickens upon it, and with it 
 some pieces of dressed ham; cover it with paste. 
 Bake it from an hour and a half to two hours. 
 When sent to table add some good gravy, well 
 seasoned and not too thick. 
 
 Duck pie is made in like manner, only substi- 
 tuting duck stuffing instead of the veal. 
 
 The above may be put into a raised French 
 crust, and baked. When done take off the top, 
 and put a ragout of sweetbread to the chicken. 
 
 Rabbit Pie. 
 
 Made in the same way, but make a forcemeat to 
 cover the bottom of the dish, by pounding a quar- 
 ter pound of boiled bacon with the livers of the rab- 
 bits; some pepper and salt, some pounded mace, 
 some chopped parsley, and an eschalot, thoroughly 
 beaten together; and you may lay some thin slices 
 of ready-dressed ham or bacon on the top of your 
 rabbits. 
 
 Raised French Pie. 
 
 Make about 2 pounds of flour into a paste, as 
 directed ; knead it well, and into the shape of a 
 ball ; press your thumb into the centre, and work 
 it by degrees into any shape (oval or round is the 
 most general) till about five inches high; put it 
 on a sheet of paper, and fill it with coarse flour 
 1 or bran ; roll out a covering for it about the same 
 'thickness as the sides; cement its sides with the 
 yolk of egg ; cut the edges quite even, and pinch 
 it round with the finger and thumb ; yolk-of-egg 
 it over with a paste-brush, and ornament it in any 
 way as fancy may direct, with the same kind of 
 
 paste. Bake it of a fine brown color, in a slow 
 oven, and when done cut out the top, remove the 
 flour or bran, brush it quite clean, and fill it up 
 with a fricassee of chicken, rabbit, or any other 
 entree most convenient. Send it to table with a 
 napkin under. 
 
 Raised Ham Pie. 
 
 Soak four or five hours a small ham ; wash and 
 scrape it well; cut off the knuckle, and boil it for 
 half an hour; then take it up and trim it very 
 neatly. Take off the rind and put it into an oval 
 stewpan, with a pint of Madeira or Sherry, and 
 enough veal stock to cover it. Let it stew for two 
 hours, or till three-parts done; take it out and set 
 in a cold place ; then raise a crust as in the fore- 
 going receipt, large enough to receive it ; put in 
 the ham, and around it the veal forcemeat; cover 
 and ornament. It will take about one hour and a 
 half to bake in a slow oven. When done take off 
 the cover, glaze the top, and pour round the fol- 
 lowing sauce, viz.: take the liquor the ham was 
 stewed in; skim it free from fat; thicken with a 
 little flour and butter mixed together, a few drops 
 of browning, and some cayenne pepper. 
 
 The above is a good way of dressing a small 
 ham, and has a good effect cold for a supper. 
 
 Raised Pork Pie. 
 
 Make a raised crust, of a good size, with paste, 
 about ( four inches high ; take the rind, and chine- 
 bone 'from a loin of pork, cut it into chops, beat 
 them with a chopper, season them with pepper 
 and salt and powdered sage, and fill your pie; put 
 on the top and close it, and pinch it round the 
 edge; rub it over with yolk of egg, and bake it 
 two hours, with a paper over to prevent the crust 
 from burning. When done, pour in some good 
 gravy, with a little ready-mixed mustard and a 
 teaspoonful of catsup. 
 
 Scotch Minced Collops. 
 
 Take 2 pounds of the fillet of beef, chopped 
 very fine; put it in a stewpan, and add to it 
 pepper and salt and a little flour; add a little 
 good gravy, with a little catsup and Harvey 
 sauce, and let it stew for twenty minutes over a 
 slow fire. Serve up very hot, garnished with fried 
 sippet of bread. This quantity of beef makes a 
 good-sized dish. 
 
 Beefsteak Pudding. 
 
 Get rump steaks, not too thick ; beat them with 
 a chopper; cut them into pieces about half the 
 size of your hand, and trim off all the skin, sinews, 
 etc. ; have ready an onion peeled and chopped fine, 
 likewise some potatoes peeled and cut into slices 
 a quarter of an inch thick; rub the inside of a 
 basin or an oval plain mould with butter, sheet it 
 with paste as directed for boiled puddings; season 
 the steaks with pepper, salt, and a little grated 
 nutmeg; put in a layer of steak, then another of 
 potatoes, and so on till it is full, occasionally 
 throwing in part of the chopped onion ; add to it 
 half a gill of mushroom catsup, a tablespoouful of 
 lemon pickle, and half a gill of water or veal 
 broth ; roll out a top, and close it well to prevent 
 the water getting in ; rinse a clean cloth in hot 
 water, sprinkle a little flour over it, and tie up the 
 pudding; have ready a large pot of water boiling, 
 put it in, and boil it two hours and a half; take 
 it up, remove the cloth, turn it downwards in a 
 deep dish, and when wanted take away the basin 
 or mould. 
 
 Volau Vent. 
 
 Roll off tart paste till about the eighth of an 
 inch thick; then with a tin cutter made for that 
 purpose (about the size of the bottom of the dish 
 
212 
 
 COOKEKY. 
 
 you intend sending to table), cut out the shape, 
 and lay it on a baking plate with paper, rub i 
 over with yolk of egg; roll out good puff-paste an 
 inch thick, stamp it with the same cutter, and lay 
 it on the tart paste, then take a cutter two sizes 
 smaller, and press it in the centre nearly through 
 the puff-paste; rub the top with yolk of egg anc 
 bake it in a quick oven about twenty minutes, of 
 a light brown color; when done take out the paste 
 inside the centre mark, preserving the top, put i 
 on a dish in a warm place, and when wanted, fil 
 it with a white fricassee chicken, rabbit, ragout of 
 sweetbread, or any other entree you wish. 
 
 To make a Perigord Pie. 
 Take half a dozen partridges, and dispose of 
 their legs in the same manner as is done with 
 chickens, when intended to be boiled. Season 
 them well with pepper, salt, a small quantity of 
 cloves, and mace beaten fine. Cut 2 pounds of 
 lean veal, and 1 pound of fat bacon into small 
 bits, and put them into a stewpan with a pound 
 of butter, together with some shallots, parsley, 
 and thyme, all chopped together. Stew these till 
 the meat appears sufficiently tender. Then season 
 it in the same manner as directed for the part- 
 ridges. Strain and pound the meat in a mortar 
 till it is perfectly smooth, then mix the pulp in 
 some of the liquor in which it has been stewed. 
 The pie-crust being raised, and ready to receive 
 the partridges, put them in with the above-men- 
 tioned forcemeat over them, and over that Jay 
 some thin slices of bacon. Cover the pie with a 
 thick lid, and be sure to close it well at the sides, 
 to prevent the gravy from boiling out at the place 
 where the joining is made, which would occasion 
 the partridges to eat dry. This sized pie will re- 
 quire three hours' baking, but be careful not to 
 put it in a fierce heated oven. A pound of fresh 
 truffles will add considerably to the merits of this 
 excellent pie. 
 
 Beefsteak and Oyster Pie* 
 
 Cut 3 pounds of fillet of beef or rump steaks into 
 large scallops, fry them quickly over a very brisk 
 fire so as to brown them before they are half 
 done; then place them on the bottom of the dish, 
 leaving the centre open in two successive layers; 
 fill the centre with four dozen oysters, previously 
 parboiled and bearded, season with pepper and 
 salt, and pour the following preparation over the 
 whole. When the scallops of beef have been 
 fried in a sauce or fryingpan, pour nearly all the 
 grease out, and shake a tablespoonful of flour into 
 it; stir this over the fire for one minute, and then 
 add a pint of good gravy or broth, two tablespoons- 
 ful of mushroom catsup, and an equal quantity 
 of Harvey sauce, and the liquor of the oysters; 
 stir the whole over the fire, and keep it boiling 
 for a quarter of an hour. Half an hour after this 
 sauce has been poured into the pie, cover it with 
 puff paste in the usual way, bake it for an hour 
 and a half, and serve. 
 
 Chicken Pie, a la Reine. 
 
 Cut 2 chickens into small members, as for fricas- 
 see ; cover the bottom of the pie-dish with layers 
 of scallops of veal and ham placed alternately; 
 season with chopped mushrooms and parsley, 
 pepper and salt, then add a little white sauce; 
 next place in the dish the pieces of chicken in neat 
 order, and round these put a plover's egg in each 
 cavity; repeat the seasoning and the sauce, lay a 
 few thin slices of dressed ham neatly trimmed on 
 the top; cover the pie with puff paste, ornament 
 this with pieces of the same cut into the form of 
 leaves, etc., egg the pie over with a paste-brush, 
 and bake it for one hour and a half. A very good 
 
 | chicken pie may be made by omitting the plover's 
 eggs, mushrooms, ham, and the sauce; substitut- 
 ing for these the yolk of eggs boiled hard, chop- 
 ped parsley, bacon, and a little mushroom catsup, 
 some common gravy, or even water. 
 
 Beefsteak and Oyster Pudding. 
 Line a two-quart pudding basin with some beef- 
 suet paste ; fill this lining with a preparation simi- 
 lar to that described for making beefsteak and 
 oyster pie, except that the sauce must be more re- 
 duced. When the pudding is filled, wet the edges 
 of the paste round the top of the basin with a 
 paste-brush dipped in water, cover it with a piece 
 of suet-paste rolled out to the size of the basin, 
 fasten it down by bearing all round the edge with 
 the thumb, and then with the thumb and forefinger, 
 twist the edges of the paste over and over so aa 
 to give it a. corded appearance. This pudding 
 must be either steamed or boiled three hours; 
 when done turn it out of the basin carefully, pour 
 some rich brown gravy under it and serve. 
 
 Kidney Pudding. 
 
 Cut two pounds of sheep's or lamb's kidneys 
 into scallops, put them into a basin with some 
 chopped parsley, shallot, and a little thyme, and 
 season with pepper and salt; then add a large 
 gravyspoonful of good sauce, and the juice of half 
 a lemon ; mix these ingredients well together. 
 Line a basin with suet-paste, and fill the pudding 
 with the foregoing preparation; cover it in the 
 usual way, steam or boil it for two hours and a 
 half, and when sent to table pour under it some 
 rich brown gravy, to which has been added a 
 ittle Indian soy, and serve. 
 
 Eggs, au Gratin. 
 
 Boil the eggs hard, and when done take off the 
 shells, cut them in slices, and set them aside on a 
 plate. Next, put a large tablespoonful of white 
 auce into a stewpan to boil over the stove fire, and 
 yhen it is sufficiently reduced, add 2 ounces of 
 grated Parmesan cheese, a small pat of butter, a 
 ittle nutmeg, pepper, the yolks of 4 eggs, and 
 ihe juice of half a lemon; stir this quickly over 
 ,be stove until it begins to thicken, and then 
 withdraw it from the fire. Place the eggs in 
 lose circular rows, in the dish, spread some of 
 he preparation in between each layer, observing 
 that the whole must be dished up in the form of a 
 dome ; smooth the surface over with the remainder 
 of the sauce, strew some fried bread-crumbs 
 mixed with grated Parmesan cheese over the top, 
 put some fried croutons of bread or pastry round 
 the base, and set them in the oven to bake for 
 about ten minutes, then send to table. 
 
 Omelet, with fine Herbs. 
 
 Break 6 eggs in a basin, to these add a gill 
 of cream, a small pat of butter broken in small 
 pieces, a spoonful of chopped parsley, some pep- 
 per and salt; then put 4 ounces of fresh butter 
 in an omelet-pan on the stove fire; while the 
 butter is melting, whip the eggs, etc., well to- 
 gether until they become frothy; as soon as the 
 butter begins to fritter, pour the eggs into the 
 pan, and stir the omelet as the eggs appear to set 
 and become firm ; when the whole has become par- 
 tially set, roll the omelet into the form of an oval 
 cushion, allow it to acquire a golden color on one 
 side over the fire, and then turn it out on its dish; 
 pour a little thin sauce, or half glaze under it, 
 and serve. 
 
 Omelet, with Parmesan Cheese. 
 
 Break 6 eggs into a basin, then add a gill of 
 cream, 4 ounces of grated Parmesan cheese, sumo 
 pepper, and a little salt; beat the whole well 
 
SAUCES. 
 
 213 
 
 together, and finish the omelet as previously 
 directed. 
 
 Eggs a la Dauphine. 
 
 Boil 10 eggs hard, take off the shells, and cut 
 each egg into halves, lengthwise; scoop the yolks 
 out and put them into the mortar, and place the 
 whites on a dish. Add 4 ounces of butter to the 
 yolks of eggs, also the crumb of a French-roll 
 soaked in cream, some chopped parsley, grated 
 nutmeg, pepper and salt, and 2 ounces of grated 
 Parmesan cheese; pound the whole well together, 
 and then add 1 whole egg and the yolks of 2 
 others ; mix these well together by pounding, and 
 use this preparation for filling the whites of eggs 
 kept in reserve for the purpose, smooth them over 
 with the blade of a small knife dipped in water, and 
 as they are filled place them on a dish. Next, 
 with some of the remaining part of the prepara- 
 tion, spread a thin foundation at the bottom of 
 the dish, and proceed to raise the eggs up in 3 or 
 4 tiers, to a pyramidal form, a single egg crown- 
 ing the whole ; 4 hard-boiled yolks of eggs must 
 then be rubbed through a wire-sieve, over the 
 entremets for them to fall upon in shreds, like 
 vermicelli ; place a border of fried crdutons of 
 bread round the base, and set the eggs in the oven 
 for about twenty minutes, that they may be baked 
 of a bright yellow color; when done withdraw 
 them, pour some thin Bechamel round the entre- 
 mets, and serve. 
 
 Pontiff's Sauce. 
 
 Soak slices of veal, ham, sliced onions, carrots, 
 parsnips, and a white head of celery ; add a glass 
 of white wine, as much good broth, a clove of 
 garlic, 4 shallots, 1 clove, a little coriander, and 
 2 slices of peeled lemons. Boil on a slow fire till 
 the meat is done; skim it and sift in a sieve; add 
 a little catsup, and a small quantity of fine chop- 
 ped parsley, just before it is used. 
 
 Nun's Sauce. 
 
 Put slices of veal and ham in a stewpan, with 
 a spoonful of oil, 2 mushrooms, a bunch of parsley, 
 a clove of garlic, 2 heads of cloves, i a leaf of 
 laurel; let it catch a little on the fire: then add 
 some good broth, a little gravy, and some white 
 wine, simmer it for some time, skim it well, and 
 sift in a sieve. When ready add 2 or 3 green 
 shallots, and a dozen of pistachio-nuts, whole. 
 
 Sauce Piquante. 
 
 Put a bit of butter with 2 sliced onions into a 
 stewpan, with a carrot, a parsnip, a little thyme, 
 laurel, basil, 2 cloves, 2 shallots, a clove of gurlic, 
 and some parsley ; turn the whole over the fire 
 until it be well colored; then shake in some flour, 
 and moisten it with some broth, and a spoonful 
 of vinegar. Let it boil over a slow fire; skim and 
 strain it through a sieve. Season it with salt and 
 pepper, and serve it with any dish required tc be 
 heightened. 
 
 Sauce for Veal. 
 
 Take the bones of cold roast or boiled veal, 
 dredge them well with flour, arid put them into a 
 stewpan, with a pint and a half of broth or water, 
 a small onion, a little grated or finely minced 
 lemon-peel, or the peel of a quarter of a small 
 lemon pared as thin as possible, half a teaspoon- 
 ful of salt, and a blade of pounded mace ; to thicken 
 it, rub a tablespoonful of flour into half an ounce 
 of butter ; stir it into the broth, and set it on the 
 fire, and let it boil very gently for about half an 
 hour, strain through a tammis or sieve, and it is 
 ready to put to the veal to warm up, which is to 
 be done by placing the stewpan by the side of the 
 fire. Squeeze in half a lemon, and cover the bot- 
 tom of the dish with tousled bread sippets cut 
 
 into triangles, and garnish the dish with slices of 
 ham or bacon. 
 
 JSechamel, or White Sauce. 
 Cut in square pieces, half an inch thick, 2 pounds 
 of lean veal, i a pound of lean ham, melt in a 
 stewpan 2 ounces of butter; when melted let the 
 whole simmer until it is ready to catch at the bot- 
 tom (it requires great attention, as. if it happen to 
 catch at the bottom of the stewpan, it will spoil 
 the look of your sauce), then add to it 3 table- 
 spoonsful of flour; when well mixed, add to it 3 
 pints of broth or water, pour a little at a time, 
 that the thickening be smooth, stir it until it boils, 
 put the stewpan on the corner of the stove to boil 
 gently for two hours, season it with 4 cloves, 1 
 onion, 12 peppercorns, a blade of mace, a few 
 mushrooms, and a fagot made of parsley, a sprig 
 of thyme, and a bay-leaf. Let the sauce reduce 
 to a quart, skim the fat off, and strain it through 
 a tammis cloth. 
 
 Kitchener's (Dr.) Sauce, Superlative. 
 
 Claret or Port wine, and mushroom catsup, a 
 pint of each ; i a pint of walnut or other pickle 
 liquor; pounded anchovies, 4 ounces; fresh lemon- 
 peel, pared very thin, 1 ounce; peeled and sliced 
 shallots, the same ; scraped horse-radish, 1 ounce ; 
 allspice and black pepper powdered, an ounce 
 each ; Cayenne, 1 drachm, or curry powder, 3 
 drachms; celery-seed, bruised, a drachm. All 
 avoirdupois weight. Put these into a wide mouth 
 bottle, stop it close, shake it up every day for a 
 fortnight, and strain it, when some think it im- 
 proved by the addition of a quarter pint soy, or 
 thick browning, and you will have a "delicious 
 double relish." 
 
 Sauce Italienne. 
 
 Put a piece of butter into a stewpan, with 
 mushrooms, onion, parsley, and ^ of a laurel-leaf, 
 all cut fine; turn the whole over the fire for some 
 time, and shake in a little flour; moisten it with 
 a glass of white wine, and as much good broth ; 
 add salt, pepper, and a little mace : beat all fine. 
 Let it boil half an hour; then skim away all the 
 fat, and serve it up. A fine flavor may be given 
 to it whilst boiling, by putting in a bunch of sweet 
 herbs, which take out before the dish is served up. 
 Ragout of Asparagus. 
 
 Scrape 100 of grass clean; put them into cold 
 water; cut them as far as is good and green; 
 chop small 2 heads of endive, 1 young lettuce, 
 and 1 onion. Put of a pound of butter into the 
 stewpan, and when it is melted, put in the grass 
 with the other articles. Shake them well, and 
 when they have stewed 10 minutes, season them 
 with a little pepper and salt; strew in a little 
 flour, shake them about, and then pour on a pint 
 of gravy. Stew the whole till the sauce is very 
 good and thick, and then pour all into the dish. 
 Garnish with a few of the small tops of the grass. 
 Ragout of Mushrooms. 
 
 Broil on a gridiron some large peeled mush- 
 rooms, ani clean off the inside; when the outside 
 is brown, put them into a stewpan with a suffi- 
 cient quantity of water to cover them; when they 
 have stewed 10 minutes, put to them 1 spoonful 
 of white wine, the same of browning, and a little 
 vinegar. Thicken it with butter and flour, give a 
 gentle boil, and serve it up with sippets round tho 
 dish. 
 
 Ragout of Artichoke Buttons. 
 
 Soak them in warm water for two or three hours, 
 changing the water ; then put them into the stew- 
 pan with some good gravy, mushroom catsup or 
 powder. Add a little Cayenne pepper and salt 
 
214 
 
 COOKERY. 
 
 When they boil ; thicken them with a little flour, 
 put them into the dish with sauce over them, and 
 serve them hot. 
 
 Ragout of Calves' Sweetbreads. 
 Scald 2 or 3 sweetbreads, cut each . into 3 
 or 4 pieces, and put them into a stewpan with 
 mushrooms, butter, and a fagot of sweet herbs; 
 soak these together a moment, then add broth 
 and gravy; simmer on a slow fire, skim the sauce 
 well, and reduce it; season with pepper, salt am 
 lemon-juice when ready. 
 
 Ragout of Roots. 
 
 Cut carrots and parsnips to the length of a fin 
 ger, and of much the same thickness; boil them 
 till half done in water, put them into a stewpan 
 with small bits of ham, chopped parsley, and 
 shallots, pepper and. salt, a glass of wine and 
 broth ; let them stew slowly until the broth is re- 
 duced pretty thick, and add the squeeze of a lemon 
 when ready to serve. Formaigre, instead of ham 
 use mushrooms, and make a mixture beat up with 
 yolks of eggs and maigre broth. Celery is done 
 much the same, only it is cut smaller. If these 
 roots are to be served in a boat for sauce, boil 
 them tender in the broth- pot, or in water, cut them 
 into the desired length, and serve with a good 
 gravy or white sauce. 
 
 Cottage Cheese. 
 Take 1 or more quarts of sour milk, put it in a 
 warm place, and let it remain until the whey sep- 
 arates from the curd ; then pour it into a three- 
 cornered bag, hang it up, and let it drain until 
 every particle of whey has dripped from it ; then 
 turn it out, and mash with a spoon until very fine, 
 after which add a little milk or cream, with salt to 
 taste ; before sending to table (if liked) dredge a 
 little black pepper over the top. 
 
 MtAtre d' Hotel Butter. 
 
 Put J of a pound of fresh butter upon a plate, 
 the juice of two lemons, and 2 large tablespoons- 
 ful of chopped parsley, ^ a teaspoon ful of salt, 
 and half that quantity of black pepper ;^mix all 
 well together, and keep in a cool place for use. 
 
 Mushroom Catsup. 
 
 Clean the mushrooms by wiping them, and cut- 
 ting off the ends of the stems. Put them in a deep 
 pan, and sprinkle salt over each layer. Let them 
 remain for 2 days. Then put them in a sieve, and 
 strain off all the juice. Pour it into your preserv- 
 ing-kettle, allow 12 cloves, 12 allspice, 2 or 3 
 pieces of mace, and of a small nutmeg, grated. 
 Let it boil for fifteen minutes, remove it from the 
 fire, and let it stand for two or three days. Strain 
 and bottle for use. 
 
 Tomato Catsup. 
 
 Take i a peck of tomatoes, wash and slice them ; 
 put them in your preserving-kettle, and let them 
 stew gently until quite soft, but do not stir them. 
 Strain the juice through a sieve, pour it back into 
 the kettle. Add 24 cloves, ^ an ounce of allspice, 
 ^ an ounce of mace; salt and Cayenne to your 
 taste. Set it on the fire, and let it boil until re- 
 duced to half the original quantity. The next 
 day strain out the spice, and to every pint of juice 
 add i gill of vinegar, and bottle for use. 
 
 Wine Sauce. 
 
 Two ounces of butter, 2 teaspoonsful of flour, 
 a pint of boiling water, 1 gill of Madeira wine, J 
 a pound of sugar, a prated nutmeg. Mix the 
 flour and butter together; pour in the boiling 
 water ; let it boils a few minutes ; then add the 
 sugar and wine. Just before going to table add 
 the nutmeg. Serve hot. 
 
 Cream Bechamel Sauce. 
 
 Put 6 ounces of fresh butter into a middle-sized 
 stewpan ; add 4 ounces of sifted flour, some nut- 
 meg, a few peppercorns, and a little salt; knead 
 the whole well together; then cut 1 carrot and 1 
 onion into very thin slices, throw them into the 
 stewpan, and also bouquet of parsley and thyme, 
 tied together; next moisten these with a quart of 
 white broth and a pint of cream; and having 
 stirred the sauce over the stove-fire for about an 
 hour, pass it through the tammy into the basin 
 for use. This sauce is not expensive, neither does 
 it require much time or trouble to make. It i 
 useful as a substitute for other white sauces, and 
 also for many other purposes. 
 
 Poor Man's Sauce. 
 
 Chop an onion very fine, put it into a stewpan 
 with a small piece of butter, and gently fry the 
 onion on the fire until it assumes a light-brown 
 color; then add a tablespoonful of white-wine 
 vinegar, and a pinch of pepper; allow these to 
 simmer for 3 minutes, and then add a small 
 ladleful of blond of veal or consomme; let the 
 whole be reduced to half the original quantity; 
 and, just before using the sauce, throw in a spoon- 
 ful of chopped and blanched parsley". 
 
 Poivrade Sauce. 
 
 Take 1 carrot, 1 onion, and 1 head of celery; 
 cut them into very small dice, and place them in 
 a stewpan, with 2 ounces of raw lean of h;im cut 
 similarly, some thyme, and 1 bay-leaf, 1 blade of 
 mace, a few peppercorns, and some parsley; fry 
 these with a little butter, of a light-brown color; 
 moisten with 2 glasses of sherry and 1 of French 
 vinegar; reduce the above to one-half its quan- 
 tity, and then add a small ladleful of brown sauce 
 and a little consomme ; stir the sauce till it boils, 
 and then set it by the side to clear itself; skim it, 
 and pass it through a tammy to keep ready 
 for use. 
 
 Indian Curry Sauce. 
 
 Take 2 large onions, 1 carrot, and 1 head of 
 celery, and slice them very thin; place these with 
 2 ounces of fresh butter in a stewpan, and fry 
 ihem over a slow fire till the onions are nearly 
 melted, but without becoming brown ; add 3 
 jlades of mace, some thyme, and 1 bay-leaf, 1 
 Douquet of parsley, and 2 tablespoon sful of Cooks' 
 or Bruce's meat curry paste,! tablespoonful of curry 
 powder, and as much browning or flour as may he 
 required to thicken the quantity of sauce needed; 
 moisten with some good broth or consomme, and 
 stir the sauce on the fire till it boils ; then set it 
 by the side to clear itself of the butter, etc. Hav- 
 ng skimmed and reduced the sauce to a proper con- 
 sistency, pass it through a tammy (extracting the 
 mrsley), as for a puree, and take it up ready for 
 use, or add it to whatever kind of meat is pre- 
 mred for the curry; observing that the broth 
 hereof should be used for making the sauce. 
 
 Brown Oyster Sauce. 
 
 Prepare this precisely as the last sauce, but, in- 
 tead of the cream, use an equal quantity of brown 
 ;ravy. Brown oyster sauce is a very desirable 
 iccessory to beefsteaks, beef-pudding, beefsteak 
 )ie, broiled slices of cod-fish, and various other 
 lain dressed dishes. 
 
 German Sweet Sauce. 
 
 Stew 6 ounces of dried cherries in 2 glasses of 
 
 ed wine, together with some bruised cinnamon, 
 
 loves and lemon-peel, for 20 minutes on a slow 
 
 fire; pass the whole through a tammy, and put it 
 
 into a stewpan with a little reduced brown sauce 
 
 and 6 ounces of stewed prunes. 
 
SAUCES ; ETC. 
 
 215 
 
 This sauce is in great request for German dishes ; 
 it improves the flavor of braized venison in its va- 
 ried forms of preparation, and is preferred by 
 many for that purpose to Poivrade or Piquante 
 sauce. 
 
 Cherry Sauce. 
 
 Put a pot of black currant jelly into a stewpan, 
 together with 6 ounces of dried cherries, a small 
 stick of cinnamon, and 12 cloves tied up in a 
 piece of muslin; moisten with pint of red wine, 
 and set the whole to simmer gently on a slow fire 
 for 10 minutes; then take out the cinnamon and 
 ftuves, and send to table. 
 
 This kind of sauce is well adapted for roast 
 hare or venison. 
 
 Red Currant Jelly Sauce for Venison. 
 
 Bruise 1 stick of cinnamon and 12 cloves, and 
 put them into a small stewpan with 2 ounces of 
 sugar, and the peel of one lemon pared off very 
 thin, and perfectly free from any portion of white 
 pulp ; moisten with 3 glasses of Port wine, and set 
 the whole to simmer gently on the fire for i of an 
 hour : then strain it through a sieve into a small 
 stewpan, containing a pot of red currant jelly. 
 Just before sending the same to table set it on the 
 fire to boil, in order to melt the currant jelly, so 
 that it may mix with the essence of spice, etc. 
 
 Fried Bread Sauce. 
 
 Mince a little lean ham, and put it into a small 
 stewpan. wirh 1 chopped shallot, some grated nut- 
 meg, mignonette- pepper, and ^ a pint of good 
 gravy; simmer the whole on the stove-fire till re- 
 duced to half, then strain it with pressure through 
 a tammy into another small stewpan, containing 4 
 tablespoonfuls of fried bread-crumbs of a light- 
 brown color, and some chopped parsley, and a 
 little essence of chicken, and the juice of % a 
 lemon; stir the sauce till it boils, and serve. 
 This kind of sauce is appropriate for all small 
 birds, such as wheat-ears, ortolans, ruffs and 
 reeves, etc., etc. 
 
 Brown Gravy for Roast Veal. 
 
 Place 4 ounces of fresh butter in a stewpan 
 and knead it with a good tablespoonful of flour; 
 add a ladleful of good brown gravy, some essence 
 of mushrooms or mushroom catsup, a little grated 
 nutmeg, and pepper; stir the sauce on the stove, 
 and keep it gently boiling for ten minutes. If 
 it becomes too thick add a little more gravy, 
 so as to keep it of the same consistency as any 
 other sauce; finish with a little lemon -juice. If 
 there is no gnivy or essence of mushrooms at 
 hand, use in their stead a ladleful of water, a piece 
 of glaze, some mushroom cutsup, and a little In- 
 dian soy; these will answer nearly the same 
 purpose. 
 
 Plain Curry Sauce. 
 
 Put 2 ounces of fresh butter into a stewpan, 
 together with rather more than an ounce of flour 
 and a good tablespoonful of curry-paste or pow- 
 der; knead these well together, then add a little 
 shred carrot, celery and onions; moisten with 
 abuut a pint of good strong consumme; stir the 
 sauce on the fire until it boils, and after having 
 kept it boiling for about twenty minutes, pass it 
 through the tammy, as for a puree; then remove 
 the sauce into a bain-marie or stewpan, to be used 
 when required. This economical method of mak- 
 ing curry sauce should only be resorted to in cases 
 of emergency or necessity, otherwise it is desirable 
 to follow the directions contained in Indian Curry 
 Sauce. 
 
 Caper Sauce for Boiled Mutton. 
 To about half a pint of good butter sauce add a 
 
 tablespoonful of capers, with a little pepper and 
 salt. 
 
 Mayonnaise Sauce. 
 
 Place two raw yolks of eggs in a round-bottomed 
 basin, and set this in a deep saucepan containing 
 some pounded ice; add a little pepper and salt to 
 the yolks, and proceed to work them quickly with 
 the back part of the bowl of a wooden spoon, 
 moistening at intervals with salad-oil and vine- 
 gar, which must, however, be sparingly used at 
 first, and gradually increased as you proceed, 
 until by this means the quantity of sauce desired 
 is produced; add a little lemon-juice to make the 
 sauce white. 
 
 Boar's Head Sauce. 
 
 Grate a stick of horse-radish, and place it in a 
 basin with 4 ounces of red currant-jelly, a spoon- 
 ful of mixed mustard, the grated rind of an orange 
 and lemon, together with the juice of both; 2 
 ounces of pounded sugar, a tablespoonful of vine- 
 gar, and 2 tablespoonfuls of salad-oil. Mix these 
 ingredients thoroughly together and serve. 
 
 M 'tdlaga-tawny Soup. 
 
 Cut 4 pounds of a breast of veal into pieces, 
 about two inches by one; put the trimmings into 
 a stewpan with 2 quarts of water, 12 corns of 
 black pepper, and the same of allspice; when 
 it boils skim it clean, and let it boil an hour and 
 a half, then strain it off; while it is boiling, fry of 
 a nice brown in butter the bits of veal and 4 
 onions ; when they are done put the broth to them, 
 and put it on the fire; when it boils skim it clean, let 
 it simmer half an hour, then mix 2 spoonfuls of 
 curry and the same of flour with a little cold 
 water, and a teaspoonful of salt; add these to the 
 soup, and simmer it gently till the veal is quite 
 tender, and it is ready; or bone a couple of fowls 
 or rabbits, and stew them in the manner directed 
 above for the veal ; and you may put in a bruised 
 shallot, and some mace and ginger, instead of 
 black pepper and allspice. 
 
 A Tureen of Hodye-Podge of Different Sorts. 
 Take either a brisket of beef, mutton, steaks, 
 whole pigeons, rabbits cut in quarters, veal or 
 poultry ; boil a long time over a slow fire in a short 
 liquid, with some onions, carrots, parsnips, tur- 
 nips, celery, a bunch of parsley, green shallots, 1 
 clove of garlic, 3 of spices, a laurel leaf, thyme, 
 a little basil, large thick sausages, and thin broth 
 or water ; when done drain the meat and place it 
 upon a dish intermixed with roots, sift and skim 
 the sauce, reduce some of it to a glaze, if desired; 
 glaze the meat with it, then add some gravy on 
 the same stewpan, and broth sufficient to make 
 sauce enough with pepper and salt ; sift it in a 
 sieve, and serve upon the meat. If brisket of beef 
 is used, let it be half done before putting in the 
 roots, which should be scalded first, as it makes 
 the broth more palatable. 
 
 Hotch-Potch. (Meg Dod's Recipe.) 
 Make the stock of sweet fresh mutton. Grate 
 the zest of 2 or 3 large carrots, slice down also 
 young turnips, young onions, lettuce and parsley. 
 Have a full quart of these things when sliced, and 
 another of green peas, and sprays of cauliflower. 
 Put in the vegetables, withholding half the peas 
 till near the end of the process. Cut down 4 
 pounds of ribs of lamb into small chops, trimming 
 off superfluous fat, and put them into the soup. 
 Boil well and skim carefully; add the remaining 
 peas, white pepper and salt, and when thick 
 enough serve the chops in the tureen with tho 
 hotch-potch. 
 
 Winter Soup. 
 Make a good brown stock of a small shin of 
 
216 
 
 COOKERY. 
 
 beef, with vegetables, carrots, turnips, onions and 
 celery; wben sufficiently boiled the vegetables 
 must be taken out whole, and the soup seasoned 
 with pepper and salt and a little Cayenne to taste, 
 also a little Harvey sauce and catsup; then fry 
 some mutton cutlets, the quantity required for the 
 number, a pale brown, add them to the soup with 
 the vegetables cut up small. 
 
 Vermicelli and Vegetable Soup. 
 Five pounds of lean beef, 2 heads of celery, 2 
 carrots, 2 turnips, 4 onions, 1 bunch of sweet 
 herbs (in a muslin bag), i an ounce of white pep- 
 per, i an ounce of allspice, a little salt, 5 pints of 
 water. To be boiled six hours, well skimmed and 
 strained from the vegetables, etc. Next day 1 
 carrot, 1 turnip, the hearts of the 2 heads of celery, 
 to be boiled in water after being cut into dice, and 
 added to the soup with of a pound of vermicelli. 
 
 Liebig's Broth. 
 
 Cut i a pound of freshly-killed beef or chicken 
 into small pieces. Add to it 1J pounds of water, 
 in which are dissolved 4 drops of muriatic acid 
 and f of a drachm of salt. Mix all well together, 
 and let them stand for an hour. Then strain 
 through a hair sieve, but without pressing or 
 squeezing. Pour it again and again through the 
 sieve until clear. Pour a pound of pure water 
 over what is left on the sieve. This broth is to be 
 given cold to the sick. 
 
 Curry. 
 
 Take the skin off 2 chickens; carve, wash and 
 dry them ; put them in a stewpan with a teacupful 
 of water, salt, and a few onions, and stew them 
 with a few green peas, or the egg-plant, till ten- 
 der; then take a lump of butter the size of a 
 pigeon's egg, a little mace, Cayenne pepper to 
 taste, a teaspoonful each of fresh turmeric and 
 cardamoms, pounded with a shallot in a marble 
 mortar; roll these ingredients with a little flour 
 in the butter, and dissolve them in the stew. If 
 the curry is to be brown, it must be fried a little 
 before the curry-ball is added to the gravy. 
 
 Another. Carve a pair of fat young fowls with 
 a sharp knife, precisely as if at table; dust them 
 with flour, fry them in butter till they are well 
 browned, lay them in a stewpan, with slips of 4 
 large onions ; add boiling water to the browning, 
 etc., left in the pan, give it a boil, and pour the 
 whole over your chicken; if not liquor enough to 
 rather more than cover it, add hot water; put on 
 the lid of your pan and set it on hot coals. In 
 half an hour take out a cup of the gravy, mix it 
 well with a tablespoonful of curry powder, and 
 throw it again into the pan ; stir it well round ; 
 taste and see if your gravy is warm, if not .add 
 Cayenne; bubble the whole quietly till the fowls 
 are tender, serve in a deep dish with boiled rice. 
 
 Malay's Gurry. 
 
 Proceed as above; fry the onions, pieces of 
 fowls, and a couple of egg-plants in slices : put 
 the whole in your stewpan with the milk of 2 
 cocoa-nuts; grate the flesh, put it into a linen 
 bag and squeeze out the juice, which put in the 
 saucepan likewise; add the curry and finish as 
 above. 
 
 Curry Powder. 
 
 Coriander seed, 3 ounces ; turmeric, 5 ounces ; 
 black pepper, mustard and ginger, each 1 ounce ; 
 lesser cardamom seeds, \ an ounce; Cayenne pep- 
 per, i an ounce; cinnamon and cummin seed, \ 
 of an ounce each. Dry them well ; reduce them 
 separately to a powder; pass them through a fine 
 sieve, and mix them well. It should be kept in a 
 closely-stopped bottle in a dry place. 
 
 White Soup. 
 
 Stew a knuckle of veal and a scrag of mutton 
 three or four hours, with spice; strain it; blanch 
 i a pound of sweet almonds; beat them with a 
 spoonful or two of cream to prevent their oiling; 
 put them with a pint of cream into the soup, stir 
 it and give it a boil; strain it through a cloth, 
 squeeze the almonds as dry as possible, heat it 
 again, and thicken it as a custard with eggs; put 
 a toasted roll in the tureen, and pour the soup 
 over it. If there is a breast of cold fowl or veal, 
 less almonds will do. If the meat be stewed and 
 strained the day before, it does much better. 
 To make Jelly Broth. 
 
 Put into the stewpan slices of beef, veal fillet, 
 a fowl, and one or two partridges, according to 
 the quantity required. Put it on the fire without 
 liquid until it catches a little, and add the meat 
 now and then. To give it a proper color, add some 
 good clear boiling broth and scalded roots, ns car- 
 rots, turnips, parsnips, parsley roots, celery, large 
 onions, two or three cloves, a small bit of nutmeg 
 and whole pepper. Boil it on a slow fire about 
 four or five hours with attention, and add a few 
 cloves of garlic or eschalots, and a small fagot or 
 bunch of parsley and thyme tied together. When 
 it is of a good yellow color, sift it; it serves for 
 sauces, and adds strength to the soups. 
 Preparation of Calf's Udder. 
 
 The udder is an elongated piece of fat-looking 
 substance attached to the inner part of a leg of 
 veal. It is easily separated from the meat by a 
 knife, and should then be bound round with twine 
 in the shape of a sausage, so as to prevent it from 
 falling to pieces on taking it out of the stockpot; 
 the udder so tied up is then put into the stockpot 
 to boil. Having allowed the dressed udder time 
 to cool and get firm, either on the ice or otherwise, 
 pare off the outside with a knife, cut it into small 
 pieces, and pound it in a mortar; then rub it 
 through a wire sieve with a wooden spoon, and 
 put it on a plate upon the ice to cool, in order that 
 it may be quite firm when required for use. 
 
 Note. The two foregoing preparations being 
 the basis of a great variety of forcemeats, it is 
 essential that they should be well understood be- 
 fore attempting the following more complicated 
 amalgamations. It should also be observed, that 
 all meat and fish intended for quenelles must be 
 forced through a wire sieve by rubbing it vigoi 
 ously with the back of a wooden spoon, and then 
 be kept on ice till used. 
 
 Forcemeat of Liver and Ham, for Raised Pies. 
 
 Take the whole or part of a light-colored calf I 
 liver, or several fat livers of any kind of poultry, 
 if to be obtained. If calf's liver be used, cut it 
 into rather small square pieces, and, if time per- 
 mit, steep them in cold spring-water, in order to 
 extract the blood, so that the forcemeat may be 
 whiter. Take the pieces of liver out of the water, 
 and place them upon a clean rubber, to drain the 
 water from them. Meanwhile cut some fat ham 
 or bacon (in equal proportion to the liver) into 
 square pieces, put them into a sauce-pan on a brisk 
 fire to fry ; after which add the pieces of liver, and 
 fry the whole of a light-brown color; season with 
 Cayenne pepper and salt, and a little prepared 
 aromatic spice, some chopped mushrooms, parsley, 
 and three shallots. After this take the pieces of 
 liver and ham out of the pan, lay them on a chop- 
 ping-board, and chop them fine; then put them 
 into a mortar with the remaining contents of the 
 pan ; pound the whole thoroughly, and rub it 
 through a wire sieve on to an earthen dish. This 
 kind of forcemeat, or farco, is an excellent ingre- 
 dient in making raised pies. 
 
SOUPS. 
 
 217 
 
 Spring Soup. 
 Take 4 carrots and as many turnips, scraped 
 and washed; scoop them into the form of small 
 olives or peas, with a vegetable scoop of either 
 shape; add the white part of 2 heads of celery 
 24 small onions (without the green stalk), and 1 
 head of firm white cauliflower, cut into small 
 flowerets. Blanch or parboil the foregoing in 
 boiling water for three minutes, strain them on 
 sieve, and then throw them into 3 quarts of bright 
 cottsommt of fowl. Let the whole boil gently for 
 half an hour by the side of the stove fire; then 
 add the white leaves of 2 cabbage-lettuces (pre- 
 viously stamped out with a round cutter the size 
 of a shilling), a handful of sorrel-leaves, snipped 
 or cut like the lettuces, a few leaves of tarragon 
 and chervil, and a small piece of sugar. Let these 
 continue to boil gently until done. When about 
 to send the soup to table, put into the tureen half 
 a pint of young green peas, an equal quantity of 
 asparagus-heads boiled green, and a handful of 
 small crdutoua d la duchesse, prepared in the fol- 
 lowing manner : Cut the crust off a rasped French 
 roll into strips ; stamp or cut out these with a 
 round tin or steel cutter into small pellets, about 
 the size of a dime, and dry them in the oven to 
 be ready for use. Before sending the soup to 
 table, taste it to ascertain whether it be sufficiently 
 seasoned. 
 
 Julienne Soup. 
 
 Take 3 red carrots of a large size, as many 
 sound turnips, and the white parts of the same 
 number of leeks, heads of celery, and onions. Cut 
 all these vegetables into fine shreds an inch long; 
 put them into a convenient-sized stewpan, /rith 2 
 ounces of fresh butter, a little salt, and a tea^poon- 
 ful of pounded sugar. Simmer these vegetables on 
 a slow stove fire, taking care they do not burn. 
 When they become slightly brown add 3 quarts 
 of veal gravy or light-colored consomme; let the 
 soup boil, skim all the butter off as it rises to 
 the surface, and, when the vegetables are done, 
 throw in the leaves of two cabbage-lettuces and a 
 handful of sorrel, shred like the carrots, etc. ; add 
 a few leaves of tarragon and chervil. Boil the 
 whole for ten minutes longer, taste the soup in 
 order to ascertain whether the seasoning is cor- 
 rect, and serve. 
 
 Scotch Broth. 
 
 Take a neck of fresh mutton ; trim it the same 
 as for cutlets ; take the scrag and trimmings, with 
 2 carrots, 3 turnips, 2 heads of celery, 2 onions, a 
 bunch of parsley, and a sprig of thyme, and with 
 these make some jnutton broth, filling up with 
 either broth from the common stockpot or with 
 water. While the mutton broth is boiling, cut up 
 the neck of mutton, previously trimmed for the 
 purpose, into chops, which should have the super- 
 fluous skin and fat pared away, and place them in 
 a three-quart stewpan, together with the red or 
 outer part of 2 carrots, 3 turnips, 2 leeks, 1 onion, 
 and 2 heads of celery the whole of these to be 
 cut in the form of very small dice ; add 6 ounces 
 of Scotch barley, previously washed and parboiled, 
 and then pour on to the whols the broth made 
 from the scrag, etc, when strained and the fat re- 
 moved. Allow the soup thus far prepared to boil 
 gently until the chops and vegetables be thor- 
 oughly done. Five minutes before sending the 
 soup to table throw into it a tablespoonful of 
 chopped and blanched parsley. Be sparing in 
 the use of salt, so as not to overpower the simple 
 but sweet flavor which characterizes this broth. 
 
 Hodge- Podge. 
 Make the mutton broth as shown in the pre- 
 
 ceding directions, and in addition to its content* 
 add a pint and a half of green peas (either mar- 
 rowfats or Prussian-blues). Allow the soup to 
 boil gently until the ingredients be thoroughly 
 done, then mix in with them one pint of puree 
 of green spinach and parsely; taste to ascertain 
 that the seasoning be correct, and serve. 
 
 Lettuce and Whole-Pea Soup. 
 Pick, wash and blanch a dozen white-heart 
 cabbage-lettuces; cut them open and spread them 
 on a clean napkin ; season them with pepper 
 and salt; then put two together face to face and 
 proceed to tie them up with twine. Cover the 
 bottom of a stewpan with thin layers of fat bacon 
 and place the lettuce thereon ; pour over them 
 some broth from the boiling stockpot, over which 
 lay a round of buttered paper, place the lid on 
 the stewpan, start them to boil on the fire, and 
 then place them on a slackened stove to simmer 
 gently for about an hour, after which drain the 
 lettuces on a clean napkin, untie them, and after 
 having cut them into inch lengths lay them in 
 the soup-tureen, together with a pint of young 
 green peas boiled for the purpose and a small pinch 
 of pepper. Take every particle of fat off the broth 
 in which the lettuces have been braized and add 
 it to the lettuces and peas already in the tureen, 
 over which pour 2 quarts of bright, strong con- 
 somme of fowl ; ascertain that the soup is pala- 
 table, and having thrown in a handful of duchess'a 
 crusts, send to table. 
 
 Turtle Soup. 
 
 Procure a fine, lively, fat turtle, weighing about 
 120 pounds, fish of this weight being considered 
 the best, as their fat is not liable to be impreg- 
 nated with that disagreeable, strong flavor ob- 
 jected to in fish of larger size. On the other 
 hand, turtles of very small size seldom possess 
 sufficient fat or substance to make them worth 
 dressing. When time permits kill the turtle over- 
 night, that it may be left to bleed in a cool plaice 
 till the next morning, when at an early hour it 
 should be cut up for scalding, that being the first 
 part of the operation. If, however, the turtle is 
 required for immediate use, to save time the fish 
 may be scalded as soon as it is killed. The turtle 
 being ready for cutting up, lay it on its back, and 
 with a large kitchen-knife separate the fat or 
 belly-shell from the back by making an incision 
 all round the inner edge of the shell ; when all 
 the fleshy parts adhering to the shell have been 
 carefully cut away, it may be set aside. Then 
 detach the intestines by running the sharp edge 
 of a knife closely along the spine of the fish, 
 and remove them instantly in a pail to be thrown 
 away. Cut off the fins and separate the fleshy 
 parts, which place on a dish by themselves till 
 wanted. Take particular care of every particle 
 of the green fat, which lies chiefly at the sockets 
 of the fore-fins, and more or less all round the in- 
 terior of the fish, if in good condition. Let this 
 fat, which, when in a healthy state, is elastic and 
 of a bluish color while raw, be steeped for sev- 
 ral hours in cold spring-water, in order that it 
 may be thoroughly cleansed of all impurities; 
 then with a meat-saw divide the upper and under 
 shells into pieces of convenient size to handle, 
 and having put them with the fins and head into 
 a large vessel containing boiling water, proceed 
 quickly to scald them; by this means they will 
 be separated from the horny substance which 
 covers them, which will then be easily removed. 
 They must then be put into a larger stockpot 
 nearly filled with fresh hot water and left to con- 
 tinue boiling by the side of the Btove-nre until 
 
218 
 
 COOKERY. 
 
 the glutinous substance separates easily from the 
 bones. Place the pieces of turtle carefully upon 
 clean dishes and put them in the larder to get 
 cold; they should then be cut up into pieces 
 about an inch and a half square, which pieces are 
 to be finally put into the soup when it is nearly 
 finished. Put the bones back into the broth to 
 boil an hour longer, for the double purpose of ex- 
 tracting all their savor and to effect the reduction 
 of the turtle broth, which is to be used for filling 
 up the turtle stockpot hereafter. In order to save 
 time, while the above is in operation the turtle 
 stock or consomme should be prepared as follows: 
 With 4 ounces of fresh butter spread the bottom 
 of an 18 gallon stockpot; then place in it 3 pounds 
 of raw ham cut in slices ; over these put 40 pounds 
 of leg of beef and knuckles of veal, 4 old hens 
 (after having removed their fillets, which are to 
 be kept for making the quenelles for the soup) ; 
 to these add all the fleshy pieces of the turtle (ex- 
 cepting those pieces intended for etitres), and then 
 place on the top the head and fins of the turtle; 
 moisten the whole with a bqttle of Madeira and 
 4 quarts of good stock ; add a pottle of mush- 
 rooms, 12 cloves, 4 blades of mace, a handful of 
 parsley roots and a good-sized bouquet of pars- 
 ley tied up with 2 bay leaves, thyme, green 
 onions and shallots. Set the conxomme thus pre- 
 pared on a brisk stove fire to boil sharply, and 
 when the liquid has become reduced to a glaze 
 fill the stockpot up instantly, and as soon as it 
 boils skirn it thoroughly, garnish with the usual 
 complement of vegetables, and remove it to the 
 side of the stove to boil gently for 6 hours. Re- 
 member to probe the head and fins after they 
 have been boiled 2 hours, and as soon as they are 
 done drain them on a dish, cover them with a wet 
 napkin well saturated with water to prevent it 
 from sticking to them, and put them away in a 
 cool place with the remainder of the glutinous 
 parts of the turtle already spoken of. The stock- 
 pot should now be filled up with the turtle broth 
 reserved for that purpose as directed above. 
 When the turtle stock is done strain it off into an 
 appropriate-sized stockpot, remove every parti- 
 cle of fat from the surface, and then proceed to 
 thicken it with a proportionate quantity of flour 
 to the consistency of thin sauce. Work this 
 exactly in the same manner as practised in' 
 brown sauce, in order to extract all the butter 
 and scum, so as to give it a brilliant appear- 
 ance. One bottle of old Madeira must now be 
 added, together with a puree of herbs of the 
 following kinds, to be made as here directed: 
 Sweet basil must form one-third proportion of the 
 whole quantity of herbs intended to be used; 
 winter savory, marjoram and lemon-thyme in 
 equal quantities, making up the other two-thirds ; 
 add to these a double-handful of green shallots 
 and some trimmings of mushrooms ; moisten with 
 a quart of broth, and having stewed these herbs 
 for about an hour rub the whole through the 
 tammy into a puree. This puree being added 
 to the soup, a little Cayenne pepper should then 
 be introduced. The pieces of turtle, as well as 
 the fins, which have also been cut into small 
 pieces and the larger bones taken out, should *iow 
 be allowed to boil in the soup for a quarter of 
 an hour, after which carefully remove the whole 
 of the scum as it rises to the surface. The degree 
 of seasoning must be ascertained, that it may be 
 corrected if faulty. To excel in dressing turtle it 
 is necessary to be very accurate in the proportions 
 of the numerous ingredients used for seasoning 
 this soup. Nothing should predominate, but the 
 Whole should be harmoniously blended. Put the 
 turtle away in four-quart-sized basins, dividing 
 
 the fat (after it has been scalded and boiled in 
 some of the sauces) in equal quantities into each 
 basin, as also some small quenelles, which are to be 
 made with the fillets of hens reserved for that 
 purpose, and in which, in addition to the usual 
 ingredients in ordinary cases, put 6 yolks of eggs 
 boiled hard. Mould these quenelles into small, 
 round balls, to imitate turtles' eggs, roll them 
 with the hand on a marble slab or table, with the 
 aid of a little flour, and poach them in the usual 
 way. When the turtle soup is wanted for use, 
 warm it, and just before sending it to table add a 
 small glass of Sherry or Madeira and the juice of 
 one lemon to every four quarts of turtle. The 
 second stock of the turtle consontnte should be 
 strained off after it has boiled for two hours, and im- 
 mediately boiled down into a glaze very quickly 
 and mixed in with the turtle soup previously to 
 putting it away in the basins, or else it should be 
 kept in reserve for the purpose of adding propor- 
 tionate quantities in each tureen of turtle as it is 
 served. [For this and several other receipts in 
 fine cookery we are indebted to Francatelli.j 
 
 Mock- Turtle Soup. 
 
 Procure a scalded calf's head, or as it is some- 
 times called, a turtle head, bone it in the following 
 manner: Place the calf's head on the table with 
 the front part of the head facing you, draw the 
 sharp point of a knife from the back part of the 
 head right down to the nose, making an incision 
 down to the bone of the skull; then with the 
 knife clear the scalp and cheeks from the bones 
 right and left, always keeping the point of the 
 knife close to the bone. Having boned the head 
 put it into a large stewpan of cold water on the 
 fire : as soon as it boils skim it well snd let it con- 
 tinue to boil for ten minutes; take the calf's head 
 out and put it into a pan full of cold water; then 
 get a proper sized stockpot and after having but- 
 tered the bottom thereof, place in it 4 slices of raw 
 ham, 2 large knuckles of veal, and an old hen 
 partially roasted ; moisten with 2 quarts of broth 
 and put the stockpot on the stove fire to boil until 
 the broth is reduced to a glaze, when instantly 
 slacken the heat by covering the fire with ashes, 
 and then leave the soup to color itself gradually. 
 Allow the glaze at the bottom of the stewpan to 
 be reduced to the same consistency as for brown 
 sauce, and fill up the stockpot with water leaving 
 room for the calf's head, which separate into two 
 halves, and pare off all the rough cuticle about 
 the inner parts of the mouth, then place it in the 
 stock, and after setting it to boil and thoroughly 
 skimming it garnish with the uSual complement of 
 vegetables, 6 cloves, 2 blades of mace, i a pottle of 
 mushrooms, 4 sballots, and a good bunch of pars- 
 ley, green onions, thyme and bay-leaf tied together, 
 and a little salt. Set it by the fire to boil gently 
 till the calf's head is done, then take the pieces of 
 head out and place them on a dish to cool, after- 
 ward to be cut into squares and put into a basin 
 till required for adding them to the soup. Strain 
 the stock through a broth cloth and thicken it 
 with some light colored browning to the consistency 
 of thin brown sauce, let it boil and allow it to 
 throw up all the butter and classify itself thor- 
 oughly, then add a bottle of Sherry, about i a 
 pint of puree of turtle herbs in which 6 anchovies 
 have been mixed, a little Cayenne pepper, and the 
 calf's head cut into squares, as also the tongue 
 braized with it. Let these boil together for about 
 ten minutes, then add 3 or 4 dozen small round 
 quenelles and a little lemon-juice and send to 
 table. 
 
 3focJc-turtle Soup. 
 
 Scald a calf's head with the skin on, and take off 
 
SOUPS, ETC. 
 
 219 
 
 the horny part, which cut into two-inch square 
 pieces; clean and drj r them well in a cloth, and put 
 them into a stew-pan, with 4 quarts of water made 
 as follows: Take 6 or 7 pounds of beef, a calf's 
 foot, a shank of ham, on onion, 2 carrots, a turnip, 
 a head of celery, some cloves and whole pepper, a 
 hunch of sweet herbs, a little lemon-peel, and a 
 few truffles. Put these into 8 quarts of water, and 
 atew them gently till the liquid is reduced one-half; 
 then strain it off, and put into the stewpan with 
 the horny parts of the calf's head. Add some 
 knotted marjoram, savory, thyme, parsley chop- 
 ped small, with some cloves and mace pounded, a 
 little Cayenne pepper, some green onions, an es- 
 chalot cut fine, a few chopped mushrooms, and | 
 pint Madeira wine. Stew these gently till the soup 
 is reduced to 2 quarts, then heat a little broth. 
 Mix some flour, smoothing it with the yolks of 2 
 eggs, and stir it over a gentle fire till it is near 
 boiling. Add this to the soup; keep stirring as 
 you pour it in, and continue stewing for another 
 hour. When done, squeeze in the juice of half a 
 lemon, half an orange, and throw in some boiled 
 force-meat balls. Serve it up in a tureen hot. 
 This soup is deliciously gratifying and nutritive. 
 
 Ox-tail Soup. 
 
 Procure 2 fresh ox-tails, cut each joint after 
 dividing them into inch lengths with a small meat- 
 saw, steep them in water for two hours and then 
 place them in a stewpan with 3 carrots, 3 turnips, 
 3 onions, 2 heads of celery, 4 cloves, and a blade 
 of mace. Fill up the stewpan with broth from 
 the boiling stockpot, boil this by the side of the 
 Btove fire till done, drain the pieces of ox-tail on 
 a large sieve, allow them to cool, trim them neatly, 
 and place them in a soup pot. Clarify the broth 
 the ox-tails were boiled in, strain it through a 
 napkin into a basin, and then pour it into the 
 soup pot containing the trimmed pieces of ox- 
 tails, and also some small olive-shaped pieces of 
 carrot and turnip that have been boiled in a little 
 of the broth, and a small lump of sugar; add a 
 pinch of pepper, and previously to sending the 
 soup to table let it boil gently by the side of the 
 stove fire for a few minutes. This soup may be 
 served also in various other ways, by adding 
 thereto a puree of any sort of vegetables, such for 
 instance as a puree of peas, carrots, turnips, cel- 
 ery, lentils. 
 
 Ox-cheek Soup. 
 
 Procure a fresh ox-cheek and put it to braize in 
 a small stockpot with a knuckle of veal and some 
 roast-beef bones, fill the pot up from the boiling 
 stockpot or with water, garnish with the same 
 complement of stock vegetables used for ox-tail 
 soup, adding 6 cloves, a blade of mace, and a few 
 peppercorns. As soon as the ox-cheek is done 
 take the meat off the cheek-bone and put it in 
 press between 2 dishes. Strain off the broth, add- 
 ing to it a ladleful of gravy to color it, and proceed 
 to clarify it with a couple of whites of eggs while 
 tin i consomme is clarifying; trim the ox-cheek and 
 cut it into neat scallops 1 inch square and an 
 inch thick; put these into a small soup pot and 
 add to them some small carrots and turnips cut 
 in fancy shapes and boiled in a little broth, a lump 
 of sugar, and also li dozen of very small white 
 button onions. Strain the clarified consomme thus 
 prepared into the soup pot, and having allowed 
 the soup to boil a few minutes by the side of the 
 stove fire, just before serving add 2 dozen blanched 
 Brussels sprouts and a pinch of pepper, and send 
 to table. 
 
 Bread Panada for Quenelles. 
 
 Take the crumb of 2 new French rolls, and steep 
 H in tepid water for ten minutes ; then put it into 
 
 a napkin and wring it tightly, in order to remove 
 the water from the bread. Put the crumb into a 
 stewpan, with 2 ounces of fresh butter, a little 
 salt, and 2 spoonfuls of white broth ; put these on 
 the stove fire, continuing to stir the panada the 
 whole time with a wooden spoon, until it assumes 
 the appearance of paste, and no longer adheres to 
 the bottom of the stewpan ; then add 3 yolks of 
 eggs, and turn it out on a plate. Smoothe it over 
 the surface with the blade of a knife, and, having 
 covered it with a round piece of buttered paper, 
 place it in the larder until required for use. 
 Pdtc d Choux Panada. 
 
 To i pint of white chicken-broth add 4 ounces 
 of fresh butter and a little salt; put the stewpan 
 containing these on the fire. As soon as it begins 
 to simmer mix in with the aforementioned ingre- 
 dients 5 ounces of sifted flour; and, by continuing 
 to stir this batter on the fire for five minutes, it 
 will become a delicately firm paste, which must be 
 worked over the fire until it freely leaves the side 
 of the pan ; then take 3 yolks of eggs and quickly 
 mix them in the batter; put it on a plate, cover 
 it with a buttered paper, and keep it in the cool 
 till wanted for use. This kind of panada is pre- 
 ferred by some cooks to bread panada, being con- 
 sidered by them more delicate, and less liable to 
 produce fermentation in warm weather. However, 
 bread panada has the advantage of not collapsing, 
 as is the case with the pate d choux panada, if 
 prepared some time before the quenelle in which 
 it is used be eaten. 
 
 Chicken Panada. 
 
 Roast off a young fowl, take all the white parts 
 and pound them with the crumb of a French roll 
 soaked in broth; dilute these with a little chicken 
 broth (made from the remains of the roasted fowl) 
 to the consistency of a soft batter or creamy sub- 
 stance, pass it through a tammy as in preparing 
 any other puree. 
 
 Previous to serving this panada it should be 
 moderately warmed and put into custard cups. 
 In the composition of dietetic preparations for 
 infants and invalids, it is necessary to avoid the 
 use of herbs and spices. 
 
 Corn Oysters. 
 
 Take 6 ears of boiled corn, 4 eggs, 2 tablespoons- 
 ful of flour. Cut the corn off the cob, season it 
 with pepper and salt, mix it with the yolks of the 
 eggs beaten thoroughly, and add the flour. Whisk 
 the whites to a stiff froth and stir them in ; put 
 a tablespoonful at a time in a pan of hot lard or 
 butter and fry until they are a light brown color 
 on both sides. 
 
 Egg Plants. 
 
 After paring cut them in slices as thin as possi- 
 ble, let them lie an hour in salt water; then season 
 with pepper and salt, dredge fine powdered cracker 
 or stale bread-crumbs over each piece, beat up an 
 egg as for veal cutlet and dip in each alternately 
 and put in a pan with some hot butter or beef 
 drippings. Fry slowly until quite soft and a dark 
 brown on both sides. Serve them up hot. 
 
 Potatoes, a la Maltre d'Hotel. 
 ' The small French kidney potatoes are best 
 adapted for this purpose. Boil or steam them in 
 the ordinary way and when done cut them into 
 slices about the eighth of an inch thick, put them 
 into a stewpan with a tablespoonful of white sauce 
 or broth, 4 ounces of butter, some pepper and salt, 
 chopped parsely and a little lemon-juice; tosa 
 them over the stove fire until the butter, etc., is 
 mixed in with the potatoes, then dish them up, 
 either with or without crdutona round them, and 
 serve. 
 
220 
 
 COOKERY. 
 
 New Potatoes a la Creme. 
 
 Cut some recently boiled new potatoes in slices, 
 put them into a stewpan with a gill of cream, 4 
 *unces of fresh butter, a very little nutmeg, pepper 
 and salt, and the juice of half a lemon ; set them 
 to boil on the stove fire, toss them well together, 
 and dish them up with crdutons. 
 
 Green Peas, Plain. 
 
 Put the peas into boiling water, some salt, and 
 a bunch of green mint ; keep them boiling briskly 
 for about twenty minutes, and when done, drain 
 them in a colander, dish them up with chopped 
 boiled mint on the top, and send some small pats 
 of very fresh butter separately on a plate. 
 
 Stewed Peas. 
 
 Put 1 quart of young peas into a pan, with 4 
 ounces of butter, and plenty of cold water; rub 
 the peas and butter together with the fingers, 
 until well mixed, then pour off the water, and put 
 the peas into a stewpan, with a couple of cabbage 
 lettuces, shred small, a bunch of green onions 
 and parsley, a dessertspoonful of pounded sugar, 
 and a little salt; put the lid on, and set the^peas 
 to stew very gently over a slow fire for about half 
 an hour; when done, if there appears to be much 
 liquor, boil it down quickly over the fire. Next 
 put about 2 ounces of fresh butter on a plate, with 
 a dessertspoonful of flour, and knead them to- 
 gether; put this into the peas, and toss the whole 
 together over the stove fire until well mixed; dish 
 the peas up, garnished round with pastry, and 
 serve. 
 
 Asparagus with White Sance. 
 
 Pick the loose leaves from the heads, and scrape 
 the stalks clean, wash tbem in a pan of cold water, 
 tie them up in bundles of about 20 in each, keep- 
 ing all the heads turned the same way ; cut the 
 stalks even, leaving them about 8 inches long. 
 Put the asparagus in hot water with a small 
 handful of salt in it, to boil for about twenty 
 minutes, and when done, drain them carefully 
 upon a napkin to avoid breaking off the heads; 
 dish them up on a square thick piece of toasted 
 bread dipped in the water they have been boiled 
 in, and send to table with some white sauce, sepa- 
 rately in a sauce-boat. 
 
 Spinach with Butter. 
 
 Pick all the stalks from the spinach, wash it in 
 several waters, and drain it upon a sieve; throw it 
 into a stewpan of hot water with a handful of salt, 
 and keep it boiling until it becomes thoroughly 
 tender and soft to the touch ; then drain it in a co- 
 lander, immerse it in cold water, and afterwards 
 squeeze all the water from it. The spinach must 
 next be carefully turned over with the point of a 
 knife, to remove any straws or stalks that may 
 have been overlooked; it should then be chopped 
 or pounded in a mortar, rubbed through a coarse 
 wire sieve, and placed in a stewpan with about 2 
 ounces of butter, a little salt, and grated nutmeg; 
 stir the spinach over a stove fire with a wooden 
 spoon until it becomes quite warm, then add a 
 gravyspoonful of good sauce, a small piece of 
 glaze, and about 4 ounces of fresh butter. Work 
 the whole together, with a wooden spoon, until 
 well mixed, then pile the spinach up in the centre 
 of the dish, garnish it round with crduton*, and 
 serve. 
 
 Macaroni a V Ttalienne. 
 
 Break up the macaroni in 3-inch lengths, and 
 put it on to boil in hot water, with a pat of but- 
 ter, a little pepper and salt ; when done, drain 
 it on a napkin, and as soon as the moisture is 
 absorbed, dish it up in the following manner: 
 
 First, put 2 large tablespoon fuls of good to- 
 mato-sauce into a stewpan, and boil it oeer 
 the stove fire; then add 2 pats of fresh butter 
 with as much glaze, and work the whole well 
 together; next, strew a layer of the macaroni on 
 the bottom of the dish, then pour some of the 
 sauce over it, and strew some grated Parmesan 
 cheese over this; and so on, repeating the same 
 until the dish is full enough ; strew some grated 
 cheese over the top, put tbe macaroni in the oven 
 for five minutes, and then serve while it is quite 
 hot. 
 
 Macaroni with Cream. 
 
 Boil 1 pound of macaroni, and when done, cut it 
 up in three-inch lengths, and put it into a stewpan 
 with 4 ounces of fresh butter, 4 ounces of grated 
 Parmesan cheese, and a similar quantity of Gruy- 
 e"re cheese also grated, and 1 gill of good cream ; 
 season with pepper and salt, and toss the whole 
 well together over the stove fire, until well mixed 
 and quite hot, then shake it up for a few minutes 
 to make the cheese spin, so as to give it a fibrous 
 appearance, when drawn up with a fork. The 
 macaroni, when dished up, may be garnished 
 round the base with pastry, and then served. 
 
 Jtfacaroni an Gratin. 
 
 Cut the macaroni up as above, put it into a 
 stewpan with f of a pound of grated cheese (Par- 
 mesan and Gruyere in equal quantities), 4 ounces 
 of fresh butter, and 1 tablespoon ful of good 
 Bech'irnel sauce; season with pepper and salt, 
 toss the whole together over the fire until well 
 mixed, then pile it up in the centre of a border of 
 a fried crdutons of bread (previously stuck round 
 the bottom of tbe dish); strew the surface with 
 fine bread-crumbs, and grated Parmesan cheese, 
 in equal proportions; run a little melted butter 
 through the holes of a spoon, over the top of the 
 macaroni, and then put it into the oven to be baked 
 of a bright yellow color; it should then be served 
 quite hot. 
 
 Indian Sandtciches. 
 
 Cut the breast of a roast fowl or pheasant in 
 very small, square, dice-like pieces, and place 
 these on a plate; take about 4 ounces of red 
 tongue or lean ham, and 4 anchovies (previously 
 washed and filleted), cut these also in small dice, 
 and place them with the chicken. Next, put 2 
 spoonsful of sauce, and a dessertspoonful of curry 
 paste into a stewpan, boil them over the stove, 
 stirring it meanwhile, until reduced to the consis- 
 tency of a thick sauce ; then add the chicken, etc., 
 and the juice of a lemon, mix the whole well to- 
 gether, and use this preparation in the following 
 manner: Cut some thin slices of the crumb of a 
 sandwich-loaf, and with a circular tin cutter, 
 about an inch and n half in diameter, stamp out 
 24 croutons; fry these in clarified butter to a 
 bright yellow color, drain them on a napkin, and 
 place one-half on a baking-sheet covered with 
 clean paper; spread a thick layer of the above 
 preparation on each of these, and then cover them 
 with the remaining 12 cr6uions. Next, grate 4 
 ounces of fresh Parmesan, and mix these with a 
 pat of butter into a paste, divide it in 12 parts, 
 roll each into a round ball, and phice 1 of these 
 on the top of each sandwich; about ten minutes 
 before sending to table, put them in the oven to 
 be warmed thoroughly, pass .the red-hot sala- 
 mander over them, to color them of a bright yel- 
 low; dish them up on a napkin, and serve. 
 
 Italian Safad. 
 
 Boil 2 heads of fine white cauliriower, a similar 
 portion of asparagus-points, French beans, cut in 
 diamonds, a few new potatoes (which after being 
 
SALAD AND MINCE-MEAT. 
 
 221 
 
 boiled must be stamped out with a small vegeta- 
 ble cutter), i a pint of green peas and 3 artichoke- 
 bottoms, also cut up in small fancy shapes when 
 boiled. All these vegetables must be prepared 
 with great attention, in order that they may re- 
 tain their original color; the cauliflowers should 
 be cut up in small buds or flowerets, and the 
 whole, when done, put into a convenient-sized 
 basin. Next, boil 2 large red beet-roots, 6 large 
 new potatoes, and 20 large-sized heads of very 
 green asparagus, or a similar quantity of French 
 beans ; cut the beet-roots and potatoes in two-inch 
 lengths, and with a tin vegetable cutter, a quar- 
 ter of an inch in diameter, punch out about two 
 dozen small pillar-shaped pieces of each, and put 
 these on a dish, with an equal quantity of aspar- 
 agus-heads or French beans, cut to the same 
 length. Then take a plain border-mould, and 
 place the green vegetables in neat and close order 
 all round the bottom of the mould; observing 
 that a small quantity of jelly must be poured 
 in the mould for the purpose of causing the pieces 
 of French beans to hold together. Next, line the 
 sides of the mould, by placing the pieces of beet- 
 root and potatoes alternately, each of which must 
 be first dipped in some bright jelly, previously to 
 its being placed in the mould; when the whole is 
 complete, fill the border up with jelly. Before 
 placing the vegetables, the mould must be par- 
 tially immersed in some pounded rough ice, con- 
 tained in a basin or pan. When about to send 
 this entremet to table, turn the vegetable border 
 out of the mould on to its dish; after the vege- 
 tables, before alluded to, have been seasoned, by 
 adding to them a tablespoonful of jelly, 3 table- 
 spoonfuls of oil, 1 of tarragon-vinegar, some 
 pepper and salt; and when the whole have been 
 gently tossed together, they should be neatly 
 placed in the centre of the border, in a pyramidal 
 form. Ornament the base of the entremets with 
 bold croutons of bright jfclly, and serve. 
 
 Sidney Smith's Recipe for Salad. 
 
 Two large potatoes passed through kitchen sieve, 
 
 Unwonted softness to the salad give ; 
 
 Of mordant mustard add a single spoon 
 
 Distrust the condiment which bites so soon 
 
 But deem it not, thou man of herbs, a fault 
 
 To add a double quantity of salt ; 
 
 Three times the spoon with oil of Lucca crown 
 
 And once with vinegar procured from town 
 
 True flavor needs it, and your poet begs 
 
 The pounded yellow of two well-boiled eggs. 
 
 Let onion atoms lurk within the bowl, 
 
 And, scarce suspected, animate the whole; 
 
 And, lastly, on the flavored compound toss 
 
 A magic teaspoon of anchovy sauce. 
 
 Then, though green turtle fail, though venison's tough, 
 
 And ham and turkeys are not boiled enough, 
 
 Serenely full, the epicure may say 
 
 Fate cannot harm me, I have dined to-day ! 
 
 Cliicken Salad. 
 
 Prepare the chickens as directed for a Mayon- 
 naise. Pile the pieces of chicken up in the dish, 
 upon a bed of seasoned shred lettuces, in a conical 
 form ; pour some white Mayonnaise sauce over the 
 pieces, place a border of hard eggs cut in quar- 
 ters, and hearts of cabbage -lettuce round the 
 base; stick a white heart of a lettuce on the top, 
 and serve. 
 
 Note. Chicken-salad may also be ornamented 
 and garnished with plover's eggs, decorated with 
 truffles, and with eggs boiled hard cut in quar- 
 ters, and ornamented either with their fillets of 
 anchovies and capers, or colored butter, either 
 lobster coral or green Ravigotte, or with tarragon, 
 or chervil-leaves, laid flat on the eggs, or else 
 tuck in the point. 
 
 Lobster Butter. 
 
 Procure some lobster spawn or coral, and pound 
 it with twice as much butter, I anchovy and a 
 little Cayenne pepper; rub it through a hair-sieve, 
 collect it into a small basin, and keep it in a cool 
 place till wanted for use. 
 
 Lobster Salad. 
 
 Break the shells, and remove the meat whole 
 from the tails and claws of the lobsters ; put this 
 into a basin, with a little oil, vinegar, pepper and 
 salt, and reserve the pith and coral to make some 
 lobster-butter, which is to be thus used : First, 
 spread a circular foundation of the lobster-butter 
 upon the bottom of the dish, about seven inches 
 in diameter, and the fourth part of an inch thick, 
 then scoop out the centre, leaving a circular band. 
 Drain the lobster on a cloth, cut the pieces in oval 
 scallops, and with some of the butter (to stick 
 the pieces firmly together), pile the lobster up in 
 three successive rows, the centre being left hollow ; 
 fill this with shred lettuce, or salad of any kind, 
 seasoned with oil, vinegar, pepper and salt ; pour 
 some scarlet Mayonnaise sauce over the salad, 
 without mashing the pieces of lobster; garnish 
 the base with a border of hearts of lettuces, di- 
 vided in halves, and around these place a border 
 of plover's eggs, having a small sprig of green 
 tarragon stuck into the pointed end of each ; place 
 a white-heart of lettuce on the top, and serve. 
 Potted Lobster. 
 
 Lobsters for potting must be quite fresh. Take 
 the meat, pith, and coral out of the shells, cut this 
 up in slices, and put the whole into a stewpan 
 with one-third part of clarified fresh butter, and 
 to every pound of lobster add 4 whole anchovies 
 (washed and wiped dry) ; season with mace, pep- 
 percorns, and a little salt, then put the lid on the 
 stewpan, and set the lobster to simmer very 
 gently over a slow fire for about a quarter of an 
 hour. After this it must be thoroughly pounded 
 in a mortar, rubbed through a sieve, put into 
 small pots, steamed, and when cold should be 
 pressed down with the bowl of a spoon, and the 
 surface covered with a little clarified butter. 
 Mince-Meat. 
 
 Four pounds of beef and tongue mixed; 3 
 pounds of suet; 8 pounds of chopped apples; 3 
 pounds of currants (washed, dried, and picked); 
 
 3 pounds of seeded raisins ; 6 pounds of light brown 
 sugar; 2 pounds of citron cut into small thin 
 pieces ; the rind of 1 orange grated ; 1 ounce of 
 cinnamon; i of an ounce of cloves; i of an ounce 
 of mace; i of an ounce of allspice; 3 nutmegs 
 grated ; 1 quart of Madeira wine ; 1 pint of Brandy. 
 Boil the meat in salted water until tender; when 
 cold chop it very fine. After freeing the suet from 
 every particle of skin and chopping it fine, mix it 
 through the meat with salt just sufficient to remove 
 the fresh taste; to this add the apples, after which 
 the sugar, fruit, spice, and other ingredients. Mix 
 all well together and cover close. If too dry (be- 
 fore using) the quantity required may be moistened 
 with a little sweet cider. 
 
 Note. Mince-meat maybe made much richer 
 by using uncooked instead of cooked meat. 
 Mince-Meat. 
 
 Thoroughly cleanse 4 pounds of currants, and 
 remove the stones from 4 pounds of raisins; cut 
 up 2 pounds of candied citron, 1 pound of candied 
 lemon, and 1 pound of orange-peel, into shreds, or 
 very small dice; remove the skin, and then chop 
 
 4 pounds of fresh beef-suet, and place this with 
 the currants and the candied peel in an earthern 
 pan ; next chop the raisins with 4 pounds of 
 
 I peeled apples, and add them to the other iagredi- 
 
222 
 
 COOKERY. 
 
 ents. Trim away all the sinewy parts from 8 
 pounds of roasted sirloin of beef, and chop all the 
 lean of the meat quite fine; this will produce 
 about 4 pounds, which must also be placed in the 
 pan. To the foregoing must now be added 4 
 pounds of moist sugar, 4 ounces of ground spice 
 consisting of nutmegs, cloves, and cinnamon in 
 equal proportions, with the grated rind of 12 
 oranges, and of the snme number of lemons; the 
 whole must then be thoroughly mixed together and 
 pressed down to a level in the pan. Two bottles 
 of brandy, and a like quantity of Madeira, sherry 
 or port, should be poured into the mince-meat. 
 Put the lid on the pan, place a cloth over it, and 
 tie it down close, so as to exclude the air as much 
 as possible, and also to prevent the evaporation 
 of the brandy, etc. The mince-meat should be 
 kept in a cool place, and will be fit for use a fort- 
 night after it is made. 
 
 Cocoanut Cake, or Pudding. 
 
 A quarter of a pound of butter, 1 pound of sugar, 
 4 eggs, 1 cocoanut, 6 tablespoonfuls of flour. Cream 
 the butter and sugar, and add to it the grated co- 
 coanut, flour, and eggs. Bake forty minutes. 
 Cottage Pudding. 
 
 Take 3 tablespoonfuls of melted butter, with 1 
 cup of white sugar, 2 eggs beaten light, 1 pint of 
 flour, 2 teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar sifted with 
 the flour, and 1 teacup of milk with 2 teaspoon- 
 fuls of soda dissolved in it. This pudding may be 
 either baked or boiled. Serve with wine sauce. 
 Patterdale Pudding. 
 
 Made at a celebrated inn in England. Three 
 eggs and their weight in sugar, flour, and butter. 
 Bake in small pans and eat with sauce. 
 Wedding-cake Pudding. 
 
 One cup of molasses, cup of butter, 1 cup of 
 sweet milk, 1 teaspoonful soda, 2 teaspoonfuls salt, 
 4 cups of flour, and 1 cup of raisins. Steam three 
 hours in a bowl. 
 
 Sauce for the above. 
 
 One cup of powdered sugar, i cup of butter, 
 beaten together to a cream ; add 1 egg well beaten, 
 1 glass of wine, and 1 glass of boiling water. 
 Steam five minutes. 
 
 Cocoanut Pudding. 
 
 A quarter of a pound of grated cocoanut, the same 
 quantity of powdered loaf sugar, 3 ounces of 
 good butter, the whites of 6 eggs, and i a glass 
 of wine and brandy mixed, a teaspoonful of orange 
 flower and rose-water pour into your paste, and 
 bake as above. 
 
 Mrs. Goodfelloio's Lemon Pudding. 
 
 Take of butter (the very best) and loaf sugar, 
 each i a pound, beat them to a froth as for pound- 
 cake, add 5 eggs, the juice of ^ of a large or the 
 whole of a small lemon. Grate into it the outside 
 yellow rind, but not an atom of the white a 
 glass of Madeira, i a glass of brandy, a teaspoon- 
 ful of orange-flower water, pour it into your paste, 
 and bake with a moderate oven. 
 
 Orange Custards. 
 
 Boil very tender the rind of half a Seville orange, 
 and beat it in a mortar until it is very fine ; put to 
 it a teaspoonful of the best brandy, the juice of a 
 Seville orange, 4 ounces of loaf sugar, and the 
 yolk of 4 eggs. Beat them all together for ten 
 minutes, and then pour in by degrees a pint of 
 boiling creana; beat them until cold, then put 
 them in custard cups, in a dish of hot water; let 
 them stand till they are set, then take them out 
 and stick preserved orange-peel on the top; this ! 
 forms a fine flavored dish, and may be served up j 
 hot or cold. 
 
 Baked Custards. 
 
 Boil a pint of cream with some mace and cinna- 
 mon, and when it is cold, take 4 yolks of egg, a 
 little rose-water, red wine, nutmeg, and sugar, to 
 taste; mix them well and bake them. 
 Hice Custards. 
 
 Put a blade of mace and a quartered nutmeg 
 into a quart of cream; boil and strain it, and add 
 to it some boiled rice and a little brandy. Sweeten 
 it to taste, stir it till it thickens, and serve it up 
 in cups or in a dish ; it may be used either hot or 
 cold. 
 
 Almond Custards. 
 
 Blanch i of a pound of almonds, beat them 
 very fine, and then put them into a pint of cream, 
 with 2 spoonfuls of rose-water; sweeten it, and 
 put in the yolks of 4 eggs; stir them well together 
 till the mixture becomes thick, and then pour it 
 into cups. 
 
 Lemon Custards. 
 
 Take $ a pound of double refined sugar, the 
 juice of 2 lemons, the rind of 1 pared very thin, 
 the inner rind of 1 boiled tender and rubbed 
 through a sieve, and a pint of white wine; boil 
 them for some time, then take out the peel and a 
 little of the liquor; strain them into the dish, stir 
 them well together and set them to cool. 
 Queen's Pudding. 
 
 Half pint of cream, 1 pint of milk, flavor with 
 vanilla and white sugar to taste, and boil together 
 for a quarter of an hour; add the yolks of 8 eggs, 
 well beaten. Then place over the mass a piece 
 of thin paper, and boil the pudding one hour. 
 Serve it up with sauce made of 2 glasses of sherry, 
 1 pot of red-currant jelly, and white sugar mixed 
 together, heated, and poured round the dish with 
 the pudding. 
 
 JSve's Pudding. 
 
 Take ^ a pound of very finely grated bread- 
 crumbs, i a pound of finely-chopped apples, a 
 pound of currants, a pound of very fine suet, 6 
 ounces of sugar, 4 eggs, a little nutmeg, 2 ounces 
 of citron and lemon-peel; butter the mould well 
 and boil 3 hours. 
 
 Balloons. 
 
 One pint of milk, 3 eggs, 1 pint of flour. Beat 
 the eggs light, and mix with the milk and stir into 
 the flourgradually. Beat it well with 1 saltspoon- 
 ful of salt; then butter small cups, fill them half 
 full of the mixture and bake in a quick oven. 
 When done turn them out of the cups, place them, 
 on a dish and send to table hot. Eat with wine 
 sauce, or nun's butter. 
 
 Lemon Pudding. 
 
 Half a pound of butter, ^ a pound of sugar, 2 
 ounces of flour, 5 eggs, 2 tablespoonfuls of brandy, 
 the gratings and juice of 1 lemon. Beat the but- 
 ter and sugar very light, then add the flour; 
 whisk the eggs until very thick, which stir in by 
 degree? ; lastly the lemon and brandy, alternately. 
 Mix well without beating too much. This will 
 make two puddings, soup-plate size. Line you* 
 plates with a rich paste and bake in a quick oven. 
 When done and cool, sift white sugar over. 
 White Potato Pudding. 
 
 A quarter of a pound of butter, i a pound of sugar, 
 4 or 5 eggs, 1 pound of potatoes mashed exceed- 
 ingly fine, with a little cream and salt through a 
 colander; 2 tablespoonfuls of brandy, 1 grated 
 nutmeg with a teaspoonful of cinnamon. Beat 
 the butter and sugar to a cream, then add the 
 potato, eggs, brandy and spice. Line your plates 
 with paste and bake in a quick oven. When 
 done and cool, slip into plates suitable for the 
 table, and sift white sugar over them. 
 
PUDDINGS., 
 
 223 
 
 Apple Pudding. 
 
 A quarter of a pound of butter, i a pound of sugar, 
 6 ej;gs, 4 large-sized tart apples, 2 ounces of cur- 
 rants, 2 tablespoonfuls of brandy, 1 teaspoonful 
 of cinnamon and nutmeg mixed. Beat the but- 
 ter and sugar to a cream, then whisk the eggs 
 until thick and add to it. Pare the apples, grate 
 and stir them into the mixture of eggs and sugar ; 
 then add the brandy, currants and spice. Stir 
 the whole well together. This will be sufficient 
 for two large-sized puddings. Line your plates 
 with paste, put in the mixture and bake in a quick 
 oven. 
 
 Rice Cups. 
 
 One quart of milk, 3 tablespoonfuls of rice 
 boiled and stood to cool, 2 ounces of butter. Put 
 on your milk to boil, mix the rice very smooth 
 with some cold milk. As soon as the former be- 
 gins to boil stir in the batter and let the whole 
 boil twenty minutes. Whilst the milk is warm 
 add the butter and a little salt. Rinse your cus- 
 tard cups with cold water; half fill them with the 
 mixture ; when it becomes cold they turn out of 
 the cups and retain their forms. They are very 
 ornamental to the table. To be eaten with cream 
 and a little grated nutmeg. 
 
 Diavolini. 
 
 Eight ounces of ground rice, 4 ounces of 
 sugar, a quart of milk, 2 ounces of butter, a tea- 
 spoonful of essence of ginger, 6 eggs, 1 pound 
 of preserved ginger. Mix the rice, sugar, milk 
 and butter together in a stewpan and stir the 
 produce over a stove fire until it thickens; it 
 must then be removed from the fire, and after 
 being worked quite smooth and the lid being put 
 on the stewpan. set it either in the oven or over a 
 slow ash fire to finish doing ; this will be effected 
 in about half an hour. The rice must now be re- 
 moved from the fire and the preserved ginger and 
 the 6 yolks of eggs being added thereto, stir the 
 whole over a quick fire until the eggs are set firm 
 in the rice, and then turn out upon a clean dish 
 or baking-sheet and spread equally to about a 
 quarter of an inch in thickness, and when this 
 has become cold it must be cut out in oblong 
 shapes, which, after being first dipped in light 
 frying batter, are to be fried crisp ; then glaze 
 with plain sugar and dish up on a napkin. 
 
 Brown- Bread Pudding. 
 
 Get ready the following ingredients : Twelve 
 ounces of brown bread-crumbs, 6 ounces of 
 pounded sugar, 6 eggs, a pint of whipped cream, 
 some grated lemon-rind, a little cinnamon-powder, 
 1 pound of morelle cherries and a little salt. Mix 
 the bread-crumbs, sugar, the yolks of eggs and 
 whipped cream, the lemon, the cinnamon and the 
 salt together in a large basin ; then add the whip- 
 ped whites of 6 eggs and set this aside. Next 
 spread a plain mould with butter and strew it with 
 brown bread-crumbs; then spread a large spoon- 
 ful of the preparation at the bottom of the mould 
 and arrange a layer of cherries (with the stones 
 left in) upon it; cover this with some of the pre- 
 paration, and upon it place more cherries, and so 
 on until the mould is filled. The pudding must- 
 now be placed on a baking-sheet and put in the 
 oven (moderately heated) to be baked for about 
 an hour ; when done turn it out of the mould on 
 its dish, pour a puree of cherry-sauce round the 
 base and serve. In Saxony it is customary to eat 
 this kind of pudding as a cake when cold; in this 
 case it should be entirely covered with sifted sugar, 
 mixed with one-fourth part of cinnamon-powder. 
 Lemon Pudding. 
 
 The juice and grated rind (rubbed on sugar) of 
 
 6 lemons, I pint of cream, 6 ounces of bruised 
 ratafias, 12 yolks and the whites of 4 eggs 
 whipped, i a nutmeg grated, a little cinnamon- 
 powder, 12 ounces of pounded sugar and a verj 
 little salt. Mix the above together in a large 
 basin and work them with a whisk for about 
 ten minutes. Next put a border of puff-paste 
 round the edge of a tart dish, spread the dish 
 with butter, pour the batter into it, strew some 
 shred pistachio kernels on the top and bake 
 it for about half an hour (at moderate heat). 
 When done shake some sifted sugar over it, and 
 serve. 
 
 Bread Pudding, Plain. 
 
 Twelve ounces of bread-crumbs, 6 ounces of 
 sugar, 2 ounces of butter, a pint of milk, the 
 rind of a lemon rubbed on a piece of sugar, 6 
 yolks of eggs and 2 whites whipped and a little 
 salt. Put the bread-crumbs into a basin with 
 the sugar, butter, lemon-sugar and salt; then 
 pour in the milk boiling, cover up the whole and 
 leave it to steep for about ten minutes ; the eggs 
 may then be added, and after the whole has been 
 well mixed together pour the preparation into a 
 mould or pudding basin previously spread with 
 butter. Steam the pudding for about an hour, and 
 when done dish it up with some arrow-root sauce 
 made as follows: Mix a dessertspoonful of arrow- 
 root with twice that quantity of sugar, half the 
 juice of a lemon, a little nutmeg, and a gill of 
 water, and stir this over the fire until it boils. 
 
 Plum Pudding. 
 
 Three-quarters of a pound of raisins, f of a 
 pound of currants, a pound of candied orange, 
 lemon and citron, 1J pounds of chopped beef 
 suet, 1 pound of flour, | of a pound of moist 
 sugar, 4 eggs, about 3 gills of milk, the grated 
 rind of 2 lemons, i an ounce of nutmeg, cinna- 
 mon and cloves (in powder), a glass of brandy 
 and a very little salt. Mix the above ingredi- 
 ents thoroughly together in a large basin seve- 
 ral hours before the pudding is to be boiled; 
 pour them into a mould spread with butter, which 
 should be tied up in a cloth. The pudding must 
 then be boiled for four hours and a half; when 
 done dish it up with sauce spread over it. 
 Tapioca Pudding. 
 
 Ten ounces of tapioca, 1 quart of milk, 6 
 ounces of sugar, 6 yolks of eggs and 2 whipped 
 whites, the grated rind of a lemon, 2 ounces 
 of butter, and a little salt. Put the tapioca, 
 sugar, butter, salt, grated lemon, and the milk 
 into a stewpan ; stir this over the fire until it 
 boils ; then cover the stewpan with its lid, and set 
 it on a very slow stove-fire (partially smothered 
 with ashes), to continue gently simmering for a 
 a quarter of an hour. The tapioca should then 
 be withdrawn from the fire, and after the 6 yolks 
 and the 2 whipped whites of eggs have been thor- 
 oughly incorporated in it, pour -the preparation 
 into a mould or pudding-basin previously spread 
 with butter; steam the pudding for about an hour 
 and a half, and when done dish it up with either 
 a plain arrow-root or custard sauce over it. 
 
 Rice Flummery. 
 
 Rice that is ground coarse, in a hand-mill, is 
 much better for making flummery than the flour 
 you buy. Put 1 quart of milk to boil; mix with 
 water 5 tablespoonsful of ground rice, and stir it 
 in the milk when it boils; while the milk is cold 
 put in vanilla or lemon; wet your moulds with 
 cold cream or water ; keep stirring the rice till it 
 is thick, when pour it out in the moulds; just be- 
 fore dinner turn them out on dishes. Have cir am, 
 sugar, and nutmeg mixed, to eat with it. 
 
224 
 
 COOKERY. 
 
 Hice Fritters. 
 
 Take 2 teacupfuls of boiled rice, cooled and 
 mashed, 1 pint of milk, 1 egg, a handful of flour; 
 season with a little salt. Have a pan of lard 
 boiling hot; put them in and fry quickly. 
 Naples Biscuits. 
 
 Whisk 10 eggs till light; add to them 1 pound 
 of dried flour and 1 of powdered sugar; beat all 
 together till perfectly light; put in some rose- 
 water and nutmeg, and bake in small shallow 
 pans, in a moderately-heated oven. 
 
 Soft Gingerbread. 
 
 One pound of butter, a pound of sugar, 10 
 eggs, 1 teaspoonful of cinnamon, 2 tablespoonfuls 
 of ginger, 3 half pints of molasses, 1 gill of milk; 
 2 pounds of flour, 2 tablespoonfuls of saleratus. 
 Beat the butter, sugar, ginger, and cinnamon to- 
 gether until light; then stir in one-fourth of the 
 flour; whisk the eggs very thick, and add by de- 
 grees. Mix the milk and molasses together, which 
 stir in gradually ; then the remainder of the flour, 
 half at a time. Beat all well together, then add 
 the saleratus, mix, and bake. 
 
 French Loaf Cake. 
 
 One pound of sugar, pound of butter, 1 pound 
 of flour, 7 eggs, 1 cup of cream, the grating and 
 juice of 1 lemon, ^ wineglass of brandy or Ma- 
 deira, 1 teaspoonful of saleratus. Beat the butter 
 and sugar very light, then stir in the cream; after 
 which beat in one-fourth of the flour; whisk the eggs 
 until very thick, which add by degrees, then the 
 remainder of the flour, half at a time, alternately 
 with the gniting and juice of the lemon. After 
 beating all well together, add the saleratus, after 
 which beat but a few minutes. Line your pans 
 (either square or round) with white paper, and 
 bake in a moderate oven. 
 
 Madison Cake. 
 
 Half a pound of butter, f of a pound of sugar, 
 1 pound of flour, 8 eggs, 1 gill of cream, 1 nut- 
 meg, 1 pound of raisins chopped, f of a pound of 
 currants. Beat the butter and sugar until very 
 light, to which add the cream ; whisk the eggs 
 until very thick, and stir in alternately with the 
 flour. Beat all well together; then add the spice 
 and fruit. Butter and paper your pans, put in 
 the batter, spread it over smooth with a knife, and 
 bake in a moderate oven. 
 
 Slack Cake. 
 
 One pound of butter, 1 pound of sugar, 1 pound 
 of flour, 10 eggs, 2 pounds of raisins (seeded and 
 chopped), 2 pounds of currants (washed, dried, 
 and picked), 1 pound of citron (cut thin and 
 email), 1 wineglass of Madeira wine, 2 wineglasses 
 of brandy, the grating of 1 large nutmeg, 2 tea- 
 spoonfuls of cinnamon, 1 teaspoonful of mace and 
 cloves mixed. Beat the butter and sugar to a 
 cream ; then stir in one-fourth of the flour, whisk 
 the eggs very thick, which add gradually; then 
 the remainder of the flour, half at a time; after 
 beating well, add the wine, brandy, and spice. 
 Then mix all the fruit together, and add one-third 
 at a time. Beat well. Then butter and line your 
 pan ttith white paper, put in the mixture, smooth 
 it with a knife, and bake in a moderate oven, about 
 four hours. 
 
 Sponge Cake. 
 
 Twelve eggs and their weight in sugar, and the 
 weight of 7 eggs in flour, and the peel and juice 
 of 1 large lemon. Separate the eggs, beat the 
 yolks, and then add sugar until thick and light. 
 Whisk the whites until stiff and dry, and add with 
 the flour. Stir sufficiently to mix the flour and 
 whites through, but avoid beating as that will 
 
 destroy the lightness. Grease your pan (either 
 square or round) with fresh butter, and bake in a 
 very moderate oven. 
 
 Macaroons. 
 
 One pound of pulverized sugar, the whites of 5 
 eggs, i a pound of sweet almonds, 1 ounce of bitter 
 almonds. Mix the almonds, blanch and pound 
 them quite fine; beat the eggs very dry, and add 
 the sugar very gradually, then stir in the almonds 
 lightly, put them on white paper with a teaspoon, 
 about an inch apart. Bake them in a slack oven. 
 
 To make a rich Plum Cake. 
 
 Take 1 pound of fresh butter, 1 pound of sugar, 
 1 pounds of flour, 2 pounds of currants, a glass 
 of brandy, 1 pound of sweetmeats, 2 ounces of 
 sweet almonds, 10 eggs, J of an ounce of allspice, 
 and J of an ounce of cinnamon. 
 
 Molt the butter to a cream and put in the sugar. 
 Stir it till quite light, adding the allspice, and 
 pounded cinnamon; in a quarter of an hour take 
 the yolks of the eggs, and work them in, two or 
 three at a time; and the whites of the same must 
 by this time be beaten into a strong snow quite 
 ready to work in; as the paste must not stand to 
 chill the butter, or it will be heavy, work in the 
 whites gradually ; then add the orange-peel, lemon, 
 and citron, cut in fine strips, and the currants, 
 which must be mixed in well with the sweet al- 
 monds. Then add the sifted flour and glass of 
 brandy. Bake this cake in a tin hoop in a hot 
 oven for three hours, and put sheets of paper 
 under it to keep it from burning. 
 
 To make a good Plain Cake. 
 The following is a receipt for making a good 
 plain cake : Take as much dough as will make a 
 quartern loaf (either made at home or procured at 
 the baker's), work into this a quarter of a pound 
 of butter, a quarter of a pound of moist sugar, and 
 a handful of caraway seeds. When well worked 
 together, pull into pieces the size of a golden pip- 
 pin, and work it together again. This must be 
 done three times, or it will be in lumps, and 
 heavy when baked. 
 
 Mich Pudding Pound Cake. 
 
 Boil a teacup of rice in a pint and a half of 
 water, pour over 1 quart of milk, beat the yolks 
 of 5 eggs, add 5 tablespoonfuls of sugar, let it come 
 to a simmer, then pour into a pudding dish and 
 flavor; beat the whites of 5 eggs, 5 tablespoonfuls 
 of sugar to an icing, spread it over the top of the 
 pudding and brown it. 
 
 A rich Seed Cake. 
 
 Take 1J pounds of flour well dried, 1 pound 
 of batter, 1 pound of loaf sugar, beat and sifted, 
 8 eggs, and 2 ounces of caraway seeds, 1 grated 
 nutmeg, and its weight in cinnamon. Beat 
 the butter into a cream, put in the sugar, beat the 
 whites of the eggs and the yolks separately, then 
 mix them with the butter and sugar. Beat in the 
 flour, spices, and seed, a little before sending it 
 away. Bake it two hours in a quick oven. 
 
 Ratafia Cakes. 
 
 Beat i a pound each of sweet and bitter almonds 
 in fine orange, rose, or ratafia water, mix a 
 pound of fine pounded and sifted sugar with the 
 same, add the whites of 4 eggs well beaten to it, 
 set it over a moderate fire in a preserving-pan. 
 Stir it one way until it is pretty hot, and when a 
 little cool form it into small rolls, and cut it into 
 thin cakes. Shake some flour lightly on them, 
 give each a light tap, and put them on sugar 
 papers, sift a little sugar on them, and put them 
 into a thorough slack oven. 
 
CAKES. 
 
 225 
 
 Queen Calces. 
 
 Take a pound of sugar, beat and sift it, a pound 
 f well dried flour, a pound of butter, 8 eggs, and 
 | a pound of currants washed and picked; grate 
 a nutmeg and an equal quantity of mace and cin- 
 namon, work the butter to a cream, put in the 
 sugar, beat the whites of the eggs twenty minutes, 
 and mix them with the butter and sugar. Then 
 beat the yolks for half an hour and put them to 
 the butter. Beat the whole together, and when 
 it is ready for the oven, put in the flour, spices, 
 and currants; sift a little sugar over them, and 
 bake them in tins. 
 
 Lemon Cakes. 
 
 Take 1 pound of sugar, J of a pound of flour, 14 
 eggs, 2 tablespoonfuls of rose-water, the raspings 
 and juice of 4 lemons; when the yolks are well 
 beat up and separated, add the powdered sugar, the 
 lemon raspings, the juice, and the rose-water; 
 beat them well together in a pan with a round 
 bottom, till it becomes quite light, for half an hour. 
 Put the paste to the whites previously well whisked 
 about, and mix it very light. When well mixed 
 sift in the flour and knead it in with the paste, as 
 light as possible; form the biscuits and bake 
 them in small oval tins, with six sheets of paper 
 under them, in a moderate heat. Butter the tins 
 well or it will prove difficult to take out the bis- 
 cuits, which will be exceedingly nice if well made. 
 Ice them previous to baking, but very lightly and 
 even, 
 
 Almond Cakes. 
 
 Take 6 ounces of sweet almonds, a pound of 
 powdered sugar, 7 eggs, 6 ounces of flour, and the 
 raspings of 4 lemons. Pound the almonds very 
 fine, with whole eggs, add the sugar and lemon 
 raspings, and mix them well together in the 
 mortar. Take it out, put it in a basin, and stir it 
 with the yolks of eggs, till it is white as a sponge- 
 paste; beat up the whites of the eggs to a strong 
 snow, mix them very light with the paste, then 
 take the flour and mix it as light as possible; on 
 this the goodness of the cakes principally depends, 
 as it is impossible to make a good cake with a 
 a heavy paste; butter the mould, and bake in a 
 slack oven for an hour, with ten sheets of paper 
 under it and one on the top. 
 
 Fancy Biscuits. 
 
 Take 1 pound of almonds, 1 pound of sugar, and 
 iome orange-flower water. Pound the almonds 
 very fine, and sprinkle them with orange-flower 
 water : when they are perfectly smooth to the 
 touch, put them in a small pan, with flour sifted 
 through a silk sieve; put the pan on a slow fire, 
 and dry the paste till it does not stick to the fin- 
 gers; moveit well from the bottom, to prevent 
 its burninflBben take it off, and roll it into small 
 round n i^lH> make knots,, rings, etc., and cut it 
 into varrwJ^Hiapes ; make an icing of different 
 colors, ( 4^ ! side of them in it, and set them on 
 wire gratii|^pto drain. They may be varied by 
 strewing <P^r them colored pistachios, or colored 
 almonds, according to fancy. 
 
 Fine Cheesecakes. 
 
 Put a pint of warm cream into a saucepan over 
 the fire, and when it is warm, add to it 5 quarts of 
 new milk. Then put in some rennet, stir it, and 
 when it is turned, put the curd into a linen cloth 
 or bag. Let the whey drain from it, but do not 
 squeeze it too much. Put it into a mortar, and 
 pound it as fine as butter. Add i a pound of 
 sweet almonds blanched, i a pound of macaroons, 
 or Naples biscuits. Then add 9 well beaten yolks 
 of eggs, a grated nutmeg, a little rose or orange- 
 15 
 
 water, and i a pound of fine sugar. Mix all well 
 together. 
 
 Almond Cheesecakes. 
 
 Put 4 ounces of blanched sweet almonds into 
 cold water, and beat them in a marble mortar or 
 wooden bowl, with some rose-water. Put to it 4 
 ounces of sugar, and the yolks of 4 eggs beat fine. 
 Work it till it becomes white and frothy, and then 
 make a rich puff-paste as follows : Take a pound 
 of flour, and J'of a. pound of butter; rub a little 
 of the butter into the flour, mix it stiff with a 
 little cold water, and then roll out the paste. 
 Strew on a little flour, and lay over it, in thin bits, 
 one-third of the butter; throw a little more flour 
 over the bottom, and do the like three different 
 times. Put the paste into the tins, grate sugar 
 over them, and bake them gently. 
 
 Brioche Paste. 
 
 One pound of flour, 10 ounces of butter, ^ an 
 ounce of German yeast, a teaspoonful each of salt 
 and sugar, about 7 eggs. Put J part of the flour 
 on a slab, spread it out to form a well, then place 
 the yeast in the centre, and proceed to dissolve it 
 with a little tepid water; when this is effected add 
 sufficient water to mix the whole into a rather 
 soft paste, knead this into the form of a round 
 ball, put it into a stewpan capable of containing 
 3 times its quantity, score it round the sides with 
 a knife, put the lid on and set it to rise in a rather 
 warm place. In winter it may be put in the screen, 
 but in hot weather the fermentation will proceed 
 more satisfactorily if it is merely placed on the 
 kitchen table or in some such place of moderate 
 warmth. This part of the operation is termed 
 setting the sponge. Next put the remainder of 
 the flour on the slab and spread it out in the centre 
 to form the well, then place the salt and sugar and 
 a teaspoonful of water to dissolve these, after which 
 the butter must be added; break in 6 eggs and 
 work the whole together with the hands until well 
 mixed, first working it between the hands and 
 then rubbing it with both fists held flat on the 
 slab and moving them to and fro, so as thoroughly 
 to reduce any remaining lumps in the paste. 
 By the time the paste is mixed the sponge will 
 probably have risen sufficiently; to be perfect it 
 must rise to 3 times its original size. When spread 
 out on the paste prepared to receive it, it should 
 present the appearance of a sponge, from which 
 it takes its name. Both the above should be 
 then gently, but thoroughly mixed. A napkin 
 must be spread in a wooden bowl or a basin, 
 some flour shaken over it, and the brioche paste 
 lifted into it; then shake a little flour over the 
 paste, and after throwing the ends of the napkin 
 over all, set the bowl containing the paste in 
 a cool place free from any current of air. It ia 
 usual to make this kind of paste late in the even- 
 ing previously to the day on which it is required 
 for use. The first thing on the following morning, 
 the brioche paste must be turned off the napkin 
 on to the slab, then shake some flour under and 
 over it and fold the paste over half a dozen times, 
 pressing it down with the knuckles each time; 
 put the paste back again into the bowl in the same 
 way as before, and about three hours afterwards 
 knead it again in a similar manner previously to 
 its being baked. If the paste when finished ap- 
 pears to be full of small globules of air, and ia 
 perfectly elastic to the touch, it is ceVtain to be 
 well made, and when baked will be both light and 
 of a bright clear color. 
 
 If the paste is intended to be made into one, 
 brioche only, take five-sixths of it; mould this into 
 the form of a round ball or cushion and place it 
 in a plain mould or paper case (previously spread 
 
226 
 
 COOKEKY. 
 
 with butter) with the smooth surface uppermost; 
 press it down in tiie case with the knuckles, and 
 after moulding the remaining piece of paste in a 
 similar manner, first wet the surface of the other 
 part over with the paste-brush dipped in water, 
 and then after inserting the pointed end of this 
 into the centre of that portion of the brioche 
 which has been already placed in the case, press 
 the head down upon it with the back of the hand ; 
 egg the brioche over with a paste-brush, score the 
 sides slightly in a slanting direction, place it on a 
 baking sheet and put it in the oven (at moderate 
 heat). As soon as the brioche begins to rise and 
 has acquired a slight degree of color, let it be 
 covered over with a sheet of paper. About two 
 hours will suffice to bake a large brioche of double 
 the quantity of paste described in this article. 
 
 Note. Brioches may be varied in their form 
 when intended to be served as fancy bread for 
 breakfast, etc. ; in which case they should be 
 moulded in the shape of twists, fingers, rings, etc. 
 When served on the refreshment table at routs, 
 public breakfasts, balls, etc., dried cherries, citron, 
 candied orange or lemon-peel, pine-apple or an- 
 gelica steeped in some kind of liqueur may be 
 introduced. In either of these cases, previously 
 to mixing in, the fruit part of the paste must be 
 reserved, which after being rolled out must be 
 used to inclose the other part of the brioche. 
 This precaution is necessary to prevent the fruit 
 from protruding through the paste, as it becomes 
 calcined by the heat of the oven and gives an 
 unsightly appearance to the sponge. When fruit 
 has been mixed in a brioche it should be (when 
 baked) glazed with fine sugar by the salamander. 
 Gruyere and Parmesan cheese in equal propor- 
 tions, are sometimes introduced into a brioche for 
 a second course remove ; the first should be cut up 
 in dice, the latter grated. As in the above cases, 
 this kind of brioche must be enclosed in a portion 
 of the paste reserved for that purpose. 
 
 Scotch Bread. 
 
 One pound of flour, 1 pound of sugar, 1 pound 
 of butter, 8 eggs, a pound of candied lemon, 
 oransre and citron-peel in equal proportions, a gill 
 of Cognac brandy, a very little salt, and 4 ounces 
 of white comfits. Put the butter in a basin, work 
 it with a wooden spoon' until it presents the ap- 
 pearance of thick crea,m ; then add the flour, sugar, 
 eggs a.nd salt, gradually throwing in a handful of 
 each and two eggs at a time; when the whole is 
 thoroughly mixed the candied peel (cut in shreds), 
 also the brandy and the rind of two oranges or 
 lemons (rubbed on sugar) must next be added. 
 This paste should now be poured into tins of an 
 oblong shape about 2 inches deep, spread with 
 butter, and after the comfits have been strewn 
 over the surface a little fine sugar should be shaken 
 over the top previously to placing them in the oven 
 on baking sheets ; they must be baked of a very 
 light color. 
 
 Note. This kind of cake is a general favorite 
 in Scotland, being served on most occasions at 
 breakfast, luncheon, or for casual refreshment, and 
 also with the dessert. 
 
 Plain Seed- Cake. 
 
 One quartern of dough, 6 eggs, 8 ounces of sugar, 
 8 ounces of butter, an ounce of caraway-seeds 
 and a teaspoonful of salt. Spread the dough out 
 on the pastry-slab, then add the whole of the 
 above-named ingredients, work them well together 
 with the hands so as thoroughly to incorporate 
 them with the dough: the eggs should be addod 
 2 at a time. When the paste is ready put it into 
 a plain mould (previously spread with butter), and 
 Bet it to rise in a warm place. As soon as the 
 
 fermentation has taken place in a satisfac.ory 
 manner, the cake should be immediately put into 
 the oven and baked of a light color. When done 
 serve it cold for luncheon or otherwise. This kind 
 of cake may be va.ried by introducing raisins, cur- 
 rants, or candied orange or lemon-peel. 
 Bruaxela Biscuit*, or Rn*kn. 
 
 One pound of flour, 10 ounces of butter, \ an 
 ounce of German yeast, 4 ounces of sugar, 4 whole 
 eggs, 4 yolks, a teaspoonful of salt and a gill of 
 cream. Set the sponge with one-fourth part of the 
 flour and yeast in the usual way (as for brioche), 
 and while it is rising prepare the paste as follows : 
 Place the remainder of the flour on the slab, spread 
 it out in the centre to form the well, place in this 
 the salt and sugar (with a very little water to dis- 
 solve the salt), the butter and eggs ; this must then 
 be beaten with the hand on the slab until it pre- 
 sents an appearance of elasticity; then add the 
 whipped cream and sponge after the whole has 
 well worked once more; the paste must be placed 
 in long narrow tins about 2 inches deep and of 
 about the same width, preparatory to placing the 
 paste in the moulds; these should be first well 
 floured inside (to prevent the paste from sticking), 
 then the paste rolled out to their own length and 
 about one and a half inches thick dropped into 
 them and set in a warm place to rise. When the 
 paste has sufficiently risen it must be gently turned 
 out on a baking-sheet previously spread with butter, 
 then egged all over with a soft paste-brush and 
 baked of a bright deep yellow color. When done 
 cut them up in slices about one-quarter of an inch 
 thick, place them flat on a baking-sheet and put 
 them again in the oven to acquire a light yellow 
 color on both sides. These form a superior kind 
 of rusks, and are well adapted for the refreshment 
 table at evening parties or for the breakfast table. 
 
 Note. Rusks may also be made with brioche 
 paste or pound cake. 
 
 Pound- Cake 
 
 One pound of butter, 1 pound of sugar, 8 eggs, 
 1 wineglass of wine and peach-water mixed, Ij 
 pounds of flour, 1 nutmeg, 1 teaspoonful of cin- 
 namon, I pound of dried currants. Carefully 
 wash, dry and pick the currants. Beat the but- 
 ter and sugar very light ; then by degrees add 
 the wine, spice, fruit and one-fourth of the flour. 
 Whisk the eggs until very thick, which stir in the 
 butter and sugar gradually, then add the remain- 
 ing flour, one-third at a time. Beat all well to- 
 gether; line your pan with white paper, put in 
 the batter, smooth the top with a knife and bake 
 in a moderate oven about two hours and a half. 
 Duchess Loaves. 
 
 Half a pint of milk or water, 4 ounces of but- 
 ter, 2 ounces of sugar, 5 ounces of flour, 3 eggs, 
 a few drops of essence of orange j^fcta, very lit- 
 tle salt. Put the water, butter, su<^^^Hl the salt 
 into a stewpan on the fire, and ^HRn as these 
 begin to boil withdraw the stewpaiA|>^ the fire 
 and add the flour; stir the wholel^tt together 
 with a wooden spoon over the stovewl* for about 
 three minutes, by which time the ingredients 
 should present the appearance of a soft, compact 
 paste. The essence of orange (or any other kind 
 of flavor) should now be added, and also 1 egg; 
 incorporate these with the paste, then mix in the 
 other two eggs, aud if the paste -should be stiff 
 another egg or a yolk only may be added. This 
 must be laid on the pastry-slab in small pieces 
 about the size of a pigeon's egg, then rolled out 
 with a little flour in the form of a finger and 
 placed in order upon a baking-sheet spread with 
 butter; they should now be egged over and baked 
 of a bright light color. Just before they are quit* 
 
CAKES. 
 
 227 
 
 done shake some fint, sifted sugar over them, set 
 them back again in the oven until the sugar is 
 nearly melted, and then pass the red-hot sala- 
 mander over them to give them a bright, glossy 
 appearance; the loaves must now be immediately 
 withdrawn '.torn the oven and allowed to cool. 
 Just before sending this kind of pastry to table 
 make an incision down the sides and fill the small 
 loaves with apricot-jam ; then dish them up in a 
 pyramidal form on a napkin, and serve. 
 Almond Cakes. 
 
 Six ounces of flour, 8 ounces of sugar, 2 ounces 
 of ground or finely-powdered almonds (with a few 
 fitter almonds), 6 yolks of eggs, 2 whole eggs, 4 
 whites whipped, a glass of brandy, a little salt, 4 
 Ounces of chopped almonds mixed with 2 ounces of 
 sugar and half the white of an egg. First work the 
 butter in a basin with a spoon until it presents a 
 creamy appearance; next add the flour, sugar, al- 
 monds, brandy, eggs and salt gradually ; then mix 
 in the whipped whites of eggs lightly; pour this 
 paste on a baking-sheet about an inch and a half 
 deep (previously buttered), bake it of a light color. 
 When the cake is nearly done spread the prepared 
 chopped almonds over the top, and then put it 
 back again into the oven to finish baking ; when 
 done the almonds should be of a light fawn color. 
 Turn the cake out carefully, and when cold cut it 
 up into bands about an inch and a half wide; 
 then again divide them into diamond-shaped 
 cakes and dish them up pyramidally. Some whip- 
 ped cream maybe placed in the centre of the dish 
 and the cakes neatly dished up round it. Dried 
 cherries, Sultana raisins, currants, any kind of 
 candied peel, pistachios, or Spanish nuts, may be 
 added. The cakes may also be flavored with any 
 kind of essence or liqueur. 
 
 Meringues. 
 
 One pound of sifted sugar and 12 whites of 
 eggs. Whisk the whites in an egg-bowl until they 
 present the appearance of aperfectly white, smooth, 
 substantial froth, resembling snow; then substi- 
 tute a spoon for the whisk and proceed to mix in 
 the whole of the sugar lightly ; carefully avoid 
 working the batter too much, for tear of render- 
 ing it soft, as in that case it becomes difficult to 
 mould the meringues ; they can never be so grace- 
 fully shaped as when it is kept firm. Next cut 
 gome stiff foolscap paper into bands about two 
 inches wide ; then take a tablespoon and gather 
 it nearly full of the batter by working it up at 
 the side of the bowl in the form of an egg, and 
 drop this slopingly upon one of the bands of pa- 
 per, at the same time drawing the edge of the 
 spoon sharply round the outer base of the me- 
 ringue, so as to give to it a smooth and rounded 
 appearance, Ja order that it may exactly reserublo 
 an egg. PL JRed in this manner until the band 
 is full, keeping the meringues about two inches 
 and a half apart from each other on the paper; 
 as each band is filled, place them close beside each 
 other on the slab or table, and when all the batter is 
 used up, shake some rather coarse sifted sugar all 
 over them and allow thetn to remain for about three 
 minutes; then take hold of one of the bands at 
 each end, shake off the loose sugar and place the 
 band of meringues on the board, and so on with 
 the other bands, which, when placed carefully on 
 the boards closely side by side, must be put in the 
 oven (at very moderate heat) and baked of alight 
 fawn color. When done, each piece of meringue 
 must be carefully removed from off the paper, 
 the white part of the inside scooped out with a 
 dessert-spoon and then nicely smoothed over ; after 
 this they must be placed in neat order on a baking- 
 sheet and put back again in the oven to dry, 
 
 taking particular care that they do not acquir* 
 any more color. When about to send the meriti- 
 yiies to table, whip some double cream, season it 
 with a little powdered sugar and either a glass of 
 any kind of liqueur, a few drops of orange-flower- 
 water, or some pounded vanilla; garnish each 
 piece with a spoonful of this cream, join two to- 
 gether, dish them up in a pyramidal form on a 
 napkin, and serve. 
 
 Note. Jtferingites may be made of nil eizes, 
 and may also be shaped in the form of small 
 bunches of grapes; for this purpose it is neces- 
 sary to use a "cornet" or biscuit-forcer of paper 
 to mould the berries. In order to vary their ap- 
 pearance, previously to shaking the sugar over 
 them, some finely-shred pistachios or almonds, 
 rough granite sugar, and small currants may be 
 strewn over them. They may also be garnished 
 with preserves, or any kind of iced creams. 
 
 Stvedes. 
 
 One pound of pounded sugar, 12 ounces of 
 finely-shred almonds, 4 ounces of flour, a stick 
 of vanilla (pounded and sifted), and 1 whole egg 
 and the white of another. Let the whole of the 
 fore-named ingredients be well mixed together in 
 a basin, and then with a tablespoon proceed to 
 mould the preparation into round balls the size 
 of a large walnut, which a^re to be placed on pieces 
 of sheet-wafer previously cut to the size of half- 
 crown pieces ; these must now be placed on baking- 
 sheets, and, after slightly shaking some fine sugar 
 over them, are to be baked of a light color in a 
 slack oven. 
 
 Chocolate Cream. 
 
 Put over the fire 1 quart of milk ; when it comes 
 to a boil add 3 tablespoonfuls of chocolate. 
 Thicken with corn-starch, sweeten to the taste, 
 and flavor with lemon or vanilla. Serve it up 
 cold with cream. 
 
 Chocolate Glacis. 
 
 The foundation for these may be made either 
 of poundcake, Genoese, or sponge-cake ; the batter 
 for making either of the foregoing may be first 
 baked in a baking-sheet, and afterward cut out in 
 shapes and sizes to suit taste or convenience, or 
 otherwise may be baked in appropriate moulds or 
 cases for the purpose; they must then be dipped 
 in the following preparation : First boil the sugar 
 as directed in the foregoing article, and when it 
 has reached its proper degree, add 6 ounces of 
 chocolate dissolved with a wineglassful of water; 
 work the whole well together, and use it while 
 hot; but if it should become cold and set before 
 the operation is terminated, the preparation may 
 be easily liquefied by stirring it over the fire. 
 
 Cakes, both large and small, may be ylnct* or 
 glazed in this manner in almost infinite variety, 
 by using any kind of liquor, or a very strong in- 
 fusion of tea or coffee instead of the chocolate 
 here recommended. 
 
 Albert. Biscuits. 
 
 Ten ounces of pounded sugar, 8 ounces of fine- 
 ly-chopped almonds, 6 ounces of flour, 12 yolks 
 and 14 whites of eggs, 2 ounces of candied orange- 
 peel shred fine, a teaspoonful of cinnamon-powder, 
 half that quantity of ground cloves, and a little 
 grated lemon-rind. Work the sugar and the 
 almonds with the yolks and 2 whites of eggs for 
 twenty minutes, then incorporate the remaining 
 12 whites firmly whisked together with the flour, 
 candied peel and spices. Next pour the batter 
 into a convenient-sized paper case, and bake it in 
 a moderate oven; and when done and sufficiently 
 cold, let it be cut up into thin slices for dishing up. 
 
 This preparation may also be baked in small 
 
228 
 
 COOKERY. 
 
 moulds, or forced out upon paper or baking-sheets 
 previously buttered and floured for the purpose. 
 
 Charlotte de Rnsse. 
 
 Two quarts of cream, 2 ounces of isinglass, 1 
 pint of milk, 3 vanilla beans, the yolks of 4 eggs, 
 2 ownces of sugar. Put the isinglass in a sauce- 
 pan, and pour over it one teacupful of boiling 
 water, place it on the fire, and let it remain for 
 one hour without boiling. Let the milk and va- 
 nilla boil together slowly until it is reduced to 1 
 gill; beat the eggs and stir them in the milk 
 whilst it is on the fire; then add the isinglass and 
 sugar, and keep stirring it until it is cooked about 
 as much as custard ; strain it through a fine sieve 
 and set it in a cool place; when nearly cold add 
 the cream and stir them well together; put the 
 mixture in a dish or bowl, lined with sponge-cake. 
 
 Blanc-Mange. 
 
 Put into 1 quart of water an ounce of isinglass, 
 and let it boil till it is reduced to a pint ; then put 
 in the whites of 4 eggs, with 2 tableepoonfuls of rice- 
 water, and sweeten it to taste. Run it through 
 a jelly-bag, and then put to it 2 ounces of sweet 
 and 1 ounce of bitter almonds. Scald them in the 
 jelly, and then run them through a hair sieve. 
 Put it into a China bowl, and the next day turn 
 it out. Garnish with flowers or green leaves, and 
 stick all over the top* blanched almonds cut 
 lengthways. 
 
 Clear Blanc-Mange. 
 
 Skim off the fat, and strain a quart of strong 
 calves'-foot jelly ; add to the same the whites of 
 4 eggs well beaten; set it over the fire and stir it 
 till it boils. Then pour it into a jell3 T -bag, and 
 run it through several times till it is clear. Beat 
 an ounce each of sweet and bitter almonds to a 
 paste with a spoonful of rose-water strained 
 through a cloth. Then mix it with the jelly, a.nd 
 add to it 3 spoonfuls of very good cream. Set it 
 again over the fire, and stir it till it almost boils. 
 Pour it into a bowl : then stir it often till almost 
 cold, and then fill the moulds.* 
 
 Blanc- Mange. 
 
 Parboil 12 ounces of Jordan and 2 ounces of 
 bitter almonds in a quart of water for about two 
 minutes ; drain them on a sieve, remove the skins, 
 and wash them in cold water; after they have 
 been soaked in cold water for half an hour, pound 
 them in a mortar with 4 ounces of sugar, until the 
 whole presents the appearance of a soft paste. 
 This must then be placed in a large basin, with 
 12 ounces of loaf sugar, and mixed with rather 
 more than a pint of spring- water; cover the basin 
 with a sheet of paper, twisted round the edges, 
 and allow the preparation to stand in a cool place 
 for about an hour, in order to extract the flavor 
 of the almonds more effectually. The milk should 
 then be strained off from the altnonds through a 
 napkin, with pressure, by wringing it at both 
 ends. Add 2 ounces of clarified isinglass to the 
 milk of almonds, pour the blanc-mange into a 
 mould imbedded in rough ice, and when set quite 
 lirni turn it out on its dish with caution, after 
 having first dipped the mould in warm water. 
 
 ORIGINAL RECEIPTS IN COOKERY AND 
 
 PASTRY, ETC. 
 1. Shrewsbury Cake. 
 
 Sift 1 pound of sugar, some pounded cinnamon, 
 and a nutmeg grated, into 3 pounds of flour. Add 
 a little rose-water to 3 eggs well beaten, mix them 
 with the flour, then pour in as much butter melted 
 as will make it a good thickness to roll out. 
 2. Another. Take 2 pounds of flour, 1 pound of 
 
 sugar finely pounded; mix them together ^iake 
 out J of a pound to roll them in) ; pound of but- 
 ter, 4 eggs, 4 spoonsful of cream, and 2 of rose- 
 water. Beat them well together, and mix them 
 with the flour into a paste: roll them into thin 
 cakes and bake them in a quick oven. 
 
 3. Macaroons. 
 
 Blanch 4 ounces of almonds, and pound them 
 with 4 tablespoon fuls of orange-flower water ; beat 
 the whites of 4 eggs to a froth, mix it with a pound 
 of sugar, sift the almonds into a paste, and lay it 
 in different cakes on paper to bake. 
 
 4. Another. Take 1 pound of almonds, blanch 
 them and throw them into cold water, then rub 
 them dry with a. cloth, and pound them in a mor- 
 tar; moisten them with orange-flower or rose- 
 water, lest they turn to oil ; then take 1 pound of 
 fine loaf sugar, whisk the whites of 4 eggs; beat 
 all well together, and shape them round with a 
 spoon, on paper previously buttered and sugared, 
 to prevent their burning; bake them in a gentle 
 oven on tin plates. 
 
 5. Savoy Bixcnit. 
 
 Take of sugar the weight of 12 eggs, of flour 
 the weight of 7 eggs; beat the yellows and whites 
 of 12 eggs separate ; grate in the rind of 1 lemon ; 
 after being in the oven a few minutes, grate on 
 some sugar. You may add peach-water or leinon- 
 juice. 
 
 6. Jumbles. 
 
 Take 1J pounds of flour, 1 pound of sugar, 
 pound of butter,. 4 yolks and 2 whites of eggs, 
 with a wineglass of rose-water, roll them thick 
 with fine powdered sugar, and bake on tins. 
 
 7. Almond Cake. 
 
 Take 1 pound of almond's blanched and beaten, 
 10 eggs well beaten, 1 pound of sugar, and pound 
 of flour. 
 
 8. French Rolls. 
 
 Take 1 spoonful of lard or butter, 3 pints of 
 flour, 1 cup of yeast, and as much milk as will 
 work it up to the stiffness of bread ; just before 
 you take them from the oven, take a clean towel 
 and wipe them over with milk. 
 
 9. Waffles. 
 
 To 1 quart of milk add 5 eggs, 1J pounds of 
 flour, \ pound of butter; beat them well together; 
 when baked, sift sugar and cinnamon on them. 
 If you make the waffles before it is time to bake 
 them, add 1 spoonful of yeast. 
 
 10. Poundcake Gingerbread. 
 Six eggs, 1 pound of sugar, 1 pint of molasses, 
 1 teacupful of ginger, 1 tea.poonful of saleratus 
 dissolved, a little ma.ce, nutmeg, 1 pound of fresh 
 butter creamed; after these ingredients are well 
 mixed, beat in 2 pounds of flour. 'Fruit is an 
 improvement. 
 
 11. Gingercake. 
 
 Three pounds of flour, 1 pound of sugar, 1 pound 
 of butter rubbed in very fine, 2 ounces of ginger, 
 a little nutmeg, 1 pint of molasses, 1 gill of cream; 
 make them warm together, and bake them in a 
 slack oven. 
 
 12. Gingerbread. 
 
 One pound and a half of flour, J pound of sugar, 
 and i a pound of butter, well rubbed together; 1 
 ounce of ginger, a few caraway seeds, 24 allspice, 
 12 cloves, a little cinnamon, 1 pint of molasses. 
 Knead well. 
 
 13. Short Gingerbread. 
 
 One pound of sugar, pound of butter, 5 eggs, 
 a little cream and saleratus, ]J pounds of flour, 
 rolled hard. To be baked on tin sheets, marked 
 ready to cut. 
 
ORIGINAL RECEIPTS. 
 
 229 
 
 14. Calves' -foot Jelly. 
 
 Four calves'-feet well boiled, pound of sugar, 
 1 pint of wine, 2 lemons, the whites of 4 eggs, and 
 ebells; boil all together about five minutes, then 
 pour through a flannel bag to strain. 
 
 15. Apple Pudding, 
 
 Half the whites and all the yolks of 10 eggs, 
 beat them very light, add 1 pint of apples, after 
 they are stewed and put through a sifter, stir in 
 \ pound of butter, the grated peel of 2 large 
 lemons, and juice of one; sugar to taste. Mace 
 and nutmeg are very good substitutes for lemon- 
 juice. 
 
 16. Baked Apple Pudding. 
 
 Pare and quarter 4 large apples, boil them ten- 
 der with the rind of a lemon in so little water 
 that when done no water may remain, beat them 
 quite fine in a mortar, add the crumb of a small 
 roll, J pound of butter melted, the yolks of 5 and 
 whites of 3 eggs, juice of a lemon, sugar to your 
 taste; beat all well together, and bake it in a 
 paste. 
 
 17. Lemon Blanc-Mange. 
 
 Pour 1 pint of hot water upon 1 ounce of isin- 
 glass, when it is dissolved add the juice of 3 
 lemons, the peel of one grated, 6 yolks of eggs 
 beaten, $ a pint of Lisbon wine, sweeten it to your 
 taste ; let it boil, then strain it, and put it in your 
 moulds. 
 
 18. Mrs, Hoffmann's Blanc-Mange. 
 
 Take 2 ounces of isinglass, 1 quart of new milk, 
 strain it and sweeten to your taste, add rose or 
 peach-water, let it be only milk warm when you 
 put it in the moulds; if you wish it particularly 
 nice, blanch pound almonds, beat them very fine 
 in a mortar and stir in before you boil or strain. 
 
 19. Orange Pudding. 
 
 Take 1 pound of butter creamed, 1 pound of 
 sugar, 10 eggs, the juice of 2 oranges; boil the 
 peel, then pound it fine, and mix it with the juice ; 
 add the juice of one lemon, a wineglass of brandy, 
 wine, and rose-water. 
 
 ' 20. Hominy Pudding 
 
 Take the hominy, warm it, and mash through 
 a sifter until you get a pint, add % of a pound of 
 butter, melted, stir a teacup of cream into it, and 
 let it cool: then add half the whites of 6 eggs; 
 sugar, nutmeg, mace, and wine to your taste. 
 Bake it. 
 
 21. Cocoannt Pudding. 
 
 To 1 large cocoanut, grated, add the whites of 
 8 eggs, i pound of sugar, pound of butter, 2 
 tablespoonfuls of rose-water. Bake it in a paste. 
 
 22. Rice Pudding. 
 
 Take \ pound of rice, tied in a cloth, boiled well, 
 and then put through a sieve; add 1 quart of 
 milk, and keep stirring until it thickens; then add 
 6 ounces of butter stirred into the rice, 12 yolks 
 and 6 whites of eggs well beaten; mace, nutmeg, 
 wine and sugar, to your taste. This quantity 
 will make 2 large puddings. If you choose you 
 may add currants or any other fruit. 
 
 23. Another. Boil the rice very soft, dry from 
 water, stir in a little butter, 1 pint of milk, and 3 
 eggs well beaten, sweeten to your taste, pour it in 
 your dish, sprinkle flour on the top, put little bits 
 of liutter here and there on the top. Bake slowly. 
 
 24. Another, highly approved. Take 2 table- 
 epoonfuls of raw rice, 1 quart of new milk, a bit 
 of butter the size of an egg, a little cinnamon, 
 swee :en to your taste, put the pan in a slack oven 
 after the bread is taken out; eat when cold. 
 
 25. Another. Put in a deep pan i pound of rice 
 
 washed and picked, 2 ounces of butter, 4 ounces 
 of sugar, a few allspice pounded, and 2 quarts of 
 milk. Bake in a slow oven. 
 
 26. Another. Sweeten rice in milk, strain it off, 
 and having pared and cored apples, put the rice 
 around them, tying each in a cloth with a bit of 
 lemon-peel, a clove, or cinnamon. Boil themwelL 
 
 27. Ground Rice or Sago Pudding. 
 Boil a tablespoonful of it heaped, in a pint of 
 new milk, with lemon-peel and cinnamon ; when 
 cold, add sugar, nutmeg, and 2 eggs, well beaten. 
 
 28. Sweet Potato Pudding. 
 
 Take 5 eggs, ^ a pound of butter, J of a pound 
 of sugar, add as much sweet potato as will thicken 
 it, the juice and grated peel of 1 lemon, beat it 
 very light. 
 
 29. Potato Pudding. 
 
 Take a pound of boiled potatoes, beat well in 
 a mortar with i a pound each of sugar and but- 
 ter, the yolks of 10 eggs, the whites of 4, well 
 beaten, 2 Naples biscuit grated, and a pint of 
 cream ; mix them well with the other ingredients, 
 and pour it on a thin paste. Bake for half an 
 hour. 
 
 30. Another. Take 8 ounces of boiled potatoes, 
 2 ounces of butter, 2 eggs, J of a pint of cream, 1 
 spoonful of white wine, aj^ittle salt, the juice and 
 rind of a lemon, beat the whole to a froth, sugar 
 to taste a paste or not as you like. If you want 
 it richer, put more butter, sweetmeats, and al- 
 monds, with another egg. 
 
 31. Citron Pudding. 
 
 Half a pound of sugar, a pound of butter 
 creamed, the yolks of 9 eggs, a wineglass of 
 brandy, i a pound of citron chopped very fine. 
 
 32. Cream Pudding. 
 
 To 3 eggs beaten very light, stir in 1 pints of 
 flour, salt to your taste, mix a little milk, then 
 put in 6 ounces of sugar, just before you put it in 
 the oven add 1 pint of thick cream. Bake for 
 three-quarters of an hour. 
 
 33. Custard Pudding. 
 
 One pint of milk, 3 spoonfuls of flour, 6 eggs, 
 and salt to your taste. Sugar. 
 
 34. Wedding Cake. 
 
 Three pounds of flour, 3 pounds of butter, 3 
 pounds of sugar, 2 dozen of eggs, 3 pounds of rai- 
 sins, 6 pounds of currants, 1 pound of citron, 1 
 ounce of mace, 1 ounce of cinnamon, 1 ounce of 
 nutmegs, an ounce of cloves,, i a pint of brandy. 
 Beat the butter with your hand to cream, then 
 beat the sugar into the butter, add the froth of the 
 yolks of the eggs after being well beaten, then the 
 froth of the whites ; mix fruit, spice, and flour to- 
 gether ; then add them in with beating. Five or 
 six hours' baking will answer for a large loaf. 
 
 35. Election Cake. 
 
 Five pounds of flour, 2 pounds of sugar, pound 
 of butter, 5 eggs, yeast, 1 pint of milk, and spic 
 as you please. 
 
 36. Indian Pudding. 
 
 Boil 1 spoonful of fine Indian flour well, then 
 add 1 pint of milk, and let it all boil; when cool, 
 beat in 2 eggs. Sweeten and season. 
 37. Baked Indian Pudding. 
 
 Eight ounces of mush, 6 ounces of butter, 6 
 ounces of sugar, the*yolks of 6 eggs, and the white 
 of 1; mix the butter in the mush when hot, beat 
 the eggs and sugar together; add to the mush, 
 when cool, nutmeg, mace, and wine to your taste; 
 bake. 
 
230 
 
 COOKERY. 
 
 38. Friend Wilson's Plum Pudding. 
 Mix well together 1 pound of raisins, 1 pound 
 of currants, the crumbs of a loaf of bread, | of a 
 pound of flour, 1 pound of suet; stir in 6 eggs and 
 1 tumbler of porter; put in i of a nutmeg, pound 
 of citron and cinnamon ; to give taste add 2 ounces 
 of fine sugar. You may use, instead of porter, 
 a small tea-cup of yeast. Before taking it out of 
 the bag dip into cold water. 
 
 39. Apple Custard. 
 
 Take apples, pared, cored, and slightly stewed, 
 sufficient to cover the dish, 6 eggs, 1 quart of milk ; 
 spice to your taste. Bake it one-third of an hour. 
 
 40. Blnck Cake. 
 
 One pound and three-qunrters of flour, Impounds 
 of brown sugar, 1 pound of butter, 1 pounds of 
 raisins, 1 pounds of currants, | pound of lard, 4 
 eggs, 1 pint of milk, 1 nutmeg, and mace, 1 tl(a- 
 epoonful of baking powder. Wine and brandy.* 
 
 41. Tomato Catsup. 
 
 Cut up the tomatoes, and between every layer 
 sprinkle a layer of salt, let them stand a few hours 
 before you boil them, which do very well; then 
 strain them through a colander on some horse- 
 radish, onions or garlic, mustard-seed, beaten gin- 
 ger, pepper and mace; cover it close; let it stand 
 a day or two, then bottle and seal it for use. 
 
 42. Green Tomato So.y. 
 
 To 1 peck of green tomatoes, sliced thin, add 1 
 pint of salt ; stand twenty-four hours, then strain 
 anc put them on the fire, with 12 raw onions, 1 
 our.ce of black pepper, 1 ounce of allspice, J pound 
 of ground mustard. pound of white mustard- 
 seed, and a little Cayenne pepper. Cover with 
 vinegar, and boil until as thick as jam, stirring 
 constantly to prevent burning. 
 
 43. Puff- Paste. 
 
 One pound and a quarter of flour, and 1 pound 
 of butter; divide the butter into 4 equal parts; 
 mix one-fourth part of the butter with three- 
 fourths of the flour; and work the remainder of 
 the flour and butter in. 
 
 44. Good Receipt for Paste (for Pies). 
 To 1J pounds of sifted flour allow 1 pound of but- 
 ter or half butter and half lard. Rub the lard and 
 flour through your hands until thoroughly mixed, 
 having first put aside 2 tablespoonfuls of flour to 
 make out the paste with; then break up the but- 
 ter in small pieces with your fingers with the flour 
 and lard : moisten with cold water, and press it 
 together lightly until it forms a mass, then flour 
 the paste-board, lay the dough on it, and with the 
 rolling-pin roll it lightly into a thick sheet. 
 Sprinkle some of the flour on, cut it into fair 
 pieces, and again proceed to roll as before; do 
 this three times, then make the pies. 
 
 For plain home-made pies, to 2 pounds of flour 
 $ pound butter and pound of lard, or all lard. 
 
 45. Riddle Pudding. 
 
 One pint of milk, 4 large tablespoonfuls of flour, 
 4 eggs. Butter the bake-dish. Put it in the oven 
 V/hen you are about to dish the dinner, allowing 
 twenty-five minutes for baking; bring it directly 
 from the oven to the table, or it falls. 
 
 Sauce for the above. 1 cup of brown sugar, 2 
 lablespoonfuls of cream, 1 ounce of butter. Stir 
 the butter and sugar thoroughly, then add a little 
 of the cream at a time, to keep from separating; 
 add wine to the taste in the same manner (not 
 quite a wineglass). Let the mixture melt; it will 
 be a white froth when done. Enough for five 
 persons. 
 
 46. Meringue Pudding. 
 One quart milk, 1 pint grated bread, the yolks 
 
 of 4 eggs, the rind of 1 lemon grated ; wecten 
 to taste. Bake to a custard, which will be in 
 about half an hour, then take it from the oven. 
 Beat the whites of the 4 eggs, 2 tablespoonsful of 
 sugar, and the juice of the lemon, and put it on 
 the top of the pudding. Set it in the oven again 
 and let it brown lightly. 
 
 47. Sponge Cake. 
 
 Fourteen eggs, with their weight in sugar and 
 half their weight in flour, the juice and peel of a 
 lemon, and one nutmeg; beat the yolks and whites 
 separately until stiif, add the sugar to the yolks, 
 then add the whites; one minute before the oven 
 is ready dredge in the flour. Bake in a quick oven 
 half an hour. 
 
 48. Lemon Cake. 
 
 Twelve eggs, H pounds sugar, f pound flour; 
 grate the outside of 2 lemons, with the inside of 
 1 ; or add 1 glass of wine, with 3 teaspoonsful of 
 the essence of lemon. 
 
 49. Sugar Cake. 
 
 One pound flour, f pound sugar, pound butter, 
 5 eggs. Mix and drop them on tin, and put sugar 
 sanded on them, just as you put them into the 
 oven, or frost them. 
 
 50. Cup Cake. 
 
 Three eups of sugar, 1 cup of butter, 2 tea- 
 spoonfuls of saleratus, 3 eggs, 5 cups of flour; all 
 beaten together with as much spice as you please. 
 51. Cider Cake. 
 
 Take 2 pounds flour, 1 pound sugar, $ pound 
 butter, 1 pint cider, cloves, and cinnamon, with 
 or without fruit, 2 teaspoonfuls of saleratus. 
 52. Whips. 
 
 Two cups of cream, 1 of white wine, grate in 
 the skin of a lemon, sweeten to your taste, the 
 whites of 3 eggs; then whip it with a whisk; take 
 off the froth; as it rises pour the froth into your 
 jelly glasses. 
 
 53. To make Venison Pasty. 
 
 You must bone your venison and season it with 
 2 ounces of pepper, 1 nutmeg, mixed with salt; 
 then mince 3 pounds of beef suet. Put it in the 
 pan; it will take six hours' baking. 
 54. To Dress a Turtle. 
 
 Take a turtle of 8 pounds, cut off its head, cut 
 it open, scald the fins and calipee or under-shell, 
 skin them ; then take out the guts, cut them open, 
 and cleanse them well; take great care not to 
 break the gall. Then take for the soup the guts 
 and the fins, with a knuckle of veal, some sweet 
 herbs, onions, and Cayenne pepper. Season the 
 rest of the meat with the same seasoning, which 
 put in the calipash, or upper-shell, and calipee, 
 with some forcemeat balls, and bake it. When it 
 is baked, take the yolks of 3 eggs to a turtle of 
 8 pounds, beat them well, pour in a little wine, 
 take some of the soup, and brew it together very 
 well, throw in a lump of butter rolled in flour, and 
 put it into the calipash and calipee. 
 
 55. To make Waffles the Dutch way. 
 
 One quart of new milk, 1 penny loaf grated 
 very fine, 10 eggs beaten with i pound of sweet 
 butter melted, a few cloves beaten, a little salt, 
 fine flour enough to make a batter like a pancake, 
 and 4 spoonsful of yeast. Mix them together and 
 put them in an earthen pot covered, before the 
 fire, to rise, for an hour; having your waffle-iron, 
 ready heated and buttered on both sides, put in 
 the batter to bake. When done serve them hot, 
 with sugar grated over them and cinnamon. 
 56. A yood Gravy, to be kept for any use. 
 
 Burn 1 ounce of butter in the frying-pan, but 
 
COOKERY. 
 
 231 
 
 ake care to do it at such a distance from the fire 
 that, as you strew in the flour to the butter, it 
 may brown b-jt not blacken ; put to it 2 pounds 
 coarse lean beef, 1 quart water, ^ pint wine (red or 
 white), 3 anchovies, 2 shallots, some whole pepper, 
 cloves, and mace, 3 or 4 mushrooms or as many 
 pickled walnuts. Let it stew gently one hour, 
 then strain it. It will keep some time, and is 
 proper f->r any savory dish. 
 
 57. Federal Cake, or Bachelor's Loaf. 
 Into a plateful of flour put a piece of butter not 
 larger tha,n a walnut. 2 eggs, I spoonful yeast; 
 mix it either with milk or water, as you please ; 
 make it into a very stiff batter, so stiff you c-an 
 scarce stir it with a spoon. Put it to rise in the 
 same dish you wish to bake it in. It will take 
 several hours to rise. 
 
 58. Albany Cake. 
 
 Take 1J pounds of flour, 1 pound of sugar, 
 pound of butter, 1 tablespoonful of lard, 2 table- 
 spoonfuls of rose-water, a little cinnamon, 1 egg, 
 1 teaspoonful of saleratus dissolved in a teacup of 
 cream. Cut them out and bake them on tins. 
 
 59. Block Cake that will keep for a year. 
 One pound of sugar, the same of butter and 
 flour, 10 eggs; beat them well together, and when 
 light add 2 wineglasses of brandy, nutmeg, mace, 
 and cloves. 2 pounds of raisins, and the same quan- 
 tity -if currants. It will take some hours to bake. 
 A good deal of spice is necessary. 
 
 60. To dress Calf's Head in imitation of Turtle. 
 
 Take the calf's head when well soaked and 
 washed, o; en it and boil it with the entrails until 
 it is quite done: take part of the liver out when 
 about half done for forcemeat balls. When it is 
 all done strain the liquor, then cut off small pieces 
 of the head in imitation of turtle; the small indif- 
 ferent remainder chop up with the entrails; put 
 in spice to your taste, a little savory herbs rubbed 
 very fine, and a few little onions; some very small 
 dumplings; season the forcemeat balls with spice 
 and herbs to your taste, put a little parsley in 
 them, and fry them in lard, and put them in your 
 goup when you send it to table. 
 
 61. Mock Turtle. 
 
 Take a fine calf's head, cut the meat clean from 
 the bones, then boil the bones in a quart of water 
 ttntil the liquor is reduced to a pint; then season 
 it with Cayenne, nutmeg, and mace; pour into the 
 gravy a pint of Madeira wine, a little parsley; 
 thyme. 
 
 62. Dr. Green's Bean Soup. 
 
 Take a shin of beef, well cracked, and to every 
 pound of beef add 1 quart of cold water; boil 
 slowly until the meat is in shreds, only removing 
 the lid to take off the scum. Having prepared 
 your beans (one quart) the evening before, by 
 washing well and soaking all night, boil them 
 until soft enough to pass easily through a sieve; 
 strain the soup^add the beans, give a boil-up to- 
 gether, season To the taste with pepper and salt, 
 and just before serving add half a lemon cut in 
 small pieces, a quarter of a grated nutmeg, and a 
 teaspoonful of white sugar. 
 
 63. Beef d la Mode. 
 
 Choose a thick piece of flank of beef; cut some 
 fat bacon in long slices; let each slice be near an 
 iach thick; dip them in vinegar; then take sea- 
 soning of salt and pepper and cloves, mixed with 
 parsley, thyme, and marjoram. Make holes in 
 the meat to put in the larding; when you have 
 put it in rub it over with the seasoning and bind 
 it up with tape and set it in a pot over the fire. 
 
 Three or four onions must be fried brown and put 
 to the beef, with two or three carrots and a head 
 of celery. Add a small quantity of water, and let 
 it simmer ten or twelve hours, or until it is ex- 
 tremely tender, turning the meat twice; put the 
 gravy into a pan, remove from it the fat; keep 
 the beef covered ; then put them together, add a 
 glass of wine, remove the tape, and send it te 
 table. 
 
 64. Oyster Pie. 
 
 Take 100 oysters and clean them well from 
 the shell, put them into a kettle with their own 
 liquor to plump them, then put them in a dish, 
 and season them with 12 cloves and 3 blades of 
 mace pounded fine ; pepper to your taste ; then 
 lay crust around the edge of your dish. Take tho 
 yolks of 4 eggs boiled hard, with a handful of 
 gifted bread; sprinkle this over the top with a 
 fmr pieces of butter; fill the dish nearly full; cover 
 tje pie over with a puff-paste. 
 
 65. Damson Sauce. 
 
 To 1 peck plums put 3 pounds brown sugar, $ 
 pint of vinegar, 2 ounces cloves, 1 ounce cinna- 
 mon, i ounce mace. Put it on the fire and boil 
 until the fruit is soft and pulpy. 
 
 66. Pickled Damson Plums. 
 
 To 1 peck or 5 pounds of fruit put 3 pound* 
 brown sugar, 1 quart vinegar, 2 ounces cloves, 1 
 ounce cinnamon, ounce mace. Boil sugar and, 
 spices in the vinegar and pour it boiling on the 
 fruit; when cold pour it off. Repeat for four or 
 five mornings. 
 
 67. Chicken Salad. 
 
 Two large cold fowls, either boiled or roasted, 
 the yolks of 9 hard-boiled eggs, pint of sweet 
 oil, pint of vinegar, 1 gill of mixed mustard, 1 
 small teaspoonful of Cayenne pepper, 1 small tea- 
 spoonful of salt, 2 large heads, or 4 small ones, of 
 fine celery. Cut the meat of the fowls from the 
 bones, in small pieces. Cut the white part of the 
 celery into pieces about an inch long. Mix the 
 chicken and celery well together; cover them and 
 set them away. With the back of a wooden spoon 
 mash the yolks of eggs till they are a perfectly 
 smooth paste. Mix them with the oil, vinegar, 
 mustard. Cayenne, and salt. Stir them for a long 
 time, till they are thoroughly mixed and quite 
 smooth; the longer they are stirred the better. 
 When this dressing is sufficiently mixed, cover it 
 and set it away. Five minutes before the salad 
 is to be eaten pour the dressing over the chicken 
 and celery, and mix all well together. 
 
 68. New mode of Cooking Egg Plant. 
 
 Boil the plant whole. When tender cut it in 
 half, mash the inside fine; mix in a dressing made 
 of bread-crumbs with pepper and salt. Put in an 
 oven and bake it. 
 69. Chicken Soup without Chicken, for the Sick. 
 
 Take 1 dessertspoonful of flour and nrb smooth 
 in 1 gill of milk; put 1 ounce of butter, and pep- 
 per and salt to suit the taste; pour in fc pint of 
 boiling water, boil ten minutes, and pour it over a 
 slice of toasted or un toasted bread, as taste may 
 direct. Use thyme or parsley, as is most agreeable. 
 
 This receipt has been used in the hospitals, 
 where chickens could not be had. 
 70. Claret Punch. 
 
 Into a large bunch-bowl capable of holding 2 
 gallons, pour 1 dozen bottles of claret; add 18 
 oranges and 6 lemons, cut into slices, rinds and 
 all; 1 pound of white sugar (or more, to taste); 
 and i a gallon of water, kept cold with ice. 
 71. Paris Punch a la Nina. 
 
 Equal portions of green tea, brandy, and water* 
 Add cut lemons and sugar. 
 
232 
 
 CONFECTIONERY. 
 
 72. Brandy Peaches. 
 
 Pare the peaches, carefully removing all decay. 
 Lay in a shallow dish and cover with white sugar. 
 When a syrup has formed, remove the fruit and 
 put into jars ; put the syrup in a new tin pan, and 
 place over the fire; when it comes to a boil, re- 
 move and pour into the jars hot, and fill up with 
 the best white brandy. When cold seal up care- 
 fully. 
 
 73. Orange Marmalade. 
 
 One dozen good-sized oranges those with the 
 bitter skin are considered the best, or Sicily, if 
 preferred; cut them in two, take off the peel, and 
 boil it in water until tender enough to run a straw 
 through; cut it up fine, add the pulp and juice 
 of the oranges (carefully removing all the white 
 skin), and the juice and grated skin of two lemons. 
 Add the weight of the whole in white sugar, {fed 
 boil for a short time till clear say from twen\r 
 minutes to half an hour. 
 
 Eighteen good-sized Sicily oranges make about 
 4 quarts of marmalade. 
 
 74. Mock-Turtle Soup made of Beans. 
 
 Take 1 pint of black Mexican beans, wash them 
 and put them to soak in some water over night. 
 In the morning put them, with a bunch of pot- 
 herbs and about 3 quarts of water into a pot, and 
 boil till thoroughly done; strain through a col- 
 ander into the liquor they were boiled in ; let 
 them simmer, add pepper and salt, with a lump 
 of butter the size of an egg, 2 tablespoonfuls of 
 walnut catsup; have ready 2 hard-boiled eggs 
 chopped fine, put them into the tureen, and turn 
 your soup over them ; if you have some lemon or 
 wine it will improve it. 
 
 75. J. R. K.'s Chicken Croquets. 
 
 Boil an ordinary-sized chicken, skin it and cut 
 it up fine. Take a dessertspoonful of butter and 
 the same of flour, mix well together and put into 
 a saucepan with the yolk o| an egg; add 3 spoon- 
 fuls of chicken broth and 3 of cream, and let it 
 thicken to a boil ; throw in the chicken, and after 
 boiling a few moments put it away to cool. Roll 
 out the croquets to the required size in egg and 
 then in fine cracker, and fry in very hot lard. 
 76. Corn Bread. 
 
 To 1 quart of milk add 5 eggs beaten light, a 
 small teaspoonful of baking soda, and a little 
 salt ; stir in sufficient corn meal to make a stiff 
 batter, pour in a deep pan well greased, and bake; 
 when done it should be two inches thick. Eat 
 while hot. 
 
 77. Plain Corn Pone. 
 
 To a quart of white corn meal add a little salt 
 and sufficient milk to make a dough, divide into 
 two pones or loaves, making each an inch and a 
 half thick, and bake in a quick oven. 
 
 78. Tapioca Pudding. 
 
 Take J a pound of tapioca, pour on 1$ pints of 
 water, and let it soak over night: pare and core 
 10 apples, taking care not to break them, and 
 place in a deep pan ; sweeten and flavor the 
 tapioca with wine or essence of vanilla, and pour 
 it on the apples; if it does not cover them add a 
 little more water; when the apples are cooked 
 sufficiently the pudding is done. Eat with cream. 
 
 79. Currant Pudding. 
 
 To 3 cups of flour add li cups of sugar, 2 eggs, 
 J a pound of suet cut fine, i a pound of currants, 
 and nutmeg to suit the taste. Make in a stiff 
 batter and boil in a bag two hours. To be eaten 
 with butter sauce. 
 
 80. Italian Mode of Cooking Veal Cutlets. 
 
 For a cutlet weighing 1J pounds take 2 onions, 
 
 slice and parboil, pour off the water, and brown 
 with butter; season and flour the cutlet and place 
 in the pan with the onions, adding sufficient but- 
 ter to fry nicely; slice 2 tomatoes, and when tho 
 cutlet is done place them under it, and let the 
 whole remain over the fire until the tomatoes are 
 well cooked, then remove the cutlet and tomatoes, 
 and add to the gravy the juice of ^ a lemon and 
 a little flour; after dishing the whole upon a meat 
 dish, sprinkle a little parsley cut fine. This is a 
 delicious way of cooking cutlets; beef can be 
 done in the same manner. 
 
 81. To cook Frog*. 
 
 Put the hind legs in salt and water over night, 
 wipe them dry with a cloth, pepper and salt them, 
 then sprinkle a, little flour over them, and fry in hot 
 lard to a light brown. 
 
 CONFECTIONERY. 
 
 To prepare Sugar for Candying. 
 The first process is clarifying, which is done 
 thus : Break the white of an egg into a preserving 
 pan ; put to it 4 quarts of water and beat it with 
 a whisk to a froth. Then put in 12 pounds of 
 sugar, mix all together and set it over the fire. 
 When it boils put in a little cold water, and pro- 
 ceed as often as necessary till the scum rises thick 
 on the top. Then remove it from the fire, and 
 when it is settled take off the scum and pass it 
 through a straining bag. If the sugar should not 
 appear very fine, boil it again before straining it. 
 
 To Candy Sugar. 
 
 After having completed the above first process, 
 put what quantity is wanted over the fire, and 
 boil it till it is smooth enough. This is known by 
 dipping the skimmer into the sugar and touching 
 it between the forefinger and thumb, and imme- 
 diately on opening them a small thread will be 
 observed drawn between, which will crystalli/e and 
 break, and remain in a drop on the thumb, which 
 will be a sign of its gaining some degree of 
 smoothness. Boil it again and it will draw into a 
 larger string; it is now called bloom sugar, and 
 must be boiled longer than in the former process. 
 To try its forwardness, dip again the skimmer, 
 shaking off the sugar into the pan ; then blow 
 with the mouth strongly through the holes, and 
 if bubbles go through, it has acquired the 
 second degree ; to prove if the liquid has ar- 
 rived at the state called feathered sugar, re-dip 
 the skimmer and shake it over the pan, then give 
 it a sudden flirt behind, and the sugar will lly off 
 like feathers. 
 
 It now arrives at the state called crackled 
 sugar, to obtain which the mass must be boiled 
 longer than in the preceding degree; then dip a 
 stick in it and put it directly into a pan of cold 
 water, draw off the sugar which hangs to the 
 stick in the water, and if it turns hard and snaps 
 it has acquired the proper degree of crystalliza- 
 tion ; if otherwise, boil it again until it acquires 
 that brittleness. to 
 
 The last stage of refining this article is called 
 caramel sugar, to obtain which it must be boiled 
 longer than in any of the preceding methods; 
 prove it by dipping a stick first into the sugar and 
 then into cold water, and the moment it touches 
 the latter it will, if matured, snap like glass. Be 
 careful that the fire is not too fierce, as by flaming 
 up the sides of the pan it will burn, discolor and 
 spoil the sugar. 
 
 French Method. 
 
 Put into a pan syrup enough of clarified sugar 
 to fill the mould; boil it until it comes to the state 
 called small feather ; skim itw'ell; take the pan 
 
CONFECTIONERY. 
 
 233 
 
 from -the fire and pour it into a small quantity of 
 bpirits of wine, sufficient to make it sparkle; let 
 it rest till the skin which is the candy rises on 
 the surface; take it off with a skimmer and pour 
 it directly into the mould, which keep in the stove 
 af 90 heat for eight days ; then strain the candy 
 by a hole, slanting the mould on a basin or pan 
 to receive the drainings; let it drain till it is per- 
 fectly dry, then loosen the paper by moistening 
 it with warm water; warm it all round near the 
 fire and turn the candy by striking it hard on the 
 table. Put it on a sieve in the stove to finish dry- 
 ing it, but do not touch it while there, and keep 
 up an equal heat, otherwise there will be only a 
 mush instead of a^candy. Spirits of wine will 
 take off grease and not affect the candy, as it soon 
 evaporates. 
 
 To make Barley Sugar. 
 
 Take a quantity of elarified sugar in that state 
 that on dipping the finger into the pan the sugar 
 which adheres to it will break with a slight noise ; 
 this is called crack. When the sugar is near this 
 put in 2 or 3 drops of lemon-juice, or a little 
 vineear to prevent its graining. When it has 
 come to the crack take it off instantly and dip the 
 pan in cold water to prevent its burning; let it 
 stand a little, and then pour it on a marble, which 
 must be previously rubbed with oil. Cut the sugar 
 into small pieces, when it will be ready for use. 
 One drop of citron will flavor a considerable 
 quantity. 
 
 Bonbons. 
 
 Provide leaden moulds, which must be of va- 
 rious shapes, and be oiled with oil of sweet al- 
 inonds. Take a quantity of brown sugar syrup 
 in proportion to their size, in that state called a 
 blow, which may be known by dipping the skim- 
 mer into the sugar, shaking it and blowing through 
 the holes, when gleams of light may be seen ; add a 
 drop of any esteemed essence. If the bonbons 
 are preferred white, when the sugar has cooled a 
 little, stir it round the pan, till it grains and shines 
 on the surface ; then pour it into a funnel and fill 
 the little mould, when it will take a proper form 
 and harden ; as soon as it is cold take it from the 
 moulds; dry it in two or three days and put it 
 upon paper. If the bonbons are required to be 
 colored, add the color just as the sugar is ready to 
 be taken off the fire. 
 
 To Candy Ginger. 
 
 Put 1 ounce of race ginger grated fine, 1 pound 
 of loaf sugar beaten fine, into a preserving pan, 
 with as much water as will dissolve the sugar. 
 Stir them well together over a slow fire till the 
 sugar begins to boil; then stir in another pound 
 of sugar beaten fine, and keep stirring till it grows 
 thick ; then take it off the fire and drop it in cakes 
 upon earthen dishes. Set them in a warm place 
 to dry, when they will become hard and brittle, 
 and look white. 
 
 To Candy Hoarhound. 
 
 Boil it in water till the juice is extracted; then 
 boil a sufficient quantity of sugar to a great height 
 and add the juice .to it; stir it with a spoon against 
 the sides of the sugar pan, till it begins to grow 
 thick; then pour it out into a paper case that is 
 dusted with fine sugar and cut it into squares ; dry 
 the hoarhouud and put it into the sugar finely 
 powdered and sifted. 
 
 To make White Sugar Candy. 
 Sugar crystallized by the saturated syrup being 
 left in~a very warm place, from 90 to 100 Fahr- 
 enheit, and the shooting promoted by placing 
 sticks or a net of threads at small distances from 
 each other in the- liquor; it is also deposited from 
 
 compound syrup, and does not retain any xf the 
 foreign substances with which the syrup is loaded. 
 
 To Clarify Loaf Sugar. 
 
 Break the same into a copper pan, which will 
 hold one-third more, put a pint of water to each 
 pound of sugar, mix 1 white of an egg to every 6 
 pounds; when it rises in boiling throw in a little 
 cold water, which must be kept ready in case it 
 should boil over ; skim it the fourth time of rising, 
 continue to throw in a little cold water each time 
 till the scum ceases to rise, and strain it through 
 a sieve, cloth or flannel bag. Save the scum, 
 which, when a certain quantity is taken off, may 
 be clarified. The latter skimming will do to add 
 to fermented wines. 
 
 To Clarify Coarse Brown Sugar. 
 Put 50 pounds of coarse brown sugar into a pan 
 wfiich will contain one-third more; pour in 20 
 pints of water, well mixed with 5 whites of eggs; 
 pound 5 pounds of small charcoal, mix it in the 
 pan while on the fire, and boil it till it looks as 
 black as ink. If it rises too fast, add cold water, 
 strain it through a bag, and though at first it will 
 be black, continne to strain it until it becomes 
 quite clear, which may be seen by putting the 
 syrup in a glass. Put it back until it comes out 
 as fine as clarified loaf sugar. 
 
 To Improve and Increase Sugar. 
 
 To 5 pounds of coarse brown sugar add 1 pound 
 of flour, and there will be obtained 6 pounds of 
 sugar worth ten per cent, more in color and 
 quality. 
 
 Starch Sugar. 
 
 Mix 100 parts of starch with 200 of water, and 
 add to it gradually another 200 of water, previ- 
 ously mixed with as much of oil of vitriol, and 
 brought to a boiling heat in a tinned copper vessel ; 
 keep the mixture boiling for 36 hours, and occa- 
 sionally add water to keep up the original quan- 
 tity; then add some powdered charcoal and also 
 some chalk to get rid of the acid ; strain and 
 evaporate it by a gentle heat to the consistence of 
 a syrup, and set by to crystallize. 
 
 Birch Sugar. 
 
 Wound the trees in the spring of the year by 
 boring a hole under a large arm of the tree quite 
 through the wood as far as the bark of the oppo- 
 site side ; collect the sap which flows from the 
 wound and evaporate it to a proper consistence; 
 these are the native sugars of cold countries, and 
 might be "made in England for all the purposes of 
 home consumption. 
 
 To make Pear Sugar. 
 
 It is obtained by expressing the juice, adding 
 chalk to remove the superabundant acid, and 
 evaporating it to a due consistence ; it does not 
 crystallize and is a kind of white treacle. One 
 hundred weight of pears yields about 84 pounds 
 of this juice, which will produce nearly 12 pounds 
 of this substance. 
 
 Grape Sugar. 
 
 The brown sugar obtained from grapes by the 
 usual process, being previously freecT from the 
 acids and sulphate of lime that existed in the 
 original juice, yields by refining 75 per cent, of a 
 white granular sugar, 24 of a kind of treacle with 
 a little gum and some malate of lime. 
 
 To Candy Orange-peel. 
 
 Soak the peels in cold water, which change 
 frequently till they lose their bitterness; then 
 put them into syrup till they become soft and 
 transparent. Then they are to be taken out and 
 drained. 
 
234 
 
 CONFECTIONERY. 
 
 Lemon-peel. 
 
 This is made by boiling lemon-peel with sugar, 
 and then exposing to the air until the sugar crys- 
 tallizes. 
 
 To Color Candied Sugar. 
 
 Red. Boil an ounce of cochineal in half a pint 
 of water for five minutes, add an ounce of crenm 
 of tartar, an ounce of pounded aluin, and boil 
 them on a slow fire ten minutes; if it shows the 
 color clear on white paper, it is sufficient. Add 2 
 ounces of sugar, and bottle it for use. 
 
 Blue. Put a little warm water on a plate, and 
 rub an indigo-stone in it till the color has come to 
 the tint required. 
 
 Yellow. Rub with some water a little gamboge 
 on a plate : or infuse the heart of a yellow lily 
 flower with milk-warm water. 
 
 Green. Boil the leaves of spinach about a 
 minute in a little water, and when strained bottle 
 the liquor for use. In coloring refined sugars, 
 taste and fancy must guide. 
 
 To make Devices in Sugar. 
 
 Steep gum tragacanth in rose-water, and with 
 double refined sugar make it into a pnste, and 
 color and mould it to fancy. 
 
 Whipped Syllabub. 
 
 Rub a lump of loaf sugar on the outside of a 
 lemon, and put it into a pint of thick cream, and 
 sweeten it to taste. Squeeze in the juice of a 
 lemon, and add a glass of Madeira wine, or French 
 brandy. Mill it to a froth with a chocolate mill, 
 take off the froth as it rises, and lay it in a hair 
 sieve. Fill one-half of the glass with red wine, 
 then lay the froth as high as possible, but take care 
 that it is well drained in the sieve, otherwise it will 
 mix with the wine, and the syllabub be spoiled. 
 Solid Syllabub. 
 
 To a quart of rich cream put a quart of white 
 wine, the juice of 2 lemons, with the rind of 1 
 grated, and sweeten it to tas'te. Whip it up well, 
 and take off the froth as rf rises. Put it upon a 
 hair sieve, and let it stand in a cool place till the 
 next day. Then half fill the glasses with the scum, 
 and heap up the froth as high as possible. The 
 bottom will look clear and it will keep several days. 
 Snoio Balls. 
 
 Pare and take out the cores of 5 large baking 
 apples, and fill the holes with orange or quince 
 marmalade. Then take some good hot paste, roll 
 the apples in it, and make the crust of an equal 
 thickness ; put them in a tin dripping-pan, bake 
 them in a moderate oven, and when taken out, 
 make icing for them; let the same be a quarter 
 of an inch thick, and set them a good distance 
 from the fire until they become hardened, but be 
 cautious that they are not browned. 
 Copillaire. 
 
 Mix 6 eggs well beat up, with 14 pounds of loaf 
 sugar, and 3 pounds of coarse sugar. Put them 
 into 3 quarts of water, boil it twice, skim it well, 
 and add a of a pint of orange-flower water; 
 strain it through a jelly-bag, and put it into bot- 
 tles for use. A spoonful or two of this syrup put 
 into a draught of either cold or warm water, makes 
 an exceedingly pleasant drink. 
 
 To make Confectionery Drops. 
 
 Take double-refined sugar, pound and sift it 
 through a hair sieve, not too fine; and then sift it 
 through a silk sieve, to take out all the fine dust, 
 which would destroy the beauty of the drop. Put 
 the sugar into a clean pan, and moisten it with any 
 favorite aromatic: if rose-water, pour it in slowly, 
 stirring it with a paddle, which the sugar will fall 
 from, as soon as it is moist enough, without stick- 
 
 ing. Color it with a small quantity of liquid car- 
 mine, or any other color ground fine. Take a 
 small pan with a lip, fill it three parts with paste, 
 place it on a small stove, the half hole being of the 
 size of the pan, and stir the sugar with a little ivory 
 or bone handle, until it becomes liquid. When it 
 almost boils, take it from the fire and continue to 
 stir it; if it be too moist take a little of the pow- 
 dered sugar, and add a spoonful to the paste, and 
 stir it till it is of such a consistence as to run with- 
 out too much extension. Have a tin plate, very 
 clean and smooth; take the little pan in the left 
 hand, and hold in the right a bit of iron, copper, or 
 silver wire, four inches long, to take off the drop 
 from the lip of the pan, and let it fall regularly on 
 the tin plate: two hours afterwards take off the 
 drops with the blade of a knife. 
 Chocolate Drops. 
 
 Scrape the chocolate to powder, and put an ounce 
 to each pound of sugar; moisten the paste with 
 clear water, work it as above, only take care to use 
 all the paste prepared, as, if it be put on the fire 
 a second time, it greases, and the drop is not of 
 the proper thickness. 
 
 Orange-flower Drops. 
 
 These are made as the sugar drops, only using 
 orange-flower water; or instead of it, use the es- 
 sence of neroli, which is the essential oil of that 
 flower. 
 
 Coffee Drops. 
 
 An ounce of coffee to a pound of sugar will form 
 a strong decoction ; when cleared, use it to moisten 
 the sugar, and then make the drops as above. 
 Peppermint Drops. 
 
 The only requisites to make these are, extreme 
 cleanliness, the finest sugar, and a few drops of 
 the essence of peppermint. 
 
 Clove Drops. 
 
 These are made as the peppermint drops, the 
 cloves being pounded, or the essence used. Good 
 cloves should be black, heavy, of a pungent smell, 
 hot to the taste, and full of oil. 
 Ginger Drops. 
 
 Pound and sift through a silk sieve the required 
 quantity of ginger, according to the strength 
 wanted, and add to it the sugar with clear water. 
 China ginger is best, being aromatic as well as 
 hot and sharp-tasted. 
 
 Liquorice Lozenges. 
 
 Take of extract of liquorice, double-refined sugar, 
 each 10 ounces; tragacanth, powdered, 3 ounces. 
 Powder them thoroughly, and make them into 
 lozenges with rose-water. These are agreeable 
 pectorals, and may be used at pleasure in tickling 
 coughs. The above receipt is the easiest and best 
 mode of making these lozenges. Refined extract 
 of liquorice should be used ; and it is easily pow- 
 dered in the cold, after it has been laid for some 
 days in a dry and rather warm place. 
 Extract of Liquorice, 
 
 The liquorice root is to be boiled in eight timea 
 its weight of water, to one half; the liquor is then 
 to be expressed, and after the faJces have subsided, 
 to be filtered ; it is then to be evaporated, with a 
 heat between 200 and 212, until it becomes thick- 
 ish ; and, lastly, it is to be evaporated with a heat) 
 less than 200, and frequently stirred, until it ac- 
 quires a consistence proper for forming pills. Thia 
 is made into little pastils, or flat cakes, often 
 bearing the impression of the places where they 
 are made; and a bit now and then put into the 
 mouth takes off the tickling of a cough. It should 
 be dissolved slowly in the mouth to make it 
 pleasant. 
 
CONFECTIONERY. 
 
 235 
 
 ( .f. To Prepare Liquorice Juice. 
 Take up the roots in July : clean them perfectly 
 as soon as out of the earth, than hung them up in 
 the air, till nearly dry; after this cut them into thin 
 gli-e?, and boil them in water till the decoction is 
 extremely strong; then press it hard out to obtain 
 all the juice from the roots. This decoction is left 
 to settle a little, and when it has deposited its 
 coarser parts, pour it oft' into vessels, eviiporate it 
 over a fire, strong first, but mild afterwards, till it 
 becomes of a thick consistence ; then let the fire go 
 out, :ind when the extract is cool t;ike out large 
 parcels <>f it at a time, and work them well with 
 the hands, forming them into cylindric masses, 
 which cut into such lengths as required, roll them 
 over half dried bay leaves, which adhere to their 
 surfaces, and leave them exposed to the sun, till 
 perfectly dried. Great nicety is to be observed at 
 the end of the evaporation, to get the extract to a 
 proper consistence without letting it burn. 
 
 Refined Liquorice. 
 
 That description of article which is vended in 
 thin, rounded and gla*ed pieces about the thick- 
 ness of a crow's quill, is chiefly prepared in Eng- 
 land. The whole process consists in evaporating 
 the liquorice-ball anew, and purifying it by rest, 
 with the help of isinglass, etc. 
 
 To Candy Orange- Marmalade. 
 Cut the clearest Seville oranges into two, take 
 out all the juice and pulp into a basin, and pick 
 all the skins and seeds out of it. Boil the rinds 
 in hard water till they become tender, and change 
 the water two or three times while they are boiling. 
 Then pound them in a marble mortar and add to 
 it the juice and pulp; put them next into a pre 
 serving pan with double their weight in loaf sugar, 
 and set it over a slow fire. Boil it rather more 
 than half an hour, put it into pots; cover it with 
 brandy-paper and tie it close down. 
 
 To make Transparent Marmalade. 
 Cut very pale Seville oranges into quarters, take 
 out the pulp, put it into a basin and pick out the 
 skins and seeds. Put the peels into a little salt 
 and water and let them stand all night, then boil 
 them in a good quantity of spring-water until 
 they are tender, cut them in very thin slices and 
 put them into the pulp. To every pound of mar- 
 malade put 1 pounds of double-refined beaten 
 sugar; boil them together gently for 20 minutes; 
 if they are not transparent boil them a few min- 
 utes longer. Stir it gently all the time, and take 
 care not to break the slices. When it is cold put 
 it into jelly and sweetmeat glasses tied down tight. 
 
 Barberry Marmalade. 
 
 Mash the barberries in a little water on a warm 
 stove; pass them through a hair sieve with a 
 paddle ; weigh the pulp and put it back on the 
 fire; reduce it to , clarify a pound of sugar and 
 boil it well; put in the pulp and boil it together 
 for a few minutes. 
 
 Quince Marmalade. 
 
 Take quinces that are quite ripe, pare and cut 
 them in quarters, take out the cores, put them in 
 & stewpan with spring water, nearly enough to 
 cover them, keep them closely covered and let 
 them stew gently till they are quite soft and red, 
 then mash and rub them through a hair sieve. 
 Put them in a pan over a gentle fire, with as much 
 thick clarified sugar as the weight of the quinces; 
 boil them an hour and stir the whole time with a 
 Wooden spoon to prevent its sticking; put it into 
 pots and when cold tie them. down. 
 
 Scotch Marmalade. 
 
 Take of the juice of Seville oranges, 2 pints, 
 yellow honey, 2 Ibs. Boil to a proper consistence. 
 
 Hartshorn Jelly. 
 
 Boil i a pound of hartshorn in 3 quarts of water 
 over a gentle fire till it becomes a jelly; when a 
 little hangs on a spoon it is done enough. Strain 
 it hot, put it into a well tinned saucepan, and add 
 to it i a pint of Rhenish wine and \ of a pound 
 of loaf sugar. Beat the whites of 4 eggs or more 
 to a froth, stir it sufficiently for the whites to mix 
 well with the jelly, and pour it in as if cooling it. 
 Boil it two or three minutes, ther put in the juice 
 of 4 lemons, and let it boil two minutes longer. 
 When it is finally curdled and of a pure white, 
 pour it into a swan-skin jelly-bag over a China 
 basin, and pour it back again until it becomes as 
 clear as rock-water; set a very clean China basin 
 under, fill the glasses, put some thin lemon-rind 
 into the basin, and when the jelly is all run out 
 of the bag, With a clean spoon fill the rest of the 
 glasses, and they will look of a fine amber color. 
 Put in lemon and sugar agreeable to the palate. 
 
 Whipped Cream. 
 
 Mix the whites of 8 eggs, a quart of thick cream, 
 and ^ a pint of sack; sweeten them to taste with 
 double refined sugar. It may be perfumed with 
 a little musk or ambergris tied in a rag and steeped 
 in a little cream. Whip it up with a whisk, and 
 some lemon-peel tied in the middle of the whisk. 
 Then lay the froth with a spoon in the glasses or 
 
 basins. 
 
 Pistachio Cream. 
 
 Beat i a pound of pistachio nut kernels in a mor- 
 tar with a spoonful of brandy. Put them into a 
 pan with a pint of good cream and the yolks of 2 
 eggs beaten fine. Stir it gently over the fire till 
 it grows thick, and then put it into a China soup- 
 plate. When it is cold stick it over with small 
 pieces of the nuts and send it to table. 
 
 Ice Cream. 
 
 To a pound of any preserved fruit add a quart 
 of good cream, squeeze the juice of 2 lemons into 
 it and some sugar to taste. Let the whole be 
 rubbed through a fine hair sieve, and if raspberry, 
 strawberry, or any red fruit, add a little cnchineal 
 to heighten the color; have the freezing can nice 
 and clean, put the cream into it and cover it, then 
 put it into the tub with ice beat small, and some 
 salt ; turn the freezing can quickly, and as the cream 
 sticks to the sides scrape it down with an ice spoon, 
 and so on till it is frozen. The more the cream is 
 worked to the side with'tbe spoon, the smoother 
 and better flavored it will be. After it is well 
 frozen bike it out and put it into ice-moulds with 
 salt and ice; then carefully wash the moulds for 
 fear of any salt adhering to them ; dip them in 
 lukewarm water and send them to table. 
 
 Another Method ( Water-ice}. 
 Bruise 1 quart of strawberries in a basin with 
 J a pint of good cream, a little currant jelly, and 
 some cold clarified sugar; rub this well through 
 the tammy and put it into an ice can well covered ; 
 then set it in a tub of broken ice with plenty of 
 salt; when it grows thick about the sides, atir it 
 with a spoon and cover it close again till it is per- 
 fectly frozen through ; cover it well with ice and 
 salt both under and over, and when it is frozen* 
 change it into a mould and cover well with ice. 
 Sweeten a little plain cream with sugar and 
 orange-flower water, and treat it the same; like- 
 wise any other fruit, without cream, may be mixed 
 as above. This is called water-ice. 
 
236 
 
 CONFECTIONERY. 
 
 Blackberry Brandy U. S. Sanitary Commission 
 Receipt. 
 
 Ten quarts of blackberries make 1 gallon of 
 juice. To 1 gallon of juice add 4 pounds of white 
 sugar. Boil and skim it. Add 1 ounce of cloves, 
 1 ounce of ground cinnamon, 10 grated nutmegs; 
 boil again. When cool add 1 quart of best whiskey 
 or brandy. 
 
 Blackberry Brandy. 
 
 To 1 quart of strained blackberry juice add 1 
 pound of white sugar, 1 teaspoonful of powdered 
 allspice, 1 teaspoonful of ground cloves. Boil a 
 few minutes, then remove from the fire, and add 
 J a pint of fourth-proof brandy or good Monon- 
 gahela whiskey. Bottle and cork close. It is fit 
 for immediate use. On nor account use inferior 
 brandy. 
 
 Extract of Blackberries. 
 
 Fill a quart bottle half full of ripe berries, add 
 1 teaspoonful of whole allspice and a few cloves. 
 Fill the bottle with best whiskey. At the end of 
 a month it will be fit for use. In using mix with 
 a little sugar and water. 
 
 Blackberry Cordial. ' 
 
 To 1 gallon of blackberry juice add 4 pounds of 
 white sugar ; boil and skim off, then add 1 ounce 
 of cloves, 1 ounce of cinnamon, 10 grated nut- 
 megs, and boil down till quite rich ; then let it 
 cool and settle, afterward drain off, and add 1 
 pint of good brandy or whiskey. 
 
 Blackberry Syrup. 
 
 Take 2 pounds of the smaller blackberry roots 
 and 2 gallons of water, and boil them down to 3 
 quarts ; add 5 pounds of crushed sugar and 1 pint 
 of best brandy. To 60 <:;allons thus prepared add 
 3 pounds of allspice and 2 pounds each of cloves 
 and cassia. The smaller roots are much better 
 than the larger ones, on account of their possess- 
 ing superior astringent qualities. 
 
 Another Recipe. 
 
 To 2 quarts of blackberry juice add ^ an ounce 
 each of powdered nutmeg, cinnamon and allspice, 
 and J of an ounce of powdered cloves. Boil these 
 together ; and, while hot, add a pint of pure French 
 brandy, and sweeten with loaf sugar. 
 
 Blackberry Wive. 
 
 The following is given by the Tribune as an ex- 
 cellent recipe: To 2 quarts of blackberry juice put 
 1 pounds of white sugar, J an ounce of cinnamon 
 an ounce of nutmeg, -J- an ounce of cloves, 1 ounce 
 of allspice ; let it boil a few minutes, and when 
 cool add 1 pint of brandy. 
 
 Svperior Receipt for fee Cream, 
 One gallon of cream, 2 pounds of rolled loaf 
 sugar, 1 teaspoonful of oil of lemon. If for vanilla 
 cream, 2 eggs beaten and 1 tablespoonfuls of 
 tincture of vanilla should be used; mix well and 
 freeze in the usual way. The vanilla or lemon 
 should be well mixed with the sugar, before it is 
 added to the cream; by this means the cream will 
 all be flavored alike, 
 
 Freezing Ice Cream. 
 
 Take a bucket of ice and pound it fine j mix 
 with it salt (2 < aarts), place your cream in a 
 freezer, cover it close, and put it in the bucket; 
 iraw the ice round it so as to touch every part in 
 a few minutes, put in a spoon and stir it from the 
 eige to the centre. When the cream is put in a 
 Oiould, close it and move it in the ice, instead of 
 using a spoon. 
 
 Lemon Ice Cream. 
 
 "Roll 2 fresh lemons in as much powdered loaf 
 
 ugar as will be sufficient to sweeten 1 quart of 
 rich cream ; if the juice is wished, you can put 
 some in with more sugar; freeze it. A good plan 
 
 s to rub the lemon on a large lump of sugar, and 
 then use the sugar in sweetening the cream. 
 
 Ice Cream with Fruit. 
 
 Mix the juice of the fruit with the sugar before 
 you add the cream, which need not be very rich. 
 
 Coif 8-Foot Jelly. 
 
 Split the feet, and soak them in cold water 
 four or five hours ; wash them and boil in 6 quarts 
 of water; when it is reduced one-half strain it 
 through a colander, and skim off all the fat that 
 is on the top; set it away to cool, and when the 
 jelly is very stiff, wipe it with a towel, to take off 
 any grease that should remain ; cut it in pieces, 
 and pare off all the dark parts; put it in your 
 preserving kettle, with 3 gills of wine, the juice 
 and peel of 2 lemons, sugar and mace to your 
 taste, and the shells and whites of 6 eggs; after 
 it has boiled twenty minutes, pour in some cold 
 water to make it settle; if any scum arises, take it 
 off; let it boil five minutes longer, and take it off 
 the fire; keep it covered for about an hour; when 
 done, strain it through a bag that has been dipped 
 in hot water, and put it in your glasses. 
 
 Currant Jelly. 
 
 Take the juice of red currants, 1 pound ; sugar, 
 Bounces. Boil down. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 Take the juice of red currants, add white sugar, 
 equal quantities. Stir it gently and smoothly for 
 three hours, put it into glasses, and in three days 
 it will concrete into a firm jelly. 
 
 Black Currant Jelly. 
 
 Put to 10 quarts of ripe dry black currants, 1 
 quart of water; put them in a large stewpan, the 
 paper close over them, and set them for two hours 
 in a cool oven. Squeeze them through a fine 
 cloth, and add to every quart of juice 1 pounds 
 of loaf sugar broken into small pieces. Stir it till 
 the sugar is melted ; when it boils, skim it quite 
 cjean. Boil it pretty quickly over a clear fire, till 
 it jellies, which is known by dipping a skimmer 
 into the jelly, and holding it in the air; when it 
 hangs to the spoon in a drop it is done. If the 
 jelly is boiled too long, it will lose its flavor and 
 shrink very much. Pour it into pots, cover them 
 with brandy papers, and keep them in a dry place. 
 Red and white jellies are made in the same way. 
 
 Apple Jelly. 
 
 Take of apple juice strained, 4 pounds; sugar, 
 1 pound. Boil to a jelly. 
 
 Strawberry Jelly. 
 
 Take of the juice of strawberries, 4 pounds j 
 sugar, 2 pounds. Boil down. 
 
 Gooseberry Jelly. 
 
 Dissolve sugar in about half its weight of water, 
 and boil ; it will be nearly solid when cold ; <o thit 
 syrup add an equal weight of gooseberry juice, 
 and give it a boil, but not long; for otherwise it 
 will not fix. 
 
 Raspberry Cream. 
 
 Rub 1 quart of raspberries through a hair sieve, 
 and take out the seeds, and mix it well with 
 cream ; sweeten it with sugar to your taste, then 
 put it into a stone jug, and raise a froth with a 
 chocolate mill. As the froth arises, take it off with 
 a spoon, and lay it upon a hair sieve. When 
 there is as much froth as wanted, put what cream 
 remains in a deep China dish, and pour the frothed 
 cream upon it, as high as it will lie on. 
 
CONFECTIONERY. 
 
 237 
 
 Raspberry Vinegar. 
 
 Pour 1 quart of vinegar on 1 quart of raspber- 
 ries, the next day strain it upon another quart of 
 the fruit, and repeat this every day for six days. 
 Then add 1 pound of white sugar to every pint of 
 the vinegar, and put it into a jar, which must be 
 placed in a pot cf boiling water to be scalded 
 through. 
 
 Currant Wine. 
 
 To 1 quart of currant juice put 2 quarts of water 
 and 1 pound of sugar. After mixing, let these 
 stand twenty-four hours; then skim and put into 
 a jug or barrel unstopped, and leave it to ferment 
 in a cool place for a week or so. Then cork 
 tightly, and bottle off when clear. 
 Raspberry Jam. 
 
 Mash a quantity of fine, ripe, dry raspberries, 
 strew on them their own weight of loaf sugar, and 
 half their weight of white currant juice. Boil 
 them half an hour over a clear slow fire, skim them 
 well, and put them into pots or glasses; tie them 
 down with brandy papers, and keep them dry. 
 Strew on the sugar as quick as possible after the 
 berries are gathered, and in order to preserve 
 their flavor they must not stand long before boil- 
 ing them. 
 
 Strawberry Jam. 
 
 Bruise very fine some scarlet strawberries, 
 gathered when quite ripe, and put to them a little 
 juice of red currants. Beat and sift their weight 
 in sugar, strew it over them, and put them into a 
 preserving-pan. Set them over a clear slow fire, 
 skim them, then boil them twenty minutes, and 
 put them into glasses. 
 
 Raspberry Paste. 
 
 Mash 1 quart of raspberries, strain one-half, 
 and put the juice to the other half; boil them a 
 quarter of an hour, put to them a pint of red cur- 
 rant juice, and let them boil all together, till the 
 raspberries are done enough. Then put li pounds 
 of double-refined sugar into a clean pan, with as 
 much water as will dissolve it, boil it to a sugar 
 again; then put in the raspberries and juice, scald 
 and pour them into glasses. Put them into a stove 
 to dry, and turn them when necessary. 
 
 Pineapple Jelly. 
 
 Peel a pineapple of about 1 pound weight, cut 
 it into slices about a quarter of an inch thick, and 
 put these into a basin. Clarify 1 pound of loaf 
 sugar with 1 pint of spring-water, the juice of 2 
 lemons, and half the white of an egg whipped 
 with a little water; when thoroughly skimmed, 
 strain the syrup on to the pineapple, allow it to 
 boil for three minutes, then cover it down with a 
 sheet of paper twisted round the basin, and allow 
 the infusion to stand for several hours in order to 
 extract the flavor. When about to mix the jelly, 
 strain the syrup through a napkin into a basin, 
 and put the pieces of pineapple to drain upon a 
 sieve ; add 2 ounces of clarified isinglass to the 
 pineapple syrup, and then pour the jelly into a 
 mould previously imbedded in rough ice. 
 Currant and Raspberry Jelly. 
 
 Pick the stalks from 1 quart of red currants and 
 1 quart of raspberries ; then put these into a large 
 basin with a pound of pounded sugar and a 
 gill of spring-water; bruise them thoroughly by 
 squeezing them with the back part of the bowl of 
 a wooden spoon against the sides of the basin ; 
 then throw the whole into a beaver jelly-bag and 
 filter the juice, pouring it back into the bag until 
 it runs through perfectly bright ; next add a 
 pint of clarified syrup and 2 ounces of clarified 
 isinglass to the juice, and pour the jelly into a 
 mould placed in rough ice to receive it. 
 
 Punch Jelly. 
 
 Put the prepared stock from 4 calves-feet into a 
 stewpan to melt on the stove fire ; then withdraw 
 it, and add thereto the following ingredients : Two 
 pounds of loaf-sugar, the juice of 6 lemons and 4 
 oranges, the rind of 1 Seville orange and of 4 
 lemons, % a nutmeg, 12 cloves and 2 sticks of cin- 
 namon, a small cup of strong green tea, a pint of 
 rum, and a pint of brandy. Stir these well to- 
 gether, then add 6 whites and 2 whole eggs whip- 
 ped up with a little Sherry and spring-water, and 
 continue whisking the punch on a brisk stove 
 fire until it begins to simmer ; then set it down 
 by the side of the fire and cover the stewpan with 
 its lid containing some live embers of charcoal; 
 about ten minutes after pour the jelly into a flan- 
 nel or beaver filtering-bag ; keep pouring the jelly 
 back into the bag until it becomes quite clear antf 
 bright, and when the whole has been run through 
 set it in a mould in ice in the usual way. 
 
 Coffee. Cream. 
 
 Roast 8 ounces of Mocha coffee-berries in t 
 small preserving pan over a stove fire, stirring it 
 the whole time with a wooden spoon until it as- 
 sumes a light brown color; then blow away the 
 small burnt particles and throw the roasted coffee 
 into a stewpan, and set it aside to allow the infu- 
 sion to draw out the flavor of the coffee. Next 
 strain this through a napkin into a stewpan con- 
 taining 8 yolks of eggs and 12 ounces of sugar; 
 add a very small pinch of salt, stir the cream over 
 the stove fire until it begins to thicken ; then 
 quicken the motions of the spoon, and when the 
 yolks of eggs are sufficiently set strain the cream 
 through a tammy or sieve into a large basin. Mix 
 \ a pint of whipped cream and H ounces of clari- 
 fied isinglass in with this; pour the whole into a 
 mould ready set in rough ice for the purpose, and 
 when the cream has become firm dip the mould 
 in warm water and. turn the cream out on its dish. 
 
 Damson Cheese. 
 
 Boil the fruit in a sufficient quantity of water 
 to cover it; strain the pulp through a very coarse 
 sieve; to each pound add 4 ounces of sugar. Boil 
 it till it begins to candy on the sides, then pour it 
 into the moulds. Other kinds of plums may be 
 treated in the same way, as also cherries, and sev- 
 eral kinds of fruit. 
 
 An Omelette Souffle. 
 
 Put 2 ounces of the powder of chestnuts into a 
 skillet, then add 2 yolks of new-laid eggs, and 
 dilute the whole with a little cream, or even a little 
 water; when this is done and the ingredients well 
 mixed, leaving no lumps, add a bit of the best 
 fresh butter about the size of an egg and an equal 
 quantity of powdered sugar; then put the skillet 
 on the fire, and keep stirring the contents; when 
 the cream is fixed and thick enough to adhere to 
 the spoon, let it bubble up once or twice, and take 
 it from the fire; then add of the white of an 
 egg to those you have already set aside, and whip 
 them to the consistency of snow ; then amal- 
 gamate the whipped whites of eggs and the cream, 
 stirring them with a light and equal hand; pour 
 the contents into a deep dish, sift over with double- 
 refined sugar, and place the dish on a stove, witJi 
 a fire over it as well as under, and in a quarter 
 of an hour the cream will rise like an omelette 
 smiffle ; as soon as it rises about four inches it is 
 fit to serve up. 
 
 Orgeat Paste. 
 
 Blanch and pound f of a pound of sweet and a 
 J of a pound of bitter almonds ; pound them in a 
 mortar and wet them sufficiently with orange- 
 
238 
 
 PICKLING 
 
 flower water, that they may not oil. When they 
 are pounded fine add | of a pound of finely pow- 
 dered sugar to them and mix the whole in a stiff 
 ')aste, which put into p<>ds for use. It will keep 
 fix months ; when wanted to be used take a piece 
 ibout the size of an egg and mix it with a pint 
 f water and squeeze it through a napkin. 
 Pate de Gnimnure. 
 
 Take of decoction of marshmallow roots 4 ounces ; 
 water 1 gallon. Boil down to 4 pints and strain ; 
 then add gum raio i a pound, refined sugar 2 
 pounds. Evaporate to an extract ; then take from 
 the fire, stir it quickly with the whites of 12 e<rgs 
 previously beaten to a froth; then add, while stir- 
 ring, ounce of orange-flower water. 
 
 Another. Take of very white gum arabic and 
 white sugar, each 2i pounds, with a sufficient 
 quantity of boiling water. Dissolve, strain and 
 evaporate without boiling to the consistency of 
 honey ; beat up the white of 6 eggs with 4 drachms 
 of orange-flower water, which mix gradually with 
 the paste, and evaporate over a slow fire, stir- 
 ring it continually till it will not stick to the lin- 
 gers , it should be very light, spongy and ex- 
 tremely white. 
 
 Pate de Jujubes. 
 
 Take of raisins, stoned, 1 pound; currants, 
 picked, jujube^, opened, each 4 ounces; water, a 
 sufficient quantity. B"il. strain with expression, 
 add sugar 2 pounds, gum arabic 2 pounds, pre- 
 viously made into a mucilage with some water, 
 and strain; evaporate gently, pour into moulds, 
 finish by drying in a stove, and then divide it. 
 
 PICKLING. 
 
 This branch of domestic economy comprises a 
 great variety of articles, which are essentially ne- 
 cessary to the convenience of families. It is at 
 the same time too prevalent a practice to make use 
 of brass utensils to give pickle a fine color. This 
 pernicious custom is easily avoided by heating the 
 liquor and keeping it in a proper degree of warmth 
 before it is p"ured upon the pickle. Stone jars 
 are the best adapted for sound*keeping. Pickles 
 should never be handled with the fingers, but by 
 a spoon kept for the purpose. 
 
 To Pickle Onions. 
 
 Put a sufficient quantity into salt and water for 
 nine days, observing to change the water every 
 day; next put them into jars and pour fresh boil- 
 ing salt and water over them ; cover them close 
 up till they are cold; then make a second decoc- 
 tion of salt and water, and pour it on boiling. 
 When it is cold drain the onions on a hair sieve, 
 and put them into wide-mouthed bottles ; fill them 
 up with distilled vinegar; put into every bottle a 
 elice or two of ginger, a blade of mace and a tea- 
 epoonful of sweet oil, which will keep the onions 
 white. Cork them up in a dry place. 
 
 To make Sour Krout. 
 
 Take a large, strong, wooden vessel or cask re- 
 lembling a salt-beef cask, and capable of contain- 
 ing as much as is sufficient for the winter's con- 
 sumption of a family. Gradually break down or 
 chop the cabbages (deprived of outside green 
 leaves) into very small pieces; begin with one or 
 t^o cabbages at the bottom of the cask, and add 
 others at intervals, pressing them by means of a 
 wooden spade against the side of the cask until it 
 is full. Then place a heavy weight upon the top 
 of it, and allow it to stand near to a warm place 
 for four or five days. By this time it will have 
 undergone fermentation, and be ready for use. 
 Whilst the cabbages are passing through the pro- 
 cess of fermentation, a very disagreeable, fetid, 
 
 acid smell is exhaled from them ; now remove the 
 cask to a cool situation, and keep it always cov- 
 ered up. Strew aniseeds among the layers of the 
 cabbages during its preparation which communi- 
 cates a peculiar flavor to the saur kraut at an after 
 period. 
 
 In boiling it for the table, two hours is the pe- 
 riod for it to be on the fire. It forms an excellent 
 nutritious and antiscorbutic food for winter use. 
 
 Piccalilli Indian method. 
 
 This consists of all kinds of pickles mixed and 
 put into one large jar sliced cucumbers, button 
 onions, cauliflowers, broken in pieces. Salt them, 
 or put them in a large hair sieve in the sun to dry 
 for three days, then scald them in vinegar a few 
 minutes; when cold put them together. Cut a 
 large white cabbage <n quarters, with the outside 
 leaves taken off and c it fine; salt it, and put it in 
 the sun to dry three or four days; then scald it 
 in vinegar, the same as cauliflower; carrots, three 
 parts, boiled in vinegar and a little bay salt. 
 French beans, reddish pods, and nasturtiums all 
 go through the same process as capsicums, etc. 
 To 1 gallon of vinegar put 4 ounces of ginger 
 bruised, 2 ounces of whole white pepper, 2 ounces 
 of allspice, i ounce chillies bruised, 4 ounces of 
 turmeric, 1 pound of the best mustard, i pound 
 of shallots, 1 ounce of garlic, and pound of bay 
 salt. The vinegar, spice, and other ingredients, 
 except the mustard, must boil half an hour; then 
 strain it into a pan, put the mustard into a large 
 basin, with a little vinegar; mix it quite fine and 
 free from lumps, then add more. When well 
 mixed put it into the vinegar just strained off, 
 and when quite cold put the pickles into a large 
 pan, and the liquor over them ; stir them repeat- 
 edly, so as to mix them all. Finally, put them 
 into a j;ir, and tie them over first with a bladder, 
 ani afterwards with leather. The capsicums want 
 no preparation. 
 
 To Pickle Samphire. 
 
 Put the quantity wanted into a clean pan, 
 throw over it two or three handsful of salt, and 
 cover it with spring- water twenty-four hours; 
 next put it into a clean saucepan, throw in a 
 handful of salt, and cover it with good vinegar. 
 Close the pan tight, set it over a slow fire, and let 
 it stand till the samphire is green and crisp, then 
 take it off instantly, for should it remain till it is 
 soft it will be totally spoiled. Put it into the 
 pickling-pot and cover it close; when it is quite 
 cold tie it down with a bladder and leather, and 
 set it by for use. Samphire may be preserved all 
 the year by keeping it in a very strong brine of 
 salt and water; and just before using it put it for 
 a few minutes into some of the beat vinegar. 
 Mushrooms. 
 
 Put the smallest that can be got into spring- 
 water, and rub them with a piece of new flannel 
 dipped in salt. Throw them into cold water as 
 they are cleaned, which will make them keep their 
 color; next put them into a saucepan with a hand- 
 ful of salt upon them. Cover them close, and set 
 them over the fire four or five minutes, or till the 
 heat draws the liquor from them ; next lay them 
 betwixt two dry cloths till they are cold; put 
 them into glass bottles, and fill them up with dis- 
 tilled vinegar, with a blade of mace and a tea- 
 spoonful of sweet oil into every bottle; cork them 
 up close and set them in a dry cool place. As a 
 substitute for distilled vinegar, use white wine 
 vinegar, or ale. Alegar will do, but it must bo 
 boiled with a little mace, salt, and a few slices of 
 ginger, and it must be quite cold before it is 
 poured upon the mushrooms. 
 
PRESERVING. 
 
 239 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 Bruise a quantity of well-grown flaps of mush- 
 rooms with the hands, and then strew a fair pro- 
 portion of salt over them ; let them stand all night, 
 and the next day put them intostewpans; set them 
 in a quick oven for twelve hours, and strain them 
 through a hair sieve. To every gallon of liquor 
 put of cloves, black pepper, and ginger 1 ounce 
 each, i pound of common salt; set it on a slow 
 fire, and let it boil till half the liquor is wasted; 
 then put it into a clean pot, and when cold bottle 
 it for use. 
 
 Cucumbers. 
 
 Let them be as free from spots as possible. 
 Take the smallest that can be got, put them into 
 strong salt and water for nine days, till they be- 
 come yellow; stir them at least twice a day; 
 should they become perfectly yellow, pour the 
 water off and cover them with plenty of vine- 
 leaves. Set the water over the fire, and when it 
 boils, pour it over them, and set them upon the 
 earth to keep warm. When the water is almost 
 cold make it boil again, and pour it upon them; 
 proceed thus till they are of a fine green, which 
 they will be in four or five times; keep them well 
 covered with vine-leaves, with a cloth and dish 
 over the top to keep in the steam, which will help 
 to green them. 
 
 When they are greened put them in a hair sieve 
 to drain, and then to every 2 quarts of white-wine 
 vinegar put i an ounce of ni;ice, 10 or 12 cloves, 
 1 ounce of ginger cut into slices-, 1 ounce of black 
 pepper, and a handful of salt. Boil them all to- 
 gether for five minutes ; pour it hot on the pickles, 
 and tie them down for use. They may also be 
 pickled with ale, ale vinegar, or distilled vinegar, 
 aud adding 3 or 4 cloves of garlic and shallots. 
 Walnuts White. 
 
 Pare green walnuts very thin till the white ap- 
 pears, then throw them into spring-water with a 
 handful of salt; keep them under water six hours, 
 then put them into a stewpan to simmer five min- 
 utes, but do not let them boil; take them out and 
 put them in cold water and salt; they must be 
 kept quite under the water with a board, other- 
 wise they will not pickle white; then lay them on 
 a cloth and cover them with another to dry; care- 
 fully rub them with a soft cloth, and put them 
 into the jar, with sojne blades of mace and nutmeg 
 sliced thin. Mix the spice between the nuts and 
 pour distilled vinegar over them ; when the jar is 
 full of nuts pour mutton fat over them, and tie 
 them close down with a bladder and leather, to 
 keep out the air. 
 
 Artificial Anchovies. 
 
 To a peck of sprats put 2 pounds of salt, 3 
 ounces of bay salt, 1 pound of saltpetre, 2 ounces 
 of prunella, and a few grains of cochineal; pound 
 all in a mortar ; put into a stone pan first a layer 
 of sprats and then one of the compound, and so 
 on alternately to the top. Press them down hard; 
 cover them close for six months, and they will be 
 fit for use, and will really produce a most excel- 
 lent-flavored sauce. 
 
 Salmon. 
 
 Boil the fish gently till done, and then take it 
 up, strain the liquor, add bay leaves, pepper corns, 
 and salt; give these a boil, and when cold add 
 the best vinegar to them; then put the whole suf- 
 ficiently over the fish to cover it, and let it remain 
 a month at least. 
 
 To Preserve fish with Sugar. 
 
 Fish may be preserved in a dry btate, and per- 
 fectly fresh, by means of sugar alone, and even 
 with a very small quantity of it. 
 
 Fresh fish may be kept in that state for some 
 days, so as to be as good when boiled as if just 
 caught. If dried, and kept free from mouldiness, 
 there seems no limit to their preservation; and 
 they are much better in this way than when salted. 
 The sugar gives no disagreeable taste. 
 
 This process is particularly valuable in making 
 what is called kippered salmon ; and the fish pre- 
 served in this manner are far superior in quality 
 and flavor to those which are salted or smoked. 
 If desired, so much^ salt maybe used as to give 
 the taste that may b*e required ; but this substance 
 does not conduce to their preservation. 
 
 In the preservation it is barely necessary to open 
 the fish, and to apply the sugar to the muscular 
 parts, placing it in a horizontal position for two or 
 three days, that this substance may penetrate. 
 After this it may be dried; and it is only further 
 necessary to wipe and ventilate occasionally, to 
 prevent mouldiness. 
 
 A tablespoonful of brown sugar is sufficient in 
 this manner for a salmon of five or six pounds 
 weight; and if salt is desired, a teaspoonful or 
 more may be added. Saltpetre may be used in- 
 stead, in the same proportion, if it is desired to 
 make the kipper hard. 
 
 To Salt Hams. 
 
 For three hams pound and mix together peck 
 of salt, i ounce of salt prunella, 1 J ounces of salt- 
 petre, and 4 pounds of coarse salt; rub the hams 
 well with this, and lay what is to spare over them, 
 let them lie three days, then hang them up. Take 
 the pickle in which the hams were, put water 
 enough to cover the hams with more common salt, 
 till it will bear an egg, then boil and skim it well, 
 put it in the salting tub, and the next morning put 
 it to the hams ; keep them down the same as 
 pickled pork ; in a fortnight take them out of the 
 liquor, rub them well with brine, and hang them 
 up to dry. 
 
 To Dry-salt Beef and Pork. 
 
 Lay the meat on a table or in a tub with a dou- 
 ble bottom, that the brine may drain off as fast as 
 it forms, rub the salt well in, and be careful to ap- 
 ply it in every niche; afterwards put it into either 
 of the above utensils, when it must be frequently 
 turned ; after the brine has ceased running, it must 
 be quite buried in salt, and kept closely packed. 
 Meat which has had the bones taken out is the 
 best for salting. In some places the salted meat 
 is pressed by heavy weights or a screw, to extract 
 the moisture sooner. 
 
 To Pickle in Brine. 
 
 A good brine is made of bay salt and water, 
 thoroughly saturated, so that some of the salt re- 
 mains undislolved ; into this brine the substances 
 to be preserved are plunged, and kept covered 
 with it. Among vegetables, French beans, arti- 
 chokes, olives, and the different sorts of samphire 
 may be thus preserved, and among animals, her- 
 rings. 
 
 To Salt by another method. 
 
 Mix brown sugar, bay salt, common salt, each 
 2 pounds; saltpetre, 8 ounces; water, 2 gallons; 
 this pickle gives meat a fine red color, while the 
 sugar renders them mild and of excellent flavor. 
 Large quantities are to be managed by the above 
 proportions. 
 
 TO PRESERVE FRUITS. 
 Some rules are necessary to be observed in this 
 branch of confectionery. In the first place, ob- 
 serve in making syrups that the sugar is well 
 pounded and dissolved, before tt is placed on the 
 fire, otherwise their scum will not rise well, nor 
 
240 
 
 PRESERVING. 
 
 the fruit obtain Us fine color. When stone fruit 
 is preserved, cover them with mutton suet render- 
 ed, to exclude the air, which is sure to ruin them. 
 All wet sweetmeats must be kept dry and cool to 
 preserve them from mouldiness and damp. Dip a 
 piece of writing paper in brandy, lay it close to 
 the sweetmeats, cover them tight with paper, and 
 they will keep well for any length of time; but 
 will inevitably spoil without these precautions. 
 Another Method. 
 
 The fruit, if succulent, is first soaked for some 
 hours in very hard water, or in a we;ik alum water, 
 to harden it, and then to be drained from the fruit, 
 either prepared or not; pour syrup, boiled to a 
 candy height, and half cold; after some hours the 
 syrup, weakened by the sauce of the fruit, is to be 
 poured ofi', re boiled, and poured on again, and 
 this repeat several times. When the syrup is 
 judged to be no longer weakened, the fruit is to 
 be taken out of it, and well drained. 
 To Bottle Damsons. 
 
 Put damsons, before they are too ripe, into wide- 
 mouthed bottles, and cork them down tight; then 
 put them into a moderately heated oven, and about 
 three hours more will do them; observe that the 
 oven is not too hot, otherwise it will make the 
 fruit fly. All kinds of fruit that are bottled may 
 be done in the same way, and they will keep two 
 years; after they are done, they must be put away 
 with the mouth downward, in a cool place, to keep 
 them from fermenting. 
 
 To Preserve Barberries. 
 
 Set an equal quantity of barberries and sugar in 
 a kettle of boiling water, till the sugar is melted, 
 and the barberries quite soft; let them remain all 
 night. Put them next day into a preserving-pan, 
 and boil them fifteen minutes, then put them into 
 jars, tie them close, and set them by for use. 
 
 To Preserve Grapes. 
 
 Take close bunches, whether white or red, not 
 too ripe, and lay them in a jar. Put to them i 
 pound of sugar candy, and fill the jar with com- 
 mon brandy. Tie them up close with a bladder, 
 and set them in a dry place. 
 
 To Dry Cherries. 
 
 Having stoned the desired number of morello 
 cherries, put l pounds of fine sugar to every 
 pound ; beat and sift it over the cherries, and let 
 them stand all night. Take them out of their 
 sugar, and to every pound of sugar, put two spoon- 
 fuls of water. Boil and skim it well, and then put 
 in the cherries; boil the sugar over them, and next 
 morning strain them, and to every pound of syrup 
 put pound more sugar; boil it till it is a little 
 thicker, then put in the cherries and let them boil 
 gently. The next day strain them, put them in a 
 gtove, and turn them every day till they are dry. 
 To Clarify Honey. 
 
 The best kind is clarified by merely melting it 
 in a water bath, and taking off the scum ; the mid- 
 dling kind by dissolving it in water, adding the 
 white of an egg to each pint of the solution, and 
 boiling it down to its original consistence, skim- 
 ming it from time to time. The inferior kind re- 
 Juires solution in water, boiling the solution with 
 pound of charcoal to 25 pounds of honey, adding, 
 when an excess of acid is apprehended, a small 
 quantity of chalk or oyster-shell powder; next by 
 straining it several times through flannel, and re- 
 ducing the solution to its original consistence by 
 evaporation. 
 
 To Preserve Candied Orange-flowers, 
 
 Free them from their cups, stamina and pistils, 
 
 put 4 ounces into 1 pound of sugar, boil to a candy 
 height, and pour on a slab, so as to form them 
 into cakes. 
 
 Fruits in Brandy or other Spirits. 
 Gather plums, apricots, cherries, pe;iches, and 
 other juicy fruits, before they are perfectly ripe, 
 and soak them for some hours in hard water tc 
 make them firm; as the moisture of the fruit 
 weakens the spirit, it ought to be strong, there 
 fore add 5 ounces of sugar to each quart of spirit 
 
 Seville Oranges whole. 
 
 Cut a hole at the stem end of the oranges, the 
 size of a five or ten cent piece, take out all the 
 pulp, put the oranges in cold water for two days, 
 changing it twice a day ; boil them mther more 
 than an hour, but. do not cover them, as it will 
 spoil the color; have ready a good syrup, into 
 which put the oranges, and boil them till they 
 look clear; then take out the seeds, skins, etc. 
 from the pulp first taken out of the oranges, and 
 add to it one of the whole oranges, previously 
 boiled, with an equal weight of sugar to it and 
 the pulp ; boil this together till it looks clear, over 
 a slow fire, and when cold fill the oranges with 
 this marmalade, and put on the tops; cover them 
 with syrup, and put brandy paper on the top of 
 the jar. It is better to take out the inside at first, 
 to preserve the fine flavor of the juice and pulp, 
 which would be injured by boiling in the water. 
 
 Strawberries whole. 
 
 Take an equal weight of fruit and double-re- 
 fined sugar, lay the former in a large dish, and 
 sprinkle half the sugar in fine powder; give a 
 gentle shake to the dish, that the sugar may touch 
 the under side of the fruit. Next day make a 
 thin syrup with the remainder of the sugar, and 
 allow 1 pint of red currant-juice to every 3 pounds 
 of strawberries; in this simmer them until suffi- 
 ciently jellied. Choose the largest scarlets, and 
 not dead ripe. 
 
 Apricots. 
 
 Infuse young apricots before their stones be- 
 come hard into a pan of cold spring-water, with a 
 plenty of vine leaves, set them over a slow fire 
 until they are quite yellow, then take them out, 
 and rub them with a flannel and salt to take off 
 the lint: put them into a pan to the same water 
 and leaves, cover them close <ftt a distance from 
 the fire, until they are a fine light green, then 
 pick out all the bad ones. Boil the best gently 
 two or three times in a thin syrup, and let them 
 be quite cold each time before you boil them. 
 When they look plump and clear make a syrup 
 of double-refined sugar, but not too thick; give 
 your apricots a geatle boil in it, and then put 
 them into the pots or glasses. Dip a paper in 
 brandy and lay it over them; tie them close, and 
 keep them in a dry place. 
 
 To keep Fruit fresh rcithout Sugar. 
 
 Air-tight cans are now made by which, with 
 proper care, peaches, plums, cherries, tomatoes, or 
 other fruit or vegetables may be kept for almost 
 any length of time with all the qualities of the 
 fresh article. All that is required is to heat the 
 can containing the fruit sufficiently to drive out 
 the air, and then seal it tightly. The following 
 plan has also succeeded perfectly : 
 
 Cut the fresh peaches (always choosing the best 
 varieties) in half, after paring them, and take the 
 stones out. Put them in the can, which will gen- 
 erally hold a pint, and which should be entirely 
 filled ; and then solder the lid closely. Place the 
 can in a kettle containing cold water enough to 
 cover it, and bring the water to a boil. If there 
 
THE ART OF CARVING. 
 
 241 
 
 be any part of the can not air-fight, it will be 
 shown by bubbles escaping from it; and the can 
 must then be taken out, and the leak carefully 
 soldered over. 
 
 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 
 Solids. 
 
 Butter, when soft, one pound is one quart. 
 
 Eggs, ten are one pound. 
 
 Flour, wheat, one pound is one quart. 
 
 Meal, Indian, one pound two ounces is one 
 quart. 
 
 Sugar, best brown, one pound two ounces is one 
 quart. 
 
 Sugar, loaf, broken, one pound is one quart. 
 
 Sugar, white, powdered, one pound one ounce 
 is one quart. 
 
 Flour, four quarts are half a peck. 
 Flour, sixteen quarts are half a bushel. 
 
 Liquids. 
 
 Four tablespoonfuls are half a gill. 
 Eight spoonfuls are one gill. 
 Two gills, or sixteen spoonfuls, are half a pint. 
 Two pints are one quart. 
 Four quarts are one gallon. 
 Sixty drops are one teaspoonful. 
 Four tablespoonfuls are one wineglassful. 
 Twelve spoonfuls are one teacuplul. 
 Sixteen spoonfuls, or half a pint, are one tum- 
 blerful. 
 
 THE ART OF 1 CA.RVT]Sra. 
 
 Persons unaccustomed to serving at table will, 
 with the help of these cuts, and the instructions 
 accompanying them, soon be able to carve well : 
 if, at the same time, they will, as occasion offers, 
 take notice how a good carver proceeds when a 
 joint or fowl is before him. 
 
 We will begin with those joints, etc., that are 
 simple and easy to be carved, and afterwards pro- 
 ceed to such as are more complicate and difficult. 
 
 Leg of Mutton. 
 
 This cut represents a leg or jigot of boiled mut- 
 ton ; it should be served up in the dish as it lies, 
 lying upon its back; but when roasted, the under 
 side, as h(*re represented by the letter d, should lie 
 uppermost in the dish, as in a ham (which see); 
 and in this case, as it will be necessary occasion- 
 ally to turn it, so as to get readily at the under 
 side, and cut it in the direction of a b, the shank, 
 which is here broken and bent for the convenience 
 of putting it into a less pot or vessel to boil it, is 
 not broken or bent in a roasted joint, of course, 
 should be wound round (after it is taken off the 
 spit) with half a sheet of writing paper, and so 
 sent up to table that a person carrying it may 
 take hold of it without greasing his hands. Ac- 
 cordingly, when he wishes to cut it on the under 
 side, it being too heavy a joint to be easily turned 
 with a fork, the carver is to take hold of the shank 
 with his left hand, and he will thus be able to turn 
 it readily, so as to cut it where he pleases with his 
 right. 
 
 A leg of wether mutton, which is by far the best 
 flavored, may be readily known when bought, by 
 the kernel, or little round lump of fat, just above 
 the letters a e. 
 
 When a leg of mutton is first cut, the person 
 carving should turn the joint towards him, as it 
 here lies, the shank to the left hand; then holding 
 16 
 
 it steady with his fork, he should cut in deep on 
 the fleshy part, in the hollow of the thigh, quite 
 to the bone, in the direction a b. Thus will he 
 cut right through the kernel of fat, called the 
 pope's eye, which many are fond of. The most 
 juicy parts of the leg are in the thick part of it, 
 from the line a b, upwards towards e, but many 
 prefer the drier part, which is about the shank or 
 knuckles; this part is by far the coarser, but as I 
 said, some prefer it, and call it the venison part, 
 though it is less like venison than any other part 
 of the joint. The fat of this joint lies chiefly on 
 the ridge e e, and is to be cut in the direction e f. 
 In a leg of mutton there is but one bone readily 
 to be got at, and that a small one; this is the 
 cramp-bone, by some called the gentleman's bone, 
 and is to be cut out by taking hold of the shank- 
 bone with the left hand, and with a knife cutting 
 down to the thigh-bone at the point d, then pass- 
 ing the knife under the cramp-bone, in the direc- 
 tion d c, it may easily be cut out. 
 
 A Shoulder of Mutton. No. 1. 
 
 Figure 1 represents a shoulder of mutton, which 
 is sometimes salted and boiled by fanciful people; 
 but customarily served up roasted, and laid in a 
 dish, with the back or upper side uppermost, as 
 here represented. 
 
 When not over-roasted it is a joint very full of 
 gravy, much more so than a leg, and as such by 
 many preferred, and particularly as having many 
 very good, delicate, and savory parts in it. 
 
 The shank-bone should be wound round with 
 writing paper, as pointed out in the leg, that the 
 person carving may take hold of it to turn it as, 
 he wishes. Now, when it is first cut, it should be 
 in the hollow part of it, in the direction a b, and 
 the knife should be passed deep to the bone. 
 
242 
 
 THE ART OF CARVING. 
 
 The gravy then runs fast into the dish, and the 
 part cut opens wide enough to take many slices 
 from it readily. 
 
 The best fat, that which is full of kernels and 
 best flavored, lies on the outer edge, and is to be 
 cut out in thin slices in the direction e f. If many 
 are at table, and the hollow part, cut in the line 
 a 6, is all eaten, some very good and delicate 
 slices may be cut out on each side of the ridge of 
 the blade-bone, in the direction c d. The line 
 between these two dotted lines is that in s the di- 
 rection of which the edge or ridge of the blade- 
 bone lies, and cannot be cut across. 
 
 A Shoulder of Mutton No, 2. 
 
 On the under side of the shoulder, as repre- 
 sented in figure 2, there are two parts very full of 
 gravy, and such as many persons prefer to those 
 of the upper side. One is a deep cut in the di- 
 rection g h, accompanied with fat. and the other 
 all lean in a line from i to 7c. The parts about 
 the shank are coarse and dry, as about the knuckle 
 in the leg, but yet some prefer this dry part, as 
 being less rich or luscious, and of course less apt 
 t:> cloy. 
 
 A shoulder of mutton over-roasted is spoiled. 
 
 A Leg of Pork, 
 
 Whether boiled or roasted, is sent up to table as 
 a leg of mutton roasted, and cut up in the same 
 manner; of course I shall refer you to what I 
 have said on that joint, only that the close firm 
 flesh about the knuckle is by many reckoned the 
 best, which is not the case in a leg of mutton. 
 A Shoulder of Pork 
 
 Is never cut or sent to table as such, but the 
 shank-bone, with some little meat annexed, is often 
 served up boiled, and called a spring, and is very 
 good eating. 
 
 Edge-Bone of Beef. 
 
 In carving it, as the outside suffers in its flavor 
 from the water in which it is boiled, the dish should 
 be turned towards the carver, as it is here repre- 
 sented, and a thick slice should be first cut off the 
 whole length of the joint, beginning at a and cut- 
 ting it all the way even and through the whole 
 surface, from a to 6. 
 
 The soft fat that resembles marrow lies on the 
 back below the letter rf, and the firm fat is to be 
 cut in thin horizontal slices at the point c/ but as 
 some persons prefer the soft f;it and others the 
 firm, each should be asked what he likes. 
 
 The upper part, as here shown, is certainly the 
 handsomest, fullest of gravy, most tender, and is 
 encircled with fat; but there are still some who 
 prefer a slice on the under side, which is quite 
 lean. But as it is a heavy joint and very trouble- 
 some to turn, that person cannot have much good 
 manners who requests it. 
 
 The skewer that keeps the meat together when 
 boiling is here shown at a. It should be drawn 
 out before the dish is served up to table, or if it 
 be necessary to leave a skewer in, that skrwer 
 should be a silver one. 
 
 A Knuckle of Veal. 
 
 A knuckle of veal is always boiled, and is ad- 
 mired for the fat, sinewy tendons about the knuckle, 
 which, if boiled tender, are much esteemed. A 
 lean knuckle is not worth the dressing. 
 
 You cannot cut a handsome slice, but in the di- 
 rection a b. The most delicate fat lies about the 
 part d, and if cut in the line d c, you will divide 
 two bones, between which lies plenty of fine, mar- 
 rowy fat. 
 
 The several bones about the knuckle may be 
 readily separated at the joints, and, as they are 
 covered with tendons, a bone may be given to 
 those who like it. 
 
 A Breast of Veal, Roasted. 
 
 This is the best end of a breast of veal, with the 
 sweetbread lying on it, and, when carved, should 
 be first cut down quite through in the first line on 
 the left, d c; it should next be cut across in the 
 line o c; from c to the last o on the left, quite 
 through divides the gristles from the rib-bones; 
 this done, to those who like fat and gristle, the 
 thick or gristly part should be cut into pieces as 
 wanted, in the lines a b. When a breast of veal 
 is cut into pieces and stewed, these gristles are 
 very tender and eatable. To such persons as pre- 
 fer a bone a rib should be cut or separated from 
 the rest in the line d c, and with a part of the 
 breast, a slice of the sweetbread, e, cut across the 
 middle. 
 
THE ART OF CARVING. 
 
 243 
 
 A Saddle of Mutton. 
 
 This is by some called a chine of mutton, the 
 saddle being the two necks; but as the two necks 
 are now seldom sent to table together, they call 
 the two loins a saddle. 
 
 A saddle of mutton is a genteel and handsome 
 dish; it consists of the two loins together, the 
 back-bone running down the middle to the tail. 
 Of course, when it is to be carved, you must cut 
 a long slice in either of the fleshy parts on the 
 side of the back-bone, in the direction a b. 
 
 There is seldom any great length of the tail 
 left on, but if it is sent up with the tail many are 
 fond of it, and it may readily be divided into 
 several pieces by cutting between the joints of 
 the tail, which are about the distance of one inch 
 apart. 
 
 A saddle of venison is cut similarly to the above. 
 A Spare- Rib of Pork. 
 
 A spare-rib of pork is carved by cutting out a 
 slice from the fleshy part in the line a b. This 
 joint will afford many good cuts in this direction, 
 with as much fat as people like to eat of such 
 strong meat. When the fleshy part is cut away, 
 a bone may be easily separated from the next to 
 it in the line d b c, disjointing it at c. 
 Half a Calf s Head Boiled. 
 
 There are many delicate bits about a calf's head, 
 and when young, perfectly white, fat and well- 
 dressed, half a head is a genteel dish, if a small 
 one. 
 
 When first cut it should be quite along the cheek 
 bone, in the fleshy part, in the direction c 6, where 
 many handsome slices may be cut. In the fleshy 
 part at the end of the jaw-bone, lies part of the 
 throat sweetbread, which may be cut into in the 
 
 line c d, and which is esteemed the best part in 
 the head. Many like the eye, which is to be cut 
 from its socket a, by forcing the point of a carving 
 knife down to the bottom on one edge of the socket, 
 and cutting quite round, keeping the point of the 
 knife slanting towards the middle, so as to sep- 
 arate the meat from the bone. This piece is seldom 
 divided, but if you wish to oblige two persons with 
 it, it may be cut into two parts. The palate i| 
 also reckoned by some a delicate morsel. This ia 
 found on the under side of the roof of the mouth j 
 it is a crinkled, white, thick skin, and may be easily 
 separated from the bone by the knife by lifting the 
 head up with your left hand. 
 
 There is also some good meat to be met with on 
 the under side, covering the under jaw ; and some 
 nice gristly fat to be pared off about the ear, g. 
 
 There are scarcely any bones here to be sepa- 
 rated, but one may be cut off at the neck, in the 
 line/e, but this is a coarse part. 
 
 There is a tooth in the upper jaw, the last tooth 
 behind, which, having several cells, and being full 
 of jelly, is called the sweet tooth. Its delicacy is 
 more in the name than in anything else. It is a 
 double tooth, lies firm in its socket at the further 
 end, but if the calf is a young one, may readily 
 be taken out with the point of a knife. 
 
 A Ham. 
 
 A ham is cut two ways ; across, in the line b c t 
 or with the point of a carving knife, in the circular 
 line in the middle, taking out a small piece as at 
 a, and cutting thin slices in a circular direction, 
 thus enlarging it by degrees. This last method 
 of cutting it is to preserve the gravy and keep it 
 moist, which is thus prevented from running out. 
 
 A Haunch of Venison. 
 
 In carving a haunch of venison, first cut it 
 across down to the bone, in the line d c a, then 
 turn the dish with the end a towards you, put in 
 the point of the knife at c, and cut it down as deep 
 as you can in the direction c b ; thus cut, you may 
 take out as many slices as you please, on the right 
 or left. As the fat lies deeper on the left, between 
 b and a, to those who are fond of fat, as most 
 venison eaters are, the best flavored and fattest 
 slices will be found on the left of the line c b, 
 supposing the end a turned towards you. Slices 
 of venison should not be cut thick nor too thinj 
 and plenty of gravy should be given with them. 
 
244 
 
 THE ART OF CARVING. 
 
 An Ox Tongue. 
 
 A tongue is to be cut across, in the line a, b, and 
 a slice taken from thence. The most tender and 
 juicy slices will be about the middle, or between 
 the line a b, and the root. Towards the tip, the 
 meat is closer and dryer. For the fat, and a ker- 
 nel with that fat, cut off a slice of the root on the 
 right of the letter b, at the bottom next the dish. 
 A tongue is often cut lengthways, as from c to d. 
 A tongue is generally eaten with white meat, veal, 
 chicken, or turkey; and to those whom you serve 
 with the latter, you should give of the former. 
 
 A Brisket of Beef. 
 
 This is a part always boiled, and is to be cut in 
 the direction of a b, quite down the bone, but 
 never help any one to the outside slice, which 
 should be taken off pretty thick. The fat cut with 
 this slice is a firm gristly fat, but a softer fat will 
 be found underneath, for those who prefer it. 
 
 A piece of Sirloin of Beef. 
 
 Whether the whole sirloin, or part of it only, 
 be sent to table, is immaterial, with respect to 
 carving it. The figure here represents part of the 
 joint only, the whole being too large for families 
 in general. It is drawn as standing up in the dish, 
 in order to show the inside or under part: but 
 when sent to table, it is always laid down, so as 
 that the part described by the letter c lies close 
 on the dish. The part c d then lies uppermost, 
 and the line a b underneath. 
 
 The meat on the upper side of the ribs is firmer 
 and of a closer texture than the fleshy part under- 
 neath, which is by far the most tender; of course, 
 some prefer one part, and some another. 
 
 To those who like the upper side, and would 
 rather not have the first cut or outside slice, that 
 outside slice should be first cut off, quite down to 
 the bone, in the direction c d. Plenty of soft, 
 marrowy fat will be found underneath the ribs. If 
 a person wishes to have a slice underneath, the 
 joint must be turned up, by taking hold of the end 
 of the ribs with the left hand, and raising it, until 
 it is in the position as here represented. One slice 
 or more may now be cut in the direction of the 
 line a b, passing the knife down to the bone. The 
 slices, whether on the upper or under side, should 
 be cut thin, but not too much so. 
 
 A Buttock of Beef 
 
 Is always boiled, and requires no print to point 
 out how it should be carved. A thick slice should 
 be cut off all round the buttock, that your friends 
 may be helped to the juicy and prime part of it. 
 This cut into, thin slices may be cut from the top; 
 but as it is a dish that is frequently brought to the 
 table cold a second day. it should always be out 
 handsome and even. To those to whom a slice all 
 round would be too much, a third of the round 
 may be given, with a thin slice of fat. On one 
 side there is a part whiter than ordinary, by some 
 called the white muscle. A buttock is generally 
 divided, and this white part sold separate as a deli- 
 cacy, but it is by no means so, the meat being 
 close and dry, whereas the darker colored parts, 
 though apparently of acoarser grain, are of a looser 
 texture, more tender, fuller of gravy, and better 
 flavored; and men of discriminating palates ever 
 prefer them. 
 
 A Fore-quarter of Lamb roasted. 
 
 Before any one is helped to a part of this joint, 
 the shoulder should be separated from the breast, 
 or what is by some called the coast, by passing the 
 knife under, in the direction c g d e. The shoul- 
 der being thus removed, a lemon or orange should 
 bo squeezed upon the part, and then sprinkled 
 with salt where the shoulder joined it, and the 
 shoulder should be laid on it again. The gristly 
 part should next be separated from the ribs, in the 
 line f o. It is now in readiness to be divided 
 among the company. The ribs are generally most 
 esteemed, and one or two may be separated from 
 the rest, in the line a b ; or, to those who prefer 
 the gristly part, a piece or two, or more, may be 
 cut off in the lines h i, etc. Though all parts of 
 young lamb are nice, the shoulder of a fore-quar- 
 ter is least thought of; it is not so rich. 
 
 If the fore-quarter is that of a grass lamb and 
 large, the shoulder should be put into another dish 
 when taken off; and it is carved as a shoulder of 
 mutton, which see. 
 
 A Fillet of Veal, 
 
 Which is the thigh part, similar to a buttock of 
 beef, is brought to table always in the .same form, 
 but roasted. The outside slice of the fillet is by 
 many thought a delicacy, ns being most savory; 
 but it does not follow that every one likes it; each 
 person should therefore be asked, what part he 
 
THE ART OF CARVING. 
 
 245 
 
 prefers. If not the outside, cut off a thin slice, 
 and the second cut will be white meat, but cut it 
 even and close to the bone. A fillet of veal is 
 generally stuffed under the skirt or flap with a 
 savory pudding, called forcemeat. This is to be 
 cut deep into, in a line with the surface of the fil- 
 let, and a thin slice taken out ; this, with a little 
 fat cut from the skirt, should be given to euch per- 
 son present. 
 
 A Roasted Pig. 
 
 A roasted pig is seldom sent to table whole, the 
 head is cut off by the cook, and the body slit down 
 the back and served up as here represented ; and 
 the dish garnished with the chaps and ears. 
 
 Before any one is helped, the shoulder should 
 be separated from the carcass, by passing the 
 knife under it, in the circular direction; and the 
 leg separated in the same manner, in the dotted 
 lines c d e. The most delicate part in the whole 
 pig is the triangular piece of the neck, which may 
 be cut off in the line f g. The next best parts 
 are the ribs, which may be divided in the line, a 
 6, etc. Indeed, the bones of a pig of three weeks 
 old are little less than gristle, and may be easily 
 cut through, next to these, are pieces cut from the 
 leg and shoulder. Some are fond of an ear, and 
 others of a chap, and those persons may readily be 
 gratified. 
 
 A Rabbit. 
 
 This is a rabbit, as trussed and sent up to table. 
 After separating the legs, the shoulders or wings 
 (which many prefer) are to be cut off in the circu- 
 lar dotted line e f g. The back is divided into 
 two or three parts, in the lines i k, without divid- 
 ing it from the belly, but cutting it in the line 
 g h. The head may be given to any person who 
 likes it, the ears being removed before the rabbit 
 is served up. 
 
 A Goose, 
 
 Like a turkey, is seldom quite dissected, unless 
 the company is large; but when it is, the follow- 
 
 ing is the method : Turn the neck towards you, 
 and cut two or three long slices, on each side the 
 breast, in the lines a b, quite to the bone. Cut 
 these slices from the bone, which done, proceed to 
 take off the leg, by turning the goose up on one 
 side, putting the fork through the small end of the 
 leg bone, pressing it close to the body, which, 
 when the knife is entered at d, raises the joint 
 from the body. The knife is then to be passed 
 under the leg in the direction d e. If the leg 
 hangs to the carcass at the joint e, turn it back 
 with the fork, and it will readily separate if the 
 goose is young; in old geese, it will require some 
 strength to separate it. When the leg is off, pro- 
 ceed to take off the wing, by passing the fork 
 through the small end of the pinion, pressing it 
 close to the body, and entering the knife at the 
 notch e, and passing it under the wing, in the di- 
 rection c, d. It is a nice thing to hit this notch c, 
 as it is not so visible in the bird as in the figure. 
 If the knife is put into the notch above it, you 
 cut upon the neck-bone, and not on the wing- 
 joint. A little practice will soon teach the differ- 
 ence; and if the goose is young the trouble is not 
 great, but very much otherwise if the bird is an 
 old one. 
 
 When the leg and wing on one side are taken 
 off, take them off on the other side ; cut off the 
 apron in the line / e g, and then take off the 
 merry-thought in the line i h. The neck-bones 
 are next to be separated as in a fowl, and all 
 other parts divided as there directed, to which I 
 refer you. 
 
 The best parts of a goose are in the following 
 order: the breast slices; the fleshy part of the 
 wing, which may be divided from the pinion ; the 
 thigh-bone, which may be easily divided in the 
 joint from the leg-bone, or drumstick, as it is 
 called; the pinion, and next the side-bones. 
 
 A Green Goose. 
 
 Is cut up in the same way, but the most deli- 
 cate part is the breast and the gristle, at the lower 
 part of it. 
 
 A Pheasant. 
 
 The pheasant, as here represented, is skewered 
 and trussed for the spit, with the head tucked un- 
 der one of the wings, but when sent to table the 
 skewers are withdrawn. 
 
 In carving this bird, the fork should be fixed 
 in the breast, in two dots there marked. You have 
 then the command of the fowl, and can turn it as 
 you please; slice down the breast in the lines a b, 
 and then proceed to take off the leg on the out- 
 side, in the direction d e, or in the circular dot- 
 ted line b d, as seen in the figure " a boiled fowl," 
 next page. Then cut off the wing on the same 
 side in the line c d, in the figure above, and a h 
 b, in the figure at the bottom of this column, 
 which is lying on one side, with its back towards 
 us. Having separated the leg and wing on one 
 side, do the same on the other, and then cut off 
 or separate from the breast-bone on each side of 
 
246 
 
 THE ART OF CARVING. 
 
 the breast the parts you before sliced or cut down. 
 In *aking off the wing be attentive to cut it in 
 the notch , as seen in the print of the fowl, for if 
 you cut too near the neck, as at g, you will find the 
 neck-bone interfere. The wing is to be separated 
 from the neck-bone. Next cut off the merry- 
 thought in the line f g, by passing the knife un- 
 der it towards the neck. The remaining parts 
 are to be cut up, as is described in the fowl, which 
 eee. 
 
 A Partridge. 
 
 The partridge, like the pheasant, is here trussed 
 fot the spit; when served up the skewers are with- 
 drawn. It is cut up like a fowl (which see), the 
 wings taken off in the lines o b, and the merry- 
 thought in the lines c d. Of a partridge the prime 
 parts are the white ones, viz., the wings, breast, 
 merry-thought. The wing is thought the best, the 
 tip being reckoned the most delicate morsel of the 
 whole. 
 
 A Fowl. 
 
 The fowl is here represented as lying on its side, 
 with one of the legs, a wing and a neck-bone 
 taken off. It is cut up the same way, whether it 
 be roasted or boiled. A roasted fowl is sent to 
 table trussed like a pheasant (which see), except 
 that instead of the head being tucked under one 
 of the wings, it is, in a fowl, cut off before it is 
 dressed. A boiled fowl is represented below, the 
 leg-bones of which are bent inwards and tucked 
 in within the belly, but the skewers are withdrawn 
 prior to its being sent to the table. In order to 
 cut up a fowl, it is best to take it on your plate. 
 
 Having shown how to take off the legs, wings 
 and merry-thought, when speaking of the pheas- 
 ant, it remains only to show how the other parts 
 are divided : k is the wing cut off, i the leg. When 
 the leg, wing and merry-thought are removed, the 
 next thing is to cut off the neck-bones described 
 at I. This is done by putting in the knife at g, 
 and passing it under the long, broad part of the 
 bone in the line g h, then lifting it up and break- 
 ing off the end of the shorter part of the bone 
 which cleaves to the breast-bone. All parts being 
 thus separated from the carcass, divide the breast 
 from the back by cutting through the tender-ribs 
 on each side, from the neck quite down to the vent 
 Or tail. Then lay the back upwards on your 
 
 plate, fix your fork under the rump, and laying 
 the edge of your knife in the line bee, and 
 pressing it down lift up the tail or lower part of 
 the back, and it will readily divide with the help 
 of your knife in the line bee. This done, lay 
 the croup or lower part of the back upwards in 
 your plate, with the rump from you, and with 
 your knife cut off the side-bones by forcing the 
 knife through the rump-hone in the lines e /, and 
 the whole fowl is completely carved. 
 
 A Boiled Fowl. 
 
 Of a fowl, the prime parts are the wings, breast 
 and merry-thought, and next to these the neck- 
 bones and side-hones; the legs are rather coarse; 
 of a boiled fowl the legs are rather more tender, 
 but of a chicken every part is juicy and good, and 
 next to the breast the legs are certainly the fullest 
 of gravy and the sweetest, and as the thigh-bones 
 are very tender and easily broken with the teeth, 
 the gristles and marrow render them- a delicacy. 
 Of the leg of a fowl the thigh is much the 
 best, and when given to any one of your company 
 it should be separated from the drum-stick at the 
 joint i (see the cut, viz., " a fowl," preceding 
 column), which is easily done if the knife is in- 
 troduced underneath in the hollow, and the thigh- 
 bone turned back from the leg-bone. 
 
 A Turkey, 
 
 Hoasted or boiled, is trussed and sent up to 
 table like a fowl, and cut up in every respect like 
 a pheasant. The best parts are the white ones 
 the breast, wings and neck-bones. Merry-thought 
 it has none; the neck is taken away, and the 
 hollow part under the breast stuffed with force- 
 meat, which is to be cut in thin slices in the di- 
 rection from the rump to the neck and a slice 
 given with each piece of turkey. It is customary 
 not to cut up more than the breast of this bird, 
 and, if any more is wanted, to take off one of the 
 wings. 
 
 A Pigeon. 
 No. 1. No. 2. 
 
 This is a representation of the back and breast 
 of a pigeon. No. 1, the back ; No. 2, the breast. 
 It is sometimes cut up as a chicken, but as the 
 croup, or lower part with the thigh, is most pre- 
 ferred, and as a pigeon is a small bird, and half a 
 one not too much to serve at once, it is seldom 
 carved now, otherwise than by fixing the fork at 
 the point a, entering the knife just before it, and 
 
THE CHOICE OF ANIMAL FOOD. 
 
 247 
 
 dividing the pigeon into two, cutting away in the 
 lines a b, and a c, No. 1 ; at the same time bring- 
 ing the knife out at the back in the direction a b, 
 and a o, 1?*. 2. 
 
 A Cod's Head. 
 
 Fish, in general, requires very little carving; 
 the middle or thickest part of the fish is generally 
 esteemed the best, except in a carp, the most deli- 
 cate part of which is the palate. This is seldom, 
 however, taken out, bi>t the whole head is given 
 to those who like it. The thin part about the tail 
 of a fish is generally least esteemed. 
 
 A cod's head and shoulders, if large and in sea- 
 son, is a very genteel and handsome dish, if nicely 
 boiled. When cut, it should be done with a spoon 
 or fish trowel.' The parts about the back-bone, on 
 the shoulders, are the most firm and best. Take 
 off a piece quite down to the bone, in the direc- 
 tion a b d* c, putting in the spoon at a c, and 
 with each slice of fi^h give a piece of the sound, 
 which lies underneath the back-bone and lines it, 
 the meat of which is thin and a little darker co- 
 lored than the body of the fish itself: this may be 
 got by passing a knife or spoon underneath, in the 
 direction d s. 
 
 There are a great many delicate parts about the 
 head, some firm kernels, and a great deal of the 
 jelly kind. The jelly parts lie about the jaw- 
 bone, the firm parts within the head, which must 
 be broken into with a spoon. Some like the pal- 
 ate and some the tongue, which likewise may be 
 got by putting the spoon into the mouth, in the 
 direction of the line e . The green jelly of the 
 eye is never given to any one. 
 
 A piece of Boiled Salmon. 
 
 Of boiled salmon there is one part more fat and 
 rich than the other. The belly part is the fattest 
 of the two, and it is customary to give to those 
 that like both a thin slice of each ; for the one, 
 cut it out of the belly part, in the direction d e/ 
 the othe -, out of the back, in the line a b. Those 
 who are fond of salmon generally like the skin ; of 
 course, the slices are to be cut thin, skin and all. 
 
 There are but few directions necessary for cut- 
 ting up and serving fish. In turbot the fish-knife 
 or trowel is to be entered in the centre or middle, 
 over the back-bone, and a piece of the flesh, as 
 
 much as will lie on the trowel, to be taken off on 
 one side close to the bones. The thickest part of 
 the fish is always most esteemed, but not too near 
 the head or tail; and when the meat on one side 
 of the fish is removed close to the bones, the 
 whole back-bone is to be raised with the knifa 
 and fork, and the under side is then to be divided 
 among the company. Turbot eaters esteem the 
 fins a delicate part. 
 
 The rock-fish and sheepshead are carved like 
 the turbot. The latter is considered the most del- 
 icate fish of the-Atlantic coast; and the former, 
 though common, are highly esteemed, particularly 
 those caught in fresh water. 
 
 The halibut is also frequentl^brought to mar- 
 ket. The fins and parts lying near them are of a 
 delicate texture and flavor; the remaining part of 
 the fish is coarse. 
 
 Soles are generally sent to table two ways, some 
 fried, others boiled ; these are to be cut right 
 through the middle, bone and all, and a piece of 
 the fish, perhaps a third or fourth part, according 
 to its size, given to each. The same may be done 
 with other fishes, cutting them across, as may be 
 seen in the cut of the mackerel, below d e c b. 
 
 A Mackerel 
 
 A mackerel is to be thus cut Slit the fish all 
 along the back with a knife, in the line a e b, and 
 take off one whole side as far as the line b c, not 
 too near the head, as the meat about the gills is 
 generally black and ill flavored. The roe of a 
 male fish is soft like the brain of a calf; the roe 
 of the female full is full of small eggs and hard. 
 Some prefer one and some another, and part of 
 such roe as your friend likes should be given to 
 him. 
 
 The meat about the tail of all fish is generally 
 thin and less esteemed, and few like the head of 
 a fish, except it be that of a carp, the palate of 
 which is esteemed the greatest delicacy of the 
 whole. 
 
 Eels are cut into pieces through the bone, and 
 the thickest part is reckoned the prime piece. 
 
 There is some art in dressing a lobster, but as 
 this is seldom sent up to table whole, I will only 
 say that the tail is reckoned the prime part, and 
 next to this the claws. 
 
 THE CHOICE OF ANIMAL FOOD. 
 
 We conclude the foregoing treatise on the Art 
 of Carving by fie following instructions, intended 
 to aid housekeepers in the purchase of the most 
 common descriptions of meat for the table. 
 
 Beef. 
 
 If the flesh of ox- beef is young, it will hapve a 
 fine smooth open grain, be of a good red, and feel 
 tender. The fat should lo^k white rather than 
 yellow ; for when that is of a deip color the meat 
 is seldom good ; beef fed by oil cakes is in genera] 
 so, and the flesh is flabby. The grain of cow-beef 
 is closer, and the fat whiter, than that cf ox-beef, 
 
248 
 
 QUALITIES OF FOOD. 
 
 but the lean is not of so bright a red. The grain 
 of bull-beef is closer still, the fat hard and skinny, 
 the lean of a deep red and a stronger scent. Ox- 
 beef is the reverse. Ox- beef is the richest and 
 largest ; but in small families and to some tastes, 
 heifer-beef is better if finely fed. In old meat 
 there is a streak of horn in the ribs of beef; the 
 harder this is, the older, and the flesh is not finely 
 flavored. 
 
 Veal. 
 
 The flesh of a bull calf is firmest, but not so 
 white. The fillet of the cow-calf is generally 
 preferred for the udder. The whitest is not the 
 most juicy, having been made so by frequent 
 bleeding, and having had whiting to lick. Choose 
 the meat of whicn the kidney is well covered with 
 white thick fat. If the bloody vein in the shoulder 
 looks blue or of a bright red, it is newly killed ; 
 but any other color shows it stale. The other 
 parts should be dry and white; if clammy or 
 spotted the meat is stale and bad. The kidney 
 turns first in the loin, and the suet will not then 
 be firm. 
 
 Mutton. 
 
 Choose this by the fineness of its grain, good 
 color, and firm white fat. It is not the better for 
 being young; if of a good breed and well fed, it 
 is better for age; but this only holds with wether 
 mutton ; the flesh of the ewe is paler, and the 
 texture finer. Ram mutton is very strong fla- 
 vored, the flesh is of a deep red, and the fat is 
 spongy. 
 
 Lamb. 
 
 Observe the neck of a fore-quarter : if the vein 
 is bluish it is fresh ; if it has a green or yellow 
 cast it is stale. In the hind-quarter if there is a 
 faint smell under the kidney, and the knuckle is 
 limp, the meat is stale. If the eyes are sunk, the 
 head is not fresh. Grass-lamb comes into season 
 in April or May, and continues till August. House- 
 lamb may be had in great towns almost all the 
 year, but is in highest perfection in December and 
 January. 
 
 Pork. 
 
 Pinch the lean, and if young it will break. If 
 the rind is tough, thick, and cannot easily be im- 
 pressed by the finger, it is old. A thin rind is a 
 merit in all pork. When fresh the flesh will be 
 smooth and cool; if clammy it is tainted. What 
 is called measly pork is very unwholesome, and 
 may be known by the fat being full of kernels, 
 which in good pork is never the case. Pork fed 
 at still-houses does not answer for curing any way, 
 the fat being spongy. Dairy-fed pork is the best. 
 
 A Turkey -Cock, 
 
 If young, has a smooth black leg, with a short 
 spur. The eyes full and bright if fresh, and the 
 feet supple and moist. If stnle, the eyes will be 
 sunk and the feet dry. A hen-turkey is known by 
 the same rules, but if old her legs will be red and 
 rough. 
 
 Fowls. 
 
 If a cock is young, his spurs will be short; but 
 take care to see they have not been cut or pared, 
 which is a trick often practised. If fresh the vent 
 will be close and dark. Pullets are best just be- 
 fore they begin to lay and yet are full of eggs ; if 
 old hens, their combs and legs will be rough ; if 
 young, they will be smooth. A good xsapon has a 
 thick belly and a large rump ; there is a particular 
 fat at his breast, and the comb is very pale. Black- 
 legged fowls are most moist, if for roasting. 
 Geese. 
 
 The bill and feet of a young one will be yellow, 
 and there will be but few hairs upon them ; if old, 
 
 they will be red ; if fresh, the feet will be pliable, 
 if stale, dry and stiff. Geese are called green till 
 three or four months old. Green geese should he 
 scalded ; a stubble-goose should be picked dry. 
 Ducks. 
 
 Choose them by the same rules of having supple 
 feet, and by their being hard and thick on the 
 breast and belly. The feet of a tame duck are 
 thick, and inclining to dusty yellow; a wild one 
 has the feet reddish and smaller than the tame. 
 They should be picked dry. Ducklings must be 
 scalded. 
 
 Shad. 
 
 If good, they are white and thick. If too fresh 
 they eat tough, but must not be kept above twu 
 days without salting. 
 
 Herrings. 
 
 If good, their gills are of a fine red, and the 
 eyes bright, as is likewise the whole fish, which 
 must be stiff and firm. 
 
 Lobsters. 
 
 If they have not been long taken the claws will 
 have a strong motion when you put your finger 
 on the eyes and press them. The heaviest are the 
 best. The cock-lobster is known by the narrow 
 back part of his tail, and the two uppermost fins 
 within it are stiff and hard ; but those of the hen 
 are soft, and the tail broader. The male, though 
 generally smaller, has the highest flavor, the flesh 
 is firmer, and the color when boiled is a deeper red. 
 
 Crabs. 
 
 The heaviest are best, and those of a middling 
 size are sweetest. If light they are watery ; when 
 in perfection the joints of the legs are stiff, and 
 the body has a very agreeable smell. The eyes 
 look dead and loose when stale. 
 
 Oysters. 
 
 When alive and strong the shell is close. They 
 should be eaten as soon as opened, the flavor be- 
 coming poor otherwise. 
 
 The abundance and variety of fish daily 
 brought to market in every seaport town of the 
 United States, cannot be surpassed in any other 
 part of the world. 
 
 QUALITIES OF THE ARTICLES OF FOOD 
 
 IN COMMON USE. 
 
 Beef. 
 
 When this is the flesh of a bullock of middle 
 age, it affords good and strong nourishment, and 
 is peculiarly well adapted to those who labor or 
 take much exercise. It will often sit easy upon 
 stomachs that can digest no other kind of food; 
 and its fat is almost as easily digested as that of 
 veal. 
 
 Veal 
 
 Is not a proper food for persons suffering from 
 indisposition, and should not be given to febrile 
 patients. It affords less nourishment and is less 
 digestible than the flesh of the Sfime animal in a 
 state of maturity. The fat of it is lighter than 
 that of any other animal, and shows the least dis- 
 position to putrescency. Veal is a suitable food 
 in costive habits; but of all meat it is the least 
 calculated for removing acidity from the stomach. 
 
 Mutton, 
 
 From the age of four to six years, and fed on dry 
 pasture, is an excellent meat. It is of a middle 
 kind between the firmness of beef and the tender- 
 ness of veal. The lean part of mutton, however, 
 is the most nourishing and conducive to health; 
 the fat being hard of digestion. The head of the 
 
QUALITIES OF FOOD. 
 
 249 
 
 eheep, especially when di rested of the skin, is very 
 tender; and the feet, on account of the jelly they 
 contain, are highly nutritive. 
 
 Lamb 
 
 Is net so nourishing as mutton ; but it is light and 
 extremely suitable to delicate stomachs. 
 
 Pork 
 
 Affords rich and substantial nourishment, and its 
 juices are wholesome when properly fed, and when 
 the animal enjoys pure air and exercise. But the 
 flesh of hogs reared in towns is both hard of di- 
 gestion and unwholesome. Pork is particularly 
 improper for those who are liable to any foulness 
 of the skin. 
 
 Smoked Hams 
 
 Are a strong kind of meat, and rather fit for a 
 relish than for diet. It is the quality of all salted 
 meat that the fibres become rigid, and therefore 
 more difficult of digestion; and when to this is 
 added smoking, the heat of the chimney occasions 
 the salt to concentrate, and the fat between the 
 muscles sometimes to become rancid. 
 
 Bacon 
 
 Is also of an indigestible quality, and is apt to 
 turn rancid on weak stomachs ; but for those in 
 health it is an excellent food, especially when used 
 with fowl or veal, or even eaten with peas, cab- 
 bages, or cauliflowers. 
 
 Goat's Flesh 
 
 Is hard and indigestible ; but that of kids is ten- 
 der as well as delicious, and affords good nourish- 
 ment. 
 
 Fem'son, 
 
 Or the flesh of deer, and that of hares, is of a 
 nourishing quality, but is liable to the inconveni- 
 ence that though much disposed to putrescency 
 of itself, it must be kept for a little time before it 
 becomes tender. 
 
 The Blood of Animals 
 
 Is occasionally used as an aliment, but man could 
 not long subsist upon it unless mixed with oat- 
 meal, etc. ; for it is not very soluble alone, by the 
 digestive powers of the human stomach, and there- 
 fore cannot prove nourishing. 
 
 Milk 
 
 Is of very different consistence in different ani- 
 mals ; but that of cows, being the kind used in 
 diet, is at present the object of our attention. 
 Milk, where it agrees with the stomach, affords 
 excellent nourishment for those who are weak and 
 cannot digest other aliments. It does not readily 
 become putrid, but with some persons becomes 
 sour on the stomach, and thence produces heart- 
 burn, or gripes, and in some constitutions a loose- 
 ness. The best milk is from a cow at three or four 
 years of age, about two months after producing a 
 calf. It is lighter, but more watery than the milk 
 of sheep and goats; while on the other hand it is 
 more thick and heavy than the milk of asses and 
 mares, which are next in consistence to human 
 milk. 
 
 On account of the acid which is generated after 
 digestion, milk coagulates in all stomachs ; but 
 the caseous or cheesy part is again dissolved by 
 the digestive juices, and rendered fit for the pur- 
 poses of nutrition. It is improper to eat acid 
 substances with milk, as these would tend to pre- 
 vent the due digestion of it. 
 Cream 
 
 Is very nourishing, but on account of its fatness 
 is difficult to be digested in weak stomachs. Vio- 
 lent exercise after eating it will in a little time 
 convert it into butter. 
 
 Butter. 
 
 Some writers inveigh against the use of butter as 
 universally pernicious, but they might with equal 
 reason condemn all vegetable oils, which form a 
 considerable part of diet in southern climates, and 
 seem to have been beneficially intended by nature 
 for that purpose. Butter, like every other oily 
 substance, has doubtless a relaxing quality, and 
 if long retained in the stomach is liable to become 
 rancid; but if eaten in moderation it will not pro- 
 duce those effects. It is, however, improper in 
 bilious constitutions. 
 
 Cheese 
 
 Is likewise reprobated by many as extremely un- 
 wholesome. It is doubtless not easy of digestion, 
 and when eaten in a great quantity may overload 
 the stomach ; but if taken sparingly its tenacity 
 may be dissolved by the digestive juices, and it 
 may yield a wholesome, nourishing chyle. Toasted 
 cheese is agreeable to most palates, but it is rend- 
 ered more indigestible by that process. 
 Fowls. 
 
 The flesh of birds differs in quality according 
 to the food on which they live. Such as feed upon 
 grain and berries afford, in general, good nour- 
 ishment; geese and ducks are hard of digestion, 
 especially the former. A young hen or chicken 
 is tender and delicate food, and extremely well 
 adapted to those in whom the digestive powers 
 are weak. But of all tame fowls, the capon is the 
 most nutritious. 
 
 Turkeys, etc. 
 
 Turkeys, as well as Guinea or India fowls, af- 
 ford a substantial nutriment, but are not quite so 
 easy of digestion as the common domestic fowls. 
 In all birds those parts are the most firm which 
 are most exercised; in the small birds, therefore, 
 the wings, and in the larger birds the legs, are 
 commonly the most difficult of digestion. 
 Wild Fowls. 
 
 The flesh of wild birds in general, though mor 
 easily digested, is less nourishing than that ot 
 quadrupeds, as being more dry on account of 
 their almost constant exercise. Those birds are 
 not wholesome which subsist upon worms, insects 
 and fishes. 
 
 Eggs. 
 
 The eggs of birds are a simple and wholesome 
 aliment. Those of the turkey are superior in all 
 the qualifications of food. The white of eggs is 
 by heat rendered tough and hard. The yolk con- 
 tains much oil, and is highly nourishing, but has 
 a strong tendency to putrefaction, on which ac- 
 count eggs are improper for people of weak stom- 
 achs, especially when they are not quite fresh. 
 Eggs boiled hard or fried are difficult of digestion, 
 and are rendered still more indigestible by the ad- 
 dition of butter. All eggs require a sufficient 
 quantity of salt, to promote their solution in the 
 stomach. 
 
 Fish, 
 
 Though some of them be light and easy of diges- 
 tion, afford less nourishment than the flesh of 
 quadrupeds, and are, of all the animal tribes, the 
 most disposed to putrefaction. Salt water fish 
 are, in general, the best; but when salted, though 
 less disposed to putrescency, they become difficult 
 of digestion. Whitings and flounders are the 
 most easily digested. Acid sauces and pickles, 
 by resisting putrefaction, are a proper addition to 
 fish, both as they retard putrescency and correct 
 the relaxing tendency of butter, so generally used 
 with this kind of aliment. 
 
 Oysters and Cockle* 
 
 Are eaten both raw and dressed. Oysters are 
 very nourishing and easy of digestion. 
 
250 
 
 QUALITIES OF FOOD. 
 
 Muscles and Periwinkles 
 
 Are far inferior to oysters, both in point of diges 
 tion and nutriment. Sea muscles are by some 
 supposed to be of a poisonous nature, but though 
 this opinion is not much countenanced by expe- 
 rience, the safest way is to eat them with vinegar, 
 or some other vegetable acid. 
 
 Bread. 
 
 At the head of the vegetable class stands bread, 
 that article of diet which, from general use, has 
 received the name of the staff of life. Wheat is 
 the grain chiefly used for the purpose in this coun- 
 try, and is the most nutritive of all the farina- 
 ceous kinds, as it contains a great deal of gluten 
 and starch. Bread is very properly eaten with 
 animal food, but is most expedient with such arti- 
 cles of diet as contain much nourishment in a 
 small bulk, because it then serves to give the 
 stomach a proper degree of expansion. To render 
 bread easy of digestion it ought to be well fer- 
 mented and baked, and it never should be used 
 by dyspeptics till it has stood 24 hours after 
 being taken out of the oven, otherwise it is apt to 
 occasion various complaints in them, such as flatu- 
 lence, heartburn, watchfulness, and the like. The 
 custom of eating butter with bread, hot from the 
 oven, is compatible only with strong digestive 
 powers. 
 
 Pastry, 
 
 Especially when hot, has all the disadvantages of 
 hot bread and butter; and still more so when it 
 is tough and hard, or made with rancid butter or 
 lard. Dry toast with butter is by far the most 
 wholesome breakfast. Brown wheaten bread, in 
 which there is a good deal of rye or bran, though 
 not so nourishing as that made of fine flour, is 
 both palatable and wholesome, but apt to become 
 sour on weak stomachs. 
 
 Oats, Barley and Rice. 
 
 Oats, when deprived of the husk, and particu- 
 larly barley, when properly prepared, are some- 
 what softening, and afford wholesome and cooling 
 nourishment. Rice likewise contains a nutritious 
 mucilage, and is less used than it deserves, both 
 on account of its wholesorneness and economical 
 utility. The notion of its being hurtful to the 
 sight is a vulgar error. It some constitutions it 
 tends to induce costiveness, but this seems to be 
 owing chiefly to flatulence, and may be corrected 
 by the addition of some spice, such as caraways, 
 aniseed, and the like. 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 Are an agreeable and wholesome food, and yield 
 nearly as much nourishment as any of the roots 
 used in diet. The farinaceous or mealy kind is in 
 general the most easy of digestion, and they are 
 much improved by being roasted or baked. They 
 ought always to be eaten with meat, and never 
 without salt. The salt should be boiled with 
 them. 
 
 Green Peas and Beans, 
 
 Boiled in their fresh state, are both agreeable to 
 the taste and wholesome, being neither so flatu- 
 lent nor so difficult of digestion as in their ripe 
 state, in which they resemble the other leguminous 
 vegetables. French beans possess much the same 
 qualities, but yield a more watery juice, and have 
 a greater disposition to produce flatulence. 
 
 Salads, 
 
 Being eaten raw, require good digestive powers, 
 but the addition of oil and vinegar, qualified with 
 mustard, renders the moderate use of them con- 
 sistent even with a weak stomach. 
 
 Spinach 
 
 Affords a soft, lubricating aliment, but contains 
 little nourishment. In weak stomachs it is apt to 
 produce acidity, and frequently a looseness. To 
 obviate these effects, it ought always to be well 
 beaten, and have but little butter mixed with it. 
 
 Asparagus 
 
 Is a nourishing article in diet, and promotes the 
 secretion of urine; but disposes a little to flatu- 
 lence. 
 
 Artichokes 
 
 Resemble asparagus in their qualities, but seem to 
 be more nutritive and less diuretic. 
 
 Cabbages 
 
 Do not afford much nourishment, but are an 
 agreeable addition to animal food, and not quite 
 so flatulent as the common greens. They are 
 likewise diuretic, and somewhat laxative. Cab- 
 bage has a stronger tendency to putrefaction than 
 most other vegetable substances ; and, during its 
 putrefying state, sends forth an offensive smell, 
 much resembling that of putrefying animal bodies. 
 So far, however, from promoting a putrid dispo- 
 sition in the human body, it is, on the contrary, a 
 wholesome aliment in scurvy. 
 
 Beets, 
 When young and tender, are very digestible. 
 
 Indian Corn, 
 
 Before ripening, is wholesome for most persons 
 when boiled upon the ear; and is very nourishing. 
 
 Turnips 
 
 Are a nutritious article of vegetable food, but not 
 very easy of digestion, and are flatulent. This 
 effect is in a good measure obviated by pressing 
 the water out of them before they are eaten. 
 
 Carrots 
 
 Contain a considerable quantity of nutritious juice, 
 but ace among the most flatulent of vegetable 
 productions. 
 
 Parsnips 
 
 Are more nourishing and less flatulent than car- 
 rots, which they also exceed in the sweetness of 
 their mucilage. By boiling them in two different 
 waters, they are rendered less flatulent, but their 
 other qualities are thereby diminished in pro- 
 portion. 
 
 Parsley 
 
 Is of a stimulating and aromatic nature, well cal- 
 culated to make agreeable sauces. It is also a 
 gentle diuretic, but preferable in all its qualities 
 when boiled., 
 
 Celery 
 
 Affords a root both wholesome and fragrant, but 
 is difficult of digestion in its raw state. It gives 
 an agreeable taste to soups, as well as renders 
 them diuretic. 
 
 Onions, Garlic, and Shallots 
 Are all of a stimulating nature, by which they 
 assist digestion and expel flatulency. They are, 
 however, most suitable to persons of a cold and 
 phlegmatic constitution. 
 
 Radishes 
 
 Of all kinds, particularly the horse-radish, agree 
 with the three preceding articles. The} excite 
 the discharge of air lodged in the intestines. 
 
 Tomatoes 
 
 Are generally considered the most wholesome ol 
 all vegetables. 
 
 Apples 
 
 Are a wholesome fruit; but, in general, they agree 
 best with the stomach when eaten either roasted 
 or boiled. The more aromatic kinds of apples are 
 th'e fittest for eating raw. 
 
BREWING AND DISTILLATION. 
 
 251 
 
 Pears 
 
 Bosemble much in their effects the sweet kind of 1 
 apples, but have more of a laxative quality, and 
 a greater tendency to flatulence. 
 
 Cherries 
 
 Are in general a wholesome fruit, when perfectly 
 fresh, but not otherwise. 
 
 Plums 
 
 Are nourishing, but are apt to produce flatulence. 
 If eaten fresh, and before they are ripe, especially 
 in large quantities, they occasion colics, and other 
 complaints of the bowels. 
 
 Peaches 
 
 Are of a nourishing quality, and they abound in 
 juice; they are serviceable in bilious complaints. 
 
 Apricots 
 
 Are more pulpy than peaches, but are apt to fer- 
 ment, and produce acidities in weak stomachs. 
 
 Gooseberries and Currants, 
 
 When ripe, are similar in their qualities to cher- 
 ries, and when used in a green state they are 
 agreeably cooling. 
 
 Strawberries 
 Are an agreeable, cooling aliment. 
 
 Cucumbers 
 
 Are cooling, and agreeable to the palate in hot 
 weather; but to prevent them from proving hurt- 
 ful to the stomach, the juice ought to be squeezed 
 out after they are sliced, and vinegar, pepper and 
 salt afterwards added. 
 
 Tea. 
 
 By some, the use of this exotic is condemned in 
 terms the most vehement and unqualified, whilst 
 others have either asserted its innocence, or gone 
 go far as to ascribe to it salubrious, and even ex- 
 traordinary, virtues. The truth seems to lie be- 
 tween these two extremes : there is however an 
 essential difference in the effects of green ten and 
 of black, or of bohea ; the former of which is much 
 more apt to affect the nerves than the latter, more 
 especially when drunk without cream, and like- 
 wise without bread and butter. That, t;iken in a 
 large quantity, or at a later hour than usual, tea 
 
 often produces wakefulness, is a point that can^ 
 not be denied; but. if used in moderation, and ac- 
 companied with the additions just now mentioned, 
 it does not sensibly discover any hurtful effects, 
 but greatly refreshes one who is fatigued, and 
 abates a pain of the head. It ought always 
 to be made of a moderate degree of strength ; for 
 if too weak it certainly relaxes the stomach. As 
 it has an astringent taste, which seems not very 
 consistent with a relaxing power, there is ground 
 for ascribing this effect not so much to the herb 
 itself as to the hot water, which not, being impreg- 
 nated with a sufficient quantity of tea, to correct 
 its own emollient tendency, produces a relaxation, 
 unjustly imputed to some noxious quality of the 
 plant. But tea, like every other commodity, is 
 liable to damage, and when this happens, it may 
 produce effects not necessarily connected with its 
 original qualities. 
 
 Coffee. 
 
 It is allowed that coffee promotes digestion, and 
 exhilarates the animal spirits; besides which, va- 
 rious other qualities are ascribed to it, such as dis- 
 pelling flatulency, removing dizziness of the head, 
 attenuating viscid humors, increasing the circu- 
 lation of the blood, and consequently perspira- 
 tion : with a great many persons, even if not taken 
 strong, it affects the nerves, occasions wakeful- 
 ness, and tremor of the hands; though in some 
 phlegmatic constitutions it is apt to produce sleep. 
 Indeed, it is to persons of that habit that coffee is 
 best accommodated; for to people of a thin and 
 dry habit of body it seems to be especially injuri- 
 ous. Turkey coffee is greatly preferable in flavor 
 to that of the West Indies. Drunk, only in the 
 quantity of one dish, after dinner, to promote 
 digestion, it answers best without either sugar or 
 milk ; but if taken at other times, it should have 
 both; or rather in place of the latter, cream, 
 which not only improves the beverage, but tends 
 to mitigate the effect of coffee upon the nerves. 
 
 Chocolate 
 
 Is a nutritive and wholesome composition, if taken 
 in a small quantity, and not repeated too often; 
 but is sometimes hurtful to the stomach of those 
 with whom a vegetable diet disagrees. 
 
 BREWING and DISTILLA.TIODST. 
 
 FERMENTATION. 
 
 Before proceeding to the consideration of the 
 manufacture of wines, beer, and spirits, a general 
 survey of the subject of fermentation will not be 
 out of place. 
 
 Alcholic Beverages 
 
 May be divided into fermented drinks including 
 beer and wines, and distilled drinks or spirits, 
 which are obtained from the former by distillation. 
 Spirits usually contain about fifty per cent, of 
 alcohol, beer and wines from one to twenty per 
 cent. The alcohol in all cases results from the 
 breaking up of the sugar in the fermenting liquid. 
 Sugars. 
 
 Ordinary sugar, or cane sugar; uncrystallizable, 
 or fruit sugar; and grape sugar, or glucose, are 
 the three most important varieties. Fruit sugar 
 exists in all the sub-acid fruits as grapes, currants, 
 apples, peaches, etc. When these are dried, it 
 changes to grape sugar forming the whitish grains 
 Which are seen on the outside of prunes, raisins, 
 
 etc. Grape sugar is found to a limited extent in 
 fruits associated with fruit sugar. Cane sugar is 
 readily changed by the action of acids or ferments 
 into fruit sugar, and the latter into grape tugar, 
 but the process cannot be reversed. Grape sugar 
 is the only fermentable variety, the others becom- 
 ing changed into it before fermentation. 
 Transformation of Starch, etc. 
 
 Under the influence of acids, or diastole, a 
 principle existing in germinating grains, rtarch 
 is changed first into gum (dextrine) and after- 
 wards into grape sugar. Hence one of our most 
 important sources of alcohol is to be found in the 
 starch of barley, corn, wheat, potatoes, etc. Wood 
 may be converted into grape sugar by the action 
 of strung sulphuric acid, which is afterwards neu- 
 tralized. An attempt to produce alcohol in thi? 
 way on a commercial scale was made in France, 
 but was not successful. 
 
 Ferment. 
 
 A solution of pure sugar will remain unchanged 
 
252 
 
 BREWING AND DISTILLATION. 
 
 for an indefinite period of time. To induce fer- 
 mentation, a portion of some nitrogenous body, 
 itself undergoing decomposition, must be added. 
 Such ferments are albumen (white of egg), fibrin 
 (fibre of flesh), casein (basis of cheese), gluten 
 (the pasty matter of flour). Yeast consists of 
 vegetable egg-shaped cells, which is increased 
 during its action as a ferment. 
 
 Circumstances influencing Fermentation. 
 
 In order that fermentation shall begin we re- 
 quire, besides the contact of the ferment, the pre- 
 sence of air. The most easily decomposed articles 
 of food ma.y be preserved for an indefinite period 
 by hermetically sealing them in jars, after drawing 
 out the air. When once begun, however, ferment- 
 ation will go on, if the air be excluded. Tempera- 
 ture is important. The most favorable tempera- 
 ture is between 68 and 77 Fahr. At a low 
 temperature fermentation is exceedingly slow. 
 Bavarian or lager beer is brewed between 32 and 
 46i Fahr. A boiling heat instantly stops fer- 
 mentation, by killing the ferment. 
 
 To check fermentation we may remove the yeast 
 by filtration. Hops, oil of mustard, sulphurous 
 acid (from burning sulphur), the sulphites, sul- 
 phuric acid, check the process by killing the 
 ferment. 
 
 Too much sugar is unfavorable to fermentation, 
 the best strength for the syrup is ten parts of 
 water to one of sugar. 
 
 Changes during Fermentation, etc. 
 
 The grape-sugar breaks up into carbonic acid 
 which escapes a,s gas, alcohol and water which 
 remain. In malting the grain is allowed to ger- 
 minate, during which process the starch of the 
 grain is changed into gum and sugar: the root- 
 lets make their appearance at one end and the 
 stalk or acrospire at the other. The germination 
 is then checked by heating in a kiln; if allowed 
 to proceed a certain portion of the sugar would 
 be converted into woody matter, and lost. 
 
 In brewing the saccharine matter is extracted 
 from the malt during the mashing. Yea,st is added 
 to cause fermentation ; an infusion of hops after- 
 wards, to add to the flavor and to check fermen- 
 tation. In wine making there is sufficient albu- 
 minous matter in the grape to cause fermentation 
 without the use of yeast. 
 
 Distillation separates the alcohol in great part 
 
 from the water. Alcohol boils at 179 Fahr., and 
 
 water at 212. It is not possible, however, to 
 
 separate entirely alcohol and water by distillation. 
 
 Acetic Fermentation. 
 
 Weak fermented liquors will become sour on 
 exposure to the air. This is owing to the conver- 
 sion of their alcohol into acetic acid (s^e Vinegar). 
 This change is due to the absorption of the oxygen 
 of the air, and is much promoted by the presence 
 of a peculiar plant, the mother of vinegar. It is 
 sometimes called the acetous fermentation. 
 Viscous Fermentation. 
 
 By the action of yeast on beet-sugar a peculiar 
 fermentation is set up; but little alcohol is formed. 
 The same gives ropiness to wines and beer. It is 
 checked by vegetable astringents. 
 
 BREWING. 
 
 To Jit up a small Breio-Tiouse. 
 Provide a copper holding full two-thirds of the 
 quantity proposed to be brewed, with a gauge- 
 stick to determine the number of gallons in the 
 copper. A mash-tub, or tun, adapted to contain 
 two- thirds of the quantity proposed to be brewed, 
 and one or two tuns of equal size to feiment the 
 wort; three or four shallow coolers j one or two 
 
 wooden bowls; a thermometer; half a dozen 
 casks of different sizes ; a large funnel ; two or 
 three clean pails, and a hand-pump. 
 
 This proceeds on the supposition of two mashes 
 for ale; but if only one mash is adapted for ale, 
 with a view of making the table-beer better, then 
 the copper and mash tun should hold one-third 
 more than the quantity to be brewed. 
 
 The expenses of brewing depend on the price 
 of malt and hops, and on the proposed strength 
 of the article. One-quarter of good malt **>d 
 eight pounds of good hops ought to make tw*. 
 barrels of good ale and one of table-beer. The 
 other expenses consist of coal and labor. 
 
 Of public breweries, and their extensive uteiisils 
 and machinery, we give no description, because 
 books are not likely to be resorted to by the class 
 of persons engaged in those extensive manufacto- 
 ries for information relative to their own partic- 
 ular business. 
 
 To choose Water for Brewing. 
 
 Soft water, or hard water softened by exposure 
 to the air, is generally preferred, because it makes 
 a stronger extract, and is more inclined to fer- 
 ment; but hard water is better for keeping beer, 
 and is less liable to turn sour. Some persons 
 soften hard water by throwing a spoonful of soda 
 into a barrel, and others do it with a handful of 
 common salt mixed with an ounce of salt of tartar. 
 
 To make Malt. 
 
 Put about 6 quarters of good barley, newly 
 threshed, etc., into a stone trough full of water, 
 and let it steep till the water be of a bright red- 
 dish color, which will be in about 3 days, more or 
 less, according to the moisture or dryness, small- 
 ness or bigness of the grain, the season of the 
 year, or the temperature of the wea,ther. In sum- 
 mer malt never makes well ; in winter it requires 
 longer steeping than in spring or autumn. It 
 may be known when steeped enough by other 
 marks besides the color of the water. The grains 
 should be soft enough to be pierced with a needle, 
 but not to be crushed between the nails. When 
 sufficiently steeped take it out of the trough, and 
 lay it in heaps, to let the water drain from it; 
 then, after 2 or 3 hours, turn it over with a scoop, 
 and lay it in a new heap, 20 or 24 inches deep. 
 This is called the coming heap, in the right man- 
 agement of which lies the principal skill. In this 
 heap it may lie 40 hours, more or less, according 
 to the aforementioned qualities of the grain, etc., 
 before it comes to the right temper of malt. While 
 it lies it must be carefully looked to after the first 
 15 or 16 hours, for about that time the grains 
 begin to put forth roots, which, when they have 
 equally and fully done, the malt must, within an 
 hour after, be turned over with a scoop ; other- 
 wise the grains will begin to put forth the blade 
 and spire also, which must by all means be pro- 
 vented. If all the malt do not come equally, but 
 that which lies in the middle, being warmest, 
 come the soonest, the whole must be turned, so 
 that what was outmost may be inmost; and thus 
 it is managed till it be all alike. As soon as the 
 malt is sufficiently come, turn it over, and spread 
 it to a depth not exceeding 5 or 6 inches; and by 
 the time it is all spread out begin and turn it ever 
 again 3 or 4 times. Afiersvards turn it over in 
 like manner once in 4 or 5 hours, making the heap 
 deeper by degrees, and continue to do so for the 
 space of 48 hours at least. This cools, dries, and 
 deadens the grain, so that it becomes mellow, 
 melts easily in brewing, and separates entirely 
 from the husk. Then throw up the malt into a 
 heap as high as possible, where let it lie till it 
 grows as hot as the hand can bear it, which usually 
 
BREWING. 
 
 happens in about the space of 30 hours. This 
 perfects the sweetness and mellowness of the malt. 
 After being sufficiently heated, throw it abroad to 
 cool, and turn it over again about 6 or 8 hours 
 after; and then lay it on a kiln with a hair cloth 
 or wire spread under it. After one fire, which 
 must last 24 hours, give it another more slow, and 
 afterwards, if need be, a third; for if the malt be 
 not thoroughly dried, it cannot be well ground, 
 neither will it dissolve well in the brewing; but 
 the ale it makes will be red, bitter, and unfit for 
 keeping. 
 
 To grind Malt. 
 
 To obtain the infusion of malt it is necessary to 
 break it, for which purpose it is passed through 
 stones placed at such distance, as that they may 
 crush each grain without reducing it to powder 
 for if ground too small it makes the worts thick 
 while if not broken at all the extract is not ob 
 tained. In general, pale malts are ground larger 
 than amber or brown malts. 
 
 Malt should be used within two or three days 
 after it is ground, but in the London brew-houses 
 it is generally ground one day and used the next, 
 A quarter of malt ground should yield nine bushels 
 and sometimes ten. Crushing mills or iron rollers 
 have lately been used in preference to stones which 
 make a considerable grit with the malt. On a 
 small scale, malt muy be broken by wooden rollers 
 by the hands. 
 
 Steel mills like coffee mills have also been usec 
 for crushing malt with great success. 
 
 To determine the Qualities of Malt. 
 
 First, examine well if it has a round body 
 breaks soft, is full of flour all its length, smells 
 well, and has a thin skin; next chew some of it 
 and if sweet and mellow, then it is good. If it is 
 hard and steely, and retains something of a bar- 
 ley nature, it has not been rightly made, and will 
 weigh heavier than that which has been properly 
 malted. 
 
 Secondly, take a glass nearly full of water ; put 
 in some malt, and if it swims, it is good, but if 
 any sinks to the bottom then it is not true malt. 
 
 Pale malt is the slowest and least dried, pro- 
 ducing more worts than high dried malt, and of 
 better quality. Amber colored malt, or that be- 
 tween pale and brown, produces a flavor much 
 admired in many malt liquors. Brown malt loses 
 much of its nutritious qualities, but confers a pe- 
 culiar flavor desired by many palates. Roasted 
 malt, after the manner of coffee, is used by the 
 best London brewers, to give color and flavor to 
 porter, which in the first instance has been made 
 from pale malt. 
 
 To choose Hops. 
 
 Rub them between the fingers or the palm of 
 the hand, and if good, a rich glutinous substance 
 will be felt, with a fragrant smell, and a fine yel- 
 low dust will appear. The best color is a fine 
 olive green, but if too green, and the seeds are 
 small and shrivelled, they have been picked too 
 soon and will be deficient in flavor. If of a dusty 
 brown <solor, they were picked too late, and should 
 not be chosen. When a year old, they are con- 
 sidered as losing one-fourth in strength. 
 
 To determine the Proportion between the Liquor 
 
 boiled and the Quantity produced. 
 From a single quarter, two barrels of liquor will 
 produce but one barrel of wort. Three barrels 
 will produce one barrel and three quarters. Four 
 barrels will produce two barrels and a half. Five 
 barrels will produce three barrels and a quarter. 
 Six barrels will produce four barrels. Eight bar- 
 rels will produce five barrels and a half, and ten 
 
 quor or Water for 
 different kindt 
 
 barrels will produce sev 
 proportion for other qu 
 
 To determine the Heats 
 
 the First and Second 
 
 of Malt. 
 
 First Mash. For very pale^Tnalt turn on the 
 liquor nt 176 Fahr. For pale and amber mixed, 
 172; all amber, 170; high-colored amber, 168. 
 An equal quantity of pale, amber, and brown, 
 160. If the quantity of brown is very dark, or 
 any part of the grains charred by the fire upon the 
 kiln, 155. 
 
 Second Mash. For very pale malt turn on the 
 liquor at 182. For pale and amber mixed, 178; 
 all amber, 176; high-colored amber, 172. An 
 equal quantity of pale, amber and brown, 16B. 
 If the quantity of brown is very dark, or any part 
 of the grains charred by the fire, 164. 
 
 The heat should in some measure be regulated 
 by the temperature of the atmosphere, and should 
 be two or three degrees higher in cold than in 
 warm weather. 
 
 The proper degree of heat will give the strong- 
 est wort and in the greatest quantity, for though 
 the heat were greater and the strength of the wort 
 thereby increased, yet a greater quantity of liquor 
 would be retained in the malt; and again, if it 
 were lower, it would produce more wort, but the 
 strength of the extract would be deficient; the 
 beer without spirit, and likely to turn sour. 
 
 To determine the Strength of the Worts. 
 To effect this a saccharometer is necessary, and 
 may be purchased at any mathematical instrument 
 maker's. It determines the relative gravity of 
 wort to the water used, and the quantity of fari- 
 naceous matter contained in the wort. It is used 
 in all public breweries after drawing off' the wort 
 from each mash, and regulates the heat and quan- 
 tity of liquor turned on at each succeeding mash, 
 that the ultimate strength may be equal though 
 the quantity is less. This signifies little to the 
 private, but it is of great consequence to the pub- 
 lic brewer. Those who brew frequently and de- 
 sire to introduce it will obtain printed tables and 
 instructions with the instrument. 
 
 To proportion the Hops. 
 
 The usual quantity is a pound to the bushel of 
 malt, or 8 Ibs. to the quarter; but for keeping- 
 beer, it should be extended to 10 or 12, and if for 
 one or two years to 14 Ibs. to the quarter. Small 
 beer requires from 3 to 6 Ibs. the quarter, and 
 rather more when old hops are used. 
 
 Some persons, instead of boiling the hops with 
 the wort, macerate them, and put the strong ex- 
 tract into the tun with the first wort, and make 
 2 or 3 extracts in like manner for the second and 
 third worts 
 
 To Boil Worts. 
 
 The first wort should be sharply boiled for 1 
 hour, and the second for 2 hours; but if intended 
 for beer of long-keeping, the time should be ex- 
 tended half an hour. The hops should be strained 
 from each preceding wort, and returned into the 
 copper with the succeeding one. Between the 
 boilings the fires should be damped with wet cin- 
 ders, and the copper door set open. 
 
 For small beer only half an hour is necessary 
 for the first wort, 1 hour for the second, and 2 hours 
 or the third. The diminution from boiling is from 
 >ne-eighth to one-sixteenth. 
 
 To Cool the Worh. 
 
 Worts should be laid so shallow as to cool within 
 ' or 7 hours to the temperature of 60. In warm, 
 weather the depth should not exceed 2 or 3 inches. 
 
254 
 
 BREWING. 
 
 but in cold weather it may be 5 inches. As soon 
 as they have fallen to 60 they should instantly 
 be tunned and yeasted. 
 
 To Choose Heats for Tunning. 
 
 In cold weather the heats in the coolers should 
 be 5 or 6 higher than in mild and warm weather. 
 For ale, in cold weather, it should be tunned as 
 Boon as it has fallen to 60 F;ihr. in the coolers; 
 for porter to 64, and for table beer to 74, and in 
 warm weather strong beer should be 4 or 5 less, 
 and table beer 7 or 8. Care should also be taken 
 that the worts do not get cold before the yeast is 
 mixed to produce fermentation. The best rule 
 for mixing the yeast is H Ibs. to every barrel of 
 strong beer wort, and 1 Ib. to every barrel of ta- 
 ble beer wort. 
 
 To Mix the Yeast with the Worts. 
 
 Ale brewed for keeping in winter should be no 
 more than blood warm when the yeast is put to 
 it. If it is intended for immediate drinking, it 
 may be yeasted a little warmer. The best method 
 of mixing the yeast is to take 2 or 3 quarts of the 
 hot water wort in a wooden bowl or pan, to which, 
 when cool enough, put yeast enough to work the 
 brewing, generally 1 or 2 quarts to the hogshead, 
 according to its quality. In this bowl or pan the 
 fermentation will commence while the rest of the 
 worts are cooling, when the whole may be mixed 
 together. 
 To Apportion Yeast and Apply it to the Worts. 
 
 The yeast of strong beer is preferable to that 
 from small beer, and it should be fresh and good. 
 The quantity should be diminished with the tem- 
 perature at which the worts are tunned, and less 
 in summer than in winter. For strong beer a 
 quart of yeast per quarter will be suffiVont at 58, 
 but less when the worts are higher and when the 
 weather is hot. If estimated by the more accu- 
 rate criterion of weight, 1 Ibs. should be used 
 for a barrel of strong beer, and 1J Ibs. for a bar- 
 rel of small beer. If the fermentation does not 
 commence add a little more yeast, and rouse the 
 worts for some time. But if they get cold, and 
 the fermentation is slow, fill a bottle with hot wa- 
 ter and put it into the tun. 
 
 In cold weather small beer should be tunned at 
 70, keeping beer at 50 and strong beer at 54. 
 In mild weather at 50 for each sort. The fer- 
 mentation will increase the heat 10. 
 
 To Manage the Fermentation. 
 
 A proportion of the yeast should be added to 
 the first wort as soon as it is let down from the 
 soolers, and the remainder as soon as the second 
 wort is let down. 
 
 The commencement of fermentation is indica- 
 ted by a line of small bubbles round the sides of 
 the tun, which in a short time extends over the 
 surface. A crusty head follows, and then a fine 
 rocky one, followed by a light, frothy head. In 
 the last stage the head assumes a yeasty appear- 
 ance, and the color is yellow or brown, the s-mell 
 of the tun becoming strongly vinous. As soon as 
 this head begins to fall, the tun should be skim- 
 med, and the skimming continued every 2 hours 
 till no more yeast appears; this closes the opera- 
 tion, and it should then be put in casks, or, in 
 technical language, cleansed. A minute attention 
 to every stage of this process is necessary to se- 
 eure fine flavored and brilliant beverage. Should 
 the fermentation be unusually slow, it should be 
 accelerated by stirring or rousing the whole. 
 After the first skimming, a small quantity of salt 
 and flour, well mixed, should be stirred in the tun. 
 The fermentation will proceed in the casks, to 
 encourage which the bung-hole should be placed 
 
 a little aside, and the casks kept full hy being 
 filled up from time to time with oU beer. When 
 this fermentation has ceased the casks may be 
 bunged up. 
 
 To Accelerate the Fermentation. 
 
 Spread some flour with the hand over .the sur- 
 face, and it will form a crust, and keep the worts 
 warm, or throw in an ounce or two of powdered 
 ginger, or fill a bottle with boiling water and sink 
 it" in the worts, or heat a small quantity of the 
 worts and throw into the rest, or beat up the 
 whites of two eggs with some brandy and thr^w 
 it into the tun or cask, or tie up some bran in a 
 coarse, thin cloth and put it into the vat, an& 
 above all things do not disturb the wort, as kr, 
 mentation will not commence during any agita- 
 tion of the wort. 
 
 To Check a Too Rapid Fermentation. 
 
 Mix some cold raw wort in the tun, or divide 
 the whole between two tuns, where, by being in 
 smaller body, the energy of the fermentation of 
 the whole will be divided. Also open the doors 
 and windows, of the brew-house; but, if it still 
 frets, sprinkle some cold water over it; or if it 
 frets in the cask, put a mixture of a J of a Ib. of 
 sugar with a handful of salt, to the hogshead. 
 
 To Brew Porter on the London System. 
 
 Thames or New River water is indifferently 
 used, or hard water, raised into backs and exposed 
 for a few days to the air. 
 
 Take a mixture of brown, amber and pale malts, 
 in nearly equal quantities, and turn them into the 
 mash-tub in this order. Turn on the first liquor 
 at 1 65, mash 1 hour and then coat the whole with 
 dry malt. In 1 hour set the tap. 
 
 Mix 10 Ibs. of brown hops to the quarter of 
 malt, half old, half new ; boil the first wort briskly 
 with the hops for three-quarters of an hour, and 
 after putting into the copper 1 Ibs. of sugar and 
 li Ibs, of Leghorn juice (extract of liquorice^ to 
 the barrel, turn the whole into the coolers, rousing 
 the wort all the t me. 
 
 Turn on the second liquor at 174, and in an 
 hour set tap again. This second wort having run 
 off, turn on again at 145; mash for an hour and 
 stand for the same, in the meantime boiling the 
 second wort with the same hops for an hour. Turn 
 these into the coolei.s as before, and let down into 
 the tub at 64, mixing the yeast as it comes down. 
 Cleanse the second day at 80, previously throw- 
 ing in a mixture of flour and salt, and rousing 
 thoroughly. 
 
 For private use, eve/y quarter of malt ought to 
 yield 2 barrels and a half, but brewers would run 
 3 barrels to a quarter. 
 
 To Brew three Barrels of Porter. 
 
 Take 1 sack of pale malt, a sack of amber 
 malt, and % a sack of brown malt. 
 
 Turn on 2 barrels for first mash at 165 ; second 
 mash, li barrels at 172; third mash, 2 barrels 
 at 142. Boil 10 Ibs. of new and old hops, and 2 
 oz. of porter extract in the first wort. Cool, fer- 
 ment, and cleanse according to the previous in- 
 structions. 
 
 Brown Stout. 
 
 Th6 procedure is the same as in the preceding 
 article, except that one-third or one-half the malt 
 should be brown. 
 
 To brew Ale in Small Families. 
 A bushel and three-quarters of ground malt and 
 a pound of hops are sufficient to make 18 gallons 
 of good family ale. That the saccharine matter 
 of the malt may be extracted by infusion, without 
 the farina, the temperature of the water shou'd 
 
ALE. 
 
 255 
 
 not exceed 155 or 160. The quantity of water 
 should be poured on the malt as speedily as pos- 
 sible, and rhe whole being well mixed together by 
 active stirring, the vessel should be closely covered 
 over for an hour; if the weather be cold, for an 
 hour and a half. If hard water be employed it 
 should be boiled, and the temperature allowed, by 
 exposure to the atmosphere, to fall to 155 or 160, 
 but if rain water is used, it may be added to the 
 malt as soon as it arrives to 155. During the 
 time this process is going on, the hops should be 
 infused in a cl->se vessel, in as much boiling water 
 as will cover them, for 2 hours. The liquor may 
 then be squeezed out, and kept closely covered. 
 
 The hops should then be boiled for about 10 
 minutes, in double the quantity of water obtained 
 from the infused hops, and the strained liquor, 
 when cold, may be added with the infusion to the 
 wort, when it has fallen to the temperature of 70. 
 The object of infusing the hops in a close vessel 
 previously to boiling, is to preserve the essential 
 oil of hops, which renders it more sound, and 
 at the same time more wholesome. A pint of 
 good thick yeast should be well stirred into the 
 mixture of wort and hops, and covered over in a 
 place of the temperature of 65 ; and when the 
 fermentation is completed, the liquor may be 
 drawn off into a clean cask previously rinsed with 
 boiling water. When the slow fermentation which 
 will ensue has ceased, the cask should be loosely 
 bunged for two days, when, if the liquor be left 
 quiet, the bung may be properly fastened. The 
 pale malt is the best, because, when highly dried, 
 it does not afford so much saccharine matter. If 
 the malt be new, it should be exposed to the air, 
 in a drv room, for 2 days previously to its being 
 used ; but if it be old, it may be used in 12 or 20 
 hours after it is ground. The great difference 
 in the flavor of ale made by different brewers 
 appears to arise from their employing different 
 species of hops. 
 
 Another Method of Brewing Ale. 
 
 For 36 gallons, take of 'malt (usually pale), 1\ 
 bushels; sugar, 3 Ibs. just boiled to a color; hops, 
 2 Ibs. 8 oz. ; coriander seeds, 1 oz. ; capsicum, | a 
 drachm. 
 
 Work it 2 or 3 days, beating it well up once or 
 twice a day ; when it begins to fall, cleanse it by 
 adding a handful of salt and some wheat ti /ur. 
 Table Beer only, from Pole Malt. 
 
 The first mash should be at 170, viz. 2 barrels 
 per quarter; let it stand on the grains J of an 
 hour in hot weather, or 1 hour if cold. Second 
 mash, 145 at li barrels per quarter, stands an 
 hour. Third, 165, 2 barrels per quarter, stands 
 i an hour. Fourth, 130, 3 barrels, stands 2 
 hours. The first wort to be boiled with 6 Ibs. of 
 hops per quarter for 1 hours, the second wort to 
 be boiled with the same hops 2 hours, and the re- 
 mainder 3 hours. The whole is to be now heated 
 as low as 55 if the weather permits, and put to 
 work with about 5 pints of yeast per quarter; if 
 the weather is too warm to get them down to 55, 
 a less proportion will be sufficient. The 8 barrels 
 of liquor first used will be reduced to 6 of beer 
 to each quarter; 1 barrel being left in the grains, 
 and another evaporated in boiling, cooling and 
 working. 
 
 Ale and Small Beer on Mr. Cobbett's Plan. 
 Utensils. 
 
 These are first, a copper that will contain at 
 least 40 gallons. Second, a mashing-tub to con- 
 tain 60 gallons; for the malt is to be in this along 
 with the water. It must be a little broader at top 
 than at bottom, and not quite so deep as it is wide 
 across the bottom. In the middle of the bottom 
 
 there is a hole about 2 inches over, to draw the 
 wort off. Into this hole goes a stick a foot or two 
 longer than the tub is high. This stick is to be 
 about 2 inches through, and tapered for about 3 
 inches upwards, at the end that goes into the 
 hole, which at last it fills up as closely as a cork. 
 Before anything else is put into the tub, lay a 
 little bundle of fine birch about half the bulk of a 
 birch broom, and well tied at both ends. This 
 being laid over the hole (to keep back the grains 
 as the wort goes out), put the tapered end of the 
 stick down through it into the hole, and thus cork 
 the whole up. Then have something of weight 
 sufficient to keep the birch steady at the bottom 
 of the tub, with a hole through it to slip down the 
 stick ; the best thing for this purpose will be a 
 le<idcu collar for the stick, with the hole large 
 enough, and it should weigh 3 or 4 pounds. 
 
 Third, an underback or shallow tub, to go under 
 the mash-tub for the wort to run into when drawn 
 from the grains. 
 
 Fourth, a tun-tub that will contain 30 gallons, 
 to put the ale into to work, the mash-tub serving 
 as a tun-tub for the small beer. Besides these, a 
 couple of coolers or shallow tubs, about a foot 
 deep ; or, if there are four it may be as well, in 
 order to effect the cooling more quickly. 
 
 Process of Brewing the Ale. 
 
 Begin by filling the copper with water, and next 
 by making the water boil. Then put into the 
 mashing-tub water sufficient to stir and separate 
 the malt. The degree of heat that the water is to 
 be at, before the malt is put in, is 170 by tho 
 thermometer; but, without one, take this rule: 
 when you can, looking down into the tub, see yc'il 
 face clearly in the water, the water is hot enough. 
 Now put in the malt and stir it well in the water. 
 In this state it should continue for about i of an 
 hour. In the meanwhile fill up the copper, and 
 make it boil; and then put in boiling water suffi- 
 cient to give 18 gallons of ale. 
 
 When the proper quantity of water is in stir the 
 malt again well, and cover the mashing-tub over 
 with sacks, and there let the mash stand for 2 
 ho-irs; then draw off the wort. The mashing-tub 
 is placed on a couple of stools, so as to be able to 
 put the underback under it to receive the wort as 
 it ./ouies out of the hole. When the underback is 
 put in its place, let out the wort by pulling up the 
 stick that corks the hole. But observe, this stick 
 (which goes 6 or 8 inches through the hole) must 
 be raised by degrees, and the wort must be let out 
 slowly in order to keep back the sediment. So 
 that it is necessary to have something to keep the 
 stick up at the point where it is to be raised, and 
 fixed at for the time. To do this the simplest 
 thing is a stick across the mashing-tub. 
 
 As the ale-wort is drawn off' into the small un- 
 derback, lade it out of that into the tun-tub; put 
 the wort into the copper, and add 1 pounds of 
 good hops, well rubbed and separated as they are 
 put in. Now make the copper boil, and keep it, 
 with the lid off, at a good brisk boil for a full 
 hour, or an hour and a half. When the boiling is 
 done, put the liquor into the coolers, but strain 
 out the hops in a small clothes-basket or wicker- 
 basket. Now set the coolers in the most conve- 
 nient place, in doors or out of doors, as most con- 
 venient. 
 
 The next stage is the tun-tub, where the liquor 
 is set to work. A great point is, the degree of 
 heat that the liquor is to be at, when it is set to 
 work. The proper heat is 70; so that a ther- 
 mometer makes the matter sure. In the country 
 they determine the degree of heat by merely put- 
 ting a finger into the liquor. 
 
256 
 
 BREWING. 
 
 When cooled to the proper heat, put it into the 
 tun-tub, and put in about half a pint of good yeast. 
 But the yeast should first be put into half a gallon 
 of the liquor, and mixed well; stirring in with the 
 yeast a handful of wheat or rye-flour. This mix- 
 ture is then to be poured out clean into the tun- 
 tub, and the mass of the liquor agitated well, till 
 the yeast be well mixed with the whole. When 
 the liquor is thus properly put into the tun -tub 
 and set a working, cover over the top, by laying a 
 sack or two across it. 
 
 The tun-tub should stand in a place neither too 
 warm nor too cold. Any cool place in summer, 
 and any warm place in winter, and if the weather 
 be very cold, some cloths or sacks should be put 
 round the tiyi-tub while the beer is working.' In 
 about 6 or 8 hours a frothy head will rise upon the 
 liquor : and it will keep rising, more or less slowly, 
 for 48 hours. The best way is to take off the froth, 
 at the end of about 24 hours, with a common skim- 
 mer, and in 12 hours take it off again, and so on, 
 till the liquor has done working, and sends up no 
 more yeast. Then it is beer; and, when it is quite 
 cold (for ale or strong beer), put it into the cask 
 by means of a funnel. It must be cold before this 
 is done, or it will be foxed; that is, have a rank 
 and disagreeable taste. 
 
 The cask should lean a little on one side when 
 filling it, because the beer will work again, and 
 send more yeast out of the bung hole. Something 
 will go off in this working, which may continue for 
 2 or 3 days, so that when the beer is being put 
 in the cask, a gallon or two should be left, to keep 
 filling up with as the working produces emptiness. 
 At last when the working is completely over, 
 block the cask up to its level. Put in a handful 
 of fresh hops, fill the cask quite full, and bung it 
 tight, with a bit of coarse linen round the bung. 
 
 When the cask is empty, great care must be 
 taken to cork it tightly up, so that no air gets in ; 
 for, if so, the cask is moulded and spoilt for ever. 
 The Small Beer. 
 
 Thirty-six gallons of boiling water are to go into 
 the mashing-tub; the grains are to be well stirred 
 up, as before; the mashing-tub is to be covered 
 over, and the mash is to stand in that state for an 
 hour; then draw it off into the tun-tub. 
 
 By this time the copper will be empty again, by 
 
 putting the ale liquor to cool. Now put the small 
 
 beer wort into the copper with the hops used be- 
 
 *ore, and with half a pound of fresh hops added 
 
 o them; and boil this liquor briskly for an hour. 
 
 Take the grains and the sediment clean out of 
 the mashing-tub, put the birch twigs in again, and 
 put down the stick as before. Put the basket over, 
 and take the liquor from the copper (putting the 
 fire out first) and pour it into the mashing-tub 
 through the basket. Take the basket away, throw 
 the hops on the dunghill, and leave the small beer 
 liquor to cool in the mashing-tub. 
 
 Here it is to remain to be set to working; only, 
 more yeast will be wanted in proportion; and there 
 should be for 36 galls, of small beer, 3 half pints 
 of good yeast. 
 
 Proceed now as with the ale, only, in the case 
 of the small beer it should be put into cask, not 
 quite cold; or else it will not work in the barrel, 
 as it ought to do. It will not work so strongly 
 nor so long as ale; and may be put in the barrel 
 much sooner, in general the next day after it is 
 brewed. 
 
 All the utensils should be well cleaned and put 
 away as soon as they are done with. " I ana now/' 
 Bays Mr. Cobbet, "in a farm house, where the 
 Bame set of utensils has been used for forty years; 
 and the owner tells me, that they may last for 
 forty years longer." 
 
 To Brew Ale and Porter from Sugar and Malt. 
 
 To every quarter of malt take 100 Ibs. of brown 
 sugar, and in the result, it will be found that the 
 sugar is equal to the malt. The quarter of malt 
 is to be brewed with the same proportions, as 
 though it were 2 quarters; and sugar is to be put 
 into the tun, and the first wort let down upon it, 
 rousing the whole well together. 
 
 The other w>ns are then to be let down, r nd 
 the fermentation and other processes carried on 
 as in the brewing of malt. 
 
 To Brew Burton Ale. 
 
 Of this strong ale, only a barrel and a half is 
 drawn from a quarter, at 180 for the first mash, 
 and 190 for the second, followed by a gyle of 
 table beer. It is tunned at 58, and cleansed at 
 72. The Burton brewers use the finest pale malt, 
 and grind it a day or two before being used. They 
 employ Kentish hops, from 6 to 8 Ibs. per quarter. 
 To Brew Notiiigham Ale in tlte small way. 
 
 The first copperful of boiling water is to be put 
 into the mash-tub, there to lie a quarter of an hour, 
 till the steam is far spent; or as soon as the hot 
 water is put in, throw into it a pail or two of cold 
 water, which will bring it at once to a proper tem- 
 perature; then let 3 bus. of malt run leisurely in- 
 to it, and stir or mash all the while, but no more 
 than just to keep the malt from clotting or ball- 
 ing; when that is done, put 1 bu. of dry malt at 
 the top, and let it stand covered 2 hours, or till 
 the next copperful of water is boiled, then lade 
 over the malt 3 handbowlsful at a time. These 
 run off at the cock or tap by a very small stream 
 before more is put on, which again must be re- 
 turned into the mash-tub till it comes off exceed- 
 ingly fine. This slow way takes 16 hours in brew- 
 ing 4 bus. of malt. Between the ladings, put cold 
 water into the copper to boil, while the other is 
 running off; by this means, the copper is kept up 
 nearly full, and the cock is kept running to the 
 end of the brewing. Only 21 galls, must be saved 
 of the first wort, which is reserved in a tub, where- 
 in 4 oz. of hops are put, and then it is to be set by. 
 
 For the second wort there are 20 galls, of water 
 in the copper boiling which must be laded over in 
 the same manner as the former, but no cold water 
 need be mixed. When half of this is run out into 
 a tub, it must be directly put into the copper with 
 half of the first wort, strained through the brew- 
 ing sieve as it lies on a small loose wooden frame 
 over the copper, in order to keep those hops that 
 were first put in to preserve it, which is to make 
 the first copper 21 galls. Then, upon its begin- 
 ning to boil, put in 1 Ib. of hops in 1 or 2 canvas 
 bags, somewhat larger than will just contain the 
 hops, that an allowance may be given for their 
 swell; this boil very briskly for \ an hour, when 
 take the hops out and continue boiling the wort 
 by itself till it breaks into particles a little ragged; 
 it is then done, and must be dispersed into the 
 cooling tubs very shallow. Put the remainder of 
 the first and second wort together, and boil it in 
 the same manner, and with the same quantity of 
 fresh hops, as the first. 
 
 By this method of brewing, ale may be made as 
 strong or as small as is thought fit, and so may 
 the small beer that comes after. 
 
 To brew Essex Ale. 
 
 Procure 2 mashing-tubs, 1 that will mash 4 
 bus., and the other 2 bus., and a copper that holds 
 i a hogshead. The water, when boiled, is put in- 
 to the largest tub, and a pail of cold water imme- 
 diately on that; then put the malt in by a hand- 
 bowlful at a time, stirring it all the while, and so 
 on in a greater quantity by degrees (for the danger 
 
BEER. 
 
 257 
 
 of balling is mostly at first), till at last i a bus. 
 of dry malt is left for a top-cover; thus let it stand 
 3 hours. In the meanwhile, another copper of 
 water is directly heated, and put as before into the 
 other mash-tub, for mashing 2 bus. of malt, which 
 stands that time. Then, after the wort of the 4 
 bus. is run off, let that also of the 2 bus. spend, 
 and lade it over the 4 bus., the cock running all 
 the while, and it will make in all a copper and 
 a half of wort, which is boiled twice; that is, 
 when the first copper is boiled an hour, or till it 
 breaks into large flakes; then take half out, and 
 put the remaining raw wort to it, and boil it about 
 i an hour till it is broken. Now while the 2 worts 
 are running off, a copper of water almost scalding 
 hot is made ready, and put over the goods or 
 grains of both tubs ; after an hour's standing the 
 cock is turned, and this second wort is boiled away, 
 and put over the grains of both tubs to stand 1 
 hour ; when off, it is put into the copper and boiled 
 again, and then serves hot instead of the first 
 water, for mashing 4 bus. of fresh malt; after it 
 has again lain 3 hours, and is spent off, it is boil- 
 ed ; but while in the mash-tub, a copper of water 
 is heated to put over the goods or grains, which 
 stands 1 hour, and is then boiled for small beer. 
 And thus may be brewed 10 bus. of malt with 2 
 Ibs. of hops for the whole. 
 
 To brew Edinburgh Ale. 
 
 Adopt the best pale malt. 
 
 1st. Mash two barrels per quarter, at 183 
 (170) ; mash three-quarters of an hour, let it 
 stand one hour, and allow half an hour to run off 
 the wort. 
 
 2nd. Mash one barrel per quarter, at 190 
 (183); mash three-quarters of an hour, let it 
 stand three-quarters of an hour, and tap as before. 
 
 3rd. Mash one barrel per quarter, at 160 ; 
 mash half an hour, let it stand half an hour, and 
 tap as before. 
 
 The first and second wort may be mixed to- 
 gether, boiling them about an hour or an hour 
 and a quarter, with a quantity of hops proportioned 
 to the time the beer is intended to be kept. 
 
 The two first may be mixed at the heat of 60 
 or 65 in the gyle-tun, and the second should be 
 fermented separately for small beer. 
 
 Bavarian or Lager Beer. 
 
 The malt is first mixed with water of ordinary 
 temperature; for 1 part of malt about 39 parts of 
 water are employed. The whole is allowed to rest 
 6 or 8 hours, after which the mashing is begun by 
 mixing the mass with 3 parts of boiling water 
 added gradually during continual agitation, by 
 which its temperature is raised to 106 Fahr. The 
 thick part of the mash is then transferred to the 
 copper and heated to boiling with constant agi- 
 tation, and after an hour's boiling again returned 
 to the mash-tun and mixed thoroughly with its 
 liquid contents, by which the temperature in the 
 mash-tun is raised to 133. The thick part of the 
 mash is once more transferred to the copper and 
 boiled for an hour and returned to the mash-tun, 
 by which the temperature is raised to 154. The 
 fluid part of the mash is then transferred to the 
 copper and boiled for a quarter of an hour, and 
 then poured back upon the masn in the tun, and 
 mixed thoroughly with it. The temperature is 
 thereby raised to from 167 to 180. After agita- 
 tion for a quarter of an hour the mash is left at 
 rest for an hour or an hour and a half, after which 
 the clear wort is drawn off. 
 
 The fermentation of lager is peculiar, it is per- 
 formed very slowly, and at a temperature from 
 82 to 46i Fahr. The yeast, instead of rising, falls 
 to the bottom. The high temperature of the mash 
 17 
 
 causes all albuminous matter to be coagulated, 
 and much gummy matter remains unchanged. 
 This, together with the bottom fermentation, car- 
 ries off all nitrogenous matter; the beer is ex- 
 ceedingly clear. It is put in hogsheads lined with 
 common rosin, and is preserved a long time in 
 vaults or cellars before being used. 
 
 White Beer. 
 
 Boil enough ale wort, preferably pale, for 1 
 barrel, with 3 handsful of hops and 14 pounds of 
 groats (hulled oats), until all the soluble matter is 
 extracted from the latter. Strain, and when luke- 
 warm add 2 pints of yeast, and when fermenting 
 briskly bottle in strong stoneware bottles. 
 
 Cheap and Agreeable Table Beer. 
 
 Take 15 galls, of water and boil one-half, put- 
 ting the other into a barrel ; add the boiling water 
 to the cold, with 1 gall, of molasses and a little 
 yeast. Keep the bung- hole open till the fermen- 
 tation is abated. 
 
 To make Sugar Beer. 
 
 Very excellent beer is made of sugar, and also 
 of treacle. First boil a peck of bran in 10 galls, 
 of water; strain the bran off, and mix with the 
 branny water 3 pounds of sugar, first stirring it 
 well. When cool enough add a teacupful of the 
 best yeast, and a tablespoonful of flour to a bowl 
 nearly full of the saccharine matter, which, when 
 it has fermented for about an hour, is to be mixed 
 with the remainder, and hopped with about i Ib. 
 hops ; and the following day it may be put into the 
 cask, to ferment further, which usually takes 3 
 days, when it is to be bunged, and it will be fit 
 for drinking in a week. Treacle beer is made in 
 the same way, 3 Ibs. of it being used instead of 
 3 Ibs. of sugar. 
 
 N. B. This beer will not keep any length of 
 time. 
 
 Spruce Beer 
 
 Boil 8 galls, of water, and when in a state of 
 complete ebullition pour it into a beer barrel which 
 contains 8 galls, more of cold water; then add 16 
 Ibs. of molasses, with a few tablespoon fuls of the 
 essence of spruce, stirring the whole well together; 
 add half a pint of yeast, and keep it in a tempe- 
 rate situation, with the bung-hole open for two 
 days till the fermentation be abated, when the 
 bung may be put in and the beer bottled off. It 
 is fit to drink in a day or two. If you can get no 
 essence of spruce make a strong decoction of the 
 small twigs and leaves of the spruce firs. 
 Another Receipt. 
 
 Take of oil of spruce, sassafras, and wintergreen> 
 each 40 drops ; pour 1 gall, of boiling water on the 
 oils, then add 4 galls, of cold water, 3 pints of mo- 
 lasses, 1 pint of yeast. Let it stand for 2 houra 
 and bottle. 
 
 Root Beer. 
 
 Take 3 galls, of molasses ; add 10 galls, of water 
 at 60 Fahr. Let this stand 2 hours,, then pour 
 into a barrel, and add powdered or bruised sassa- 
 fras and wintergreen bark, each i Ib., bruised sar- 
 saparilla root i Ib., yeast 1 pint, water enough to 
 fill the barrel, say 25 galls. Ferment for 12 hourg 
 and bottle. 
 
 Ginger Pop. 
 
 Crushed white sugar 28 Ibs, water 30 galls., 
 yeast 1 pint, powdered ginger (best) 1 Ib., essence 
 of lemon oz., essence of cloves i oz. To the ginger 
 pour half a gallon of boiling water and let it stand 
 15 or 20 minutes. Dissolve the sugar in 2 galls, of 
 warm water, pour both into a barrel half filled with 
 cold water, then add the essence and the yeast; let 
 it stand half an hour, then fill up with cold watei 
 Let it ferment 6 to 12 hours, and bottle. 
 
258 
 
 BREWING. 
 
 Ginger Beer. 
 
 Take of good Jamaica ginger 2 oz., moist sugar 
 3 Ibs., cream of tartar 1 oz., the juice and peel of 
 two middling-sized lemons, brandy pint, good 
 solid ale yeast i pint, water 3i galls. This will 
 produce 4 dozen of excellent ginger beer, which 
 will keep 12 months. Bruise the ginger and sugar, 
 and boil them for 20 or 25 minutes in the water; 
 sliee the lemon and put it and the cream of tartar 
 into a large pan; pour the boiling liquor upon 
 them, stir it well round, and when milk warm add 
 the yeast. Cover it over, let it remain 2 or 3 days 
 to work, skimming it frequently; then strain it 
 through a jelly-bag into a cask, add the brandy, 
 bung down very close, and at the end of a fort- 
 night or 3 weeks draw it off and bottle, and cork 
 very tight; tie the cork down with twine or wire. 
 If it does not work well at first, add a little more 
 yeast, but be careful not to add too much, lest it 
 taste of it. 
 
 Mead. 
 
 Take of honey 3 galls., heat to the boiling point, 
 taking great care that it does not boil over; pour 
 this into a barrel half filled with cold water; let 
 it stand 20 or 25 minutes, and add yeast 1 pint, 
 oil nutmeg 1 tablespoonful, oil of lemon or orange 
 1 ounce. Fill the barrel with water, and let it 
 ferment. 
 
 Sarsaparilla Beer, or Lisbon Diet Drink. 
 
 Take of compound syrup of sarsaparilla 1 pint, 
 good pale ale 7 pints. Use no yeast. 
 Cheap Beer. 
 
 Pour 10 galls, of boiling water upon 1 peck of 
 malt in a tub, stir it about well with a stick, let it 
 stand about half an hour, and then draw off the 
 wort; pour 10 galls, more of boiling water upon 
 the malt, letting it remain another half hour, stir- 
 ring it occasionally, then draw it off and put it 
 to the former wort. When this is done, mix 4 oz. 
 of hops with it, and boil it well ; then strain the 
 hops from it, and when the wort becomes milk 
 warm put some yeast to it to make it ferment; 
 when the fermentation is nearly over, put the 
 liquor into a cask, and, as soon as the fermenta- 
 tion has perfectly subsided, bung it close down. 
 The beer is then fit for use. 
 
 To make Beer and Ale from Pea-shells. 
 
 No production of this country abounds so much 
 with vegetable saccharine matter as the shells of 
 green peas. A strong decoction of them so much 
 resembles, in odor and taste, an infusion of malt 
 (termed wort) as to deceive a brewer. This decoc- 
 tion, rendered slightly bitter with the wood sage, 
 and afterwards fermented with yeast, affords a 
 very excellent beverage. The method employed 
 is as follows : 
 
 Fill a boiler with the green shells of peas, pour 
 on water till it rises half an inch above the shells, 
 and simmer for three hours. Strain off the liquor, 
 and add a strong decoction of the wood-sage, or 
 the hop, so as to render it pleasantly bitter; then 
 ferment in the usual manner. The wood-sage is 
 the best substitute for hops, and, being free from 
 any anodyne property, is entitled to a preference. 
 By boiling a fresh quantity of shells in the decoc- 
 tion before it becomes cold, it may be so thor- 
 oughly impregnated with saccharine matter as to 
 afford a liquor, when fermented, as strong as ale. 
 
 Required Time for Keeping Beer. 
 
 This depends on, the temperature at which the 
 malt has been made, thus : 
 
 Malt made at 110 will produce beer which may 
 be drawn in a fortnight; at 124, in a month; at 
 129, in 3 months; at 134, in 4 months; at 138, 
 in 6 months ; at 143, in 8 months; at 148 in 10 
 
 months; at 152, in 15 months: at 157, in 2* 
 months; at 162, in 24 months. 
 To give any required Brightness or Color to Beer. 
 
 This depends on the temperature at which the 
 malt has been made, and on its color, thus : 
 
 Malt made at 119 produces a white; at 124, 
 a cream color; at 129, alight yellow; at 134, 
 an amber color. 
 
 These, when properly brewed, become sponta- 
 neously fine, even as far as 138. When brewed 
 for amber, by repeated fermentations, they be- 
 come pellucid. At 138, a high amber; at 143, 
 a pale brown. 
 
 By precipitation, these grow bright in a short 
 time. At 148, a brown; at 152, a high brown. 
 
 With precipitation these require 8 or 10 months 
 to be bright. At 157, a brown, inclining to black ; 
 at 162, a brown speckled with black. 
 
 With precipitation these may be fined, but will 
 never become bright. At 167, a blackish brown 
 speckled with black; at 171, a color of burnt 
 coffee; at 176, a black. 
 
 These with difficulty can be brewed without 
 setting the goods, and will by no means become 
 bright, not even with the strongest acid men- 
 struum. 
 
 To Breio Amber Beer. 
 
 Amber is now out of fashion, but formerly wag 
 drunk in great quantities in London, mixed with 
 bitters, and called purl. The proportions of malt 
 were 3 qrs. amber, and 1 qr. pale, with 6 Ibs. of 
 hops to the qr. The first liquor is usually tunned 
 at 170, and the second at 187. The worts are 
 boiled together for 2 hours. It is tunned at 64, 
 and after 24 hours roused every 2 hours till the 
 heat is increased to 74. It is then skimmed 
 every hour for 6 hours and cleansed, and gene- 
 rally used as soon as it has done working in the 
 barrels. 
 
 Another Method of Brewing Amber Beer, or Two- 
 penny. 
 
 For 36 galls. : malt, l bus. ; hops, 1 Ib. ; liquorice 
 root, 1 Ib. 8 oz. ; treacle, 5 Ib. ; Spanish liquorice, 
 2 oz. ; capsicum, 2 drs. Frequently drunk the 
 week after it is brewed; used in cold weather as a 
 stimulant. 
 
 To make Molasses Beer. 
 
 For small beer, put 9 Ibs. of molasses into a 
 barrel-copper of cold water, first mixing it well, 
 and boiling it briskly with i Ib. of hops or more 
 
 1 hour, so that it may come off 27 galls. 
 
 To Fine Beer. 
 
 To fine beer, should it be requisite, take an ounce 
 of isinglass, cut small, and boil it in 3 qts. of beer, 
 till completely dissolved ; let it stand till quite cold, 
 then put it into a cask, and stir it well with a 
 stick or whisk; the beer so fined should be tapped 
 soon, because the isinglass is apt to make it flat 
 as well as fine. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 Take a handful of salt, and the same quantity 
 of chalk scraped fine and well dried ; then take 
 some isinglass, and dissolve it in some stale beer 
 till it is about the consistence of syrup ; strain it, 
 and add about a quart to the salt and chalk, with 
 
 2 qts. of molasses. Mix them all well together, 
 with a gallon of the beer, which must be drawn 
 off; then put it into the cask, and take a stick 01 
 whisk, and stir it well till it ferments. When it 
 has subsided, stop it up close, and in 2 days it 
 may be tapped. This is sufficient for a butt. 
 
 Another. Take 1 pt. of water, and an oz. of 
 unslaked lime, mix them well together, letting the 
 mixture stand for 3 hours, that the lime may set- 
 tle at the bottom. Then pour off the clear liquor, 
 
BREWING. 
 
 259 
 
 and mix with it $ oz. of isinglass, cut small and 
 boiled in a little water; pour it into the barrel, and 
 in 5 or 6 hours the beer will become fine. 
 
 Another. In general, it will become sufficiently 
 fine by keeping; but fineness may be promoted by 
 putting a handful of scalded hops into the cask. 
 If the beer continues thick, it may then be fined 
 by putting 1 pt. of the following preparation into 
 the barrel : 
 
 Put as much isinglass into a vessel as will oc- 
 cupy J; then fill it up with old beer. When dis- 
 solved rub it through a sieve, and reduce it to the 
 consistency of treacle with more beer. A pint of 
 this put into the cask and gently stirred with a 
 Short stick, will fine the barrel in a few hours. 
 To Fine Cloudy Beer. 
 
 Back oflf the cask, and boil 1 Ib. of new hops in 
 water, with coarse sugar, and when cold put in at 
 the bung-hole. 
 
 Or, new hops soaked in beer, and squeezed, may 
 be put into the cask. 
 
 Or, take 10 Ibs. of baked pebblestone powder, 
 with the whites of 6 eggs, and some powdered bay- 
 salt, and mix them with 2 galls, of the beer. Pour 
 in the whole into the casks, and in 3 or 4 days it 
 will settle, and the beer be fine and agreeable. 
 
 To Recover Thick, Sour Malt Liquor. 
 Make strong hop tea with boiling water and 
 salt of tartar, and pour it into the cask. 
 
 Or, rack the cask into 2 casks of equal size, and 
 fill them up with new beer. 
 
 To Vamp Malt Liquors. 
 
 Old beer may be renewed by racking 1 cask 
 into 2, and filling them from a new brewing, and 
 in 3 weeks it will be a fine article. 
 
 To Restore Musty Beer. 
 
 Run it through some hops that have been boiled 
 in strong wort, and afterwards work it with double 
 the quantity of new malt liquor; or if the fault is 
 in the cask, draw it off into a sweet cask, and 
 having boiled Ib. of brown sugar in 1 qt. of water, 
 add 1 or 2 spoonsful of yeast before it is quite 
 cold, and when the mixture ferments, pour it into 
 the cask. 
 
 To Enliven and Restore Dead Beer. 
 
 Boil some water and sugar, or water and treacle, 
 together, and when cold add some new yeast; this 
 will restore dead beer, or ripen bottled beer in 24 
 hours ; and it will also make worts work in the 
 tun if they are sluggish. 
 
 Or, a small teaspoonful of carbonate or soda 
 may be mixed with a quart of it as it is drawn 
 for drinking. 
 
 Or, boil for every gallon of the liquor 3 oz. of 
 sugar in water; when cold add a little yeast, and 
 put the fermenting mixture into the flat beer, 
 whether it be a full cask or the bottom of the cask. 
 
 Or, beer may often be restored which has be- 
 come flat or stale, by rolling and shaking the casks 
 for a considerable time, which will create such a 
 new fermentation as to render it necessary to open 
 a vent-peg to prevent the cask from bursting. 
 
 A Speedy way of Fining and Preserving a Cask 
 
 of Ale or Beer. 
 
 Take a handful of the hops boiled in the first 
 wort, and dried ; i Ib. of loaf sugar dissolved in 
 the beer; 1 Ib. of chalk; and i Ib. of calcined 
 oyster-shells. Put the whole in at the bung-hole, 
 stirring them well and then rebunging. This 
 preparation will also suit for racked beer ; in put- 
 ting in the hops it may be advisable to place them 
 in a net with a small stone in the bottom so as to 
 sink them, otherwise they will swim at the top. 
 
 To Prevent Beer Becoming Stale or Flat. First 
 
 Method. 
 
 To a quart of French brandy put as much wheat 
 or bean flour as will make it into a dough, and put 
 it in, in long pieces, at the bung-hole, letting it fall 
 gently to the bottom. This will prevent the beer 
 growing stale, keep it in a mellow state, and in- 
 crease its strength. 
 
 Second Method. 
 
 To 1 Ib. of treacle or honey add 1 Ib. of the 
 powder of dried oyster-shells, or of soft mellow 
 chalk ; mix these into a stiff paste and put it into 
 the butt. This will preserve the beer in a soft 
 and mellow state for a long time. 
 
 Third Method. 
 
 Dry a peck of egg-shells in an oven, break and 
 mix them with 2 Ibs. of soft mellow chalk, and 
 then add some water wherein 4 Ibs. of coarse sugar 
 have been boiled, and put it into the cask. This 
 will be enough for 1 butt. 
 
 Fourth Method. 
 
 In a cask containing 18 gals, of beer, put a pint 
 of ground malt suspended in a bag, and close the 
 bung perfectly; the beer will be improved during 
 the whole time of drawing it for use. 
 
 Make use of any of these receipts most approved 
 of, observing that the paste or dough must be put 
 into the cask when the beer has done working, or 
 soon after, and bunged down. At the end of 9 or 
 12 months tap it, and you will have a fine, gen- 
 erous, wholesome and agreeable liquor. 
 
 When the great quantity of sediment that lfo 
 at the bottom of the cask is neglected to bo 
 cleaned, this compound of malt, hops and yeast 
 so affects the beer that it renders it prejudicial to 
 health. On this account, during the whole process 
 of brewing do not allow the least sediment to mix 
 with the wort in removing it from, one tub or 
 cooler to the other; especially be careful, when, 
 tunning it into the cask, not to disturb the bottom 
 of the working tub, which would prevent its ever 
 being clear and fine. Again, by keeping it too 
 long in the working tub, persons who make a 
 profit of the yeast frequently promote an undue 
 fermentation, and keep it constantly in that state 
 for 5 or 6 days, which causes all the spirit that 
 should keep the beer soft and mellow to evaporate; 
 and it certainly will get stale and hard unless it 
 has something wholesome to feed on. 
 
 It is the practice of some persons to beat in the 
 yeast while the beer is working, for several days 
 together, to make it strong and heady and to 
 promote its sale. This is a pernicious custom. 
 Therefore let the wort have a free, natural and 
 light fermentation, and one day in the working 
 tub will be long enough during cold weather; but 
 turn it the second day at the farthest, throw out 
 the whole brewing, and afterwards introduce no 
 improper ingredients. 
 
 To Prevent and Cure Foxing in Malt Liquors. 
 
 Foxing, sometimes called bucking, is a disease 
 of malt fermentation which taints the beer. It 
 arises from dirty utensils, putting the separate 
 worts together in vessels not deep enough, using bad 
 malt; by turning on the liquors at too great heats, 
 and brewing in too hot weather. It renders the 
 beer ropy and viscid like treacle, and it soon turns 
 sour. When there is danger of foxing, a handful 
 of hops should be thrown into the raw worts while 
 they are drawing off and before they are boiled, as 
 foxing generally takes place when, from a scanti- 
 ness of utensils, the worts are obliged to be kept 
 some time before they are boiled. When there is 
 a want of shallow coolers, it is a good precaution. 
 
260 
 
 BREWING. 
 
 to put pome fresh hops into the worts and work 
 them with the yeast. If the brewing foxes in the 
 tun while working, hops should then be put into 
 it, and they will tend to restore it ; and extra care 
 ought to be taken to prevent the lees being trans- 
 ferred to the barrels. 
 
 Some persons sift quick-lime into the tun when 
 the brewing appears to be foxed. If care is not 
 taken to cleanse and scald the vessels after foxing, 
 subsequent brewings may become tainted. 
 Other Methods of Curing Foxing. 
 Cut a handful of hyssop small ; mix it with a 
 handful of salt, and put it into the cask. Stir and 
 atop close. 
 
 Or, infuse a handful of hops and a little salt of 
 tartar in boiling water; when cold strain the 
 liquor off and pour it into the cask, which stop 
 close. 
 
 Or, mix 1 oz. of alum with 2 oz. of mustard- 
 seed, and 1 oz. of ginger; stir them in the rack 
 and stop close. 
 
 Or, in a fortnight, rack off the foxed beer, and 
 hang 2 Ibs. of bruised Malaga raisins in a bag 
 within the cask, and put in a mixture of treacle, 
 bean-flour, mustard-seed, and powdered alum. 
 
 To restore a Barrel of Ropy Beer. 
 Mix a handful of bean-flour with a handful of 
 salt, and stir it in at the bung-hole; or take some 
 well infused hops, and mix them in with some set- 
 tlings of strong wort, and stir the mixture in at 
 the bung-hole. Or, powder oz. of alum -very 
 fine, and mix with a handful of bean-flour. 
 
 To make a Butt of Porter, Stout. 
 Insert 4 galls, of molasses and some finings ; 
 stir it well. In a week draw off the cask by a cock 
 inserted half way down. 
 
 To restore Frosted Beer. 
 
 Such beer is usually sweet and foul, and will 
 never recover of itself; but to remedy this, make 
 a pailful of fresh wort, into which put a handful 
 of rubbed hops, and boil them half an hour, so 
 that it may be very bitter, and when almost cold, 
 draw a pailful from the cask, and re-fill it with 
 the bitter wort. Fermentation will re-commence, 
 but when this is over bung it up for a month. If 
 it is not then restored, rack it into another cask, 
 and put into it a peck of parched wheat, and 1 
 Ib. of good hops, dried and rubbed, and tied up in 
 a net. Bung it down, leaving the vent-hole open 
 for a day or two, and in a month it will be fine 
 liquor. 
 
 To give New Ale the Flavor of Old. 
 Take out the bung, and put into the cask a 
 handful of pickled cucumbers ; or a sliced Seville 
 orange, and either mode will add an apparent six 
 months to the age of the ale. 
 
 To give Beer a rich Flavor. 
 Put six sea-biscuits into a bag of hops, and put 
 them into the cask. 
 
 To preserve Brewing Utensils. 
 
 In cleaning them before being put away, avoid 
 the use of soap, or any greasy material, and use 
 only a brush and scalding water, being particu- 
 larly careful not to leave any yeast or fur on the 
 sides. 
 
 To prevent their being tainted, take wood 
 ashes and boil them to a strong lye, which spread 
 over the bottoms of the vessels scalding, and then 
 with the broom scrub the sides and other parts. 
 
 Or, take bay-salt, and spread it over the coolers, 
 and strew some on their wet sides, turning. in 
 scalding water and scrubbing with a broom. 
 
 Or, throw some stone-lime into water in the ves- 
 
 sel, and scrub over the bottom and sides, washing 
 afterwards with clean water. 
 
 To sweeten Stinking or Musty Casks. 
 
 Make a strong lye of ash, beech, or other hard 
 wood ashes, and pour it, boiling hot, into the 
 bung-hole, repeating it as often as there is occa- 
 sion. 
 
 Or, fill the cask with boiling water, and then 
 put into it some pieces of unslaked lime, keeping 
 up the ebullition for half an hour. Then bung it 
 down, and let it remain until almost cold when 
 turn it out. 
 
 Or, mix bay-salt with boiling water, and pour 
 it into the cask, which bung down, and leave it to 
 soak. 
 
 Or, if the copper be provided with a dome, and 
 a steam-pipe from its top, pass the steam into the 
 casks. 
 
 Or,unhead the cask, scrub it out, head it again; 
 put some powdered charcoal into the bung-hole, 
 and two quarts of a mixture of oil of vitriol and 
 cold water. Then bung it tight, and roll and turn 
 the cask for some time. Afterwasds wash it well, 
 and drain it dry. 
 
 Or, take out the head, and brush the inside with 
 oil of vitriol, afterwards wash it, then burn a slip 
 of brown paper steeped in brimstone within the 
 bung-hole, and stop it close for two hours, when 
 it should be well washed with hot water. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 Mix half a pint of the sulphuric acid (not the 
 diluted) in an open vessel, with a quart of water, 
 and whilst warm, put it into the cask, and roll it 
 about in such a manner that the whole internal 
 surface may be exposed to its action. The follow- 
 ing day add about 1 Ib. of chalk or sal soda, and 
 bung it up for three or four days, when it may be 
 washed out with boiling water. By this process 
 a very musty cask may be rendered sweet. 
 
 For sweetening musty bottles, it will be only 
 necessary to rinse the inside with the diluted sul- 
 phuric acid in the above-mentioned proportions. 
 The addition of chalk, if it were immediately 
 corked, would burst the bottle, and if the cask be 
 old, it would be advisable to let a little of the gas 
 escape before bunging it. 
 
 Another. If a cask, after the beer is drunk out, 
 be well stopped, to keep out the air, and the lees 
 be suffered to remain in it till used again, scald it 
 well, taking care that the hoops be well driven on, 
 before filling; but should the air get in to an empty 
 cask, it will contract an ill scent, notwithstanding 
 the scalding; in which case a handful of bruised 
 pepper, boiled in the water, will remove it, though 
 the surest way is to take out the head of the cask, 
 that it may be shaved ; then burn it a little, and 
 scald it for use; if this cannot be conveniently 
 done, get some limestone, put about 3 Ibs. into a 
 barrel (and in same proportion for larger or 
 smaller vessels), put to it about 6 gall, of cold 
 water, bung it up, shake it about for some time, 
 and afterwards scald it well. . Or, in lieu of lime, 
 match it well and scald it. Then the smell will 
 be entirely removed. If the casks be new, dig 
 holes in the earth, and lay them in, to about half 
 their depth, with their bung-holes downwards, for 
 a week. After which scald them well, and they 
 will be ready for use. 
 
 Another. The process of charring fails only in 
 the fire not being able to penetrate into the chasms 
 or chinks of the cask, into which the coopers (to 
 mend bad work) often insert strips of paper, or 
 other substance, to make it water-tight, which in 
 time become rotten and offensive; in order to 
 remedy this, put into a cask containing a quantity 
 of water (say about 2 gall, in a hogshead) l-10th 
 
YEAST 
 
 261 
 
 of its weight of sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol), and 
 let this be shaken for some time; this is to be 
 poured out, the cask well washed, and then rinsed 
 with a few gallons of lime-water or sal soda. It 
 is needless to say, that it ought likewise to be 
 washed out. 
 
 The theory is, that sulphuric acid has the pro- 
 perty, when used alone, of charring wood, and 
 when diluted has sufficient strength to destroy 
 must, etc., with the additional advantage of en- 
 tering into every crevice. The lime in solution 
 seizes any particle of acid which the first wash- 
 ing might leave, and converts it into an insoluble, 
 inoffensive, neutral salt, such as, if left in the 
 cask, would not in the least injure the most deli- 
 cate liquor. 
 
 London Coopers' mode of Sweetening Casks. 
 
 It is their system to take out the head, place 
 the cask over a brisk fire, and char the inside com- 
 pletely. The head is then put in again, and the 
 cask, before used, is filled 2 or 3 times with hot 
 liquor, bunged down and well shaken before it is 
 used again. 
 
 Method of Seasoning New Casks. 
 
 Put the staves just cut and shaped, before they 
 are worked into vessels, loose in a copper of cold 
 water, and let them heat gradually so that they 
 are well boiled, and in boiling take out a 
 handbowl of water at a time, putting in fresh till 
 all the redness is out of the liquor, and it becomes 
 clear from a scum of filth that will arise from the 
 sap so boiled out; also take care to turn the 
 staves upside down, that all their parts may 
 equally have the benefit of the hot water. Ob- 
 serve also that in a dry, sultry summer the sap is 
 more strongly retained in the wood, than in a 
 cool and moist one, and therefore must have the 
 more boiling. Then, when the vessel is made, 
 scald it twice with water and salt boiled together, 
 and it may be readily filled with strong beer with- 
 out fearing any twang from the wood. 
 
 fermentation by Various Means. First Substitute 
 for Yeast. 
 
 Mix 2 quarts of water with wheat flour to the 
 consistence of thick gruel; boil it gently for half 
 an hour, and when almost cold stir into it Ib. 
 of sugar and 4 spoonfuls of good yeast. Put the 
 whole into a large jug or earthen vessel with a 
 narrow top, and place it before the fire, so that it 
 may by a moderate heat ferment. The fermen- 
 tation will throw up a thin liquor, which pour off 
 and throw away; keep the remainder for use (in 
 a cool place) in a bottle or jug tied over. The 
 same quantity of this, as of common yeast, will 
 sufiice to bake or brew with. Four spoonfuls of 
 this yeast will make a fresh quantity as before, 
 and the stock may be always kept up by ferment- 
 ing the new with the remainder of the former 
 quantity. 
 
 Second Substitute. 
 
 Take 6 quarts of soft water and 2 handfuls of 
 wheaten meal or barley; stir the latter in the wa- 
 ter before the mixture is placed over the fire, where 
 it must boil till two-thirds are evaporated. When 
 this decoction becomes cool incorporate with it, by 
 means of a whisk, 2 drachms of salt of tartar and 
 1 drachm of cream of tartar, previously mixed. 
 The whole should be kept in a warm place. Thus 
 a very strong yeast for brewing, distilling and 
 baking may be obtained. For the last-mentioned 
 purpose, however, it ought to be diluted with pure 
 water, and passed through a sieve before it is 
 kneaded with the dough, in order to deprive it of 
 its alkaline taste. 
 
 In countries where yeast is scarce, it is a com- 
 
 mon practice to twist hazel twigs so as to be full 
 of chinks, and then steep them in ale-yeast 
 during fermentation. The twigs are then hung 
 up to dry, and at the next brewing they are put 
 into the wort instead of yeast. In Italy the chips 
 are frequently put into turbid wine for the pur- 
 pose of clearing it; this is effected in about 24 
 hours. 
 
 Third Substitute. 
 
 Take 1 Ib. of fine flour, make it the thickness of 
 gruel with boiling water, add to it i a Ib. of raw 
 sugar. Mix them well together. Put 3 spoonfuls 
 of well purified yeast into a large vessel, upon 
 which put the above ingredients; they will soon 
 ferment violently. Collect the yeast off the top 
 and put it into a brown small-neck pot, and cover 
 it up from the air; keep it in a dry and warmish 
 place ; when used in part, replace with flour made 
 into a thin paste, and sugar in the former pro- 
 portions. The above will be fit for use in five 
 months, and no yeast is necessary except the first 
 time. 
 
 Fourth Substitute. 
 
 Boil flour and water to the consistence of trea- 
 cle, and when the mixture is cold saturate it with 
 fixed air. Pour the mixture thus saturated into 
 one or more large bottles or narrow-mouthed jars ; 
 cover it over loosely with paper, and upon that lay 
 a slate or board with a weight to keep it steady. 
 Place the vessel in a situation where the ther- 
 mometer will stand from 70 to 80, and stir up 
 the mixture 2 or 3 times in the course of 24 hours. 
 In about 2 days such a degree of fermentation 
 will have taken place as to give the mixture the 
 appearance of yeast. With the yeast in this state, 
 and before it has acquired a thoroughly vinous 
 smell, mix the quantity of flour intended for bread 
 in the proportion of 6 Ibs. of flour to a quart of 
 the yeast, and a sufficient portion of warm water. 
 Knead them well together in a proper vessel, and 
 covering it with a cloth, let the dough stand for 12 
 hours, or till it appears to be sufficiently fermented 
 in the forementioned degree of warmth. It is 
 then to be formed into loaves and baked. The 
 yeast would be more perfect if a decoction of malt 
 were used instead of simple water. 
 
 Fifth Substitute. 
 
 A decoction of malt alone, without any addi- 
 tion, will produce a yeast proper enough for the 
 purpose of brewing. This discovery was made 
 by Joseph Senyor, and he received for it a reward 
 of 20/. from the Society for Promoting Arts, Manu- 
 factures and Commerce. The process is as fol- 
 lows : Procure 3 earthen or wooden vessels of dif- 
 ferent sizes and apertures, one capable of holding 
 2 quarts, the other 3 or 4, and the third 5 or 6; 
 boil i of a peck of malt for about 8 or 10 minutes 
 in 3 pints of water, and when a quart is poured 
 off from the grains, let it stand in the first or 
 smaller vessel in a cool place till not quite cold, 
 but retaining that degree of heat which the brewers 
 usually find to be proper when they begin to work 
 their liquor. Then remove the vessel into some 
 warm situation near a fire, where the thermometer 
 stands between 70 a nd 80, and there let it remain 
 till the fermentation begins, which will be plainly 
 perceived within 30 hours; add then 2 qts. more 
 of a like decoction of malt, when cool as the first 
 wa, and mix the whole in the second or larger 
 vessel, and stir it well in, which must be repeated 
 in the usual way, as it rises in a common vat; 
 then add a still greater quantity of the same de- 
 coction, to be worked in the largest vessel, which 
 will produce yeast enough for a brewing of 40 
 gallons. 
 
262 
 
 SKEWING. 
 
 Sixth Substitute. 
 
 Boil 1 lb. of good flour, i Ib. of brown sugar, 
 and a little salt in 2 galls, of water for 1 hour 
 When milk warm bottle it and cork it close. It 
 will be fit for use in 24 hours. One pint of this 
 will make 18 Ibs. of bread. 
 
 Seventh Substitute. 
 To 1 lb. of mashed potatoes (mealy ones are 
 best) add 2 oz. of brown sugar and 2 s-'poonfuls of 
 common yeast; the potatoes first to be pulped 
 through a colander, and mixed with warm water 
 to a proper consistence. Thus a pound of pota- 
 toes will make a quart of good yeast. Keep it 
 moderately warm while fermenting. 
 
 Eighth Substitute. 
 
 Infuse malt, and boil it as for beer; in the mean 
 time soak isinglass, separated to fibres, in small- 
 beer. Proportion the quantity of each, 1 oz. of 
 isinglass to 2 qts. of beer. This would suffice for 
 a hogshead of boiling wort, and the proportion 
 may be diminished or increased accordingly. 
 After soaking 5 minutes, set the beer and isin- 
 glass on the fire, stirring till it nearly boils; then 
 turn it into a dish that will allow beating it up 
 with a syllabub whisk to the consistence of yeast, 
 and when almost cold put it to the wort. 
 Ninth Substitute. 
 
 Make a wort of the consistence of water-gruel, 
 with either rye or malt, ground very fine; put 5 
 galls, of it into a vessel capable of holding a few 
 gallons more; dissolve 1 lb. of leaven in a small 
 portion of the wort, and add it to the remainder, 
 with 2J Ibs. of fine ground malt; mix the whole 
 by agitation for some minutes, and in half an hour 
 add 2 large spoonfuls of good yeast ; incorporate 
 it thoroughly with the mass, cover it close, and let 
 it remain undisturbed for 48 hours in a moderate 
 temperature. At the end of that period it will be 
 found to be wholly converted into good yeast. It 
 is requisite that the rye and malt should be fine, 
 and the leaven completely dissolved before being 
 put to. the remaining wort, which, previous to the 
 yeast being added, should be at about 100. 
 To Preserve Yeast. 
 
 Common ale yeast may be kept fresh and fit for 
 use several months by the following method : Put 
 a quantity of it into a close canvas bag, and gently 
 squeeze out the moisture in a screw-press till the 
 remaining matter be as firm and stiff as clay. In 
 this state it may be close-packed up in a tight 
 cask, for securing it from the air, and will keep 
 fresh, sound, and fit for use for a long time. 
 Another Method. 
 
 Stir a quantity of yeast and work it well with a 
 whisk, till it seems liquid and thin ; then get a 
 large wooden dish or tub, clean and dry, and with 
 a soft brush lay a thin layer of yeast thereon, 
 turning the mouth downwards, to prevent its get- 
 ting dusty, but so that the air may come to it to 
 dry it. When that coat or crust is sufficiently 
 dried, lay on another, which serve in the same 
 manner and continue putting on others as they 
 dry, till 2 or 3 inches thick, which will be useful 
 on many occasions; but be sure the yeast in the 
 vessel be dry before more be laid on. When 
 wanted for use, cut a piece out, lay it in warm 
 water, stir it together, and it will be fit for use. 
 If for brewing, take a handful of birch tied to- 
 gether, dip it into the yeast, and hang it to dnv, 
 taking care to keep it free from dust. When tRe 
 bcw is fit to set to work, throw in one of these 
 and it will work as well as fresh yeast. Whip it 
 about in the wort and then let it lie. When the 
 beer works well take out the broom, dry it again, 
 an I it will do for the next brewing. 
 
 To mnke Purl Bitters. 
 
 Take of Roman wormwood 2 doz. Ibs., gentian 
 root 6 Ibs., calamus aromaticus (or the sweet-flag 
 root) 2 pounds, snake-root 1 lb., horse-radish 1 
 bunch, orange-peel dried and juniper-berries, each 
 2 Ibs., seeds or kernels of Seville oranges cleaned 
 and dried 2 Jbs. Cut these and bruise them, and 
 put them into a clean butt, and start some mild 
 brown or pale beer upon them, so as to fill up the 
 vessel, about the beginning of November, which 
 let stand till the next season. If a pound or two 
 of galanga root is added to it the composiuon will 
 be better. 
 
 Cautions in the Use of Foreign Ingredients. 
 
 In general, the beer should be racked off first, 
 because the sediments and lees will not accord 
 with the foreign substances. Salt and alum in too 
 large quantities induce staleness. The powder of 
 soft stone, unburnt, should be avoided; too many 
 whites of eggs are apt to make the beer ropy. The 
 introduction of cocculiis indiois confers a perni- 
 cious strength or headiness, which gratifies drunk- 
 ards, but destroys the nervous system, and pro- 
 duces palsies and premature old age. It has been 
 well remarked, that the brewer that uses this slow 
 but certain poison, as a substitute for a due quan- 
 tity of malt, ought to be boiled in his own copper. 
 
 Bitters are in like manner pernicious in many 
 states of the stomach. When oyster-shells are used 
 the bung should be left out to avoid bursting. 
 
 Use of Sugar in Brewing. 
 
 Families brewing their own malt liquor may use 
 32 Ibs. of brown sugar with 2 bushels of malt, 
 which will produce 50 galls, of ale, as good in 
 very respect as if made from 6 bushels of malt. 
 The sugar is mixed with the wort as it runs from 
 the mash-tub. 
 
 To Close Casks without Bungs. 
 Some persons cover the bung-hole simply with 
 brown paper, fastened at the sides, and covered 
 with clay; others have found a single piece of 
 bladder, well fixed at the edges, a complete and 
 fficacious substitute for a bung. These methods 
 at least prevent the bursting of the cask from 
 changes of air. 
 
 To Bottle Porter, Ale, etc. 
 
 In the first place the bottles should be clean, 
 sweet and dry, the corks sound and good, and the 
 porter or ale fine. When the bottles are filled, if 
 or home consumption, they should not be corked 
 ill the day following, and if for exportation to a 
 aot climate, they must stand 3 days or more; if 
 ;he liquor is new, it should be well corked and 
 wired, but for a private family they may do with- 
 out wiring, only they should be well packed in 
 saw-dust, and stand upright. But if some ripe 
 are wanted, keep a few packed on their sides, so 
 ;hat the liquor may touch the corks, and this will 
 soon ripen, and make it fit for drinking. 
 
 To Remove Tartness. 
 
 Put a teaspoonful of carbonate of soda into a 
 quart of tart beer, and it will be pleasant and 
 wholesome. 
 
 To Bottle Malt Liquor. 
 
 It should be ripe, and not too young. Cork 
 loose at first, and afterwards firm. For a day or 
 two, keep the bottles in cold water, or in a cold 
 place; or throw some cold water over them. Steep 
 the corks in scalding water, to make them more 
 elastic. Lay the bottles on their sides. When it 
 s desired that the liquor should ripen soon, keep 
 the bottles in a warmer place. October beer should 
 not be bottled till midsummer; nor March beer 
 
CIDER. 
 
 263 
 
 till Christmas. If the ale is flat, or stale, put 3 
 horse-beans, or 3 raisins into each bottle, and to 
 prevent the bottles' bursting, make a hole in the 
 middle of the cork with an awl; or put into each 
 bottle 1 or 2 peppercorns. If it is- desired to 
 ripen it quick, boil some coarse sugar in water, 
 and when cold ferment it with yeasjb. Then put in 
 3 or 4 spoonsful of it, with 2 cloves, and if kept 
 in a warm place it will be ripe the next day. 
 When the ale is sour, put into it a little syrup of 
 capillaire, and ferment it with yeast; when settled 
 bottle it, and put a clove or two with a small lump 
 of sugar into each bottle. It is also useful to put 
 2 or 3 pieces of chalk, or some powdered chalk 
 into the barrel before -bottling. 
 
 To Bottle Table Beer. 
 
 As soon as a cask of table beer is received into 
 the house, it is drawn off into quart stone bottles, 
 With a lump of white sugar in each, and securely 
 corked. In three days it becomes brisk, is equal 
 in strength to table ale, remarkably pleasant, very 
 wholesome, and will keep many months. 
 
 To render Bottled Beer Ripe. 
 
 The following method is employed in Paris by 
 some venders of bottled beer, to render it what 
 they term ripe. It is merely by adding to each 
 bottle 3 or 4 drops of yeast and a lump of sugar 
 of the size of a large nutmeg. In the course of 
 24 hours, by this addition, stale or flat beer is 
 rendered most agreeably brisk. In consequence 
 of the fermentative process that takes place in it, 
 a small deposit follows, and on this account the 
 bottles should be kept in an erect position. By 
 this means white wine may likewise be rendered 
 brisk. 
 
 To Manage Ale in the Cellar. 
 
 In general nothing is more necessary than to 
 keep it well stopped in a cool cellar, looking occa- 
 sionally to see that there is no leakage, and to 
 open the vent holes, if any oozings appear be- 
 tween the staves of the stacks : but connoisseurs 
 in malt liquor may adopt some of the following 
 means : Leave the cock-hole of an upright cask, 
 or the vent-hole of an horizontal one, open for 2 
 or 3 months ; then rack off' into another cask with 
 1 or 2 Ibs. of new hops, and closely bung and stop 
 down. 
 
 Or, leave the vent-holes open a month, then 
 stop, and about a month before tapping draw off a 
 little and mix it with 1 or 2 Ibs. of new hops, 
 which, having poured into the cask, it is again 
 closely stopped. 
 
 Or, salt may be used with the hops, as it always 
 gives beer the flavor of age. 
 
 To Keep Hops for Future Use. 
 Hops lose all their fine flavor by exposure to 
 the air and damp. They should be kept in a dry, 
 close place, and lightly packed. 
 
 TO MAKE CIDER. 
 
 After the apples are gathered from the trees 
 they are ground into what is called pom tit o ye, 
 either by means of a common pressing stone, with 
 a circular trough, or by a cider mill, which is 
 either driven by the hand, or by horse-power. 
 When the pulp is thus reduced to a great degree 
 of fineness, it is conveyed to the cider press, where 
 it is formed by pressure into a kind of cake, which 
 is called the cheese. 
 
 This is effected by placing clear, sweet straw or 
 hair cloths between the layers of pommage till 
 there is a pile of 10 or 12 layers. This pile is 
 then subjected to different degrees of pressure in 
 succession, till all the must or juice is squeezed 
 
 from the pommage. This juice, after being strained 
 in a coarse hair-sieve, is then put either into open 
 vats or close casks, and the pressed pulp is either 
 thrown away or made to yield a weak liquor 
 called washings. 
 
 After the liquor has undergone the proper fer- 
 mentation in these close vessels, which may be 
 best effected in a temperature of from 40 to 60, 
 and which may be known by its appearing toler- 
 ably clear, and having a vinous sharpness upon 
 the tongue, any further fermentation must be 
 stopped by racking off the pure part into open ves- 
 sels exposed for a day or two in a - cool situation. 
 After this the liquor must again be put into casks 
 and kept in a cool place during winter. The 
 proper time for racking may always be known by 
 the brightness of the liquor, the discharge of the 
 fixed air, and the appearance of a thick crust 
 formed of fragments of the reduced pulp. The 
 liquor should always be racked off anew, as often 
 as a hissing noise is heard, or as it extinguishes 
 a candle held to the bung-hole. 
 
 When a favorable vinous fermentation has been 
 obtained, nothing more is required than to fill up 
 the vessels every 2 or 3 weeks, to supply the waste 
 by fermentation. On the beginning of March the 
 liquor will be bright and pure and fit for final 
 racking, which should be done in fair weather. 
 When the bottles are filled they should be set by 
 uncorked till morning, when the corks must be 
 driven in tightly, secured by wire or twine and 
 melted rosin, or any similar substance. 
 
 To make Devonshire Cider. 
 
 Prefer the bitter sweet apples, mixed with mild 
 sour, in the proportion of one-third. Gather them 
 when ripe, and lay them in heaps in the orchard. 
 Then take them to the crushing engine, made of 
 iron rollers at top and of stone underneath ; after 
 passing through which they are received into 
 large tubs or sieves, and are then called pommage. 
 They are afterwards laid on the vat in alternate 
 layers of the pommage and clean straw, called 
 reeds. They are then pressed, the juice running 
 through a hair sieve. After the cider is pressed 
 out it is put into hogsheads, where it remains for 
 2 or 3 days previously to fermenting. To stop 
 the fermentation it is drawn off into a clean ves- 
 sel, but if the fermentation be very strong, 2 or 3 
 cans of cider are put into a clean vessel, and a 
 match of brimstone burnt in it ; it is then agi- 
 tated, by which the fermentation of that quantity 
 is completely stopped. The vessel is then nearly 
 filled, the fermentation of the whole is checked, 
 and the cider becomes fine ; but if, on the first 
 operation, the fermentation is not checked, it is 
 repeated till it is so, and continued from time to 
 time till the cider is in a quiet state for drinking. 
 
 Some persons, instead of deadening a small 
 quantity with a match, as above directed, put 
 from 1 to 2 pints of an article called sttnii (bought 
 of the wine coopers) into each hogshead ; but the 
 system of racking as often as the fermentation ap- 
 pears, is generally preferred by the cider manu- 
 facturers of Devonshire, England. 
 
 About 6 sacks, or 24 bus., of apples, are used 
 for a hogshead of 63 galls. During the process, 
 if the weather is warm, it will be necessary to 
 carry it on in the shade, in the open air, and by 
 every means keep it as cool as possible. 
 
 In 9 months it will be in condition for bottling 
 or drinking; if it continue thick, use some isin- 
 glass finings, and if at any time it ferments and 
 threatens acidity, the cure is to rack it and leave 
 the head and sediment. 
 
 Scotch Method. 
 
 The apples are reduced to mucilage, by beating 
 
264 
 
 BREWING. 
 
 them :'n a stone trough (one of those used at 
 pumps for watering horses) with pieces of ash- 
 poles, used in the manner that potatoes are mashed. 
 The press consists of a strong box, 3 feet square, 
 and 20 inches deep, perforated on each side with 
 small auger or gimblet holes. It is placed on a 
 frame of wood, projecting 3 inches beyond the 
 base of the box. A groove is cut in this projection 
 1 inches wide, and 1 inch deep, to convey the 
 juice when pressed out Of the box into a receiving 
 pail. This operation is performed in the follow- 
 ing manner : The box is filled alternately with 
 strata of fresh straw and mashed fruit, in the pro- 
 portion of 1 inch of straw to 2 inches of mucilage; 
 these are piled up 1 foot higher than the top of 
 the box; and care is taken in packing the box 
 itself, to keep the fruit and straw about 1 inch from 
 the sides of the box, which allows the juice to 
 escape freely. A considerable quantity of the 
 liquor will run off without any pressure. This 
 must be applied gradually at first, and increased 
 regularly towards the conclusion. A box of the 
 above dimensions will require about 2 tons weight 
 to render the residuum completely free from juice. 
 
 [The residuum is excellent food for pigs, and 
 peculiarly acceptable to them.] 
 
 The necessary pressure is obtained very easily, 
 and in a powerful manner, by the compound lever 
 pressing upon a lid or sink made of wood, about 
 2 inches thick, and rendered sufficiently strong by 
 2 cross-bars. It is made to fit the opening of the 
 box exactly; and as the levers force the lid down, 
 they are occasionally slacked or taken off, and 
 blocks of wood are placed on the top of the lid, to 
 permit the levers to act, even after the lid has 
 entered the box itself. Additional blocks are re- 
 peated, until the whole juice is extracted. The 
 pressure may be increased more or less, by adding 
 or diminishing the weight suspended at the ex- 
 tremity of the lever. 
 
 The liquor thus obtained is allowed to stand un- 
 disturbed 12 hours, in open vessels, to deposit 
 sediment. The pure juice is then put into clean 
 casks, and placed in a proper situation to ferment, 
 the temperature being from 55 to 60. The fer- 
 mentation will commence sooner or later, depend- 
 ing chiefly on the temperature of the apartment 
 where the liquor is kept; in most cases, during 
 the first 3 or 4 days ; but sometimes it will re- 
 quire more than a week to begin this process. If 
 the fermentation begins early and proceeds rapidly, 
 the liquor must be racked off, and put into fresh 
 casks in 2 or 3 days; but if this does not take 
 place at an early period, and proceeds slowly, 5 or 
 6 days may elapse before it is racked. In general, 
 it is necessary to rack the liquor at least twice. 
 If, notwithstanding, the fermentation continues 
 briskly, the racking must be repeated ; otherwise 
 the vinous fermentation, by proceeding too far, 
 may terminate in acetous fermentation, when 
 vinegar would be the result. 
 
 In racking off the liquor it is necessary to keep 
 it free of sediment, and the scum or yeast produced 
 by the fermentation. A supply of spare liquor 
 must be reserved to fill up the barrels occasionally, 
 while the fermentation continues. As soon as this 
 ceases, the barrels should be bunged up closely, 
 and the bungs covered with rosin, to prevent the 
 admission of air. If the cider is weak, it should 
 remain in the cask about 9 months; if strong, 12 
 or 18 months is necessary before it should be 
 bottled. 
 
 To Manage Cider and Perry. 
 
 To fine and improve the flavor of 1 hogshead, 
 
 take 1 gal. of good French brandy, with oz. of 
 
 cochineal, 1 Ib. of alum, and 3 Ibs. sugar-candy ; 
 
 bruise them all well in a mortar, and infuse them 
 
 in the brandy for a day or two ; then mix the 
 whole with the cider, and stop it close for 5 or 6 
 months. After which, if fine, bottle it off. 
 
 Cider or perry, when bottled in hot weather, 
 should be left a day or two uncorked, that it may 
 get flat ; but if too flat in the cask, and soon want- 
 ed for use, put into each bottle a small lump or 
 two of sugar-candy, 4 or 5 raisins, or a small piece 
 of raw beef; any of which will much improve the 
 liquor, and make it brisker. 
 
 Cider should be well corked and waxed, and 
 packed upright in a cool place. A few bottles 
 may always be kept in a warmer place to ripen 
 and be ready for use. 
 
 To make Cheap Cider from Raisins. 
 Take 14 Ibs. of raisins with the stalks; wash 
 them out in 4 or 5 waters, till the water remains 
 clear; then put them into a clean cask with the 
 head out, and put 6 galls, of good water upon 
 them ; after which cover it well up, and let it 
 stand 10 days. Then rack it off into another clean 
 cask, which has a brass cock in it, and in 4 or 5 
 days' time it will be fit for bottling. When it has 
 been in the bottles 7 or 8 days, it will be fit for 
 use. A little coloring should be added when put- 
 ting into the cask the second time. The raisins 
 may afterwards be used for vinegar. 
 
 To make Perry. 
 
 Perry is made after the same manner as cider, 
 only from pears, which must be quite dry. The 
 best pears for this purpose are such as are least fit 
 for eating, and the redder they are the better. 
 
 Observations on Cider. 
 
 From the great diversity of soil and climate in 
 the United States, and the almost endless variety 
 of its apples, it follows that much diversity of 
 taste and flavor will necessarily be found in the 
 cider that is made from them. 
 
 To make good cider the following general, but 
 important rules should be attended to. They de- 
 mand a little more trouble than the ordinary mode 
 of collecting and mashing apples of all sorts, rot- 
 ten and sound, sweet and sour, dirty and clean, 
 from the tree and the soil, and the rest of the slov- 
 enly process usually employed; but in return they 
 produce you a wholesome, high-flavored, sound, 
 and palatable liquor, that always commands an 
 adequate price, instead of a solution of " villain- 
 ous compounds," in a poisonous and acid wash, 
 that no man in his senses will drink. 
 
 General Rules for making Cider. 
 
 1. Always choose perfectly ripe and sound fruit. 
 
 2. Pick the apples by hand. An active boy, 
 with a bag slung over his shoulders, will soon clear 
 a tree. Apples that have lain any time on the soil 
 contract an earthy taste, which will always be 
 found in the cider. 
 
 3. After sweating, and before being ground, wipe 
 them dry, and if any are found bruised or rotten, 
 put them in a heap by themselves, for an inferior 
 cider to make vinegar. 
 
 4. Always use hair-cloths instead of straws, to 
 place between the layers of pommage. The straw 
 when heated gives a disagreeable taste to the 
 cider. 
 
 5. As the cider runs from the press, let it pass 
 through a hair sieve into a large open vessel that 
 will hold as much juice as can be expressed in one 
 day. In a day, or sometimes less, tne pumice will 
 rise to the top, and in a short time grow very 
 thick; when little white bubbles break through it, 
 draw off the liquor by a spigot placed about three 
 inches from the bottom, so that the lees may be 
 left quietly behind. 
 
WINES. 
 
 265 
 
 6. The cider must be drawn off into very clean 
 weet casks, and closely watched. The moment 
 the white bubbles before mentioned are perceived 
 rising at the bung-hole, rack it again. When the 
 fermentation is completely at an end, fill up the 
 cask with cider, in all respects like that already 
 contained in it, and bung it up tight ; previous to 
 
 which a tumbler of sweet-oil may be poured into 
 the bung hole. 
 
 Sound, well made cider, that has been produced 
 as described, and without any foreign mixtures, 
 excepting always that of good cogniac brandy 
 (which added to it in the proportion of 1 gal. to 
 30, greatly improves it), is a pleasant, cooling and 
 useful beverage. 
 
 WINES. 
 
 American Wines. 
 
 The term wine is properly applied only to the 
 fermented juice of the grape, but is popularly used 
 in a more extended sense. What are termed 
 domestic wines made from the currant, gooseberry, 
 etc., are often supposed to be more wholesome 
 and less intoxicating than the wine of the grape. 
 This is an error; they are more acid than true 
 wine, and have added to them sugar and spirits, 
 neither of which are necessary with good grape 
 juice. The culture of the grape and manufacture 
 of wine have increased very rapidly in the United 
 States of late years, and the time is not very dis- 
 tant when we shall be independent of foreign 
 sources of supply. 
 
 The Vine. 
 
 The varieties of grape employed in wine-mak- 
 ing, in the United States, are the Catawba, Dela- 
 ware, Schuylkill (Cape), Isabella, and Scupper- 
 nong. In California, now so noted for its wine 
 product, the vines are of Spanish origin. Of 
 those named, the two first varieties are most 
 prized. Vines require a dry, airy situation, pre- 
 ferably with a southern or eastern exposure. 
 
 Picking the Fruit. 
 
 The fruit should be allowed to stay on the vines 
 until fully ripe. If any error is committed it 
 should be that of allowing it to remain too long. 
 A slight frost will not injure the grape for wine- 
 making, but rather improve it. Remove all un- 
 ripe and bad berries. In some cases the berries 
 are detached from the stem, in others not; the 
 latter method is most usual. All vessels and 
 utensils used in wine-making, must be most 
 scrupulously clean when used, and should be thor- 
 oughly cleansed after using. Without attention 
 to this good wine cannot be made. Grapes should 
 not be gathered in damp weather nor when the 
 dew is on them. 
 
 Extracting the Juice. 
 
 The grapes are first crushed, the object being 
 to break the skin and pulp, but not the seeds. 
 This may be done in any of the ordinary cider- 
 mills sold at the agricultural warehouses, or on 
 the small scale by bruising in a mashing-tub. 
 The juice is then expressed as directed in making 
 cider. For extracting juice of'fruits on the small 
 scale the ordinary clothes-wringer will be found 
 very useful. The expressed juice is termed must, 
 the remaining seeds, husks, etc., after being 
 pressed, are put on the manure pile or used for 
 making inferior brandy. 
 
 Fermenting the Must. 
 
 In this country the fermentation is performed 
 in barrels; abroad vats are used. The barrels 
 should, if new, be filled with pure water, and left to 
 
 soak for 10 or 15 days; then well scalded out, and 
 fumigated by means of a match made by dipping 
 paper or rag into melted sulphur. When not in 
 use they must be kept bunged, and each year they 
 must be thoroughly cleansed or fumigated before 
 using. 
 
 The barrels are to be filled within 5 or 6 inches 
 of the top. The beginning of the fermentation is 
 shown by a slight rise in temperature, this soon 
 increases, the liquid froths, and carbonic acid gag 
 escapes : in 2 or 3 weeks this ceases, the lees settle 
 and the wine becomes clear. Fermentation out of 
 contact of air is accomplished by having a bung 
 fitted with a tube which dips under the surface of 
 a pan of water, The gas escapes through the 
 water, but the air cannot enter the cask. This is 
 considered a great improvement by many. The 
 bung should not be inserted until fermentation 
 has begun. As soon as fermentation has ceased, 
 fill up the cask and bung tightly. If you have 
 not the same wine with which to fill the cask, put 
 in enough well-washed flinty pebbles. 
 
 Sacking. 
 
 The object of racking is to draw the wine from 
 its lees, which contain various impurities, and the 
 yeast is the fermentation. Some rack more than 
 once, others but once. Rehfuss recommends to 
 draw off the wine into fresh casks in December, 
 and again in March or April, and again in the 
 fall; after that only in the fall. Buchanan re- 
 commends one racking in March or April. It is 
 objected to frequent racking that it injures the 
 aroma of the wine, and renders it liable to become 
 acid. The wine may be drawn off with the sy- 
 phon or by the spigot ; care being taken not to dis- 
 turb the lees. 
 
 Spring Fermentation. 
 
 About the time that the vines begin to shoot 
 the wine undergoes a second but moderate fermen- 
 tation, after which it fines itself, and if kept well 
 bunged will continue to improve by age. During 
 the spring fermentation the bungs may be slightly 
 loosened; otherwise the casks, if not strong, may 
 burst, and the wine be lost. It is better kept in 
 bottles. Wine may be bottled in a year after it is 
 made, two years will be better. The bottles 
 should be sealed and laid on their sides in a cool 
 place. 
 
 Sparkling Wines. 
 
 The above directions will give a still wine of fine 
 quality ; no sugar, spirits or other addition is re- 
 quired. To make a sparkling wine is a matter of 
 nicety, and requires considerable experience; and 
 cellars, vaults and buildings especially adapted to 
 the process. Abroad the wine is bottled during 
 the first fermentation ; although air is necessary 
 to the beginnmg of fermentation, yet it will go on 
 when once begun if air be excluded. The must 
 
266 
 
 WINES. 
 
 continuing to ferment in the bottles, the gas gene 
 rated is absorbed by the liquid under its own pres- 
 sure. A very large percentage of bottles bursts. 
 
 Mr. Longworth's Process. 
 
 In the spring following the pressing of the grapes 
 the wine is mixed with a small quantity of sugar, 
 and put into strong bottles, the corks of which are 
 well fastened with wire and twine. The spring 
 fermentation is accelerated by the sugar, and the 
 carbonic acid generated produces pressure enough 
 to burst a considerable percentage of the bottles. 
 At the end of a year the liquid has become clear. 
 To get rid of the sediment the bottles are put in a 
 rack with the necks inclining downward, and fre- 
 quently shaken, the sediment deposits near and 
 on the cork, and is blown out when the wires are 
 cut. More sugar is added for sweetness; the bot- 
 tles recorked, and in a few weeks the wine is ready 
 for use. 
 
 Acidity of Wines. 
 The acidity of wine made from ripe grapes is 
 due to cream of tartar or bitartrate of potassa. 
 The grapes always contain a larger proportion 
 than the wine, as much of it is deposited during 
 fermentation, forming Argols of commerce. Tan- 
 nic acid always present, giving, when in quantity, 
 astringency or roughness. Citric acid is found in 
 wine made from unripe grapes; malic and oxalic 
 acids in those made from currants, rhubarb, etc. 
 The cream of tartar gradually deposits as wine 
 grows older, forming the crust or bees-wing. 
 Hence wine of grape improves with age. Domes- 
 tic wines do not deposit their acids, which have 
 therefore to be disguised by the addition of 
 sugar. Acetic acid is formed by the oxidation of 
 the alcohol of wine. When considerable in quan- 
 tity the wine is said to be "pricked." Moselle 
 and Rhine wine are among the most acid, and 
 Sherry and Port among the least so. 
 
 Sweet Wines, 
 
 Such as Malaga, are made by allowing the 
 grapes to remain on the vine until partially dried. 
 The must is also evaporated about one-third be- 
 fore fermentation. Wines, such as still Catawba, 
 Claret, etc., which contain little or no sugar, are 
 called dry. 
 
 Proportion of Alcohol in Wines. 
 
 The following gives the average proportion of 
 absolute alcohol in 100 parts by measure: Port, 
 Madeira, Sherry, 20; Claret, Catawba, Hock, 
 and Champagne, 11; Domestic wines, 10 to 20; 
 , alcohol gives the strength or body to wine. It is 
 often added to poor wines to make them keep, 
 and to increase their intoxicating qualities. 
 Bottling and Corking. 
 
 Fine clear weather is best for bottling all sorts 
 of wines, and much cleanliness is required. The 
 first consideration, in bottling wines, is to exam- 
 ine and see if the wines are in a proper state. 
 The wines should be fine and brilliant, or they will 
 never brighten after. 
 
 The bottles must be all sound, clean and dry, 
 with plenty of good sound corks. 
 
 The cork is to be put in with the hand, and 
 then driven well in with a flat wooden mallet, the 
 weight of which ought to be li Ibs., but, however, 
 not to exceed H Ibs., for if the mallet be too light 
 or too heavy it will not drive the cork in properly, 
 and may break the bottle. The corks must so 
 completely fill up the neck of each bottle as to 
 render them air-tight, but leave a space of an 
 inch between the wine and the neck. 
 
 When all the wine is bottled, it is to be stored 
 in a cool cellar, and on no account on the bottles' 
 bottoms, but on their sides and in saw-dust. 
 
 Mr. Cornell's Receipt for Red Gooseberry Wine. 
 
 Take cold soft water, 10 gall.*.; red gooseber- 
 ries, 11 galls., and ferment. Now mix raw sugar, 
 16 Ibs. ; beet-root, sliced, 2 Ibs. ; and red tartar, in 
 fine powder, 1 oz. Afterwards put in sassafras 
 chips, 1 lb., and brandy, 1 gall., or less. This will 
 make 18 galls. 
 
 Another. When the weather is dry, gather 
 gooseberries about the time they are half ripe; 
 pick them clean, put the quantity of a pejk into a 
 convenient vessel, and bruise them with a piece 
 of wood, taking as much care as possible to keep 
 the seeds whole. Now having put the pulp into a 
 canvas bag, press out all the juice; and to every 
 gallon of the gooseberries add about 3 Ibs. of fine 
 loaf sugar; mix the whole together by stirring it 
 with a stick, and as soon as the sugar is quite dis- 
 solved, pour it into a convenient cask, which will 
 hold it exactly. If the quantity he about 8 or 9 
 galls., let it stand a fortnight; if 20 galls., 40 days, 
 and so on in proportion taking care the place you 
 set it in be cool. After standing the proper time, 
 draw it off from the lees, and put it into another 
 clean vessel of equal size, or into the same, after 
 pouring the lees out, and making it clean : let a 
 cask of 10 or 12 galls, stand for about 3 month$ ; 
 and 20 galls, for 5 months, after which it will be 
 fit for bottling off. 
 
 Red and White Gooseberry Wine. 
 
 Take cold soft water, 3 galls. ; red gooseberries, 
 1 galls. ; white gooseberries, 2 galls. Ferment. 
 
 Now mix raw sugar, 5 Ibs. ; honey, 1 Ibs. ; tar- 
 tar, in fine powder, 1 oz. Afterwards put in bitter 
 almonds, 2 oz. ; sweetbriar, 1 small handful; ani 
 brandy, 1 gall., or less. This will make 6 galls. 
 White Gooseberry or Champagne Wine. 
 
 Take cold soft water, 4J galls.; white gooseber- 
 ries, 5 galls. Ferment. 
 
 Now mix refined sugar, 6 Ibs.; honey, 4 Ibs.j 
 white tartar, in fine powder, 1 oz. Put in orange 
 and lemon-peel, 1 oz. dry, or 2 oz. fresh; and add 
 white brandy, ^ gall. This will make 9 galls. 
 
 Gooseberry Wine of the Best Quality, resembling 
 
 Champagne. 
 
 To each pint of full ripe gooseberries, mashed, 
 add one pint of water, milk warm, in which 
 has been dissolved one pound of single-refined 
 ugar; stir the whole well, and cover up the tub 
 with a blanket, to preserve the heat generated by 
 ;he fermentation of the ingredients; let them re- 
 nain in this vessel 3 days, stirring them twice or 
 ;hrice a day ; strain off the liquor through a sieve, 
 afterwards through a coarse linen cloth ; put it 
 nto the cask; it will ferment without yeast, Let 
 he cask be kept full with some of the liquor re- 
 served for the purpose. It will ferment for 10 
 days, sometimes for 3 weeks; when ceased, and 
 mly a hissing noise remains, draw off 2 or 3 bot- 
 Jes, according to the strength you wish it to have, 
 rom every 20 pint cask, and fill up the cask with 
 >randy or whiskey; but brandy is preferable. To 
 make it very good, and that it may keep well, add 
 s much Sherry, together with \ oz. of isinglass 
 lissolved in water to make it quite liquid ; stir the 
 whole well. Bung the cask up, and surround the 
 ung with clay ; the closer it is bunged the better; 
 a fortnight after, if it be clear at top, taste it; if 
 lot sweet enough, add more sugar; 22 Ibs. is the 
 ust quantity in all for 20 pints of wine; leave the 
 wine 6 months in the cask ; but after being quite 
 ine, the sooner it is bottled the more it wil 
 parkle and resemble Champagne. The process 
 hould be carried on in a place where the heat is 
 >etween 48 and 56 Fahr. Currant wine may 
 jo made in the same manner. 
 
WINES. 
 
 2G7 
 
 Gooseberry and Currant Wines. 
 
 The following method of making superior goose- 
 berry and currant wines is recommended in a 
 French work : For cu'rant wine, 8 Ihs. of honey 
 are dissolved in 15 galls, of boiling water, to which, 
 when clarified, is added the juice of 8 Ibs. of red 
 or white currants. It is then fermented for 24 
 hours, and 2 Ibs. of sugar to every 2 gulls, of water 
 are added. The preparation is afterwards clari- 
 fied with the whites of eggs and cream of tartar. 
 For gooseberry wine, the fruit is gathered dry 
 when about half ripe, and then pounded in a mor- 
 tar. The juice, when properly strained through a 
 canvas bag, is mixed with sugar, in the proportion 
 of 3 Ibs. to every 2 galls, of juice. It is then left 
 in a quiet state for 15 days, at the expiration of 
 which it is carefully poured off, and left to ferment 
 for 3 months when the quantity is under 15 galls., 
 and for 5 months when double that quantity. It 
 is then bottled, and soon becomes fit for drinking. 
 
 Another. Take cold soft water, 5 \ galls. ; goose- 
 berries and currants, 4 galls. Ferment. Then 
 add, raw sugar, 12 Ibs.; tartar, in fine powder, 
 1 oz. ; ginger, in powder, 3 oz. ; sweet marjoram, 
 i a handful ; whiskey, 1 qt. This will make 9 
 galls. 
 
 Red Currant Wine. 
 
 Take cold soft water, 11 galls.; red currants, 8 
 galls. ; raspberries, 1 qt. Ferment. Mix, raw 
 sugar, 20 Ibs. ; beet-root, sliced, 2 Ibs. ; and red 
 tartar, in fine powder, 3 oz. Put in 1 nutmeg, in 
 fine powder ; add brandy, 1 gall. This will make 
 18 galls. 
 
 Another. Put 5 qts. of currants and 1 pint of 
 raspberries to every 2 galls, of water; let them 
 soak a night; then squeeze and break them well. 
 Next day rub them well through a fine sieve till 
 the juice is expressed, washing the skins with 
 gome of the water; then, to every gallon, put 4 
 Ibs. of the best sugar, put it into your barrel, and 
 set the bung lightly in. In 2 or 3 days add a 
 bottle of good Cogniac brandy to every 4 galls. ; 
 bung it close, but leave out the spigot for a few 
 days. It is very good in 3 years, better in 4. 
 
 Another. Boil 4 galls, of spring water, and stir 
 into it 8 Ibs. of honey ; when thoroughly dissolved, 
 take it off the fire ; then stir it well in order to 
 raise the scum, which take clean off, and cool the 
 liquor. 
 
 When thus prepared, press out the same quan- 
 tity of the juice of red currants moderately ripe, 
 which being well strained, mix well with the 
 water and honey, then put them into a cask or a 
 large earthen vessel, and let them stand to ferment 
 for 24 hours ; then to every gallon add 2 Ibs. of 
 fine sugar, stir them well to raise the scum, and 
 when well settled take it off, and add an oz. of 
 cream of tartar, with the whites of 2 or 3 eggs, to 
 refine it. When the wine is well settled and clear 
 draw it off into a small vessel, or bottle it up, 
 keeping it in a cool place. 
 
 Of white currants a wine after the same manner 
 may be made, that will equal in strength and plea- 
 santness many sorts of white wine; but as for the 
 black or Dutch currants, they are seldom used, 
 except for the preparation of medicinal wines. 
 
 Another. Gather the currants in dry weather, 
 put them into a pan and bruise them with a 
 wooden pestle; let them stand about 20 hours, 
 after which strain through a sieve; add 3 Ibs. of 
 fine powdered sugar to each 4 quarts of the liquor, 
 and after shaking it well fill the vessel, and put a 
 quart of good brandy to every 7 gallons. In 4 
 weeks, if it does not prove quite clear, draw it off 
 into another vessel, and let it stand previous to 
 bottling it off about 10 days. 
 
 Red and White Currant Wine. 
 
 Take of cold soft water, 12 galls. ; white cur- 
 rants, 4 galls.; red currants, 3-galls. Ferment. 
 Mix, raw sugar, 25 Ibs.; white tartar, in fine pow- 
 der, 3 oz. Put in sweet-briar leaves. 1 handful; 
 lavender leaves, 1 handful; then add spirits, 2 
 qts. or more. This will make 18 galls. 
 Dutch Currant Wine. 
 
 Take of cold soft water, $ galls. ; red currants, 
 10 galls. Ferment. Mix, raw sugar, 10 Ibs.; 
 beet-root, sliced, 2 Ibs. ; red tartar, in fine powder, 
 2 oz. Put in bitter almonds, 1 oz. ; ginger, in 
 powder, 2 oz. ; then add brandy, 1 qt. This will 
 make 18 galls. 
 
 Dutch Red Currant Wine. 
 
 Take of cold soft water, 11 galls.; red currants, 
 
 8 galls. Ferment. Mix, raw sugar, 12 Ibs.; red 
 tartar, in fine powder, 2 oz. Put in coriander 
 seed, bruised, 2 oz. ; then add whiskey, 2 qts. 
 This will make 18 galls. 
 
 Mixed Berries from a Small Garden. 
 
 Take of cold soft water, 11 galls.; fruit, 8 galls. 
 Ferment. Mix, treacle, 14 or 16 Ibs.; tartar, in 
 powder, 1 oz. Put in ginger, in powder, 4 oz.; 
 sweet herbs, 2 handfuls; then add spirits, 1 or 2 
 qts. This will make 18 galls. 
 
 To make Compound Wine. 
 
 An excellent family wine may be made of equal 
 parts of red, white and black currants, ripe cher- 
 ries, and raspberries, well bruised, and mixed with 
 soft water, in the proportion of 4 Ibs. of fruit to 
 
 1 gall, of water. When strained and pressed, 3 
 Ibs. of moist sugar are to be added to each gall, 
 of liquid. After standing open for 3 days, during 
 which it is to be stirred frequently, it is to be put 
 into a barrel, and left for a fortnight to work, 
 when a ninth part of brandy is to be added, and 
 the whole bunged down. In a few months it will 
 be a most excellent wine. 
 
 Other Mixed Fruits of the Berry kind. 
 Take of cold soft water, 2 galls.; fruit, 18 galls. 
 Ferment. Honey, 6 Ibs. ; tartar, in fine powder, 
 
 2 oz. Put in peach leaves, 6 handfuls: then add 
 brandy, 1 gall. This will make 18 galls. 
 
 White Currant Wine. 
 Take of cold soft water, 9 galls. ; white currants, 
 
 9 galls.; white gooseberries, 1 gall. Ferment. 
 Mix, refined sugar, 25 Ibs.; white tartar, in pow- 
 der, 1 oz. ; clary seed, bruised, 2 oz. ; or clary 
 flowers or sorrel flowers, 4 handfuls; then add 
 white brandy, 1 gall. This will make 18 galls. 
 
 Another. Take of cold soft water, 10 galls.; 
 white currants, 10 galls. Ferment. Mix, refined 
 sugar, 25 Ibs.; white tartar, in fine powder, 1 oz.; 
 then add bitter almonds, 2 oz. ; and white brandy, 
 1 gall. This will make 18 galls. 
 
 Black Currant Wine. 
 
 Take of cold soft water, 10 galls. ; black cur- 
 rants, 6 galls.; strawberries, 3 galls. Ferment. 
 Mix, raw sugar, 25 Ibs. ; red tartar, in fine pow- 
 der, 6 oz. ; orange-thyme, 2 handfuls ; then add 
 brandy, 2 or 3 qts. This will make 18 galls. 
 
 Another. Take of cold soft water, 12 galls.; 
 black currants, 5 galls. ; white or red currants, or 
 both, 3 galls. Ferment. Mix, raw sugar, 30 Ibs. 
 or less; red tartar, in fine powder, 5 oz. ; ginger, 
 in powder, 5 oz. ; then add brandy, 1 gall, or less. 
 This will make 18 galls. 
 
 Another, very fine. To every 3 qts. of juice add 
 as much of cold water, and to every 3 qts. of the 
 mixture add 3 Ibs. of good, pure sugar. Put it 
 into a cask, reserving some to fill up. Set the 
 cask in a warm, dry room, and it will ferment of 
 itself. When this is over skim off the refuse, and 
 fill up with what you have reserved for this pur- 
 
268 
 
 WINES. 
 
 pose. When it has done working, add 3 qts. of 
 brandy to 40 qts. of the wine. Bung it up close 
 for 10 months, then bottle it. The thick part may 
 be separated by straining, and the percolating 
 liquor be bottled also. Keep it for 12 months. 
 
 Strawberry Wine. 
 
 Take of cold soft water, 7 galls. ; cider, 6 galls. ; 
 strawberries, 6 galls. Ferment. Mix, raw sugar, 
 16 Ibs. : red tartar, in fine powder, 3 oz.; the peel 
 and juice of 2 lemons; then add brandy, 2 or 3 
 qts. This will make 18 galls. 
 
 Another. Take of cold soft water, 10 galls.; 
 strawberries, 9 galls. Ferment. Mix, raw sugar, 
 25 Ibs. ; red tartar, in fine powder, 3 oz. ; 2 lemons 
 and 2 oranges, peel and juice; then add brandy, 
 1 gall. This will make 18 galls. 
 Raspberry Wine. 
 
 Take of cold soft water) 6 galls. ; cider, 4 galls. ; 
 raspberries, 6 galls. ; any other fruit, 3 galls. 
 Ferment. Mix, raw sugar, 18 or 20 Ibs.; red 
 tartar, in fine powder, 3 oz. ; orange and lemon- 
 peel, 2 oz. dry, or 4 oz. fresh : then add brandy, 
 3 qts. This will make 18 galls. 
 
 Another. Gather the raspberries when ripe, 
 husk them and bruise them; then strain them 
 through a bag into jars or other vessels. Boil the 
 juice, and to every gall, put \\ Ibs. of lump sugar. 
 Now add whites of egg?, and let the whole boil 
 for 15 minutes, skimming it as the froth rises. 
 When cool and settled, decant the liquor into a 
 cask, adding yeast to make it ferment. When 
 this has taken place, add 1 pint of white wine, or 
 a pint of proof spirit to each gall, contained in 
 the cask, and hang a bag in it containing 1 oz. of 
 bruised mace. In 3 months, if kept in a cool 
 place, it will be very excellent and delicious wine. 
 
 Mulberry Wine. 
 
 On a dry day gather mulberries, when they are 
 just changed from redness to a shining black; 
 spread them thinly on a fine cloth, or on a floor 
 or table, for 24 hours, and then press them. Boil 
 a gall, of water with each gall, of juice; putting 
 to every gall, of water 1 oz. of cinnamon bark and 6 
 oz. of sugar candy finely powdered. Skim and 
 strain the water when it is taken off and settled, 
 and put to it the mulberry-juice. Now add to 
 every gall, of the mixture a pint of white or 
 Khenish wine. Let the whole stand in a cask to 
 ferment for 5 or 6 days. When settled, draw it 
 off into bottles and keep it cool. 
 
 Elderberry Wine. 
 
 Take of cold soft water, 16 galls.; Malaga rai- 
 sins, 50 Ibs.; elderberries, 4 galls.; red tartar in 
 fine powder, 4 oz. Mix ginger in powder, 5 oz.; 
 cinnamon, cloves, and mace, of each 2 oz. ; 3 or- 
 anges or lemons, peel and juice; then add 1 gall, 
 of brandy. This will make 18 galls. 
 
 Another. In making elder-juice let the berries 
 be fully ripe, and all the stalks clean picked from 
 them ; then, have a press ready for drawing off all 
 the juice, and 4 hair-cloths, somewhat broader 
 than the press. Lay one layer above another, 
 having a hair-cloth betwixt every layer, which 
 must be laid very thin, and pressed a little at first, 
 and then more till the press be drawn as close as 
 possible. Now take out the berries, and press all 
 the rest in the like manner; then take the pressed 
 berries, break out all the lumps, put them into an 
 open-headed vessel, and add as much liquor as 
 will just cover them. Let them infuse so for 7 or 
 8 days ; then put the best juice into a cask proper 
 for it to be kept in, and add I gall, of malt spirits, 
 not rectified, to every 20 galls, of elder-juice, which 
 will effectually preserve it from becoming sour for 
 two years at least. 
 
 Another. Pick the berries when quite riie, put 
 
 them into a stone jar, and set them in an oven, or 
 n a kettle of boiling water, till the jar is hot 
 through ; then take them out, and strain them 
 through a coarse sieve. Squeeze the berries and 
 put the juice into a clean kettle. To every. quart 
 of juice put 1 Ib. of fine sugar; let it boil and skim 
 t well. When clear and fine, pour it into a cask. 
 To every 10 galls, of wine add 1 oz. of isinglass 
 dissolved in cider, and 6 whole eggs. Close it up, 
 let it stand 6 months, and then bottle it. 
 
 To make an Imitation of Cyprus Wine. 
 To 10 galls, of water put 10 qts. of the juice of 
 white elderberries, pressed gently from the ber- 
 ries by the hand and passed through a sieve, with- 
 out bruising the seeds ; add to every gallon of liquor 
 3 Ibs. of sugar, and to the whole quantity 2 oz. of 
 ginger sliced, and 1 oz. of cloves. Boil this nearly 
 an hour, taking off the scum as it rises, and pour 
 the whole to cool, in an open tub, and work it 
 with ale yeast, spread upon a toast of bread for 
 3 days. Then turn it into a vessel that will just 
 hold it, adding about 1 Ibs. of bruised raisins, to 
 lie in the liquor till drawn off, which should not 
 be done till the wine is fine. 
 
 To make Elder-flower Wine, or English, Frontignac. 
 Boil 18 Ibs. of white powdered sugar in 6 galls, 
 of water and 2 whites of eggs well beaten ; skim 
 it, and put in a quarter of a peck of elder-flowers; 
 do not keep them on the fire. When cool stir it, 
 and put in 6 spoonfuls of lemon juice, 4 or 5 of 
 yeast, and beat well into the liquor; stir it well 
 every day; put 6 Ibs. of the best raisins, stoned, 
 into the cask, and tun the wine. Stop it close, 
 and bottle in 6 months. When well kept, this 
 wine will pass very well for Frontignac. 
 
 Another. To 6 galls, of spring-water put 6 Ibs. 
 of sun raisins cut small, and 12 Ibs. of fine sugar. 
 Boil the whole together for about an hour and a 
 half. When the liquor is cold put half a peck of 
 ripe elder-flowers in, with about a gill of lemon- 
 juice, and half the quantity of ale yeast. Cover 
 it up and, after standing 3 days, strain it off. 
 Now pour it into a cask that is quite clean, and 
 that will hold it with ease. When this is done, 
 put a quart of Rhenish wine to every gallon; let 
 the bung be slightly put in for 12 or 14 days, then 
 stop it down fast, and put it in a cool, dry place 
 for 4 or 5 months, till it be quite settled and fine; 
 then bottle it off. 
 
 Imitation of Port Wine. 
 
 Take 6 galls, of good cider, H galls, of Port 
 wine, 1 galls, of the juice of elder- berries, 3 qts. 
 of brandy, 1J oz. of cochineal. This will produce 
 9i galls. 
 
 Bruise the cochineal very fine, and put it with 
 the brandy into a stone bottle; let it remain at 
 least a fortnight, shaking it well once or twice 
 every day. At the end of that time procure the 
 the cider, and put 5 galls, into a 9 gallon cask; 
 add to it the elder juice and Port wine, then the 
 brandy and cochineal. Take the remaining gallon 
 of cider to rinse out the bottle that contained the 
 brandy; and, lastly, pour it into the cask, and 
 bung it down very close, and in 6 weeks it will be 
 ready for bottling. 
 
 It is, however, sometimes not quite so fine as 
 could be wished : in that case add 2 oz. of isin- 
 glass, and let it remain a fortnight or 3 weeks 
 longer, when it will be perfectly bright. It would 
 not be amiss, perhaps, if the quantity of isinglass 
 mentioned was added to the wine before it was 
 bunged down; it will tend very considerably to 
 improve the body of the wine. If it should not 
 appear sufficiently rough flavored, add 1 oz. or li 
 oz. of roche-alum, which will, in mosi sases, im- 
 part a sufficient astringency. 
 
WINES. 
 
 269 
 
 After it is bottled it must be packed in as cool 
 * place as possible. It will be fit for using in a 
 few months, but if kept longer it will be greatly 
 improved. 
 
 Whortleberry or Bilberry Wine. 
 
 Take of cold soft water 6 galls., cider 6 galls., ber- 
 ries 8 galls. ; ferment. Mix raw sugar 20 Ibs, tartar 
 in fine powder 4 oz. ; add ginger in powder 4 oz., 
 lavender and rosemary leaves 2 handfuls, rum or 
 British spirits 1 gall. This will make 18 galls. 
 Birch Wine. 
 
 The season for obtaining the liquor from birch- 
 trees is in the latter end of February, or the be- 
 ginning of March, before the leaves shoot out, and 
 as the sap begins to rise,- if the time is delayed 
 the juice will grow too thick to be drawn out. It 
 should be as thin and clear as possible. The 
 method of procuring the juice is by boring holes 
 in the trunk of the tree and fixing faucets of elder; 
 but care should be taken not to tap it in too many 
 places at once, for fear of injuring the tree. If 
 the tree is large it may be bored in 5 or 6 places 
 at once, and bottles are to be placed under the 
 aperture for the sap to flow into. When 4 or 5 
 galls, have been extracted from different trees, 
 cork the bottles very close, and wax them till the 
 wine is to be made, which should be as soon as 
 possible after the sap has been obtained. Boil the 
 sap, and put 4 Ibs. of loaf sugar to every gallon; 
 also the peel of a lemon cut thin; then boil it 
 again for nearly an hour, skimming it all the time. 
 Now pour it into a tub and, as soon as it is almost 
 cold, work it with a toast spread with yeast, and 
 let it stand 5 or 6 days, stirring it twice or 3 times 
 each day. Into a cask that will contain it put a 
 .lighted brimstone match, stop it up till the match 
 is burnt out, and then pour the wine into it, put- 
 ting the bung lightly in, till it has done working. 
 Bung it very close for about 3 months, and then 
 bottle it. It will be good in a week after it is put 
 into the bottles. 
 
 Another. Birch wine maybe made with raisins 
 in the following manner : To a hogshead of birch- 
 water, take 400 Malaga raisins; pick them clean 
 from the stalks and cut them small. Then boil 
 the birch liquor for an hour at least, skim it well, 
 and let it stand till it is no warmer than milk. 
 Then put in the raisins and let it stand close 
 covered, stirring it well 4 or 5 times every day. 
 Boil all the stalks in a gallon or two of birch 
 liquor, which, added to the other when almost 
 cold, will give it an agreeable roughness. Let 
 it stand 10 days, then put it in a cool cellar, 
 and when it has done hissing in the vessel, stop 
 it up close. It must stand at least 9 months be- 
 fore it is bottled. 
 
 Blackberry Wine. 
 
 Having procured berries that are fully ripe, put 
 them into a large vessel of wood or stone with a 
 cock in it, and pour upon them as much boiling 
 water as will cover them. As soon as the heat 
 will permit the hand to be put into the vessel, 
 bruise them well till all the berries are broken. 
 Then let them stand covered till the berries begin 
 to rise towards the top, which they usually do in 
 3 or 4 days. Then draw off the clear into another 
 vessel, and add to every 10 quarts of this liquor, 
 1 Ib. of sugar. Stir it well and let it stand to work 
 a week or 10 days in another vessel like the first. 
 Then draw it off at the cock through a jelly-bag 
 into a large vessel. Take 4 oz. of isinglass and 
 lay it to steep 12 hours in a pint of white wine. 
 The next morning boil it upon a slow fire till it is 
 all dissolved. Then take 1 gallon of blackberry- 
 juice, put it in the dissolved isinglass, give them 
 boil together, and pour all into the vessel. Let 
 
 it stand a few days to purge and settle, theii draw 
 it off and keep it in a cool place. 
 
 Juniper-berry Wine. 
 
 Take of cold soft water, 18 galls., Malaga or 
 Smyrna raisins, 35 Ibs. juniper-berries, 9 quarts, 
 red tartar, 4 oz., wormwood and sweet marjoram, 
 each 2 handfuls, whiskey, 2 quarts or more. 
 Ferment for 10 or 12 days. This will make 18 
 galls. 
 
 To make Damson Wine. 
 
 Take of cold soft water 11 galls., damsons, 8 
 galls. Ferment. Mix raw sugar, 30 Ibs., red tar- 
 tar, in fine powder, 6 oz. Add brandy,.! gall. This 
 will make 18 galls. 
 
 "When the must," says Mr. Carnell, "has fer- 
 mented 2 days, (during which time it should be 
 stirred up 2 or 3 times) take out of the vat about 
 2 or 3 quarts of the stones and break them and 
 the kernels, and then return them into the vat 
 again." 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 Take a considerable quantity of damsons and 
 common plums inclining to ripeness; slit them in 
 halves so that the stones may be taken out, then 
 mash them gently and add a little water and 
 honey. Add to every gallon of the pulp 1 gall, 
 of spring-water, with a few bay-leaves .and cloves; 
 boil the mixture, and add as much sugar as will 
 sweeten it; skim off the froth and let it cool. 
 Now press the fruit, squeezing out the liquid part, 
 strain all through a fine strainer, and put the 
 water and juice together in a cask. Having al- 
 lowed the whole to stand and ferment for 3 or 4 
 days, fine it with white sugar, flour, and white of 
 eggs ; draw it off into bottles, then cork it well. 
 In 12 days it will be ripe, and will tasfce like weak 
 Port, having the flavor of Canary. 
 
 Another. Gather the damsons on a dry day, 
 weigh them and then bruise them. Put them into 
 a cask that has a cock in it, and to every 8 Ibs. 
 of fruit add 1 gall, of water. Boil the water, skim 
 it and put it scalding hot to the fruit. Let it stand 
 2 days, then draw it off and put it into a vessel, and 
 to every gallon of liquor put 2J Ibs. of fine sugar. 
 Fill up the vessel and stop it close, and the longer 
 it stands the better. Keep it for 12 months in the 
 vessel, and then bottle, pucting a lump of sugar 
 into every bottle. The small damson is the best 
 for this purpose. 
 
 Cherry Wine. 
 
 Take of soft cold water, 10 galls., cherries, 10 
 galls. Ferment. Mix raw sugar, 30 Ibs., red tar- 
 tar, in fine powder, 3 oz. Add brandy, 2 or 3 
 quarts. This will make 18 galls. 
 
 Two days after the cherries have been in the 
 vat, take out about 3 quarts of the cherry-stones, 
 break them and the kernels, and return them into 
 the vat again. 
 
 Another. Take cherries nearly ripe, of any red 
 sort, clear them of the stalks and stones, then put 
 them into a glazed earthen vessel and squeeze 
 them to a pulp. Let them remain in this state 
 for 12 hours to ferment, then put them into a 
 linen cloth not too fine and press out the juice 
 with a pressing-board, or any other convenient 
 instrument. Now let the liquor stand till the scum 
 rises, and with a ladle or skimmer take it clean 
 off; then pour the clear part, by inclination, into 
 a cask, where to each gallon put 1 Ib. of the best 
 loaf sugar, and let it ferment for 7 or 8 days. 
 Draw it off, when clear, into lesser casks or bot- 
 tles ; keep it cool as other wines, and in 10 or 12 
 days it will be ripe. 
 
 To make Morella Wine. 
 Clennse from the stalks 60 Ibs. of Morella cher- 
 
270 
 
 WINES. 
 
 rics, and bruise them so that the stones shall be 
 broken. Now press out the juice and mix it with 
 6 galls, of Sherry wine, and 4 galls, of warm wa- 
 ter. Having grossly powdered separate ounces of 
 nutmeg, cinnamon and mace, hang them sepa- 
 rately in small bags in the cask containing the 
 mixture. Bung it down and in a few weeks it 
 will become a deliciously flavored wine. 
 
 To make Peach Wine. 
 
 Take of cold soft water, j 8 galls., refined sugar, 
 25 Ibs., honey, 6 Ibs., white tartar, in fine powder, 
 
 2 oz., peaches, 60 or 80 in number. Ferment. 
 Then add 2 galls, of brandy. This will make 
 18 galls. 
 
 The first division is to be put into the vat, and 
 the day after, before the peaches are put in, take 
 the stones from them, break them and the kernels, 
 then put them and the pulp into the vat and pro- 
 ceed with the general process. 
 
 Peach and Apricot Wine. 
 
 Take peaches, nectarines, etc. ; pare them and 
 take the stones out; then slice them thin and pour 
 over them from 1 to 2 galls, of water and a quart 
 of white wine. Place the whole on a fire to simmer 
 gently for a considerable time, till the sliced fruit 
 becomes soft; pour off the liquid part into another 
 vessel containing more peaches that have been 
 sliced but not heated ; let them stand for 12 hours, 
 then pour out the liquid part and press what re- 
 mains through a fine hair bag. Let the whole be 
 now put into a cask to ferment ; add of loaf sugar 
 li Ibs. to each gallon. Boil well 1 oz. of beaten 
 cloves in a quart of white wine and add it to the 
 above. 
 
 Apricot wine may be made by only bruising the 
 fruit and pouring the hot liquor over it. This 
 wine does not require so much sweetening. To 
 give it a curious flavor, boil 1 oz. of mace and 
 an oz. of nutmegs in 1 qt. of white wine ; and 
 when the wine is fermenting pour the liquid in 
 hot. In about 20 days, or a month, these wines 
 will be fit for bottling. 
 
 Lemon Wine. 
 
 Pare off the rinds of 6 large lemons, cut them, 
 and squeeze out the juice. Steep the rinds in the 
 juice, and put to it 1 qt. of brandy. Let it stand 
 
 3 days in an earthen pot close stopped; then 
 squeeze 6 more, and mix with it 2 qts. of spring- 
 water, and as much sugar as will sweeten the 
 whole. Boil the water, lemons and sugar together, 
 and let it stand till it is cool. Then add 1 qt. of 
 white wine, and the other lemons and brandy; 
 mix them together, and run it through a flannel 
 bag into soine vessel. Let it stand 3 months and 
 then bottle it off. Cork the bottles well ; keep it 
 cool, and it will be fit to drink in a month or 6 
 weeks. 
 
 Another. Pare 5 dozen of lemons very thin, 
 put the peels into 5 qts. of French brandy, and 
 let them stand 14 days. Then make the juice 
 into a syrup with 3 Ibs. of single-refined sugar, 
 and when the peels are ready boil 15 galls, of 
 water with 40 Ibs. of single-refined sugar for an 
 hour. Then put it into a tub, and when cool add 
 to it 1 spoonful of yeast, and let it work 2 daj^s. 
 Then tun it, and put in the brandy, peels and 
 syrup. Stir them all together, and close up the 
 cask. Let it stand 3 months, then bottle it, and 
 it will be as pale and as fine as any citron-water. 
 
 Apple White Wine. 
 
 Take of cold soft water, 2 galls. ; apples, well 
 bruised, 3 bushels; honey, 10 Ibs.; white tartar, 
 2 oz. ; 1 nutmeg, in powder; rum, 3 qts. This 
 Will make 18 galls. 
 
 To make Apple Wine. 
 
 To every gall, of apple-juice, immediately as it 
 comes from the press, add 2 Ibs. of common loaf 
 sugar; boil it as long as any scum rises, then 
 strain it through a sieve, and let it cool ; add some 
 good yeast, and stir it well; let it work in the tub 
 for 2 or 3 weeks, or till the head begins to flatten, 
 then skim off the head, draw it clear off, and tun 
 it. When made a year rack it off. and fine it with 
 isinglass; then add i a pt. of the best rectified 
 spirit of wine, or a pt. of French brandy, to every 
 8 galls. 
 
 Apple Red Wine. 
 
 Take of cold soft water, 2 galls. ; apples, well 
 bruised, 3 bushels. Ferment. Mix, raw sugar, 
 15 Ibs. ; beet root, sliced, 4 Ibs. ; red tartar, in fine 
 powder, 3 oz. ; then add ginger, in powder, 3 oz. j 
 rosemary and lavender leaves, of each 2 hand- 
 fuls; whiskey, 2 quarts. This will make 18 
 galls. 
 
 To make Quince Wine. 
 
 Gather the quinces when pretty ripe, on a dry 
 day, rub off the down with a linen cloth, then lay 
 them in hay or straw for 10 days to perspire. 
 Now cut them in quarters, tnke out the cores and 
 bruise them well in a mashing-tub with a wooden 
 pestle. Squeeze out the liquid part by pressing 
 them in a hair bag by degrees, in a cider press ; 
 strain this liquor through a fine sieve, then warm 
 it gently over a fire and skim it, but do not suffer 
 it to boil. Now sprinkle into it some loaf sugar 
 reduced to powder; then in a gall, of water and 
 a qt. of white wine boil 12 or 14 large quinces, 
 thinly sliced; add 2 Ibs. of fine sugar, and then 
 strain off the liquid part, and mingle it with the 
 natural juice of the quinces; put this into a cask 
 (not to fill it) and mix them well together; then 
 let it stand to settle; put in 2 or 3 whites of eggs, 
 then draw it off. If it be not sweet enough, add 
 more sugar, and a qt. of the best Malmsey. To 
 make it still better boil ^ of a Ib. of stoned raisins, 
 and i an oz. of cinnamon bark in a qt. of the 
 liquor, to the consumption of a third part, and 
 straining it, put it into the cask when the wine is 
 fermenting. 
 
 Another. Take 20 large quinces, gathered when 
 they are dry and full ripe. Wipe them clean with 
 a coarse cloth, and grate them with a large grater 
 or rasp as near the cores as possible; but do not 
 touch the cores. Boil a gall, of spring-water, 
 throw in the quinces, and let them boil softly 
 about i of an hour. Then strain them well into 
 an earthen pan, on 2 Ibs. of double-refined sugar. 
 Pare the peel of 2 large lemons, throw them in, 
 and squeeze the juice through a sieve. Stir it 
 about till it is very cool, and then toast a thin 
 bit of bread very brown, rub a little yeast on it, 
 and let the whole stand close-covered 24 hours. 
 Take out the toast and lemon, put the wine 
 in a cask, keep it 3 months, and then bottle it. 
 If a 20 gallon cask is wanted, let it stand 6 
 months before bottling it; and remember, when 
 straining the quinces, to wring them hard in a 
 coarse cloth. 
 
 Orange Wine. 
 
 Put 12 Ibs. of powdered sugar, with the whites 
 of 8 or 10 eggs well beaten, into 6 galls, of spring- 
 water; boil them | of an hour; when cold, put 
 into it 6 spoonfuls of yeast and the juice of 12 
 lemons, which being pared, must stand with 2 
 Ibs. of white sugar in a tankard, and in the morn- 
 ing skim off the top, and then put it into the 
 water; add the juice and rinds of 50 oranges, but 
 not the white or pithy parts of the rinds; let it 
 work all together 2 days and 2 nights ; then add 
 
WINES. 
 
 271 
 
 2 qts. of Rhenish or white wine, and put it into 
 the vessel. 
 
 Another. To 6 galls, of wnter put 15 Ibs. of 
 soil sugar; before it boils, add the whites of 6 
 eggs well beaten, and take off the scum sis it rises; 
 boil it i an hour; when cool add the juice of 50 
 oranges, and of the peels cut very thin, and im- 
 merse a toast covered with yeast. In a month 
 after it has been in the cask, add a pt. of brandy 
 and 2 qts. of Rhenish wine; it will be fit to bottle 
 in 3 or 4 months, but it should remain in bottle 
 for 12 months before it is drunk. 
 
 To make Parsnip Wine. 
 
 To 12 Ibs. of parsnips, cut in slices, add 4 galls, 
 of water; boil them till they become quite soft. 
 Squeeze the liquor well out of them, run it through 
 a sieve, and add to every gall. 3 Ibs. of loaf sugar. 
 Boil the whole three quarters of an hour, and 
 when it is nearly cold add a little yeast. Let 
 it stand for 10 days in a tub, stirring it every 
 day from the bottom; then put it into a cask 
 for 12 months ; as it works over fill it up every 
 day. 
 
 White Mead Wine. 
 
 Take of cold soft water 17 galls., white currants 
 6 qts. Ferment. Mix honey 30 Ibs., white tartar 
 in powder 3 oz. Add balm and sweetbriar, each 
 2 handfuls, white brandy 1 gall. This will make 
 18 galls. 
 
 Red Mend, or Metheglin Wine. 
 Take of cold water 17 galls., red currants 6 qts., 
 black currants 2 qts. Ferment. Mix, honey 25 
 Ibs. beet root sliced 1 lb., red tartar in fine powder 
 4 oz. Add cinnamon in powder 2 oz., brandy 1 
 gall. This will make 18 galls. 
 
 Another. Fermented mead is made in the pro- 
 portion of 1 <b. of honey to 3 pints of water; or, 
 by boiling c rer a moderate fire, to two-thirds of 
 the quantity, three parts water and one part honey. 
 The liquor is then skimmed and casked, care being 
 taken to keep the cask full while fermenting. 
 During the fermenting process the cask is left un- 
 Btopped and exposed to the sun, or in a warm room, 
 until the working ceases. The cask is then bunged, 
 and a few months in the cellar renders it pleasant, 
 by the addition of cut raisins, or other fruits, 
 boiled after the rate of lb. of raisins to 6 Ibs. of 
 honey, with a toasted crust of bread; 1 oz. of salt 
 of tartar in a glass of brandy being added to the 
 liquor when csisked, to which some add 5 or 6 drops 
 of the essence of cinnamon ; others, pieces of 
 lemon-peel with various syrups. 
 
 Walnut Mead Wine. 
 
 To every gallon of water put 3 Ibs. of honey, 
 and boil them together three-quarters of an hour. 
 Then to every gallon of liquor put about 2 dozen 
 of walnut leaves, pour the boiling liquor upon 
 them and let them stand all night. Then take out 
 the leaves, put in a spoonful of yeast, and let it 
 work for 2 or 3 days. Then make it up, and after 
 it has stood for 3 months bottle it. 
 
 To make American Honey Wine. 
 Put a quantity of the comb from which honey 
 has been drained in a tub, and add a barrel of 
 cider immediately from the press; this mixture 
 Stir and leave for one night. It is then strained 
 before fermentation, and honey added until the 
 specific gravity of the liquor is sufficient to bear 
 an egg. It is then put into a barrel, and after the 
 fermentation is commenced the cask is filled every 
 day for 3 or 4 days, that the froth may work 
 out of the bung-hole. When the fermentation 
 moderates put the bung in loosely, lest stopping 
 it tight might cause the cask to burst. At the end 
 of 6 or 6 veeks the liquor is to be drawn off into 
 
 a tub, and the whites of 8 eggs, well beaten up 
 with a pint of clean sand, are to be put into it; 
 then add 1 gall, of cider spirits, and after mixing 
 the whole together, return it into the cask, which. 
 
 to be well cleaned, bunged tight, and placed in 
 a proper situation for racking off when fine. In 
 the month of April following draw it off into kegs 
 for use, and it will be equal to almost any foreign 
 wine. 
 
 Cowslip Red Wine. 
 
 Take of cold soft water 18 galls. ; Smyrna raisins 
 40 Ibs. Ferment. Mixed beet-root, sliced, 3 Ibs. ; 
 red tartar, in fine powder, 2 oz. Add cowslip- 
 flowers, 14 Ibs. ; cloves and mace, in powder 1 oz. 
 brandy, 1 gall. This will make 18 galls. 
 Cowslip White Wine. 
 
 Take of cold soft water, 18 galls. ; Malaga rai- 
 sins, 35 Ibs. : white tartar, in fine powder, 2 oz. 
 Ferment. Mix cowslip-flowers, 16 Ibs. Add white 
 brandy, 1 gall This will make 18 galls. 
 
 Cowslip Mead. 
 
 Is made in this manner: To 15 galls, of water put 
 30 Ibs. of honey, and boil it till I gall, be wasted. 
 Skim it, take it off the fire, and have ready 16 
 lemons cut in halves. Take 1 gall, of the liquor and 
 put it to the lemons. Put the rest of the liquor into 
 a tub with 7 pecks of cowslips, and let them stand 
 all night. Then put in the liquor with the lemons 
 8 spoonfuls of new yeast and a handful of sweet- 
 briar. Stir them all well together, and let it work 
 3 or 4 days. Then strain it, put into the cask, 
 and after it has stood 6 months bottle it off. 
 
 Cider White Wine. 
 
 Take of cold soft water, 2 qts.; cider, 9 galls.; 
 honey, 8 Ibs. ; white tartar, in fine powder, 2 oz. 
 Ferment. Mix cinnamon, cloves, and mace, 2 oz. 
 Add rum, i gall. This will make 9 galls. 
 
 Cider Red Wine. 
 
 Take of cold soft water, 3 galls. ; cider, 16 galls. J 
 honey, 10 Ibs. Ferment. Add raw sugar, 4 Ibs. ; 
 beet-root, sliced, 4 Ibs. : red tartar, in fine powder, 6 
 oz. Mix sweet marjoram and sweetbriar, 3 hand- 
 fuls; rum. 1 gall. This will make 18 galls. 
 
 Cider Wine. 
 
 Take of cold soft water, 4 galls. ; cider, 1 5 galls, j 
 honey, 12 Ibs.; tartar, in fine powder, 2 oz. Fer- 
 ment. Mix ginger, in powder, 6 oz. ; sage and 
 mint, 2 handfuls. Add whiskey, 1 gall. This 
 will make 18 galls. 
 
 'To make Raisin Wine equal to Sherry. 
 
 Let the raisins be well washed and picked from 
 the stalks; to every pound thus prepared and 
 chopped, add 1 qt. of water which has been boiled 
 and has stood till it is cold. Let the whole stand 
 in the vessel for a month, being frequently stirred. 
 Now let the raisins be taken from the cask, and 
 let the liquor be closely stopped in the vessel. In 
 the course of a month let it be racked into another 
 vessel, leaving all the sediment behind, which 
 must be repeated till it becomes fine, when add to 
 every 10 galls. 6 Ibs. of fine sugar, and 1 doz. of 
 Seville oranges the rinds being pared very thin, 
 and infused in 2 qts of brandy, which should be 
 added to the liquor at its last racking. Let the 
 whole stand 3 months in the cask, when it will be 
 fit for bottling ; it should remain in the bottle for 
 a twelve-month. 
 
 To give it the flavor of Madeira, when it is in 
 the cask, put in a couple of green citrons, and let 
 them remain till the wine is bottled. 
 Another Raisin Wine. 
 
 Put 200 weight of raisins, with the stalks, into 
 a hogshead, and fill it almost with spring-water; 
 
272 
 
 WINES. 
 
 lot tbem steep for about 12 days, frequently stir- 
 ring, and after pouring off the juice dress the 
 raisins and mash them. The whole should then 
 be put together into a very clean vessel that will 
 exactly contain it. It will hiss for some time, 
 during which it should not be stirred; but when 
 the noise ceases it must be stopped close and 
 stand for about 6 or 7 months, and then, if it 
 prove fine and clear, rack it off into another ves- 
 sel of the same size. Stop it Up, and let it remain 
 for 12 or 14 weeks longer, then bottle it off. If it 
 should not prove clear fine it down with 3 oz. of 
 isinglass, and i Ib. of sugar-candy dissolved in 
 some of the wine. 
 
 Ginger Wine, excellent. 
 
 Put into a very nice boiler 10 galls, of water, 
 15 Ibs. of lump sugar, with the whites of 6 or 8 
 eggs, well beaten and strained ; mix all well while 
 cold; when the liquor boils skim it, put in a 
 Ib. of common white ginger, bruised, and boil it 
 20 minutes. Have ready the rinds (cut very thin) 
 of 7 lemons, and pour the hot liquor on them; 
 when cool put it into your cask, with 2 spoonfuls 
 of yeast; put a quart of the warm liquor to 2 oz. 
 isinglass shavings, whisk it well 3 or 4 times, and 
 put all into the barrel. Next day stop it up, in 3 
 weeks bottle it, and in 3 months it will be a deli- 
 cious and safe liquor. 
 
 Another. Take of cold soft water, 19 galls.; 
 Malaga raisins, 50 Ibs. ; white tartar, in powder, 
 4 oz. Ferment. Mix ginger, in powder or bruised 
 20 oz. ; 18 lemons, peel and juice; add brandy, 2 
 qts. or more. This will make 18 galls. 
 
 Another. Take 20 qts. of water ; 5 Ibs. of sugar; 
 3 oz. of white ginger; 1 oz. of stick liquorice. 
 Boil them well together; when it is cold put a little 
 new yeast upon it, but not too much ; then put 
 it into the barrel for 10 days, and after that bottle 
 it putting a lump of white sugar into every bottle. 
 
 Another. To 7 galls, of water put 19 Ibs. of 
 clayed sugar, and boil it for i an hour, taking off 
 the scum as it rises; then take a small quantity 
 of the liquor and add to it 9 oz. of the best ginger 
 bruised. Now put it all together, and when nearly 
 cold, chop 9 Ibs. of raisins very small, and put 
 them into an 8 gall, cask (beer measure), with 1 
 oz. of isinglass. Slice 4 lemons into the cask, 
 taking out all the seeds, and yeast. Leave it un- 
 stopped for 3 weeks, and in about 3 months it will 
 be fit for bottling. 
 
 There will be 1 gall, of the sugar and water 
 more than the cask will hold at first ; this must be 
 kept to fill up as the liquor works off, as it is neces- 
 sary that the cask should be kept full till it has 
 done working. The raisins should be Malaga, 
 and J Muscadel. Spring and autumn are the best 
 seasons for making this wine. 
 
 To make Koumiss, a Tartar Wine. 
 Take of fresh mare's milk any quantity; add to 
 it part of water, and pour the mixture into a 
 wooden vessel. Use as a ferment J part of 
 skimmed milk ; but at any future preparation a 
 small portion of old koumiss will answer better. 
 Cover the vessel with a thick cloth, and set it in 
 a place of moderate warmth ; leaving it at rest for 
 24 hours ; at the end of which time the milk will 
 become sour, and a thick substance will be 
 gathered on its top. Now, with a churn staff, 
 beat it till the thick substance above-mentioned 
 be blended intimately with the subjacent fluid. 
 In this situation leave it at rest for 24 hours 
 more; after which pour it into a higher and nar- 
 rower vessel, resembling a churn, where the agita- 
 tion must be repeated as before, till the liquor 
 appears to be perfectly homogeneous. In this 
 state it is called koumiss ; of which the taste ought 
 
 to be a pleasant mixture of sweet and sour. 
 Agitation must be employed every time before it 
 is used. Sometimes aromatic herbs, as Angelica, 
 are infused in the liquor during fermentation. 
 
 To make Rhubarb Wine. 
 
 Take of sliced rhubarb, 2 oz. ; lesser cardamom 
 seeds, bruised and husked, oz. ; saffron, 2 drs. ; 
 Spanish white wine, 2 pints; proof spirit, i pint. 
 Digest for 10 days and strain. This is a warm, 
 cordial, laxative medicine. It is used chiefly in 
 weakness of the stomach and bowels, and some 
 kinds of looseness. It may be given in doses of 
 from i spoonful to 3 or 4 spoonfuls or more, ac- 
 cording to the circumstances of the disorder and 
 the strength of the patient. 
 
 To make Sage Wine. 
 
 Boil 26 quarts of spring-water i of an hour, and 
 when it is blood warm put 25 Ibs. of Malaga 
 raisins picked, rubbed and shred, into it, with 
 almost i bushel of red sage shred, and a small 
 pitcher of ale yeast; stir all well together and 
 let it stand in a tub covered warm 6 or 7 days, 
 stirring it once a day; then strain it off and put 
 it in a runlet. Let it work 3 or 4 days, and then 
 stop it up; when it has stood 6 or 7 days, put in 
 a quart or two of Malaga Sherry, and when it is 
 fine bottle it. 
 
 To make Turnip Wine. 
 
 Pare and slice a number of turnips, put them 
 into a cider press and press out all the juice. To 
 every gallon of the juice add 3 Ibs. of lump sugar; 
 have a vessel ready large enough to hold the juice, 
 and put ^ pint of brandy to every gallon. Pour 
 in the juice and lay something over the bung for 
 a week, to see if it works; if it does, do not bung 
 it down till it has done working; then stop it 
 close for 3 months, and draw it off into another 
 vessel. When it is fine bottle it off. 
 
 This is an excellent wine for gouty habits, and 
 is much recommended in such cases in lieu of any 
 other wine. 
 
 Rose Wine. 
 
 Take a well-glazed earthen vessel and put into 
 it 3 galls, of rose-water drawn with a cold still. 
 Put into that a sufficient quantity of rose-leaves, 
 cover it close and set it for an hour in a kettle or 
 copper of hot water, to take out the whole strength 
 and tincture of the roses; and when it is cold 
 press the rose-leaves hard into the liquor, an.d 
 steep fresh ones in it, repeating it till the liquor 
 has got the full strength of the roses. To every 
 gallon of liquor put 3 Ibs. of loaf sugar, and stir 
 it well, that it may melt and disperse in every 
 part. Then put it into a cask or other convenient 
 vessel^to ferment, and put into it a piece of bread 
 toasted hard and covered with yeast. Let it stand 
 about 30 days, when it will be ripe and have a 
 fine flavor, having the whole strength and scent 
 of the roses in it; and it may be greatly improved 
 by adding to it wine and spices. By this method 
 of infusion, wine of carnations, clove gilliflowers, 
 violets, primroses, or any other flower having a 
 curious scent, may be made. 
 
 English Fig Wine. 
 
 Take the large blue figs when pretty ripe, and 
 steep them in white wine, having made some slits 
 in them, that they may swell and gather in the 
 substance of the wine. Then slice some other 
 figs and let them simmer over a fire in water until 
 they are reduced to a kind of pulp. Then strain 
 out the water, pressing the pulp hard, and pour it 
 as hot as possible on the figs that are imbrued in 
 the wine. Let the quantities be nearly equal, but 
 the water somewhat more than the wine and figs. 
 Let them stand 24 hours, mash them well together, 
 
DOMESTIC WINES. 
 
 273 
 
 and draw off what will run without squeezing. 
 Then press the rest, and if not sweet enough add 
 a sufficient quantity of sugar to make it so. Let 
 it ferment, and add to it a little honey and sugar- 
 eandy ; then fine it with the whites of eggs and a 
 little isinglass, and draw it off for use. 
 Balm Wine. 
 
 Take 40 Ibs. of sugar and 9 galls, of water, boil 
 it gently for 2 hours, skim it well, and put it into 
 a tub to cool. Take 2i Ibs. of the tops of balm, 
 bruise them and put them into a barrel with a 
 little new yeast, and when the liquor is cold pour 
 it on the balm. Stir it well together and let it 
 stand 24 hours, stirring it often. Then close it 
 up, and let it stand 6 weeks. Then rack it off and 
 put a lump of sugar into every bottle. Cork it 
 well, and it will be better the second year than 
 the first. 
 
 To make Scurvy -Grass Wine. 
 
 Take the best large scurvy-grass tops and 
 leaves, in May, June, or July ; bruise them well 
 in a stone mortar, put them in a well-glazed 
 earthen vessel and sprinkle them over with some 
 powder of crystal of tartar ; then smear them with 
 virgin honey, and being covered close, let it stand 
 24 hours. Set water over a gentle fire, putting 
 to every gallon 3 pints of honey, and when the 
 scum rises take it off and let it cool ; then put the 
 stamped scurvy grass into a barrel, and pour the 
 liquor to it, setting the vessel conveniently end- 
 ways, with a tap at the bottom. When it has been 
 infused 24 hours, draw off the liquor, strongly 
 press the juie and moisture out of the herb into 
 the barrel or vessel, and put the liquor up again ; 
 then put a little new yeast to it, and suffer it to 
 ferment 3 days, covering the place of the bung or 
 vent with a piece of bread spread over with mus- 
 tard seed, downward, in a cool place, and let it 
 continue till it is fine and drinks brisk. Draw 
 off the finest part, leaving only the dregs behind; 
 afterwards add more herbs, and ferment it with 
 whites of eggs, flour, and fixed nitre, verjuice, or 
 the juice of green grapes, if they are to be had ; 
 to which add 6 Ibs. of the syrup of mustard, all 
 mixed and well beaten together, to refine it down, 
 and it will drink brisk, but is not very pleasant; 
 being here inserted among artificial wines rather 
 for the sake of health, than for the delightfulness 
 of its taste. 
 
 To make Cheap and Wholesome Claret. 
 
 Take a quart of fine draft Devonshire cider, 
 and an equal quantity of good Port. Mix them, 
 and shake them. Bottle them, and let them stand 
 for a month. 
 
 To make Dry Wine. 
 
 Those who like a dry wine, should put into the 
 vat, at the commencement of the vinous fermenta- 
 tion, an ounce or two of calcined gypsum, in fine 
 powder. 
 
 MANAGEMENT OF DOMESTIC WINES. 
 To Guard against Unripe Fruit. 
 
 If the season proves bad so that some fruits are 
 not sufficiently ripe, immediately after the vinous 
 fermentation, and the must of such fruit is put into 
 the cask, it is to be rolled 2 or 3 times a day for a 
 week or two. A spirituous fermentation will soon 
 commence, the bung of the cask must then be 
 taken out, and the hole covered with a bit of light 
 wood or canvas, and as any scum arises, it should 
 be taken away. When the scum disappears, fill 
 up the cask, and bung it up. But a vent hole 
 must be left open for a week. 
 
 To Keep and Manage Wines. 
 
 Wines will diminish, therefore the cask must be 
 13 
 
 kept filled up with some of the same wine, or som 
 other that is as good or better. 
 
 They must at all times be kept in a cool cellar, 
 if not, they will ferment. If wines are kept in a 
 warm cellar, an acetous fermentation will soon 
 commence, and the result consequently will bo 
 vinegar. The more a wine frets and ferments, the 
 more it parts with its strength and goodness; when 
 wines are found to work improperly in the cellar, 
 the vent-peg must be taken out for a week or two. 
 
 If any wine ferments, after being perfected, 
 draw off a quart and boil it, and pour it hot into 
 the cask, add a pint or a quart of brandy, and 
 bung up a day or two after. 
 
 Or, draw off the wine, and fumigate the cask, 
 with 1 oz. of flower of brimstone, and oz. of cin- 
 namon, in powder. Mix the two together, and 
 tie them up in a rag. Turn the bung-hole of the 
 cask downwards, place the rag under the bung- 
 hole, and set fire to it, so that the gas ascends inte 
 the cask. As soon as it is burnt out, fill up the 
 cask with wine, and bung it up tight. 
 
 To Sweeten a Foul Cask. 
 
 Set fire to 1 Ib. or more of broken charcoal, put 
 it into the cask, and immediately fill up the cask 
 with boiling water. After this roll the cask once 
 or twice a day for a week ; then pour out the 
 charcoal and water, wash out the cask with clean 
 cold water, and expose it to the external air for 
 some days. 
 
 To Improve Poor Wines. 
 
 Poor wines may be improved by being racked 
 off, and returned to the cask again ; and then put- 
 ting into the wine about 1 Ib. of jar or box raisins, 
 bruised, and 1 quart of brandy. 
 
 Or, put into the wine 2 Ibs. of honey, and a pint 
 or two of brandy. The honey and brandy to be 
 first mixed together. 
 
 Or, draw off 3 or 4 quarts of such wine and fill 
 the cask up with strong wine. 
 
 To Improve Wine when Lowering or Decaying. 
 
 Take 1 oz. of alum, make it into powder; then 
 draw out 4 galls, of wine, mix the powder with it, 
 and beat it well for J an hour ; then fill up the 
 cask, and when fine (which will be in a week's 
 time or little more)> bottle it off. This will make 
 it drink fine and brisk. 
 
 To Restore Flat Wines. 
 
 Flat wines may be restored by 1 Ib. of jar rai- 
 sins, 1 Ib. of honey, and i a pint of spirits of wine, 
 beaten up in a mortar with some of the wine, and 
 then the contents put into the cask. 
 
 To Remove a Musty or Disagreeable Taste in Wine. 
 
 Put into the cask 3 or 4 sticks of charcoal, and 
 bung up the cask tight. In a month after take 
 them out. 
 
 Or, cut two ripe medlars, put them in a gauze 
 bag, and suspend them from the bung-hole into 
 wine, and bung up the cask air-tight. A month 
 after take them out, and bung up the cask again. 
 
 Or, mix i Ib. of bruised mustard-seed, with 1 
 pint or more of brandy, and stir it up in the wine; 
 and 2 days after bung up the cask. 
 
 Another Mode. 
 
 At the finish of the process, when the brandy 
 or spirit is put to the wine, it is particularly recom- 
 mended that i oz. of camphor, in the lump, be 
 dropped into the bung-hole of each 18 galls, of 
 wine. 
 
 Another Mode. 
 
 Oil poured upon wine, or any other liquor, will 
 prevent it from growing musty, or turning corrupt. 
 
274 
 
 DOMESTIC WINES. 
 
 To Take Away the Til Scent of Wines. 
 Bake a long roller of dough, stuck well with 
 cloves, and hang it in the cask. 
 
 To make Wine Sparkle like Champagne. 
 
 Take great care to rack off the wine well, and in 
 March bottle it as quickly as possible. The bottles 
 must be very clean and dry, and the corks of the 
 best sort, made of velvet or white cork. In 2 
 months' after, the wine will be in a fine condition 
 to drink. 
 
 To Clefo Foul or Ropy Wines. 
 
 Take i oz. of chalk in powder, i oz. of burnt 
 alum, the white of an egg, and 1 pint of spring- 
 water. 
 
 Beat the whole up in a mortar, and pour it into 
 the wine; after which, roll the cask 10 minutes; 
 and then place it on the stand, leaving the bung 
 out for a few days. As soon as the wine is fine, 
 rack it off. 
 
 Or, take 1 oz. of ground rice, ^ oz. of burnt 
 alum, and i oz. of bay-salt 
 
 Beat the whole up in a mortar, with 1 pint or 
 more of the wine, pour it into the cask, and roll it 
 10 minutes. The cask must be bunged up for a 
 few days. As soon as such wine becomes fine, 
 rack it off. 
 
 Or, bring the cask of wine out of the cellar and 
 
 Elace it in a shady situation to receive the circu- 
 ition of the air, and take out the bung. In 3 
 weeks or a month rack it off into a sweet cask, 
 which fill up, and put into the wine 1 oz. of cin- 
 namon, in the stick; and bung it up tight. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 Tap the cask, and put a piece of coarse linen 
 cloth upon that end of the cock which goes to the 
 inside of the cask ; then rack it into a dry cask 
 to 30 galls, of wine, and put in 5 oz. of powdered 
 alum. Roll and shake them well together, and it 
 will fine down, and prove a very clear and plea- 
 sant wine. 
 
 To Correct Green or Harsh Wines. 
 Take 1 oz. of salt, oz. calcined gypsum, in 
 powder, and 1 pt. of skimmed milk. Mix these 
 up with a little of the wine, and then pour the 
 mixture into the cask ; put in a few lavender 
 leaves, stir the wine with a stick, so as not to dis- 
 turb the lees, and bung it up. 
 
 To Correct Sharp, Tart, Acid Wines. 
 
 Mix 1 oz. of calcined gypsum in powder and 2 
 Ibs. of honey in 1 qt. of brandy; pour the mix- 
 ture into the wine, and stir it so as not to disturb 
 the lees; fill up the cask, and the following day 
 bung it up. Rack this wine as soon as fine. 
 
 Or, mix oz. of the salt of tartar i oz. of cal- 
 cined gypsum, in powder, with a pint of the wine; 
 pour it into the cask, and put an ounce of cinna- 
 mon in the stick ; stir the wine without disturbing 
 the lees, fill up the cask, and the day following 
 bung it up. 
 
 Or, boil 3 oz. of rice ; when cold put it into a 
 gauze bag, and immerge it into the wine; put into 
 the wine also a few sticks of cinnamon, and bung 
 up the cask. In about a month after, take the 
 rice out. 
 
 To Restore Sour Wines. 
 
 Take calcined gypsum in powder 1 oz., cream 
 of>tartar in powder 2 oz. Mix them in a pint or 
 more >of brandy; pour it into the cask; put in, 
 also, a few stieks of cinnamon, and then stir the 
 wine wikhout disturbing the lees. Bung up the 
 cask the next day. 
 
 Another Method. 
 Boil a gallon of wine with some beaten oyster- 
 
 shells and crab's claws, burnt into powder, 1 oz. 
 of each to every 10 galls, of wine; then strain out 
 the liquor through a sieve, and when cold put it 
 into wine of the same sort, and it will give it a 
 pleasant lively taste. A lump of unslaked lime 
 put into the cask will also keep wine from turning 
 sour. 
 
 Fining. 
 
 Many wines require fining before they are 
 racked, and the operation of fining is not always 
 necessary. Most wines, well made, do not wunt 
 fining; this may be ascertained by drawing a 
 little into a glass from a peg-hole. 
 
 One of the best finings is as follows : Take 1 Ib. 
 of fresh marsh-mallow roots, washed clean, and 
 cut into small pieces; macerate them in 2 qts. of 
 soft water for 24 hours, then gently boil the liquor 
 down to 3 half pints, strain it, and when cold mix 
 with it i oz. of pipe-clay or chalk in powder; then 
 pour the mucilage into the cask, and stir up the 
 wine so as not to disturb the lees, and leave the 
 vent-peg out for some days after. 
 
 Or, take boiled rice 2 tablespoonfuls, the white 
 of 1 new egg, and oz. of burnt alum, in powder. 
 Mix with a pint or more of the wine, then pour 
 the mucilage into the cask, and stir the wine with 
 a stout stick, but not to agitate the lees. 
 
 Or, dissolve in a gentle heat oz. of isinglass 
 in a pint or more of the wine, then mix with it i 
 oz. of chalk, in powder; when the two are well 
 incorporated pour it into the cask, and stir the 
 wine, so as not to disturb the lees. 
 
 Or, beat up the white of eggs, 1 egg to 6 galls.; 
 draw the wine into the beaten egg, and keep stir- 
 ring all the while, then return the wine and froth 
 to the cask, and bung up. 
 
 To Check Fermentation. 
 
 It is in the first place necessary to consider 
 whether the existing state of fermentation be the 
 original or secondary stage of that process which 
 comes on after the former has ceased for several 
 days, and is indeed the commencement of acetous 
 fermentation. That of the former kind rarely 
 proceeds beyond what is necessary for the perfect 
 decomposition of the saccharine and other parts 
 of the vegetable substance necessary for the pro- 
 duction of spirit, unless the liquor be kept too 
 warm or is too weak, and left exposed to the air 
 after the vinous fermentation is completed. The 
 means to correct these circumstances are suffi- 
 ciently obvious. The heat for spirituous fermen- 
 tation should not be above 60; when it is much 
 above that point the liquor passes rapidly through 
 the stage of vinous fermentation, and the acetous 
 immediately commences. When too long contin- 
 ued fermentation arises from the liquor having 
 been kept in a warm situation, it will be soon 
 checked by bunging, after being removed into a 
 cold place; the addition of a small proportion of 
 spirits of wine or brandy, previously to closing it 
 up, is also proper. A degree of cold, approaching 
 to the freezing point, will check fermentation of 
 whatever kind. Fermentation of this kind can- 
 not be stopped by using a chemical agent, except 
 such as would destroy the qualities ot the liquor 
 intended to be produced. 
 
 The secondary stage of fermentation, or the 
 commencement of the acetous, may be stopped by 
 removing the liquor to a cool situation; correct- 
 ing the acid already formed ; and it' the liquor 
 contain but little spirit, the addition of a proper 
 proportion of brandy is requisite. 
 
 The operation of racking is also necessary to 
 preserve liquor in a vinous state, and to render it 
 clear. This process should be performed in a cool 
 place. 
 

 FOREIGN WINES. 
 
 275 
 
 To Restore Pricked British Wines. 
 
 Rack the wines down to the lees into another 
 cask, where the lees of good wines are fresh ; then 
 put a pint of strong aqua vitae, and scrape i Ib. of 
 yellow bee-swax into it, which, by heating the spirit 
 over a Jrentle fire, will melt; after which dip a 
 piec of cloth into it, and when a little dry set it on 
 fire wi f h a brimstone match, put it into the bung- 
 hole, and stop it up close. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 First prepare a fresh empty cask that has had 
 the same kind of wine in which it is about to be 
 racked ; then match it, and rack off the wine, put- 
 ting to every 10 galls. 2 oz. of oyster powder and 
 oz. of buy-salt; then get the staff and stir it 
 well about, letting it stand till it is fine, which will 
 be in a few days ; after which rack it off into an- 
 other cask previously matched, and if the lees of 
 some wine of the same kind can be got, it will im- 
 prove it much. Put likewise a quart of brandy to 
 every 10 galls., and, if the cask has been emptied 
 a long time, it will match better on that account; 
 but, even if a new cask, the matching must not be 
 omitted. A fresh empty cask is to be preferred. 
 
 This method will answer for all made wines. 
 
 TO MANAGE FOREIGN WINE-VAULTS. 
 
 The principal object to be attended to in the 
 management of foreign wine-vaults is to keep 
 them of a temperate heat. Care must be taken, 
 therefore, to close up every aperture or opening, 
 that there may be no admission given to the ex- 
 ternal air. The floor of the vault should likewise 
 be well covered with saw-dust, which must not be 
 suffered to get too dry and dusty, but must receive 
 now and then an addition of new, lest, when bot- 
 tling or racking wine, some of the old dust should 
 fly into it. At most vaults, in the winter, it is 
 necessary to have a stove or chafing-dish, to keep 
 up a proper degree of warmth. In the summer 
 time it will be best to keep them as cool as pos- 
 sible. 
 
 To Fit Up a Cellar of Wines and Spirits. 
 
 Provide a good rope and tackling to let down 
 the casks into the vaults or cellar, and a slide, 
 ladder or pully for the casks to slide or roll on ; a 
 pair of strong slings; a pair of can hooks and a 
 pair of crate hooks ; a block of wood to put under 
 the pipes when topping them over in a narrow 
 passage, or in casing them; a small valinch to 
 taste wines; a crane, and a small copper pump to 
 rack off; 2 or 3 gallon cans made of wood; a 
 large wooden funnel ; 2 or 3 copper funnels, from 
 a quart to a gallon each ; 2 racking cocks ; 2 wine 
 bottling- cocks ; a brace and various bits; 2 small 
 tubs ; a square basket to hold the corks ; 2 small 
 tin funnels; a small strainer; 2 cork-screws; 2 
 or 3 baskets; a whisk to beat the finings; 3 flan- 
 nel or linen bags ; a strong iron jscrew to raise the 
 bungs; a pair of pliers; bungs,' corks, and vent- 
 pegs; 2 frets or middle -sized gimblets; some 
 sheet-lead and tacks to put on broken staves: 
 brown paper to put round cocks and under the 
 lead, when stopping leaks; a staff with a chain 
 at one end to rumage the wines, etc. ; shots and 
 lead canister or bristle brush, and 2 cloths to 
 wash bottles; 2 large tubs; some small racks that 
 will hold 6 dozen each; a cooper's adze; an iron 
 and a wooden driver to tighten hoops; 2 dozen 
 of wooden bungs of different sizes ; a thermom- 
 eter, which is to be kept in the vault; a stove or 
 chafingdish, to keep the heat of the vault at a 
 known temperature ; a few dozen of delph labels ; 
 a cupboard to hold all the tools; a spade; 2 good 
 stiff birch brooms, and a rake to level the saw- 
 dust. 
 
 To maJce Port Wine. 
 
 The dark red port is made from grapes gathered 
 indiscriminately and thrown into a cistern ; they 
 are then trodden, and their skins and stalks left in 
 the mass, which separate during fermentotion and 
 form a dry head over the liquid. When the fer- 
 mentation is completed, the liquor underneath is 
 drawn out and casked. Before being exported it 
 is mixed with one-third of brandy, to enable it to 
 keep during the voyage; otherwise the carriage 
 brings on the acetous fermentation, and the wine 
 is converted into vinegar. 
 
 French Method of Making Wines. 
 
 In the southern parts of France their way is 
 with red wines to tread or squeeze the grapes 
 between the hands, and let the whole stand, juice 
 and husks, till the tincture is to their liking ; after 
 which they press it. For white wines they press 
 the grapes immediately, and when pressed they 
 tun the must and stop up the vessel, leaving only 
 the depth of a foot or more to give room for it to 
 work. At the end of 10 days they fill this space 
 with some other good wine that will not work it 
 again. 
 
 To Rack Foreign Wines. 
 
 The vault or cellar should be of a temperate 
 heat, and the casks sweet and clean. Should they 
 have an acid or musty smell, it may be remedied 
 by burning brimstone matches in them; and if 
 not clean rinse them well out with cold water, and 
 after draining, rinse with a quart of brandy, put- 
 ting the brandy afterwards into the ullage cask. 
 Then strain the lees or bottoms through a flannel 
 or linen bag. But put the bottoms of Port into the 
 ullage cask without going through the filtering, 
 bag. In racking wine that is not on the stillage, 
 a wine-pump is desirable. 
 
 To Manage and Improve Poor Red Port. 
 
 If wanting in body, color and flavor, draw out 30 
 or 40 galls, and return the same quantity of young 
 and rich wines. To a can of which put 3 gills of 
 coloring, with a bottle of wine or brandy. Then 
 whisk it well together and put it into the cask, 
 stirring it well. If not bright in about a week or 
 ten days, fine it for use; previous to which put in 
 at different times a gallon of good brandy. If the 
 wine is short of body put a gallon or two of brandy 
 in each pipe, by a quart or two at a time, as it feeds 
 the wine better than putting it in all at once. But 
 if the wines are in a bonded cellar, procure a fun- 
 nel that will go to the bottom of the cask, that 
 the brandy may be completely incorporated with, 
 the wine. 
 
 To Manage Claret. 
 
 Claret is not a wine of a strong body, though it 
 requires to be of a good age before it is used, and 
 therefore it should be well managed; the best 
 method is to feed it every 2 or 3 weeks with a 
 pint or two of French brandy. Taste it frequently, 
 to know what state it is in, and use the brandy 
 accordingly; but never put much in at a time, 
 while a little incorporates with the wine and feeds 
 and mellows it. 
 
 If the claret is faint, rack it into a fresh emptied 
 hogshead, upon the lees of good claret, and bung 
 it up, putting the bottom downwards for two or 
 three days, that the lees may run through it. 
 To Color Claret. 
 
 If the color be not yet perfect, rack it off again 
 into a hogshead that has been newly drawn off, 
 with the lees ; then take 1 Ib. of turnsole and put 
 it into a gallon or two of wine ; let it lie a day or 
 two, and then put it into the vessel; after which 
 lay the bung downwards for a night, and the next 
 day roll it about. 
 
276 
 
 FOREIGN WINES. 
 
 Or, take any quantity of damsons or black sloes, 
 and strew them with some of the deepest colored 
 wine and as much sugar as will make it into a 
 syrup. A pint of this will cover a hogshead of 
 claret. It is also good for red Port wines, and 
 may be kept ready for use in glass bottles. 
 
 To Restore Claret that Drinks Foul. 
 
 Rack it off from the dregs on some fresh lees 
 of its own kind, and then take a dozen of new 
 pippins, pare them and take away the cores or 
 hearts ; then put them in the hogshead, and if 
 that is not sufficient, take a handful of the oak 
 of Jerusalem and bruise it; then put it into the 
 wine and stir it well. 
 
 To make Claret and Port Rough. 
 
 Put into 1 qt. of Claret or Port 2 qts. of sloes; 
 bake them in a gentle oven, or over a slow fire, 
 till a good part of their moisture is stewed out, 
 then pour off the liquor, and squeeze out the rest. 
 A pint of this will be sufficient for 30 or 40 galls. 
 
 To Manage Hermitage and Burgundy. 
 
 Red Hermitage must be managed in the same 
 way as Claret, and the White likewise, except the 
 coloring, which it does not require. Burgundy 
 should be managed in the same manner as Red 
 Hermitage. 
 
 To Manage Lisbon Wine. 
 
 If the Lisbon is dry, take out of the pipe 35 or 
 40 galls., and put in the same quantity of calca- 
 vella, stir it well about, and this will make a pipe 
 of good mild Lisbon ; or, if it be desired to con- 
 vert mild into dry, take the same quantity out as 
 above mentioned before, and fill the pipe with 
 Malaga Sherry, stirring it about as the other. 
 The same kind of fining used for Vidonia will an- 
 swer for Lisbon wine; or it maybe fined with the 
 whites and shells of 16 eggs, and a small handful 
 of salt; beat it together to a froth, and mix it with 
 a little of the wine; then pour it into the pipe, 
 stir it about, and let it have vent for 3 days ; after 
 which bung it up, and in a few days it will be 
 fine. Lisbon, when bottled, should be packed 
 either in saw-dust or leaths in a temperate place. 
 
 To Improve Sherry. 
 
 If the Sherry be new and hot, rack it off into a 
 sweet cask, add 5 galls, of mellow Lisbon, which 
 will take off the hot taste, then give it a head, 
 take 1 qt. of honey, mix it with a can of wine, 
 and put it into the cask when racking. By this 
 method Sherry for present use will be greatly im- 
 proved, having much the same effect upon it as 
 age. 
 
 To Improve White Wine. 
 
 If the wine have an unpleasant taste, rack off 
 one-half, and to the remainder add 1 gall, of new 
 milk, a handful of bay-salt, and as much rice; 
 after which take a staff, beat them well together 
 for half an hour, and fill up the cask, and when 
 rolled well about, stillage it, and in a few days it 
 will be much improved. 
 
 If the white wine is foul and has lost its color, 
 for a butt or pipe take 1 gall, of new milk, put it 
 into the cask, and stir it well about with a staff; 
 and when it has settled, put in 3 oz. of isinglass 
 made into a jelly, with | Ib. of loaf sugar scraped 
 fine, and stir it well about. On the day following, 
 bung it up, and in a few days it will be fine, and 
 have a good color. 
 
 To Improve Wine with Chalk. 
 Add a little chalk to the must, when it is some- 
 what sour; for the acidity arising from citric and 
 tartaric acids, there is thus formed a precipitate of 
 citrate and tartrate of lime, while the must becomes 
 
 sweeter, and yields a much finer wine. Too much 
 chalk may render the wine insipid, since it is pro- 
 per to leave a little excess of acid in the must. 
 Concentrate the mutt by boiling, and add the pro~ 
 per quantity of chalk to the liquor, while it is still 
 hot. Even acid wine may be benefited by the ad- 
 dition of chalk. Oyster shells may be used with 
 this view ; and when calcined are a cleaner carbo- 
 nate of lime than common chalk. 
 
 To Renovate Sick Wine. 
 
 Wines on the fret should be racked ; if their own 
 lee indicates decay they should be racked on the 
 sound lee of another wine of similar but stronger 
 quality, to protract their decline ; if this be done 
 at an early period, it may renovate the sick wine ; 
 on these occasions giving the sick wine a cooler 
 place, will retard its progress to acidity: if conve- 
 nient, such wines should be forced and bottled. 
 Previous to bottling, or rather at the forcing, give 
 it 1,2, or 3 tablespoonfuls of calcined gypsum 
 finely pulverized. This will check its tendency to 
 acidity, without exciting much intumescence, with- 
 out injuring the color of the red wine, and with- 
 out retarding its coating to the bottle, which it 
 rather promotes. The proper forcing for red wines 
 are, the whites of 10 or 12 eggs, beat up with 1 or 
 2 teaspoonfuls of salt, per hogshead, and well 
 worked into the wine with a forcing-rod ; the gyp- 
 sum should be first boiled in a little water. 
 To Mellow Wine. 
 
 Cover the orifices of the vessels containing it 
 with bladder closely fastened instead of the usual 
 materials, nnd an aqueous exhalation will pass 
 through the bladder, leaving some fine crystalli- 
 zations on the surface of the wine, which, when 
 skimmed off, leaves the wine in a highly improved 
 state of flavor. Remnants of wine covered in this 
 manner, whether in bottles or casks, will not turn 
 mouldy as when stopped in the usual way, but 
 will be improved instead of being deteriorated. 
 
 German Method of restoring Sour Wines. 
 
 Put a small quantity of powdered charcoal in 
 the wine, shake it, and after it has remained still 
 for 48 hours decant steadily. 
 
 To Concentrate Wine by Cold. 
 
 If any kind of wine be exposed to a sufficient 
 degree of cold in frosty weather, or be put into 
 any place where ice continues all the year, as in 
 ice-houses, and there suffered to freeze, the super- 
 fluous water contained in the wine will be frozen 
 into ice, and will leave the proper and truly essen- 
 tial part of the wine unbroken, unless the degree 
 of cold should be very intense, or the wine but 
 weak and poor. When the frost is moderate, the 
 experiment has no difficulty, because not above a 
 third or a fourth part of the superfluous water will 
 be frozen in a whole night; but if the cold be very 
 intense, the best way is, at the end of a few hours, 
 when a tolerable quantity of ice is formed, to pour 
 out the remaining fluid liquor, and set it in another 
 vessel to freeze again by itself. 
 
 The frozen part, or ice, consists only of the 
 watery part of the wine, and maybe thrown away, 
 and the liquid part retains all the strength, and is 
 to be preserved. This will never grow sour, 
 musty, or mouldy, and may at any time be re- 
 duced to wine of the common strength, by adding 
 to it as much water as will make it up the former 
 quantity. 
 
 To Convert White Wine into Red. 
 
 Put 4 oz. of turnsole rags into an earthen vessel, 
 and pour upon them a pint of boiling water ; cover 
 the vessel close, and leave it to cool ; strain off the 
 liquor, which will be of a fine deep red, inclining 
 
DISTILLATION". 
 
 277 
 
 to purple. A small portion of this colors a large 
 quantity of wine. This tincture may either be 
 made in brandy, or mixed with it, or else made 
 into a syrup, with sugar, for keeping. 
 
 In those countries which do not produce the 
 tingeing grape which affords a blood-red juice, 
 wherewith the wines of France are often stained, 
 in defect of this the juice of elderberries is used, 
 and sometimes logwood is used at Oporto. 
 
 To Force down the Finings of all White Wines, 
 Arracks, and Small Spirits. 
 
 Put a few qts. of skimmed milk into the cask. 
 To render lied Wine White. 
 
 If a few quarts of well-skimmed milk be put to 
 a hogshead of red wine, it will soon precipitate 
 the greater part of the color, and leave the whole 
 nearly white; and this is of known use in 
 turning red wines, when pricked, into white; in 
 which a small degree of acidity is not so much 
 perceived. 
 
 Milk is, from this quality of discharging color 
 from wines, of use also to the wine-coopers, for 
 the whitening of wines that have acquired a brown 
 color from the cask, or from having been hastily 
 boiled before fermenting; for the addition of a 
 little skimmed milk, in these cases, precipitates 
 the brown color, and leaves the wines almost 
 limpid, or of what they call a water whiteness, 
 which is much coveted abroad in wines as well as 
 in brandies. 
 
 To make Wine Settle Well. 
 
 Take a pint of wheat and boil it in a quart of 
 water till it bursts and becomes soft; then squeeze 
 through a linen cloth, and put a pint of the liquor 
 into a hogshead of unsettled white wine; stir it 
 well about, and it will become fine. 
 
 To moke a Match for Sweetening Casks. 
 
 Melt some brimstone, and dip into it a piece of 
 coarse linen cloth; of which, when cold, take a 
 piece of about 1 inch broad and 5 inches long, and 
 set fire to it, putting it into the bung-hole, with 
 one end fastened under the bung, which must be 
 driven in very tight. Let it remain a few hours 
 before removing it out. 
 
 To make Oyster Powder. 
 
 Gret some fresh oyster-shells, wash them, and 
 
 scrape off the yellow part from the outside; lay 
 them on a clear fire till they become red-hot ; then 
 lay them to cool, and take off the softest part, 
 powder it, and sift it through a fine sieve ; after 
 which use it immediately, or keep it in bottles well 
 corked up and laid in a dry place. 
 
 To make a Filtering Bag. 
 
 This bag is made of a yard of either linen or 
 flannel, not too fine or close, and sloping, so as to 
 have the bottom of it run to a point, and the top 
 as broad as the cloth will allow. It must be well 
 sewed up the side, and the upper part of it folded 
 round a wooden hoop, and well fastened to itj 
 then tie the hoop in three or four places with a 
 cord to support it; and when used, put a can or 
 pail under it to receive the liquor, filling the bag 
 with the sediments; after it has ceased to run, 
 wash out the bag in three or four clear waters, 
 then hang it up to dry in an airy place, that it 
 may not get musty. A wine-dealer should always 
 have two bags by him, one for red and the other 
 for white wines. 
 
 To Detect Alum in Wine. 
 
 Wine merchants add alum to red wine to com- 
 municate to it a rough taste and deeper color. For 
 the discovery of the fraud in question adopt the 
 following means: The wine is to be discolored 
 by means of a concentrated solution of chlorine; 
 the mixture is to be evaporated until reduced to 
 nearly the fourth of its original volume; the 
 liquor is to be filtered : it then possesses the fol- 
 lowing properties when it contains alum: 1st, it 
 has a sweetish, astringent taste; 2d, it furnishes 
 a white precipitate (sulphate of baryta) with ni- 
 trate of baryta, insoluble in water and in nitric 
 acid; 3d, caustic potash gives rise to a yellowish 
 white precipitate of alumina, soluble in an excess 
 of potash. 
 
 To Detect Metal in Wine. 
 
 Add a few drops of sulphydrate of ammonia. 
 If a precipitate is formed the wine is impure. 
 Lead is used by many wine merchants to give an 
 astringency to port wine, that, like old port, it 
 may appear rough to the tongue. Sometimes they 
 hang a sheet of lead in the cask; at others they 
 pour in a solution of acetate (sugar) of lead, for 
 the purpose of sweetening, as they term it. 
 
 THR object of distillation is the preparation of 
 alcohol or pure spirits, which is obtained from 
 brandy, rum, arrack and whiskey, prepared from 
 wine, sugar, rice and malt. It also includes com- 
 pound spirits, or those which, in addition to al- 
 cohol, contain some volatile or pungent oil or es- 
 sence, as gin, hollands, caraway and peppermint; 
 the essential oils, as oil of cinnamon, oil of cloves, 
 oil of peppermint, and otto of roses, and the sim- 
 ple distilled waters which retain the fragrant flavor 
 of the particular herbs with which they have been 
 distilled. 
 
 To manage Distillation. 
 
 Previous to distilling, the process of brewing 
 and fermentation are necessary. The distiller, 
 however, need not take the precautions of the 
 brewer or wine-maker in moderating his fermenta- 
 tions so as to secure the good flavor and keeping 
 qualities of the product. His object is to get as 
 
 thorough a fermentation, and therefore as much 
 alcohol, as possible. Hence large quantities of 
 yeast are used, which is not skimmed off, but 
 worked into the wort. He also mixes a quantity 
 of raw grain with his malt in the mash, the dias- 
 tase of the malt sufficing to convert all the starch 
 of the raw grain into sugar. The quantity of raw- 
 grain may be twenty times that of the malt. All 
 the saccharine matter cannot be converted into al- 
 cohol, the large quantity of alcohol formed towards 
 the last of the process checking the fermentation. 
 About one-fifth of all the saccharine matter re- 
 mains in the grains. These are fed to cattle. 
 
 Utensils. 
 
 In a distillery are required a variety of utensils, 
 such as still, worm-tub, pump, a water-cask, a 
 strong press, hair-cloths, 3 or 4 iron-bound tubs 
 capable of containing from a hogshead to a pipe 
 of any liquor, 3 or 4 cans capable of holding from 
 
278 
 
 DISTILLATION. 
 
 2 to 6 galls, by measure, an iron-bound wooden 
 funnel having a strong iron nosel or pipe, a pew- 
 ter syphon about 6 feet long and 4 inches in cir- 
 cumference, flannel bags for refining the thick and 
 feculent matter at the bottoms of the casks and 
 other vessels. 
 
 Operation of the Still. 
 
 When the still is charged let the fire under it be 
 lighted, and whilst it burns up the joints should 
 be carefully luted. 
 
 By laying the hand on the still and capital, as 
 the fire gains strength, the process of the opera- 
 tion will be ascertained ; for whenever tbe head 
 or capital feels hot, it is a proof that the volatile 
 particles have arisen, and are about to enter the 
 worm. When the still head is about to become 
 hot, prepare a damp, made of the ashes under the 
 grate, mixed with as much water as will properly 
 wet them. This mixture is to be thrown upon the 
 fire, to moderate its action, at the instant when 
 distillation has commenced. Continue the heat 
 as lung as the distilled liquid is spirituous to the 
 taste. When the distilled liquor carries with it any 
 particular flavor, it should be re-distilled with es- 
 sential oils, in order to convert it into a compound 
 spirit, as gin, peppermint, and other cordials. 
 
 When all the spirituous fluid is drawn off, the 
 still should be emptied by acock in the side. The 
 head, etc., should then be removed, and the sev- 
 eral lutes taken clean off". The still may now be 
 charged a second time, and luted. If the spirit 
 or compound to be made is of a different nature 
 or flavor from that procured by the last distilla- 
 tion, the still, capital and worm should be thor- 
 oughly cleaned by hot water, sand and a scrub- 
 bing brush, to remove the oily particles that ad- 
 here to their internal surfaces. The worm is best 
 cleansed by passing hot water through it repeat- 
 edly, until the water flows out quite flavorless. 
 
 Great care should be taken that no grease, tal- 
 low, soap, or any other unctuous matter, fall into 
 the tubs, pieces, rundlets, or cans. Above all 
 things, lighted candles, torches, or papers should 
 not be brought near any vessel containing spirits. 
 The flue or chimney should be kept constantly 
 clean. 
 
 To Use a Portable Furnace. 
 
 In the laboratories of experimental chemists, 
 portable furnaces are employed. Charcoal is the 
 only fuel that can be used in them, except the oc- 
 casional use of the finer kinds of stone coal that 
 yield a bright flame, and burn to a white ash 
 without forming clinkers. When the fire is regu- 
 lated by the admission of only the necessary 
 quantity of air through the charcoal, and the 
 whole heat of the fuel is directed upon the sub- 
 ject exposed to it, the expense is not so great as 
 might be supposed, for no other fuel gives out so 
 much heat. One Ib. of charcoal will boil away 13 
 Ibs. of water, whereas the same weight of New- 
 castle coal will boil away only 8 or 9 Ibs. A pound 
 of coke will only boil away 4 Ibs. of water, and a 
 pound of peat seldom more than 5 Ibs., or, by a 
 skilful mode of using it, at the utmost 10 Ibs. 
 To Build Fixed Furnaces. 
 
 Fire bricks are generally used, as they may 
 be cut as easily as chalk, and yet bear a violent 
 teat without alteration; they must be set in clay 
 Of the same^ kind. The parts distant from the fire 
 may be of common bricks set in mortar, but this 
 mortar must be carefully removed before the other 
 pait is begun, as an accidental admixture of it 
 With the clay would cause the latter to run into 
 glass, and thus spoil the furnace. These furnaces 
 are generally built as thin as possible, that they 
 may take up the less room, and to save fuel in ' 
 
 heading them, as they have seldom fire constantly 
 in them ; in this case they should be surrounded 
 with iron braces, to prevent the alternate contrac- 
 tion and expansion destroying them as soon as 
 they otherwise would. 
 
 To make a Portable Sand-pot. 
 
 For a portable one the ash pit may be an iron 
 cylinder 17 inches in diameter and 8 deep, closed 
 at bottom. In the front is cut a hole 3 inches high 
 and 4 wide, with sliders to shut close. Three pins 
 are riveted on the inside about an inch below the 
 upper edge; these are to support the fire-place. 
 The bottom of this ash pit is lined with, clay, beat 
 up with charcoal dust and formed into a kind of 
 saucer. The fire-place is a small cylinder of nearly 
 the same width, so as to fit easily into the top of 
 the ash-pit, and rest on the three pins ; its height 
 is 15 inches, and it has a flat border at each end, 
 leaving a circular opening of 10 inches in diame- 
 ter. Around the lower border are riveted 3 screws, 
 to which are fixed by nuts a grate. In the upper 
 border, towards the circumference, and at equal 
 distances from each other, are made 4 circular 
 holes an inch over. The inside of the fire-place is 
 lined with clay and charcoal, whose surface is ad- 
 justed to a core, made by drawing on a board an 
 ellipsis, having its foci 15 inches asunder, and its 
 semiordinates at the foci 5 inches, sawing otf the 
 board at each focus, and also down the greatest 
 diameter, so that the internal cavity may represent 
 an ellipsoid of those dimensions, cut off at the foci. 
 A fire hole about 6 inches wide and 4 high, with 
 the lower limit about 3 inches above the grate, is 
 left in the front to be closed with a lined stopper, 
 both the fire-hole and stopper having a border to 
 retain the lining. When the lining is dry, 4 
 openings are cut sloping through it, corresponding 
 to the openings in the upper border, to serve as 
 vents for the burnt air, and to regulate the fire by 
 sliding pieces of tile more or less over them. In 
 the central opening at the top of the fire-place is 
 bung a cast-iron pot, either hemispherical, or, 
 which is most usual, cylindrical, about 6 inches 
 deep at the edge, with a rounded bottom, so that 
 the axis is about an inch deeper. The common 
 pots have only a reflected border, by which they 
 hang, but the best kind have also an upright edge 
 that rises an inch higher, to which a stone-ware 
 head is fitted, and thus the pot serves for many 
 distillations that require a strong fire. It is usual 
 to cut a notch on one side of the top of the fire- 
 place, sloping upwards to the edge of the pot, 
 about 3 inches wide and 2 deep, to admit a low re- 
 tort to be sunk deeper into the pot, by allowing a 
 passage to its neck. 
 
 To make a Sand-heat Furnace. 
 
 A furnace of this kind may be stationary, and 
 built of bricks that will stand the fire, and in this 
 case the ash-pit is built about 12 inches highland 
 has an ash-door opening into it about 6 inches 
 square; a grate is then laid, and a fire-door 6 
 inches by 8 opens immediately into the fire-phice, 
 even with the grate. T-be fire-place is made cyl- 
 indrical, 2 inches wider than the sand pot, and 
 about 8 inches deeper, the grate being a square 
 whose side is about two-thirds the internal diam- 
 eter of the sand-pot. This pot hangs by its bor- 
 der in an iron ring placed at the top of the fur- 
 nace; we have not yet adopted Teichmeyer's me- 
 thod of sloping the pot. As stone coal is gener- 
 ally used in fixing furnaces, instead of the 4 re- 
 gister holes used as vents in the portable furnaces, 
 only one opening, about as wide as the grate and 
 3 inches high, either in the back or on one side, is 
 made to vent the burned air into the chimney. 
 This, however, has the inconvenience of heating 
 
DISTILLATION. 
 
 279 
 
 the pot unequally, the side next the vent becom- 
 ing much the hottest, in spite of the endeavor to 
 equalize the heat by bringing the fire from under 
 the centre of the pot as forward as possible, by 
 raising the wall opposite to the vent perpendicu- 
 larly, and enlarging it only on the other three 
 sides; sometimes with the same view several small 
 vents are made round the pot, leading into the 
 chimney. A notch for the ueck of the retort is 
 generally made on one side. As much heat passes 
 through the vent, it is usual to cause the heated 
 air to pass under a large cast-iron plate, placed 
 on a border of bricks surrounding a platform of 
 the same materials, and leaving a cavity of about 
 2i inches deep, at the farther end of which an- 
 other opening leads into the chimney. On this 
 iron plate sand is laid to form a sand heat, and 
 thus several operations are carried on at the same 
 time. If that in the sand-pot is finished, and it 
 is desired to keep on those in the sand- heat with- 
 out interruption, the vessel may be drawn out of 
 the sand, some warm sand thrown on that remain- 
 ing in the pot, and a fresh vessel with materials 
 introduced. But if this new operation should re- 
 quire the heat to be more gradually exhibited, a 
 pot of thin plate-iron, filled with cold sand, con- 
 taining the vessel, may be partly slid into the 
 heated sand-pot, and, being supported by pieces 
 of brick placed under the edge or otherwise, kept 
 there until it be necess.iry to increase the heat, 
 when it may be slid down lower until at length it 
 is permitted to reach the bottom of the sand-pot 
 
 To make a Hot Still. 
 
 Portable hot stills should have an ash-pit and 
 fire-place exactly similar in dimensions to tho 
 used with the sand-pot, or the same furnace may 
 be used with a hot still, if economy and not con- 
 venience is the principal object. The copper or 
 tin-plate cucurbite will, of course, be 10 inches 
 wide and about 12 deep, and hang 7 inches within 
 the fire-place. The mouth should be wide, thai 
 the water-bath to be occasionally hung within it 
 so as to reach within 3 inches of the bottom, may 
 be the larger. Between this wide neck and the 
 circumference there should be a short pipe, through 
 which the liquor left after distillation may be 
 drawn off by a crane without unluting the vessels; j 
 fresh liquor added; or, in distilling with the wa- 
 ter-bath, the steam may escape. This pipe has a 
 ring round it, that the cork with which it is stop- 
 ped may be firmly tied down, and like the other 
 joinings be luted, for which purpose slips of pa- 
 per smeared with flour and water, or common 
 paste, are usually esteemed sufficient ; but the best 
 material is bladders rotted in water until they 
 smell extremely offensive and adhere to the fin- 
 gers when touched, and then worked between the 
 hands into rolls, which are to be applied to the 
 joinings. These small stills have usually a Moor's 
 head that fits both the cucurbite and the water- 
 bath, their necks being of equal diameter, and is 
 furnished with a groove round the lower part on 
 the inside to direct the condensed vapor to the 
 nose of the alembic, and this head is surrounded 
 by a refrigerator containing cold water, which 
 is not so cumbersome as and less expensive than 
 a worm and tub. But the most advantageous way 
 of cooling the vapors is to use a Moor's head 
 without a surrounding refrigerator, or only a plain 
 bent tube, which should be at least 18 inches 
 long, that the small globules of the boiling liquor 
 which are thrown up near a foot high should not 
 pass over and render the distilled liquor unfit for 
 keeping. To this is to be adapted a pewter pipe 
 about 8 feet long, if spirits of wine is to be dis- 
 
 eases of an inch in diameter on the inside, in- 
 closed in a tinned plate tube with a funnel. With 
 an adopter of this kind, and the consumption of 
 H pints of water in a minute, or about 9 galls, in 
 an hour, spirits of wine may be distilled at the 
 rate of a gallon by the hour from one of these 
 portable stills. Another convenience of these 
 straight pipes is, that they may be cleansed in 
 the same manner as a fowling piece. 
 
 To make a Large Still. 
 
 If this furnace is fixed, and made of bricks, it 
 may be constructed with a sand heat, like that 
 annexed to the sand-pot; but this is seldom prac- 
 tised, although it would be advantageous for 
 digestions and evaporations with a genile heat, 
 because the fire is generally kept up at an even 
 height. If the cucurbite is not wanted for distill- 
 ing" it may be used as a boiler to keep water ready 
 heated for use, and to be drawn off when wanted 
 
 by a syphon or crane 
 
 But these fixed stills are 
 
 usually'furnished with a pipe and cock on a level 
 with the bottom, by which they can be emptied, 
 and have almost always a worm and tub to cool 
 the vapors. The head is usually of that kind 
 which is called a swan's neck. 
 
 Antier's Improved Still. 
 
 It has been proved that as soon as a common 
 still is in operation, the steam from the capital in 
 the first turn of the worm is at a temperature of 
 about 212 Fahr. Here water only condenses, and 
 the alcohol in vapor passes into the second turn, 
 where it condenses by the lowered temperature. 
 If the condensed liquid is drawn off from the 
 upper turn, it is mere phlegm, or water, while that 
 from the second turn is alcohol or spirit. The 
 mode of doing this is very simple, and can be ap- 
 plied to any old still ; so that every advantage re- 
 sulting from the most complicated and expensive 
 stills can be obtained; that is to say, plain brandy, 
 Dutch-proof, and even thirty-five and thirty-sixth 
 proof. The alterations are effected as follows: 
 Each turn of the worm is to be furnished with a 
 very slender lateral pipe, ending in a faucet and 
 tap. A crescent-shaped valve, placed just before 
 the opening of the pipe into the worm, obliges the 
 condensed liquid to trickle into the pipe, and a 
 slight elbow above and below the pipe prevents 
 any of the steam from running in the same direc- 
 tion. Each of these pipes follows the main worm 
 in all its convolutions, comes out of the condenser 
 at the same opening, and is led thence to its own 
 receiver. The pipe of the first turn has also a 
 second branch with a faucet, which lets out the 
 phlegm (which is worthless) as fast as it is con- 
 densed. A prover indicates the moment when the 
 feints should be separated, as simple brandy or 
 proof-spirit is wanted. These feints are either de- 
 tained in the boiler, or set aside for rectification, 
 in all cases necessary, for the last spirit that comes 
 over, without which it is worthless. 
 
 Besides producing more spirit, and saving three- 
 fourths out of the feints, the ^ortn prepared as 
 above shortens the term of distillation by one- 
 half, and consequently reduces the expense of 
 fuel. In addition to this, and what is of more 
 
 consequence, a sour wine may 
 
 be distilled as well 
 
 ny other, and without the least taint being 
 perceptible in the brandy. The spirit is, of course, 
 less in quantity, but whatever is obtained is good, 
 and all the acid separates and flows out by the 
 first j)ipe, which gives an opportunity of profiting 
 by the acetous portion. 
 
 Column or Continuous Distillation. 
 A copper boiler is set in masonry, with a fire 
 
 tilled, or shorter for watery liquors, and in both t beneath : the mouth of the boiler is fitted with a 
 
280 
 
 DISTILLATION. 
 
 tall copper cylinder, standing perpendicularly 
 over the boiler and fitting closely. About half 
 way up the height of this cylinder, and in its axis, 
 a slender tube enters it and discharges a continual 
 but small stream of the wine or wash to be dis- 
 tilled. The wine is prevented from falling down 
 directly into the boiler beneath by means of a 
 number of diaphragms, through which the wine 
 percolates in streams like rain, whereby it pre- 
 sents a large extent of surface to the vapor which 
 passes it in a different direction. In some cases 
 the ascending vapors have to force their way at 
 each diaphragm through a thin stratum of liquid, 
 and they thus undergo a certain amount of pres- 
 sure. The wine, when it enters the cylinder, is al- 
 most boiling, and, while it falls in small showers 
 through the pierced shelves, a copious issue of 
 watery vapor ascends from the boiling copper 
 below. The watery vapor, at the temperature of 
 boiling, comes in contact with the wine almost 
 boiling : the latter, therefore, receives heat from 
 the former, and by so doing there is a change of 
 State; the watery vapor, losing heat, falls back as 
 water; and the wine, acquiring heat, boils, and 
 its alcohol, in a state of vapor, rises higher up in 
 the cylinder, where, meeting with wine, it is ab- 
 sorbed, and a wine richer in alcohol is produced. 
 This more alcoholic wine readily parts with its 
 alcohol, in the form of vapor, by the action of heat 
 continually carried up the cylinder. This vapor 
 of alcohol, ascending higher, meets with more 
 wine, is absorbed, and again set free in larger 
 quantity. At length the portions of wine high up 
 in the cylinder become highly charged with alco- 
 hol, and the alcoholic vapors, meeting with no 
 more wine, pass on to a worm, where they are con- 
 densed into very strong spirit. The worm-tub is 
 filled with wine, which in cooling the worm be- 
 comes heated itself, and this heated wine flows 
 through the slender tube into the cylinder, where 
 it is distilled as already explained. As this worm 
 is never perfectly cold, the alcoholic vapor which 
 escapes condensation is passed through a second 
 worm, also surrounded by wine, which condenses 
 it completely. 
 
 Should the watery vapor which ascends from the 
 boiler into the cylinder, and becoming condensed, 
 falls back into the boiler, carry any alcohol with 
 it, the latter is again volatilized; so that the boiler 
 contains nothing but water, derived from the wine ; 
 for, although the boiler had been filled with wine, 
 it soon becomes water by parting with its alcohol. 
 As fast as the boiler fills with water, it is emptied 
 by a cock placed in the bottom. Two boilers are 
 more efficient than one; and when arranged so 
 that a tube proceeding from the head of one 
 plunges to the bottom of the other, they act like 
 two of the eggs in Adams's still. 
 
 The discharge of wine from the great reservoir 
 is regulated by a ball-cock, and there is a con- 
 stant supply of cold wine, first, to the two worms, 
 for the purpose of cooling them (by which method 
 of heating the wine fuel is economized) ; secondly, 
 to the distillatory column. Having parted with 
 its alcohol, the watery portion falls into the boilers, 
 whence it is let off entirely deprived of alcohol. 
 The flow of wine being thus perpetual, no time is 
 lost by an interval of discharging and charging. 
 It must also be noticed, that when the alcoholic 
 vapors enter the first worm they are condensed; 
 but as the weakest or most watery alcohol con- 
 denses in the first rounds of the worm, it is so 
 contrived that this watery portion shall run back 
 by small tubes into the cylinder, where it is re- 
 distilled. The worm at all its rounds is provided 
 with cocks and tubes, by which the portions con- 
 deased in any part may be let back to be redis- 
 
 tilled ; or they may be all shut, or some may b 
 left open, so as to return the whole or any part 
 into the cylinder. In this way, by means of these 
 cocks, alcohol of any required degree of conden- 
 sation, within certain limits, can be obtained. 
 
 To Extinguish Fires in Distilleries. 
 
 A woollen blanket or rug, hung over a roller in 
 a water-butt, is the readiest and best extinguisher. 
 To Dulcify Spirits. 
 
 In dulcifying, or sweetening the spirits, weigh 
 the sugar, and dissolve it in one or more cans of 
 the water with which the compound is to be made 
 up : bruise the sugar, and stir it well till all is 
 dissolved. Then empty it into the cask containing 
 the spirits, mixing all together by drawing off 
 several cans by the cock, and emptying them into 
 the casks by the bung-holes. Now rummage all 
 well together till they are perfectly compounded. 
 
 Spirits or compounds that are strong require no 
 assistance in setting and becoming clear; but 
 those that are weak must be refined by the addi- 
 tion of some other substance. To every hogshead 
 of Geneva, or other spirituous compound, put 6 
 oz. of powdered alum, previously dissolved in 3 
 or 4 galls, of the compound : stir all well together. 
 In the course of 24 hours the whole will be ren- 
 dered completely clear. 
 
 It is a good practice to leave the bung-holes of 
 casks (containing spirits or compounds newly 
 made) open for several days. This improves 
 their flavor, and renders them clear sooner than 
 they would otherwise be. 
 
 Table-salt thrown into the still, in the propor- 
 tion of 6 oz. to 10 galls, of any liquid to be dis- 
 tilled, will greatly improve the flavor, taste, and 
 strength of the spirit. The viscid matter will be 
 fixed by the salt, whilst the volatile matter ascends 
 in a state of great purity. 
 
 The flavor of malt spirits is highly improved by 
 putting 3i oz. of finely-powdered charcoal, and 
 4 oz. of ground rice into a quart of spirits, and 
 letting it stand during 15 days, frequently stirring 
 it; then let the liquor be strained, and it will be 
 found of nearly the same flavor as brandy. 
 To make Charcoal. 
 
 This is usually manufactured from coppice wood, 
 cut every 16 years; the fagots are made into a 
 large conical pile, covered up with clods of earth, 
 leaving circular rows of holes from top to bottom. 
 The wood is then kindled, and as it becomes red 
 the holes are regularly closed to stop the further 
 combustion, and when the whole has been closed 
 up, the pile is left to cool ; when the black skeleton 
 of the wood is left, which differs from the raw 
 wood in burning without any smoke, and with 
 little or no flame, yielding at the same time no 
 soot, although some of the finer particles of the 
 ashes are volatilized and adhere to the chimney. 
 The air which passes through the burning char- 
 coal has its oxygen converted into carbonic acid 
 gas. 
 
 The air being thus rendered unfit for respira- 
 tion, kills whatever animals or plants are confined 
 in it. Numerous accidents have happened of per- 
 sons being suffocated by sleeping in close rooms 
 with a charcoal fire. 
 
 The charcoal for medical purposes should, like 
 that for gunpowder, be made of soft woods, aa 
 willow, heated in iron retorts until no volatile 
 matter is given out. Small quantities may be 
 made by burying wood under sand in a covered 
 crucible, and exposing the whole to fire. ^ 
 To make Spirit of Wine. 
 
 Spirit of wine, as it is called, was formerly, and 
 is still, in southern countries, obtained by distill. 
 
DISTILLATION. 
 
 281 
 
 ing wir e for its yield of brandy, and then slowly 
 abstracting the more volatile part of the brandy, 
 by a small fire and the use of tall vessels. In 
 England, spirit of wine is, in general, obtained 
 from ground meal, either of wheat, rye orv barley, 
 with from one-tenth to one- third of the same, or 
 another grain, malted and ground, and then called 
 malt spirit ; or from treacle, and then called mo- 
 lasses spirit; some is also made from apples or 
 cider-wish. In the United States, Indian corn is 
 largely employed. The fermentation is carried 
 on quicker and farther than in brewing or making 
 cider, in order that all the sugar in the wash may 
 be converted into spirit and water. The infusion 
 of the malt and meal is made so strong that its 
 specific gravity is from 1.083 to 1.14 (whereas that 
 for strong ale is generally 1.06, and for small beer 
 1.015 to 1.04), and is mixed with a large quantity 
 of yeast, added by successive portions, until, in 
 about 10 days, the specific gravity is reduced to 
 1.002, when it is fit for the still. In general, a 
 third part is drawn off at the first stilling, under 
 the name of low wines, the specific gravity being 
 about 0.975. On re-distilling the low wines, a 
 fiery spirit, of a milky cast, comes over first, and 
 is returned into the still; then follows the clean 
 spirit; when it begins to grow too watery, the re- 
 maining spirit that comes over, as long as it will 
 take fire, is kept apart, under the name of feints, 
 and mixed with the next parcel of low wines. 
 Instead of these trials the head of the still may 
 have the bulb of a thermometer inserted into it, 
 and by observing the temperature of the steam, 
 an accurate judgment may be formed of the 
 strength of the spirit that distills over. It is 
 computed that 100 galls, of malt or corn wash will 
 produce about 20 of spirit, containing about half 
 its weight of water; molasses wash, 22 galls.; 
 cider wash, 15 galls. The best French wines yield 
 from 20 to 25 galls. The spirit thus obtained is 
 for chemical and pharmaceutical purposes mixed 
 with water, to separate the oil it contains, and re- 
 distilled several times in tall vessels, with a very 
 gentle heat, until its specific gravity is reduced to 
 0.82; though that usually sold is only 0.837, at 
 60 Fahrenheit. By distilling spirit of wine with 
 purified pearl ashes, salt of tartar, chloride of 
 calcium, lime, or common salt, all previously 
 heated to redness and cooled, its specific gravity 
 may be reduced still lower, even as low as 0.792, 
 at 68 Fahrenheit. 
 
 To make Ether. 
 
 The old chemists, after mixing spirit of wine 
 with an equal weight of oil of vitriol, digested it 
 for a long time, and then distilled the most vola- 
 tile part, which was called the sweet oil of vitriol. 
 At present the mixture, whose temperature is con- 
 siderably increased, is placed in a heated sand- 
 bath and distilled, without being suffered to cool 
 until one-half the quantity of the spirit is come 
 over; meanwhile, an inflammable gas also pusses 
 over. If the distillation is continued, sulphurous 
 acid passes over, and a light yellow sweet oil of 
 wine; the black residuary sulphuric acid contains 
 charcoal diffused through it, which may be sepa- 
 rated by admixture with water and filtration. If 
 fresh alcohol is poured on the residuum, more 
 ether may be, obtained by distillation. The un- 
 rectified ether, as the first product is called, con- 
 tains both water and alcohol : dry salt of tartar 
 separates the first, and then pouring off the upper 
 liquid, and adding dry chloride of calcium in 
 powder, this salt unites with the alcohol, and the 
 ether swims on the solution. 
 
 The Continuous Ether Process. 
 This process is now generally followed. A 
 
 vessel of alcohol is provided with a tube furnished 
 with a stopcock, which tube dips to the bottom of 
 a second vessel which contains sulphuric acid, and 
 is provided with a thermometer. From the top 
 of the second vessel a tube passes through a worm 
 or condenser to the receiver. The alcohol is 
 allowed to mix with the sulphuric acid until the 
 boiling point of the mixture is 300 Fahr. : more al- 
 cohol will lower it, less raise it. The mixture is now 
 kept boiling at 300, fresh alcohol being steadily 
 supplied. Ether and water distill, ever forming 
 two layers, the ether on top. The sulphuric acid 
 is unchanged, and the same quantity will convert 
 an indefinite amount of alcohol into ether. If the 
 alcohol contains oils, however, they will be charred 
 and render the acid black. 
 
 To Purify Ether. 
 
 Agitate it well in a closed vessel with double its 
 bulk of water to remove any alcohol. Decant the 
 ether from the water on which it floats. Add 
 quicklime to remove any water that may be left, 
 and after it has slaked distill. The first third 
 will be pure ether. 
 
 To Imitate Foreign Spirits. 
 
 A great desideratum among distillers, in this 
 country, is to imitate foreign spirits, euch as 
 brandy, rum, Geneva, etc., to a tolerable degree 
 of perfection; but, notwithstanding the many 
 attempts that are daily made for this purpose, the 
 success, in general, has been indifferent. The 
 general method of distilling brandies in France 
 differs in nothing from that practised here, with 
 malt-wash or molasses; nor are the French dis- 
 tillers in the least more cleanly in their operations. 
 Still, though brandy is distilled from wine, expe- 
 rience tells us that there is a great difference in 
 the grapes from which the wine is made. Every 
 soil, every climate, every kind of grape, varies 
 with regard to the quantity and quality of the 
 spirit distilled from them. A large quantity of 
 brandy is distilled in France during the time of 
 the vintage; for the poor grapes that prove unfit 
 for wine, are usually first gathered, pressed, their 
 juice fermented, and instantly distilled. It is a 
 general rule with them, not to distill wine that 
 will fetch any price us icine; for, in this state, the 
 profits obtained are much greater than when the 
 wine is reduced to brandies. 
 
 For a long time, this liquor was distilled only 
 from spoiled wine, and afterwards from the dregs 
 of beer and wine; and when, instead of these, the 
 distillers employed rye, wheat and barley, it was 
 considered as a wicked and unpardonable misuse 
 of grain. 
 
 To Improve British Brandy. 
 
 Take 30 galls, of fine English brandy, 3 oz. of 
 tincture Japonica, and 9 oz. of sweet spirit of 
 nitre. Incorporate these with some of the spirit, 
 and then put it into the rest of the liquor, and 
 stir it well about. This will make 30 galls, of 
 brandy, and if it be a good clean spirit, it will 
 much resemble French brandy. 
 
 To prepare Tincture Japonica. 
 
 Take of the best English saffron, mace bruised, 
 of each 1 oz. ; infuse them in a pint of brandy 
 till the whole tincture of the saffron is extracted, 
 which will be in 7 or 8 days ; then strain it through 
 a linen cloth, and to the strained tincture add 2 
 oz. of terra Japonica powdered fine; let it infuse 
 till the tincture is wholly impregnated. 
 To make Jamaica Rum. 
 
 This is obtained from the refuse of the raw" 
 sugar manufactories, by taking equal quantities 
 of the skimmings of the sugar pans, of lees or re- 
 turns as they are commonly called, and of water ; 
 
282 
 
 DISTILLATION. 
 
 and to 100 galls, of this wash are added 10 galls, 
 of molasses. This nffjrds from 10 to 17 gulls, of 
 proof rum, and twice as much low wines; it is 
 sometimes rectified to a strength approaching to 
 spirit of wine, and is then called double distilled 
 rum. 
 
 To Obtain Rum from Molasses. 
 Mix 2 or 3 galls, of wnter with 1 gall, of mo- 
 lasses, and to every 200 galls, of this mixture add 
 a gallon of yeast. Once or twice a day the head 
 as it rises is stirred in, and in 3 or 4 days 2 galls, 
 more of water is added to each gallon of molasses 
 originally used, and the same quantity of yeast as 
 at first. Four, 5 or 6 days after this, a portion of 
 .feast is added as before, and about 1 oz. of jalap- 
 root powdered (or in winter H tz-)' on which the 
 fermentation proceeds with great violence, and in 
 3 or 4 days the wash is fit for the still; 100 galls. 
 of this wash is computed to yield 22 galls, of spirit 
 from 1 to 10 over-proof. If the molasses spirit, 
 brought to the common proof strength, is found 
 not to have sufficient vinosity, it will be proper to 
 add some sweet spirits of nitre; and if the spirit 
 has been properly distilled by a gentle heat, it 
 may, by this addition only, be made to pass with 
 ordinary judges as French brandy. Great quan- 
 ^tities of this spirit are used in adulterating foreign 
 brandy, rum, and arrack. Much of it is also used 
 alone in making cherry brandy and other cordials 
 by infusion ; in all which many prefer it to foreign 
 brandies. Molasses, like all other spirits, is en- 
 tirely colorless when first extracted; but distillers 
 give it, as nearly as possible, the color of foreign 
 spirits. 
 
 To Prepare Gin as in Holland. 
 
 The grist is composed of 10 qrs. of malt, ground 
 considerably finer than malt distillers' barley grist, 
 and 3 qrs. of rye-meal; or, more frequently, of 10 
 qrs. of rye and 3 qrs. of malt-meal. The 10 qrs. 
 are first mashed with the least quantity of cold 
 water it is possible to blend it with, and when 
 uniformily incorporated, as much boiling water is 
 added as forms it into a thin batter ; it is then put 
 into 1, 2, or more casks, or gyle-tuns, with a much 
 less quantity of yeast than is usually employed by 
 our distillers. Generally, on the third day, the 
 Dutch distillers add the malt or rye-meal, pre- 
 pared in a similar manner, but not before it comes 
 to the temperature of the fermenting wash ; at the 
 same time adding as much yeast as at first. 
 
 The principal secret is the management of the 
 mashing part of the business, in first thoroughly 
 mixing the malt with the cold water, and in sub- 
 sequently adding the due proportion of boiling 
 water, that it may still remain sufficiently diluted 
 after the addition of the fine meal; also in well 
 rousing all together in the back, that the wash 
 may be diluted enough for distilling without en- 
 dangering its burning to the bottom. 
 
 Rectification into Holland Gin. 
 
 To every 20 galls, of spirit of the second extrac- 
 tion, about the strength of proof, take of juniper- 
 berries, 3 Ibs. ; oil of juniper, 2 oz. ; and distil with 
 a slow fire until the feints begin to rise, then change 
 the receiving can; this produces the best Rotter- 
 dam gin. 
 
 An inferior kind is made with a still less pro- 
 portion of berries, sweet fennel seed, and Stras- 
 burg turpentine, with a drop of oil of juniper; 
 and a better sort, but inferior to the Rotterdam, 
 is made at Weesoppe. The distiller's wash at 
 Schiedam and Rotterdam is lighter than at Wee- 
 soppe. Strasburg turpentine is of a yellowish - 
 brown color, a very fragrant agreeable smell, yet 
 the least acrid of the turpentine. The juniper- 
 berries are so cheap in Holland, that they must 
 
 have other reasons than mere cheapness for being 
 so much more sparing of their consumption than 
 our distillers. 
 
 To make Malt Spirit. 
 
 Mix 60 quarters of barley grist, ground low, and 
 20 quarters of coarse ground pale malt, with 250 
 barrels of water, at about 170. Take out 30 bar- 
 rels of the wort, and add to this 10 stone of fresh 
 porter yeast, and when the remaining wort is 
 cooled down to 55, add 10 quarters more malt, 
 previously mixed with 30 barrels of warm water; 
 stir the whole well together, and put it to ferment 
 along with the reserved yeasted wort ; this wash 
 will be found to weigh, by the saccharometer, 
 from 28 to 32 Ibs. per barrel, more than water. 
 In the course of 12 or 14 days, the yeast head will 
 fall quite flat, and the wash will have a vinous 
 smell and taste, and not weigh more than from 2 
 to 4 Ibs. per barrel more than water. Some now 
 put 20 Ibs. of common salt, and 30 Ibs. of flour, 
 and in 3 or 4 days put it into the still, previously 
 stirring it well together. Every 6 galls, of this 
 wash will produce 1 gall, of spirit, at from 1 to 10 
 over-proof; or 18 galls, of spirit from each quar- 
 ter of grain. 
 
 English Geneva. 
 
 The best English Geneva is made as follows: 
 Take of juniper-berries, 3 Ibs.; proof spirit, 10 
 galls. ; water, 4 galls. Draw off by a gentle fire, 
 till the feint begins to rise, and make up the goods 
 to the required strength with clear water. 
 
 To Distill Spirits from Carrots. 
 Take 1 ton and 8 stone of carrots, which, after 
 being exposed a few days to dry, will weigh about 
 160 stone. The whole L-eing cut, put one-third of 
 the quantity into a copper, with 24 galls, of water, 
 and after covering them up close, reduce the whole 
 into a pulp. The other two-thirds are to be treated 
 in the same manner, and as the pulp is taken from 
 the copper, it is carried to the press, where the 
 juice is extracted with great facility. The liquor 
 obtained will amount to 200 galls., and will be of 
 a rich sweet taste, resembling wort. It is then 
 put into the copper with 1 Ib. of hops, and suffered 
 to boil about 5 hours, when it is put into the 
 cooler, to remain till the heat comes down to 66. 
 From the cooler it is discharged from the vat, 
 where 6 qts. of yeast are put to it, in the usual 
 manner. Let it work 48 hours, or to 58, when 
 the yeast begins to fall. Then heat 12 galls, of 
 unfermented juice, and put it to the liquor, and 
 the heat will be raised to 60. Work afresh for 
 24 hours longer, the liquor gradually lowering, as 
 before from 66 to 58. Tun the whole into half- 
 hogsheads, to work from the bung. After stand- 
 ing 3 days in the cask, 50 galls, may be drawn 
 off, which is rectified the next day without any 
 additional substance. Twelve galls, of spirit will 
 be obtained. 
 
 To make Arrack. 
 
 Arrack is no other than a spirit produced by 
 distillation from a vegetable juice called toddy, 
 which flows out of the cocoanut tree. The opera- 
 tor provides himself with a parcel of earthen pots, 
 climbs up the trunk of a cocoa-tree; and when he 
 comes to the boughs, he cuts off one of the small 
 knot or buttons, and applies the mouth of a bottle 
 to the wound, fastening it to the bough with a 
 bandage; in the same manner he cuts oft' others, 
 and proceeds till the whole number is employed; 
 this done, he leaves them until the next morning, 
 when he takes off the bottles, which are mostly 
 filled, and empties the juice into the proper recep- 
 tacle. When a sufficient quantity is produced, the 
 whole put together, is left to ferment. When the 
 fern .entation is over, and the liquor is a little tart, 
 
DISTILLATION. 
 
 283 
 
 it is put into the still, and fire being made, the 
 $till is suffered to work as long as that which 
 comes off has any considerable ta. te of spirit. The 
 liquor thus procured is the low wine of arrack ; and 
 is distilled again to separate s<me of its watery 
 parts, and rectify it to that very weak kind of 
 proof spirit in which state we find it. 
 
 Tungusian arrack is a spirituous liquor made by 
 the Tartars of Tungusia, of mare's milk, left to 
 sour, and afterwards distilled twice or thrice be- 
 tween two earthen pots closely stopped, whence 
 the liquor runs through a small wooden pipe. 
 To Fine Spirits. 
 
 Mix a small quantity of wheat flour in water as 
 if for making paste, and pour the same into the 
 vessel. The whole is then to be well roused, and 
 in a short time the contents will become bright. 
 To Extract Alcohol from Potatoes. 
 
 Take 100 Ibs. of potatoes well washed, dress 
 them by steam, and let them be bruised to pow- 
 der with a roller, etc. In the meantime take 4 
 Ibs. of ground malt, steep it in lukewarm water, 
 and then pour into the fermenting back, and pour 
 on it 12 qts. of boiling water; tliis water is stirred 
 about, and the bruised potatoes thrown in. and 
 well stirred about with wooden rakes, till every 
 part of the potatoes is well saturated with the 
 liquor. 
 
 Immediately 6 or 8 oz. of yeast is to be mixed 
 with 28 galls, of water of a proper warmth to 
 make the whole mass of the temperature of from 
 59 to 66 ; there is to be added a pt. to 1 pt. 
 of good brandy. 
 
 The fermenting back must be placed in a room, 
 to be kept by means of a stove at a temperature 
 from 66 t<> 72. The mixture must be left to re- 
 ma,in at rest. 
 
 The back must be large enough to suffer the 
 mass to rise 7 or 8 inches without running over. 
 If, notwithstanding this precaution, it does so, 
 gome must be taken out, and returned when it 
 falls a little; the back is then covered again, and 
 the fermentation is suffered to finish without 
 touching it which takes place generally in 5 or 
 6 days. This is known by its being perceived that 
 the liquor is quite clear, and the potatoes fallen to 
 the bottom of the back. The fluid is decanted, 
 and the potatoes pressed dry. 
 
 When the fermentation has been favorable, from 
 every 100 Ibs. of potatoes. 6 qts. and upwards of 
 brandy, of 20 of the areometer are obtained. It 
 contains much fusel oil, and is colored and sold as 
 Marc brandy. 
 
 One thousand Ibs. of potatoes at twice, gives 60 
 to 70 qts. of brandy. The residue of the distilla- 
 tion is used as food for stock. 
 
 Alcohol from Wood. 
 The wood is reduced to coarse saw-dust; in this 
 state it is dried up to a temperature of 212, so as 
 to drive off the water which it contains, often 
 amounting to one-half of its weight. The wood 
 is then suffered to cool, and concentrated sulphu- 
 ric acid is poured over it with great care, and very 
 small quantities at a time, so as to prevent the 
 materials from heating. The acid is mixed with 
 the wood as it is poured, then for 12 hours the 
 mixture is let alone; after that it is rubbed up 
 with great care, until the mass, which is at first 
 d"*, becomes sufficiently liquid to run. This 
 liq\iid, diluted with water, is brought to the boil- 
 ing point: the acid is saturated with lime, and 
 the liquid, after filtration, is fermented, and the 
 alcohol distilled in the ordinary way. In this ex- 
 periment, the sulphuric acid must be at least 110 
 per cent, of the weight of the dry wood. 
 
 KirtcJi Waster. 
 
 Spirits of cherry. Ripe cherries are crushed by 
 land in an inclined wooden trough ; the juice is 
 collected, the stones added, the liquid left to fer- 
 nent, and is then distilled. It is not necessary to 
 crack the stones. 
 
 Apple Brandy 
 Is distilled from cider. Generally the apples are 
 crushed and allowed to ferment thoroughly, which 
 takes from 6 to 10 days, and distilled. A better 
 plan is to collect only the juice and ferment it. 
 The former gives a larger yield, but the quality is 
 not so good. 
 
 Peach Brandy. 
 
 The peaches are mashed with pestles in a trough, 
 the juice pressed out, collected, fermented, and 
 distilled. The pomace still contain? considerable 
 juice, it is therefore covered with water, and after 
 fermentation, distilled. 
 
 Raisin Spirit, 
 Much used to give a vinous flavor to inferior 
 spirits, is made by infusing the raisins in water, 
 fermenting, and distilling with a quick lire. The 
 quick fire is necessary in order to gt all the 
 flavor from the raisins. 
 
 Proof Spirit. 
 Contains half its weight of alcohol. Its specific 
 gravity at 60 is .920. The strength, however, 
 varies in different localities, and the idea is at best 
 clumsy and antiquated. 
 
 To make Brandy from Beet- Root. 
 For the preparation of brandy, the water used 
 in the first boiling of the roots, is boiled again, and 
 poured out on the residuum from the first expres- 
 sion of the pounded roots; this must stand for a 
 day or two, after which it is expressed, and the 
 remaining dry pulp serves as a good food for cattle. 
 The juice obtained in this way is mixed with the 
 waste parts of the sj'rup and the mucilage which 
 remains after the expression of the saccharine 
 crystals, and all boiled together till half of it is 
 evaporated. The liquor is then poured into a 
 coop exposed to a temperature of 45, and cooled 
 to 65. Having added a proportionate quantity 
 of yeast, it is left to ferment, and in 3 or 4 days 
 after the distillation may be undertaken. 
 
 To Obtain Sugar from Beet-Root. 
 The beet-roots best calculated for the extraction 
 of sugar, are those which have a soft flesh, whitish 
 towards the edges and not growing above ground. 
 After being cleaned, they are boiled, cut into pieces 
 and pounded in a wooden trough with wooden 
 stampers, and afterwards pressed. The juice thus 
 obtained is immediately put into a polished copper 
 kettle and simmered, during which time the scum 
 must continually be taken off. To 100 quarts of 
 this juice a.dd 2 oz. or less of slackened lime, 
 diluted so as to have the appearance of milk, and 
 continue the boiling till the juice is thickened to 
 the half of it. Having strained it through a 
 woollen cloth, thicken it to the consistency of a 
 syrup, which afterwards is put into glass, stone, or 
 wooden vessels. These being placed near a mo- 
 derate fire, saccharine crystals appear, which being 
 freed by expression from the mucilaginous juice, a 
 very good raw sugar is obtained. ^ 
 
 Fusel Oil 
 
 Is found in new whiskey, more especially from 
 rye, corn, and potatoes. It is a nearly colorless 
 liquid, of a powerful odor of new whiskey, causing 
 irritation of the nostrils and fauces. It boils at 296 6 
 Fahr., and has a density of 0.818. In its solvent 
 forms and chemical relation it resembles alcohol. 
 
284 
 
 TISTILLATION. 
 
 Swallowed, it acts as an instant poison. When 
 liquors containing it are long kept, it changes in- 
 to ethers, and becomes innoxious. There are 
 probably several bodies compounded together 
 under the general name of fusel oil. It may be 
 detected by adding to the suspected liquor in a 
 glass some fused chloride of calcium. The oil, if 
 present, will be liberated, and may be recognized 
 by its smell. 
 
 To Remove Fusel Oil. 
 
 It may be separated by careful distillation, 
 especially if some soft wood charcoal be introduced 
 into the still. 2d. By filtering the whiskey through 
 bone-black; this is termed by the dealers "recti- 
 fying," which is incorrect. 3d. Oils are added to 
 the whiskey and the whole shaken up, the oil 
 unites with the fusel oil and rises to the surface, 
 and may be skimmed off. 
 
 LIQUEURS. 
 
 To make Ratafia d'Angelique. 
 Take of angelica seeds, 1 dr. ; stalks of angelica, 
 bitter almonds, blanched, each 4 oz. ; proof spirit, 
 12 pts. ; white sugar, 2 Ibs. Digest, strain, and 
 filter. 
 
 Anisette de Bonrdeaux. 
 
 Take of sugar, 9 oz. ; oil of aniseed, 6 drops. 
 Rub them together, and add by degrees, spirit of 
 wine, 2 pts. ; water, 4 pts. Filter. 
 
 To make Real Creme des Barbades. 
 
 Take 2 doz. middling-sized lemons; 6 large 
 citrons; loaf sugar, 28 Ibs,; fresh balm leaves, 
 Ib. ; spirit of wine, 2 galls. ; water, 3 galls. This 
 will produce about 7 gall?., full measure. Cut the 
 lemons and citrons in *.hin slices, and put them 
 into a cask ; pour upon them the spirit of wine, 
 bung down close, and let it stand 10 days or a 
 fortnight, then break the sugar, and boil it for i 
 an hour in the 3 galls, of water, skimming it fre- 
 quently ; then chop the balm-leaves, put them 
 into a large pan, and pour upon them the boiling 
 liquor, and let it stand till quite cold; then strain 
 it through a lawn sieve, and put it to the spirits, 
 etc., in the cask; bung down close, and in a fort- 
 night draw it off; strain it through a jelly bag, and 
 let it remain to fine; then bottle it. 
 Eau de Barbades. 
 
 Take of fresh orange-peel, 1 oz. ; fresh lemon- 
 peel, 4 oz. ; cloves, dr. ; coriander, 1 dr.; proof 
 spirit, 4 pts. Distill in a bath heat and add white 
 sugar in powder. 
 
 To make Ratafia de Cafe. 
 
 Take of roasted coffee, ground, 1 Ib. ; proof 
 spirit, 1 gall.; sugar, 20 oz. Digest for a week. 
 
 Ratafia de Cassis. 
 
 Take of ripe black currants, 6 Ibs. ; cloves, 
 dr. ; cinnamon, 1 dr. ; proof spirit, 18 pts. ; sugar, 
 3i Ibs. Digest for a fortnight. 
 
 Ratafia des Cerises. 
 
 Take of morello cherries, with their kernels, 
 bruised, 8 Ibs. ; proof spirit, 8 pts. Digest for a 
 month, strain with expression, and then add 1 
 Ibs. of sugar. 
 
 Ratafia de Chocolat. 
 
 Take of Caracoa cocoanuts, roasted, 1 Ib. ; West 
 India coccanuts, roasted, Ib. ; proof spirit, 1 
 gall. Digest for a fortnight, strain, and then add 
 sugar, 1 Ibs. ; tincture of vanilla, 30 drops. 
 
 Eau Divine. 
 
 Take of spirit of wine, 1 gall. ; essence of lemons, 
 and essence of bergamot, each 1 dr. Distill in a 
 bath heat ; add sugar, 4 Ibs. dissolved in 2 galls. 
 
 of pure water; and, lastly, range-fl:wer water, 
 5 oz. 
 
 Elephant's Milk. 
 
 Take of gum benzoin, 2 oz. ; spirit of wine, 1 
 pt. ; boiling water, 2^ pts. When cold, strain; 
 and add sugar, 1 Ibs. 
 
 Ratafia de Grenoble. 
 
 Take of small wild black cherries, with their 
 kernels, bruised, 12 Ibs. ; proof spirit, 6 galls. 
 Digest for a month, strain, and then add 12 Ibs. 
 of sugar. A little citron peel may also be added 
 at pleasure. 
 
 Marasquin de Groscilles. 
 
 Take of gooseberries, quite ripe, 102 Ibs.; black 
 cherry leaves, 12 Ibs. Bruise and ferment; distill 
 and rectify the spirits. To each pint of this spirit 
 add as much distilled water, and sugar, 1 Ib. 
 Huile de Venus. 
 
 Take of flowers of the wild carrot, picked, 6 oz. ; 
 spirit of wine, 10 pts. Distill in a bath heat. To 
 the spirit add as much syrup of capillaire ; it may 
 be colored with cochineal. 
 
 Liquodilla. 
 
 Take the thin peel of 6 oranges and 6 lemons, 
 steep them in a gallon of brandy or rum, close 
 stopped for 2 or 3 days; then take 6 qts. of water, 
 and 3 Ibs. of loaf sugar clarified with the whites 
 of 3 eggs. Let it boil J of an hour, then strain 
 it through a fine sieve, and let it stand till cold; 
 strain the brandy from the peels, and add the 
 juice of 5 oranges and 7 lemons to each gallon. 
 Keep it close stopped up 6 weeks, then bottle it. 
 Ratafia de Brou de Noix. 
 
 Take of young walnuts, whose shells are not yet 
 hardened, in number 60; brandy, 4 pts.; sugar, 
 12 oz.; mace, cinnamon, and cloves, each, 15 gr. 
 Digest for 2 or 3 months, press out the liquor, 
 filter, and keep it for 2 or 3 years. 
 
 Ratafia de Noyeau. 
 
 Take of peach or apricot kernels, with their 
 shells bruised, in number 120: proof spirit, 4 pts. ; 
 sugar, 10 oz. Some reduce the spirit of wine to 
 proof with the juice of apricots or peaches, to make 
 this liqueur. 
 
 Creme de Noyeau de Martinique. 
 
 Take 20 Ibs. of loaf sugar; 3 galls, of spirit of 
 wine; 3 pts.' of orange-flower water; 1J Ibs. of 
 bitter almonds; 2 drs. of essence of lemon ; and 4J 
 galls, of water. The produce will exceed 8 galls. 
 
 Put 2 Ibs. of the loaf sugar into a jug or can, 
 pour upon it the essence of lemon, and 1 qt. of the 
 spirit of wine: stir it till the sugar is dissolved, 
 and the essence completely incorporated. Bruise 
 the almonds, and put them into a 4 gall, stone 
 bottle or cask, add the remainder of the spirit of 
 wine, and the mixture from the jug or can ; let it 
 stand a week or It) days, shaking it frequently. 
 Then add the remainder of the sugar, and boil it 
 in the 4 galls, of water for f of an hour, taking 
 off the scum as it rises. When cold, put it in a 
 cask ; add the spirit, almonds, etc., from the stono 
 bottle: and lastlj*, the orange flower water. Buog 
 it down close, and let it stand 3 weeks or a month-, 
 then strain it through a jelly bag, and when fine 
 bottle it off. When the pink is wanted add cochi- 
 neal, in powder, at the rate of i a dr., or 2 scr. to 
 a qt. 
 
 Ratafia d' Ecorces d' Oranges. 
 
 Take of fresh peel of Seville oranges, 4 oz.; 
 proof spirit, 1 gall. ; sugar, 1 Ib. Digest for 6 
 hours. 
 
 Ratafia de Fleurs d' Oranges. 
 
 Take of fresh flowers of orange-tree, 2 Ibs. 
 
 
CORDIALS. 
 
 235 
 
 proof spirit, 1 gall. , sugar, H Ibs. Digest for 6 
 hours. 
 
 Oreme d' Orange of Superior Flavor. 
 
 Take 3 doz. middling sized oranges; orange- 
 flower water, 2 qts. ; loaf sugar, 18 Ibs. ; spirit of 
 wine, 2 galls. ; tincture of saffron, !$ oz. ; water, 
 4 galls. This will produce 7i galls. 
 
 Cut the oranges in slices, put them into a cask, 
 add the spirit and orange-flower water, let it stand 
 R fortnight, then boil the sugar in the water for 
 an hour, pour it out, and let it stand till cold, 
 then add it to the mixture in the cask, and put in 
 the tincture of saffron. Let it remain a fortnight 
 longer; then strain, and proceed as directed in the 
 receipt for Cremes de Barbades, and a very fine 
 cordial will be produced. 
 
 Fine Brandy Shrub. 
 
 Take 8 oz. of citric acid; 1 gall, of porter; 3 
 galls, of raisin wine ; 2 qts. of orange-flower water; 
 7 galls, of good brandy; 5 galls, of water. This 
 will produce 16 galls. First, dissolve the citric 
 acid in the water, then add to it the brandy ; next, 
 mix the raisin wine, porter, and orange-flower 
 water together; and lastly, mix the whole; and in 
 a week or 10 days it will be ready for drinking, 
 and of a very mellow flavor. 
 Rum Shrub. 
 
 Leave out the brandy and porter, and add 1 
 gall, more raisin wine; 6 Ibs. of honey; and 10 
 galls, of good flavored rum. 
 
 Currant Shrtib. 
 
 Take white currants, when quite ripe, pick them 
 off the stalks, and bruise them; strain out the 
 juice through a cloth, and to 2 qts. of the juice 
 put 2 Ibs. of loaf sugar; when it is dissolved add 
 to it 1 gall, of rum, then strain it through a flan- 
 nel bag that will keep in the jelly, and it will run 
 off clear ; then bottle it for use : 
 Usquebaugh. 
 
 Usquebaugh is a strong compound liquor, chiefly 
 taken by way of dram ; it is made in the highest 
 perfection at Drogheda, in Ireland. The follow- 
 ing are the ingredients, and the proportions in 
 which they are to be used : 
 
 Take of best brandy, 1 gall. ; raisins, stoned, 1 
 Ib. ; cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg, and cardamoms, 
 each 1 oz. crushed in a mortar; saffron, oz. ; 
 rind of 1 Seville orange; and brown sugar candy, 
 1 Ib. Shake these well every day, for at least 14 
 days, and it will at the expiration of that time be 
 ready to be fined for use. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 Take of nutmegs, cloves, and cinnamon, each 2 
 oz. ; of the seeds of anise, caraway, and coriander, 
 each 4 oz. ; liquorice-root, sliced, Ib. ; bruise the 
 seeds and spices, and put them together with the 
 liquorice, into the still with 11 galls, of proof 
 spirit, and 2 galls, of water; distill with a pretty 
 brisk fire. As soon as the still begins to work, 
 fasten to the nozzle of the worm 2 oz. of English 
 saffron, tied up in a cloth, that the liquor may run 
 through it, and extract all its tincture. When the 
 operation is finished, sweeten with fine sugar. 
 This liqueur may be much improved by the fol- 
 lowing additions: Digest 4 Ibs. of stoned raisins; 
 3 Ibs. of dates ; and 2 Ibs. of sliced liquorice-root, 
 in 2 galls, of water for 12 hours. When the liquor 
 is strained off, and has deposited all sediment, 
 decant it gently into the vessel containing the 
 usquebaugh. 
 
 Ratafia a la Violette. 
 
 Take Florentine orris root 2 drachms, archel 1 
 
 07., spirit of wine 4 pts. Digest, strain, and add 
 
 sugar 4 Ibs. Liqueurs are also made by adding 
 
 Hungary -water, honey-water, eau de Cologne, and 
 several other spirits to an equal quantity of simple 
 syrup, or common capillaire. 
 
 COMPOUND SPIRITS, OR CORDIALS. 
 General Rules. 
 
 The perfection of this grand branch of distillery 
 depends upon the observation of the following 
 general rules, which are easy to be observed and 
 practised : 1. The artist must always be careful to 
 use a well-cleansed spirit, or one freed from its 
 own essential oil; for as a compound cordial is 
 nothing more than a spirit impregnated with the 
 essential oil of the ingredients, it is necessary that 
 the spirit should have deposited its own. 2. Let 
 the time of previous digestion be proportioned to 
 the tenacity of the ingredients, or the ponderosity 
 of their oil. 3. Let the strength of the fire be pro- 
 portioned to rtie ponderosity of the oil intended to 
 be raised with the spirit. 4. Let a due proportion 
 of the finest parts of the essential oil be united 
 with the spirit; the grosser and less fragrant parts 
 of the oil not giving the spirit so agreeable a 
 flavor, and at the same time rendering it thick 
 and unsightly. This may in a great measure be 
 effected by leaving out the feints, and making up 
 to proof with fine soft water in their stead. 
 
 A careful observation of these four rules will 
 render this extensive part of distillation far more 
 perfect than it is at present. Nor will there be 
 any occasion for the use of burnt alum, white of 
 eggs, isinglass, etc. to fine down the cordial waters, 
 for they will presently be fine, sweet, and pleasant. 
 
 To make Aniseed Cordial. 
 
 Take aniseed, bruised, 2 Ibs ; proof spirit, 12$ 
 galls.; water, 1 gall. Draw off 10 galls., with a 
 moderate fire. This water should never be re- 
 duced below proof; because the large quantity of 
 oil with which it is impregnated will render the 
 goods milky and foul, when brought down below 
 proof. But if there is a necessity for doing this, 
 their transparency may be restored by filtration. 
 
 Strong Cinnamon Cordial. 
 
 Take 8 Ibs. of fine cinnamon, bruised; 17 galls 
 of clear rectified spirit, and 2 galls, of water. Put 
 them into the still, and digest them 24 hours with 
 a gentle heat; after which draw off 16 galls, by a 
 pretty strong heat. 
 
 Caraway Cordial. 
 
 For 20 galls. Take li oz. of oil of caraway, 20 
 drops of cassia-lignea oil, *5 drops of essence of 
 orange peel, 5 drops of the essence of lemons, 13 
 galls, of spirits, 1 in 5, and 8 Ibs. of loaf sugar. 
 Make it up and fine it down. 
 
 Cedrat Cordial. 
 
 The cedrat is a species of citron, and very highly 
 esteemed in Italy, where it grows naturally. The 
 fruit is difficult to be procured in this country; but, 
 as the essential oil is often imported from Italy, it 
 may be made with it as follows: Take of the 
 finest loaf-sugar, powdered, J Ib. Put it into a 
 glass mortar, with 120 drops of the essence of ce- 
 drat; rub them together with a glass pestle, and 
 put them into a glass alembic, with a gallon of fine 
 proof spirit and a quart of water. Place the alem- 
 bic in a bath heat, and draw off 1 gall., or till the 
 feints begin to rise; then dulcify with fine sugar 
 This is considered the finest cordial yet known; 
 it will therefore be necessary to be particularly 
 careful that the spirit is perfectly clean, and, as 
 much as possible, free from any flavor of its own. 
 Citron Cordial. 
 
 Take of dry yellow rinds of citrons, 3 Ibs. ; or- 
 ange-peel, 2 Ibs. ; nutmegs, bruised, f Ib. ; proof 
 
286 
 
 DISTILLATION. 
 
 spirit, 10J gn\ls. ; water, 1 gall. Digest with a 
 gentle hear, then draw off 10 galls, in a bath heat, 
 and dulcify with fine sugar. 
 
 Clove Cordial. 
 
 Take of cloves, bruised, 4 Ibs.; pimento, or all- 
 spice, $ Ib. ; proof spirit, 16 galls. Digest the mix- 
 ture 12 hours in a gentle heat, and then draw off 
 15 galls, with a pretty brisk fire. The water may 
 be colored red, either by a strong tincture of coch- 
 ineal, alkanet, or corn poppy-flowers. It may be 
 dulcified at pleasure with refined sugar. 
 Coriander Cordial. 
 
 For 3 galls. Take 7 qts. of spirits, 2 Ibs. of co- 
 riander seed, 1 oz. of caraway seed, 6 drops of the 
 
 011 of orange, and 2 Ibs. of sugar. Fill up with 
 water. The coriander seed must be bruised and 
 steeped in the spirits for 10 or 12 days, and well 
 stirred 2 or 3 times a day. Fine it the same as gin. 
 
 Eau de Blgarade. 
 
 Take the outer or yellow part of the peels of 14 
 biga rides (a kind of orange), oz. of nutmegs, J 
 oz. of mace, 1 gall, of fine proof spirit, and 2 qts. 
 of water. Digest all these together 2 days in a 
 close vessel; after which draw off a gallon with a 
 gentle fire, and dulcify with fine sugar. 
 Gold Cordial. 
 
 Take of the roots of angelica, sliced, 4 Ibs.; rai- 
 sins, stoned, 2 Ibs.; coriander seeds, Ib. ; cara- 
 way seeds and cinnamon, each Ib. ; cloves, 2 oz.; 
 figs and liquorice root, sliced, each 1 Ib. ; proof 
 spirit, 11 galls.; water, 2 galls. Digest 2 days, 
 and draw off by a gentle heat, till the feints begin 
 to rise; hanging in a piece of linen, fastened to 
 the mouth of the worm, 1 oz. of English saffron. 
 Then dissolve 8 Ibs. of sugar in 3 qts. of rose- 
 water, and add to it the distilled liquor. 
 
 The above cordial derives its name from a quan- 
 tity of leaf gold being formerly added to it; but 
 this is now generally disused. 
 
 Lovage Cordial. 
 
 For 20 galls. Take of the fresh roots of lovage, 
 valerian, celery, and sweet fennel, each 4 oz.; es- 
 sential oil of caraway and savin, each 1 oz.; spirit 
 of wine, 1 pt. ; proof spirit, 12 galls.; loaf sugar, 
 
 12 Ibs. Steep the roots and seeds in the spirits 
 for 14 days; then dissolve the oils in the spirit of 
 wine, and add them to the undulcified cordial 
 drawn off from the- other ingredients; dissolve the 
 sugar in the water for making up, and fine, if 
 necessary, with alum. 
 
 Lemon Cordial. 
 
 Take of dried lemon-peel 4 Ibs., proof spirit, 10 
 galls., water 1 gall. Draw off 10 galls, by a gentle 
 fire, and dulcify with fine sugar. 
 Nectar. 
 
 For 20 galls. Take 15 galls, of red ratafia, J oz. 
 of cassia-oil, and an equal quantity of the oil of 
 caraway seeds. Dissolve in half a pint of spirit 
 of wine, and make up with orange wine, so as to 
 fill up the cask. Sweeten, if wanted, by adding a 
 small lump of sugar in the glass. 
 Noyea.u. 
 
 Take 1 galls, of French brandy, 1 in 5, 6 oz. 
 of the best French prunes, 2 oz. of celery, 3 oz. 
 of the kernels of apricots, nectarines, and peaches, 
 and 1 oz. of bitter almonds, ail gently bruised, 
 essence of orange-peel and essence of lemon-peel, 
 of each 2 dwts., i Ib. of loaf-sugar. Let the whole 
 stand ten days or a fortnight; then draw off, and 
 add to the clear noyeau as much rose-water as 
 will make it up to 2 galls. 
 
 Orange Cordial. 
 
 Take of the yellow part of fresh orange-peel, 5 
 
 Ibs.. proof spirit, 10J galls., water, 2 galls. Draw 
 off 10 galls, with a gentb fire. 
 
 Peppermint Cordial. 
 
 For 20 galls. Take 13 galls, of rectified spirits, 
 1 in 5 under hydrometer proof, 12 Ibs. of loaf- 
 sugar, 1 pint of spirit of wine that will fire gun- 
 powder, 15 dwts. (troy) of oil of peppermint, water, 
 as much as will fill up the cask, which should be 
 setup on end after the whole has been well roused, 
 and a cock for drawing off placed in it. 
 Ratnfia. 
 
 This a liquor prepared' from different kinds of 
 fruits, and is of different colors, according to the 
 fruits made use of. These fruits should be gath- 
 ered when in their greatest perfection, and the 
 largest and most beautiful of them chosen for the 
 purpose. The following is the method of making 
 red ratafia, fine and soft : Take of the black-heart 
 cherries, 24 Ibs., black cherries, 4 'bs., raspberries 
 an.1 strawberries, each, 3 Ibs. Pick the fruit from, 
 their stalks and bruise them, in which state let 
 them continue 12 hours; then press out the juice, 
 and to every pint of it add J Ib. of sugar. When 
 the sugar is dissolved, run the whole through the 
 filtering-bag and add to it 3 quarts of proof spirit. 
 Then take of cinnamon, 4 oz., mace, 4 oz., and 
 cloves, 2 drs. Bruise these spices, put them into 
 an alembic with a gallon of proof spirit and 2 
 quarts of water, and draw off a gallon with a brisk 
 fire. Add as much of this spicy spirit to the ratafia 
 as will render it agreeable ; about is the usual 
 proportion. 
 
 Dnf or Sharp Ratafia. 
 
 Take of cherries and gooseberries, each 30 Ibs., 
 mulberries, 7 Ibs., raspberries, 10 Ibs. Pick all 
 these fruits clean from their st;ilks, etc., bruise 
 them and let them stand 12 hours, but do not 
 suffer them to ferment. Press out the juice, and 
 to every pint add 3 oz. of sugar. When the sugar 
 is dissolved, run it through the filtering-bag, and 
 to every 5 pints of liquor add 4 pints of proof 
 spirit, together with the same proportion of spirit 
 drawn from spices. 
 
 Common Ratafia. 
 
 Take of nutmegs, 8 oz., bitter almonds, 10 Ibs., 
 Lisbon sugar, 8 Ibs., ambergris, 10 grs. Infuse 
 these ingredients three days in 10 galls, of proof 
 spirit and filter it through a flannel bag for use. 
 The nutmegs and bitter almonds must be bruised, 
 and the ambergris rubbed with the Lisbon sugar 
 in a marble mortar, before they are infused in the 
 spirit. 
 
 Cherry- Brandy. 
 
 One of the best and most common ways of 
 making cherry-brandy, is to put the cherries (be- 
 ing first clean-picked from the stalks) into a vessel 
 till it be about half full ; then fill up with rectified 
 molasses-brandy, which is generally used for this 
 compound; and when they have been infused 16 
 or 18 days draw off the liquor by degrees, as 
 wanted ; when drawn off, fill the vessel a second 
 time nearly to the top, let it stand about a month, 
 and then draw it off as there is occasion. The 
 same cherries may be used a third time by cover- 
 ing them with over-proof brandy and letting it 
 infuse for 6 or 7 weeks; when drawn off for use, 
 as much water must be added as the brandy was 
 over-proof, and the cherries must be afterwards 
 pressed as long as any liquor remains in them, 
 before being cast away. 
 
 When drawn off the second time the liquor will 
 be somewhat inferior to the first, when more sugar, 
 with i oz. of cinnamon and cloves beaten, may be 
 added to 20 galls, of it; but there should only be 
 half the quantity of cinnamon and cloves in each 
 20 galls, of the first infusion. 
 
FACTITIOUS LIQUOBS. 
 
 287 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 Take 72 Ibs of cherries, half red and half black, 
 mash or squeeze them to pieces with the hands, 
 and add to them 3 galls, of brandy, letting them 
 steep for 24 hours; then put the mashed cherries 
 and liquor into a canvas bag, a little at a time, 
 and press it as long as it will run. Sweeten it 
 with loaf sugar and let it stand a month ; then 
 bottle it off, putting a lump of sugar into every 
 bottle. 
 
 Another. To every 4 qts. of brandy, put 4 Ibs. 
 of red cherries, 2 Ibs. of black, 1 qt. of raspber- 
 ries, with a few cloves, a stick of cinnamon, and 
 a little orange peel ; let these stand a month close 
 stopped ; then bottle it off, putting a lump of sugar 
 into every bottle. 
 
 Black-Cherry Brandy. 
 
 Stone 8 Ibs. of black cherries and put on them 
 a gallon of brandy. Bruise the stones in a mortar, 
 and then add them to the brandy. Cover them 
 close, and let them stand a month or 6 weeks. 
 Then pour it clear from the sediment and bottle 
 it. Morello cherries, managed in this manner, 
 make a fine rich cordial. 
 
 Caraway-Brandy. 
 
 Steep 1 oz. of caraway-seed and 6 oz. of loaf 
 sugar, in 1 qt. of brandy ; let it stand 9 days and 
 then draw it off. 
 
 Lemon-Brandy. 
 
 Put 5 qts. of water to 1 gall, of brandy; take 
 2 doz. of lemons, 2 Ibs. of the best sugar, and 3 
 pints of milk. Pare the lemons very thin and lay 
 the peel to steep in the brandy 12 hours. Squeeze 
 the lemons upon the sugar, then put the water to 
 it, and mix all the ingredients together. Boil the 
 milk and pour it in boiling. Let it stand 24 hours 
 and then strain it. 
 
 Orange Brandy. 
 
 Put the chips of 18 Seville oranges in 3 qts. of 
 brandy, and let them steep a fortnight in a stone 
 bottle close stopped. Boil 2 qts. of spring-water 
 with 1 Ibs. of the finest sugar, nearly an hour very 
 gently. Clarify the water and sugar with the 
 white of an egg, then strain it through a jelly-bag 
 and boil it nearly half away. When it is cold, 
 strain the brandy into the syrup. 
 
 Raspberry Brandy. 
 
 Take a pint of water and 2 qts. of brandy, and 
 (lut them into a pitcher large enough to hold them 
 end 4 pints of raspberries. Put in Ib. of loaf- 
 sugar and let it remain for a week close covered. 
 Then take a piece of flannel with a piece of hoi- 
 land over it, and let it run through by degrees. 
 It may be racked into other bottles a week after, 
 and then it will be perfectly fine. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 Raspberry brandy is infused nearly after the 
 same manner as cherry brandy, and drawn off 
 with about the same addition of brandy to what 
 is drawn off from the first, second and third infu- 
 sion, and dulcified accordingly ; first making it of 
 a bright deep color, omitting cinnamon and cloves 
 in the first, but not in the second and third infu- 
 eion. The second infusion will be somewhat paler 
 than the first, and must be heightened in color by 
 adding cherry brandy, about 1 qt., with 10 or more 
 galls, of raspberry brandy ; and the third infusion 
 will require more cherry brandy to color it. It 
 may be flavored with the juice of the elderberry. 
 
 Whiskey Cordial. 
 
 Take of cinnamon, ginger, and coriander-seed, 
 each 3 oz., mace, cloves, and cube.bs, each 1^ oz. 
 Add 11 galls, of proof spirit and 2 galls, of water, 
 
 and distill; now tie up 5 oz. of English saffron j 
 raisins (stoned), 4 Ibs.; dates, 3 Ibs.; liquorice, 
 root, 2 Ibs. Let these stand 12 hours in 2 galls, 
 of water ; strain, and add it to the above. Dulcify 
 the whole with fine sugar. 
 
 FACTITIOUS LIQUORS. 
 
 Much of the wine and spirits sold is factitious. 
 In some cases the ingredients added are not in- 
 fer'or in their character ; in others alcohol is re- 
 placed by poisonous bodies, some imitations 
 containing absolutely no alcohol. The receipts 
 given below are among the least injurious, al- 
 though none are recommended. 
 
 Neutral Spirit, 
 
 Or sweet liquor, is made by filtering ordinary 
 whiskey through bone-black, and afterwards 
 through wood charcoal, to deprive it of all fusel 
 oil, and other odorous matter. 
 
 Flavoring Materials. 
 
 These are acetic, butyric ethers, acetate of the 
 oxyde of amyl (see CONFECTIONARY for Flavoring 
 Extracts), sweet spirit of nitre, oil of bitter al- 
 monds, oil of cognac, light oil of wine, the various 
 essential oils, tincture of benzoin, citric, tartaric, 
 and sulphuric acid. 
 
 Nut kernels, mucilage of various kinds, slippery 
 elm, almond oil, green tea, and sugar are used to 
 give the appearance of age. 
 
 Coculus indicus, Guinea pepper, mustard, horse- 
 radish, pellitory, are used to give pungency and 
 intoxicating qualities. 
 
 Catechu, green tea, logwood, oak bark, etc., to 
 give astringency and color. 
 
 Caramel and burned sugar tc give color. 
 
 To Detect Adulterations. 
 
 The quantity of alcohol is determined by the 
 hydrometer (see SPECIFIC GRAVITY). Should the 
 liquor be much below proof, and still possess de- 
 cidedly intoxicating qualities, coculus indicus is 
 to be suspected, but no good test for this substance 
 is known. If, when the liquor be swallowed, it 
 produces a burning sensation at the back of the 
 throat, it is adulterated with pepper, etc. 
 
 The flavoring ethers may be separated by distil- 
 lation, but as some of them exist in true wines 
 and spirits, this cannot decide that the liquor is 
 factitious. 
 
 If the liquor be cautiously evaporated to dry- 
 ness, in a porcelain capsule, the extract will con- 
 tain most of the adulterations, which can often 
 be detected by the taste and smell. 
 
 If nitrate of baryta gives a precipitate with any 
 spirit, the presence of acid artificially added may 
 be suspected. This is not true of wines. 
 
 To detect fusel oil, put some fused chloride of 
 calcium, broken into small pieces, into a glass; 
 pour over it the suspected liquor, cover it with a 
 glass plate, and let it stand aside for a short time. 
 If fusel oil be present it will at once manifest it- 
 self by its smell. The smaller the quantity of 
 fusel oil the longer must it stand before exam- 
 ination. 
 
 To Determine the Quantity of Alcohol in Wine, 
 
 Beer, etc. 
 
 Distill carefully a small quantity of the liquid, 
 until from i to f have passed over, then add water 
 enough to the distillate to make it up to its origi- 
 nal bulk, put the mixture in a well-stopped bottle 
 and shake well; let it stand aside for a day or 
 two ; its specific gravity may be then taken with 
 the hydrometer, or specific gravity bottle. 
 
 To Determine the Strength of Spirits. 
 The simplest method and that generally adopt- 
 
288 
 
 DISTILLATION. 
 
 ed, is by the hydrometer. It consists of a cylinder, 
 with a weighted bulb below to make it float up- 
 right, and a graduated stem. If it float with the 
 bottom of the stem at the surface of pure water at 
 60 F;ihr., it will sink deeper in a lighter liquid. 
 The instrument of Tralles is so graduated as to 
 indicate the percentage by volume of absolute alco- 
 hol in any mixture of alcohol and water. If the 
 spirit be not at the temperature of 60, it -should 
 be brought to that degree, or the temperature 
 tested and allowance made by a table which is 
 found in the chemical works. In introducing the 
 instrument, care should be taken to avoid wetting 
 the stem, as this would give a higher percentage 
 than the truth. To convert volume percentage 
 into that by weight, multiply the number of de- 
 grees on Tralles' scale by 0.794, and divide by the 
 specific gravity of the liquid under trial. In case 
 the Tralles' instrument is not at hand, take the 
 specific gravity of the liquid by any of the methods 
 given under that head. By means of tables to be 
 found in the chemical works, the percentage of 
 alcohol may be determined. 
 
 To Procure the Oil of Wine. 
 
 This oil should be distilled from the thick lees 
 of French wines, because of the flavor, and when 
 procured must be kept ready for use. It must be 
 mixed with the purest spirits of wir.ri, such as alco- 
 hol ; by which means it may be preserved a long 
 time. The bottle should be shaken before the oil 
 is used. 
 
 When the flavor of th<j brandy is well imitated 
 by a proper portion of the essential oil, and the 
 whole reduced into one nature, yet other difficul- 
 ties still exist; which are, the color, the softness, 
 and the proof. The proof may be effected by using 
 a spirit above proof, which after being mixed with 
 the oil may be let down to any strength with water. 
 The softness will be attained by getting a spirit 
 that has been distilled by a slow fire; and the 
 color may be regulated by the use of brandy 
 coloring. 
 
 Preparation of Rum Ether. 
 
 Take black oxide of manganese, and sulphuric 
 acid, each 12 Ibs.; alcohol, 26 Ibs. ; strong acetic 
 acid, 10 Ibs. 
 
 The ether above prepared is the body to which 
 rum owes its peculiar flavor; it is also used in 
 making cheap brandy. 
 
 Artificial Fruit Essences. 
 
 The pine-apple flavor is butyrate of ethyloxide, 
 or butyric ether ; apple, valerianate of amyloxide ; 
 quince, pelargonate of ethyloxide; jargonelle 
 pear, acetate of amyloxide ; ordinary pear, acetate 
 of amyloxide, with acetate of ethyloxide ; melon 
 flavor, cocinate of ethyloxide. Other flavors are 
 made by using these in various proportions and 
 different degrees of dilution with alcohol. 
 To make Butyric Acid, 
 
 Dissolve 6 Ibs. of sugar and ^ oz. of tartaric acid 
 in 26 Ibs. of water. Let the solution stand for 
 several days, add 8 oz. of putrid cheese, 3 Ibs. 
 skimmed and curdled sour milk, and 3 Ibs. of 
 levigated chalk. The mixture should be kept in 
 a warm place, say 92 Fahr., and stirred from time 
 to time. In about 6 weeks the sugar will have 
 given rise to butyric acid, which unites with the 
 lime of the chalk. 
 
 To separate the butyric acid, add hydrochloric 
 (muriatic) acid and distill. It is well to neutralize 
 the distillate with carbonate of soda and re-distill. 
 Then saturate the distillate with fused chloride of 
 ealcium and re-distill. 
 
 To make Butyric Ether. 
 
 Take 3 oz. of butyric acid, 6 oz. alcohol, and 2 
 
 oz. of sulphuric acid. Distill in a glass retort. 
 The distillate may be re-distilled over chloiide of 
 calcium. 
 
 This is the pine-apple oil. It is used to flavor 
 syrup, creams, fruit-drops, and cheap brandy. It 
 requires to be diluted with deodorized alcohol, in 
 order to develop the true flavor. 
 
 To make Oil of Quince. 
 
 Pelargonic ether is made from oil of rue by 
 treating with double its volume of dilute nitric 
 acid, heating the mixture until it begins to boil. 
 After some time two layers are seen. The lower 
 one is separated with a pipette, and freed from 
 nitric acid by evaporation in a chloride of zinc 
 bath, it is then filtered mixed with deodorized al- 
 cohol, and digested at a gentle heat until the 
 fruity odor is noticed. 
 
 This ether seems identical with the ethereal 
 oil of wine, which gives the bouquet. It is some>- 
 times sold as oil of Cognac. 
 
 Jargonelle Pear Oil 
 
 Is made from heavy fusel oil, that which comes 
 over last in distillation. To purify the fusel oil 
 wash with soda and water, and distill between 254 
 and 284 Fahr. Of this take 1 Ib. ; glacial acetic 
 acid, 1 Ib. ; sulphuric acid, J Ib. Digest for some 
 hours at 254 Fahr. The ether separates upon the 
 addition of water, and is purified by washing with 
 soda and water. Mixed with l-30th of acetic 
 ether, and 7 parts of deodorized alcohol, it gives 
 the essence of pears. 
 
 Apple Oil. 
 
 Mix cautiously 1 part of fusel oil, 3 parts of sul- 
 phuric acid, and 2 parts of water. Dissolve 2^ 
 parts of bichromate of potash in 4 parts of water, 
 introduce this into a large tubulated retort, and 
 gradually add the former liquid, so that the boil- 
 ing continues very slowly. The distillate, which 
 is principally valerianic acid, is saturated with 
 carbonate of soda, and evaporated to dryness. 
 Take of the valerianate of soda, thus formed, 1 
 parts ; fusel oil, 1 part ; sulphuric acid, 1 part ; 
 mix cautiously, heat by a water bath, and mix 
 with water ; the impure valerianate of amyloxide 
 will separate. It is washed several times with 
 water, then with a solution of carbonate of soda, 
 and finally with water. This is dissolved in from 
 6 to 8 parts of water. 
 
 To Improve the Flavor of Fruit Essences. 
 Add to the essence made by dissolving the oil 
 in 6 or 8 parts of deodorized alcohol a small quan- 
 tity of tartaric or citric acid. This will develop 
 the flavor, and, when used in confectionary, imi- 
 tate more closely the taste of the fruit. 
 
 Bead for Liquors. 
 
 Ether, 1 Ib. ; strong alcohol, 2 qts. Keep in a 
 well-stopped bottle. 
 
 Jamaica, Rum 
 
 Neutral spirits, 4 galls. ; Jamaica rum, 1 gall, j 
 sulphuric acid, oz. ; acetic ether, 4 oz. ; burnt 
 sugar coloring, 8 oz. 
 
 Pineapple Rum. 
 
 Neutral spirits, 4 galls. ; honey, 5 pts. ; water, 
 to dissolve, 3 qts. ; Jamaica rum, 1 gall. ; sulphu- 
 ric acid, 1 oz. ; butyric ether, 2 oz. ; tincture of 
 cochineal, 3 oz.; burnt sugar, 2 oz. 
 
 Gin. 
 
 Aromatic Schiedam Schnapps. 
 Neutral spirits, 4 galls. ; water, 4 pts., to dis- 
 solve honey, 4 pts. ; oil of juniper, 15 drops, dis- 
 solved in nitric ether, 1 oz 
 
BRANDIES AND WHISKEYS, FACTITIOUS. 
 
 289 
 
 Curacoa. 
 
 Common whiskey, 5 galls ; fresh orange-peel, 
 4 Ibs. ; oil of bitter almonds, oil of cassia, of each, 
 1 dr. j oil of lemon, 2 drs. ; oil of cinnamon, 50 
 drops; water, 5 qts., to dissolve refined sugar, 16 
 Ibs.; tincture of cochineal, a pt. ; burnt sugar, 
 3 oz. j allow the above to digest for 5 days ; the 
 vrV-'Je cf the oils should be dissolved m i a glass 
 ti alcohol, and mix well. 
 
 BRANDIES. 
 Cognac Brandy. 
 
 Neutral spirits, 4 galls. ; a gall, of honey dis- 
 solved in water, 2 pts.; Jamaica rum, 1 gall. ; 
 catechu, i oz. ; butyric ether, 1 oz. Mix. 
 Sarzerac Brandy. 
 
 Neutral spirits, 4 galls.; 3 pts. of water to dis- 
 solve honey, 4 pts. ; rum, 3 qts. ; porter, 3 pts. ; 
 infusion of almonds, i a pt. ; oil of wine, 1 oz. ; 
 sugar coloring, 4 oz. ; cochineal tincture, 1 oz.-; 
 then add the alcoholic solution of starch, 3 pts., 
 and mix. This starch solution is made by infusing 
 1 qt. of wheat or rice flour in 1 galls, of equal 
 parts of clean spirit and water for 24 hours. 
 Cherry Brandy. 
 
 Neutral spirits, 4 galls. ; refined sugar, 5 Ibs. ; 
 water, to dissolve, 1 gall. ; catechu, 1 oz. ; infusion 
 of bitter almonds, a pt. ; cloves, cassia, of each, 
 ^ oz. ; these are to be well bruised before adding 
 tartaric acid, 4 oz., dissolved in 1 pt. of water; 
 honey, 1 qt., dissolved in 1 pt. of water; 4 drops 
 of oil of wintergreen, dissolved in 1 oz. of acetic 
 ether, then color with I pt. of the tincture of co- 
 chineal; burnt sugar, 1 oz. 
 
 Peach Brandy. 
 
 Neutral spirits, 4 galls. ; 3 pts. of honey, dis- 
 , solved in 2 pts. of water; mix infusion of bitter 
 almonds, 1 pt. ; sulphuric acid, 80 drops ; porter, 
 1 pt. ; tincture of saffron, \ a pt. : and flavor with 
 oil of pears, 1 oz., dissolved in 2 oz. of alcohol, and 
 acetic ether, oz. 
 
 Old Apple Brandy. 
 
 Neutral spirits, 4 galls. ; decoction of tea, 1 pt.; 
 alcoholic solution of starch, 3 qts., sulphuric acid, 
 $ oz.; this is flavored with the oil of apples, 1 oz., 
 dissolved in alcohol, 2 oz.; color with 4 oz. of sugar 
 coloring ; valerianate of amylic oxide is the chemi- 
 cal name for apple oil. 
 
 WHISKEYS. 
 Irish Whiskey. 
 
 Neutral spirits, 4 galls. ; refined sugar, 3 Ibs., in 
 water, 4 qts. ; creasote, 4 drops ; color with 4 oz. 
 of burnt sugar. 
 
 Scotch Whiskey. 
 
 Neutral spirits, 4 galls. ; alcoholic solution of 
 starch, 1 gall. ; creasote, 5 drops ; cochineal tinc- 
 ture, 4 wineglassfuls ; burnt sugar coloring, i pt. 
 
 Old Bourbon Whiskey. 
 
 Neutral spirits, 4 galls; refined sugar, 3 Ibs.; 
 dissolved in water, 3 qts. ; decoction of tea, 1 pt. ; 
 3 drops of oil of wintergreen, dissolved in 1 oz. of 
 alcohol; color with tincture of cochineal, 2 oz. ; 
 burnt sugar, 3 oz. 
 
 MonongaTiela Whiskey. 
 
 Neutral spirits, 4 galls. ; honey, 3 pts., dissolved 
 in water, 1 gall. ; alcoholic solution of starch, 1 
 gall. ; rum, J a gall. ; nitric ether, i an ounce ; this 
 is to be colored to suit fancy. 
 
 Anisette de Bordeaux. 
 
 Whiskey, 2 galls. ; 5 Ibs. of refined sugar; water, 
 to dissolve, 1 galls.; 1 dr. oil of aniseed, dis- 
 solved in 1 oz. of alcohol, or well rubbed up in dry 
 19 
 
 sugar, and added ; if this is for white anisette, fine 
 with i oz. of powdered alum ; if it is for rose of 
 pink anisette, color to suit taste. 
 
 Common rectified whiskey will answer in the 
 above formula, or in any other in which a power- 
 ful aromatic is found necessary. 
 Maraschin o. 
 
 Proof whiskey, 3 galls. ; 6 qts. of water, to dis- 
 solve; sugar, 12 Ibs.; oil of bergamot, and oil of 
 cloves, of each, 1 dr. ; oil of cinnamon, 5 drops ; 
 2 oz. of nutmegs, bruised, 1 Ib. of orange-peel, 3 
 oz. of bitter almonds, bruised; oil of lemon, 1 dr. ; 
 dissolve the oil in alcohol ; color with cochineal 
 and burnt sugar. 
 
 Sherry. 
 
 Cider, 10 galls. ; bitter almonds, 4 oz. ; honey, 
 1 gall. ; mustard, 4 oz. Boil for 30 minutes, and 
 strain, then add spirits of orris-root, i a pt. ; es- 
 sence of cassia, 2 oz. ; and rum, 3 qts. 
 Port Wine. 
 
 Claret, 100 galls,; honey, strained, 12 galls.; 
 red tartar, 1 Ib. ; powdered catechu, 12 oz. ; wheat 
 flour, made into a paste, 1 pt. ; neutral spirits, 12 
 galls. : 2 oz. each of bruised ginger and cassia, 1 
 pt. of tincture of orris-root, and color with alka- 
 net-root, or dissolve 16 oz. bruised cochineal in 1 
 gall, of the above spirit, and 1 pt. of burnt sugar; 
 this will produce the desired shade of purple. 
 For giving artificial strength, use tincture-grains 
 of paradise, and the decoction of strong tea, in 
 quantities to suit the palate. 
 
 If this is not perfectly transparent, fine witk 
 milk or isinglass. 
 
 Madeira Wine. 
 
 Water, 12 galls.; honey, 1 gall.; clean spirits, 
 5 qts.; hops, 5 oz. ; bitter almonds, 3 oz. Boil 
 for 25 minutes and allow it to ferment by the ad- 
 dition of 1 qt. of yeast ; allow the fermentation tc 
 continue until the liquor tastes pleasantly acid, then 
 fine with milk, and add 3 qts. of rum and 4 oz. of 
 mustard. Allow it to stand for a few days ; the 
 mustard should be inclosed in a thin piece of mus- 
 lin and be suspended in the wine. 
 Imitation Claret. 
 
 Boiled cider, 6 galls.; spirits, 2 galls.; clear 
 water, 5 galls. ; catechu, powdered, 2 oz. Color 
 with red beets and tincture logwood to suit taste. 
 When this is not sufficiently acid, add from 1 to 2 
 drops of sulphuric acid to the gallon, to suit taste. 
 Cheap Champagne. 
 
 Water, 50 galls, ; honey, 2 galls. ; bruised gin- 
 ger, 5 oz. ; ground mustard, 5 oz. Boil the mass 
 for 30 minutes, and when quite cool add a quart 
 of yeast. Ferment for 10 or 14 days ; first add 6 
 oz. of bitter almonds, bruised; spirits, and grains 
 of Paradise tincture, to suit convenience. The 
 more spirit the Champagne possesses the greater 
 will be its body. For coloring, use cochineal- J 
 oz. to 50 galls. The cheapest coloring is red beets, 
 sliced, and added to the mass during fermentation. 
 Five or 6 common-sized beets will; color 50 galls. 
 The best of this coloring will not compare with 
 cochineal. A fine aroma is given to the cham- 
 pagne by adding 5 drops of spirits of orris, or 3 
 drops of essence of wintergreen, or essence of va- 
 nilla 4 drops; or dissolve 5 grs. of ambergris in 
 ^ glass of pure alcohol; the alcohol should be 
 kept hot for an hour; this, when dissolved, 
 should be added to 50 galls, of Champagne. 
 
 ESSENTIAL OILS. 
 
 General Directions. 
 
 The quantity of volatile oil yielded by a plant 
 will depend upon the part employed, the season, 
 and the period of growth. The drier the season 
 
290 
 
 DISTILLATION. 
 
 and the warmer the climate, the richer are the 
 plants in oils. They should be gathered, as a 
 general rule, immediately after blossoming, and 
 distilled, if possible, while fresh. " 
 
 It is better to macerate the plants for one day 
 before distilling. Roots, barks, etc., should be 
 coarsely powdered. Parts which yield no oil, as 
 the steins of mint, sage, etc., should be detached. 
 
 The larger the quantity operated on the better; 
 the quantity of water should be sufficient to thor- 
 oughly cover the plant; too much water causes 
 loss by dissolving a portion of the oil. When the 
 plants are abundant the distillate should be re- 
 turned to a fresh portion of the plant in a retort. 
 It is a good plan to use the water of a previous 
 distillation for the same plant, as it is already 
 saturated with the oil. 
 
 If the oil is heavier than water, use a saturated 
 solution of salt. If lighter, the Florentine re- 
 ceiver. 
 
 Solutions for the Water-bath. 
 
 Various salts dissolved in water materially raise 
 the boiling point, and thus afford the means of 
 obtaining a steady temperature at different degrees 
 above 212. The following are some of the most 
 useful : A saturated solution of nitrate of soda 
 boils at 246; Rochelle salts at 240; nitre at 
 238; muriate of soda at 224; sulphate of mag- 
 nesia at 222. 
 
 Oil of Aniseed. 
 
 One Ib. of the seeds will yield 2 drs. It is con- 
 gealed, except in warm weather ; this oil is car- 
 minative, and poisonous to pigeons, if rubbed on 
 their bills or head. 
 
 Oil of Ben, or Behen, 
 
 Is obtained by expression from the seeds of MoTir- 
 inga aptera. It is insipid, inodorous, and does 
 not become rancid. It is used in perfumery. Ha- 
 zel-nut oil is sometimes substituted for it. 
 Birch Oil. 
 
 Obtained by distilling 20 parts of birch bark 
 and 1 of ledum palustre, crammed in layers into 
 an earthen pot, with a handful of tripoli between 
 each layer ; the mouth of the pot is closed with a 
 perforated oak plug, and being inverted, it is lu- 
 ted to the mouth of another pot sunk in the 
 ground; the pot being then surrounded with fire, 
 a brown empyreuraatic oil distills per descensum 
 into the lower jar; an 8 gall, pot, properly filled, 
 yields about 2 Ibs. or 2 Ibs. of oil. In Siberia it 
 is prepared without the ledum. This oil is liquid 
 when fresh, but grows thick in time. II is used 
 in Russia for currying leather, to which it gives a 
 very peculiar smell, much disliked by insects. 
 Oil of Gnm-beuzoin. 
 
 Obtained by distilling the residuum left after 
 making flowers of benjamin, by a strong fire. It 
 is used instead of birch oil in making an imita- 
 tion of Russia leather. 
 
 Cajepttt Oil. 
 
 This is obtained from the leaves, which are 
 imported from the East Indies, generally in large 
 copper flasks; it is cooler than that of pepper- 
 mint, but smells of turpentine. It is used exter- 
 nally in rheumatism. 
 
 Oil of Caraway. 
 
 This is obtained from the seeds ; it is carmina- 
 tive ; 2 Ibs. will yield more than 1 oz., and 4 cwt. 
 83 oz. 
 
 Oil of Cloves. 
 
 This is obtained from a spice of that name ; it 
 v very heavy, acrimonious, and supposed to con- 
 tain some part of the resin of the clove. One Ib. 
 X cloves will yield from 1 to 2i oz. j 7* Ibs. will 
 
 yield 1 Ib. of oil. It is also expressed from th 
 cloves when ripe. Muller, by digesting oz. of 
 cloves in ether, and then mixing it with water, ob- 
 tained 7 scruples of oil, greenish yellow, swim- 
 ming upon water. Oil of cloves is imported from 
 the spice islands ; it is stimulant, and added to 
 purgative pills to prevent griping ; it is externally 
 applied to aching teeth. 
 
 Oil of Cassia. 
 
 This is a common oil of cinnamon, and is ob- 
 tained from the bark of inferior cinnamon, im- 
 ported under the name of cassia. One Ib. will 
 yield from 1 to 1 drs. It is stimulant and stom- 
 achic. Another oil is obtained from cassia buds, 
 
 Oil of Chamomilt. 
 
 This is obtained from the flowers, and is stonv- 
 achic. One Ib. will yield a dr.; 82 Ibs. will yield 
 from 13 to 18 drs. It is of a fine blue, even if 
 distilled in glass vessels. 
 
 Oil of Cinnamon. 
 
 This is obtained from the fresh bark, which is 
 imported from Ceylon. De Guignes says the cin- 
 namon from Cochin China is so full of essential 
 oil that it may be pressed out by the fingers. 
 
 Essence of Cedrat. 
 
 This is obtained from the flowers of the citron 
 tree; it is amber-colored and slightly fragrant; 60 
 Ibs. yield 1 oz. It is also obtained from the yel- 
 low part of citron-peel; it is colorless, very thin, 
 and fragrant. The second oil is obtained by the 
 distillation of the yellow part of citron-peel, and 
 is greenish; 100 citrons will yield 1 oz. of the 
 white essence, and ^ oz. of this. It is likewise 
 obtained from the yellow part of citron-peel by 
 expression between two glass plates ; also, from 
 the cake left on squeezing citron-peel, by distilla-* 
 tion with water. It is thick. 
 
 Common Essence of Cedrat. 
 
 This is obtained from the faeces left in the caski 
 of citron-juice; clear, fragrant, greenish; 50 Ibs. 
 of faeces will yield, by distillation, 3 Ibs. of es- 
 sence. 
 
 Oil of Calamus. 
 
 The rhizoma of the acorns calamus, or swell 
 flag, yields about 1 per cent, of oil. It is carmina- 
 tive, but little used. It is also employed in per- 
 fumery. 
 
 Oil of Cedar. 
 
 Obtained by distillation ; is sometimes used in 
 perfumery. 
 
 Camphor. 
 
 This is obtained from the roots and shoots of 
 the lanrus camphora and laurus cinnamomum, as 
 also the capura curundu, by distillation with wa- 
 ter. This crude camphor is refined by sublima- 
 tion with one- sixteenth of its weight of lime in a 
 very gentle heat. 
 
 Camphor from Essential Oils. 
 Obtained from the oils of the labiate plants by 
 a careful distillation, without addition of of the 
 oil ; the residuum will be found to contain crystal! 
 of camphor, on separating which and re-distilling 
 the remaining oil 2 or 3 times, the whole of the 
 camphor maybe obtained. Oil of rosemary or of 
 sweet marjoram yields about 1 oz. of camphor from 
 
 10 of oil; of the sage 1 oz. from 8, and of laven- 
 der 1 oz. from 4, or even less of oil ; that from 
 
 011 of marjoram is not volatile, and although it 
 takes fire, it soon goes out. This resin, like the 
 others from essential oils, may be obtained in a 
 larger proportion if the oil is kept in slightly stop- 
 ped bottles in a cool place. 
 
ESSENTIAL OILS. 
 
 291 
 
 Dippel's Oil 
 
 Obtained from hartshorn, distilled without ad- 
 ditin, rectifying the oil, either by a slow distilla- 
 tion in a retort, etc., no bigger than is necessary, 
 and saving only the first portion that comes over, 
 or with water in a common still ; it is very fine 
 and thin, and must be kept in an opaque vessel, 
 or in a drawer, or dark place, as it is quickly dis- 
 colored by light. It is anti-spasmodic, anodyne, 
 and diaphoretic, taken in doses of from 10 to 30 
 drops, in water. 
 
 Oil of Bitter Almcnds 
 
 Is obtained by the distillation of the crushed ker- 
 nels ; at the same time hydrocyanic acid is formed 
 and passes over with the oil. The crude oil is 
 therefore poisonous. It is sometimes used in medi- 
 cine for the hydrocyanic acid which it contains, 
 but is uncertain. It is u.ed in perfumery and con- 
 fectionery. When cakes are flavored with it. the 
 hydrocyanic acid can do little or no mischief, as 
 it is driven oflf by the heat employed. 
 
 Artificial Oil of Bitter Almonds 
 Is made by action on true benzole (not that dis- 
 tilled from petroleum) of fuming nitric acid or a 
 mixture of equal parts of ordinary nitric and sul- 
 phuric acids. It is of a yellowish color; is poi- 
 sonous; is used for making aniline (see COAL TAR 
 COLORS), and in perfumery. Its chemical name is 
 mtro-benzole ; it is sold as "Essence of Mirban." 
 By heating benzoate of ammonia, an oily liquid 
 having exactly the bitter almond smell, is ob- 
 tained: It is not used. It is known in chemistry 
 as benzonitrile. 
 
 Oil of Geranium, 
 
 From the leaves of the Pelargonium odoratissimum, 
 is used in perfumery. It is adulterated with 
 ginger-grass oil. It is used to adulterate attar of 
 roses. 
 
 Artificial Oil of Geranium 
 
 May be obtained by distilling benzoate of copper. 
 It has not come into practical use. Its chemical 
 name is benzcxyl. 
 
 Krumholz' Oil. 
 
 Obtained by distillation from Hungarian balsam. 
 It is distinguished from oil of turpentine, which 
 is commonly sold for it, by its golden color, agree- 
 able odor, and acid oiliness of taste. 
 Foreign Oil of Lavender. 
 
 This is the true oil of spike, and is obtained 
 from the flowers and seeds of broad- leaved laven- 
 der, and more commonly those of French lavender, 
 Btoechas, with a quick fire. It is sweet-scented, 
 but the oil of the narrow-leaved lavender, or Eng- 
 lish oil, is by far the finest. 
 
 Essence of Lavender. 
 
 The oil of the flowers of lavender is rendered 
 more delicate in its odor by age ; but to prevent 
 its becoming glutinous by keeping, which it is 
 very apt to do, draw it over in a water-bath, with 
 a small quantity of alcohol, which is termed the 
 essence, and which, after being kept closely corked 
 for about 7 years, possesses a peculiarly fine deli- 
 cate odor of lavender, entirely free from empy- 
 reuma. 
 
 Oil of Lemon 
 
 Is obtained by expression and distillation. It is 
 used in confectionary and perfumery. When old 
 it acquires the taste and smell of turpentine. 
 
 Oil of Lemon-grass. 
 
 Antropogon nargus, is a grass which grows in 
 India, Ceylon, and the Moluccas. The oil is ex- 
 tensively used in perfumery. 
 
 Oil of Marjoram, 
 
 Origtat majorana, is used in perfumery, Th 
 dried herb yields about 10 per cent, of oil. 
 
 Oil of Meadow Sweet. 
 
 The Spirsea ulmaria is sometimes used as a 
 stimulant and in perfumery. 
 
 Artificial Oil of Meadow Sweet 
 Is made by distilling salicin, a crystalline, Htter 
 principle, obtained from the leaves and oung 
 bark of the willow, with bichromate of poiassa. 
 
 Oil <>f Mint. 
 
 Obtained from the dried plant. Six Ibs. of fresh 
 leaves will yield 3i drs. ; and 4 Ibs. dried will 
 yield !$ oz. It is stiniulant, carminative, and 
 antispasmodic. 
 
 Essence of Neroli. 
 
 Obtained from the flowers of the orange tree. 
 Six cwt. of flowers will yield only 1 oz. of oil. 
 Petits grains is an inferior oil of neroli obtained 
 in the same manner, but less care being taken in 
 the selection of the flowers. Another essence is 
 obtained from orange-peel, and is very fragrant. 
 A third essence is obtained from unripe oranges, 
 and is of a gold color. 
 
 Oil of Nutmegs. 
 
 Obtained from that spice ; it is liquid, and of a 
 pale yellow ; a sebaceous insipid matter swims 
 upon the water in the still. 
 
 Oil of Patchonly. 
 
 Obtained by distillation from the Pogastemon 
 patchouli, a plant grown extensively in Intlia and 
 China. One cwt. of the herb yields about 28 oz. 
 of essential oil. It is used in perfumery. 
 
 Oil of Peppermint. 
 
 Obtained from the dried plant. Four Ibs. of the 
 fresh herb will yield 3 drs. In general it requires 
 rectification to render it bright and fine. It is 
 stimulant and carminative. 
 
 Oil of Pennyroyal. 
 
 Obtained from the herb when in flower. Threa 
 Ibs. will yield 6 drs. Etntnenagogue. 
 
 Oil of Pimento. 
 
 Obtained from allspice. One oz. will yield 30 
 drops. It is stimulant. 
 
 Oil of Rhodium. 
 
 Obtained from the true lignum rhodium. Eighty 
 Ibs. will yield 9 drs., and in very resinous old 
 wood 80 Ibs. will yield 2 oz. It is light yellowish, 
 but grows red by keeping. Another oil is ob- 
 tained from the root of rose-wort, rhodiola rosea ; 
 it is yellowish, and has the smell and taste of that 
 from the true lignum rhodium. One Ib. will yield 
 a drachm. 
 
 The True Riga Balsam. 
 
 Obtained from the shoots of the Aphernousti 
 pine, pinus cembra, previously bruised and ma- 
 cerated fora month in water. It is pellucid, very 
 liquid, whitish, and has the smell and taste of oil 
 of juniper. 
 
 Butter of Roses. 
 
 Obtained from the flowers of damask rosea, 
 white, solid, separating slowly from the rose- 
 water. It has little scent of its own, and \* used 
 to dilute the scent of musk, civet and ambe-gris. 
 One cwt. of roses will yield from i an oz. to an oz. 
 
 Oil of Rosemary. 
 
 Obtained fnvn the flowering tops ; it is sweet- 
 scented. One cwt. will yield 8 oz. ; 1 Ib. of dry 
 leaves will yield from 1 to 3 drs. j 70 Ibs. of fresh 
 leaves will yield 5 oz. 
 
 Oil of Rue. 
 
 Obtained from the dried plant; it is carminatire 
 and antispasmodic. Ten Ibs. of leaves will yield 
 
292 
 
 DISTILLATION". 
 
 from 2 to 4 drs. ; 4 Ib's. in flower will yield 1 dr. ; 
 and 60 Ibs. will yield 2i oz. ; 72 Ibs., with the 
 eeds, will yield 3 oz. 
 
 Oil of Sassafras. 
 
 Obtained from the sassafras root. Twenty-four 
 Ibs. will yield 9 oz. ; 30 Ibs. will yield 7 oz. and 1 
 dr.; and 6 Ibs. will yield 2 oz. 
 
 Oil of Sandal Wood. 
 
 1 here are three kinds of sandal or santal wood, 
 the white, yellow and red. The yellow is most 
 used in perfumery. One cwt. of the wood will 
 yield nearly 30 oz. of otto. 
 
 Oil of Spearmint, 
 
 Jfentha viridis, is used in medicine as a carmina- 
 tive, and in perfumery. 
 
 Oil of Tar. 
 
 Obtained by distilling tar. It is highly valued 
 by painters, varnishers, etc., on account of its 
 drying qualities ; it soon thickens of itself, almost 
 to a balsam. The pyro)igneous acid that comes 
 over with it is useful for many purposes. 
 Oil of Thyme. 
 
 Obtained from the plant ; 2 cwt. fresh will yield 
 5i oz. ; 3 Ibs., dried, will yield i a dr. It is 
 stimulant and caustic; and used in toothache, 
 applied to the tooth. 
 
 Oil of Tongua. 
 
 Obtained from the tongua, or tonka bean. 
 Diptcrix odorata is sometimes used in perfumery. 
 The bean contains also a camphor-like body and 
 ben zoic acid. 
 
 Oil of Turpentine. 
 
 Distilled, in Europe, from common turpentine, 
 with the addition of about 6 times as much water ; 
 but in America, where the operation is carried on 
 upon a very large scale, no water is added, and its 
 accidental presence is even dreaded, lest it should 
 produce a disruption of the stilling apparatus. 
 
 To Rectify Oil of Turpentine. 
 ' Pour 3 parts of turpentine into a glass retort, 
 capable of containing double the quantity of mat- 
 ter subjected to the experiment. Place this retort 
 on a sand-bath, and having adapted to it a receiver 
 5 or 6 times as large, cement with paste mad of 
 flour and water, some bands of paper over the place 
 where the 2 vessels are joined. If the receiver 
 is not tubulated, make a small hole with a pin in 
 the bands of cemented paper, to leave a free com- 
 munication between the exterior and interior of 
 the receiver; then place over the retort a dome of 
 baked earth, and maintain the fire in such a man- 
 ner as to make the essence and the water boil. 
 
 The receiver will become filled with abundance 
 of vapors, composed of water and ethereous es- 
 sence, which will condense the more readily if all 
 the radiating heat of the furnace be intercepted by a 
 plate of copper, or piece of board placed between 
 the furnace and the receiver. When the mass of 
 oil subjected to experiment has decreased nearly 
 two-thirds, the distillation must be stopped. Then 
 leave the product at rest to facilitate the separation 
 of the ethereous oil, which is afterwards separated 
 from the water, on which it floats, by means of a 
 glass funnel, the beak of which is stopped by the 
 finger. 
 
 This ethereous oil is often milky, or merely ne- 
 bulous, by the interposition of some aqueous parts, 
 from which it may be separated by if few days' rest. 
 The essence, thus prepared, possesses a great de 
 gree of mobility, and is exceedingly limpid. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 The apparatus employed in the preceding pro 
 cess may be used in the present case. Fill the 
 
 retort f with essence, and as the receiver is tubu- 
 ated, apply to the tubular a small square of paper 
 moistened with saliva, to afford a free passage to 
 the vapors. Graduate the fire in such a manner 
 as to carry on distillation very slowly, until a 
 little more than the oil contained in the retort 
 is obtained. Separate from the product, a very 
 small quantity of exceedingly acid and reddish 
 water, which passes at the same time as the 
 ethereous essence; by these means the operation 
 is much shortened. The oil of turpentine which 
 remains in the retort is highly colored, and thicker 
 than the primitive essence. It may be used for 
 extending fat, varnish, or for coarse oil painting. 
 
 Balsam of Turpentine, or Dutch-drops. 
 
 Obtained by distilling oil of turpentine in a 
 glass retort, till a red balsam is left. 
 
 Or, by distilling resin and separating the oils as 
 they come over; first a white oil, then yellow, 
 lastly a thick red oil, which is the balsam. It is 
 stimulant and diuretic. 
 
 Essence of Vitivert 
 
 Is obtained by distillation of the kus-kns, the 
 rhizoma of an East Indian grass. Used in per- 
 fumery. 
 
 Oil of Wintergreen, 
 
 From the leaves of the gaultheria procumbens, is 
 stimulant and carminative. Used in medicine, 
 confectionary, and perfumery. 
 
 Oil of Wornncood. 
 
 Obtained from the herb; stomachic : 25 Ibs. of 
 green wormwood will yield from 6 to 10 drs. of oil; 
 4 Ibs. of dry will yield 1 oz. ; and 18 Ibs. only l 
 troy oz. 
 
 Adulterations of Volatile Oils. 
 
 The most common are resinous matters, fixed 
 oils, the cheaper volatile oils, and alcohol. 
 
 Resinous and fatty matters are left behind when 
 the oil is evaporated ; the latter communicate a 
 greasy stain to paper which does not disappear 
 with a gentle heat, and are comparatively insolu- 
 ble in alcohol. Both are left behind when the oil 
 is mixed with water and distilled. 
 
 The cheaper volatile oils are detected by the 
 smell and taste, and specific gravity. Oil of tur- 
 pentine (often used) may be detected by it being 
 undissolved when the oil is treated with 4 times 
 its volume of alcohol of a specific gravity of 0.84. 
 Oil of geranium in oil of rose (a very common 
 adulteration) is detected by sulphuric acid, which 
 developes an unpleasant odor if the geranium oil 
 be present, but has no effect upon pure oil of rose. 
 
 Alcohol is largely used in adulteration. Take 
 some small pieces of fused chloride of calcium in 
 the bottom of a test tube, add the oil to be exam- 
 ined, and heat gently to. 212 Fahr. If much 
 alcohol be present the chloride of calcium will be 
 dissolved, if only a small quantity the fragments 
 will fall together and form a pasty mass at the 
 bottom of the tube. 
 
 DISTILLED WATERS. 
 
 Preservation of Flowers for Distillation. 
 
 Bub 3 Ib. of rose-leaves for 2 or 3 minutes with 
 1 Ib. of common salt. The flowers being bruised 
 by the friction of the grains of salt, form a paste, 
 which is to be put into an earthen jar, or into a 
 water-tight barrel. The same process is to be re- 
 peated until the vessel is filled, so that all the 
 roses may be equally salted. The vessel is then, 
 to be shut up and kept in a cool place until wanted. 
 
 For distillation, this aromatic paste is, at any 
 season, to be put into the body of the still with 
 twice its weight of water; and when heat is ap- 
 
DISTILLED WATERS. 
 
 293 
 
 plied, the oil, or essential water, is to be obtained 
 in the common way. Both the oil and water are 
 in tl way produced in greater quantity than by 
 using the leaves without the salt; besides, the 
 preserved paste will keep its flavor and strength 
 unimpared for several years. 
 
 Other flowers, capable of affording essential oils, 
 may also be treated in the above-mentioned way 
 with ecotromy and advantage; as there is thereby 
 no occasion to carry on a hurried process in the 
 heat of summer, when these are in perfection. 
 
 General Mules for the Distillation of Simple 
 Waters. 
 
 1. Plants and their parts ought to be fresh gath- 
 ered. When they are directed fresh, such only 
 must be employed; but some are allowed to be 
 used dry, as being easily procurable in this state 
 at all times of the year, though rather more elegant 
 waters might be obtained from them whilst green. 
 
 2. Having bruised the subjects a little, pour 
 thereon thiice its quantity of spring-water. This 
 quantity is to be diminished or increased according 
 as the plants are more or less juicy than ordinary. 
 When fresh and juicy herbs are to be distilled, 
 thrice their weight of water will be sufficient; but 
 dry ones require a much larger quantity. In gen- 
 eral there should be so much water, that after all 
 intended to be distilled has come over, there may 
 be liquor enough to prevent the matter from burn- 
 ing to the still. 
 
 3. Formerly, some vegetables were slightly fer- 
 mented with the addition of yeast, previous to the 
 distillation. 
 
 4. If any drops of oil swim on the surface of 
 the water, they are to be carefully taken off. 
 
 5. That the waters may be kept the better, about 
 one-twentieth part of their weight of proof spirit 
 may be added to each after they are distilled. 
 
 Stillt for Simple Waters. 
 
 The instruments chiefly used in the distillation 
 of simple waters are of two kinds, commonly called 
 the hot still, or alembic, and the cold still. The 
 waters drawn by the cold still from plants are 
 much more fragrant, and more fully impregnated 
 with their virtues, than those drawn by the hot 
 still or alembic. 
 
 The method is this : A pewter body is suspended 
 in the body of the alembic, and the head of the 
 still fitted to the pewter body; into this body the 
 ingredients to be distilled are put, the alembic 
 filled with water, the still-head luted to the pewter 
 body, and the nose luted to the worm of the refri- 
 gerator or worm. The same intention will be 
 answered by putting the ingredients into a glass 
 alembic and placing it in a bath heat, or balneum 
 marae. 
 
 The cold still is much the best adapted to draw 
 off the virtues of simples which are valued for 
 their fine flavor when green, which is subject to 
 be lost in drying; for when we want to extract 
 from plants a spirit so light and volatile as not to 
 subsist in open air any longer than while the 
 plant continues in its growth, it is certainly the 
 best method to remove the plant from its native 
 soil into some proper instrument where, as it dies, 
 these volatile parts can be collected and preserved. 
 And such an instrument is what we call the cold 
 still, where the drying of the plant or flower is 
 only forwarded by a moderate warmth, and all 
 that rises is collected and preserved. 
 Expeditious Method of Distilling Simple Waters. 
 
 Tie a piece of muslin or gauze over a glazed 
 earthen pot, whose mouth is just large enough to 
 receive the bottom of a warming-pan; on this 
 cloth lay the herb clipped ; then place upon them 
 the warming-pan with live coals in it, to cause 
 
 heat just warm enough to prevent burning; by 
 which means, as the steam issuing out of the 
 herb cannot mount upwards, by reason of the 
 bottom of the pan just fitting the brim of the 
 vessel below it, it must necessarily descend and 
 collect into water at the bottom of the receiver, 
 and that strongly impregnated with the essential 
 oil and the salt of the vegetable thus distilled ; 
 which, if wanted to make spirituous or compound 
 
 water, is easily done by simply adding some good 
 which will keep 
 good for a long time, and be much better than if 
 
 spirits or French brandy to it, which will kee 
 
 the spirits had passed through a still, which must 
 of necessity waste some of their strength. Care 
 should be taken not to let the fire be too strong, 
 lest it scorch the plants ; and to be made of char- 
 coal, for continuance and better regulation, which 
 must be managed by lifting up and laying down 
 the lid, as wanted to increase or decrease the de- 
 grees of heat. The deeper the earthen pan, the 
 cooler the season, and the less fire at first (after- 
 wards to be gradually raised), in the greater per- 
 fection will the distilled water be obtained. 
 
 As the more movable or volatile parts of vege- 
 tables are the aqueous, the oily, the gummy, the 
 resinous, and the saline, these are to be expected 
 in the waters of this process ; the heat here em- 
 ployed being so great as to burst the vessels of 
 the plants, some of which contain so large a quan- 
 tity of oil that it may be seen swimming on the 
 surface of the water. 
 
 Although a small quantity only of distilled wa- 
 ters can be obtained at a time by this confined 
 operation, yet it compensates in strength what is 
 deficient in quantity. Such liquors, if well corked 
 up from the air, will keep a good long time, espe- 
 cially if about a twentieth part of any spirits 
 be added, in order to preserve the same more 
 effectually. 
 
 To make Rosemary Water. 
 
 As the method of performing the operation by 
 the cold still is the very same, whatever plant or 
 flower is used, the following instance of procuring 
 a water from rosemary will be abundantly suffi- 
 cient to instruct the young practitioner in the 
 manner of conducting the process in all cases 
 whatever. 
 
 Take rosemary fresh gathered in its perfection, 
 with the morning dew upon it, and lay it lightly 
 and unbruised upon the plate or bottom of the 
 still ; cover the plate with its conical head, and 
 apply a glass receiver to the nose of it. Make a 
 small fire of charcoal under the plate, continuing 
 it as long as any liquor comes over into the re- 
 ceiver. 
 
 When nothing more comes over, take off the 
 still head and remove the plant, putting fresh iu 
 its stead, and proceed as before ; continue to re- 
 peat the operation successively, till a sufficient 
 quantity of water is procured. Let this distilled 
 water be kept at rest in clean bottles close stopped, 
 for some days in a cold place ; by this means it 
 will become limpid, and powerfully impregnated 
 with the taste and smell of the plant. 
 Simple Alexetereal Waters. 
 
 Take of spearmint leaves, fresh, 1 Ibs. ; sea 
 wormwood tops, fresh, angelica leaves, fresh, each 
 1 Ib. ; water, as much as is sufficient to present 
 burning. Draw off by distillation 3 galls. Or 
 take of elder-flowers moderately dried, 2 Ibs. ; 
 angelica leaves, fresh gathered, 1 Ib.; water, a 
 sufficient quantity. Distill off 3 galls. 
 Simple Pennyroyal Water. 
 
 Take of pennyroyal lea r es, dry, 1J Ibs. , water 
 as much as will prevent burning. Draw off by 
 distillation 1 gall. 
 
294 
 
 DISTILLATION. 
 
 Simple Spearmint Water. 
 Take of spearmint leaves, fresh, any quantity ; 
 Water, 3 times as much. Distil as long as the 
 liquor which comes over has a considerable taste 
 or smell of the mint. Or, take spearmint leaves, 
 dried, 1 Ibs., water as much as is sufficient to pre- 
 vent burning. Draw off by distillation 1 gall. 
 
 Cinnamon Water. 
 Take of bruised cinnamon, 1 Ib. ; water, 2 galls. 
 Simmer in a still for i an hour, put what comes 
 over into the still again ; when cold strain through 
 flannel. 
 
 Eau Sana- Pareil. 
 
 Take 2 galls, of fine old honey-water, put it 
 Into a still capable of holding 4 gfills., and add 
 the thinly pared rinds of 6 or 8 fresh citrons, neither 
 green nor mellow ripe. Then add 60 or 70 drops 
 of fine Roman bergamot ; and, having luted the 
 apparatus well, let the whole digest in a moderate 
 heat for 24 hours. Draw off, by a water- bath 
 heat, about 1 gall. 
 
 Jessamine Water. 
 
 Take 6 Ibs. of the white sweet almond cakes 
 from which jessamine oil has been made abroad ; 
 beat nnd sift them to a fine powder, and put to it 
 as much fresh oil of jessamine as will be required 
 to make it into a stiff paste. Let this paste be 
 dissolved in about 6 qts. of spring-water, which 
 has been previously well boiled, and left until it 
 has become about half cold. Stir and mix the 
 whole well together; and when the oil and water 
 have been well combined, let the whole stand 
 until the powder has fallen to the bottom of the 
 vessel. Now pour the liquid off gently, and filter 
 it through cotton, in a large tin funnel, into the 
 glass bottle in which it is to be kept for use. The 
 powder or sediment which has been left at the 
 bottom of the vessel, when dried by the heat of 
 the sun, answers very well for making almond 
 paste for the hands. 
 
 Jamaica Pepper Water. 
 
 Jamaica pepper is the fruit of a tall tree grow- 
 ing in the mountainous parts of Jamaica, where 
 it is much cultivated because of the great profit 
 arising from the cured fruit, sent in large quanti- 
 ties annually into Europe. Take of Jamaica pep- 
 per, ^ Ib. ; water, 2 galls.; dniw off 1 gall, with a 
 pretty brisk fire. The oil of this fruit is very pon- 
 derous, and therefore this water is made in an 
 alembic. 
 
 Myrtle Water. 
 
 Infuse 8 or 10 Ibs. of the cuttings of green myr- 
 tle in nearly 20 galls of rain or river water, and 
 add thereto a pint of fresh yeast, after it has stood 
 for 24 hours. At the end of another day and night, 
 put the whole into a still, with 1 Ib. of bay-salt. 
 Draw off the whole of the water, and next day in- 
 fuse more myrtle leaves as before, and distill again. 
 Repeat the same a third time. 
 
 Orange-flower Water. 
 
 Take 2 Ibs. of orange-flowers, and 24 qts. of 
 water, and draw over 3 pts. Or, take 12 Ibs. of 
 range-flowers, and 16 qts. of water, and draw 
 over 15 qts. 
 
 Orange-peel Water. 
 
 Take of the outward yellow rind of Seville 
 ranges, 4 oz. ; water, 3 galls. ; draw off 1 gall. 
 by the alembic, with a brisk fire. 
 
 Peppermint Water. 
 
 Take of the herb of peppermint, dried, 1 Ibs. ; 
 water, as much as is sufficient to prevent burning. 
 Distill off a gallon. This has been known to allay 
 sickness when nothing else would succeed, and is 
 
 used in flatulent colics. A wineglassful may b 
 taken, and often repeated. 
 
 Another. Take of oil of peppermint, 1 Ib.j 
 water, a sufficient quantity. Draw off 30 galls. 
 This is stimulant and carminative, and covers dig- 
 agreeable flavors. 
 
 Portugal and Angel Waters. 
 Take 1 pt. of orange-flower water; 1 pt. of roge- 
 water; and pt. of myrtle water; to these put a 
 i oz. of distilled spirit of musk, and an ounce of 
 spirit of ambergris. Shake the whole well to- 
 gether, and the process will be finished. 
 
 Hose-loafer. 
 
 Take of the leaves of fresh damask-roses with 
 the heels cut off, 6 Ibs. ; water, as much as to pre- 
 vent burning. Distill off a gallon. The distilled 
 water should be drawn from dried herbs, because 
 the fresh cannot be got at all times in the year. 
 Whenever the fresh are used the weights must be 
 increased ; but whether the fresh or dry are made 
 use of, it is left to the judgment of the operator to 
 vary the weight, according as the plants are in 
 greater or less perfection, owing to the season in 
 which they grew, or were collected. 
 Smnil Snail Water. 
 
 Take of balm, mint, hart's tongue, ground ivy; 
 flowers of the dead nettle, mallow-flowers, elder- 
 flowers, each a handful ; snails freed from their 
 shells, and whites of eggs, each 4 oz. ; nutmegs, ^ 
 oz.; miik, 1 gall. Distill in a water-bath to dry- 
 ness. 
 
 Strmcberry Water. 
 
 Take of the bruised fruit, 20 Ibs. ; water a suffi- 
 cient quantity. Draw off 2 galls. ; this water i3 
 very fragrant. 
 
 Common Distilled Water. 
 
 Take of water, 10 galls. Distill. Throw away 
 the first \ gall, and draw off 4 galls., which keep 
 in glass or stoneware. Distilled water is used 
 in making medicine preparations when the salts 
 contained in common water would decompose 
 them. 
 
 COMPOUND DISTILLED WATERS. 
 
 General Rules for the Distillation of Spirituous 
 
 Waters. 
 
 1. The plants and their parts ought to be mode- 
 rately and newly dried, except such as are ordered 
 to be fresh gathered. 
 
 2. After the ingredients have been steeped in 
 he spirit for the time prescribed, add as much 
 eater as will be sufficient to prevent a burnt 
 
 flavor, or rather more. 
 
 3. The liquor which comes over first in the dis- 
 tillation is by some kept by itself, under the title 
 of spirit; and the other runnings, which prove 
 milky, are fined down by art. But it is preferable 
 to mix all the runnings together, without fining 
 ;hern, that the waters may possess the virtues of 
 the plant entire. 
 
 4. In the distillation of these waters, the gen- 
 uine brandy obtained from wine is directed, 
 Where this is not to be procured take, instead of 
 that proof spirit, half its quantity of a well-recti-, 
 fied spirit, prepared from any other fermented! 
 liquors. In this steep the ingredients, and thea 
 add spring-water enough both to make up the 
 quantity ordered to be drawn off, and to prevent 
 burning. 
 
 Bergamot Water. 
 
 Take of fine old French brandy 2 galls., or 1 
 gall, of highly rectified spirit of wine, and 1 gall, 
 of spring-water. Put to the brandy, or diluted 
 spirits i oz., or more, of true Roman 'oil of berga- 
 
COMPOUND DISTILLED WATERS. 
 
 295 
 
 mot, whose parts have been previously, well di- 
 rided by trituration with lump-sugar, in a glass 
 mortar, Now distill by a water heat, and draw 
 off 6 qts. only. By this operation a most excel- 
 lent bergamot water will be produced, which will 
 remain good for 20 years. 
 
 Original Receipt for Hungary Water. 
 The original receipt for preparing this invalua- 
 ble lotion is written in letters of gold in the hand- 
 writing of Elizabeth, queen of Hungary. Take of 
 aqua vitae, four times distilled, 3 parts ; the tops 
 and flowers of rosemary, 2 parts. To be put to- 
 gether in a close-stopped vessel, and allowed to 
 stand in a warm place during 50 hours, then to be 
 distilled in an alembic, and of this, once every 
 week. 1 dr. to be taken in the morning, either in 
 the food or drink, and every morning the face and 
 the diseased limb to be washed with it. 
 
 French Hungary Water. 
 
 The French Hungary water is made wholly from 
 a wine spirit, and from rosemary flowers alone, 
 which about Montpellier (the place from whence 
 this commodity comes) grow in great plenty and 
 perfection. The fragrancy of these flowers is so 
 great as to render the waters made from them 
 more excellent and valuable than anything of the 
 kind made in England. 
 
 Best Hungary Water. 
 
 Take 30 galls, of spirit of wine ; put to it, in a 
 large still, 6 large bunches of fine green rose- 
 mary, when the flowers are white and in full 
 bloom ; 1 Ib. of lavender flowers, and 4 oz. of true 
 English oil of rosemary. The rosemary-leaves 
 and flowers must be stripped from all their wood 
 and green twigs. When the whole has been in a 
 state of digestion for 24 hours, distill as before, 
 drawing off about 25 or 26 galls., but no more. 
 When distilled, stop it closely in a copper vessel, 
 and keep it undisturbed for about a month. 
 
 Aqua Mdlix, or the King's Honey-water. 
 First Distillation. 
 
 Take 28 Ibs. of coriander seeds, ground small in 
 the starch-mill; 28 common bunches of sweet 
 marjoram, in flower, dried and stripped from the 
 twigs; 1 Ib. of calamus aromaticus; 1 Ib. of yel- 
 low saund^rs; and 1 Ib. of orange and lemon peel. 
 Let the 3 last be separately beaten into gross pow- 
 der. Mix the above ingredients, and put them 
 into a 60 gall, copper still, and add to them 20 
 galls, of proof spirit, and the same quantity of 
 rain or spring-water. Lute well all the junctures 
 of the apparatus, and leave the ingredients in this 
 State, without fire, for 48 hours. At the end of 
 this time begin to distill by a very gentle heat, lest 
 the flowers and seeds, which are very light, should 
 rise suddenly in the still-head, stop up the worm, 
 and endanger the whole work. 
 
 Increase the fire after the first half hour, and 
 keep it reguhir till the termination of the pro'cess. 
 Draw off about 26 or 27 galls., or continue so long 
 as the spirit will burn by the application of a 
 lighted paper to a small quantity of it in a saucer. 
 Next day, when the still is perfectly' cold, let it be 
 well cleaned out. The ingredients should be im- 
 mediately dried in the sun, otherwise they will 
 become mouldy. When there is a considerable 
 quantity from 3 or 4 makings it ought to be 
 ground in a mill, and finely sifted. They will be 
 found to be of great use in the making of ordinary 
 brown wash-balls, and, with some additions of 
 brown powders for the hair. 
 
 Second Distillation. 
 
 Now return the spirits drawn off into the still, 
 and add 10 or 12 galls, of water ; then put in the 
 
 following ingredients, bruised and mixed : 14 01. 
 of nutmegs, 4 oz. of cloves, 12 oz. of cinnamon 
 bark, 8 oz. of pimento, apd 40 oz. of cassia-lignum. 
 These are to be separately broken or bruised in an 
 iron mortar, until they are about the size of small 
 peas. If there be any dust, it must be sifted from 
 them before they are used ; then take 40 oz. of 
 storax, 40 oz. of gum Benjamin, 44 oz. of labda- 
 num, and 40 vencllios. 
 
 Break and bruise the above also, but make as 
 little dust as possible. Put the dust from these 
 and the foregoing, together, into a coarse muslin 
 bag, which is to be hung in the still, so that the 
 liquor, during distillation, may extract all its vir- 
 tues. The whole are then to remain in the liquor, 
 in a cold state, for 48 hours, attention being still 
 paid to luting and stopping close, as before. At 
 the end of this time kindle the fire, and work off 
 (slowly at first) until 26 galls, are distilled. Mix 
 all the different runnings together in a copper 
 vessel, kept for this purpose only. 
 
 Having drawn off, in this second distillation, 
 26 galls., mix together 10 oz. of spirit of musk, 
 10 oz. of spirit of ambergris, J oz. of true oil of 
 lavender, i oz. of essence of bergamot, and i oz. 
 of oil of rhodium. Now add to it, in a copper 
 vessel that will hold 40 galls., 6 galls, of orange- 
 flower water, and 8 galls, of rose-water, recently 
 made. When properly mixed, put all these into 
 the copper vessel, and stir the whole well together. 
 Add to all tht>-e a quart of milk, which has stood 
 for a night, >nd which has had the cream taken 
 clearly off: then agitate and mix the whole well 
 together, ind stop the vessel up close, until the 
 time when it is to be used. 
 
 The jar ought to have a lock-cock soldered into 
 it, to prevent accidents. This should be placed full 
 two inches from the bottom, in order that the milk 
 and other impurities may fall to the bottom. 
 
 If this honey-water be made in the spring, and 
 if the weather be fair, it will be quite fined down 
 in the course of a month, that is, if it be not 
 opened or disturbed. When, by drawing off a 
 little in a glass, the milk, etc., have fallen down 
 to the bottom, draw the whole off into clean and 
 well-seasoned stone or glass bottles, or into an- 
 other copper jar. This composition ought never 
 to be drawn off in rainy or cloudy weather, for 
 then the milk is apt to rise. In warm weather it 
 should be kept cool, and in winter as warm as 
 possible. .When distilled in the winter the jars 
 ought to be warmed, or otherwise the honey-water 
 will not be fined for 5 or 6 months. 
 
 This honey-water may keep 30 years. 
 
 The ingredients from the second distillation are 
 of much greater value than those from the first, 
 and therefore require more care in the drying. 
 These are of great use for the best sort of gross 
 powders, for sweet bags, etc. ; and, if made into a 
 fine powder, may be made use of with great suc- 
 cess, in the best sort of brown perfumed balls. 
 
 The same powder, with fresh ingredients, makes 
 excellent pastils, to burn; and may be further, 
 used in making spirit of Benjamin. 
 
 Compound Spirit of Juniper. 
 
 Take of juniper-berries, well bruised, 1 Ib.; car- 
 away seeds, and sweet fennel seeds, each, bruised, 
 li oz. ; diluted alcohol, 1 gall. Macerate for two 
 days, and having added as much water as will 
 prevent einpyreuma, draw off, by distillation, 1 
 gall. 
 
 Lavender Spirit.. 
 
 Take 14 Ibs. of lavender flowers, 10i galls, of 
 rectified spirit of wine, and 1 gall, of water, draw 
 off 10 gall, by a gentle fire; or, which is much 
 better, by a sand bath heat. 
 
296 
 
 DISTILLATION. 
 
 Lavender-water. 
 
 Take 30 galls, of the best wine spirit, pour it 
 into a copper still, placed in a hot water bath, 
 over a clear but steady fire ; put to it 6 Ibs. of the 
 largest and freshest lavender flowers, after having 
 separated them from all stalks and green leaves, 
 which give the lavender water a woody and faint 
 smell. Put no water into the still; close all the 
 junctures well, and let the spirits and flowers 
 stand ir a state of digestion for 24 hours ; and 
 then, with R, gentle fire, draw off 25, or, at most, 
 26 galls, only, which, as soon as distilled, are to be 
 poured into a copper vessel for keeping. Wooden 
 vessels and cans are to be avoided, as the best parts 
 of the oil and of ^he spirits will be absorbed by 
 them, and consequently lost. When the distilla- 
 tion is over, draw out, or quench the fire, and let 
 the remaining spirits and flowers continue in the 
 still until the next day. When the above quan- 
 tity of 25 or 26 galls, has stood for 4 or 5 days, 
 put to it 10 oz. of true English oil of lavender. 
 Mix the whole well in the jar, by dra,wing out 1 
 or 2 galls., and then returning them. Repeat this 
 10 or 12 times, then stop the vessel up close, and 
 do not disturb it for a month at least. 
 
 Lavender-water of the Second Order. 
 To the 4 or 5 galls, of the spirits, and the laven- 
 der flowers left in the still, after the distillation 
 mentioned in the last article, add 15 galls, of com- 
 mon proof spirit, 9 or 10 galls, of ,-pring-water, 3 
 Ibs. of lavender flowers, and 4 oz. o. oil of laven- 
 der, intimately mixed with loaf sugar, by powder- 
 ing it in a glass mortar. Digest the whole, and 
 draw off 25 galls., proceeding in every respect as 
 before, except that, in this case, no oil is to be 
 added ; for, as there is so much water present, the 
 addition of oil would be apt to turn the whole 
 quantity muddy, or of a bluish or opaque color, 
 which it cannot be easily freed from, without a 
 second distillation. 
 
 Lavender-water for immediate use. 
 Mix with 1 gall, of proof spirit, 1J oz. of true 
 English oil of lavender, which is all that will pro- 
 perly combine with the spirit, without injuring the 
 color, by rendering it muddy. When the spirit 
 and the oil are properly mixed, they are to be put 
 into glass bottles, which are to be well stopped, 
 and ought to be shaken before used. 
 
 Perfumed Lavender-water. 
 
 Distill by a gentle heat in a sand or water bath, 
 or mix and shake frequently, during 14 days, the 
 following ingredients : 1 oz. of foreign oil of lav- 
 ender, i oz. of English lavender, ^ oz. of essence 
 of ambergris, and 1 gall, of rectified spirit of 
 wine. 
 
 Lemon-water. 
 
 The peel of the lemon, the part used in making 
 this water, is a very grateful bitter aromatic, 
 and, on that account, very serviceable in repair- 
 ing and strengthening the stomach. Take of dried 
 lemon-peel, 4 Ibs. ; proof spirit, 10J gall., and 1 
 gall, of water. Draw off 10 galls, by a gentle fire. 
 
 Spirit of Peppermint. 
 
 Take of the herb of peppermint, dried, 1$ Ibs.; 
 proof spirit, 1 gall.; water, sufficient to prevent 
 burning. Distill off 1 gall. 
 
 Compound Gentian-water. 
 
 Take of gentian root, sliced, 3 Ibs. ; leaves and 
 flowers of the lesser centaury, each 8 oz. ; infuse 
 the whole in 6 qts. of proof spirit and 1 qt. of 
 Water ; and draw off the water till the feints begin 
 to rise. 
 
 Spirit of Sc'trvy- Grass' 
 
 Take of scurvy-grass, fresh gathered and 
 bruised, 15 Ibs.; horseradish -root, 6 Ibs.; recti- 
 fied spirit of wine, 1 gall.; and water, 3 pts. Di- 
 gest the whole in a close vessel 2 days, and draw 
 off 1 gall, with a gentle fire. 
 
 Antiscorbutic Water. 
 
 Take of the leaves of water -cresses, garden ant 
 sea scurvy-grass, and brook-lime, each 20 hand- 
 fuls; of pine-tops, germander, horehound, and the 
 lesser centaury, each 16 handfuls ; of the roots of 
 bryony and sharp-pointed dock, each 6 Ibs. ; of 
 mustard-seed, 1 Ibs. Digest the whole in 10 
 galls, of proof spirit, and 2 galls, of water, and 
 draw off by a gentle fire. 
 
 ACID LIQUORS. 
 Vinegar. (Impure Dilute Acetic Acid.) 
 
 Vinegar is made by the oxidation of alcohol, 
 either directly or through the medium of a fer- 
 ment, or by the distillation of wood ; the latter is 
 known as pyroligneous acid. Any substance ca- 
 pable of fermentation or any containing alcohol is 
 suitable for making vinegar. It is made in the 
 slow way from wine, cider, beer, sugar, or honey 
 and water, whiskey and water, juice of plants and 
 vegetables ; in the quick way from a spirit pre- 
 pared for the purpose. 
 
 Slow Method of Making Vinegar. 
 
 This is the process usually adopted in the small 
 scale. The "wash," as any weak alcoholic liquor 
 is called, should be weak, from 5 to 10 per cent, 
 of alcohol is best, too strong a liquor will ferment 
 very slowly; the strength is best judged by the 
 taste. The temperature should be from 74 to 86 
 Fahr. Sour beer, wine, or cider are better than 
 good liquors. The addition of sugar, honey, or 
 other sweet matter with a view of strengthening 
 the vinegar is not to be recommended, as it ren- 
 ders the vinegar liable to spoil. Ordinary fer- 
 mented liquors are quite alcoholic enough. 
 
 The best ferment is vinegar; an old cask in 
 which good vinegar has been kept is the best to 
 ferment in. Other ferments are used, as bread 
 soaked in brewer's yeast, sour dough, dough of 
 wheat and rye flour soaked in cream of tartar and 
 vinegar; all these are used in small quantity, a 
 few ounces to a barrel of wash. Vinegar made 
 with them is more apt to spoil. The more ferment 
 present the quicker the process. 
 
 The wash is put into the cask, which is best 
 painted black in order to absorb the sun's rays 
 when the weather is ccol; the bung is left out, the 
 bung-hole covered with a piece of slate, and in 
 about 4 weeks the ncetification is complete. The 
 lower the temperature the slower the change. 
 To Purify Vinegar. 
 
 After all the mothers are deposited, draw it off 
 into a vessel filled with beech shavings, and let it 
 stand in a cool place until clear. Vinegar is apt 
 to be infested with flies (Mnzca ceUaris), and eels 
 ( Vibrio aceti). These may be killed by passing 
 it through a coiled tube dipped in boiling water. 
 
 Vinegar (especially when weak) if exposed to 
 the air becomes thick ormothery, and deposits a 
 mucilaginous substance; the vinegar becomes 
 weak and mouldy as this change goes on. 
 
 When vinegar is barrelled, a pint of spirits 
 should be added to each barrel to secure its keep- 
 ing. It should be kept in a cool place. 
 
 Varieties of Vinegar. 
 
 Wine Vinegar, made from wine, contains citric 
 and tartaric acid, and a small portion of acetic 
 ether, which communicates an agreeable flavor. 
 
VINEGAR. 
 
 297 
 
 It is imitated by adding acetic ether and coloring 
 matter to vinegar made from whiskey. 
 
 Cider Vinegar (which includes all fruit vine- 
 gars) contains malic acid. 
 
 Malt, or Corn Vinegar, made from weak worts, 
 contains phosphates of lime and magnesia, gum, 
 and extractive matter. 
 
 Wood Vinegar, or pyroligneous acid, when crude, 
 contains tar and wood spirit. 
 
 Adulterations of Vinegar. 
 
 Sulphuric, nitric and muriatic acids, are used 
 to give a false strength; burned sugar and acetic 
 ether to give color and flavor. The latter cannot 
 be considered as injurious. One one-thousandth 
 of mineral acid is allowable, and tends to preserve 
 the vinegar. This would be about four measured 
 ounces to the barrel, or two to the ordinary half- 
 barrel. 
 
 Sulphuric acid is detected by boiling with chlo- 
 ride of calcium ; baryta is not admissible as a 
 test for sulphuric acid in vinegar. 
 
 Muriatic acid gives a white, curdy precipitate, 
 with a solution of nitrate of silver. This precipi- 
 tate is soluble in ammonia, and blackens on ex- 
 posure to light. 
 
 Nitric acid is detected by adding muriatic acid. 
 If the solution will dissolve gold leaf, nitric acid 
 is present. 
 
 To Strengthen Vinegar. 
 
 Freeze it and remove the ice which forms on the 
 surface. The water of the vinegar alone freezes, 
 leaving the acetic acid in solution in the remain- 
 ing water. 
 
 To Determine the Strength of Vinegar. 
 
 The hydrometer (see SPECIFIC GRAVITY) is not 
 to be much relied on in testing the strength of 
 vinegar. The simplest test is to take a fragment 
 of fine marble, weigh it and suspend it by a 
 thread in a known measure of vinegar until all 
 action ceases and the liquid has no longer a sour 
 taste. Take out the marble, wash and dry it, and 
 note the loss of weight it has sustained. Five- 
 sixths of this is real (hydrated) acetic acid. An 
 ounce of good vinegar should saturate from 30 to 
 32 grs. of pure and dry carbonate of soda; such 
 vinegar contains about 5 per cent, of anhydrous 
 (absolute) acetic acid. Vinegar above 30 per cent, 
 of real acid will dissolve the essential oils and 
 camphor. 
 
 Simple continuous Vinegar Process. 
 
 The following household vinegar method is to 
 be recommended as simple, expeditious, and fur- 
 nishing a constant supply of vinegar with scarcely 
 any trouble, and at trifling cost : Two barrels are 
 procured, one for making, the other for storing the 
 vinegar. Those from which good vinegar has just 
 been drawn are preferable. The storage barrel is 
 kept always in the cellar, the generating one in 
 the cellar or house, according to the season. In 
 this latter barrel a small hole is bored, for the cir- 
 culation of air, at the top of one of its heads. The 
 barrels lie on their side, and contain each a wooden 
 faucet. Of course their capacity is regulated by 
 the yearly demand of vinegar. 
 
 We will suppose that the generator, filled to the 
 level of the ventilating hole, contains 10 galls.; 
 the manufacture will then be carried on in the 
 following manner : Seven galls, of good vinegar 
 are placed in it, and 3 galls, of a warm alcoholic 
 mixture made in the following manner and added : 
 If common whiskey (50 per cent.) be employed, 
 have a small measure of 3 pts. and a large one (a 
 bucket) of 3 galls. If 86 per cent, spirits are 
 used, let the small measure be for 2 pts. Put a 
 mall measureful of the spirits in the large mea- 
 
 sure ; fill quickly to the mark with boiling water, 
 and pour by a funnel into the generator. Every 
 
 2 or 3 weeks 3 galls, of vinegar are withdrawn 
 from the generator, added to the storage barrel, 
 and 3 galls, of alcoholic mixture are placod in the 
 generating barrel as before. 
 
 Another method of working the casks consists 
 in half filling the generator with vinegar and ad- 
 ding every week so much of the alcoholic mixture 
 that it fills the barrel in from 8 to 16 weeks, ac- 
 cording to the season. Half the vinegar is then 
 added to the storage cask, and the process recom- 
 menced in the generator. The warmer the sea- 
 son the more rapid may be the manufacture. 
 Wetherill on the Manufacture of yinegaf. 
 Vinegar without a Ferment (Dobereiner's Process). 
 
 The ferment used in the manufacture of vine- 
 gar is not necessary. Alcohol may be oxidized 
 directly by the agency of finely divided platinum 
 (platinum black) ; 10 per cent, alcohol placed in 
 a close vessel with platinum black is rapidly con- 
 verted into acetic acid. Dr. Ure estimates that 
 with a box of 12 ft. cube and 6 to 8 oz. of strong 
 platinum, 1 Ib. of alcohol daily can be converted 
 into acetic acid, and with from 20 to 30 Ibs. we 
 may obtain 300 Ibs. of vinegar from the propor- 
 tionate quantity of spirits. The same platinum 
 black will last for an indefinite time, requiring 
 only to be heated to redness from time to time, to 
 restore it. This method is undoubtedly the most 
 elegant one known of vinegar manufacture, and 
 has been tried on a large scale in Germany. The 
 objection to it is, however, the high cost of the 
 platinum, in which a large amount of capital must 
 necessarily be kept locked up. 
 
 The continuous Quick Vinegar Process. 
 
 This is the method almost universally adopted 
 for manufacturing vinegar on the large scale. 
 Common new whiskey makes excellent vinegar; 
 the fusel oil becoming oxidized during the process, 
 is converted in harmless, agreeable ether. It is 
 diluted so as to form a wash of about 6 per cent, 
 alcohol. Two tubs, or upright casks, are prepared 
 as follows : A false top and bottom are inserted. 
 In the false top are bored numerous holes one- 
 tenth of an inch in diameter and 1 in. apart ; the 
 top is fixed water-tight about 6 to 8 in. from the 
 top of the barrel. At from 8 to 14 in. above the 
 bottom of the tube are bored in. air-holes, in- 
 clining downwards, so that the liquid may not 
 flow out. About 2 in. above the air-holes is placed 
 the false bottom pierced with in. or inch holes. 
 The space between the false top and bottom is 
 filled with closely-curled beech-shavings, or char- 
 coal in lumps of the size of a walnut, sifted, 
 washed and dried. The holes in the false top are 
 filled with lamp-wick, and the space below the 
 false bottom provided with a stop-cock, or goose- 
 neck. There is also an inclined hole 6 in. below 
 the false top for the insertion of a thermometer 
 and hour-glass, or wood tubes are inserted into 
 the false top, reaching nearly to the cover of the 
 tub; these act as chimneys. The beech shavings 
 are boiled in vinegar and pressed into their place 
 until within 6 in. of the false top or sieve. Be- 
 fore starting the process the room and tubs are to 
 be kept a day at a temperature of 75 to 80 Fahr. 
 
 The shavings at the thermometer hole, and at 
 the lower ventilating holes, are then loosened by 
 means of a stick thrust therein. A wash is now 
 prepared which contains 1-5 vinegar and 4-5 of a 
 
 3 per cent, solution of alcohol; this heated to from 
 75 to 80, is gradually poured through the hole 
 in the cover of the generator, at the rate of 1 bar- 
 rel in 24 hours. At the expiration of this time, 
 warm tho resulting vinegar if necessary, and hav- 
 
298 
 
 DISTILLATION. 
 
 ing added enough alcohol to make the whole 
 quantity taken thus far of 5 per cent, alcoholic 
 strength, pour this through the generators as 
 before. Repeat this operation on the third, and 
 even on the fourth day if necessary. Investigate 
 the temperature of the air escaping from the gene- 
 rator, and when it exceeds that of the wash which 
 is running, it is a sign that the acetification has 
 commenced. When it rises to a point between 98 
 and 104, the generators are in a proper condition 
 to commence the regular business of the manu- 
 facture; the fermentation has been properly estab- 
 lished. We then daily pour through generator 
 No. 1, a wash consisting of a certain quantity of 
 spirits, vinegar, and water, heated to a tempera- 
 ture between 75 and 80 Fahr. ; and through No. 
 2 the wash has passed through No. 1, to which 
 has been added more spirits. We drnw manufac- 
 tured vinegar daily from generator No. 2. The 
 vinegar resulting from setting the generators in 
 action, though not prejudicial to health, is of in- 
 ferior quality and bad flavor, from extractive 
 matter from the shavings and tubs and from the 
 iron cauldron. It may be added in very small 
 quantity to the subsequent vinegar, if it be not 
 thrown away. Wetherill on the manufacture of 
 vinegar. 
 
 To make Qiiass. 
 
 Mix rye flour and warm water together, and 
 leave it till it has turned sour. This vinegar is 
 much drunk in Russia; it looks thick and unplea* 
 sant at first, but becomes agreeable by use. 
 
 Distilled Vinegar. 
 
 This is obtained from vinegar by distillation, 
 rejecting the fourth or eighth part that comes 
 over first, and avoid its acquiring a burnt flavor. 
 Distilled vinegar is weaker than the common, 
 but is used sometimes in pickles, where its want 
 of color is an advantage. 
 To Deprive Vinegar and other Vegetable Liquids 
 
 of their Color. 
 
 To take away the color of vinegar, a litre of red 
 wine vinegar, cold, is mixed with 45 grammes of 
 bone-charcoal, in a glass vessel. Shake this mix- 
 ture from time to time, and in 2 or 3 days the 
 color completely disappears. When the process 
 is to be performed in the large way, throw the 
 charcoal into a cask of vinegar, which must be 
 stirred from time to time. The highest colored 
 red wines treated in the same manner become per- 
 fectly limpid. Ivory-black possesses the same 
 property as bone-black. 
 
 To Prepare the Charcoal. 
 
 Fill a crucible with the most compact parts of 
 ox and sheep bones, lute the cover, carefully leav- 
 ing only a small opening at the top, place the cru- 
 'cible on a forge fire, and heat it gradually till red ; 
 when the flame from the oily and gelatinous parts 
 has ceased, diminish the opening and suddenly 
 raise the fire; when cold, reduce the charcoal to 
 fine powder. 
 
 To Procure Pyroligneous Acid. 
 This acid is procured from any kind of green 
 wood (such as cord wood), used for making char- 
 coal; a cord of wood will produce about 80 galls. 
 It is obtained in the following manner : A brisk 
 oven is filled with coal or wood, until it becomes 
 sufficiently hot to heat an oven over it to that de- 
 gree as to reduce green wood to a charcoal. The 
 upper oven should be closely stopped except a tube 
 at the top to carry off the steam or acid, which 
 tube is passed through water, and the steam thus 
 ondensed forms the acid. 
 
 To Prepare the same. 
 Place a large cast-iron cylinder, or retort (simi- 
 
 lar to those used for the production of coal gas), 
 in a furnace, so that it may receive as much heat 
 all round, as possible. One end of this cylinder 
 must be so constructed as to open and shut, to 
 admit wood, and exclude the air. 
 
 Oak, in pieces about 1 foot in length, i? to be 
 put into the cylinder, which is to be filled as full 
 as possible, without being wedged, and the door 
 must be shut close to exclude air; from the cylin- 
 der let a worm run through cold water to condense 
 the acid ; by this it is conveyed to a large cask 
 placed on one end, where there is a pipe to carry 
 it from that to 2 or 3 more; thus it is completely 
 secured from flying off in the vaporous state. The 
 fire is now to be raised to a great heat, sufficiently 
 powerful to convert the wood completely into char- 
 coal. When the acid ceases to come over, the fire 
 is to be taken out, and the mass of wood left to cool 
 in the confined state, when it becomes perfect char- 
 coal. In tie first cask, tar is chiefly contained 
 with the acid, it precipitates to the bottom, and is 
 drawn off by a cock ; it is afterwards boiled in an 
 iron boiler to evaporate the acid, before it is fit for 
 use. If the acid is not strong enough, it is put 
 into large square vats about 6 inches deep, for the 
 purpose of m;iking a large surface, to evaporate a 
 part of the water contained in the acid, more espe- 
 cially by a slow heat. These vats are bedded on 
 sand upon the top of a brick stove, where a gentle 
 heat is applied ; thus it may be procured in a 
 pretty strong state. 
 
 This acid is a liquid of the color of white wine, 
 possesses a strong acid and slightly astringent 
 taste, combined with an einpyreumatic smell. 
 When allowed to remain in a state of rest for 8 or 
 10 days, tar of a black color subsides, and the 
 acid is then comparatively transparent. To purify 
 it further, it undergoes the process of distillation, 
 by which it is freed from a still greater portion of 
 the tar, with which it is combined, and is thus 
 rendered still more transparent. But though the 
 process of distillation be repeated without end, it 
 will never be freed from the volatile oil with which 
 t is combined, and which is the cause of empy- 
 reuma constantly attending it. In short, it con- 
 tains the same properties for the preservation of 
 animal matters from putrefaction as smoking 
 them by wood does, which is practised at present 
 by the most barbarous nations, and which has 
 been handed down from the remotest ages of an- 
 tiquity. 
 
 Glacial Acetic Acid (Ice Vinegar}. 
 To 83 Ibs. of fused acetate of soda add 100 Iba. 
 of sulphuric acid and distill. Place the distillate 
 in ice at 50 Fahr., it will become solid. Allow it 
 to drain. It is the monohydrated acid. 
 
 Oil of Vitriol. 
 
 The strongest or Nordhausen or fuming acid is 
 made by distilling green vitriol at a red heat. The 
 residue is colcothar or crocus Tnartis. It is used 
 for dissolving indigo and other purposes where an 
 acid of great strength is required. The ordinary 
 sulphuric acid is made by causing vapors of sul- 
 phurous acid (from burning sulphur), nitric acid 
 and water, to combine in a leaden chamber. The 
 weak acid is concentrated in leaden pans, and 
 afterwards in a platinum still. 
 
 Nitric Acid, 
 
 Or aqua fortis, may be made by distilling at a 
 gentle heat in a glass retort, equal weights of salt- 
 petre (nitrate of potassa), and sulphuric acid. The 
 receiver should be kept cooled by a cloth dipped 
 in water. To obtain it pure it must be redistilled 
 over nitrate of silver. 
 
 Hydrochloric Acid, 
 Or muriatic acid (marine acid, spirit of salt). 
 
TEST LIQUORS, TEST PAPERS, ETC. 
 
 299 
 
 Take 3 parts common salt, 5 of oil of vitriol, and 
 6 of water. Mix the oil of vitriol with 2 parts of 
 water in a thin glass vessel, and allow the mixture 
 to cool. Put the salt into a. glass retort connected 
 with a receiver containing the remaining 3 parts 
 of water. Pour the mixture of sulphuric acid and 
 water upon the salt, and distill with a gentle heat. 
 To purify it, mix with an equal volume of water, 
 and distill over chloride of barium. 
 
 Chlorine Water. 
 
 Pass a current of chlorine gas, made by the 
 action of commercial muriatic acid upon black 
 oxide of manganese, into a bottle half filled with 
 water, shaking occasionally. Water will absorb 
 twice its volume of this gas, acquires thereby a 
 yellowish color, and the peculiar smell of chlorine. 
 It is used in medicine and to bleach linen, take 
 out fruit marks, etc. It should be kept in the 
 dark, or in a bottle covered with blue paper. 
 
 Sulphurous Acid Water 
 
 Is made as above, using sulphurous acid instead 
 of chlorine. This gas may be prepared by the 
 action of sulphuric acid upon copper, charcoal, or 
 sulphur. Water absorbs 50 volumes of the gas. 
 The solution is used for bleaching purposes, in 
 medicine, and to check fermentation. 
 
 TEST LIQUORS, TEST PAPERS, ETC. 
 
 Distilled water only should be used in these 
 preparations. In preparing the papers the liquid 
 should be placed in an earthenware plate or dish, 
 and the paper carefully immersed in it so as to be 
 uniformly wetted, then dried out of the reach of 
 acid, ammoniacai, or other vapors likely to affect 
 it; and afterwards kept in bottles, jars, or cases. 
 Brazil Paper. 
 
 Dip paper in a strong decoction of Brazil wood, 
 and dry it. [It is rendered purple or violet by 
 alkalies ; generally yellow by acids.] 
 Cabbage Paper. 
 
 Make a strong infusion of red cabbage leaves, 
 strain it, and evaporate it by a gentle heat till 
 considerably reduced. Then dip the paper in it 
 and dry it in the air. [This paper is of a grayish 
 color; alkalies change it to green, acids to red. 
 It is a very delicate test; if rendered slightly 
 green by an alkali, carbonic acid will restore the 
 color.] 
 
 Dahlia Paper. 
 
 From the petals of violet-dahlias, as cabbage 
 paper. 
 
 Elderberry Paper. 
 
 This is merely paper stained with the juice of 
 the berries. Its blue color is changed to red by 
 acids, and to green by alkalies. 
 Indigo Paper. 
 
 Immerse paper in sulphate of indigo, wash it 
 with water rendered slightly alkaline, then with 
 pure water, and dry it in the air. 
 
 Iodide of Potassium and Starch Paper. 
 
 Mix starch paste with solution of iodide of 
 potassium, and moisten bibulous paper with it. 
 [It becomes blue when exposed to ozone. Chlorine 
 has tho same effect.] 
 
 Lead Paper. 
 
 Paper dipped in a solution of acetate of lead. 
 [When moistened it delects sulphuretted hydrogen, 
 which renders it black. 
 
 Slue Litmus Paper. 
 
 Bruise 1 oz. of litmus in a mortar, and add boil- 
 ing water ; triturate together, put them in a flask 
 and add boiling water to make up to half a pint; 
 when cool strain it, and dip paper in it. More 
 
 color may be extracted from the litmus by hot 
 water, but the liquid will require to be concen- 
 trated by evaporation. [Acids change the color 
 to red, but it does not become green with alkalies.] 
 
 Red Litmus Paper. 
 
 As the last, adding to the strained infusion ft 
 few drops of nitric ncid, or of pure acetic acid. 
 
 Rose Paper. 
 
 Make a strong infusion of the petals of the red 
 rose, and dip unsized paper in it. [Dipped in an 
 alkaline solution so weak as not to affect turmeric 
 paper, it assumes a bright green color.] 
 
 Manganese Paper. 
 
 Dip paper in a solution of sulphate of manga- 
 nese. [It becomes black in an ozonized atmos- 
 phere.] 
 
 Rhubarb Paper. 
 
 Dip paper in a strong infusion of rhubarb, and 
 dry it. [Alkalies render it brown. It is not, like 
 turmeric paper, affected by boracic acid.] 
 
 Starch Paper. 
 
 This is merely paper imbued with starch paste. 
 Cotton cord is sometimes used instead of paper. 
 [As a test for iodine, which turns it blue.] 
 
 Turmeric Paper. 
 
 Boil 1 oa. of coarsely powdered turmeric-root in 
 i a pint of water for an hour, and strain ; dip 
 paper in the liquid and dry it. [It is rendered 
 brown by alkalies, and also by boracic acid and 
 borates.] 
 
 SALINE CARBONATED WATERS. 
 
 The following afford approximate imitations of 
 these waters. The earthy salts, with salts of iron, 
 should be dissolved together in the smallest quan- 
 tity of water. The other ingredients to be dis- 
 solved in the larger portion of the water, and the 
 solution impregnated with gas. The first solution 
 may be then added, or be previously introduced 
 into the bottles. The salts, unless otherwise 
 stated, are to be crystallized. 
 
 Baden Water. 
 
 Chloride of magnesium, 2 grs. ; chloride of cal- 
 cium, 40 grs. ; se^quichloride of iron, i gr. (or 3 
 minims of the tincture); common salt, 30 grs. j 
 sulphate of soda, 10 grs.; carbonate of soda, 1 
 gr. ; water, 1 pt. ; carbonic acid gas, 5 volumes. 
 
 Carlsbad Water. 
 
 Chloride of calcium, 8 grs. ; tincture of chloride 
 of iron, 1 drop; sulphate of soda, 50 grs.; car- 
 bonate of soda, 8 grs. ; carbonated water, 1 pt. 
 
 Eger. 
 
 Carbonate of soda, 5 grs. ; sulphate of soda, 4 
 scruples ; chloride of sodium, 10 grs. ; sulphate 
 of magnesia, 3 grs.; chloride of calcium, 5 grs.; 
 carbonated water, 1 pt. Or it may be made with- 
 out the apparatus, thus : Bicarbonate of soda, 30 
 grs. ; chloride of sodium, 8 grs. ; sulphate of mag- 
 nesia, 3 grs. ; water, 1 pt. Dissolve, and add a 
 scruple of dry bisulphate of soda, and clese the 
 bottle immediately. 
 
 Ems. 
 
 Carbonate of soda, 2 scruples ; sulphate of pot- 
 ash, 1 gr. ; sulphate of magnesia, 5 grs.; common 
 salt, 10 grs. ; chloride of calcium, 3 grs. ; carbon- 
 ated water, 1 pt. 
 
 Pullna Water. 
 
 Sulphate of soda, 4 drs. ; sulphate of magnesia, 
 4 drs. ; chloride of lime, 15 grs. ; chloride of mag- 
 nesium (dry), 1 scruple; common salt, 1 scruple j 
 bicarbonate of soda, 10 grs. ; water slightly car- 
 
300 
 
 DISTILLATION. 
 
 bonated, 1 pt. One of the most active of the 
 purgative saline waters. 
 
 Pnllna Water, without the Machine. 
 Bicarbonate of soda, 50 grs. ; sulphate of mag- 
 nesia, 4 drs. ; sulphate of soda, 3 drs. ; common 
 salt,! scruple. Dissolve in a pint of water; add, 
 lastly, 2 scruples of bisulphate of soda, and close 
 the bottle immediately. 
 
 Salts for Making Pnllna Water. 
 Dry bicarbonate of soda, 1 oz. ; dried sulphate 
 of soda, 2 oz. ; dried sulphate of magnesia, 1 z- J 
 dry common salt, 2 drs. ; dry tartaric acid, f oz. 
 (or rather, dry bisulphate of soda, 1 oz.). 
 
 Seidlitz Water. 
 
 This is usually imitated by strongly aerating a 
 solution of 2 drs. of sulphate of magnesia in a 
 pint of water. It is also made with 4, 6, and 8 
 drs. of the salts to a pint of water. 
 
 Seidlitz Powder. 
 
 The common Seidlitz powders do not resemble 
 the water. A closer imitation would be made by 
 using effloresced sulphate of magnesia instead of 
 the potassio-tartrate of soda. A still more exact 
 compound will be the following: Effloresced sul- 
 phate of magnesia, 2 oz. ; bicarbonate of soda, 
 oz. ; dry bisulphate of soda, i oz. Mix and keep 
 in a close bottle. 
 
 Seltzer Water. 
 
 Chloride of calcium and chloride of magnesium, 
 of each 4 grs. Dissolve these in a small quantity 
 of water, and add it to a similar solution of 8 grs. 
 bicarbonate of soda, 20 grs. common salt, and 2 
 grs. of phosphate of soda. Mix, and add a solu- 
 tion of J of a gr. of sulphate of iron. Put the 
 mixed solution into a 20-oz. bottle, and fill up with 
 aerated water. But much of the Seltzer water 
 sold is said to be nothing more than simple car- 
 bonated water. An imitation of Seltzer water is 
 also made by putting into a stone Seltzer bottle, 
 filled with water, 2 drs. bicarbonate of soda, and 
 2 drs. of citrate acid in crystals, corking the bottle 
 immedately. Soda powders are sometimes sold as 
 Seltzer powders. 
 
 Vichy Water. 
 
 Bicarbonate of soda, I dr. ; common salt, 2 grs. ; 
 sulphate of soda, 8 grs. ; sulphate of magnesia, 3 
 grs. tincture of chloride of iron, 2 drops ; aerated 
 wattr, 1 pt. Dorvault directs 75 grs. of bicar- 
 bonate of soda, 4 grs. of chloride of sodium, one- 
 fifth of a gr. sulphate of iron, 10 grs. sulphate of 
 soda, 3 grs. sulphate of magnesia, to 1 pt. of water. 
 By adding 45 grs. (or less) of citric acid an effer- 
 vescing water is obtained. 
 
 M. Soubeiran, relying on the analysis of Long- 
 champs, imitates Vichy water by the following 
 combination: Bicarbonate of soda, 135 grs.; 
 chloride of sodium, 2 grs.; cryst. chloride of 
 calcium, 12 grs.; sulphate of soda, 1H grs.; sul- 
 phate of magnesia, 3| grs. ; tartrate of iron and 
 potash, | gr. ; water, 2 and one-tenth pts. (1 litre) ; 
 carbonic acid, 305 cubic inches (5 litres). Dissolve 
 the salts of soda and iron in part of the water, 
 dissolve and add the sulphate of magnesia, and 
 then the chloride of calcium in the remaining 
 water. Charge now with the carbonic acid gas 
 under pressure. 
 
 Vichy Salts. 
 
 Bicarbonate of soda, 1 oz. ; common salt, 15 
 grs. ; effloresced sulphate of soda, 1 dr. ; effloresced 
 Bulphate of magnesia, 1 scruple; dry tartarized 
 sulphate of iron, 1 gr. ; dry tartaric acid, 1 oz. (or 
 dry bisulphate of soda, 1 oz.). Mix the powders, 
 previously dried, and keep them in a close bottle. 
 
 SULPHURETTED WATERS. 
 
 Simple Sulphuretted Water. 
 Pass sulphuretted hydrogen into cold water 
 (previously deprived of air by boiling, and cooled 
 in a closed vessel), till it ceases to be absorbed. 
 
 A ix- la- Ch apelle Wa ter. 
 
 Bicarbonate of soda, 12 grs. ; common salt, 25 
 grs. ; chloride of calcium, 3 grs. ; sulphate of soda,, 
 8 grs. ; simple sulphuretted water, 2 oz. ; water 
 slightly carbonated, 17i oz. 
 
 Bareges Water. 
 
 Crystallized hydrosulphate of soda, crystallized 
 carbonate of soda, and common ssilt, of each 2i 
 grs.; water (freed from air), 1 pt. A stronger 
 solution for adding to baths is thus made : Crys- 
 tallized hydrosulphate of soda, crystallized car- 
 bonate of soda, and common salt, of each 2 oz. ; 
 water, 10 oz. Dissolve. To be added to a com- 
 mon bath at the time of using. 
 
 Naples Water. 
 
 Crystallized carbonate of soda, 15 grs.; fluid 
 magnesia, 1 oz. ; simple sulphuretted water, 2 oz.; 
 aerated water, 16 oz. Introduce the sulphuretted 
 water into the bottle last. 
 
 Harrowgate Wafer. 
 
 Common salt, 100 grs.; chloride of calcium, 10 
 grs. ; chloride of magnesium, 6 grs. ; bicarbonate 
 of soda, 2 grs. ; water, 18 oz. Dissolve, aiid add 
 simple sulphuretted water, 1 oz. 
 
 CHALYBEATE WATERS. 
 
 Sintple Chalybeate Waler. 
 
 Water freed from air by boiling, 1 pt. ; sulphate 
 of iron, ^ gr. 
 
 Aerated Chalybeate Water. 
 Sulphate of iron, 1 gr. ; carbonate of soda, 4 
 grs.; water deprived of air, and charged with 
 carbonic acid gas, 1 pt. Dr. Pereira recommends 
 10 grs. each of sulphate of iron and bicarbonate 
 of soda to be taken in a bottle of ordinary soda 
 water. This is equivalent to 4 grs. of carbonate 
 of iron. 
 
 Brighton Chalybeate. 
 
 Sulphate of iron, common salt, chloride of cal- 
 cium, of each 2 grs. ; carbonate of soda, 3 grs. ; 
 carbonated water, 1 pt. 
 
 Bussaiig, Forges, Provins f 
 
 And other similar waters, may be imitated by 
 dissolving from ^ to of a gr. of sulphate of iron, 
 2 or 3 gr. of carbonate of soda, 1 gr. of sulphate 
 of magnesia, and 1 of common salt, in a pint of 
 aerated water. 
 
 Mont d'Or Water. 
 
 Bicarbonate of soda, 70 grs. ; sulphate of iron, 
 gr. ; common salt, 12 grs.; sulphate of soda, Js 
 gr. ; chloride of calcium, 4 grs. ; chloride of mag- 
 nesium, 2 grs. ; aerated water, 1 pt. 
 
 Passy Water. 
 
 Sulphate of iron, 2 grs.; chloride of sodium, 3 
 grs.; carbonate of soda, 4 grs.; chloride of mag- 
 nesium, 2 grs. ; aerated water, 1 pt. 
 
 Pyrmont Water. 
 
 Sulphate of magnesia, 20 grs. ; chloride of mag- 
 nesium, 4 grs.; common salt, 2 grs.; bicarbonate 
 of soda, 16 grs. ; sulphate of iron, 2 grs. ; Carrara 
 water, 1 pt. 
 
 Portable Lemonade. 
 
 Take of tartaric acid, oz. ; loaf sugar, 3 oz. ; 
 essence of lemon, dr. Powder the tartaric acid 
 and the sugar very fine, in a marble or wedge- 
 wood mortar (observe never to use a meta! one), 
 
FIXED OILS, ETC. 
 
 301 
 
 mix them together, and pour the essence of lemon 
 upon them, by a few drops at a time, stirring the 
 mixture after each addition, till the fvhole is added ; 
 then mix them thoroughly, and divide it into 12 
 equal parts, wrapping each up separately in a piece 
 of white paper. When wanted for use, it is only 
 necessary to dissolve it in a tumbler of cold water, 
 a,nl fine lemonade will be obtained, containing the 
 flavor of the juice and peel of the lemon, and 
 ready sweetened. 
 
 FIXED OILS. 
 To make Oil of Sweet Almonds. 
 
 It is usually made from bitter almonds for 
 cheapness, or from old Jordan almonds, by heat, 
 the oil from which soon grows rank, while that 
 from fresh Barbary almonds, drawn cold, will keep 
 good for some time. The almonds are sometimes 
 blanched by dipping in boiling water, or by soak- 
 ing some hours in cold water, so as to part with 
 their skin easily; but are more usually ground to 
 a paste, which is put into canvas bags, and pressed 
 between iron plates in a screw press, or by means 
 of a wedge ; 1 cwt. of bitter almonds, unblanched, 
 produces 46 Ibs. of oil; the cake pays for pressing. 
 
 tfut Oil 
 
 Is obtained from the kernel of the hazelnut, and 
 is very fine. As it will keep better than that of 
 almonds, it has been proposed to be substituted 
 for that oil. It is drunk with tea in China, prob- 
 ably in lieu of cream, and is used by painters, as 
 a superior vehicle for their colors. 
 
 Oil of Mace 
 
 Is obtained from nutmegs by the press. It is 
 buttery, having the smell and color of mace, but 
 grows paler and harder by age; 2 Ibs. of nutmegs 
 in Europe will yield 6 oz. of this oil. 
 
 True Oil of Mace by Expression. 
 
 This oil is red, remains always liquid or soft, 
 has a strong smell of mace, subacid taste, and is 
 imported in jars or bottles, the lower part being 
 rather thicker than the top ; li Ibs. of mace will 
 yield in Europe 1 oz. troy of oil. 
 
 Olive, Salad, or Sweet Oil. 
 
 This is the most agreeable of all the oils ; it is 
 demulcent, emollient, gently laxative, and is also 
 used as an emetic with warm water; dose, 1 oz. 
 troy, or a large spoonful; also externally, when 
 warm, to the bites of serpents, and, when cold, to 
 tumors and dropsies. Rank oil is best for plas- 
 ters, but fresh oil makes the best hard soap. 
 
 Castor Oil 
 
 Is made by pressing the beans, cold or slightly 
 warmed. It may be rendered colorless and odor- 
 less by filtering through animal charcoal and mag- 
 nesia. It is soluble in strong alcohol, and is used 
 as the basis of many hair-oils. (See PERFUMERY.) 
 Oil of Croton. 
 
 This oil is extracted from Molucca grains, or 
 purging nuts. In its chemical qualities it agrees 
 with castor oil, but is considerably more active, as 
 a single drop, when the oil is genuine, is a power- 
 ful cathartic. 
 
 Rape Oil. 
 
 This is made from rape-seed. It dries slowly, 
 and makes but a softish soap, fit for ointments. The 
 mucilage it contains may be got rid of, in a great 
 measure, by adding ^ ounce of oil of vitriol to 2 
 pts. of the oil. 
 
 To Purify Rape Oil. 
 
 The following is a simple method of rendering 
 rape oil equal to spermaceti oil, for the purposes 
 of illumination : 
 
 Begin by washing the oil with spring-water; 
 which is effected by agitating the oil violently with 
 a sixth part of the water. This separates the par- 
 ticles of the oil, and mixes those of the water inti- 
 mately with them. After this operation it looks 
 like the yolk of eggs beat up. In less than 48 
 hours they separate completely, the oil swimming 
 at the top, the water, with all feculent and extra- 
 neous particles, subsiding to the bottom. This 
 may be very much improved, by substituting sea- 
 water in the place of fresh-water. 
 
 By the process of washing the oil does not lose 
 a hundredth part. The experiment can at all 
 times be made in a glass decanter, or in a churn, 
 with a cock at the bottom, the water to come up 
 very near to the cock, by which all the oil can be 
 drawn off, after it has deposited its impurities. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 To 100 parts of oil add 1 or 2 of concentrated 
 sulphuric acid, and mix the whole well by agita- 
 tion, when the oil will become turbid, and of a 
 blackish-green color. In about three-quarters of 
 an hour the coloring matter will begin to collect 
 in clots; the agitation should then be discontinued, 
 and clean water, twice the weight of the sulphuric 
 acid, be added. To mix the water with the oil 
 and acid, a further agitation of half an hour will 
 be requisite. The mass may, afterwards, be left 
 to clarify for 8 days, at the end of which time 3 
 separate fluids will be perceived in the vessel; the 
 upper is the clear oil, the next is the sulphuric acid N 
 and water, and the lowest a black mud or fecula. 
 Let the oil then be separated by a syphon from the 
 acid and water, and filtrated through cotton or 
 wool. It will be nearly without color, smell, or 
 taste, and will burn clearly and quietly to the last 
 drap. 
 
 To Purify Vegetable Oil. 
 
 To 100 Ibs. of oil add 25 oz. of alum, and mix, 
 dissolved in 9 Ibs. of boiling water. After stir- 
 ring it about half an hour, add 15 oz. of nitric 
 acid, still continuing to stir it. Let it stand 48 
 hours, when the fine oil will swim on the surface, 
 and then draw it off. Such oil is used all over the 
 Continent, and an equal quantity yields double 
 the light of whale and fish-oil, without its offen- 
 sive odor. 
 
 To make Pumpkin Oil. 
 
 From the seeds of the pumpkin, which are gcn- 
 eially thrown away, an abundance of an excellent 
 oil may be extracted. When peeled they yield 
 much more oil than an equal quantity of flax. 
 This oil burns well, gives a lively light, lasts 
 longer than other oils, and emits very little smoke. 
 It has been used on the Continent for frying fish, 
 etc. The cake remaining after the extraction of 
 the oil may be given to cattle, who eat it with 
 avidity. 
 
 Beech-nut Oil. 
 
 Beech-nuts are not only an excellent food for 
 pigs, but they are known to yield an oil, fit for com- 
 mon purposes, by the usual methods of extraction, 
 
 ANIMAL OILS AND FATS. 
 
 Hog's Lard. 
 
 This is obtained like the rest of the animal fats, 
 from the raw lard, by chopping it fine, or rather 
 rolling it out, to break the cells in which the fat 
 is lodged, and then melting the fat in a water- 
 bath, or other gentle heat, and straining it while 
 warm. Some boil them in water; but the fats 
 thus obtained are apt to grow rank much sooner 
 than when melted by themselves. 
 
 Neat's-foot, or Trotter Oil. 
 Obtained by boiling neat's-fcci t"ix>e, etc. in 
 
302 
 
 DISTILLATION. 
 
 water. It is a coarse animal oil, very emollient, 
 and much used to soften- leather. 
 
 To Purify Trotter Oil 
 
 Put 1 qt. of trotter oil into a vessel containing 
 1 qt. of rose-water, and set them' over a fire till 
 the oil melts and mixes with the rose-water. Stir 
 well with a spoon. When properly combined take 
 the vessel from the firo, and let it cool. Now take 
 off the oil with a spoon, and add rose-water as 
 1tfore. When the oil is again separated and 
 cleanser!, set it in a roo; pla,ce. The principal use 
 of trotter oil is for thj ranking of cold cream, in 
 which its qualities exceed those of every other oil. 
 
 To Prepare Oil from Yolks of Eggs. 
 
 Boil the eggs hard, and after separating the 
 whites break the yolks into 2 or 3 pieces, and ronst 
 them in a fryingpan till the oil begins to exude; 
 then press them with very great force. Fifty eggs 
 yield about 5 oz. of oil. Old eggs yield the greatest 
 quantity. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 Dilute the raw yolks with a large proportion of 
 water, and add spirit of wine to separate the albu- 
 men, when the oil will rise on the top after standing 
 some time, and thus may be separated by a funnel. 
 To Refine Spermaceti. 
 
 Spermaceti is usually brought home in casks, 
 and in some cases has so little oil mixed with it 
 as to obtain the denomination of head matter. It 
 is of the consistence of a stiff ointment, of a yel- 
 lowish color, and not tenacious. Besides the head 
 matter, there is also a quantity of sperm obtained 
 from the oil by filtration. Indeed, in all good 
 spermaceti lamp oil, which is not transparent, par- 
 ticles of the sperm may be seen floating. 
 
 Having the head-matter, or filtered sperm, in 
 order to purify it, first put it into hair-cloths, and 
 with an iron plate between ea,ch cloth to the num- 
 ber of half a dozen or more, submit it to the action 
 of an iron screw-press; and, as the oil does not 
 separate very readily, it will in general be neces- 
 sary to let the cakes of sperm he pressed three 
 different times. The third time the cakes will be- 
 come so dry that they may be broken in small 
 pieces with little trouble, and then put in a fur- 
 nace containing % water and cake. Let the fire 
 be raised sufficiently under the furnace to melt 
 the cake, which it will do before the water begins 
 to boil ; after which boil the whole together for 
 about i an hour, taking off during the boiling 
 what scum and other extraneous bodies rise to 
 the top; then let the whole be dipped out into a 
 tub or other coolers. After it is completely cold, 
 take off the cake of spermaceti, which will be on 
 the top of the water, and cut it into pieces. Sup- 
 pose, for example, that the cake weighs 1 cwt., it 
 will be necessary to have a furnace, of rather a 
 movable kettle, where the light is thrown in such 
 a way that the process can be observed. Having 
 taken 1 cwt. of the unrefined spermaceti prepared 
 as above, melt it together with about 3 galls, of 
 water. As soon as it begins to boil, add from time 
 to time small portions of the following liquor, say 
 i pint at a time: Take of the alkaline salt, or 
 potash, 7 Ibs.; pour on it 2 galls, of water; let 
 them stand together 24 hours, and from the top 
 dip off the lye as wanted, adding more water 
 occasionally, till the alkali is exhausted. After 
 boiling the spermaceti for about 4 hours, having 
 during the process taken off the scum as it arose, 
 let the kettle be removed from the fire; and after 
 remaining about i hour, dip off the spermaceti 
 into suitable coolers. This process must in gen- 
 eral be repeated 3 times. The third time, if the 
 processes have been properly conducted, the sper- 
 
 maceti will be as clear as crystal ; and then, after 
 it is cool, the only thing necessary to make it fit 
 for sale, is to cut it into moderately small pieces, 
 when it will break into that flakey appearance 
 which it has in the shops. 
 
 To Sweeten, Purify, and Refine Greenland Whale 
 and Seal Oil. 
 
 The oil, in its raw state, is filtered through bagg 
 about 41 inches long, with circular mouths ex- 
 tended by a wooden hoop about 15 inches in di- 
 ameter, fixed thereto. These bags are made of 
 jean lined with flannel, between which jean and 
 flannel powdered charcoal is placed, throughout, 
 to a regular thickness of about inch, for the 
 purpose of retaining the glutinous particles of the 
 oil and straining it from impurities : and the bags 
 are quilted, to prevent the charcoal from becoming 
 thicker in one part than another, and to keep tho 
 linings more compact. The oil is pumped into a 
 large funnel made of tin, annexed to the pump 
 through a perpendicular pipe, and passed from 
 the funnel into another pipe placed over the bags 
 horizontally, from whence it is introduced into 
 them by cocks. The oil runs from the filtering- 
 bags into a cistern about 8 feet long by 4 feet 
 broad, and 4J deep, made of wood and lined'with 
 lead, and containing water at the bottom about 
 the depth of 5 or 6 inches, in which are dissolved 
 about 6 oz. of blue vitriol, for the purpose of draw- 
 ing down the glutinous and offensive particles of 
 the oil which have escaped through the charcoal; 
 and thereby rendering it clean and free from the 
 unpleasant smell attendant upon the oil in the raw 
 state; and in order to enable the oil thus to run 
 from the bags, they are hung in a frame or rack 
 made like a ladder, with the spokes or rails at 
 sufficient distances to receive the hoop of the bag 
 between two; and such frame or rack is placed in 
 a horizontal position over the cistern. The oil ia 
 suffered to run into the cistern until it stands to 
 the depth of about 2 feet in the water, and there 
 to remain for 3 or 4 days, (according to Lne quality 
 of the oil), and is then drawn off by a cock which 
 is fixed in the cistern a little above the water, into 
 a tub or other vessel, when it will be found to be 
 considerably purified and refined; and the oil, after 
 having undergone this operation, may be rendered 
 still more pure by passing a second or third time 
 through similar bags and cisterns. But the oil, 
 after such second and third process, is drawn off 
 into, and filtered through additional bags made 
 of jean lined with flannel, inclosed in other bags 
 made of jean, doubled, when the process is com- 
 plete. 
 
 Clarifying Coal- Oils. 
 
 In a close vessel are placed 100 Ibs. of crude 
 coal-oil, 25 qts. of water, 1 Ib. of chloride of lime, 
 1 Ib. of soda, and $ Ib. of oxide of manganese. 
 The mixture is violently agitated, and allowed to 
 rest for 24 hours, when the clear oil is decanted 
 and distilled. The 100 Ibs. of coal-oil are to be 
 mixed with 25 Ibs. of resin-oil; this is one of the 
 principal points in the manipulation; it removes 
 the gummy parts from the oil, and renders them 
 inodorous. The distillation spoken of may termi- 
 nate the process, or the oils may be distilled before 
 they are defecated and precipitated. 
 
 To Bleach and Purify Fixed Oils. 
 
 Fish and other fat oils are improved in smell 
 and color by passing hot air or steam through 
 them. Dunn's method is to heat the oil by steam 
 to 170 or 200, and force a current of air through 
 it, under a chimney, till it is bleached and puri- 
 fied. Mr. Cameron's method of bleaching palm 
 oil is to keep it at 230, with continual agitation, 
 by passing into it high pressure steam through 
 
PERFUMERY. 
 
 303 
 
 leaden pipes of 2 inches diameter. Pour tons of 
 oil require 10 hours' straining. Palm oil is also 
 bleached by chloride of lime. Take from 7 to 14 
 Ibs. of chloride of lime, triturate in a mortar, add- 
 ing gradually 12 times the quantity of water, so 
 as to form a smooth cream. Liquefy 112 Ibs. of 
 palm oil, remove it from the fire, add the solution 
 of chloride of lime, and stir well with a wooden 
 stirrer. Allow it to cool, and when become solid, 
 break it into small fragments, and expose it to the 
 air for 2 or 3 weeks, then put into a cast-iron 
 boiler lined with lead, diluted with 20 parts of 
 water. Boil with a moderate heat till the oil drops 
 clear from the stirrer; then let it cool. To remove 
 the foetor from fish oils, treat them in the same 
 way (except the exposing to the air), using only 1 
 Ib. of chloride of lime to 112 Ibs. of oil. It does 
 not remove the natural smell of the oil. 
 
 Calcined magnesia has been used to deprive oils 
 of their rancidity. 
 
 Mr. Griseler finds that the addition of a few 
 drops of nitric ether will prevent oils from becom- 
 ing rancid. 
 
 Mr. Watt's patented method of bleaching oil is 
 by chromic acid. For palm oil it is thus used: 
 The oil is heated in a steam vessel, allowed to set- 
 tle and cool down to 130 Fahr., then removed 
 into wooden vessels, taking care that no water or 
 sediment accompany it. For a ton of palm oil, 
 make a saturated solution of 25 Ibs. of bichromate 
 of potash ; add 8 Ibs. of sulphuric acid, and 50 Ibs. 
 of muriatic acid (or an equivalent quantity of salt 
 and sulphuric acid). Put the mixture into the 
 oil, and let it be constantly stirred till it becomes 
 of a light-green color. If not sufficiently decolored, 
 add more of the mixture. Let the oil settle for 
 half an hour, then pump it into a wooden vat, 
 boil it for a few minutes with fre-sh water, by 
 means of a steam pipe, and let it settle. For lin- 
 seed, rape, and mustard oils a dilute solution of 
 chromic acid is used, with a little muriatic acid ; 
 for olive, almond, and castor oils no muriatic acid 
 is required. Fish oils and fats are first boiled in 
 a steam-apparatus with a weak soda lye ( Ib. of 
 soda for every ton of fat) for half an hour ; then J Ib. 
 of sulphuric acid, diluted with 3 Ibs. of water, is 
 added; the whole boiled for 15 minutes, and al- 
 lowed to settle for an hour or more, when the water 
 and sediment are drawn off, and the oil further 
 bleached by a solution of 4 Ibs. of bichromate of 
 potash and 2 Ibs. of sulphuric acid, properly 
 diluted. 
 
 Mr. Davidson treats whale oil first with a solu- 
 tion of tan, next with water and chloride of lime, 
 and lastly with diluted sulphuric acid and warm 
 water. Rape and other seed oils are also refined 
 by means of sulphuric acid and twice as much 
 water. Mr. Gray directs 2 Ibs. of oil of vitriol to 
 112 Ibs. of oil. The oil should be carefully washed 
 from the acid and filtered. 
 
 Mr. Bancroft's process for refining common olive 
 oil, lard oil, etc., for lubricating purposes, is to 
 agitate them with from 3 to 8 per cent, of caustio 
 soda lye, of 1-2 specific gravity. If, on trial of a 
 small quantity, the lye be found to settle clear at 
 the bottom, enotUgh has been added. The oil ia 
 allowed to rest for twenty-four houis, fo. the 
 soapy matter to subside ; the supernatant oil ia 
 then filtered. 
 
 Another plan of purifying oils (especially lamp 
 oils) is to agitate them with a strong solution of 
 common salt. 
 
 Purification of Castor Oil. 
 
 Mix 1000 parts of the oil with 25 parts of animal 
 charcoal, and 10 parts of calcined magnesia, and 
 leave them together for 3 days at a temperature 
 of 68 to 78 Fahr., often stirring or shaking the 
 mixture. The oil is then filtered off, and is found 
 to be limpid, colorless, without taste, and easily 
 soluble in alcohol. It congeals, too, at a lower 
 temperature than before, and is in that respect 
 superior to the ordinary oil. 
 
 Oil of Brick, 
 
 Used by lapidaries, is made by saturating frag- 
 ments of brick with oil and distilling at a red 
 heat. 
 
 Watchmaker's Oil. 
 
 1. Expose the finest porpoise oil to the lowest 
 natural temperature attainable. It will separate 
 into two portions, a thick, solid mass at the bot- 
 tom, and a thin, oily supernatant liquid. This ia 
 to be poured off while at the low temperature 
 named, and is then fit for use. 
 
 2. Put into a matrass or glass flask, a portion of 
 any fine oil, with 7 or 3 times its weight of alco- 
 hol, and heat the mixture almost to boiling, de- 
 cant the clear upper stratum of fluid, and suffer it 
 to cool ; a solid portion of fatty matter separates, 
 which is to be removed, and then the alcoholic 
 solution evaporated in a retort or basin, until re- 
 duced to one-fifth of its bulk. The fluid part of 
 the oil will be deposited. It should be colorless 
 and tasteless, almost free from smell, without ac- 
 tion on infusion of litmus, having the consistence 
 of white olive oil, and not easily congealable. 
 
 3. Take a white glass bottle of pure olive or al- 
 mond oil, put into it a coiled strip of lead, and ex- 
 pose it to the sun's rays until a white curdy mat- 
 ter ceases to be deposited. 
 
 To Prevent Fats and Oils from becoming Rancid. 
 Heat the oil or melted fat for a few minutes 
 with powdered slippery-elm bark, in the propor- 
 tion of 1 dr. of the powder to 1 Ib. of fat. The 
 bark shrinks and gradually subsides, after which 
 the fat is poured off. It communicates an odor 
 like that of the hickory-nut. Butter thus treated 
 has been kept unchanged for a year. 
 
 PERFUMERY. 
 
 Materials used. 
 
 The flowers, roots, and woods employed in per- 
 fumery are nearly all grown abroad, and even 
 when raised in the United States are seldom used 
 for perfumery. 
 
 Essential or volatile oils (p. 289) are obtained by 
 distillation. In the case of delicate perfumes the 
 flowers are macerated in warm oil or cold lard 
 (etifleuraye). From this grease the oil may be ex- 
 
 tracted by alcohol. Sometimes the flowers or other 
 odorous bodies are macerated in alcohol. 
 
 Essences are solutions of volatile oils in alcohol. 
 The term tincture is sometimes used to express 
 the same idea. 
 
 The dried flowers and rasped woods or roots are 
 used in the manufacture of sachets. 
 
 The following substances are obtained from the 
 animal kingdom : 
 
304 
 
 PERFUMERY. 
 
 Music, a secretion of the Musk deer 
 
 is). which inhabits Eastern Asia, There 
 are three varieties. The Tonquin or Chinese is 
 fhe finer, but is apt to be adulterated. 
 
 Civet, a secretion of the Civet cat ( Viverra ci- 
 veta), and ^ 
 
 Castor, from the beaver (Castor fiber), are used 
 in small quantities. 
 
 The Evteitce of Mirbane and flavoring ethers 
 are obtained by the chemist. 
 
 Lard, suet, and the fixed oils are used as vehi- 
 cles. 
 
 Alcohol employed in perfumery should be free 
 from all smell of fusel or other oils. Atwood's (pa- 
 tent) alcohol is generally preferred. It is deodor- 
 ized by distillation over permanganate of potassa. 
 
 Deodorizing Alcohol. 
 
 1. Spirit of wine, brandy, or alcohol distilled 
 over soap lose their empyreumatic odors and tastes 
 entirely. At about 215 the soap retains neither 
 alcohol nor wood- spirit. 
 
 2. The empyreumatic oil, which remains in com- 
 bination with the soap which forms the residuum 
 of the distillation, is carried off at a higher tem- 
 
 Serature by the vapor of water, which is formed 
 uring a second distillation, the product of which 
 is a soap free from empyreuma, and fit to be used 
 again for similar purposes. 
 
 3. The concentration of the alcohol increases in 
 this operation more than when soap is not em- 
 ployed, because this compound retains the water, 
 and the alcoholic vapors which pass over are 
 richer. 
 
 4. Thirty-three Ibs. of soap is enough for 100 
 galls, of empyreumatic brandy, and direct experi- 
 ments have shown that under the most favorable 
 circumstances the soap can retain 20 per cent, of 
 empyreumatic oil. 
 
 5. The soap employed should contain no po- 
 tassa; it must be a hard or soda soap, and ought 
 to be completely free from any excess of fat acids 
 or fluids, otherwise it may render the product 
 rancid and impure. Common soap, made with 
 oleine and soda by the manufacture of stearine 
 candles, has satisfied all the conditions in practice. 
 
 If this soap is employed, it will be better to add 
 a little soda during the first distillation. 
 
 The hard soda-soaps, as exempt as possible 
 from fluid fat- acids, remove completely the empy- 
 reumatic odor. 
 
 J. Maria Farina Cologne. 
 
 Benzoin dissolved in alcohol, 4 oz. ; essence of 
 lavender, 8 oz. ; essence of rosemary, 4 oz. ; alco- 
 hol at 75, 325'qts. To this solution add succes- 
 sively neroli, 21 oz. ; petit grain, 21 oz.; cedrat, 
 21 oz. ; Portugal, 2 Ibs. ; lemon, 2 Ibs. ; alco- 
 holic extract of geranium, 2 Ibs. Shake several 
 times ; leave 14 days, and bottle. 
 Fine Cologne Water. 
 
 Take alcohol at 85, 10 qts. ; dissolve in it es- 
 sence of neroli petit grain, i oz. ; essence of rose- 
 mary, 2^ drs. ; essence of lavender, li drs. ; es- 
 sence of clove, dr.; essence of peppermint, 
 dr.; essence of bergamot, 12i drs.; lemon 12 
 drs.; essence of Portugal, 7i drs.; tincture of 
 benzoin, 1J drs. 
 
 Ordinary Cologne. 
 
 Take alcohol at 85, 10 qts.; essence of neroli, 
 li drs.; essence of rosemary, 10 drs.; essence of 
 lavender, 5 drs, ; essence of thyme and clove, each 
 dr. : essence of lemon, 2 oz. ; essence of pep- 
 permint, i dr.; tincture of benzoin, 1J drs.; rose- 
 water, 2 Ibs. 
 
 Cheap Cologne. 
 
 Take alcohol at 85, 10 qts. ; essence of lemon, 
 
 5 oz.; essence of cedrat, 12 drs.; essence of her- 
 gamot, 4 oz. ; essence of lavender, 1 oz. ; tincture 
 of benzoin, 1 oz. 
 
 Recipes for Cologne Water, from Redwood Gray'* 
 Supplement. 
 
 1. 051 of neroli, 2 drs. ; oil of orange-peel, ^ oz. j 
 oil of citron, 1 dr. ; oil of bergamot, 2 drs. ; oil of 
 lavender, oil of rosemary, each i dr. ; oil of cin- 
 namon, 1 scruple; cardamoms, powdered, balsam 
 Peru, each 2 drs. ; rectified spirits, 7 Ibs. Macer- 
 ate 10 days; then distill 6 pounds with a gentle 
 heat. 
 
 2. Oil of bergamot, 3 oz. ; oil of lemon, 2 oz. ; 
 oil of lavender, 3 drs. ; oil of neroli, 2 drs. ; oil 
 of origanum, 2 drs.; oil of rosemary, 1 dr.: es- 
 sence of vanilla, 2 drs.; musk, 10 grs. ; rectified 
 spirits, 13 pts. ; rose-water, 1 qt. ; orange-flower 
 water, 1 pt. Mix the oils ; dissolve them in 10 pts. 
 of the spirits ; then add the musk, and finally the 
 waters, previously mixed with the remainder of 
 the spirits, and, after standing 2 weeks, filter. 
 
 Florida Water. 
 
 Alcohol at 90, 50 qts. ; essence of lemon and 
 Portugal, each 4 oz. ; essence of lavender and 
 clove, each 8 oz. ; canella, i oz. ; water, 20 qts. 
 Hungary Water. 
 
 Rectified alcohol, 1 gall.; oil of English rose- 
 mary, 2 oz. ; oil of lemon-peel, 1 oz. ; oil of balm 
 (melissa) 1 oz. ; oil of mint, dr.; esprit de rose, 
 1 pt. ; extract de fleur d'orange, 1 pt. 
 Extract of Verbena. 
 
 Rectified spirits, 1 pt. ; oil of lemon-grass, 3 
 drs.; oil of lemon-peel, 2 oz. ; oil of orange-peel, 
 i oz. After standing together for a few hours, 
 and then filtering, it is fit for sale. Another mix- 
 ture of this kind, presumed by the public to be 
 made from the same plant, but of a finer quality, 
 is composed thus ; it is sold under the title of 
 Extrait de Verveine. 
 
 Rectified spirits, 1 pt. ; oil of orango-peel, 1 oz.; 
 oil of lemon-peel, 2 oz.; oil of citron, 1 dr.; oil 
 of lemon-grass, 2 drs. ; extrait de fleur d'orange, 
 7 oz. ; extrait de tubereuse, 7 oz. : esprit de rose, 
 ipt. 
 
 Imitation Essence of Wallflower. 
 
 Extrait fleur d'orange, 1 pt. ; extract of vanilla, 
 \ pt. ; esprit de rose, I pt. ; extract of orris, \ pt. ; 
 extract of cassia, \ pt. ; essential oil of almonds, 
 J dr. Allow this mixture to be made for 2 or 3 
 weeks prior to putting it up for sale. 
 Imitation Essence of Violet. 
 
 Extract of cassia, 1 pt. ; extract of rose, tinc- 
 ture of orris, extract of tuberose, each pint. 
 Fleur d'ltalie, or Italian Nosegay. 
 
 Esprit de rose, from pomade, 2 pts. ; esprit de 
 rose, triple, 1 pt. ; esprit de jasmin, esprit de vio- 
 lette, from pomade, each 1 pt. ; extract of cassia, 
 
 1 pt. ; extract of musk, extract of ambergris, each 
 
 2 oz. 
 
 Jockey Club Bouquet (English formula). 
 
 Extract of orris-root, 2 pts.; esprit de rose, 
 triple, 1 pt. ; esprit de rose de pomade, 1 pt. ; ex- 
 trait de cassia, extrait de tubereuse, de pomade, 
 each i pt. ; extrait de ambergris, pt.; otto of 
 bergamot, i oz. 
 
 Jockey Club Bouquet (French formula). 
 
 Esprit de rose, de pomade, 1 pt. ; esprit de tu- 
 bereuse, de pomade, I pt ; esprit de cassia, de 
 pomade, i pt. ; esprit de jasmin, de pomade, i 
 pt.; extract of civet, de pomade, 3 oz. 
 
 Kew Garden Nosegay. 
 Esprit de neroli (Petale), 1 pt. ; esprit de ca* 
 
PERFUMERY. 
 
 805 
 
 rfe. esprit de tubereuse, esprit de jasmin, from 
 pomade, each i pt. ; esprit de geranium, pt.; 
 esprit de uiusk, esprit de ambergris, each, 3 oz. 
 Eau de Millefleure. 
 
 Esprit de rose, triple, 1 pt. ; esprit de rose, es- 
 prit de tubereuse, esprit de jasmin, esprit de fleur 
 d'orange, esprit de cassie, esprit de violette, esprit 
 de reseda (mignonette), from pomade, each i pt. ; 
 esprit de vanilla, esprit de ambergris, esprit de 
 musk, each 2 oz. ; otto of almonds, otto of neroli, 
 otto of cloves, each 10 drops; otto of bergamot, 
 1 oz. These ingredients are to remain together 
 for at least a fortnight, then filtered prior to sale. 
 Essence of Rondeletia. 
 
 Spirits (brandy 60 o. p.), 1 gall. ; otto of laven- 
 der, 2 oz. ; otto of cloves, 1 oz. ; otto of rose, 3 
 drs. ; otto of bergamot, 1 oz. ; extract of musk, 
 extract of vanilla, extract of ambergris, each j 
 pt. The mixture must be made at least a month 
 before it is fit for sale. Very excellent rondeletia 
 may also be made with whiskey. 
 Bouquet Roy ale. 
 
 Extract of rose (from pomade), 1 pt.; esprit de 
 rose (triple), i pt. ; extract of jasmin, extract of 
 violet (from pomade), each pt. ; extract of ver- 
 bena, extract of cassia, each 2 oz. ; otto of lemons, 
 otto of bergamot, each oz. ; extract of inusk, ex- 
 tract of ambergris, each 1 oz. 
 Suave. 
 
 Extract of tuberose, extract of jasmin, extract 
 of cassia, extract of rose (from pomade), each 1 
 pt. ; extract of vanilla, 5 oz. ; extract of musk, 
 extract of ambergris, each 2 oz.j otto of berga- 
 mot, otto of cloves, each 1 dr. 
 
 Spring Flowers. 
 
 Extract of rose, extract of violet (from pomade), 
 each 1 pt.; extract of rose (triple), 2i oz. ; extract 
 of cassia, 2 oz. ; otto of bergamot, 2 drs. ; extract 
 of ambergris, 1 oz. 
 
 Bouquet de Caroline, also called Bouquet des 
 Delices. 
 
 Extrait de rose, extrait de violette, extrait de 
 tubereuse (from pomade), each 1 pt. ; extract of 
 orris, extract of ambergris, each % pt. ; otto of 
 bergamot, otto of Limette, otto of cedrat, each 
 i oz. 
 
 Esterhazy Bouquet 
 
 Extrait de fleur d'orange (from pomade), 1 pt. ; 
 esprit de rose (triple), 1 pt. ; extract of vitivert, 
 extract of vanilla, extract of orris, extract of ton- 
 
 quin, each 1 pt. ; esprit de neroli, 1 pt. ; extract 
 of ambergris, pt. ; otto of santal, dr. ; otto of 
 cloves, i dr. 
 
 Essence of Bouquet. 
 
 Esprit de rose (triple), 1 pt. ; extract of vanilla, 
 2 oz. ; extract of orris, 8 oz. ; otto of lemons, | 
 OJB. ; otto of bergamot, 1 oz. 
 
 American Shampoo Liquor. 
 
 Rum, 3 qts. ; spirit of wine, 1 pt. ; water, 1 pt. ; 
 tincture of cantharides, i oz. ; carbonate of am- 
 monia, ^ oz. ; salt of tartar, 3 oz. Rub it on, and 
 afterwards wash with water. By omitting the salt 
 of tartar it nearly resembles Balm of Columbia. 
 Glycerine and Cantharides Lotion. 
 
 Rosemary water, 1 gall. ; spirits of sal volatile, 
 1 oz. ; tincture of cantharides, 2 oz. ; glycerine, 4 
 oz. To be used with a sponge or soft brush twice 
 a day when the hair is falling off. 
 Dupuytren's Pomade. 
 
 Tincture of cantharides (1 part flies to 8 of 
 proof spirit), purified beef marrow, each 1 o-z. : 
 eugar of lead, 1 dr.; balsam of Peru, 3 drs. ; oils 
 of cloves and canella, each 15 drops. Used to 
 prevent baldness, and restore the hair. 
 
 Eau Lustrale. 
 
 Castor oil (deodorized), 2 Ibs. ; strongest alco- 
 hol (deodorized), 2 Ibs. ; cantharides, in powder, 
 
 1 oz. ; oil of bergamot, 2$ oz. ; otto of roses, 20 
 drops. Mix ; let them stand a few days, and fil- 
 ter. To soften the hair, and prevent baldness. 
 
 Honey-water for the Hair. 
 
 Honey, 4 Ibs. ; very dry sand, 5 Ibs. Mix and 
 put into a vessel that will hold 5 times as much j 
 distill with a gentle heat a yellowish acid water. 
 Vegetable Hair Wash. 
 
 Southernwood 2 oz. ; box-leaves, 6 oz. ; water, 
 4 pts. Boil gently for J of an hour; strain, and 
 to each pint of the liquid add 2 oz. spirit of rose- 
 mary, and i dr. of salt of tartar, or 1 dr. of Naples 
 soap. 
 
 Borax Hair Wash. 
 
 Borax, 1 oz. ; camphor, oz. ; boiling water, 1 
 qt. When cold filter for use. 
 
 Excellent Hair Wash. 
 
 Sufficient liquid ammonia added to a pint of 
 water to make the whole pungent. Be careful 
 not to have it too strong. Afterwards wash with 
 clean water. 
 
 To Cleanse Long Hair. 
 
 Beat up the yolk of an egg with a pint of soft- 
 water. Apply it warm, and afterwards wash it 
 out with warm water. 
 
 Bandoline 
 
 Is usually made by infusing quince-seeds. It may 
 also be made by boiling a tablespoonful of un- 
 bruised flaxseed in a pint of water for 5 minutes, 
 and straining. It is sometimes made by dissolv- 
 ing gum arabic or gum tragacanth in water. About 
 4 oz. gum arabic or 1 oz. gum tragacanth to the 
 pint. 
 
 Twiggs's Hair-Dye. 
 
 Sugar of lead, 1 dr. ; milk of sulphur, 2 drs. ; 
 rose-water, 4 fl. oz. ; glycerine, 1 fl. oz. Mix. 
 This is the general composition of the various 
 popular hair-dyes and restoratives, which contain 
 a yellowish sediment and are not oily. 
 Silver Hair-Dye. 
 
 Nitrate of silver, 1 oz. ; water, 9 oz., in bluo 
 bottle; sulphuret of potassium (fresh), 1 oz;j 
 water, 8 oz., in white bottle. Moisten the hair first 
 with the latter solution, and when dry add the 
 silver solution. 
 
 Another. Owing to the unpleasant smell of the 
 mordant (white bottle) in the foregoing, a substi- 
 tute is made by pouring boiling water, i pt., upon 
 3 oz. of bruised galls. When cold strain and bot- 
 tle. For the blue bottle add to the solution, as 
 above, ammonia, until the precipitate formed is 
 redissolved. 
 
 Brown Dye. 
 
 To a saturated solution of sulphate of copper 
 (blue vitriol), add ammonia until the precipitate 
 which falls is redissolved. For a mordant, to be 
 first applied, as above, use a saturated solution of 
 ferrocyanide of potassium. 
 
 Orfila's Hair-Dye. 
 
 Take 3 parts of litharge and 2 of quicklime, 
 mix thoroughly ; keep in a well stopped bottle. 
 When used mix with water or milk, apply to the 
 hair, and envelope in an oil-skin cap for 5 or 6 
 hours. 
 
 To remove Superfluous Hair. 
 
 Take of quicklime, 16 parts ; pearlash, 2 parts j 
 liver of sulphur, 2 parts. Mix thoroughly, and 
 keep in a tight bottle. When used mix to the con- 
 sistence of a paste, and after it has remained on 
 
 2 or 3 minutes remove with a wooden knife. 
 Another. The following is more efficient, but 
 
 must be used with care as it contains arsenic. 
 
806 
 
 PERFUMERY. 
 
 Take of freshly slaked lime, 6 oz. ; orpiment, $ 
 oz. Mix thoroughly, and keep in well closed 
 bottles. When used apply as a paste with water 
 until it begins to burn the skin, and shave off with 
 an ordinary paper-knife. The time required will 
 rary with different hair. Black hair takes longer 
 than fair. All of the depilatories sold are founded 
 upon the two foregoing receipts. 
 Toilet Powders 
 
 Are made of starch variously scented. Many of 
 the powders and lotions sold contain bismuth, 
 which will sometimes blacken. 
 Violet Powder. 
 
 Wheat starch, 12 Ibs. ; powdered orris-root, 2J 
 Ibs. ; oil of lemon, i oz. ; oil of bergamot, i oz.; oil 
 of cloves, 2 dr. Mix. 
 
 Bloom of Roues. 
 
 Dissolve J oz. of cinnamon in oz. of strong 
 ammonia; after 2 days add 1 pt. rose-water, and 
 i oz. Esprit de Rose (triple). Mix and set aside 
 for a week. Then pour off the liquid from any 
 ediment that may be present. 
 
 Pomade d la Rose. 
 
 Take white grease, 1 Ib. ; nut-oil, 3J oz. ; sper- 
 maceti, or white wax, 1J oz. Melt together and 
 add the oil. Pass the warm mixture through a 
 clean cloth, and then stir it in a mortar till cold. 
 If the pomade must be white, add no coloring 
 matter; but if colored introduce the proper mate- 
 terial. For red, soak i'dr. of powdered alkanet 
 in the oil previously warmed. For yellow, add i 
 or i dr. of annotto to the mixture of grease, when 
 melted. Pass through a clean cloth, and perfume 
 with essence of geranium, 1J dr. ; essence of rose, 
 J dr.; essence of canella, 1-16 d-r. Introduce the 
 essences into the grease half fluid. 
 Economical Pomade. 
 
 Take white grease, 2 Ibs.; essence of bergamot 
 or lemon, 1 dr.; essence of cloves, 1 dr. Color 
 with alkanet or carmine lake. 
 
 Pomade of Sitter Almond*. 
 
 Take pure white grease, 2 Ibs.; natural essence 
 of bitter almonds, 1$ dr.; essence of lemon, cedrat, 
 ox Portugal, li dr. 
 
 Pomade Canadienne. 
 
 Melt over a water bath, 4 Ibs. of bear's grease, 
 and infuse 8 Ibs. of rose leaves, as directed for the 
 Pomade a la Rose. Then strain, and perfume 
 with essence of mint, oz. : essence of rose, 1 oz. ; 
 essence of vanilla, a few drops. Color rose with 
 a little carmine. 
 
 Pomade Divine. 
 
 Beef marrow, 3 Ibs. ; put it into an earthen ves- 
 ael and cover it with cold water, and change the 
 water daily for a few days, using rose-water the 
 last day. Pour off and press out the water ; add 
 to the marrow 4 oz. each of the styrax, benzoin, 
 and Chio turpentine; 1 oz. orris powder; % oz. 
 each of powdered cinnamon, cloves, and nutmeg. 
 Set the vessel in hot water, and keep the water 
 boiling for 3 hours ; then strain. 
 Stick Pomatum. 
 
 This pomade is generally composed of mutton 
 suets, but is sometimes made of hard body, to 
 which is added, in summer, 1 oz. of wax for every 
 pound of body. Lard body can also be used, but 
 the proportion of wax must be increased. In this 
 preparation always melt the least fusible body 
 first. In moulding care must be taken not to run 
 the pomade while too hot, as cavities will occur 
 In the centre, rendering the sticks liable to break. 
 
 To perfume the usual odors are, for 1 Ib. of 
 pomade, essence of bergamot, lavender, thyme, 
 orange peel, of each 1 dr. Color with annotto or 
 affron. 
 
 Another method of preparing this pomade, also 
 called cosmetic, is by melting 2 parts of tallow 
 and 1 part of wax, in pheet-iron moulds, the size 
 desired for the stick, the mass having been per- 
 fumed and colored. 
 
 Philicomes and Cosmetics. 
 
 Philicomes and cosmetics are composed in 
 winter, of equal parts of lard and eurthnut oil, 
 and in summer, of 2 parts of grease and 1 part oil. 
 The greases are melted over a water-bath, and 
 passed through a cloth. When the products be- 
 gin to solidify the oils are added, and tlie mass is 
 then run into jars or bottles. For the fine phili- 
 comes, the pommades a la rose, orange-flower, au 
 bouquet, geranium, a la tubereuse, etc., arc sub- 
 stituted for the lard. 
 
 Beef Marrow Philicome. 
 
 Take fat, 10 Ibs. ; pom made a la rose, aux mille- 
 fleurs, 1 Ib. ; oil of cassia, 2 Ibs.; oil of jasmine, 2 
 Ibs. ; spirit of roses 1 oz. ; bergamot, 5 drs. ; spirit 
 of petit-grain, 2^ drs.; spirit of geranium, 2 
 drs. ; spirit of wintergreen, 4 drs.; infusion of cin- 
 chona, 5 drs.; pure rum, 10 drs. ; essence of rosea, 
 
 5 drops. 
 
 Macassar Oil. 
 
 Take oil of benzoin, 8 qts. ; oil of noisette, 4 qts. ; 
 alcohol, 1 qt. ; essence bergamot, 3 oz.; spirit of 
 musk, 3 oz. ; spirit of Portugal, 2 oz. ; essence of 
 roses, 2 drs. Mix, and keep the whole over a 
 water-bath for 1 hour. Then digest for a week, 
 stirring several times daily. Color with alkanet. 
 
 Amandine. 
 Mix in a mortar gum arabic, 2 oz. ; white honey, 
 
 6 oz. Reduce to a thick mass and add 3 oz. of 
 neutral white soap. This being gradually incorpo- 
 rated, add 2 oz. of fresh cold-pressed oil of sweet 
 almonds, and finally, the yolks of 5 eggs. 
 
 The paste has a firm consistence, and is reduced 
 by a thick milk of pistachio, made of fresh peeled 
 pistach nuts, 4 oz. ; distilled rose-water, 4 oz. 
 Aromatize with dr. of bitter almonds for 1 Ib. 
 of paste. A small portion, with a little warm 
 water, produces a white lather of agreeable odor. 
 This composition is used to whiten and soften the 
 skin. 
 
 Cold Cream, No. 1. 
 
 Take of spermaceti and white wax, each 5 drs.; 
 almond oil, 10 oz. Liquefy over a water-bath; 
 pour into a marble mortar, heated by boiling water, 
 stir quickly, and add 3i oz. of rose-water. 15 grs. 
 essence of roses, and a few drops of potash lye. 
 Camphor Cold Cream. 
 
 Take of almond oil and rose-water, each 1 Ib. ; 
 wax and spermaceti, 1 oz. ; camphor, 2 oz. ; otto of 
 rosemary, 1 dr. 
 
 Lotion for Freckles. 
 
 Take of corrosive sublimate, 5 grs. ; muriatic 
 acid, 30 drops; lump sugar, 1 oz. ; alcohol, 2 oz. ; 
 rose-water, 7 oz. Agitate together till all is dis- 
 solved. Apply night and morning. 
 
 Another. Take of sal ammoniac, 2 drs. ; cologne 
 water, 1 oz. j soft water, 1 pint. Mix. 
 Milk of Roses. 
 
 Melt together in a stoneware vessel over a watef- 
 bath, spermaceti, white wax, and soap, each 1 oa. 
 Rub in a marble mortar bitter almonds, 2 oz. ; 
 sweet almonds, 1 Ib. Take out f, and on the re- 
 maining i pour the above mixture, and continue 
 rubbing. Then add by degrees the other J of 
 the almonds, always pestling, so as to incorporate 
 thoroughly. In a white glass bottle mix distilled 
 water, 1 qt. ; rose-water and spirit of rose, each, 
 i pt. Reserve 1 pt., and gradually pour the mix- 
 ture first made into the remainder. 
 

 PEKFUMERY. 
 
 Rub, and strain through a cloth, then return 
 the residuum to the mortar, triturate it with the 
 reserved mixture, strain, and mix with the other 
 liquid. 
 
 Kalydor for the Complexion. 
 
 Take blanched bitter almonds, 1 part; rose- 
 water. 16 parts. Mix and strain, then add 5 grs. 
 of bichloride of mercury to every 8 oz. bottle of 
 the mixture, and scent with rose or violet. 
 Pomade for Chopped Lips. 
 
 Take oxide of zinc, 1 oz.; lycopodium powder, 
 1 oz. ; pomade rosat, 2 Ibs. Mix, and make into 
 a perfectly homogeneous pomade. 
 
 This is an excellent remedy for chapped lips, 
 and is beneficial in cases of ulceration of the nails 
 of the feet. 
 
 Heliotrope SacJict. 
 
 Powdered orris, 2 Ibs. ; Rose leaves, ground, 1 
 
 Ib. ; Tonqua beans, ground, i Ib. ; Vanilla beans, 
 
 J Ib. ; grain musk, J oz. ; otto of almonds, 5 drops. 
 
 Well mix by sifting in a coarse sieve, it is fit for sale. 
 
 Lavender Sachet. 
 
 Lavender flowers, groui/d, 1 Ib. ; gum benzoin, 
 in powder, i Ib. ; otto of lavender, i oz. 
 Millefteur Sachet. 
 
 Lavender flowers, ground, orris, rose leaves, 
 benzoin, each, 1 Ib. ; cinnamon, allspice, each, 2 
 oz. ; tonqua, vanilla, santal, each, J Ib. ; musk 
 and civet, each, 2 drs. ; cloves, ground, i Ib. 
 
 Portugal Sachet. 
 
 Dried orange peel, 1 Ib. ; dried lemon-peel, 
 Ib. ; dried orris-root, Ib. ; otto of orange-peel, 1 
 oz. ; otto of neroli, i dr. ; otto of lemon-grass, 1 dr. 
 
 Rose Sachet. 
 
 Rose heels, 1 Ib. ; santal wood, ground, ^ Ib. ; 
 Otto of roses, J oz. 
 
 Santal Wood Sachet. 
 
 This is a good and economical sachet, and 
 simply consists of the ground wood. Santal wood 
 is to be purchased from some of the wholesale dry- 
 Baiters ; the drug-grinders are the people to re- 
 duce it to powder for you any attempt to do so 
 at home will be found unavailable, on account of 
 its toughness. 
 
 Vervaine Sachet. 
 
 Lemon peel, dried and ground, 1 Ib. ; lemon 
 thyme, i Ib. ; otto of lemon-grass, 1 dr. ; otto of 
 lemon-peel, i oz. ; otto of bergamot, 1 oz. 
 Violet Sachet. 
 
 Black-currant leaves, rose leaves, each, lib.; 
 powdered orris-root, 2 Ibs.; oil of bitter almonds, 
 i dr. : grain musk, 1 dr. ; tonqua beans and gum 
 benzoin, each, Ib. Mix thoroughly and keep 
 together a week before offering for sale. 
 Perfume for Mouth Washes. 
 
 Asarum Canadense, orris root, each loz.; strong 
 alcohol, 1 pt. Make a tincture and add tincture 
 of musk, 1 dr. ; essence of millefleurs, dr. ; es- 
 sence of patchouli, 20 drops. 
 
 A Superior Mouth Wash. 
 
 A close imitation of the popular sozodont. It 
 cleanses the mouth thoroughly and is destructive 
 to the parasites found in the deposits on the 
 teeth. Add white castile soap, 2 drs. ; alcohol, 3 
 fl. oz. ; honey, 1 oz. ; perfume as above, 4 fl. oz. 
 Dissolve the soap in the alcohol, and add the 
 honey and perfume. 
 
 Frangipanni Sachet. 
 
 Take orris-root and rose-leaves, each 1 Ib. ; san- 
 dal-wood J Ib. ; Tonqua beans, i Ib.; musk, 1 dr.; 
 civet, i dr. ; essence of roses, i dr. Triturate the 
 
 307 
 lit* 
 
 musk, civet, and essence of roses, and mix 
 the other substances reduced to a powder. 
 
 Peau d'Ettpagne, or Spanish Skin, 
 Is merely highly-perfumed leather. Take of oil 
 of rose, neroli, and santal, each i oz. ; oil of lav- 
 ender, verbena, bergamot, each J oz. ; oil of clov>s 
 and cinnamon, each 2 drs. In this dissolve 2 uz. 
 of gum benzoin ; in this steep good pieces of wa te 
 leather for a day or two, and dry it over a line. 
 Prepare a paste by rubbing in a mortar 1 dr. of 
 civet with 1 dr. of grain musk, and enough gum 
 tragacanth mucilage to give a proper consistence. 
 The leather is cut up into pieces about 4 inches 
 square; two of these are pasted together with th 
 above paste, placed between 2 pieces of paper, 
 weighted or pressed until dry. It may then be 
 inclosed in silk or satin. It gives off its odor for 
 years ; is much used for perfuming paper. 
 Indian or Yellow Pastils. 
 
 Santal-wood, in powder, 1 Ib. ; gum benzoin, li 
 Ibs.; gum tolu, i Ib. ; nitrate of potassa, 1 Ibs.j 
 otto of santal, otto of cassia, otto of cloves, each 
 3 drs.; mucilage of tragacanth, q. s., to make the 
 whole into a thick paste. The benzoin, santal- 
 wood, and tolu are to be powdered and mixed by 
 sifting them, adding the ottos. The nitre, being 
 dissolved in the mucilage, is then added. After 
 well beating in a mortar, the pastils are formed in 
 shape with a pastil mould, and gradually dried. 
 
 The Chinese josticks are of a similar composi- 
 tion, but contain no tolu. Josticks are burned as 
 incense in the temples of the Buddhist, in the Ce- 
 lestial Empire, and to such an extent as greatly to 
 enhance the value of santal- wood. 
 Dr. Paris' s Pastils. 
 
 Benzoin, cascarilla, each J Ib. ; myrrh, 1J oz.j 
 charcoal, 1 Ib.; otto of nutmegs, otto of cloves, 
 each f oz.; nitre, 2 oz. Mix as in the preceding. 
 Perfumer's Pastils. 
 
 Well-burned charcoal, 1 Ib. ; tolu, vanilla pods, 
 cloves, each i Ib. ; benzoin, f Ib. ; otto of santal, 
 otto of neroli, each 2 drs.; nitre, 1 oz; benzoin, J 
 Ib. ; otto of santal, otto of neroli, each 2 dr. ; nitre, 
 li oz. ; mucilage of tragacanth, q. a. 
 Piesse's Pastils. 
 
 Willow charcoal, i Ib. ; benzoic acid, 6 oz, ; otto 
 of thyme, otto of caraway, otto of rose, otto of 
 lavender, otto of cloves, otto of santal, each dr. 
 Prior to mixing dissolve J oz. nitre in \ pt. of dis- 
 tilled or ordinary rose- water; with this solution 
 thoroughly wet the charcoal, and then allow it to 
 dry in a warm place. When the thus nitrated 
 charcoal is quite dry, pour over it the mixed 
 ottoes, and stir in the flowers of benzoin. When 
 well mixed by sifting (the sieve is a better tool for 
 mixing powders than the pestle and mortar), with 
 enough mucilage to bind the whole together, and 
 the less that is used the better. 
 
 Cachou Aromatize. 
 
 Take of extract of liquorice and water, each 3 
 oz. ; dissolve by the heat of a water-bath, and add 
 Bengal catechu, in powder, 462 grs.; gum arabic, 
 in powder, 231 grs. Evaporate to the consistence 
 of an extract, and then incorporate the following 
 substances, previously reduced to fine powder: 
 Mastic, cascarilla, charcoal, and orris-root, each 
 30 grs. Reduce the mass to a proper consistence, 
 remove it from the fire, and then add English oil 
 of peppermint, 30 drops; tincture of ambergris 
 and tincture uf musk, each 5 drops. ; pour it on 
 an oiled slab, and spread it out, by meann of a 
 roller, to the thickness of a sixpenny piece. After 
 it has cooled, apply some folds of blotting-paper, 
 to absorb any adhering oil, moisten the surface 
 
308 
 
 PEBFUMEKY. 
 
 with water, and then cover it with the sheets of 
 silver-leaf. It must now be allowed to dry, then 
 cut into very thin strips, and these again divided 
 into small pieces, about the size of a fenugreek seed. 
 
 SOAPS. 
 
 Hard soaps are made by boiling oils or fats with 
 a lye of caustic soda. In soft soaps the lye is pot- 
 ash. Resin is used in yellow soaps, as it saves 
 fat. Silicate of soda is now frequently used in- 
 tead ; it gives a white soap, which has no offen- 
 sive smell, and has not the stickiness of resin soap. 
 Prentiss' Washing and Scouring Solution is pure 
 silicate of soda. Besides refuse fat, the palm and 
 cocoa-nut oils are largely used as a basis for soap. 
 Castile soap is made from olive oil, and is mottled 
 by iron. 
 
 Soft Soap. 
 
 Add 3 galls, of rain or other soft water to 1 Ib. 
 of saponified or concentrated lye; boil it and put 
 into it 4 Ibs. of tallow or soap -fat. When the so- 
 lution becomes clear, add 12 galls, more of water. 
 It is ready for use when cold. 
 
 Scented Soaps. 
 
 Cut the soap into thin shavings, and heat it 
 with enough water until liquefied. Let it cool to 
 135 Fahr., and add the coloring matter and per- 
 fumes. 
 
 Almond Soap. 
 
 To 1 cwt. of the best hard curd soap add 20 of 
 oz. oil of bitter almonds, or essence of Mirban 
 (p. 291). 
 
 Hose Soap. 
 
 Put into a copper vessel, placed in boiling water, 
 20 Ibs. of white curd soap and 30 Ibs. of olive oil 
 soap, both cut into thin shavings ; add 5 Ibs. of 
 soft water, or rose-water; keep the heat below 
 boiling until the soap is uniformly liquified, and 
 then add 12 oz. of finely-sifted vermillion, or 
 enough to give the required color. Withdraw 
 from the fire and, when sufficiently cool, add 3 
 oz. otto of roses, oz. oil of cloves, ^ oz. oil of cin- 
 namon, and 2 oz. oil of bergamot. For cheap 
 soap use less perfume. 
 
 Honey Soap. 
 
 White curd soap, 1 Ibs.; Windsor soap, Ib. 
 Cut into shavings and liquefy as before directed ; 
 then add 4 oz. of honey, and keep it melted until 
 most of the water is evaporated. Perfume with 
 any of the essential oils. 
 
 Floating Soaps 
 
 Are made by beating up soaps, liquefied as before 
 directed, so as to incorporate a certain quantity 
 of air. 
 
 Transparent Soaps 
 
 Are made by dissolving white soap in alcohol and 
 evaporating. By the use of a still most of the al- 
 cohol may be recovered. They are made round 
 by moulding with a drinking-glass, and then are 
 known as wash-balls. 
 
 Glycerine Soap. 
 
 Cut the soap into fine shavings, dry, and powder 
 it. Dissolve in a mixture of equal parts of alcohol 
 and water by the aid of a water-bath. When the 
 greater part of the alcohol has been evaporated, 
 add a corresponding quantity of glycerine. 
 Windsor Soap. 
 
 White tallow scraps, 20 Ibs.; essence of bergamot, 
 
 oz ; carvi, 6 drs. ; cloves, 4 drs. ; thyme, \ oz. 
 
 Saponaceous Cream of Almonds ( Cr$me d'Amandes 
 
 ameres.) 
 
 The preparation sold under this name is a pot- 
 ash soft soap, made with lard and perfumed with 
 ssential oil of almonds. It has a beautiful pearly 
 
 appearance, and makes an excellent lather with a 
 brush, and has met with an extensive demand ai 
 a shaving-soap, especially in Paris. It is prepared 
 thus : Take of fine clarified lard, 7 Ibs. ; potash 
 lye, containing about 26 per cent, of caustic pot- 
 ash, 3 Ibs. 12 oz. ; rectified spirit, 2 oz. ; essential 
 oil of almonds, 2 drs. Melt the lard in a porcelain 
 vessel, by a salt-water bath or a steam-heat under 
 15 Ibs. pressure, then run in the lye very slowly, 
 agitating continually from right to left during the 
 whole time; when about half the lye is run in the 
 mixture begins to curdle; it will, however, finally 
 become so firm and compact that it cannot be 
 stirred, if the operation is successful. The soap 
 is now finished, but is not pearly; it will, how- 
 ever, assume that appearance by long trituration 
 in a mortar, gradually adding the alcohol, in 
 which is previously dissolved the perfume. 
 Tooth Powder. 
 
 Take precipitated chalk and powdered orris- 
 root, each 1 Ib. ; carmine and powdered sugar, 
 each 15 grs. ; essence rose and essence neroli, each 
 60 grs. 
 
 Tooth Paste. 
 
 Honey, precipitated chalk, powdered orris-root, 
 each 8 oz. ; tincture of opium, tincture of myrrh, 
 each If drs. ; essence of rose, cloves, and nutmeg, 
 each i dr. 
 
 Charcoal Tooth Poicder. 
 
 Finely powdered charcoal, sugar, each 2 oz. j 
 oil of cloves, 6 drops. 
 
 Another. Finely powdered charcoal and red 
 Peruvian bark, each 2 oz.; sugar, 1 oz. ; oil of 
 spearmint, 8 drops. 
 
 Charcoal Tooth, Paste. 
 
 Finely powdered charcoal, white honey, and 
 vanilla candy, each 2 oz. ; red bark, 1 oz. ; oil of 
 rose or mint, 8 drops. Mix the whole into a paste. 
 
 AROMATIC VINEGARS. 
 In making these the vinegar known as No. 8 
 may be used. Vinegar of 25 to 30 per cent, ia 
 required to dissolve essential oils. 
 
 Tarragon (Estragon) Vinegar. 
 Tarragon (Artemesia dracunculus), 1 Ib. ; strong 
 vinegar, 1 gal. The herb should be gathered be- 
 fore blossoming. This may be diluted when used. 
 
 Vinaigre aux fines herbes. 
 
 Tarragon, 12 oz. ; basil, laurel leaves, each, 4 
 oz.; shallots, 2 oz. ; strong vinegar, gal. Let 
 them soak for a week or two, and strain. It is too 
 strong for use, but is added to table vinegar to 
 improve its flavor. 
 
 Cologne Vinegar. 
 
 Add to each quart of cologne water, 1 oz. of 
 No. 8 vinegar. 
 
 Aromatic Vinegar. 
 
 Concentrated acetic acid, 8 oz. ; oil of English 
 lavender, 2 drs.; oil of English rosemary, 1 dr.; 
 oil cloves, 1 dr. ; oil of camphor, 1 oz. 
 
 Henry's Vinegar. 
 
 Dried leaves of rosemary, rue, wormwood, sage, 
 mint, and lavender flowers, each oz. ; bruised 
 nutmeg, cloves, angelica root, and camphor, each, 
 J oz. ; alcohol, rectified, 4 oz. ; concentrated acetio 
 acid, 16 oz. Macerate the materials for a Jay in 
 the spirit; then add the acid, and digest for a 
 week longer, at a temperature of about 70 Fahr. 
 Finally, press out the now aromatized acid, and 
 filter it. 
 
 Vinagre des quatre Voleurs, or Four Thieves' 
 Vinegar. 
 
 Take fresh tops of common wormwood, Roman 
 
BLEACHING AND SCOURING. 
 
 wormwood, rosemary, sage, mint, and rue, of 
 each oz. ; lavender flowtrs, 1 oz. ; garlic, calamus 
 aroinaticus, cinnamon, cloves, and nutmeg, each 1 
 dr. ; camphor, i oz. : alcohol, or brandy. 1 oz. ; 
 strong vinegar, 4 pts. Digest all the materials, 
 except the camphor and spirit, in a closely cov- 
 ered vessel fer a fortnight, at a summer heat; 
 then express and filter the vinaigre produced, and 
 add the camphor previously dissolved in the 
 brandy or spirit. 
 
 Hygienic Vinegar. 
 
 Brandy, 1 pint; oil of cloves, 1 dr. ; oil of laven- 
 der, 1 dr.; oil of marjoram. dr.; gum benzoin, 
 1 oz. Macerate these together for a few hours, 
 
 then add brown vtnl 
 
 filter, if requisite, to b^brigb*; 
 
 Toilet Vinegar {<cf la Violette). 
 
 Extract of cassia, pt. ; extract of orris, i pt ; 
 esprit de rose, triple, i pt. j white wine vinegar, 
 2 pts. 
 
 Toilet Vinegar (ot la Rose). 
 
 Dried rose leaves, 4 oz. ; esprit de rose, triple, 
 pt. ; white wine vinegar, 2 pts. Macerate in a 
 close vessel for a fortnight, then filter and bottle 
 for sale. 
 
 Camphorated Vinegar. 
 
 Camphor, 6 drs. ; alcohol 2 oz. ; strong vinegar, 
 1 Ib. Powder the camphor, by the aid of th 
 alcohol, in a mortar, and add the vinegar. 
 
 / 
 
 and 
 
 To Bleach Cloths, &c. 
 
 The mode of bleaching which least injures the 
 texture of cloth formed of vegetable subtances, is 
 that effected by merely exposing it in a moistened 
 state to the atmosphere, after having been steeped 
 in a solution of potash or soda, but the length of 
 time and other inconveniences attending this pro- 
 cess, lead to the use of more active chemical oper- 
 ations. 
 
 It is by the combination of oxygen with the 
 coloring matter of the cloth, that it is deprived of 
 its hue, and the different processes employed must 
 be adapted to prepare it for this combination, and 
 render it as perfect as possible without destroying 
 its texture, an effect which, however, must neces- 
 sarily ensue in a greater or less degree from the 
 union of oxygen with all bodies. The operation 
 of bleaching requires 4 distinct processes. First, 
 to remove the impurities, with which the threads 
 are covered in the operation of spinning, which is 
 called the weaver's dressing. This may be effected 
 by soaking the cloth for some hours in warm water, 
 and then boiling it in an alkaline lye, prepared 
 with 20 parts of water, and 1 part of pearlash, 
 rendered more active by being mixed with J of 
 lime. After it has been boiled for some hours in 
 this solution, it is to be well washed with water, 
 and then exposed to the second process. The 
 solution of chloride of lime must be of such strength 
 as nearly to destroy the color of a solution of indi- 
 go in water, slightly acidulated with sulphuric 
 acid. The cloth is to be alternately steeped in this 
 liquor, and a solution (made as before directed), 
 4 or 5 times, using fresh liquor at each process. 
 It is then to be well rubbed and washed with soft 
 soap and water, which prepares it for the last 
 process. 
 
 The steeping is in a weak solution of sulphuric 
 acid, and from 60 to 100 parts of water, the 
 strength being thus varied according to the tex- 
 ture of the cloth. This dissolves the remaining 
 coloring matter which had resisted the action of 
 alkali, and the chloride of lime, as well as a small 
 quantity of iron contained in all vegetable matter. 
 The cloth is then to be exposed to the air for some 
 days, and watered, to carry off any remains of the 
 acids, and remove the unpleasant odor it acquires 
 from the chloride of lime a.nd potash. 
 ^ Blenching Salt, 
 
 Commonly called chloride of lime, is made by 
 passing chlorine gas over moistened lime. It is a 
 moist greyish powder, soluble in 10 parts of water, 
 
 any excess of hydrate of lime remaining undis- 
 solved. It deteriorates by keeping ; when freshly 
 made it may contain 30 per cent, of chlorine, but 
 often has less than 10 per cent. It is decomposed 
 by acids, yielding chlorine. It consists of hypo- 
 chlorite of lime and chloride of calcium, with, 
 water and excess of lime. 
 
 Chlorimetry. 
 
 The bleaching power of chloride of lime is often 
 estimated, as above stated, by the quantity of a 
 solution of sulphate of indigo, which a certain 
 weight will deprive of its blue color. But as the 
 indigo solution alters by keeping, this method is 
 not unobjectionable. 
 
 Mr. Graham's test is founded on the fact that 
 10 grains of chlorine are capable of converting 
 77.9 grains of protosulphate of iron (copperas, 
 green vitrol) into persulphate. Seventy-eight grains 
 of green vitriol (powdered and dried by strong 
 pressure between folds of cloth) are dissolved in 
 about 2 oz. of water, which may be acidulated by 
 a few drops of sulphuric or muriatic acid. Fifty 
 grs. of the bleaching salt to be examined are dis- 
 solved in about 2 oz. of tepid water, by trituration 
 in a mortar. This is transferred to a graduated 
 glass vessel, which is filled to its with pure 
 water. The solution thus made is poured gradu- 
 ally into that of the iron, until it is entirely per- 
 oxidized. To test this we have a solution of 
 ferricyanide of potassium (red prussiate of pot- 
 ash). This gives a precipitate only with the salts 
 of the protoxide of iron. It is spattered in drops 
 over the surface of a plate, and after each addi- 
 tion of the chlorine solution, a drop of the iron 
 solution, on the end of a rod, is touched to the 
 ferricyanide solution. When a deep blue preci- 
 pitate is no longer formed, an amount of salt 
 equal to 10 grains of chlorine has been used. By 
 nuting what portion of the whole solution hag 
 been employed, the percentage of chlorine may be 
 determined. 
 
 To Bleach Cotton. 
 
 The first operation consists in scouring it in a 
 slight alkaline solution ; or what is better, by ex- 
 posure to steam. It is afterwards put into a basket 
 and rinsed in running water. The immersion of 
 cotton in an alkaline ley, however it may be 
 rinsed, always leaves with it an earthy deposit. 
 It is well known that cotton bears the action of 
 aeids better than hemp or flax ; that time is even 
 necessary before the action of them c:in be preju- 
 dicial to it; and by taking advantage of this val- 
 
310 
 
 BLEACHING AND SCOURING. 
 
 liable property in regard to bleaching, means have 
 boon found to free it from the earthy deposit by 
 pressing down the cotton in a very weak solution 
 of sulphuric acid, and afterwards removing the 
 acid by washing, lest too long remaining in it 
 should destroy the cotton. 
 
 To Bleach Wool. 
 
 The first kind of bleaching to which wool is 
 subjected, is to free it from grease. This opera- 
 tion is called scouring. In manufactories, it is 
 generally performed by an ammoniacal lye, formed 
 of 5 measures of river water and 1 of stale urine; 
 the wool is immersed for about 20 minutes in a 
 bath of this mixture heated to 56; it is then 
 taken out, suffered to drain, and then rinsed in 
 running water. This manipulation softens the 
 wool, and gives it the first degree of whiteness. 
 It is then repeated a second, and even a third 
 time; after which the wool is fit to be employed. 
 In some places, scouring is performed with water 
 slightly impregnated with soap; and indeed, for 
 valuable articles, this process is preferable; but 
 it is too expensive for articles of less value. Bi- 
 sulphide of carbon and benzine have been em- 
 ployed in cleansing wool. The fat may be saved 
 by distilling off the solvent, which may be used 
 over and over again. 
 
 Sulphurous acid gas unites very easily with 
 water; and in this combination it may be em- 
 ployed for bleaching wool and silk. 
 
 To Prepare the Sulphurous Acid. 
 
 Sulphurous acid is used either as gas or in solu- 
 tion in water, which dissolves 50 times its volume 
 of the gas. In the former case sulphur is burned 
 in a close, moist room in which the stuffs (moist- 
 ened) are hung. Two exposures, of 24 hours 
 each, suffice for wool. 
 
 To get a solution of sulphurous acid, the cheapest 
 and best plan is to heat in a glass retort 12 oz. 
 sulphuric acid and 2 oz. of sulphur. The gas, 
 which comes off quietly, is collected in a large 
 bottle partially filled with water; or better a series 
 of bottles, so connected together that the gas must 
 pass successively through the water contained in 
 each. I 
 
 To Full Cloths, Woollens, etc. 
 
 The method of fulling woollen stuffs with soap, 
 is this : A colored cloth of about 45 ells, is to be 
 laid in the usual manner in the trough of a fulling 
 mill without first soaking it in water, as is com- 
 monly practised in many places. To full this 
 trough of cloth, 15 Ibs. of soap are required; of 
 which is to be melted in 2 pails of river or spring- 
 water, made as hot as the hand can well bear it. 
 This solution is to be poured by little and little 
 upon the cloth, in proportion as it is laid in the 
 trough ; after which it is to be taken out and 
 stretched. This done, the cloth is immediately 
 returned into the same trough, without any new 
 soap, and there fulled for 2 hours more. Then 
 taken out, it is rung well, to express all the grease 
 and filth. After the second fulling the remainder 
 of the soap is dissolved in, as in the former, and 
 cast 4 different times on the cloth, remembering 
 to take out the cloth every two hours to stretch 
 it, and undo the plaits and wrinkles it has ac- 
 quired in the trough. When sufficiently fulled 
 and brought to the quality and thickness required, 
 scour it in hot water, keeping it in the trough till 
 it is quite clean. As to white cloths, as these full 
 more easily and in less time than colored ones, a 
 third part of the soap may be spared. 
 
 To Bleach Silk. 
 
 Take a solution of caustic soda, so weak as to 
 make only a fourth of a degree, at most, of the 
 
 areometer for salts, and fill with it the boiler of 
 the apparatus for bleaching with steam. Charge 
 the frames with skeins of raw silk, and place 
 them in the apparatus until it is full; then close 
 the door and make the solution boil. Having 
 continued the ebullition for 12 hours, slacken the 
 fire and open the door of the apparatus. The 
 heat of the steam, which is always above 250, 
 will have been sufficient to free the silk from the 
 gum, and to scour it. Wash the skeins in warm 
 water, and having wrung th,:m, place them again 
 on the frames in the apparatus, to undergo a 
 second boiling. Then wa.-h them several times 
 in water, and immerse them in water somewhat 
 soapy, to give them a little softness. Notwith- 
 standing the whiteness which silk acquires by 
 these different operations, it must be carried to a 
 higher degree of splendor by exposing it to the 
 action of sulphurous acid gas, in a clo.-e chamber, 
 or by immersing it in sulphurous acid, as before 
 recommended in wool. 
 
 To Bleach Prints and Printed Books. 
 Simple immersion in chlorine gas, letting the 
 article remain in it a longer or shorter space of 
 time, according to the strength of the liquor, will 
 be sufficient to whiten an engraving. If it is re- 
 quired to whiten the paper of a bound book, as it 
 is necessary that nil the leaves should be acted on 
 by the gas, care must be taken to open the book 
 well, and to make the boards rest on the edge of 
 the vessel, in such a manner that the paper alone 
 shall be dipped in the gas. The leaves must be 
 separated from each other, in order that they may 
 be equally acted on on both sides. Chlorine 
 water, freshly made, will answer instead of the gas 
 
 Hare's Method of Bleaching Shell-lac. 
 Dissolve in an iron kettle 1 part of pearlash in 
 about 8 parts of water, add 1 part of shell or seed- 
 lac, and heat the whole to ebullition. When the 
 lac is dissolved cool the solution and impregnate 
 it with chlorine, till the lac is all precipitated. 
 
 To Wash Chintz. 
 
 Take 2 Ibs. of rice, boil it in 2 galls, of water 
 till soft ; then pour the whole into a tub ; let it 
 stand till about the warmth in general used for 
 colored linens; then put the chintz in, and use 
 the rice instead of soap ; wash it in this till the 
 dirt appears to be out, then boil the same quantity 
 as above, but strain the rice from the water, and 
 mix it in warm clear water. Wash in this till 
 quite clean ; afterwards rinse it in the water which 
 the rice has been boiled in, and this will answer 
 the end of starch, and no dew will affect it. If a 
 gown it must be taken to pieces, and when dried 
 be careful to hang it as smooth as possible; after 
 it is dry rub it with a sleek stone, but use no iron. 
 
 To Wash Fine Lace or Linen. 
 Take 1 gall, of furze blossoms and burn them 
 to ashes, then boil them in 6 qts. of soft water; 
 this, when fine, use in washing with the suds,. as 
 occasion requires, and the linen, etc., will nut only 
 be exceedingly white, but it is done with half the 
 soap and little trouble. 
 
 To Clean Black and White Sarcenets. 
 Lay these smooth and even upon a board, spread 
 a little soap over the dirty places; then make a 
 lather with Castile soap, and with a common brush 
 dip it in, pass it over the long way, and repeat it 
 in this manner till one side is sufficiently scoured; 
 use the other in the same manner ; then put it 
 into hot water, and there let it lie, till you have 
 prepared some cold water, wherein a small quan- 
 tity of gum arabic has been dissolved. Now rinse 
 
BLEACHING AND SCOURING. 
 
 311 
 
 them well, take them out and fold them, pressing 
 out the water with the hands on the board, and 
 keeping them under the hands till they are dry; 
 at which time have brimstone ready to dry them 
 over, till they are ready for smoothing, which 
 must be done on the right side, with a moderately 
 hot iron. 
 
 To Wash and Stain Tiffanies. 
 Let the hems of the tiffanies be at first only a 
 little soaped, then having a lather of soap, put 
 them into it hot, and wash them very gently for 
 fear they should be crumpled : and when they are 
 clean rinse them in warm water, in which a little 
 gum arabic has been dissolved, keeping them from 
 the air as much as possible ; then add a lump of 
 starch, wet the tiffanies with a soft linen rag, and 
 fold them up in a clean cloth, pressing them till 
 they are nearly dry; after which put them near the 
 fire, and finish the drying over brimstone; then 
 shape them properly by gently ironing them. 
 
 To Wash and Starch Lawns. 
 Lawns may be done in the same manner as the 
 former, only observe to iron them on the wrong 
 side, and use gum arabic water instead of starch, 
 and, according to what has been directed for sar- 
 cenets, any colored silks may be starched, abating 
 or augmenting the gum-water as may be thought 
 fit, according to the stiffness intended. 
 
 To Clean Buff-colored Cloth. 
 Take tobacco-pipe clay, and mix it with water 
 till it is as thick as lime-water used for white- 
 washing rooms; spread this over the cloth, and 
 when it is dry rub it off with a brush, and the 
 cloth will look extremely well. 
 
 To make Saponaceous Lye for Washing. 
 Boil together in a sufficient quantity of water, 1 
 gall, of good wood-ashes and 2 or 3 handfuls of 
 fresh-burnt lime. Leave the lixivium at rest till 
 the extraneous matters have been deposited at the 
 bottom, or thrown to the surface to be skimmed 
 off. Then draw off the pure lixivium, add to it 
 oil, to about a thirtieth or fortieth part of its own 
 quantity. The mixture will be a liquor white as 
 milk, capable of frothing like soap-water, and in 
 dilution with water perfectly fit to communicate 
 sufficient whiteness to linen. This liquor may be 
 prepared from wood-ashes of all sorts, and from 
 rancid grease, oil or butter. It is therefore highly 
 worthy the attention of the economist. When the 
 ashes are suspected to be unusually deficient in 
 alkali, a small addition of pulverized potash or 
 soda may be made to the lixivium. 
 
 To Clean and Starch Point Lace. 
 
 Fix the lace in a prepared tent, draw it straight, 
 make a warm lather of Castile soap, and, with a 
 fine brush dipped in, rub over the point gently; 
 and when it is clean on one side do the same to 
 the other; then throw some clean water on it, in 
 which a little alum has been dissolved, to take off 
 the suds, and having some thin starch go over 
 with the same on the wrong side, and iron it on 
 the same side when dry, then open it with a bod- 
 kin and set it in order. 
 
 To clean point lace, if not very dirty, without 
 washing, fix it in a tent as the former, and go 
 over with fine bread, the crust being pared off, and 
 when it is done dust out the crumbs, etc. 
 
 To Clean White Veils. 
 
 Put the veil in a solution of white soap, and let 
 it simmer a quarter of an hour. Squeeze it in 
 some warm water and soap till quite clean. Rinse 
 it from soap, and then in clean cold water, in 
 which is a drop of liquid blue. Then pour boiling 
 
 water upon a teaspoonful of starch, run the veil 
 through this, and clear it well by clapping it. 
 Afterwards pin it out, keeping the edges straight 
 and even. 
 
 To Clean Slack Veils. 
 
 Pass them through a warm liquor of bullock'i 
 gall and water; rinse in cold water; then take a 
 small piece of glue, pour boiling water on it, and 
 
 Sass the veil through it ; clap it, and frame it to 
 ry. 
 
 To Clean White Satin and Flowered Silks. 
 
 Mix sifted stale bread- crumbs with powder blue, 
 and rub it thoroughly all over, then shake it well, 
 and dust it with clean soft cloths. Afterwards, 
 where there are any gold or silver flowers, take a 
 piece of crimson ingrain velvet, rub the flowers 
 with it, which will restore them to their original 
 lustre. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 Pass them through a solution of fine hard soap, 
 at a hand heat, drawing them through the hand. 
 Rinse in lukewarm water, dry and finish by pin- 
 ning out. Brush the flossy or bright side with a 
 clean clothes-brush the way of the nap. Finish 
 them by dipping a sponge into a size, made by 
 boiling isinglass in water, and rub the wrong side. 
 Rinse out a second time, and brush and dry near 
 a fire or in a warm room. 
 
 Silks may be treated in the same way, but not 
 brushed. If the silks are for dyeing, instead of 
 passing them through a solution of soap and water 
 they must be boiled off; but if the silks are very 
 stout, the water must only be of heat sufficient to 
 extract the dirt, and when rinsed in warm water 
 they are in a state for the dye. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 Strew French chalk over them, and brush it off 
 with a hard brush once or twice. 
 
 To Clean Colored Silks of all kinds. 
 
 Put some soft soap into boiling water, and beat 
 it till dissolved in a strong lather. At a hand heat 
 put in the article. If strong, it may be rubbed as 
 in washing; rinse it quickly in warm water, and 
 add oil of vitriol, sufficient to give another water a 
 sourish taste, if for bright yellow, crimsons, ma- 
 roons, and scarlets ; but for oranges, fawns, browns, 
 or their shades, use no acid. For bright scarlet, 
 use a solution of tin. Gently squeeze and then 
 roll it in a coarse sheet, and wring it. Hang it in 
 a warm room to dry, and finish it by calendering 
 or mangling. 
 
 For pinks, rose colors, and thin shades, etc., in- 
 stead of oil of vitriol, or solution of tin, prefer 
 lemon -juice, or white tartar, or vinegar. 
 
 For blues, purples, and their shades, add a small 
 quantity of pearlash ; it will restore the colors. 
 Wash the articles like a linen garment, but in- 
 stead of wringing gently squeeze and sheet them, 
 and when dry finish them with fine gum-water or 
 dissolved isinglass, to which add some pearlash, 
 rubbed on the wrong side; then pin them out. 
 
 Blues of all shades are dyed with archil, and 
 afterwards dipped in a vat; twice cleaning with 
 pearlash restores the color. For olive greens, a 
 small quantity of verdigris dissolved in water, or 
 a solution of copper mixed with the water, will 
 revive the color again. Grease spots may be re- 
 moved by benzine. 
 
 To Clean Black Silks. 
 
 To bullock's gall add boiling water sufficient to 
 make it warm, and with a eltan sponge rub the 
 silk well on both sides ; squeeze it well out, and 
 proceed again in like manner. Rinse it in spring- 
 water, and change the water till perfectly clean ; 
 dry it in the air, and pin it out on a table ; but 
 
312 
 
 BLEACHING AND SCOURING. 
 
 first dip the sponge in glue-water, and rub it on 
 the wrong side ; then dry it before a fire. 
 
 To Dip Rusty Black Silks. 
 If it requires to be red dyed, boil logwood, and 
 in hall an hour put in the silk and let it simmer 
 half an hour. Take it out, and dissolve a little 
 blue vitriol and green copperas, cool the copper, 
 let it simmer ^ hour, then dry it over a stick in 
 the air. If not red dyed, pin it out, and rinse it 
 in spring water, in which teaspoonful of oil of 
 Titriol has been put. Work it about 5 minutes, 
 rinse it in cold water, and finish it by pinning and 
 rubbing it with gum-water. 
 
 To Clean Silk Stockings. 
 
 Wash with soap and water, and simmer them 
 in the same for 10 minutes, rinsing in cold water. 
 For blue cast, put 1 drop of liquid blue into a pan 
 of cold spring-water; run the stockings through 
 this a minute or two, and dry them. For a pink 
 east, put 1 or 2 drops of saturated pink dye into 
 old water, and rinse them through this. For a 
 flesh-color, add a little rose pink in a thin soap- 
 liquor, rub them with clean flannel, and calender 
 or mangle them. 
 
 To Extract Grease-spots from Silks and Colored 
 
 Muslins, etc. 
 
 Scrape French chalk, put it on the grease- spot, 
 and hold it near the fire, or over a warm iron, or 
 water-plate, filled with boiling water. The grease 
 will melt, and the French chalk absorb it; brush 
 or rub it off. Repeat if necessary. 
 
 To take Stains out of Silk. 
 
 Mix together in a phial 2 oz. of essence of lemon, 
 1 oz. of oil of turpentine. Grease and other spots 
 in silk are to be rubbed gently with a linen rag 
 dipped in the above composition. Benzine may 
 be used instead. 
 
 To Scour Yarn. 
 
 It should be laid in lukewarm water for 3 or 4 
 days, each day shifting it once, wringing it out, 
 and laying it in another water of the same na- 
 ture; then carry it to a well or brook, and rinse 
 it till nothing comes from it but pure, clean water; 
 that done, take a bucking-tub, and cover the bot- 
 tom with very fine aspen ashes, and then having 
 opened and spread the slippings, lay them on 
 those ashes, and put more ashes above, and lay 
 in more slippings, covering them with ashes as 
 before; then lay one upon another till the yarn is 
 put in; afterwards cover up the uppermost yarn 
 with a bucking-cloth, and, in proportion to the 
 size of the tub, lay in a peck or two more of ashes; 
 this done, pour upon the uppermost cloth a great 
 deal of warm water, till the tub can receive no 
 more, and let it stand so all night. Next morn- 
 ing set a kettle of clean water on the fire, and 
 when it is warm pull out the spigot of the buck- 
 ing-tub to let the water run out of it into another 
 clean vessel ; as the bucking-tub wastes fill it up 
 again wtth warm water on the fire, and as the wa- 
 ter on the fire wastes so likewise fill up that with 
 the lye that comes from the bucking-tub, ever ob- 
 serving to make the lye hotter and hotter, till it 
 boils; then you must, as before, ply it with the 
 boiling lye at least 4 hours together. For whiten- 
 ing, you must take oft" this bucking-cloth, then 
 putting the yarn with the lye ashes into large 
 tubs, with your hands labor the yarn, ashes and 
 lye pretty well together; afterwards carry it to 
 a well or river, and rinse it clean ; then hang it 
 upon poles in the air all day, and in the evening 
 take the slippings down and lay them in water all 
 night; the next day hang them up again, aiJ 
 throw water on them as they dry, observing to I 
 
 turn that side outermost which whitens slowest. 
 After having done this for a week together, put 
 all the yarn again into the bucking-tub without 
 ashes, covering it as before with a bucking-cloth; 
 lay thereon good store of fresh ashes, and drive 
 that buck, as before, with a very strong boiling 
 lye for half a day or more; then take it out and 
 rinse it, hanging it up, as before, in the day-time, 
 to dry, and laying it in water at night another 
 week. Lastly, wash it over in fair water, and 
 dry it. 
 
 To Scour Thick Cotton Counterpanes. 
 
 Cut 1 Ib. of mottled soap into thin slices, and put 
 it into a pan with i oz. of potash and 1 oz. of pearl- 
 ash; pour a pail of boiling water on it and let it 
 stand till dissolved; then pour hot and cold water 
 in a scouring tub, with a bowl of the solution ; 
 put in the counterpane, beat it well, turn it often, 
 and give it a second liquor as before ; then rinse 
 it in cold water ; now put 3 teaspoonfuls of liquid 
 blue into a thin liquor, stir it, and put in the 
 counterpane; beat it about 5 minutes, and dry it 
 in the air. 
 
 To Scour Undyed Woollens. 
 
 Cut \ Ib. of the best palm soap into thin slices, 
 and pour such a quantity of boiling river-water 
 on it as will dissolve the soap, and make it of the 
 consistence of oil; cover the articles about 2 in. 
 with water such as the hand can bear, and add a 
 lump of pearlash and about J of the soap solution. 
 Beat them till no head of lather rises on the wa- 
 ter; throw away the dirty water and proceed as 
 before with hotter water, without pearlash. 
 
 To Scour Clothes, Coats, Pelisses, etc. 
 
 If a black, blue, or brown coat, dry 2 oz. of ful- 
 ler's earth, and pour on it sufficient boiling water 
 to mix it, and plaster with it the spots of grease; 
 take a pennyworth of bullock's gall, mix with it 
 ^ a pt. of stale urine, and a little boiling water; 
 with a hard brush dipped in this liquor, brush 
 spotted places. Then dip the coat in a bucket of 
 cold spring-water. When nearly dry, lay the nap 
 right, and pass a drop of oil of olives over with a 
 brush to finish it. 
 
 If gray, drab, fawns, or maroons, cut palm soap 
 into thin slices, and pour water upon it to moisten 
 it. Rub the greasy and dirty spots of the coat. 
 Let it dry a little, and then brush it with warm 
 water, repeating, if necessary, as at first, and use 
 water a little hotter; rinse several times, in warm 
 water, and finish as before. 
 
 To Scour Carpets, Hearth-Rugs, etc. 
 
 Rub a piece of soap on every spot of grease or 
 dirt; then take a hard brush dipped in boiling 
 water, and rub the spots well. If very dirty, a 
 solution of soap must be put into a tub, with hot 
 water, and the carpet well beat in it, rinsing it in 
 several clean waters, putting in the last water a 
 tablespoonful of oil of vitriol, to brighten the 
 colors. 
 
 To Clean Cotton Goivns. 
 
 Make a solution of soap, put in the articles, and 
 wash them in the usual way. If greens, reds, etc., 
 run, add lemon-juice, vinegar, or oil of vitriol to 
 the rinsing water. 
 
 To Clean Scarlet Cloth. 
 
 Dissolve the best white soap ; and if black-look- 
 ing spots appear, rub dry soap on them : while the 
 other soap is dissolving, brush it off with hot 
 water. If very dirty, immerse the article into the 
 warm solution, and rub the stained parts. Dis- 
 patch it quickly, and as soon as the color begins 
 to give, wring it out, and immerse it in a pan or 
 pail of warm water ; wring it again, and immerse 
 
BLEACHING AND SCOURING. 
 
 313 
 
 it in cold spring-water, in which mix a table- 
 gpoonful of solution of tin. Stir it about, and in 
 10 minutes hang it to dry in the shade, and cold 
 press it. 
 
 AnotJier Method. 
 
 On J of a peck of wheaten bran pour boiling 
 water in a hair sieve. In the bran water, at a 
 hand-heat, immerse the cloth, and rub it, looking 
 through it to see the spots. To a second liquor, add 
 nearly i oz. of white or crude tnrtar. If darkened, 
 make a clean liquor of cold spring- water with a 
 drop or two of solution of tin, soak it in 10 minutes, 
 wring it, and hang it up to dry. 
 
 To Dip Scarlet Cloth. 
 
 After it has been thoroughly cleaned with soap, 
 and rinsed in warm water, put into boiling spring- 
 water J Ib. of young fustic or zant, 1 dr. of pounded 
 and sifted cochineal, and an equal quantity of 
 cream of tartar; boil 5 or 6 minutes, and cool by 
 adding 1 or 2 pts. of cold spring-water, and 1 
 tablespoonful of the solution of tin. Stir the mix- 
 ture, put in the cloth, boil it for 10 minutes, and 
 when dry, cold press it. 
 
 To Raise the Nap on Cloth. 
 
 Soak in cold water for i an hour, then put on 
 a board, and rub the thread-bare parts with a half- 
 worn hatter's card, filled with flocks, or with a 
 prickly thistle, until a nap is raised. Hang up to 
 dry, and with a hard brush lay the nap the right 
 way. 
 
 To Revive Faded Black Cloth. 
 
 Having cleaned it well, boil 2 or 3 oz. of log- 
 wood for ^ an hour. Dip it in warm water and 
 squeeze it dry, then put it into the copper, and 
 boil i an hour. Take it out and add a small piece 
 of green copperas, and boil it another ^ an hour. 
 Hang it in the air for an hour or two, then rinse 
 it in 2 or 3 cold waters, dry it, and let it be regu- 
 larly brushed with a soft brush, over which 1 or 
 2 drops of oil of olives have been rubbed. 
 
 To Dry Clean Cloth. 
 
 Dip a brush in warm gall, and apply it to 
 greasy places, rinse it off in cold water; dry by 
 the fire, then lay the coat flat, strew damp sand 
 over it, and with a brush beat the sand into the 
 cloth ; then brush it out with a hard brush, and 
 the sand will bring away the dirt. Rub a drop of 
 oil of olives over with a soft brush, to brighten the 
 colors. 
 
 To Prevent Prints from Fading. 
 
 The dress should be washed in lather, and not 
 by applying the soap in the usual way direct 
 upon the muslin. Make a lather by boiling soap 
 and water together; let it stand until it is suffi- 
 ciently cool for use, and previously to putting the 
 dress into it, throw in a handful of salt; rinse the 
 dress without wringing it in clear, cold water, 
 into which a little salt has been thrown ; remove 
 it and rinse it in a fresh supply of clear water and 
 salt. Then wring the dress in a cloth and hang 
 it to dry immediately, spreading as open as possi- 
 ble, so as to prevent one part lying over another. 
 Should there be any white in the pattern, mix a 
 little blue in the water. 
 
 To Bleach Wool, Silks, Straw Bonnets, etc. 
 
 Put a chafing-dish with some lighted charcoal 
 into a close room, or large box; then strew 1 
 or 2 oz. of powdered brimstone on the hot coal?. 
 Hang the articles in the room or box, make the 
 door fast, and let them hang some hours. Fine 
 colored woollens are thus sulphured before dyed, 
 and straw bonnets are thus bleached. 
 
 To take Iron-moulds out of Linen. 
 
 1. Hold the iron-mould on the cover of a tank- 
 
 ard of boiling water, and rub on the spot a little 
 oxalic acid, or salt of sorrel, and when the cloth 
 has thoroughly imbibed the acid, wash it in lye. 
 
 2. Wet the spot wiih lemon-juice, sprinkle with 
 salt, and lay in the sun until dry. Repeat the ap- 
 plication until the stain is removed. 
 
 To make Breeches-Ball. 
 
 Mix 1 Ib. of Bath brick, 2 Ibs. of pipe-clay, 4 
 oz. of pumice-stone powder, and 6 oz. of ox-galls; 
 color them with rose-pink, yellow ochre, umber, 
 Irish slate, etc., to any desired shade. 
 
 Clothes' Ball. 
 
 1. Mix 2 Ibs. of pipe-clay, 4 oz. of fuller's earth, 
 4 oz. of whiting, and i of a pt. of ox-galls. 
 
 2. Portable balls, for removing spots from 
 clothes, may be thus prepared: Fuller's earth, 
 perfectly dried (so that it may crumble into a 
 powder), is to be moistened with the clear juice 
 of lemons, and a small quantity of pure pearl- 
 ashes is to be added. Knead the whole carefully 
 together, till it acquires the consistence of a thick 
 elastic paste; form it into convenient small balls, 
 and dry them in the sun. To be used, first 
 moisten the spot on the clothes with water, then 
 rub it with the ball, and let the spot dry in the 
 sun ; after having washed it with pure water, the 
 spot will entirely disappear. 
 
 To take Grease out of Leather Breeches. 
 
 The white of an egg applied to the injured part 
 and dried in the sun, will effectually answer this 
 purpose. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 To 2 tablespoonfuls of spirits of turpentine, put 
 an oz. of mealy potatoes, add some of the best 
 Durham mustard, with a little vinegar; let them 
 dry, and when well rubbed, the spots will be en- 
 tirely removed. 
 
 To Cleanse Feathers from Animal Oil. 
 
 Mix well with 1 gall, of clear water, 1 Ib. of 
 quicklime; and, when the lime is precipitated in 
 fine powder, pour off the clear lime-water for use, 
 at the time it is wanted. Put the feathers to be 
 cleaned in a tub, and add to them a sufficient 
 quantity of the clear lime-water, so as to cover 
 them about 3 inches. The feathers, when thor- 
 oughly moistened, will sink down, and should re- 
 main in the lime-water for 3 or 4 days; after 
 which, the foul liquor should be separated. 
 Fuller** Purifier for Woollen Cloths. 
 
 Dry, pulverize, and sift the following ingredi- 
 ents : 
 
 Six Ibs. of fuller's earth, 1 Ib. of pipe clay, and 
 4 oz. of French chalk. 
 
 Make a paste of the above with the following: 
 One oz. of rectified oil of turpentine, 2 oz. of spirit 
 of wine, and 1 Ibs. of melted oil soap. 
 
 Make up the compound into six-penny or shil- 
 ling cakes for sale. These cakes are to be kept 
 in water, or in small wooden boxes. 
 
 To Clean all Sorts of Metal. 
 
 Mix J pt. of refined neat's-foot oil, and a gill 
 of spirit of turpentine. Scrape a little rotten- 
 stone; wet a woollen rag with the liquid, dip it 
 into the scraped kernel, and rub the metal well. 
 Wipe it off with a soft cloth, polish with dry 
 leather, and use more of the kernel. In respect 
 to steel, if it is very rusty, use a little powder of 
 pumice with the liquid, on a separate woollen rag 
 first. 
 
 To Takeout Writing. 
 
 Wash by means of camel's hair pencils dipped 
 alternately in solutions of cyanide of potassium 
 and oxalic acid. 
 
814 
 
 BLEACHING AND SCOUKING. 
 
 To take out Marking Ink. 
 
 Most indelible ink contains silver as a basis, 
 and mny be removed by a solution of cyanide of 
 potassium. When the basis of the ink is carbon, 
 however, this will fail. Chlorine will destroy all 
 stains and markings dependent upon organic 
 matters except the carbon ink. 
 
 To Restore Hangings, Carpets, Chairs, etc. 
 Beat the dust out of them as clean as possible, 
 then rub them over with a dry brush, and make a 
 good lather of Castile soap, and rub them well 
 over with a hard brush, then take clean water and 
 with it wash off the froth, make a water with alum, 
 and wash them over with it, and when dry, mcst 
 of the colors will be restored in a short time; and 
 those that are yet too faint, must oe touched up 
 with a pencil dipped in suitable colors ; it may be 
 rua all over in the same manner with water-colors 
 mixed well with gum-water, and it will look at a 
 distance like new. 
 
 To Clean Paper Hangingt. 
 
 Cut into 8 half-quarters a stale quartern loaf; 
 with one of these pieces, after having blown off all 
 the dust from the paper to be cleaned by means 
 of a good pair of bellows, begin at the top of the 
 room, holding the crust in the hand, and wiping 
 lightly downward with the crumb, about half a 
 yard at each stroke, till the upper part of the 
 hangings is completely cleaned all round; then go 
 again round with the like sweeping stroke down- 
 ward, always commencing each successive course 
 a little higher than the upper stroke had extended, 
 till the bottom be finished. This operation, if 
 carefully performed, will frequently make very old 
 paper look almost equal to new. Great caution 
 must be used not by any means to rub the paper 
 hard, nor to attempt cleaning it the cross or hori- 
 zontal way. The dirty part of the bread too must 
 be each time cut away, and the pieces renewed as 
 goon as at all necessary. 
 
 To Clean Leather. 
 
 Take of French yellow ochre, 1 Ib. ; sweet oil, a 
 dessertspoonful. Mix well together, so that the 
 oil may not be seen ; then take of pipe-clay 1 Ib. ; 
 starch, J Ib. Mix with boiling water; when cold 
 lay it on the leather. When dry rub and brush 
 it well. 
 
 To Clean Marble. 
 
 Take verdigris and pumice-stone,well powdered, 
 \vith lime newly slaked. Mix with soap lees, to 
 the consistence of putty. Put it in a woollen rag, 
 and rub the stains well one way. Wash off with 
 soap and water. Repeat, if not removed. Or, 
 cover the stains with fuller's earth or plaster of 
 Paris, and when dry brush it off. 
 
 To take Stains out of Silver Plate. 
 Steep the plate in soap lyes for the space of 4 
 hours ; then cover it over with whiting, wet with 
 vinegar, so that it may stick thick upon it, and 
 dryit by a fire; after which, rub off the whiting, 
 and pass it over with dry bran, and the spots will 
 not only disappear, but the plate will look exceed- 
 ingly bright. 
 
 To take out Fruit Spots. 
 
 Let the spotted part of the cloth imbibe a little 
 water without dipping, and hold the part over a 
 lighted common brimstone match at a proper dis- 
 tance. The sulphurous acid gas, which is dis- 
 charged, soon causes the spots to disappear. Or, 
 wet the spot with chlorine water. [See page 436.] 
 
 To Clean Gold Lace and Embroidery. 
 For this purpose no alkaline liquors are to be 
 used ; for while they clean the gold they corrode 
 Ihe silk, and change or discharge its color. Soap 
 
 also alters the shade, and even the species of cer. 
 tain colors. But spirit of wine may be used with- 
 out any danger of its injuring either color or 
 quality; and, in many cases, proves as effectual 
 for restoring the lustre of the gold, as the corrosive 
 detergents. But, though spirit of wine is the most 
 innocent material employed for this purpose, it is 
 not in all cases proper. The golden covering may 
 be in some parts worn off; or the base metal, with 
 which it has been alloyed, 'may be corroded by 
 the air, so as to leave the particles of the gold 
 disunited; while the silver underneath, tarnished 
 to a yellow hue, may continue a tolerable color to 
 the whole ; so it is apparent that the removal of 
 the tarnish would be prejudicial, and make the 
 lace or embroidery less like gold than it was before. 
 To Remove Spots of Grease front Cloths. 
 
 Spots of grease may be removed by a diluted 
 solution of potash, but this must be cautiously 
 applied to prevent injury to the cloth. A better 
 way is to lay a piece of brown or blotting-paper 
 over the spot, and pass over it a hot iron. The 
 grease is absorbed by the paper. Stains of white 
 wax, which sometimes falls upon clothes from wax- 
 candles, are removed by spirits of turpentine, sul- 
 phuric ether, or benzine. The marks of white 
 paint may also be discharged by the above-men- 
 tioned agents. 
 
 To take Mildew out of Linen. 
 
 Rub it well with soap; then scrape some fine 
 chalk and rub that also in the linen, lay it on the 
 grass ; as it dries, wet it a little, and it will come 
 out after twice doing. [See page 437.] 
 To take ont Spots of Ink. 
 
 As soon as the accident happens, wet the place 
 with juice of sorrel or lemon, or with vinegar, and 
 the best hard white soap. Oxalic acid in weak 
 solution is more active, but must be used cau- 
 tiously. 
 
 To take out Stains of Cloth or Silk. 
 
 Pound French chalk fine, mix with lavender- 
 water to the thickness of mustard. Put on the 
 stain; rub it soft with the finger or palm of the 
 hand. Put a sheet of blotting and brown paper 
 on the top, and smooth it with an iron, milk-warm. 
 To Remove Grease Spots from Paper. 
 
 Let the paper stained with grease, wax, oil, or 
 any other fat body, be gently warmed, taking out 
 as much as possible of it by blotting-paper. Dip 
 a small brush in ether or benzine, and draw it 
 gently over both sides of the paper, which must 
 be carefully kept warm. Let this operation be 
 repeated as many times as the quantity of the fat- 
 body, imbibed by the paper, or the thickness of 
 the paper may render it necessary. When the 
 greasy substance is removed, to restore die paper 
 to its former whiteness, dip another brush in 
 highly rectified spirit of wine, and draw it, in like 
 manner over the place; and particularly around 
 the edges, to remove the border that would still 
 present a stain. If the process has been employed 
 on a part written on with common ink, or printed 
 with printer's ink, it will experience no alteration. 
 
 Another. Scrape finely some pipe-clay (the 
 quantity will be easily determined on making the 
 experiment); on this lay the sheet or leaf, and 
 cover the spot, in like manner, with the clay. 
 Cover the whole with a sheet of paper, and apply, 
 for a few seconds, a heated iron-box, or any sub- 
 stitute adopted by laundresses. On using Indian, 
 rubber, to remove the dust taken up by the grease, 
 the paper will be found restored to its original 
 whiteness and opacity. This simple method has 
 often proved much more effectual than turpentine, 
 and was remarkably so, in an instance, where the 
 
MORDANTS AND DYE-STUFFS. 
 
 315 
 
 folio of a ledger had exhibited the ranrks of candle- 
 grease and the snuff fur more than 12 months. 
 
 To Cleanse Gloves. 
 Benzine is the best material for cleaning gloves. 
 
 It may be applied with a soft sponge or a pieoe 
 of cloth. 
 
 To Clean Straw Huts. 
 
 Rub the soiled straw with a cut lemon, and wash 
 off the juice with water. Stiffen with gum-water 
 
 ., in all its Varieties. 
 
 PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 
 
 The art of dyeing has for its object the fixing 
 permanently of a color of a definite shade upon 
 stuffs. The stuffs are animal, as silk, wool, and 
 feathers, or vegetable, as cotton and linen. The 
 former take the colors much more readily, and 
 they are more brilliant. 
 
 In some cases, as in dyeing silk and wool with 
 coal-tar colors, the color at once unites with the 
 fiber; generally, however, a process of prepara- 
 tion is necessary. In certain other cases, as in 
 dyeing silk and wool yellow by nitric acid, the 
 color is due to a change in the stuff, and is not 
 properly dyeing. 
 
 Insoluble colors are managed by taking advan- 
 tage of known chemical changes; thus chromate 
 of lend (chrome yellow) is precipitated by dipping 
 the stuff into solutions, first of acetate of lead, 
 and then of bichromate of potassa. 
 
 Mordants (binder mittle, middle binder of the 
 Germans) are bodies which, by their attraction 
 for organic matter, adhere to the fibre of the stuff, 
 and also to the coloring matter. They are applied 
 first; but in domestic dyeing they are often mixed 
 with the dye-stuff. By the use of a mordant, a 
 dye which would wash out is rendered permanent. 
 
 Some mordants modify the color; thus alum 
 brightens madder, giving a light-red, while iron 
 darkens it, giving a purple. 
 
 MORDANTS. 
 
 The principal mordants are alum, cubic-alum, 
 acetate of alumina, protochloride of tin, bichloride 
 of tin, sulphate of iron, acetate of iron, tannin, 
 stannate of soda. 
 
 DYE-STUFFS. 
 
 The materials used in dyeing are numerous ; the 
 following are the most important: Madder, in- 
 digo, logwood, quercitron or oak-baric, Brazil- 
 wood, sumach, galls, weld, annato, turmeric, al- 
 kanet, red saunders, litmus or archil, cudbear, 
 cochineal, lac; and the following mineral sub- 
 stances : ferrocyajiide of potassium, bichromate of 
 potash, cream of tartar, lime-water, and verdigris. 
 
 Coal-tar Colors 
 
 Are made under patents, and on the large scale. 
 The receipts for their manufacture will, therefore, 
 not be given ; in many cases, indeed, they are 
 kept secret. Especial instructions as to their use 
 will be found at the end of the article. 
 
 Other Materials. 
 
 A bath of cow's dung is used after mordanting 
 vegetable fibres, to remove the excess of mordant. 
 A solution of silicate of soda has been lately used 
 as a substitute. 
 
 Albumen, or gluten, is u?td to thicken the 
 colors for printing, and sometimes to fix them. 
 The colors are incorporated with the albumen ap- 
 plied to the stuff. By exposure to heat the albu- 
 men is Coagulated and the color fixed. 
 
 Silicate of Soda, as a Means of Fixing Mordants. 
 
 The use of silicate of soda in calico printing has 
 the advantage of rendering the colors deeper than 
 when the dung-bath alone is used. In reference 
 to the action of this salt, it is worthy of remark 
 that alkaline silicates exist in cow-dung, which, 
 according to Rogers, contains 17*5 per cent, of 
 solid substance, 15 per cent, of this ash; so that 
 the fresh dung contains 2*6 per cent, of ash, and 
 the ash contains 62'5 per cent, of silica. A large 
 portion of this silica is in the insoluble condition, 
 but the quantity of soluble silica is not inconsid- 
 erable. The soluble portion of the ash amounts 
 to 38 per cent., and of this 12 per. cent, is silica, 
 and 10 per cent, potash and soda. There is, there- 
 fore, reason for regarding silicate of soda as the 
 efficient ingredient of cow-dung. 
 
 Alum, 
 
 Used as mordant for silk and wool, is then dis- 
 solved in water. If it contain iron, reds will be 
 injured. It is a sulphate of alumina combined 
 with sulphate of potassa or ammonia. The alu- 
 lumina is the active mordant. Ammonia alum 
 may be distinguished from potash alum by adding 
 a little caustic potash to the powder; if ammonia 
 exist it will be given off, and may be easily recog- 
 nized by its pungent smell. 
 
 Cubic Alum 
 
 Is much used. It is made by adding carbonate 
 of soda to alum until the precipitate, at first thrown 
 down, is re-dissolved. If too much be added a 
 permanent precipitate will be formed. It yields 
 its alumina much more readily to organic matter 
 than common alum. 
 
 Acetate of Alumina. 
 
 Used for COTTON and LINEN. When heated the 
 acetic acid is driven off, and the alumina remains 
 in the fibre. It is made by adding a solution of 
 acetate (sugar) of lead to a solution of alum as 
 long as any precipitate is formed; or take 8 Ibs. 
 alum, 6i Ibs. sugar of lead; dissolve each in 2 
 galls, of boiling water. Mix and allow to settle. 
 
 Bichloride of Tin (Salt of Tin, Nitromuriate of 
 Tin). 
 
 Take 4 Ibs. of commercial nitric acid, Ib. sal 
 ammoniac ; put it in a stone vessel, and add Ib. 
 of pure granulated tin ; or dissolve granulated tin 
 in a mixture of 2 parts muriatic to 1 of nitric acid 
 as long as any is taken up. 
 
 Protochloride of Tin. 
 
 Dissolve granulated tin in hot muriatic acid as 
 long as any is taken up. Cream of tartar is gen- 
 erally added to the alum and tin bath. 
 
 Copperas. 
 
 Used for dyeing dark shades in wool. It is 
 made by dissolving clean iron in dilute sulphuric 
 acid and crystallizing. An inferior kind is made 
 from pyrites. It contains iron in the form of prot- 
 oxide. On exposure to the air, however, more 
 oxygen is taken up, and, as in the case of all the 
 salts of the protoxide of iion, sesqaioxide ia 
 
316 
 
 DYEING. 
 
 formed. This is a powerful mordant, as may be 
 seen by the tenacity with which iron mould ad- 
 heres to stuffs. 
 
 Acetate of Iron 
 
 Is made by dissolving iron scraps in acetic or py- 
 roligheous acid. It is preferred for dyeing vegeta- 
 ble fibres. 
 
 Nitrate of Iron. 
 
 Take 10J l^s. each nitric and muriatic acids, and 
 add little by iui 1 * 7 2 Ibs. of copperas dissolved 
 in water. 
 
 Preparation for Dyeing. 
 
 Wool requires to be scoured ; raw silk to be 
 ungurnmed ; cotton to be sheared, singed, and 
 bleached. (See BLEACHING AND SCOURING.) 
 
 To Determine the Effects of Various Salts or Mor- 
 dants on Colors. 
 TJie Dye of Madder. 
 
 For a madder red on woolens, the best quantity 
 of madder is of the weight of the woollens that 
 are to be dyed ; the best proportion of salts to be 
 used, is 5 parts of alum and 1 of red tartar, for 
 16 parts of the stuff. 
 
 A variation in the proportions of the salts, 
 wholly alters the color that the madder naturally 
 gives. If the alum is lessened, and the tartar in- 
 creased, the dye proves a red cinnamon. If the 
 alum be entirely omitted, the red wholly disap- 
 pears, and a durable tawny cinnamon is produced. 
 
 If woollens are boiled in weak pearlash and 
 water, the greater part of the color is destroyed. 
 A solution of soap discharges part of the color, 
 and leaves the remaining more beautiful. 
 
 Volatile alkalies heighten the red color of the 
 madder, but they make the dye fugitive. 
 To Dye Wool and Woollen Cloths of a Slue Color. 
 
 Dissolve 1 part of indigo in 4 parts of concen- 
 trated sulphuric acid; to the solution add 1 part 
 of dry carbonate of potass, and then dilute it with 
 8 times its weight of water. The cloth must be 
 boiled for an hour in a solution containing 5 parts 
 of alum and 3 of tartar, for every 32 parts of 
 cloth. It is then to be thrown into a water- 
 bath, previously prepared, containing a greater 
 or smaller proportion of diluted sulphate of in- 
 digo, according to the shade which the cloth is 
 intended to receive. In this bath it must be boiled 
 till it has acquired the wished-for color. 
 
 The only coloring matters employed in dyeing 
 blue, are woad and indigo. 
 
 Indigo has a very strong affinity for wool, silk, 
 cotton, and linen. Every kind of cloth, therefore, 
 may be dyed with it without the assistance of any 
 mordant whatever. The color thus induced is 
 very permanent. But indigo can only be applied 
 to cloth in a state of solution, and the only solvent 
 known is sulphuric acid. The sulphate of indigo 
 is often used to dye wool and silk blue, and is 
 known by the name of saxon blue. 
 
 It is not the only solution of that pigment 
 employed in dyeing. By far the most common 
 method is, to deprive indigo of its blue color and 
 reduce it to green, and then to dissolve it in water 
 by means of alkalies. Two different methods are 
 employed for this purpose. The first is, to mix 
 with indigo a solution of green oxide of iron, and 
 different metallic sulphurets. If therefore indigo, 
 lime, and green sulphate of iron are mixed toge- 
 ther in water, the indigo gradually loses its blue 
 color, becomes green, and is dissolved. The second 
 method is, to mix the indigo in water with certain 
 vegetable substances which readily undergo fer- 
 mentation; the indigo is dissolved by means of 
 quicklime or alkali, which is added tc the solu- 
 tion. 
 
 The first of these methods is usually followed 
 by dyeing cotton and linen; the necond in dyeing 
 wool and silk. 
 
 In the dyeing of wool, woad and bran are com- 
 monly employed as vegetable ferments, and lirno 
 as the solvent of the green base of the indigo. 
 Woad itself contains a coloring matter precisely 
 similar to indigo ; and by following the common 
 process, indigo may be extracted from it. In the 
 usual state of woad when pure-based by the dyer, 
 the indigo which it contains is probably not far 
 from the state of green pollen. Its quantity in 
 woad is but small, and it is mixed with a great 
 proportion of other vegetable matter. 
 
 When the cloth is first taken out of the vat, it 
 is of a green color; but it soons becomes blue. 
 It ought to be carefully washed, to carry off the 
 uncombined particles. This solution of indigo is 
 liable to two inconveniences: first, it is apt some- 
 times to run too fast into the putrid fermentation ; 
 this may be known by the putrid vapors which it 
 exhales, and by the disappearance of the green 
 color. In this state it would soon destroy the 
 indigo altogether. The inconvenience is remedied 
 by adding more lime, which has the property of 
 moderating the putrescent tendency Secondly, 
 sometimes the fermentation goes on too ^^nguidly. 
 This defect is remedied by adding more bran or 
 woad, in order to diminish the proportion of thick 
 lime. 
 
 To make Chemic Blue and Green. 
 
 Chemic for light blues and greens, on silk, cot- 
 ton or woollen, and for cleaning and whitening 
 cottons, is made by the following process: 
 
 Take 1 Ib. of the best oil of vitriol, which pour 
 upon 1 oz. of the best indigo, well pounded and 
 sifted ; add to this after it has been well stirred, 
 a small lump of common pearlash as big as a 
 pea, or from that to the size of 2 peas; this will 
 immediately raise a great fermentation, and cause 
 the indigo to dissolve in minuter and finer parti- 
 cles than otherwise. As soon as this fermentation 
 ceases, put it into a bottle tightly corked, and it 
 may be used the next day. Observe, if more than 
 the quantity prescribed of pearlash should be 
 used, it will deaden and sully the color. 
 
 Chemic for green, as above for blue, is made by 
 only adding one-fourth more of the oil of vitriol* 
 
 To Discharge Colors. 
 
 The dyers generally put all colored silks which 
 are to be discharged, into a copper in which a 
 Ib. or 1 Ib. of white soap has been dissolved. They 
 are then boiled off, and when the copper begins to 
 be too full of color, the silks are taken out and 
 rinsed in warm water. In the interim a fresh so- 
 lution of soap is to be added to the copper, and 
 then proceed as before till all the color is dis- 
 charged. For those colors thafare wanted to bo 
 effectually discharged, such as greys, cinnamons, 
 etc., when soap does not do, tartar must be used. 
 For slate colors, greenish drabs, olive drabs, etc., 
 oil of vitriol in warm water must be used ; if other 
 colors, alum must be boiled in the copper, then 
 cooled down and the silks entered and boiled off, 
 recollecting to rinse them before they are again 
 dyed. A small quantity of muriatic acid, diluted 
 in warm water, must be used to discharge some 
 fast colors ; the goods must be afterwards well 
 rinsed in warm and cold water to prevent any in- 
 jury to the stalk. 
 
 To Discharge Cinnamons, Grays, etc., when Dyed 
 
 Too Full. 
 
 Take some tartar, pounded in a mortar, sift it 
 into a bucket, then pour over it some boiling water. 
 The silks, etc., may then be rvn through the clear- 
 
DYEING. 
 
 317 
 
 est of this liquor, which will discharge the oolor ; 
 but if the dye does not take on again evenly, more 
 tartar may be added, and the goods run through 
 as before. 
 To Re- Dye or Change the Color of Garments, etc. 
 
 The change of color depends upon the ingredi- 
 ents with which the garments have been dyed. 
 Sometimes when these have been well cleaned, 
 more dyeing stuff must be added, which will afford 
 the color intended; and sometimes the color al- 
 ready on the cloth must be discharged and the 
 article re-dyed. 
 
 Every color in nature will dye black, whether 
 blue, yellow, red, or brown, and black will always 
 dye black again. All colors will take the same 
 color again which they already possess; and blues 
 can be made green or black; green may be made 
 brown, and brown green, and every color on re- 
 dyeing will take a darker tint than at first. 
 
 Yellows, browns, and blues, are not easily dis- 
 charged ; maroons, reds of some kind^ olives, etc., 
 may be discharged. 
 
 For maroons, a small quantity of alum may be 
 boiled in a copper, and when it is dissolved, put 
 in the goods, keep them boiling, and probably in 
 a few minutes, enough of it will be discharged to 
 take the color intended. 
 
 Olives, grays, etc., are discharged by putting 
 in 2 or 3 tablcspoonfuls, more or less, of oil of 
 vitriol ; then put in the garment, etc., and boil, 
 and it will become white. If chemic green, either 
 alum, pearlash, or soap will discharge it off to 
 the yellow ; this yellow may mostly be bailed off 
 with soap, if it has received a preparation for tak- 
 ing the chemic blue. Muriatic acid used at a hand 
 heat will discharge most colors. A black may be 
 dyed maroon, claret, green, or a dark brown; and 
 it often happens that black is dyed cla.-et, green, 
 or dark brown ; but green is the principal color 
 into which black is changed. 
 
 To Alum Silks. 
 
 Silk should be alumed cold, for when it is alum- 
 ed hot, it is deprived of a great part of its lustre. 
 The alum liquor should always be strong for silks, 
 as they take the dye more readily afterwards. 
 
 To Dye Silk Blue. 
 
 Silk is dyed light blue by a ferment of 6 parts 
 of bran, 6 of indigo, 6 of potassa, and 1 of madder. 
 To dye it of a dark blue, it must previously re- 
 ceive what is called a groundcolor j a red dye- 
 stuff, called archil, is used for this purpose. 
 
 Prussian Blue. 
 
 A mordant is prepared of nitrate of iion, 1 pt. ; 
 8 oz. of bichloride of tin crystals, oz. of oil of 
 vitriol, and 10 galls, of water. Another liquid is 
 prepared by dissolving 4 oz. of red or yellow 
 prussiate of potash, according to the shade desired. 
 The silks are to be alternately handled in these 
 for 10 minutes, 6 times. After each handling they 
 are washed in cream of tartar water. 
 
 To Dye Cotton and Linen Blue. 
 
 Cotton and linen are dyed blue by a solution of 
 1 part of indigo, 1 part of green sulphate of iron, 
 and 2 parts of quicklime. 
 
 Yellow Dyes. 
 
 The principal coloring matters for dyeing yel- 
 low, are weld, fustic, and quercitron bark. Yel- 
 low coloring matters have too weak an affinity for 
 cloth, to produce permanent colors without the 
 use of mordants. Cloth, therefore, before it is 
 dyed yellow, is always prepared by soaking it in 
 alumina. Oxide of tin is sometimes used when 
 very fine yellows are wanting. Tan is oiten em- 
 
 ployed as subsidiary to alumina, and in order to 
 fix it more copiously on cotton and linen. Tartar 
 is also used as an auxiliary, to brighten the color; 
 and muriate of soda, sulphate of lime, and even 
 sulphate of iron, to render the sh^de deeper. 
 The yellow dye by means of fustic is more perma- 
 nent, but not so beautiful as that given by weld, 
 or quercitron. As it is permanent, and not much 
 injured by acids, it is often used in dyeing com- 
 pound colors, where a yellow is required. The 
 mordant is alumina. When the mordant is oxide 
 of iron, fustic dyes a good permanent drab color. 
 Weld and quercitron bark yield nearly the same 
 kind of color; but the bark yields coloring mat- 
 ter in greater abundance and is cheaper than weld. 
 The method of using each of these dye-stuffs is 
 nearly the same. 
 
 To Dye Woollens Yellow. 
 
 Wool may be dyed yellow by the following pro- 
 cess ; let it be boiled for an hour, or more, with 
 above 1-6 of its weight of alum, dissolved in a 
 sufficient quantity of water as a mordant. It is 
 then to be plunged, without being rinsed, into a 
 bath of warm water, containing as much querci- 
 tron bark as equals the weight of the alum em- 
 ployed as a mordant. The cloth is to be turned 
 through the boiling liquid, till it has acquired the 
 intended color. Then, a quantity of clean pow- 
 dered chalk, equal to the 100th part of the weight 
 of the cloth, is to be stirred in, and the operation 
 of dyeing continued for 8 or 10 minutes longer. 
 By this method a pretty deep and lively yellow 
 may be given. 
 
 For very bright orange, or golden yellow, it is 
 necessary to use the oxide of tin as a mordant. 
 For producing bright golden yellows, some alum 
 must be added along with the tin. To give the 
 yellow a delicate green shade, tartar must be 
 added in different proportions, according to the 
 
 To Dye Silks Yellow. 
 
 Silk may be dyed of different shades of yellow, 
 either by weld or quercitron bark, but the last is 
 the cheapest of the two. The proportion should 
 be from 1 to 2 parts of bark, to 12 parts of silk, 
 according to the shade. The bark, tied up in a 
 bag, should be put in the dyeing vessel, whilst 
 the water which it contains is cold ; and when it 
 has acquired the heat of about 100, the silk, hav- 
 ing been previously alumed, should be dipped in, 
 and continued, till it has assumed the wished-for 
 color. When the shade is required to be deep, a 
 little chalk or pearlash should be added towards 
 the end of the operation. Silk and wool may be 
 dyed a fine yellow by picric acid; 15 grains will 
 color 2 Ibs. of silk. No mordant is necessary. 
 Various shades may be obtained by using solu- 
 tions of different strength. 
 
 To Dye Cottons and Linens Yellow. 
 
 The mordant should be acetate of alumina, pre- 
 pared by dissolving 1 part of acetate of lead, and 
 3 parts of alum, in a sufficient quantity of water. 
 This solution should be heated to the temperature 
 of 100, the cloth should be soaked in it for 2 
 hours, then wrung out and dried. The soaking 
 may be repeated, and the cloth again dried as be- 
 fore. It is then to be barely wetted with lime- 
 water, and afterwards dried. The soaking in the 
 acetate of alumina may be again repeated; and if 
 the shade of yellow is required to be very bright 
 and durable, the alternate wetting with lime- 
 water and soaking in the mordant may be repeat- 
 ed 3 or 4 times. 
 
 The dyeing-bath is prepared by putting 12 or 18 
 parts of quercitron bark (according to the depth 
 
318 
 
 DYEING. 
 
 of the shade required), tied up in a bag, into a 
 sufficient quantity of cold water. Into this bath 
 the cloth is to be put, and turned in it for an hour, 
 while its temperature is gradually raised to about 
 120. It is then to be brought to a boiling heat, 
 and the cloth allowed to remain in it only for a 
 few minutes. If it is kept long nt a boiling heat, 
 the yellow acquires a shade of brown. 
 
 Golden ( Chrome) Yellow on Cotton. 
 Heat till boiling, stirring all the time, 8J oz. 
 sugar of lead, 16 oz. litharge, 3 galls, of water. 
 Keep boiling about 10 minutes ; le;ive to settle, 
 decant, and while warm, handle carefully in it 
 the bleached cotton. When the cotton is thor- 
 oughly impregnated with the subacetate of lead 
 of the bath, dry it by a gentle heat, and handle it 
 in a bath of 8 oz. bichromate of potassa and 4 oz. 
 of nitric avid. Wash well with warm water. 
 Afterward? dip it into a bath of 2 drs. saffron to 
 1 qt. of strong alcohol, until the desired tint is 
 acquired. Ulrich. 
 
 COAL-TAR AND OTHER NEW COLORS. 
 
 Coal-tar colors are made from aniline, carbolic 
 or phenic acid and naphthaline, bodies obtained 
 directly or indirectly from the distillation of coal. 
 The following, among others, have been obtained 
 from aniline, aniline purple, violine, rosein, bleu 
 de Paris, magenta, mauve, fuchsine, Tyrian pur- 
 ple, night blue, aniline black, emeraldine. These 
 may be divided into two groups : the reds as ma- 
 genta, made by the action of bichlorides of car- 
 bon, tin or mercury on aniline, and the purples as 
 mauve, made by the action of oxidizing agents, 
 as bichromate of potas^a. 
 
 Picric acid is obtained by the action of nitric 
 acid upon phenic aoid, the coal-tar creasote; it is 
 a fine yellow. Artificial alzarin, carminaphtha, 
 etc., obtained frem naphthaline, are not employed 
 practically in dyeing. 
 
 Chrysamntic add is made by the action of nitric 
 acid on aloes ; it gives blues, purples and greens, 
 which are very solid. 
 
 Chinese Green, apparently identical with the 
 lo-kao, is obtained from the bark of the Rhamnua 
 catfiarticns (Buckthorn). 
 
 Mnrexide, a splendid purple, is obtained from 
 guano by the action of nitric acid. It has been 
 displaced by the aniline purples. 
 
 JHolybdate of ammonia gives a magnificent and 
 permanent blue to silks. 
 
 To Dye Silk and Wool with Coal-tar Colors. 
 
 Silk and wool can be dyed with all these colors, 
 except the roseolates. Many of them, as aniline 
 purple and violine, are taken from their solutions 
 so perfectly as to leave the menstruum colorless. 
 The coloring matters are generally dissolved in 
 alcohol ; for silks, this is diluted with eight times 
 its bulk of hot water, slightly acidulated with tar- 
 taric acid ; this is poured into the dye-bath, which 
 consists of cold water, slightly acidulated. For 
 wool, the solutions are cold, and acids are to be 
 avoided as much as possible, as the colors are not 
 so fine when they are used. 
 
 Red Dyes. 
 
 The coloring matters employed for dyeing red 
 are archil, madder, carthamus, kermes, cochineal, 
 and Brazil-wood. 
 
 To Dye Woollens Red, Crimson, and Scarlet. 
 
 Coarse woollen stuffs are dyed red with mad- 
 der or .irchil, but fine cloth is almost exclusively 
 dyed with cochineal, though the color which it re- 
 ceives from kermes is much more durable. Bra- 
 zil-wood is scarcely used, except as an auxiliary, 
 
 because the color which it imparts to wool is not 
 permanent. 
 
 Wood is died crimson, by first impregnating it 
 with alumine by means of an alum bath, and then 
 boiling it in a decoction of -cochineal till it has 
 acquired the wished-for color. The crimson will 
 be finer if the tin-mordant is substituted for alum ; 
 indeed, it is usual with dyers to add a little bi- 
 chloride when they want fine crimsons. The ad- 
 dition of archil and potass to the cochineal both 
 renders the crimson darker and gives it more 
 bloom, but the bloom very soon vanishes. For 
 paler crimsons, one-half of the cochineal is with- 
 drawn, and madder substituted in its place. 
 
 Wool may be died scarlet by first boiling it in 
 a solution of protochloride of tin, then dyeing it 
 pale yellow with quercitron bark, and afterwards 
 crimson with cochineal, for scarlet is a compound 
 color, consisting of crimson mixed with a little 
 yellow. 
 
 To Carry the Color into the Body of the Cloth. 
 
 Make the moistened cloth pass through between 
 rollers placed within at the bottom of the dye-vat, 
 so that the web passing from one windlass through 
 the dye-vat, and being strongly compressed by the 
 rollers in its passage to another windlass, all the 
 remaining water is driven out, and is re-placed by 
 the coloring liquid, so as to receive color into its 
 very centre. The winding should be continued 
 backwards and forwards from one windlass to the 
 other, and through the rolling-press, till the dye is 
 of sufficient intensity. 
 
 To Dye Silks Red, Crimson, etc. 
 
 Silk is usually dyed red with cochineal or car- 
 thamus, and sometimes with Brazil-wood. Kermes 
 does not answer for silk; madder is scarcely ever 
 used for that purpose, because it does not yield a 
 color bright enough. Archil is employed to give 
 silk a bloom, but it is scarcely ever used by itself, 
 unless when the color wanted is lilac. 
 
 Silk may be dyed crimson by steeping it in a 
 solution of alum, and then dyeing it in the usual 
 way in a cochineal bath. 
 
 The colors known by the names of poppy, cher- 
 ry, rose, and flesh-color, are given to silk by means 
 of carthamus. The process consists merely in 
 keeping the silk as long as it extracts any color 
 in an alkaline solution of carthamus, into which 
 as much lemon-juice as gives it a fine cherry-red 
 color, has been poured. 
 
 Silk cannot be oyed a full scarlet, but a color 
 approaching to scarlet may be given 'to it by first 
 impregnating the stuff with protochloride of tin, 
 and afterwards dyeing it in a bath composed of 
 4 parts of cochineal and 4 parts of quercitron 
 bark. To give the color more body, both the mor- 
 dant and the dye may be repeated. 
 
 A color approaching to scarlet may be given to 
 silk by first dyeing it in crimson, then dyeing it 
 with carthamus, and lastly yellow, without heat. 
 
 To Dye Linens and Cottons Red, Scarlet, etc. 
 
 Cotton and linen are dyed red with madder. 
 The process was borrowed from the East; hence 
 the color is often called Adrianople, or Turkey- 
 red. The cloth is first impregnated with oil, then 
 with galls, and lastly with alum. It is then boiled 
 for an hour in a decoction of madder, which is 
 commonly mixed with a quantity of blood. After 
 the cloth is dyed it is plunged into a soda lye, in 
 order to brighten the color. The red given by 
 this process is very permanent, and when prop- 
 erly conducted it is exceedingly beautiful. Tho 
 whole difficulty consists in the application of the 
 mordant, which is by far the most complicated 
 employed in the whole art of dyeing. 
 
COMPOUND COLORS. 
 
 319 
 
 Solferino, aniline green, etc., are obtained from 
 coal tar. The silk is dyed without mordant. 
 
 Turkey-red on Cotton. 
 
 The cotton goods are cleaned regularly with 
 ioap made from cocoanut or palm oil, and a cop- 
 per proportioned to the quantity of work ; from 10 
 Yds. to 100 yds. is made to boil, and when it boils 
 the water is merely softened with pearlash, and 
 then some of the palm-oil soap put in to make a 
 soap liquor; put the cottons in this, boil hour; 
 have a tub with clean hot soap-liquor in it, han- 
 dle the work well in this, wring it out and hang 
 it up to xy. The next process is to beat up 
 sheep and cow-dung, ash and water together un- 
 til you have a paste; work this through a sieve 
 into a clean copper, and put to it one-fourth of its 
 bulk of sweet oil. Stir all together, with a fire 
 under the copper, until a soap is formed. Add 
 double its bulk of water. The cotton is well han- 
 dled in this and allowed to dry overnight. In the 
 morning it has a palm soap liquor, wrung out 
 well and dried, and when dry is regularly cleaned 
 in cocoanut-oil soap and dried again. Next give 
 it a strong nut-gall liquor, and then a strong, hot 
 alum ; give it an hour in the aluui, then return to 
 the nut gall liquor again for an hour, and then 
 another hour in the alum ; wring it out and dry 
 it. In a clean copper put for every 3 pails of wa- 
 ter 1 Ib. of the best madder and 1 qt. of horses', 
 sheeps', pigs' or bullocks' blood ; get the copper 
 on to a scald, and handle in it, but do not boil ; 
 keep it in an hour, and then give it a good strong 
 alum and hot water for i an hour: rinse in two 
 waters and return to the blood and madder cop- 
 per for half an hour ; rinse dry and clean in 
 very hot and strong soap liquors; dry, give them 
 a weak starch for a finish. Love's Art of Dye- 
 ing, etc. 
 
 Slack Dyes. 
 
 The substance employed to give a black color 
 to cloth, are red oxide of iron and tannin ; also, 
 bichromate of potassa and logwood. These sub- 
 stances have a strong affinity for each other, and 
 when combined assume a deep black color, not 
 liable to he destroyed by the action of air or light. 
 
 Logwood is usually employed as an auxiliary 
 because it communicates lustre, and adds conside- 
 rably to the fulness of the black. It is the wood 
 of a tree which is a native of several of the West- 
 India island?, and of that part of Mexico which 
 surrounds the bay of Honduras. It yields its col- 
 oring matter to water. The decoction is at first a 
 fine red, bordering on violet, but if left to itself 
 it gradually assumes a black color. Acids give it 
 a deep red color ; alkalies, a deep violet, inclin- 
 ing to brown ; sulphate of iron renders it as black 
 as ink, and occasions a precipitate of the same 
 color. 
 
 Cloth, before it receives a black color, is usually 
 dyed blue; this renders the color much fuller and 
 finer than it would otherwise be. If the cloth is 
 coarse, the blue dye may be too expensive; in 
 that case a brown color is given by means of wal- 
 nut-peels. 
 
 To Dye Woollens Black. 
 
 Wool is dyed black by the following process : 
 It is boiled for 2 hours in a decoction of nut-galls, 
 and afterwards kept for 2 hours more in a bath 
 composed of logwood and sulphate of iron, kept 
 during the whole time at a scalding heat, but not 
 boiling. During the operation it must be fre- 
 quently exposed to the air, because the green 
 oxide of iron of which the sulphate is composed 
 must be converted rfito red oxide by absorbing 
 oxygen before the cloth can acquire a proper 
 ool)r. The common proportions are 5 farts of 
 
 galls, 5 of sulphate of iron and 30 of logwood 
 for every 100 of cloth. A little acetate of copper 
 is commonly added to the sulphate of iron, be- 
 cause it is thought to improve the color. 
 
 To Dye Wool a Chrome Black. 
 
 Having cleaned the wool with soap and cream 
 of tartar, take 4 oz. each of bichromate of potash 
 and crude tartar to a copper of water; put in the 
 merino, boil for 40 minutes, and, after cooling, 
 immerse in a bath made from 4 oz. logwood chips 
 with one-fourth of fustic chips to a copper of 
 water. 
 
 To Dye Silks Black. 
 
 Silk is dyed in nearly the same manner. It is 
 capable of combining with a great deal of tan, 
 the quantity given is varied at the pleasure of the 
 artist, by allowing the silk to remain a longer or 
 shorter time in the decoction. 
 
 To Dye Cottons and Linens Black. 
 
 The cloth, previously dyed blue, is steeped for 
 24 hours in a decoction of nut-galls. A bath is 
 prepared containing acetate of iron, formed by 
 saturating acetic acid with sesquioxide of iron ; 
 into this bath the cloth is put in small quantities 
 at a time, wrought with the hand fora quarter of 
 an hour; then wrung out and aired again, wrought 
 in a fresh quantity of the bath, and afterwards 
 aired. These alternate processes are repeated till 
 the color wanted is given ; a decoction of alder 
 bark is usually mixed with the liquor containing 
 the nut-galls. 
 
 To Dye Wool, etc., Brown. 
 
 Brown, or fawn color, though in fact a com- 
 pound, is usually ranked among the simple colon 
 because it is applied to cloth by a single proces*. 
 Various substances are used for brown dyes. 
 
 Walnut- peels, or the green covering of the wal- 
 nut, when first separated, are white internally, but 
 soon assume a brown, or even a black color, on 
 exposure to the air. They readily yield their col- 
 oring matter to water. They are usually kept in 
 large casks, covered with water, for above a year 
 before they are used. To dye wool brown with 
 them, nothing more is necessary than to steep the 
 cloth in a decoction of them till it has acquired 
 the wished-for color. The depth of the shade is 
 proportional to the strength of the decoction. 
 
 The root of the walnut-tree contains the same 
 coloring matter, but in smaller quantity. The 
 bark of the birch also, and many other trees, may 
 be used for the same purpose. 
 
 To Dye Compound Colors. 
 
 Compound colors are produced by mixing to- 
 gether two simple ones; or, which is the same 
 thing, by dyeing cloth first of the simple color, 
 and then by another. These colors vary to infi- 
 nity, according to the proportions of the ingredi- 
 ents employed. 
 
 From blue, red and yellow, red olives and green- 
 ish grays are made. 
 
 From blue, red and brown, olives are made from 
 the lightest to the darkest shades; and by giving 
 a greater shade of red, the slated and lavender 
 grays are made. 
 
 From blue, red and black, grays of all shades 
 are made, such as sage, pigeon, slate and lead 
 grays. The king's or prince's color is duller than 
 usual ; this mixture produces a variety of hues, or 
 colors almost to infinity. 
 
 From yellow, blue and brown, are made the 
 goose dung and olives of all kinds. 
 
 From brown, blue and black, are produced 
 brown olives and their shades. 
 
 From red, yellow and brown, are derived the 
 
320 
 
 DYEING. 
 
 orange, gold color, fenille-mort or faded leaf, dead 
 carnations, cinnamon, fawn and tobacco, by using 
 2 or 3 of the colors as required. 
 
 From yellow, red and black, browns of every 
 shade are made. 
 
 From blue nnd yellow, greens of all shades. 
 
 From red and blue, purples of all kinds are 
 formed. 
 
 To Dye Different Shades of Green. 
 
 Green is distinguishable by dyers into a variety 
 of shades, according to the depth, or the preva- 
 lence of either of the component parts. Thus we 
 have sea-green, grass-green, pea-green, etc. 
 
 Wool, silk, and linen, are usually dyed green 
 by giving them first a blue color, and afterwards 
 dyeing them yellow. When the yellow is first 
 given, several inconveniences follow ; the yellow 
 partly separates again in the blue vat, and coin- 
 municates a green color to it, thus rendering it 
 useless for every other purpose except dyeing 
 green. Any of the usual processes for dyeing 
 blue and yellow may be followed, taking care to 
 proportion the depth of the shades to that of the 
 green required. 
 
 When sulphate of indigo is employed, it is usual 
 to mix all the ingredients together, and to dye the 
 cloth at once; this produces what is known by 
 the name of Saxon or English green. 
 
 To Dye Violet, Purple and Lilac. 
 
 Wool is generally first dyed blue, and after- 
 wards scarlet, in the usual manner. By means of 
 cochineal mixed with sulphate of indigo, the pro- 
 cess may be performed at once. Silk is first dyed 
 crimson by means of cochineal, and then dipped 
 into the indigo vat. Cotton and linen are first 
 dyed blue, and then dipped in a decoction of log- 
 wood ; but a more permanent color is given by 
 means of oxide of iron. 
 
 To Dye Olive, Orange and Cinnamon. 
 
 When blue is combined with red and yellow on 
 cloth, the resulting color is olive. Wool may be 
 dyed orange by first dyeing it scarlet and then 
 yellow. When it is dyed first with madder, the 
 result is a cinnamon color. 
 
 Silk is dyed orange by means of carthamus ; a 
 cinnamon color by logwood, Brazil-wood and 
 fustic, mixed together. 
 
 Cotton and linen receive a cinnamon color by 
 means of weld and madder, and an olive color by 
 being passed through a blue, yellow, and then a 
 madder bath. 
 
 To Dye Gray, Drab and Dark Brown. 
 
 If cloth is previously mordanted with iron, and 
 afterwards dyed yellow with quercitron bark, the 
 result will be a drab of different shades, according 
 to the proportion of mordant employed. When 
 the proportion is small, the color inclines to olive, 
 or yellow; on the contrary, the drab may be deep- 
 ened, or saddened, as the dyers term it, by mixing 
 a little sumach with the bark. 
 To Dye a Slack upon Cotton, Linen and Mixed 
 Goods. 
 
 Take tar iron liquor of the very best quality; 
 add to each gall, thereof | of a Ib. of fine flour, 
 and boil it to the consistency of a thin paste. Put 
 the liquor or paste above-mentioned into a tub 
 belonging to a machine used in the process. The 
 goods intended to be dyed are wound upon a rol- 
 ler, and passed through the liquor or paste, betwixt 
 the two rollers; thereby completely staining or 
 dyeing the whole mass or body of the cloth. Pass 
 them into a very hot stove or drying-house till 
 dry, then take cow's dung, put it into a large cop- 
 per of water about scalding hot, and mix it well 
 together, through which pass the piece of cloth 
 
 until it be thoroughly softened. Wash the gooda, 
 so dunged, extremely well in water. Take a quan- 
 tity of madder, or logwood, or sumach, or all of 
 them mixed together, as the strength of - the cloth 
 and nature of the color may require, and put 
 them into a copper or tub of hot water, then enter 
 the goods before mentioned in this liquor, and 
 keep rinsing or moving them therein until they 
 are brought up to the strength of color required. 
 Have the goods again well washed and dried. 
 For dyeing black, it will be proper to pass the 
 goods a second time through the above operation, 
 adding more or less of the dyeing-woods as before. 
 If after the above operations the shade of color is 
 too full, or too much upon the red hue, it will be 
 necessary to give them a little sumach, and then 
 run them through a liquor made from iron and 
 owler, or alder-bark. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 Take common iron liquor, and add | of a Ib. of 
 fine flour, and by boiling bring it to the consistency 
 of a thin paste; or instead of flour, add glue or 
 linseed, or gum, or all of them mixed together, 
 till it is brought to a proper thickness. Then pass 
 the goods through the machine, and follow the 
 before-mentioned operations. 
 
 To Dye Olives, Bottle-greens, Purples, Browns, 
 
 Cinnamons or Snuffs. 
 
 Take common iron liquor, or common iron liquor 
 with alum dissolved therein, in quantity of each 
 according to the shade of color wanted, made into 
 a paste or liquid by adding flour, gum, glue, lin- 
 seed, or one or more of them as before. Then put 
 the liquor or paste above mentioned into a tub 
 belonging to the machine, and pass the goods so 
 intended to be dyed through the machine. Take 
 them from the machine, and hang them up in a 
 very cool room, where they are to remain till thor- 
 oughly dry. Take cow's dung, put it into a large 
 copper of hot water, and mix it well together j 
 through which pass the cloth or goods until thor- 
 oughly softened, the quantity of dung and time 
 required being proportioned as before. 
 
 The goods after this process being well washed, 
 take a quantity of liquor made from madder, log- 
 wood, sumach, fustic, Brazil-wood, quercitron 
 bark, peach-wood, or other woods, to produce the 
 color wanted, or more of them; and if necessary 
 dilute this liquor with water, according to the 
 shade or fulness of color wanted to be dyed. 
 Then work the goods through this liquor; after 
 which pass them through cold or warm water, ac- 
 cording to the color, the proper application of 
 which is well known to dyers, adding a little alum, 
 copperas or Roman vitriol, or two or more of 
 them, first dissolved in water. Then wash them 
 off" in warm water and dry them. But if the color 
 is not sufficiently full, repeat the same operations 
 till it is brought to the shade required. 
 
 To Dye Crimson, Red, Orange, or Yellow. 
 Take red liquor, such as is generally made from 
 alum, and dilute it with water according to the 
 strength or shade of color wanted to dye, bring- 
 ing it to the consistency of a paste or liquid, as 
 before described. Then pass the cloth through 
 the machine; which being dried in a cool room, 
 pass it through the operations 01 dunging and 
 washing as before. Take a quantity of liquor, 
 made from cochineal, madder, peach-wo^d, Bra- 
 zil, logwood, woad, fustic, sumach, or any two or 
 more of them proportioned in strength to the shade 
 or color wanted to dye, and work the goods through 
 this liquor till they are brought to the shade of 
 color required ; after which wash them in cold or 
 warm water, and dry them. 
 
DYEING SILKS. 
 
 321 
 
 Chevreul's Mode of Graduating Shades of Color 
 
 from Prussian Blue. 
 
 Impregnate each parcel of silk to be dyed with 
 a different proportion of the oxide of iron by im- 
 mersing it in a solution, the strength of which has 
 been regulated accordingly. For the deeper tones 
 of color employ the acetate, and for the others the 
 chloride or sulphate. After having properly rinsed 
 (in separate water) each parcel, it is to be dipped 
 into distinct baths of the prussiate of potash, the 
 quantity of which has been ma,de to correspond 
 with the quantity of oxide of iron previously united 
 to it. With these precautions all the desired shades 
 may be obtained. Those which are light and have 
 a greenish cast should be well washed in river 
 water, which will soon produce the blue in its pu- 
 rity. If this does not happen, a very weak solu- 
 tion of muriatic acid will produce the effect to a 
 certainty. 
 
 To Dye Wool a Permanent Blue Color. 
 Take 4 oz. of the best Indigo, reduce it to a very 
 fine powder, and add 12 Ibs. of wool in the grease; 
 put the whole into a copper large enough to con- 
 tain all the wool to be dyed. As soon as the re- 
 quisite color is obtained, let the wool be well 
 washed and dried. The liquor remaining may be 
 again used to produce lighter blues. The color 
 will be as beautiful and permanent as the finest 
 blue produced by woad, and the wool, by this 
 method, will lose less in weight than if it had been 
 previously scoured. 
 
 To Dye Silks and Satins Brown in the small way. 
 Fill the copper with river-water, when it gently 
 boils put in i Ib. of chipped fustic, 2 oz. of mad- 
 der, 1 oz. of sumach, and oz. of cam-wood; but 
 if not required to be so red, the cam-wood may be 
 omitted. These should boil at least from ^ an 
 hour to 2 hours, that the ingredients may be well 
 incorporated. The copper must then be cooled 
 down by pouring in cold water; the goods may 
 then be put in, and simmered gently from an 
 hour to 1 hour. If this color should appear to 
 want darkening or saddening, it may be done by 
 taking out the goods, and adding a small quantity 
 of old black liquor ; a small piece of green cop- 
 peras may be used; rinse in 2 or 3 waters, and 
 hang up to dry. 
 
 To Dye Silks of Fawn-color Drabs. 
 Boil 1 oz. of fustic, J oz. of alder bark, and 2 drs. 
 of archil. From 1 to 2 drs. of the best crop mad- 
 der must be added to a very small quantity of old 
 black liquor, if it be required darker. 
 
 To Dye a Silk Shawl Scarlet. 
 
 First dissolve 2 oz. of white soap in boiling 
 water, handle the shawl through this liquor, now 
 and then rubbing such places with the hands as 
 may appear dirty, till it is as clean as this water 
 will make it. A second, or even a third liquor 
 may be used, if required, the shawl must be 
 rinsed out in warm water. 
 
 Then take oz. of the best Spanish anatto. 
 and dissolve it in hot water ; pour this solution into 
 a pan of warm water, and handle the shawl through 
 this for i of an hour; then take it out and rinse 
 it in clean water. In the meanwhile dissolve a 
 piece of alum of the size of a horse-bean in warm 
 water, and let the shawl remain in this i an hour; 
 take it out and rinse it in clear water. Then boil 
 i oz. of the best cochineal for 20 minutes, dip it 
 out of the copper into a pan, and let the shawl re- 
 main in this from 20 minutes to an hour, which 
 will make it a full blood red. Then take out the 
 shawl, and add to the liquor in the pan 1 qt. more 
 of that out of the copper, if there is as much re- 
 
 maining, and about a small wineglassful of th 
 solution of tin ; when cold; rinse it slightly but in 
 spring-water. 
 
 To Dye a Silk Shawl Crimson. 
 Take about 1 tablespoonful of cud-bear, put it 
 into a small pan, pour boiling water upon it, stir 
 and let it stand a few minutes, then put in the 
 silk, and turn it over a short time, and when the 
 color is full enough take it out; but if it should 
 require more violet or crimson, add 1 or 2 spoon- 
 fuls of purple archil to some warm water: and dry 
 it within doors. To finish it, it must be mangled 
 or calendered, and may be pressed, if such a con- 
 venience is at hand. 
 
 To Dye Silk Lilac. 
 
 For every pound of silk take 1J Ibs. of archil, 
 mix it well with the liquor; make it boil J of an 
 hour, dip the silk quickly, then let it cool, and 
 wash it in river- water, and a fine violet or lilac, 
 more or less full, will be obtained. 
 
 To Dye thick Silks, Satins, Silk Stockings, ftc., of 
 
 a Flesh-color. 
 
 Wash the stockings clean in soap and water, 
 then rinse them in hot water ; if they should not 
 then appear perfectly clear, cut i oz. of white soap 
 into thin slices, and put it into a saucepan half- 
 full of boiling water; when this soap is dissolved, 
 cool the water in the pan, then put in the stock- 
 ings, and simmer for 20 minutes ; take them out, 
 and rinse in hot water; in the interim pour 3 
 tablespoonfuls of purple archil into a washhand- 
 basin half full of hot water ; put the stockings in 
 this dye-water, and when of the shade called half 
 violet or lilac, take them from the dye-water, and 
 slightly rinse them in cold ; when dry hang them 
 up in a close room in which sulphur is burnt; 
 when they are evenly bleached to the shade re- 
 quired of flesh-color, take them from the sulphur- 
 ing-room, and finish them by rubbing the right 
 side with a clean flannel. Some persons calender 
 them afterwards. Satins and silks are done the 
 same way. 
 
 To Dye Silk Stockings Black. 
 These are dyed like other silks, excepting that 
 they must be steeped a day or two in black liquor, 
 before they are put into the black silk dye. At 
 first they will look like an iron gray; but, to finish 
 and black them,, they must be put on wooden 
 legs, laid on a table, and rubbed with the oily rub- 
 ber or flannel, upon which is oil of olives, and 
 then the more they are rubbed the better. Each 
 pair of stockings will require a tablespoonful of 
 oil, at least, and an hour's rubbing, to finish 
 them well. Sweet oil is the best in this process, 
 as it leaves no disagreeable smell. 
 
 To Dye Straw and Chip Bonnets Black. 
 Chip hats being composed of the shavings of 
 wood, are stained black in various ways. First, 
 by being boiled in strong logwood liquor 3 or 4 
 hours; they must be often taken out to cool in 
 the air, and now and then a small quantity of 
 green copperas must be added to the liquor, and 
 this continued for several hours. The saucepan 
 or kettle that they are dyed in may remain with 
 the bonnets in it all night; the next morning they 
 must be taken out and dried in the air, and 
 brushed with a soft brush. Lastly, a sponge is 
 dipped in oil, and squeezed almost to dryness; 
 with this the bonnets are rubbed all over, both 
 inside and out, and then sent to the blockers to 
 be blocked. Others boil them in logwood ; and 
 instead of green copperas, use steel filings steeped 
 in vinegar ; after which they are anished as above. 
 
322 
 
 DYEING. 
 
 To Dye Straw Bonnets Brown. 
 
 Take a sufficient quantity of Brazil-wood, su- 
 mach, bark, madder, and copperas, and sadden, 
 according to the shade required. 
 To Remove the Stain of Light Colors from the 
 Hands. 
 
 Wash the hands in soap and water in which 
 some pearl ash is dissolved, or wash in a paste of 
 chloride of lime. 
 
 To Dye Black Cloth Green, 
 
 Clean the cloth well with bullock's gall and 
 water, and rinse in warm water; then make a 
 copper full of river water, boiling hot, and take 
 from 1 to H Ibs. of fustic ; put it in, and boil it 
 20 minutes, to which add a lump of alum of the 
 size of a walnut ; when this is dissolved in the 
 copper, put in the coat, and boil it 20 minutes; 
 then take it out, and add a small wineglass, three 
 parts full, of chemic blue, and boil again from 
 an hour to 1 hour, and the cloth will be a beauti- 
 ful dark-green ; then wash out and dry. 
 
 To Dye Cotton with Coal-tar Colors. 
 
 The cotton is soaked in a decoction of galls, 
 sumach, or other astringent matter, for an hour 
 or two, then passed into a weak solution of stan- 
 nate of soda, and worked in it for about an hour. 
 It is then wrung out in a dilute acid liquor and 
 rinsed in water. Cotton thus prepared is of a 
 pale yellow color. The stannate of soda may be 
 applied before the tannin, or alum may be sub- 
 stituted for it. The prepared cotton is immersed 
 in a bath of the color slightly acidulated and 
 worked. It will absorb all the coloring matter in 
 time, leaving the bath colorless. Picric and rosa- 
 lic acids are not adapted for dyeing cotton. 
 
 CALICO PRINTING. 
 
 This art consists in dyeing cloth with certain 
 colors and figures upon a ground of a different 
 hue; the colors, when they will not take hold of 
 cloth readily, being fixed to them by means of 
 mordants, as a preparation of alum, made by dis- 
 solving 3 Ibs. of alum and 1 Ib. of acetate of lead 
 in 8 Ibs. of warm water. There are added at the 
 same time 2 oz. of potash, and 2 oz. of chalk. 
 
 Acetate of iron, also, is a mordant in frequent 
 use in the printing of calicoes; but the simple 
 mixture of alum and acetate of lead is found to 
 answer best as a mordant. 
 
 To Apply the Mordants. 
 
 The mordants are applied to the cloth, either 
 with a pencil or by means of blocks, or rollers, on 
 which the pattern, according to which the cotton 
 is to be printed, is cut. As they are applied only 
 to particular parts of the cloth, care must be taken 
 that none of them spread to the part of the cloth 
 which is to be left white, and that they do not in- 
 terfere with each other when several are applied : 
 it is necessary, therefore, that the mordants should 
 be of such a degree of consistence, that they will 
 not spread beyond those parts of the cloth on 
 which they are applied. This is done by thicken- 
 ing them with flour or starch, when they are to 
 be applied by the block, and with gum arabic 
 when they are to be put on with the pencil. The 
 thickening should never be greater than is suffi- 
 cient to prevent the spreading of the mordants; 
 when carried too far, the cotton is apt not to be 
 sufficiently saturated with the mordants, and of 
 course the dye takes but imperfectly. 
 
 In order that the parts of the cloth impregnated 
 with mordants may be distinguished by their 
 color, it is usual to tinge the mordants with some 
 coloring matter. The printers commonly use the 
 decoction of Brazil-wood for this purpose. 
 
 Sometimes, the two mordants are mixed to- 
 gether in different proportions; and sometimes 
 one or both is mixed with an infusion of sumach, 
 or of nut-galls. By these contrivances a great 
 variety of colors are produced by the same dye- 
 stuff. 
 
 Process of Dyeing, etc. 
 
 After the mordants have been applied, the cloth 
 must be completely dried. It is proper for this 
 purpose to employ heat, which will contribute to- 
 wards the separation of the acetic acid from its 
 base, and towards its evaporation ; by which means 
 the mordant will combine in a greater proportion, 
 and more intimately with the cloth. 
 
 When the cloth is sufficiently dried, it is to be 
 washed with warm water and cow-dung, till the 
 flour or gum employed to thicken the mordants, 
 and all those parts of the mordants which are un- 
 combined with the cloth, are removed. After 
 this the cloth is to be thoroughly rinsed in clean 
 water. 
 
 Dye-stuffs. 
 
 Almost the only dye-stuffs employed by calico- 
 printers are indigo, madder, quercitron bark, or 
 weld, and coal-tar colors; but weld is little 
 used, except for delicate greenish yellows. The 
 quercitron bark gives colors equally good; and 
 is much cheaper and more convenient, not re- 
 quiring so great a heat to fix it. Indigo, not 
 requiring any mordant, is commonly applied at 
 once, either by a block or by a pencil. It is pre- 
 pared by boiling together indigo and potash, made 
 caustic by quicklime and orpiment; the solution 
 is afterwards thickened with gum. It must be 
 carefully excluded from the air, otherwise the 
 indigo would soon be regenerated, which would 
 render the solution useless. Dr. Bancroft has 
 proposed to substitute coarse brown sugar for 
 orpiment; it is equally efficacious in decomposing 
 the indigo, and rendering it soluble; while it like- 
 wise serves all the purposes of gum. Some cali- 
 coes are only printed of one color, others have two, 
 and others three or more, even to the number of 
 8, 10, or 12. The smaller the number of colors, 
 the fewer in general are the processes. 
 
 New Process to Separate the Red Coloring Prin- 
 ciple of Madder. 
 
 For this purpose 3 tubs are necessary, say, A, 
 B, C. The first, or A, sufficient for 55 Ibs. of 
 madder, is to be 2 feet 8 inches deep, and 2 feet 6 
 in diameter. The second, or B, is 5 feet high 
 and 3 feet in diameter. This tub is to be furnished 
 with 3 cocks, the first placed at 2, the second at 3, 
 and the third at 4 feet above its bottom. A serves 
 as a fermenting tub ; B, a washing vessel; and C, 
 as a deposit. These tubs are placed near to each 
 other, in the summer, in the open air, under a 
 shed; in the winter, in a cellar kept at from 66 
 to 70. To commence the process, put from 50 
 to 55 Ibs. of ground madder into A, and add water, 
 stirring the mixture continually, until the madder, 
 when at rest, is covered with an inch and a half 
 of water. In 36 or 48 hours (being at rest) fer- 
 mentation takes place and raises a crust of mad- 
 der to the surface. The mass is now to be trans- 
 ferred to the second tub or B, which is then to be 
 filled with water, where it is to repose for 2 hours 
 The uppermost cock is then opened, next the under 
 one, and lastly the third. The liquor collected 
 from the second and third cocks is carried to the 
 tub C, where the precipitation of the madder that 
 escaped from B, is completed. You may make 
 repeated washings of the madder in B, until the 
 water ceases to be colored. Care should be taken 
 in summer to prevent the madder from fermenting 
 
CALICO FEINTING. 
 
 323 
 
 a second time. The madder in C being washed 
 and precipitated, is equally good with the other. 
 
 To Print Yellow. 
 
 For yellow, the block is besmeared with acetate 
 of alumina. The cloth, after receiving this mor- 
 dant, is dyed with quercitron bark, and is then 
 bleached. 
 
 Nankeen Yellow. 
 
 One of the most common colors on cotton prints, 
 is a kind of Nankeen yellow, of various shades 
 down to a yellowish brown or drab. It is usually 
 in stripes or spots. To produce it, the printers 
 besmear the block, cut out into the figure of the 
 print, with acetate of iron, thickened with gum 
 or flour; and apply it to the cotton, which, after 
 being dried and cleansed in the usual manner, is 
 plunged into a potash lye. The quantity of ace- 
 tate of iron is always proportioned to the depth 
 of the shade. 
 
 Red. 
 
 Red is communicated by the same process, only 
 madder is substituted for the bark. 
 Blue. 
 
 The fine light blues which appear so frequently 
 on printed cottons, are produced by applying to 
 the cloth a block besmeared with a composition, 
 consisting partly of wax, which covers all those 
 parts of the cloth which remain white. The cloth 
 is then dyed in a cold indigo vat; and after it is 
 dry, the wax composition is removed by hot water. 
 
 Lilac and Brown. 
 
 Lilac, flea brown, and blackish brown, are given 
 by means of acetate of iron ; the quantity of which 
 is always proportioned to the depth of the shade. 
 For very deep colors a little sumach is added. 
 The cotton is afterwards dyed in the usual man- 
 ner with madder and then bleached. 
 Green. 
 
 To 12 qts. of muriatic acid, add by degrees 1 qt. 
 of nitric acid; saturate the whole with grain tin, 
 and boil it in a proper vessel till two-thirds are 
 evaporated. 
 
 To prepare the indigo for mixing with the solu- 
 tion, take 9 Ibs. of indigo, pound of orange orpi- 
 ment, and grind it in about 4 qts. of water; mix 
 It well with the indigo, and grind it all in the usual 
 way. 
 To Mix the Solution of Tin with Prepared Indigo. 
 
 Take 2 galls, of the indigo prepared as above; 
 then stir into it, by degrees, 1 gall, of the solution 
 of tin, neutralized by as much caustic alkali as 
 can be added without precipitating the tin from 
 the acids. For a lighter shade of green, less indigo 
 will be necessary. The goods are to be dipped in 
 the way of dipping China blues; they must not, 
 however, be allowed to drain, but moved from one 
 vat to another as quickly as possible. They are 
 to be cleansed in the usual way, in a sour vat of 
 about 150 galls, of water to 1 gall, of sulphuric 
 acid ; they are then to be well washed in decoc- 
 tions of weld, and other yellow color drugs, and 
 are to be branned or bleached till they become 
 White in those parts which are required colorless. 
 To Print Dove-color and Drab. 
 
 Dove-color and drab are given by acetate of 
 iron and quercitron bark ; the cloth is afterwards 
 prepared in the usual manner. 
 
 To Print different Colors. 
 
 When different colors are to appear in the same 
 print, a greater number of operations is neces- 
 ary. Two or more blocks or rollers are employed ; 
 upon each of which, that part of the print only 
 
 is cut which is to be of some particular colm 
 These are besmeared with different mordants and 
 applied to the cloth, whk-h is afterwards dyed a* 
 usual. Let us suppose, for instance, that thes 
 blocks are applied to cotton ; one with acetate of 
 alumina, another with a< etate of iron, a third with 
 a mixture of those two mordants, and that the 
 cotton is then dyed- with quercitron bark and 
 bleached. The parts impregnated with the mor- 
 dants would have the following colors: 
 
 Acetate of alumina, yellow; acetarte of iron, 
 olive, drab, dove. The mixture, olive green, olive. 
 
 If the part of the yellow is covered over with 
 the indigo liquor applied with a pencil, it will be 
 converted into green. By the same liquid, blue 
 may be given to such parts of the print as re- 
 quire it. 
 
 If the cotton is dyed with madder, instead of 
 quercitron bark, the print will exhibit the follow- 
 ing colors : 
 
 Acetate of alumina, red : acetate of iron, brown, 
 black. The mixture, purple. 
 
 When a greater number of colors is to appear 
 for instance, when those communicated by bark, 
 and those by madder are wanted at the same time 
 mordants for parts of the pattern are to be ap- 
 plied. The cotton then is to be dyed in the mad- 
 der bath and bleached; then the rest of the mor- 
 dants to fill up the pattern, are added, and the 
 cloth is again dyed with quercitron-bark, and 
 bleached. The second dyeing does not much af- 
 fect the madder colors, because the mordants, 
 which render them permanent, are already satu- 
 rated. The yellow tinge is easily removed by the 
 subsequent bleaching. Sometimes a new mordant 
 is also applied to some of the madder colors ; in 
 consequence of which, they receive a new perma- 
 nent color from the bark. After the last bleaching, 
 new colors may be added by means of the indigo 
 liquor. The following table will give an idea of 
 the colors which may be given to cotton by these 
 processes. 
 
 I. Madder dye. Acetate of alumina, red; ace- 
 tate of iron, brown, black; acetate diluted, lilac. 
 Both mixed, purple. 
 
 II. Black dye. Acetate of alumina, yellow ; ace- 
 tate of iron, dove, drab ; lilac and acetate of alumi- 
 na, olive; red and acetate of alumina, orange. 
 
 III. Indigo dye. Indigo, blue; indigo and yel- 
 low, green. 
 
 To Print in Goal-tar Colors. 
 The colors are mixed with albumen printed on 
 the fibre; the albumen is then coagulated, and 
 the color thus fixed. Another method consists in 
 printing with tannin on the fabric, previously im- 
 pregnated with stannate of soda, and then dyeing 
 with a hot, dilute, acid bath. The color on the 
 unmordanted parts, is easily discharged. This 
 preparation is not> necessary for silk and wool. 
 
 To Print Green with Aniline. 
 Print the design with a thickened solution of 
 chlorate of potassa; pass through a solution of 
 an aniline salt; in 2 or 3 days the green c< lor 
 will be developed. It may be changed to dark- 
 blue by the use of soap or an alkaline liquid. 
 Another method is to use alternately aniline blue 
 and picric acid. 
 
 To Prepare a Substitute for Gum Used in Calico 
 
 Printing. 
 
 Collect i a ton weight of scraps of pelts or 
 skins, or pieces of rabbit or sheep-skins, and boil 
 them together for 7 or 8 hours in 350 galls, of 
 water, or until it becomes a strong size. Then 
 draw it off, and when cold weigh it. Warm it 
 again, and to every 1 cwt. add 4 galls, of the 
 
324 
 
 DYEING. 
 
 Btrongest sweet wort that can be made from malt 
 or 20 Ibs. weight of sugar. When incorporated, 
 take it off and put it into a cask for use. 
 
 This substitute for gum may be used by calico 
 printers in mixing up nearly all kinds of colors. 
 By using a sixth part only of gum with it, it will 
 also improve the gum. It will also improve and 
 preserve the paste so much used by printers. 
 
 To Prepare Anatto for dyeing. 
 Anatto is a coloring fecula of a resinous nature, 
 extracted from the seeds of a tree very common 
 in the West Indies, and which in height never 
 exceeds 15 feet. 
 
 The Indians employ two processes to obtain the 
 red fecula of these seeds. They first pound them 
 and mix them with a certain quantity of water, 
 which in the course of 5 or 6 days favors the pro- 
 gress of fermentation. The liquid then becomes 
 charged with the coloring part, and the superflu- 
 ous moisture is afterwards separated by slow eva- 
 poration over the fire, or by the heat of the sun. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 This consists in rubbing the seeds between the 
 hands in a vessel filled with water. The coloring 
 part is precipitated, and forms itself into a mass 
 like a cake of wax : but if the red fecula thus de- 
 tached, is much more beautiful than in the first 
 process, it is less in quantity. Besides, as the 
 splendor of it is too bright, the Indians are ac- 
 customed to weaken it by a mixture of red sandal 
 wood. 
 
 Use of Anatto. 
 
 The natives of the East India islands used for- 
 foerly to employ anatto for painting their bodies, 
 etc. At present, it is employed in Europe for the 
 purpose of dyeing. It is employed to give the 
 first tint to woollen stuffs intended to be dyed red, 
 blue, yellow and green, etc. 
 
 In the art of the varnisher it forms part of the 
 composition of changing varnishes, to give a cold 
 color to the metals to which these varnishes are 
 applied. 
 
 To Choose Anatto. 
 
 It ought to be chosen of a flame color, brighter 
 in the interior part than on the outside, soft to 
 the touch and of a good consistence. The past* 
 of anatto becomes hard in Europe, and it loses 
 some of its odor, which approaches near to that 
 of violets. 
 
 To Prepare Litmus. 
 
 The Canary and Cape de Verd islands produce 
 a kind of lichen or moss, which yields a violet 
 coloring part when exposed to the contact of am- 
 monia disengaged from urine, in a state of putre- 
 faction, by a mixture of lime. When the processes 
 are finished, it is known by the name of litmus. 
 
 This article is prepared on a large scale at Lon- 
 don, Paris, and Lyons. In the latter city another 
 kind of lichen, which grows on the rocks like 
 moss, is employed. 
 
 The ammonia joins the resinous part of the 
 plant, develops its coloring part, and combines 
 with it. In this state the lichen forms a paste of 
 a violet-red color, interspersed with whitish spots, 
 which give it a marble appearance. 
 
 Litmus is employed in dyeing to communicate 
 a violet color to silk and woollen. It is used also 
 for coloring the liquor of thermometers, and as a 
 tost for acids and alkalies. 
 
 To Prepare Bastard Saffron. 
 The flowers of this plant contain two coloring 
 parts one soluble in water, and which is thrown 
 away; the other soluble in alkaline liquors. The 
 latter coloring part becomes the basis of various 
 Beautiful shades of cherry color, ponceau, rose 
 
 color, etc. It is employed for dyeing featheri, 
 and constitutes the vegetable red, or Spanish ver- 
 milion, employed by ladies to heighten their com- 
 plexion. 
 
 Carthamus cannot furnish its resinous coloring 
 part, provided with all its qualities, until it has 
 been deprived of that which is soluble in water. 
 For this purpose the dried flowers of the cartha- 
 mus are enclosed in a linen bag. and the bag is 
 placed in a stream of running water. A man with 
 wooden shoes gets upon the bag every eight or ten 
 hours, and treads it on the bank until the water 
 expressed from it is colorless. 
 
 These moist flowers, after being strongly squeezed 
 in the bag, are spread out on a piece of canvas ex- 
 tended on a frame, placed over a wooden box, and 
 covered with 5 or 6 per .cent, of their weight of 
 carbonate of soda. Pure water is then poured over 
 them ; and this process is repeated several times, 
 that the alkali m;iy have leisure to become charged 
 with the coloring part which it dissolves. The 
 liquor, when filtered, is of a dirty red, and almost 
 brown color. The coloring part, thus held in so- 
 lution, cannot be employed for coloring bodies 
 until it is free; and, to set it at liberty, the soda 
 must be brought into contact with a body which 
 has more affinity for it. It is on this precipitation, 
 by an intermediate substance, that the process for 
 making Spanish vermilion is founded, as well as 
 all the results arising from the direct application 
 of this coloring part, in the art of dyeing. 
 
 Utility of Sheep's Dung. 
 
 This article is used in dyeing for the purpose 
 of preparing cotton and linen to receive certain 
 colors, particularly the red madder and crosswort, 
 which it performs by impregnating the sruffs with 
 an animal mucilage, of which it contains a large 
 quantity, and thus assimilating them to wool and 
 silk. 
 
 To Prepare Woad. 
 
 This is effected from the leaves of the plant so 
 called, by grinding them to a paste, of which balls 
 are made, placed in heaps, and occasionally sprin- 
 kled with water to promote the fermentation. 
 When this is finished the woad is allowed to fall 
 into a coarse powder, used as a blue dye-stuff. 
 
 To Prepare Indigo. 
 
 This dye is derived from the leaves and the 
 young shoots of several species of indigo plants, 
 by soaking them either in cold water, or still 
 better, in water kept warm, and at about 160, till 
 the liquor becomes a deep green; it is then drawn 
 off and beat or churned till blue flakes appear, 
 when lime-water is added, the yellow liquor drawn 
 off, and the blue sediment dried and formed into 
 lumps. 
 
 To Dye Hats. 
 
 The hats should be first strongly galled by boil- 
 ing them a long time in a decoction of galls with 
 a little logwood, that the dye may penetrate the 
 better into their substance; after which a proper 
 quantity of vitriol and decoction of logwood, with 
 a little verdigris, are added, and the hats continued 
 in this mixture for a considerable time. They are 
 afterwards put into fresh liquor of logwood, galls, 
 vitriol, and verdigris; and where the hats are of 
 great price, or of a hair which with difficulty takes 
 the dye, the same process is repeated a third time. 
 For obtaining the most perfect color, the hair or 
 wool is dyed blue previously to its being formed 
 into hats. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 Boil 100 Ibs. of logwood, 12 Ibs. of gum, and 6 
 Ibs. of galls in a proper quantity of water for some 
 hours; after which about 6 Ibs. of verdigris and 
 
DYEING, STAINING, ETC. 
 
 325 
 
 10 of green vitriol are added, and the liquor kept 
 just simmering, or of a heat little below boiling. 
 Ten or 12 dozen of hats are immediately put in, 
 each on its block, and kept down by cross-bars for 
 about an hour and a half; they are then taken 
 out and aired, and the same number of others put 
 in their room. The two sets of hats are thus 
 dipped and aired alternately 8 times each; the 
 liquor being refreshed each time with more of the 
 ingredients, but in less quantity than at first. 
 
 To Prove the Colors of Dyed Stuffs. 
 
 For crimson, scarlet, flesh-color, violet, peach- 
 blossom, all shades of blue, and other colors bor- 
 dering on these, dissolve hnlf an ounce of alum in 
 a pint of water, in an earthen vessel, and into this 
 put the eighth of an ounce' of the stuff or thread 
 that is to be proved; boil the whole for five min- 
 utes, and wash it out in clean water. 
 
 For all sorts of yellow, green madder, red cin- 
 namon, and similar colors, boil a quarter of an 
 ounce of noap in a pint of water, put in the eighth 
 of an ounce of the stuff to be tried, and boil for 
 5 minutes. 
 
 For hair-brown, etc. powder an ounce of tar- 
 tar, and boil it in a pint of water, and boil i of 
 an ounce of the stuff or thread in the solution for 
 5 minutes. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS FOR DYEING, 
 STAINING, ETC. 
 
 To Dye, Bristles or Feathers Green. 
 
 Take of verdigris and verditer, each 1 oz. ; gum- 
 water, 1 pt.. Mix them well, and dip the bristles 
 or feathers (they having been first soaked in hot 
 water) into the said mixture. 
 
 Bine. Take of indigo and risse, each 1 oz., and 
 a piece of alum the size of a ha^clnut; put them 
 into gum-water, and dip the materials into it hot; 
 hang them up to dry, and clap them well that they 
 may open ; and, by changing the colors, the afore- 
 said materials may be in this manner, dyed of any 
 color. For purple, use lake and indigo; for car- 
 nation, vermilion and smalt. 
 
 Red. Take 1 oz. of Brazil-wood in powder, ^ 
 oz. of alum, i oz. of vermilion, and 1 pint of vine- 
 gar; boil them up to a moderate thickness, and 
 dip the bristles or feathers (they having been first 
 soaked in hot water) into the said mixture. Feath- 
 ers may be dyed at once, of any shade, by means 
 of coal-tar colors (p. 318). 
 
 To Dye or Color Horse-Hair. 
 
 Steep in water wherein a smsill quantity of tur- 
 pentine has been boiled for the space of two hours; 
 then, having prepared the colors very hot, boil 
 the hair therein, and any color, black excepted, 
 will take, but that will only take a dark-red or 
 dark-blue, etc. 
 
 To Dye Gloves. 
 
 Take the color suitable for the occasion ; if 
 dark take Spanish brown and black earth; if 
 lighter, yellow and whiting; and so on with other 
 colors. Mix them with a moderate fire, daub the 
 gloves over with the color wet, and let them hang 
 till they are dry; then beat out the superfluity of 
 the color, and sinoothe them over with a stretch- 
 ing or sleeking stick, reducing them to their proper 
 ehape. 
 
 To Dye White Gloves Purple. 
 
 Boil 4 oz. of logwood and 2 oz. of roche-alum in 
 3 pts. of soft water till half wasted; let the liquor 
 stand to cool after straining. Let the gloves be 
 nicely mended ; then, with a brush, rub them over, 
 and when dry repeat. Twice is sufficient, unless 
 the color is to be very dark. When dry, rub off 
 
 the loose dye with a coarse cloth. Beat up the 
 white of an egg, and with a sponge rub it over 
 the leather. The dye will stain the hands; but 
 wetting them with vinegar, before they are washed, 
 will take it off. 
 
 To Dye Gloves resembling Limerick. 
 
 Brown or tan colors are readily imparted to 
 leather gloves by the following simple process. 
 Steep saffron in boiling soft water for about 12 
 hours; then, having slightly sewed up the tops 
 of the gloves, to prevent the dye staining the in- 
 sides, wet them over with a sponge or soft brush 
 dipped into the liquid. The quantity of saffron aa 
 well as of water will of course depend on how much 
 dye may be wanted, and their relative proportions 
 on the depth of color required. A common tea- 
 cup will contain sufficient in quantity for a single 
 pair of gloves. 
 
 To Stain Bone or Ivory. 
 
 They may be stained with the ordinary dyeing 
 materials. The body should first be steeped in 
 the mordant, and then in a hot bath of coloring 
 material. Bichloride of tin as a mordant will give 
 red with Brazil-wood or cochineal, yellow with 
 fustic, violet with logwood. Black is given by 
 nitrate of silver; gilding by immersion in a fresh 
 solution of copperas, and afterwards of chloride 
 of gold; bleaching by a solution of sulphurous 
 acid. 
 
 To Prepare Wood for Dyeing. 
 
 The wood mostly used to dye black is pear-tree, 
 holly, and beach, all of which take a beautiful 
 black color. Do not use wood that has been long 
 cut, or aged, but let it be as fresh as possible. 
 After the veneers have had 1 hour's boiling, and 
 been taken out to cool, the color is always much 
 stronger. When dyed, they should be dried in 
 the air, and not by the fire, nor in a kiln of any 
 kind, as artificial heat tends to destroy the color. 
 
 In order to dye blue, green, red or other colors, 
 take clear holly. Put the veneers into a box or 
 trough, with clear water, and let them remain 4 
 or 5 days, changing the water once or twice as 
 occasion may require. The water will clear the 
 wood of slime, etc. Let them dry about 12 hours 
 before they are put into the dye; by observing 
 this the color will strike quicker, and be of a 
 brighter hue. 
 
 To Stain Oak a Mahogany Color. 
 
 Boil together Brazil-wood and alum, and before 
 it is applied to the wood a little potash is to be 
 added to it. A suitable varnish for wood, thus 
 tinged, may be made by dissolving amber in oil 
 of turpentine, mixed with a small portion of lin- 
 seed oil. 
 
 Ebony-Mack. Steep the wood for 2 or 3 days 
 in lukewarm water, in which a little alum has 
 been dissolved ; then put a handful of logwood, 
 cut small, into a pint of water, and boil it down 
 to less than i a pint. If a little indigo is added, 
 the color will be more beautiful. Spread a layer 
 of this liquor quite hot on the wood with a pencil, 
 which will give it a violet color. When it is dry, 
 spread on another layer; dry it again, and ghe it 
 a third; then boil verdigris at discretion in iti 
 own vinegar, and spread a layer of it on the wood ; 
 when it is dry rub it with a brush, and then with 
 oiled chamois skin. This gives a fine black, and 
 imitates perfectly the color of ebony. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 After forming the wood into the destined figure, 
 rub it with aquafortis a little diluted. Small 
 threads of wood will rise in the drying, which are 
 to be rubbed off with pumice-stone. Kepeat this 
 
326 
 
 DYEING. 
 
 
 process again, and then rub the wood with the 
 following composition : Put into a glazed earthen 
 vessel 1 pint of strong vinegar, 2 oz. of fine iron 
 filings, and ^ Ib. of pounded galls, and allow them 
 to infuse for 3 or 4 hours on hot cinders. At the 
 end of this time augment the fire, and pour into 
 the vessel 4 oz. of coppoio.3 (sulphate of iron), and 
 a chopin of water having ^ oz. of borax and as 
 much indigo dissolved in it; and make the whole 
 boil till a froth rises. Rub several layers of this 
 upon the wood; and, when it is dry, polish it with 
 leather on which a little tripoli has been put. 
 
 Another. Pour 2 qts. of boiling water over 1 
 oz. commercial extract of logwood, and when it is 
 dissolved add 1 dr. of yellow chromate of potash, 
 and stir well. This stain is cheap, keeps well, can 
 be applied cold with a brush without any prepa- 
 ration. 
 
 To Stain Beech-wood a Mahogany Color. 
 
 Break 2 oz. of dragon's blood in pieces, and 
 put them into a qt. of rectified spirit of wine; let 
 the bottle stand in a warm place, and shake it 
 frequently. When dissolved it is fit for use. 
 
 Another Method, 
 
 Boil 1 Ib. of logwood in 4 qts. of water, and add 
 a double handful of walnut-peeling. Boil it up 
 again, take out the chips, add a pint of the best 
 vinegar, and it will be fit for use. 
 
 To Stain Miittical Instruments. 
 
 Crimson. Boil 1 Ib. of ground Brazil-wood in 
 3 qts. of water for an hour; strain it, and add 
 an oz. of cochineal ; boil it again for an hour 
 gently, and it will be fit for use. 
 
 Purple. Boil 1 Ib. of chip logwood in 3 qts. of 
 water for an hour; then add 4 oz. of pearlash and 
 2 oz. of indigo pounded. 
 
 To Stain Box-wood Brown. 
 
 Hold the work to the fire, that it may receive a 
 gentle warmth; then take aquafortis, and with a 
 feather pass it over the work till it changes to a 
 fine brown. Then oil and polish it. 
 
 To Dye Wood a Silver Gray. 
 
 Let not the veneers be too dry; when put into 
 the copper pour hot iron liquor (acetate of iron) 
 over them, and add 1 Ib. of chip logwood with 2 
 oz. of bruised nut-galls. Then boil up another 
 pot of iron liquor to supply the copper, keeping 
 the veneers covered and boiling 2 hours a day, 
 until thoroughly penetrated. 
 
 Bright yellow. A very small bit of aloes put 
 into the varnish will make the wood of a good 
 yellow color. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 Reduce 4 Ibs. of the roots of barberry, by saw- 
 ing, into dust, which put in a copper or brass pan, 
 add 4 oz. of turmeric, to which put 4 galls, of 
 water, then put in as many holly veneers as the 
 liquor will cover; boil them together for 3 hours, 
 often turning them. When cool add 2 oz. of aqua- 
 fortis, and the dye will strike through much 
 sooner. 
 
 Bright green. Proceed as before to produce a 
 yellow; but instead of aquafortis add as much of 
 the vitriolated indigo as will produce the desired 
 color. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 To 3 pts. of the strongest vinegar add 4 oz. of 
 the best verdigris, ground fine, oz. of sap green, 
 and i oz. of indigo. Proceed in straining as 
 before. 
 
 Bright red. To 2 Ibs. of genuine Brazil-dust 
 add 4 galls, of water, put in as many veneers as 
 the liquor will well cover, boil them for 3 hours, 
 and let them cool ; then add 2 oz. each of alum 
 
 and aquafortis, and keep it lukewarm until it hal 
 struck through. 
 
 Purple. In 2 Ibs. of chip logwood and \ Ib. of 
 Brazil-dust add 4 galls, of water. Put in the ve- 
 neers, and boil them well ; then add 6 oz. of pearl- 
 ash and 2 oz. of alum ; let them boil 2 or 3 hours 
 every day, till the color has struck through. 
 
 Fine blue. Into 1 Ih. of oil of vitriol in a glass 
 bottle put 4 oz. of indigo, and proceed as before 
 directed. 
 
 To Stain Paper or Parchment. 
 
 Yellow. Paper may be stained a beautiful yel- 
 low by the tincture of turmeric formed by infusing 
 an oz. or more of the root, powdered, in a pint of 
 spirit of wine. This may be made to give any 
 tint of yellow, from the lightest straw to the full 
 color, called French yellow, and will be equal in 
 brightness even to the best dyed silks. If yellow 
 be wanted of a warmer or redder cast, anatto or 
 dragon's blood must be added. The best manner 
 of using these, and the following tinctures, is to 
 spread them even on the paper or parchment, by 
 means of a broad brush, in the manner of varnish. 
 
 Crimson. A very fine crimson stain may be 
 given to paper by a tincture of the Indian lake, 
 which may be made by infusing the lake some 
 days in spirit of wine, and then pouring off the 
 tincture from the dregs. It may be stained red 
 by red ink. It may also be stained of a scarlet 
 hue by the tincture of dragon's blood in spirit of 
 wine, but this will not be bright. 
 
 Green. Paper or parchment may be stained 
 green by the solution of verdigris in vinegar, or 
 by the crystals of verdigris dissolved in water. 
 
 Orauge. Stain the paper or parchment first of 
 a full yellow by means of the tincture of turmeric, 
 then brush it over with a solution of fixed alka- 
 line salt, made by dissolving an oz. of pearlash, 
 or salt of tartar, in a quart of water, and filtering 
 the solution. 
 
 Purple. Paper or parchment maybe stained 
 purple by archil, or by the tincture of logwood. 
 The juice of ripe privet-berries expressed will 
 likewise give a purple dye. 
 
 The coal-tar colors are especially adapted to 
 coloring paper. 
 
 To Marble the Edges of Books or Paper. 
 
 Dissolve 4 oz. of gum arabic in 2 qts. of clear 
 water; then provide several colors mixed with 
 water in pots or shells, and with pencils peculiar 
 to each color, sprinkle them by way of intermix- 
 ture upon the gum-water, which must be put into 
 a trough, or some broad vessel, then with a stick 
 curl them or draw them out in streaks to as much 
 variety as required. Having done this, hold the 
 book or books close together, and only dip the 
 edges in on the top of the water and colors very 
 lightly ; which done, take them off, and the plain 
 impression of the colors in mixture will be upon 
 the leaves ; doing as well the end as the Irt of 
 the books in the same manner. 
 
 To Marble the Covers of Books. 
 
 This is performed by forming clouds with aqua- 
 fortis, or oil of vitriol, mixed with ink, and after- 
 wards glazing the covers. 
 
 To Color Vellum Green. 
 
 Take \ pt. of the best white wine vinegar, 1 oz. 
 of verdigris, and li oz. of sap-green ; dissolve 
 them in the vinegar for a few days, having been 
 heated by the fire. Shake the bottle frequently 
 before it is used. 
 
 Wash the vellum over with weak potash water, 
 and when dry color it with the green 3 or 4 times, 
 till it has a good color ; when dry wash it over with 
 thin paste water to give the vellum, a gloss. 
 
HOUSE PAINTING. 
 
 327 
 
 To Black the Edges of Paper. 
 
 Mix black lead with ink, and when the paper is 
 cut, color it thinly over with black ink, with a 
 piece of fine cloth; rub on the bluck lead, covering 
 every part; take the dog's-tooth and burnish the 
 edge till it becomes well polished. 
 
 When the edge of the paper, after cutting, ap- 
 pears rather rough, scrape it over with a piece of 
 glass or an iron scraper with a flat edge. 
 
 To Sprinkle the Edges of Books, etc. 
 
 The brushes used for book-edges must be made 
 of Russia hogs' bristles, of good thickness, tied 
 round with cord, glued at the thick end, and half 
 covered with a piece of leather; when dry tie the 
 brush again with waxed cord, within half an inch 
 of the soft part of it, and cut it very smooth and 
 even. Brushes made after this manner are pre- 
 ferable to those with a handle. 
 
 Prepare the color in a cup ; dip in the brush 
 till it is charged, and then press it out till it will 
 drop no longer. The book must be screwed tight 
 in the cutting press; hold the brush in the left 
 hand, and, with a folding-stick in the right, rub 
 it over the brush, which will cause the color to 
 sprinkle finely on the edges. The brush must be 
 moved up and down over the edge, as you sprinkle, 
 to have it regular on every part. After the sprink- 
 ling is done, the brushes should be carefully washed 
 in water, particularly after sprinkling blue, which 
 will otherwise soon destroy the brush. 
 
 To Dye or Stain Horn Tortoise-shell Color. 
 The horn to be dyed must be first pressed into 
 proper plates, scales, or other flat form, and the 
 following mixture prepared: Take of quicklime 
 two parts, and litharge one part, temper them to- 
 gether to the consistence of a soft paste, with soap 
 lye. Put this paste over all the parts of the horn, 
 except such as are proper to be left transparent, 
 in order to give it a near resemblance to the tor- 
 toise-shell. The horn must remain in this manner, 
 covered with the paste till it is thoroughly dry ; 
 when, the paste being brushed off, the horn will 
 be found partly opaque and partly transparent, in 
 
 the manner of tortoise-shell, and when put over a 
 foil of the kind of lattern called orsedue> will be 
 scarcely distinguishable from it. It requires some 
 degree of fancy and judgment to dispose of the 
 paste in such a manner as to form a variety of 
 transparent parts, of different magnitudes and 
 figures, to look like the effect of nature; and it 
 will be an improvement to add semi-transparent 
 parts, which may be done by mixing whiting with 
 some of the paste, to weaken its operation in par- 
 ticular places, by which spots of a reddish-brown 
 will be produced, which, if properly interspersed, 
 especially on the edges of the dark parts, will 
 greatly increase the beauty of the work, and its 
 similitude to real tortoise-shell. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 Take an equal quantity of quicklime and red- 
 lead, and mix it up with strong soap lees. Lay it 
 on the horn with a small brush, like the mottle in 
 tortoise-shell. When dry repeat the same two or 
 three times. 
 
 To Dye Horns of different Colors. 
 
 Slack is performed by steeping brass in aqua- 
 fortis till it is turned green ; with this the horn is 
 to be washed once or twice, and then put into a 
 warmed decoction of logwood and water. 
 
 Green is begun by boiling it, etc., in alum-water, 
 then with verdigris, ammoniac, and white wine 
 vinegar, keeping it hot therein till sufficiently 
 green. 
 
 Red is beirun by boiling it in alum-water, then 
 with verdigris, ammoniac, and finished by decoc- 
 tion in a liquor compounded of quicklime steeped 
 in rain-water, strained, and to every pint an ounce 
 of Brazil-wood added. In this decoction the horns 
 are to be boiled till sufficiently red. 
 
 Horns receive a deep black stain from solution 
 of nitrate of silver. It ought to be diluted to such 
 a degree as not sensibly to corrode the substance, 
 and applied 2 or 3 times if necessary, at consider- 
 able intervals, the matter being exposed as much 
 as possible to the sun, to hasten the appearance 
 and deepening of the color. 
 
 PA.INTS and COLORS. 
 
 HOUSE PAINTING. 
 To Mix the Colors for House Painting. 
 
 All simple or compound colors, and all the 
 shades of color which nature or art can produce, 
 and which might be thought proper for the differ- 
 ent kinds of painting, would form a very exten- 
 sive catalogue, were we to take into consideration 
 only certain external characters, or the intensity 
 of their tint. But art, founded on the experience 
 of several centuries, has prescribed bounds to the 
 consumption of coloring substances, and to the 
 application of them to particular purposes. To 
 eause a substance to be admitted into the class of 
 coloring bodies employed by painters, it is not 
 sufficient for it to contain a color; to brightness 
 a.nd splendor it must also unite durability in the 
 tint or color which it communicates. 
 To make Black Paint. 
 
 Usage requires attention in the choice of the 
 matters destined for black. The following are 
 their properties: 
 
 L'lack from peach-stones is dull. 
 
 Ivory-black is strong and beautiful when it has 
 been well attenuated under the muller. 
 
 Black from the charcoal of beech- wood, ground 
 on porphyry, has a bluish tone. 
 
 Lampblack may be rendered mellower by mak- 
 ing it with black which has been kept an hour 
 in a state of redness in a close crucible. It then 
 loses the fat matter which accompanies this kifcd 
 of soot. 
 
 Black furnished by the charcoal of vine-twigs, 
 ground on porphyry, is weaker, and of a dirty 
 gray color when coarse and alone, but it becomes 
 blacker the more the charcoal has been divided. 
 It then forms a black very much sought after, and 
 which goes a great way. 
 
 To make Paints from Lampblack. 
 The consumption of lampblack is very exten- 
 sive in common painting. It serves to modify the 
 brightness of the tones of the other colors, or to 
 facilitate the composition of secondary colors. 
 The oil paint applied to iron grates and railing, 
 and the paint applied to paper snuff-boxes, to 
 
328 
 
 PAINTS AND COLORS. 
 
 those made of tin-plate, and to other articles with 
 dark grounds, consume a very large quantity of 
 this black. Great solidity may be given to works 
 of this kind by covering them with several coat- 
 ings of the fat turpentine, or golden varnish, which 
 has been mixed with lampblack, washed in water, 
 to separate the foreign bodies introduced into it 
 by the negligence of the workmen who prepare it. 
 
 After the varnish is applied the articles are dried 
 in a stove by exposing them to a heat somewhat 
 greater than that employed for articles of paper. 
 Naples yellow, which enters into the composition 
 of black varnish, is the basis of the dark brown 
 observed on tobacco-boxes of plate-iron, because 
 this color changes to brown when dried with the 
 varnish. 
 
 To make a Superior Lampblack. 
 
 Suspend over a lamp a funnel of tin plate, 
 having above it a pipe to convey from the apart- 
 ment the smoke which escapes from the lamp. 
 Large mushrooms, of a very black, carbonaceous 
 matter, and exceedingly light, will be formed at 
 the summit of the cone. This carbonaceous part 
 is carried to such a state of division as cannot be 
 given to any other matter, by grinding it on a 
 piece of porphyry. 
 
 This black goes a great way in every kind of 
 painting. It may be rendered drier by calcina- 
 tion in close vessels. 
 
 The funnel ought to be united to the pipe, 
 which conveys off the smoke, by i;>eans of wire, 
 because solder would be melted by the flame of 
 the lamp. 
 
 To make Black from Ground Pit<-r>aL 
 
 The best for this purpose is that which has a 
 ehining fracture. It affords, perhaps, the most 
 useful brown the artist can place on his palet, 
 being remarkably clear, not so warm as Vandyke 
 brown, and serving as a shadow for blues, reds, 
 or yellows, when glazed over them. It seems 
 almost certain that Titian made large use of this 
 material. Coal, when burnt to a white heat, then 
 quenched in water, and ground down, gives an 
 excellent blue black. This belongs to artists' 
 colors. 
 
 To make Black from Wine-lees. 
 
 This black results from the calcination of wine- 
 lees and tartar, and is manufactured on a large 
 Bcale in some districts of Germany, in the environs 
 of Mentz, and even in France. This operation is 
 performed in large cylindric vessels, or in pots, 
 having an aperture in the cover to afford a pas- 
 sage to the smoke, and to the acid and alkaline 
 vapors which escape during the process. When 
 no more smoke is observed, the operation is fin- 
 ished. The remaining matter, which is merely 
 a mixture of salts and a carbonaceous part very 
 much attenuated, is then washed several times in 
 boiling water, and it is reduced to the proper de 
 gree of fineness by grinding it on porphyry. 
 
 If this black be extracted from dry lees, it is 
 coarser than that obtained from tartar, because 
 the lees contain earthy matters which are con- 
 founded with the carbonaceous part. 
 
 This black goes a great way, and has a velvety 
 appearance. It is used chiefly by copper-plate 
 printers. 
 
 Another. Peach-stones, burnt in a close ves- 
 sel, produce a charcoal, which, when ground on 
 porphyry, is employed in painting to. give an old 
 gray. 
 
 Another. Vine twigs reduced to charcoal give 
 a bluish black, which goes a great way. When 
 mixed with white it produces a silver white, 
 which is not produced by other blacks; it has a 
 pretty near resemblance to the black of peach 
 
 stones, but to bring this color to the utmost degreo 
 of perfection, it must be carefully ground on por- 
 phyry. 
 
 To make Ivory and Boneblack. 
 Put into a crucible surrounded by burning coals, 
 fragments or turnings of ivory, or of the osseous 
 parts of animals, and cover it closely. The ivory 
 or bones, by exposure to the heat, will be reduced 
 to charcoal. When no more smoke is seen top:i:3 
 through the joining of the cover, leave the cruci- 
 ble over the fire for half an hour or longer, or until 
 it has completely cooled. There will then be found 
 in it a hard carbonaceous matter, which, when 
 pounded and ground on porphyry with water, is 
 washed on a filter with warm water and then dried. 
 Before it is used it must be again subjected to the 
 matter. 
 
 Black furnished by bones is reddish. That pro- 
 duced by ivory is more beautiful. It is brighter 
 than black obtained from peach-stones. When 
 mixed in a proper dose with white oxide of lead, 
 it forms a beautiful pearl gray. Ivory-black is 
 richer. The Cologne and Cassel-black are formed 
 from ivory. 
 
 Fine Black Color. 
 
 Take some camphor and set it on fire ; from the 
 flame will arise a very dense smoke, which may be 
 collected on a common saucer by holding it over 
 the flame. This black, mixed with gum arabic, is 
 far superior to most India-ink. 
 
 Miniature painters, who use colors in small quan- 
 tities, sometimes obtain a most beautiful and per- 
 fect black by using the buttons which form on the 
 snuff of a candle when allowed to burn undisturbed. 
 These are made to fall into a small thimble, or any 
 other convenient vessel which can be immediately 
 covered with the thumb, to exclude the air. This 
 is found to be perfectly free from grease, and to 
 possess every desira/ble quality. 
 
 To Paint in White Distemper. 
 Grind fine in water Bougival white, a kind of 
 marl or chalky clay, and mix it with size. It may 
 be brightened by a small quantity of indigo, or 
 charcoal-black. 
 
 To make White Paint. 
 
 The White destined for varnish or oil requires a 
 metallic oxide, which gives more body to the color. 
 Take ceruse, reduced to powder, and grind it with 
 oil of pinks and J oz. of sulphate of zinc for each 
 pound of oil. Apply the second coating without 
 the sulphate of zinc, and suffer it to dry. Cover 
 the whole with a stratum of sandarach varnish. 
 This color is durable, brilliant and agreeable to 
 the eye. 
 
 Boiled linseed oil might be employed instead of 
 oil of pinks, but the color of it would in some de- 
 gree injure the purity of the white. 
 
 Another. White is prepared also with pure 
 white oxide of lead, ground with a little essence, 
 added to oil of pinks and mixed with gallipot var- 
 nish. The color may be mixed also with essence 
 diluted with oil, and without varnish, which is re- 
 served for the two last coatings. If for a lively 
 white, the color is heightened with a little Prus- 
 sian blue or indigo, or with a little prepared black. 
 The latter gives it a gray cast. But pure white 
 lead, the price of which is much higher than ce- 
 ruse, is reserved for valuable articles. In thia 
 particular case, if a very fine durable white be re- 
 quired, grind it with a little essence, and mix it 
 with sandarach or varnish. 
 
 To Paint in Light Gray and Distemper. 
 Ceruse, mixed with a small quantity of lamp- 
 black, composes a gray, more or less charged, ao 
 cording to the quantity of black. With this mat 
 
MIXING PAINTS. 
 
 329 
 
 tet, therefore, mixed with black in different doses, 
 ft great variety of shades may be formed, from the 
 lightest to the darkest gray. 
 
 If this color be destined for distemper, it is 
 mixed with water; if intended for oil painting, it 
 is ground with nut-oil, or oil of pinks ; and with 
 essence added to oil, if designed for varnish. This 
 color is durable and very pure, if mixed with cam- 
 phorated mastic varnish ; the gallipot varnish ren- 
 ders it so solid that it can bear to be struck with 
 a hammer, if, after the first stratum it has been 
 applied with varnish, and without size. For the 
 last coating sandarach varnish, and camphorated 
 varnish are proper; and for the darkest gray, 
 spirituous sandarac varnish. 
 
 To make Flaxen Gray. 
 
 Ceruse, or white lead, still predominates in this 
 color, which is treated as the other grays, but 
 with this difference, that it admits a mixture of 
 lake instead of black. Take the quantity, there- 
 fore, of cernse necessary, and grind it separately. 
 Then mix it up, and add the lake and Prussian 
 blue, also ground separately. The quantities of 
 the last two colors ought to be proportioned to the 
 tone of color required. 
 
 This color is proper for distemper, varnish, and 
 oil painting. For varnish, grind it with mastic 
 gallipot varnish, to which a little oil of pinks has 
 been added, and then mix it up with common gal- 
 lipot varnish. For oil painting, grind with un- 
 prepared oil 'of pinks, and mix up with resinous 
 drying nut-oil. The painting is brilliant and 
 Bolid. 
 
 When the artist piques himself upon carefully 
 preparing those colors which have splendor, it 
 will be proper, before he commences his labor, to 
 stoj up the holes formed by the heads of the 
 nails in wainscoting with putty. 
 
 Every kind of sizing which, according to usual 
 custom, precedes the application of varnish, ought 
 to be prescribed as highly prejudicial, when the 
 wainscoting consists of fir-wood. Sizing may be 
 admitted for plaster, but without any mixture. A 
 plain stratum of strong glue and water spread over 
 it, is sufficient to fill up the pores to prevent any 
 unnecessary consumption of the varnish. 
 
 The first stratum of color is ceruse without any 
 mixture, ground with essence added to a little oil 
 of pinks, and mixed up with essence. If any of 
 the traces are uneven, rub it lightly, when dry, 
 with pumice-stone. This operation contributes 
 greatly to the beauty and elegance of the polish 
 when the varnish is applied. 
 
 The second stratum is composed of ceruse 
 changed to flaxen gray by the mixture of a little 
 Cologne earth, as much English red or lake, and 
 a particle of Prussian blue. First, so make the 
 mixture with a small quantity of ceruse, that the 
 result shall be a smoky gray, by the addition of 
 the Cologne earth. The red, which is added, 
 makes it incline to flesh-color, and the Prussian 
 blue destroys the latter to form a dark flaxen gray. 
 The addition of ceruse brightens the tone. This 
 stratum and the next are ground, and mixed up 
 with varnish as before. 
 
 This mixture of colors, which produces flaxen 
 gray, has the advantage over pearl gray, as it de- 
 fends the ceruse from the impression of the air 
 and light, which makes it assume a yellowish 
 tint. Flaxen gray, composed in this manner, is 
 unalterable. Besides, the essence which forms 
 the vehicle of the first stratum contributes to 
 bring forth a color, the tone of which decreases a 
 little by the effect of drying. This observation 
 ought to serve as a guide to the artist, in regard 
 to the tint, which is always stronger in a liquid 
 
 mixture than when the matter composing it is ex- 
 tended in a thin stratum, or when it is dr"y. 
 To make Oak-wood Color. 
 
 The basis of this color is.still formed of ceruse. 
 Three-fourths of this oxide, and a fourth of ochre 
 de rue, umber earth, and yellow de Berri ; the last 
 three ingredients being employed in proportions 
 which lead to the required tint, give a matter 
 equally proper for distemper, varnish, and oil. 
 To mnke Walnut-wood Color. 
 
 A given quantity of ceruse, half that quantity 
 of ochre de rue, a little umber earth, red ochre, 
 and yellow ochre de 'Berri; compose this color 
 proper for distemper, varnish, and oil. 
 
 For varnish, grind with a little drying nut-oil, 
 and mix up with the gallipot varnish. 
 
 For oil painting, grind with fat oil of pinks 
 added to drying oil or essence, and mix up with 
 plain drying oil, or with resinous drying oil. 
 
 To make Naples and Montpellier Yellow. 
 The composition of these is simple, yellow ochre 
 mixed with ceruse, ground with water, if destined 
 for distemper; or drying nut-oil and essence, in 
 equal parts, if intended for varnish ; and mixed 
 up with camphorated mastic varnish; if for deli- 
 cate objects, or with gallipot varnish, give a very 
 fine color, the splendor of which depends on the 
 doses of the ceruse; which must be varied accord- 
 ing to the particular nature of the coloring matter 
 employed. If the ground of the color is fur- 
 nished by ochre, and if oil painting be intended, 
 the grinding with oil added to essence may be 
 omitted, as essence alone will be sufficient. Oil, 
 however, gives more pliability and more body. 
 
 To make Jonquil. 
 
 This is employed only in distemper. It may, 
 however, be used with varnish. A vegetable color 
 serves as its base. It is made with Dutch pink 
 and ceruse, and ground with mastic gallipot var- 
 nish, and mixed up with gallipot varnish. 
 To make Golden Yellow Color. 
 
 Cases often occur when it is necessary to pro- 
 duce a gold color without employing a metallic 
 substance. A color capable of forming an illusion 
 is then given to the composition, the greater part 
 of which consists of yellow. This is accomplished 
 by Naples or Montpellier yellow, brightened by 
 Spanish white, or by white of Morat, mixed with 
 ochre de Berri and realgar. The last substance, 
 even in small quantity, gives to the mixture a 
 color imitating gold, and which may be employed 
 in distemper, varnish, or oil. When destined for 
 oil, it is ground with drying or pure nut-oil, added 
 to essence or mixed with drying oil. 
 
 To make Chamois and Bitff Color. 
 
 Yellow is the foundation of chamois color, which, 
 is modified by a particle of minium, or what is 
 better, cinnabar and ceruse in small quantity. 
 This color may be employed in distemper, varnish, 
 and oil. For varnish, it is ground with i common 
 oil of pinks, and i of mastic gallipot varnish. It 
 is mixed with common gallipot varnish. For oil 
 painting, it is ground and mixed up with drying 
 oil. 
 
 To make Olive Color for Oil and Varnish. 
 
 Olive color is a composition the shades of which 
 may be diversified. Black and a little blue, mixed 
 with yellow, will produce an olive color. Yellow 
 de Berri, or d'Auvergne, with a little verdigris 
 and charcoal, will also form this color. 
 
 It is ground and mixed up with mastic gallipot, 
 and common gallipot varnishes. For oil painting, 
 it is ground with oil added to essence, and mixed 
 up with drying oil. 
 
330 
 
 PAINTS AND COLORS. 
 
 To make Olive Color for Distemper. 
 When intended for distemper, it will be neces- 
 sary to make a change in the composition. The 
 yellow above-mentioned, indigo, and ceruse, o 
 Spanish white, are the new ingredients whic 
 must be employed. 
 
 To make Blue Colors. 
 
 Blue belongs to the order of vegetable substan 
 ces, like indigo ; or to that of metallic substance 
 like Prussian blue; or to that of stony minera 
 substances, as ultramarine; or to that of vitreou 
 ubstances colored by a metallic oxide, as Saxt 
 blue. Ultramarine is more particularly reserve 
 for pictures. The same may, in some degree, b 
 said of Saxon blue. 
 
 When prussiate of iron or indigo is employe 
 without mixture, the color produced is too dark 
 It has no splendor, and very often the light make 
 it appear black; it is. therefore, usual to soften i 
 with white. 
 
 To make Blue Distemper. 
 
 Grind with water as much ceruse as may be 
 thought necessary for the whole of the intendec 
 work; and afterwards mix it with indigo, or Prus 
 sian blue. 
 
 This color produces very little effect in distem 
 per; it is not very favorable to the play of th< 
 light; but it soon acquires brilliancy and splendoi 
 beneath the vitreous lamina of the varnish. Paint 
 ing in distemper, when carefully varnished, pro 
 duces a fine effect. 
 
 To make Prussian Blue Paint. 
 
 The ceruse is ground with oil, if for varnish, 
 made with essence, or merely with essence, which 
 is equally proper for oil painting; and a quantity 
 of either of these blues sufficient to produce the 
 required tone is added. 
 
 For varnish, the ceruse is generally ground with 
 oil of pinks added to a little essence, and is mixed 
 up with camphorated mastic varnish, if the color 
 is destined for delicate objects ; or with gallipot 
 varnish if for wainscoting. This color, when 
 
 f round and mixed up with drying oil, produces a 
 ne effect, if covered by a solid varnish made with 
 alcohol or essence. 
 
 If this oil color be destined for expensive arti- 
 cles, such as valuable furniture subject to friction, 
 it may be glazed with the turpentine copal varnish. 
 
 Ultramarine. 
 
 A vitreous matter colored by oxide of cobalt, 
 gives a tone of color different from that of the 
 prussiate of iron and indigo. It is employed for 
 sky-blues. The case is the same with blue ver- 
 diter, a preparation made from oxide of copper and 
 lime. Both these blues stand well in distemper, 
 in varnish, and in>oil. 
 
 Saxon blue requires to be ground with drying 
 oil, and to be mixed with gallipot varnish. If in- 
 tended for oil painting, it is to be mixed up with 
 resinous drying oil, which gives body to this vitre- 
 ous matter. 
 
 Blue Verditer 
 
 May be ground with pure alcoholic varnish added 
 to a little essence; and may be mixed up with 
 compound mastic varnish if the color is to be ap- 
 plied to delicate articles. Or mastic gallipot 
 varnish, added to a little drying oil, may be used 
 for grinding, and common gallipot varnish for 
 mixing up, if the painting is intended for ceilings, 
 wainscoting, etc. This color is soft and dull, and 
 requires a varnish to heighten the tone of it, and 
 give it play. Turpentine copal varnish is proper 
 for this purpose, if the article has need of a dur- 
 able varnish. 
 
 To make Green Color. 
 
 Every green color, simple or compound, when 
 mixed up with a white ground, becomes soft, and 
 ' gives a sea-green of greater or le?^ strength, and 
 more or less delicate, in the ratio of the respective 
 quantities of the principal colors. Thus, green 
 oxides of copper, such as chrome green, verdigris, 
 dry crystallized acetate of copper, green com- 
 posed with blue verditer, and the Dutch pink of 
 Troyes, or any other yellow, will form, with a base 
 of a white color, a sea green, the intensity of which 
 may be easily changed or modified. The white 
 ground for painting in distemper is generally com- 
 posed of Bougival white (white marl), or white of 
 Troyes (chalk), or Spanish white (pure clay); but 
 for varnish or oil painting, it is sought for in a 
 metallic oxide. In this case, ceruse or pure white 
 oxide of lead is employed. 
 
 To make Sea-Green for Distemper. 
 Grind separately with water, mountain-green 
 and ceruse; and mix up with parchment size and 
 water, adding ceruse in sufficient quantity to pro- 
 duce the degree of intensity required in the color. 
 Watin recommends the use of Dutch pink of Troyes 
 and white oxide of lead, in proportions pointed 
 out by experience ; because the color thence result- 
 ing is more durable. 
 
 In the case of a triple composition, begin to 
 make the green by mixing Dutch pink with blue 
 verditer, and then lower the color to sea green, by 
 the addition of ceruse ground with water. 
 
 To make Sea-Green for Varnish and Oils. 
 Varnish requires that this color should possess 
 more body than it has in distemper ; and this it ac- 
 quires from the oil which is mixed with it. This 
 addition gives it even more splendor. Besides, a 
 jreen of a metallic nature is substituted for the 
 green of the Dutch pink, which is of a vegetable 
 nature. 
 
 A certain quantity of verdigris, pounded and 
 sifted through a silk sieve, is ground separately 
 with nut-oil, half drying and half fat; and if the 
 olor is intended for metallic surfaces, it must be 
 diluted with camphorated mastic, or gallipot var- 
 nish. 
 
 On the other hand, the ceruse is ground with 
 ssence, or with oils to which i of essence has 
 >een added, and the two colors are mixed in propor- 
 tions relative to the degree of intensity intended 
 o be given to the mixture. It may readily be 
 onceived that the principal part of this compo- 
 sition consists of ceruse. 
 
 If this color be destined for articles of a certain 
 falue, crysta.llized verdigris, dried and pulverized, 
 mght to be substituted for common verdigris, and 
 he painting must be covered with a stratum of 
 he transparent or turpentine copal varnish. 
 
 The sea-greens, which admit into their cumposi- 
 ion metallic coloring parts, are durable and do 
 tot change. 
 
 The last compositions may be employed for 
 ea-green in oil painting; but it will be proper 
 o brighten the tone a little more than when var- 
 ish is used, because this color becomes darker by 
 be addition of yellow, which the oil developes in 
 he course of time. 
 
 To make Bright Red. 
 
 A mixture of lake with vermilion gives that 
 eautiful bright red which painters employ for 
 anguine parts. This red is sometimes imitated 
 
 r varnishing small appendages of the toilette, 
 t ought to be ground with varnish and mixed 
 p with the same, after which it is glazed and 
 olished. The mastic gallipot varnish is used for 
 rinding; gallipot varnish for mixing up, and 
 amphorated mastic varnish for glazing. 
 
DRIERS, FRESCO, ETC. 
 
 331 
 
 To make Crimson, or Rose-color. 
 
 Carminated lake that which is composed of 
 alum charged with the coloring part of cochineal, 
 ceruse, and carmine forms a beautiful crimson. 
 It requires a particle of vermilion and of white 
 lead. 
 
 The use of this varnish is confined to valuable 
 articles. 
 
 To make Violet-color. 
 
 Violet is made indifferently with red and black, 
 or red and blue; and to render it more splendid, 
 with red, white, and blue. To compose violet, 
 therefore, applicable to varnish, take minium, or 
 what is still better, vermilion, and grind it with 
 the camphorated mastic varnish to which a fourth 
 part of boiled oil and a little ceruse have been 
 added ; then add a little Prussian blue ground in 
 oil. The proportions requisite for the degree of 
 intensity to be given to the color will soon be 
 found by experience. The white brightens the 
 tint. The vermilion and Prussian blue, separated 
 or mixed, give hard tones, which must be softened 
 by an intermediate substance that modifies, to 
 their advantage, the reflections of the light. 
 
 To make Chestnut-color. 
 
 This color is composed of red, yellow and black. 
 The English red, or red ochre of Auvergne, ochre 
 de rue and a little black, form a dark chestnut 
 color. It is proper for painting of every kind. 
 If English red, which is dryer than that of Au- 
 vergne, be employed, it will be proper, when the 
 color is intended for varnish, to grind it with dry- 
 ing nut-oil. The ochre of Auvergne may be ground 
 With the mastic gallipot, and mixed up with galli- 
 pot varnish. 
 
 The most experienced artists grind dark colors 
 Trith linseed oil, when the situation will admit of 
 its being used, because it is more drying. For 
 articles without doors nut-oil is preferable. The 
 colors of oak-wood, walnut-tree, chestnut, olive, 
 and yellow, require the addition of a little litharge 
 ground on porphyry: it hastens the desiccation 
 of the color, and gives it body. 
 
 But if it is intended to cover these colors with 
 Tarnish, as is generally done in wainscoting, they 
 must be mixed up with essence, to which a little 
 oil has "been added. The color is then much better 
 disposed to receive the varnish, under which it 
 exhibits all the splendor it can derive from the 
 reflection of the light. 
 
 To make a Dryer for Painting. 
 
 Vitreous oxide of lead (litharge), is of no other 
 use in painting than to free oils from their greasy 
 particles, for the purpose of communicating to 
 them a drying quality. Red litharge, however, 
 ought to be preferred to the greenish yellow ; it 
 is not so hard, and answers better for the purpose 
 to which it is destined. 
 
 When painters wish to obtain a common color 
 of the ochrey kind, and have no boiled oil by 
 them, they may paint with linseed oil, not freed 
 from its greasy particles, by mixing with the color 
 about 2 or 3 parts of litharge, ground on a piece 
 of porphyry with water, dried, and reduced to 
 fine powder, for 16 parts of oil. The color has 
 a great deal of body, and dries as speedily as if 
 mixed with drying oil. 
 
 Siccitive Oil. 
 
 Boil together for 2 hours on a slow and equal 
 fire, i oz. of litharge, as much calcined ceruse, and 
 the same of terre d'ombre and talc, with 1 Ib. of 
 linseed oil, carefully stirring the whole time. It 
 must be carefully skimmed and clarified. The 
 older it grows the better it is. A quarter of a pint 
 of this dryer is required to every pound of color. 
 
 To Paint in Fresco. 
 
 Ii is performed with water-colors on fresh plast- 
 er, or a wall laid with mortar not dry. This sori 
 of painting has a great advantage by its incor- 
 porating with the mortar, and drying along with 
 it becomes very durable. 
 
 The ancients painted on stucco, and we maj 
 remark in Vitruvius what infinite care they .took 
 in making the plastering of their ouiMings. to 
 render them beautiful and lasting, though th 
 modern painters find a plaster of lime and sand 
 preferable to it. 
 
 To Paint Fire-Place* mid Hearths. 
 
 The Genevese employ a kind of stone, known 
 under the name of molaxse, for constructing fire- 
 places and stoves, after the German manner. This 
 stone is brought from Saura, a village of Savoy, 
 near Geneva. It has a greyish color, inclining tc 
 blue, which is very agreeable to the eye. Thii 
 tint is similar to that communicated to common 
 white-washing with lime, chalk, or gypsum, the 
 dullness of which is corrected by a particle of 
 blu'j extract of indigo, or by charcoal black. 
 To make Red Distemper for Tiles. 
 
 Dip a brush in water from a common lye, or in 
 soapy water, or in water charged with a 20th 
 part of the carbonate of potash (pearlash), and 
 draw it over the tiles. This washing thoroughly 
 cleanses them, and disposes all the parts* of th 
 pavement to receive the distemper. 
 
 When dry, dissolve in 8 pts. of water lb of 
 Flanders glue; and while the mixture is boiling, 
 add 2 Ibs. of red ochre; mix the whole with greai 
 care. Then apply a stratum of this mixture to 
 the pavement, and when dry apply a second stra- 
 tum with drying linseed oil, and a third with the 
 same red mixed up with size. When the whole ia 
 dry, rub it with wax. 
 
 To Distemper in Badigeon. 
 
 Badigeon is employed for giving an uniform 
 tint to houses rendered brown by time, and to 
 churches. Badigeon, in general, has a yellow 
 tint. That which succeeds best is composed of 
 the saw-dust or powder of the same kind of stone 
 and slacked lime, mixed up in a bucket of water 
 holding in solution 1 Ib. of the sulphate of alumina 
 (alum). It is applied with a brush. 
 
 At Paris, and in other parts of France, where 
 the large edifices are constructed of a soft kind 
 of stone, which is yellow, and sometimes white 
 when it comes from the quarry, but which in time 
 becomes brown, a little ochre de rue is substituted 
 for the powder of the stone itself, and restores to 
 the edifice its original tint. 
 
 To make a Composition for rendering Canvas, 
 Linen, and Cloth durable, Pliable, and Water- 
 proof. 
 
 To make it Black. 
 
 First, the canvas, linen, or cloth is to be washed 
 with hot or cold water, the former preferable, so 
 as to discharge the stiffening which all new can- 
 vas, linen, or cloth contains; when the stiffening 
 is perfectly discharged, hang the canvas, linen, or 
 cloth up to dry ; when perfectly so, it must be con- 
 stantly rubbed by the hand until it becomes sup- 
 ple ; it must then be stretched in a hollow frame 
 very tight, and the following ingredients are to 
 be laid on with a brush for the first coat, viz., 8 
 qts. of boiled linseed oil, i oz. of burnt umber, i 
 oz. of sugar of lead, i oz. of white vitriol, oz. of 
 white lead. 
 
 The above ingredients, except the white lead, 
 must be ground fine with a small quantity of the 
 above-mentioned oil, on a stone and muller; then 
 mix all the ingredients up with the oil, and add 8 
 
332 
 
 PAINTS AND COLORS. 
 
 oz. of lampblack, which must be put over a slow 
 fire in an iron broad vessel, and kept stirred until 
 the grease disappears. In consequence of the 
 canvas being washed and then rubbed, it will ap- 
 pear rough and nappy ; the following method must 
 be taken with the second coat, viz., the same in- 
 gredients as before, except the white load; this 
 coat will set in a few hours, according to the 
 weather; when set take a dry paint-brush and 
 work it very hard with the grain of the canvas; 
 this will cause the nap to lie smooth. 
 
 The third and last coat makes a complete jet- 
 black, which continues its color: Take 3 galls, of 
 boiled linseed oil, an ounce of burnt umber, oz. 
 of sugar of lead, i oz. of white vitriol, oz. of 
 Prussian blue, and i oz. of verdigris; this must be 
 all ground very fine in a small quantity of the 
 above oil, then add 4 oz. of lampblack, put through 
 the same process of fire as the first coat. The 
 above are to be laid on and used at discretion, in 
 a similar way to paint. To make lead color, the 
 same ingredients as before in making the black, 
 with the addition of white lead in proportion to 
 the color you wish to have, light or dark. 
 
 To make it Green. 
 
 Yellow ochre, 4 oz. ; Prussian blue, J oz. ; white 
 lead, 3 oz. ; white vitriol, oz. ; sugar of lead i oz. ; 
 good boiled linseed oil sufficient to make it of a 
 thin quality, so as to go through the canvas. 
 
 To make it Yellow. 
 
 Yellow ochre, 4 oz. ; burnt umber, J oz.; white 
 lead, 6 or 7 oz. ; white vitriol, i oz. ; sugar of lead, 
 i oz. ; boiled linseed oil, as in green. 
 
 To make it Red. 
 
 Red lead, 4 oz. ; vermilion 2 oz. ; white vitriol, 
 J oz. ; sugar of lead i oz. ; boiled linseed oil as 
 before. 
 
 To make it Gray. 
 
 Take white lead, a little Prussian blue, according 
 to the quality you want, which will turn it to a 
 gray color; a proportion of sugar of lead and 
 white vitriol, as mentioned in the other colors, 
 boiled linseed oil sufficient to make it of a thin 
 quality. 
 
 To make it White. 
 
 White lead, 4 Ibs. ; spirits of turpentine, J pt. ; 
 white vitriol, i oz. : sugar of lead, oz.; boiled oil 
 sufficient to make it of a thin quality. 
 
 The above ingredients, of different colors, are 
 calculated as near as possible; but, as one article 
 may be stronger than another, which will soon be 
 discovered in using, in that case the person work- 
 ing, the color may add a little, or diminish, as he 
 may find necessary. 
 
 The same preparation for wood or iron, only re- 
 ducing the oil about 3 qt. out of 8, and to be ap- 
 plied in the same manner as paint or varnish, with 
 a brush. 
 
 ARTISTS' OIL COLORS. 
 
 On Coloring Materials. 
 
 The composition of colors as respects those 
 leading tests of excellence, preservation of general 
 tints, and permanency of brilliant hues, during 
 their exposure for many centuries to the impair- 
 ing assaults of the atmosphere, is a preparation 
 in which the ancient preparers of these oily com- 
 pounds, have very much excelled, in their skilful- 
 ness, the moderns. It is a fact, that the ancient 
 painted walls, to be seen at Dendaras, although 
 exposed for many ages to the open air, without 
 i,ny covering or protection, still possess a perfect 
 brilliancy of color, as vivid as when painted, per- 
 haps 2000 years ago. The Egyptians mixed their 
 
 colors with some gummy substance, and applied 
 them detached from each other, without nny blend- 
 ing or mixture. They appeared to have used six 
 colors, viz., white, black, blue, red, yellow, and 
 greon; they first covered the canvas entirely with 
 white, upon which they traced the design in black, 
 leaving out the lights of the ground color. They 
 used minium for red, and generally of a dark 
 tinge. Pliny mentions some painted ceilings in 
 his day in the town of Ardea, which had been 
 executed at a date prior to the foundation of Rome. 
 He expresses great surprise and admiration at 
 their freshness, after the lapse of so many cen- 
 turies. These are, undoubtedly, evidences of the 
 excellence of the ancients in their art of prepar- 
 ing colors. In the number of them there is, pro- 
 bably, not much difference between the ancient 
 and modern knowledge. The ancients seem to 
 have been possessed of some colors of which we 
 are ignorant, while they were unacquainted, them- 
 selves, with some of those more recently discovered. 
 The improvements of chemistry have, certainly, 
 in later times, enriched painting with a profusion 
 of tints, to which, in point of brilliancy at least, no 
 combination of primitive colors known to the an- 
 cients could pretend; but the rapid fading in the 
 colors of some of the most esteemed masters of the 
 Modern School, proves at least there is something 
 defective in their bases, or mode of preparing 
 them. This fault is peculiarly evident in many of 
 the productions from our esteemed master, Sir 
 Joshua Reynolds, which, although they have not 
 issued from his pallet more than 40 years, carry 
 an impoverishment of surface, from the premature 
 fading of their colors, so as almost to lose, in 
 many instances, the identity of the subjects they 
 represent. On this head (and a most important 
 one it is), the superiority of the ancient compound- 
 ers completely carries away the palm of merit. 
 To Prepare Ultramarine. 
 
 Separate from the stone the most apparent 
 parts of the ultramarine: reduce them to the size 
 of a pea, and, having brought them to a red heat 
 in a crucible, throw them in that state into the 
 strongest distilled vinegar. Then grind them with 
 the vinegar, and reduce them to an impalpable 
 powder; next take of wax, red colophonium, and 
 lapis lazuli, an equal quantity, say oz. of each 
 of these three substances; melt the wax and the 
 colophonium in a proper vessel, and add the pow- 
 der to the melted matter, then pour the mass into 
 cold water, and let it rest eight days. Next take 
 two glass vessels filled with water, as hot as the 
 hand can bear, knead the mass in the water, and 
 when the purest part of the ultramarine has 
 been extracted remove the resinous mass into the 
 other vessels, where finish the kneading to sepa- 
 rate the remainder ; if the latter portion appears to 
 be much inferior, and paler than the former, let it 
 rest for 4 days, to facilitate the precipitation of 
 the ultramarine, which extract by decantation, 
 and wash it in fair water. 
 
 Ultramarine of four qualities may be separated 
 by this process. The first separation gives the 
 finest, and as the operation is repeated, the beauty 
 of the powder decreases. 
 
 Kinckel considers immersion in vinegar as tte 
 essential part of the operation. It facilitates the 
 division, and even the solution of the zeolitic and 
 earthy particles soluble in that acid. 
 Another Method. 
 
 Separate the blue parts, and reduce them, on a 
 piece of porphyry, to an impalpable powder, which 
 besprinkle with linseed oil, then make a paste with 
 equal parts of yellow wax, pine resin, and colo- 
 phonium, say, 8 oz. of each; and add to this 
 
ARTISTS' OIL COLORS. 
 
 333 
 
 paste i oz. of linseed oil, 2 oz. of oil of turpentine, 
 and as much more mastic. 
 
 Then take 4 parts of this mixture, and 1 of la- 
 pis lazuli, ground with oil on a piece of porphyry, 
 mix the whole warm, and suffer it to digest for a 
 month, at the end of which knead the mixture 
 thoroughly in warm water, till the blue part sepa- 
 rates from it, and at the end of some days decant 
 the liquor. This ultramarine is exceedingly 
 beautiful. 
 
 These two processes are nearly similar, if we 
 except the preliminary preparation of Kinckel, 
 which consists in bringing the lapis lazuli to a red 
 heat and immersing it in vinegar. It may be 
 readily seen, by the judicious observations of Mor- 
 graff on the nature of this coloring part, that this 
 calcination may be hurtful to certain kinds of 
 azure stone. This preliminary operation, however, 
 is a test which ascertains the purity of the ultra- 
 marine. 
 
 To Extract the Remainder of Ultramarine. 
 
 As this matter is valuable, some portions of ul- 
 tramarine may be extracted from the paste which 
 has been kneaded in water; nothing is necessary 
 but to mix it with four times its weight of linseed 
 oil, to pour the matter into a glass of conical form, 
 and to expose the vessel in the balneum marise of 
 an alembic. The water of which must be kept in 
 a state of ebullition for several hours. The liquid- 
 ity of the mixture allows the ultramarine to sepa- 
 rate itself, and the supernatant oil is decanted. 
 The same immersion of the coloring matter in oil 
 is repeated, to separate the resinous parts which 
 still adhere to it ; and the operation is finished 
 by boiling it in water to separate the oil. The 
 deposit is ultramarine ; but it is inferior to that 
 separated by the first washing. 
 To Ascertain whether Ultramarine be Adulterated. 
 
 As the price of ultramarine, which is already 
 very high, may become more so on account of the 
 difficulty of obtaining lapis lazuli, it is of great 
 importance that painters should be able to detect 
 adulteration. Ultramarine is pure if, when brought 
 to a red heat in a crucible, it stands that trial 
 without changing its color; as small qnantities 
 only are subjected to this test, a comparison may 
 be made, at very little expense, with the part 
 which has not been exposed to the fire. If adul- 
 terated, it becomes blackish or paler. 
 
 This proof, however, may not always be con- 
 clusive. When ultramarine of the lowest quality 
 is mixed with azure, it exhibits no more body 
 than sand ground on porphyry would do; ultra- 
 marine treated with oil assumes a brown tint. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 Ultramarine is extracted from lapis lazuli, or 
 asure stone, a kind of heavy zeolite, which is so 
 hard as to strike fire with steel, to cut glass, and 
 to be susceptible of a fine polish. It is of a bright 
 blue color, variegated with white or yellow veins, 
 enriched with small metallic glands, and even 
 veins of a gold co T lor, which are only sulphurets 
 of iron (martial pyrites); it breaks irregularly. 
 The specimens most esteemed are those charged 
 with the greatest quantity of blue. 
 
 Several artists have exercised their ingenuity on 
 processes capable of extracting ultramarine in its 
 greatest purity ; some, however, are contented 
 with separating the uncolored portions of the 
 stone, reducing the colored part to an impalpable 
 powder, and then grinding it for a long time with 
 oil of poppies. But it is certain that, in conse- 
 quence of this ineffectual method, the beauty of 
 the color is injured by parts which are foreign to 
 it j and that it does not produce the whole effect 
 
 which ought to be expected from pure ultrama- 
 rine. 
 
 It may be readily conceived that the eminent 
 qualities of ultramarine must have induced those 
 first acquainted with the processes proper for in- 
 creasing the merit and value of it, to keep them a 
 profound secret. This was indeed the case; ul- 
 tramarine was prepared long before any account 
 of the method of extracting and purifying it was 
 known. 
 
 Artificial Ultramarine. 
 
 Sulphur, 2 parts ; dry carbonate of soda, 1 part. 
 Put them into a Hessian crucible, cover it up, and 
 apply heat until the mass fuses; then sprinkle 
 into it gradually a mixture of silicate of soda and 
 aluminate of soda (the first containing 72 parts of 
 silica, the second, 70 parts of alumina) ; lastly, 
 calcine for 1 hour, and wash in pure water. 
 
 To Prepare Cobalt Blue. Bleu de Thenard. 
 
 Having reduced the ore to powder, calcine it in 
 a reverberatory furnace, stirring it frequently. 
 The chimney of the furnace should have a strong 
 draught, in order that the calcination may be 
 perfect, and the arsenical and sulphurous acid 
 vapors may be carried off. The calcination is to 
 be continued until these vapors cease to be disen- 
 gaged, which is easily ascertained by collecting in 
 a ladle a little of the gas in the furnace; the pres- 
 ence or absence of the garlic odor determines the 
 fact. When calcined, boil the result slightly in an 
 excess of weak nitric acid, in a glass matrass, 
 decant the supernatant liquor, and evaporate the 
 solution thus obtained, nearly to dryness, in a 
 capsule of platina or porcelain. This residuum is 
 to be thrown into boiling water and filtered, and a 
 solution of the subphosphate of soda to be poured 
 into the clear liquor, which precipitates an insolu- 
 ble phosphate of cobalt. After washing it well on 
 a filter, collect it while yet in a gelatinous form, 
 and mix it intimately, with eight times its weight 
 of alumina, in the same state if properly done, 
 the paste will have a uniform tint, through its 
 whole mass. This mixture is now to be spread on 
 smooth plates and put into a stove; when dry and 
 brittle, pound it in a mortar, enclosed in a covered 
 earthen crucible, and heat it to a cherry-red for 
 half an hour. On opening the crucible, if the 
 operation has been carefully conducted, the beau- 
 tiful and desired product will be found. Care 
 should be taken that the alumina in the gelatinous 
 form be precipitated from the alum by a sufficient 
 excess of ammonia, and that it is completely puri- 
 fied by washing with water filtered through char- 
 coal. 
 
 To make Artificial Saxon Blue. 
 
 Saxon blue may be successfully imitated by 
 mixing with a divided earth prussiate of iron at 
 the moment of its formation and precipitation. 
 
 Into a solution of 144 grs. of sulphate of iron 
 pour a solution of yellow prussiate of potash. 
 
 At the time of the formation of iron add, in the 
 same vessel, a solution of 2 oz. of alum, and pour 
 in with it the solution of potash, just sufficient to 
 decompose the sulphate of alumina, for a dose of 
 alkali superabundant to the decomposition of 
 that salt might alter the prussiate of iron. It 
 will, therefore, be much better to leave a little 
 alum, which may afterwards be carried off by 
 washing. 
 
 As soon as the alkaline liquor is added, the alu- 
 mina precipitated becomes exactly mixed with the 
 prussiate of iron, the intensity of which it lessens 
 by bringing it to the tone of common Saxon blue. 
 The matter is then thrown on a filter, and, after 
 being washed in clean water, is dried. This sub- 
 stance is a kind of blue verditer, thy intensity of 
 
334 
 
 PAINTS AND COLORS. 
 
 Tfhich may vary according to the greater or less 
 quantity of the sulphate of alumina decomposed, 
 It may be used for painting in distemper. 
 
 To make Blue Verditer. 
 
 Dissolve the copper, cold, in nitric acid (aqua- 
 fortis), and produce a precipitation of it by means 
 of quicklime, employed in such doses that it wil 
 be absorbed by the acid, in order that the precipi- 
 tate may be pure oxide of copper, that is, without 
 any mixture. When the liquor has been decanted, 
 wash the precipitate and spread it out on a piece 
 of linen cloth to drain. If a portion of this pre- 
 cipitate, which is green, be placed on a grinding- 
 stone, and if a little quicklime, in powder, be 
 added, the green color will be immediately changed 
 into a beautiful blue. The proportion of the lime 
 added is from 7 to 10 parts in 100. When the 
 whole matter acquires the consistence of paste, 
 desiccation soon takes place. 
 
 Blue verditer is proper for distemper, and for 
 varnish, but it is not for oil painting, as the oil 
 renders it very dark. If used it ought to be 
 brightened with a great deal of white. 
 
 Chrome Yellow. 
 
 To a solution of bichromate of potassa add a 
 solution of nitrate of lead as long as a precipitate 
 falls. Wash and dry it. 
 
 Cadmium Yellow 
 
 Is a compound of cadmium and sulphur. It is 
 obtained by precipitation from a salt of cadmium 
 by a current of sulphuretted hydrogen gas, or by 
 an alkaline sulphide. 
 
 Lemon Yellow (Steinbnhl Yelloto) 
 Is a chromate of baryta, made by mixing hot 
 saturated solutions of bichromate of potassa and 
 nitrate of baryta. Wash and dry the precipitates. 
 It is considered superior to chrome yellow. 
 To make Naples Yellow. 
 
 Twelve oz. of ceruse, 2 oz. of the sulphuret of 
 antimony, ^ oz. of calcined alum, 1 oz. of sal am- 
 moniac. Pulverize these ingredients, and having 
 mixed them thoroughly, put them into a capsule 
 or crucible of earth, and place over it a covering 
 of the same substance. Expose it at first to a 
 gentle heat, which must be gradually increased till 
 the capsule is moderately red. The oxidation 
 arising from this process requires, at least, 3 hours' 
 exposure to heat before it is completed. The re- 
 sult of this calcination is Naples yellow, which is 
 ground in water on a porphyry slab, with an ivory 
 spatula, as iron alters the color. The paste is then 
 dried and preserved for use. It is a yellow oxide 
 of lead and antimony. 
 
 There is no necessity of adhering so strictly to 
 the doses as to prevent their being varied. If a 
 golden color be required in the yellow, the pro- 
 portions of the sulphuret of antimony and muriate 
 of ammonia must be increased. In like manner, 
 if you wish it to be more fusible, increase the quan- 
 tities of sulphuret of antimony and calcined sul- 
 phate of alumina. 
 
 To make Montpellier Yellow. 
 
 Take 4 Ibs. of litharge, well sifted, divide it into 
 4 equal portions, and put it into as many glazed 
 earthen vessels. Dissolve also 1 Ib. of sea-salt in 
 about 4 Ibs. of water. Pour a fourth part of this 
 solution into each of the 4 earthen vessels, to form 
 a light paste ; let the whole rest for some hours, 
 and when the surface begins to grow white stir 
 the mass with a strong wooden spatula. Without 
 this motion it would acquire too great hardness, 
 and a part of the salt would escape decomposition. 
 As the consistence increases dilute the matter 
 
 with a new quantity of the solution, and if this ia 
 not sufficient recourse must be had to simple wa- 
 ter to maintain the same consistence. The paste 
 will then be very white, and in the course of 24 
 hours becomes uniform and free from lumps; let 
 it remain for the same space of time, but stir it at 
 intervals to complete the decomposition of the 
 salt. The paste is then well washed, to carry off 
 the caus-tic soda (soda deprived of carbonic acid) 
 which adheres to it; the mass is putvinto strong 
 linen cloth and subjected to a press. The remain- 
 ing paste is distributed in flat vessels, and these 
 vessels are exposed to heat, in order to effect a 
 proper oxidation (calcination), which converts it 
 into a solid, yellow, brilliant matter, sometimes 
 crystallized in transverse striae. 
 
 This is Montpellier yellow, which mny be ap- 
 plied to the same purposes as Naples yellow. 
 To prepare Carmine. 
 
 This kind of fecula, so fertile in gradation of 
 tone by the effect of mixtures, and so grateful to 
 the eye in all its shades, so useful to the painter, 
 and so agreeable to the delicate beauty, is only 
 the coloring part of a kind of dried insect known 
 under the name of cochineal. 
 
 A mixture of 36 grs. of chosen seed, 18 grs. of 
 autour bark, and as much alum thrown into a 
 decoction of 5 grs. of pulverized cochineal, and 
 5 Ibs. of water, gives, at the end of from 5 to 10 
 days, a red fecula, which, when dried, weighs 
 from 40 to 48 grs. This fecula is carmine. The 
 remaining decoction, which is still highly col- 
 ored, is reserved for the preparation of carminated 
 lakes. 
 
 Superfine Carmine of Amsterdam. 
 
 Heat 6 buckets of rain-water, and when it com- 
 mences to boil throw in 2 Ibs. of finely-powdered 
 cochineal; continue boiling 2 hours, and then add 
 
 3 oz. of pure water, and immediately afterwards 
 
 4 oz. of binoxalate of potash. Boil again 1 min- 
 ute, then remove the vessel from the fire, and let 
 the decoction stand 4 hours. Draw off the su- 
 pernatant liquid with a syphon into numerous ba- 
 sins, and put them aside upon a shelf for about 3 
 weeks, at the end of which time a mouldy pelli- 
 cle will be formed, which is to be carefully removed 
 with a whalebone, or by means of a small sponge 
 attached to the end of a stick. The water is then 
 run off through a syphon, which must reach to 
 
 he bottom of the pans, the carmine being so com- 
 pact that it adheres. This carmine is dried in 
 ;he shade, and is of an intensely brilliant hue. 
 
 To prepare Dutch Pink from Woad. 
 Boil the stems of woad in alum-water, and then 
 mix the liquor with clay, marl or chalk, which 
 will become charged with the color of the decoc- 
 ;ion. When the earthy matter has acquired con- 
 sistence, form it into small cakes and expose them 
 ;o dry. It is under this form that the Dutch pink* 
 are sold in the color shops. 
 
 Dutch Pink from Yellow Berries. 
 The small blackthorn produces a fruit which, 
 when collected green, is called yellow berries. 
 These seeds, when boiled in alum-water, form a 
 Dutch pink superior to the former. A certain 
 quantity of clay, or marl, is mixed with the de- 
 coction, by which means the coloring part of the 
 jerries unites with the earthy matter and commu- 
 nicates to it a beautiful yellow color. 
 
 Brownish Yellow Dutch Pink. 
 
 Boil for an hour in 12 Ibs. of water 1 Ib. of yel- 
 
 ow beries, ^ Ib. of the shavings of the wood of 
 
 he Barberry shrub, and 1 Ib. of wood-ashes. 
 
 The decoction is strained through a piece of linen 
 
 loth. Pour into this mixture, warm, and at dif- 
 
ARTISTS OIL COLORS. 
 
 335 
 
 ferent times, a solution jf 2 Ibs. of the sulphate 
 of alumina in 5 Ibs. of water; a slight efferves- 
 cence w 11 take place, and the sulphate being de- 
 composed, the alumina which is precipitated will 
 seize on the coloring part. The liquor must then 
 be filtered through a piece of close linen, and the 
 paste which remains on the cloth, when divided 
 into square pieces, is exposed on boards to dry. 
 This is brown Dutch pink, because the clay in it 
 is pure. The intensity of the color shows the 
 quality of the pink, which is superior to that of 
 the other compositions. 
 
 Dutch Pink for Oil Painting. 
 
 By substituting for clay a substance which pre- 
 sents a mixture of that earth and metallic oxide, 
 the result will be Dutch pink of a very superior 
 kind. 
 
 Boil separately 1 Ib. of yellow-berries and 3 oz. 
 of the sulphate of alumina in 12 Ibs. of water, 
 which must be reduced to 4 Ibs. Strain the de- 
 coction through a piece of linen, and squeeze it 
 strongly. Then mix up with it 2 Ibs. of ceruse, 
 finely ground on porphyry, and 1 Ib. of pulverized 
 Spanish white. Evaporate the mixture till the 
 mass acquires the consistence of a paste; and, 
 having formed it into small cakes, dry them in 
 the shade. 
 
 When these cakes are dry, reduce them to pow- 
 der, and mix them with a new decoction of yel- 
 low-berries. By repeating this process a third 
 time a brown Dutch pink will be obtained. 
 
 In general the decoctions must be warm when 
 mixed with the earth. They ought not to be long 
 kept, as their color is speedily altered by the fer- 
 mentation. Care must be taken also to use a 
 wooden spatula for stirring the mixture. 
 
 When only one decoction of wood or yellow- 
 berries is employed to color a given quantity of 
 earth, the Dutch pink resulting from it is of a 
 bright-yellow color, and is easily mixed for use. 
 When the coloring part of several decoctions is 
 absorbed the composition becomes brown, and is 
 mixed with more difficulty, especially if the paste 
 be argillaceous; for it is the property of this earth 
 to unite with oily and resinous parts, adhere 
 strongly to them, and incorporate with them. In 
 the latter case the artist must not be satisfied with 
 mixing the color; it ought to be ground, an ope- 
 ration equally proper for every kind of Dutch 
 pink, and even the softest, when destined for oil 
 painting. 
 
 To make Lake from Brazil-wood. 
 
 Boil 4 oz. of the raspings of Brazil-wood in 15 
 pts. of pure water till the liquor is reduced to 2 
 pts. It will be of a dark-red color, inclining to 
 violet; but the addition of 4 or 5 oz. of alum will 
 give it a hue inclining to rose-color. When the 
 liquor has been strained through a piece of linen 
 cloth, if 4 oz. of the carbonate of soda be added 
 with caution, on account of the effervescence 
 which takes place, the color, which by this addi- 
 tion is deprived of its mordant, will resume its 
 former tint, and deposit a lake, which, when 
 washed and properly dried, has an exceedingly 
 rich and mellow violet-red color. 
 
 Another. If only one half of the dose of mineral 
 alkali be employed for this precipitation, the tint 
 of the lake becomes clearer, because the bath still 
 retains the undecomposed aluminous mordant. 
 
 Another. If the method employed for Dutch 
 pinks be followed by mixing the aluminous decoc- 
 tion of Brazil-wood with pure clay, such as Span- 
 ish white and white of Morat, and if the mixture 
 be deposited on a filter to receive the necessary 
 washing, a lake of a very bright-dark rose-color 
 will be obtained from the driers. 
 
 Lakes from other Coloring Substances. 
 By the same process a very beautiful Ifcke may 
 be extracted from a decoction of logwood. In 
 general, lakes of all colors, and of all the shades 
 of these colors, may be extracted from the 
 substances which give up their coloring part to 
 boiling water; because it is afterwards communi- 
 cated by decomposition to the alumina precipi- 
 tated from sulphate of alumina, by means of an 
 alkali; or the tincture may be mixed with a pure 
 and exceedingly white argillaceous substance, such 
 as real Spanish white, or white of Morat. 
 
 To prepare Rouge. 
 
 Carmine united to talc, in different proportions, 
 forms rouge employed for the toilette. Talc is 
 distinguished also by the name of Briancon chalk. 
 It is a substance composed in a great measure of 
 clay, combined naturally with silex. 
 
 Carmine, as well as carminated lakes, the color- 
 ing part of which is borrowed from cochineal, is 
 the most esteemed of all the compositions of this 
 kind, because their coloring part maintains itself 
 without degradation. There are even cases where 
 the addition of caustic ammonia, which alters so 
 many coloring matters, is employed to heighten 
 its color. It is for this purpose that those who 
 color prints employ it. 
 
 Pink Saucers 
 
 Are made with extract of safflower (carthamus), 
 obtained by digesting it, after washing with cold 
 water, in a solution of carbonate of soda, and pre- 
 cipitating by citric acid. It dyes silk and wool 
 without a mordant. The extract is evaporated 
 upon saucers as a dye-stuff, and, mixed with pow- 
 dered talc, forms a variety of rouge. 
 
 Carminated Lake from Madder. 
 Boil 1 part of madder, in from 12 to 15 pints of 
 water, and continue the ebullition till it be reduced 
 to about 2 Ibs. Then strain the decoction through 
 a piece of strong linen cloth, which must be well 
 squeezed; and add to the decoction 4 oz. of alum. 
 The tint will be a beautiful bright-red, which the 
 matter will retain if it be mixed with proper clay. 
 In this case, expose the thick liquor which is thus 
 produced on a linen filter, and subject it to one 
 washing, to remove the alum. The lake, when 
 taken from the driers, will retain this bright prim- 
 itive color given by the alum. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 If, in the process for making this lake, decom- 
 position be employed, by mixing with the bath an 
 alkaline liquor, the alum, which is decomposed, 
 deprives the bath of its mordant, and the lake, 
 obtained after the subsequent washings, appears 
 of the color of the madder bath, without any ad- 
 dition : it is of a reddish brown. In this opera- 
 tion 7 or 8 oz. of alum ought to be employed for 
 each pound of madder. 
 
 This kind of lake is exceedingly fine, but a 
 brighter red color may be given to it, by mixing 
 the washed precipitate with alum-water, before 
 drying. 
 
 Improvement on the above. 
 
 If the aluminated madder bath be sharpened 
 with acetate of lead, or with arseniate of potash, 
 the operator still obtains, by the addition of car- 
 bonate of soda, a rose-colored lake of greater or 
 less strength. 
 
 To make Dark- Red. 
 
 Dragon's blood, infused warm in varnish, gives 
 reds, more or less dark, according to the quantity 
 of the coloring resin which combines with the 
 varnish. The artist, therefore, has it in his power 
 to vary the tones at pleasure. 
 
336 
 
 PAINTS AND COLORS. 
 
 Though cochineal, in a state of division, gives 
 to essence very little color in comparison with 
 that which it communicates to water, carmine 
 may be introduced into the composition of varnish 
 colored by dragon's blood. The result will be a 
 purple red, from which various shades may be 
 easily formed. 
 
 To Prepare Violet. 
 
 A mixture of carminated varnish and dragon's 
 blood, added to that colored by prussiate of iron, 
 produces violet. 
 
 To make a Fine Red Lake. 
 
 Boil stick-lac in water, filter the decoction, and 
 evaporate the clear liquor to dryness over a gentle 
 fire. The occasion of this easy separation is, that 
 the beautiful red color here separated adheres 
 only slightly to the outsides of the sticks broken 
 off the trees along with the gum-lac, and readily 
 communicates itself to boiling water. Some of 
 this sticking matter also adhering to the gum 
 itself, it is proper to boil the whole together; for 
 the gum does not at all prejudice the color, nor 
 dissolve in boiling water; so that after this opera- 
 tion the gum is as fit for making sealing-wax as 
 before, and for all other uses which do not require 
 its color. 
 
 To make a Beautiful Red Lake. 
 
 Take any quantity of cochineal, on which pour 
 twice its weight of alcohol, and as much distilled 
 water. Infuse for some days near a gentle fire, 
 and then filter. To the filtered liquor add a few 
 drops of the solution of tin, and a fine red pre- 
 cipitate will be formed. Continue to add a little 
 solution of tin every 2 hours, till the whole of the 
 coloring matter is precipitated. Lastly, edulco- 
 rate the precipitate by washing it in a large quan- 
 tity of distilled water and then dry it. 
 To Prepare Florentine Lake. 
 
 The sediment of cochineal that remains in the 
 bottom of the kettle in which carmine is made, 
 may be boiled with about 4 qts. of water, and the 
 red liquor left after the preparation of the carmine 
 mixed with it, and the whole precipitated with the 
 solution of tin. The red precipitate must be fre- 
 quently washed over with water. Exclusively of 
 this, 2 oz. of fresh cochineal, and 1 of crystals of 
 tartar, are to be boiled with a sufficient quantity 
 of water, poured off clear, and precipitated with 
 the solution of tin, and the precipitate washed. 
 At the same time 2 Ibs. of alum are also to be dis- 
 solved in water, precipitated with a lixivium of 
 potash, and the white earth repeatedly washed 
 with boiling water. Finally, both precipitates 
 are to be mixed together in their liquid state, put 
 upon a filter and dried. For the preparation of a 
 cheaper sort, instead of cochineal, 1 Ib. of Brazil- 
 wood may be employed in the preceding manner. 
 
 To make a Lake from Madder. 
 Inclose 2 oz. troy of the finest Dutch madder 
 in a bag of fine and strong calico, large enough 
 to hold three or four times as much. Put it into 
 a large marble or porcelain mortar, and pour on 
 it a pint of clear soft water cold. Press the bag 
 in every direction, and pound and rub it about 
 with a pestle, as much as can be done without 
 tearing it, and when the water is loaded with color 
 pour it off. Repeat this process till the water 
 comes off but slightly tinged, for which about 5 
 pts. will be sufficient. Heat all the liquor in an 
 earthen or silver vessel till it is near boiling, and 
 then pour it into a large basin, into which 1 oz. 
 >f alum, dissolved in 1 pt. of boiling soft water, 
 has been previously put : stir the mixture together, 
 and while stirring pour in gently about 1 oz. of 
 a salurated solution of subcarbonate of potash; 
 
 let it stand till cold to settle; pour off the clear 
 yellow liquor: add to the precipitate a quart of 
 boiling soft water, stirring it well ; and when cold 
 separate by filtration the lake, which should weigh 
 
 1 an oz. Fresh madder-root is superior to the 
 dry. 
 
 To give Various Tones to Lake. 
 
 A beautiful tone of violet, red, and even of pur- 
 ple-red, may be communicated to the cotoring 
 part of cochineal by adding to the colored bath a 
 solution of chloride of tin. 
 
 Another. The addition of arseniate of potash 
 (neutral arsenical salt), gives shades which would 
 be sought for in vain with sulphate of alumina 
 (alum). 
 
 To make a Carminated Lake by Extracting the 
 Coloring Part from Scarlet Cloth. 
 
 To prepare a carminated lake without employ- 
 ing cochineal in a direct manner, by extracting 
 the coloring matter from any substance impreg- 
 nated with* it, such as the shearings of scarlet 
 cloth. 
 
 Put into a kettle 1 Ib. of fine wood-ashes, with 
 40 Ibs. of water, and subject the water to ebullition 
 for i of an hour; then filter the solution through 
 a piece of linen cloth till the liquor passes through 
 clear. 
 
 Place it on the fire ; and having brought it to a 
 state of ebullition, add 2 Ibs. of the shearings or 
 shreds of scarlet cloth, dyed with cochineal, which 
 must be boiled till they become white; then filter 
 the liquor again, and press the shreds to squeeze 
 out all the coloring part. 
 
 Put the filtered liquor into a clean kettle, and 
 place it over the fire. When it boils pour in a 
 solution of 10 or 12 oz. of alum in 2 Ibs. of filtered 
 spring-water. Stir the whole with a wooden spat- 
 ula till the froth that is formed is dissipated; and 
 having mixed with it 2 Ibs. of a strong decoction 
 of Brazil-wood, pour it upon a filter. Afterwards 
 wash the sediment with spring-water, and remove 
 the cloth filter charged with it to plaster dryers, 
 or to a bed of dry bricks. The result of this op- 
 eration will be a beautiful lake, but it has not the 
 soft velvety appearance of that obtained by the 
 first method. Besides, the coloring part of the 
 Brazil-wood which unites to that of the cochineal 
 in the shreds of scarlet cloth, lessens in a relative 
 proportion the unalterability of the coloring part 
 of the cochineal. For this reason purified potash 
 ought to be substituted for the wood-ashes. 
 
 To make a Red Lake. 
 
 Dissolve 1 Ib. of the best pearlash in 2 qts. of 
 water, and filter the liquor through paper; next 
 add 2 more qts. of water and 1 Ib. of clean scarlet 
 shreds, boil them in a pewter boiler till the shreds 
 have lost their scarlet color; take out the shreda 
 and press them, and put the colored water yielded 
 by them to the other. In the same solution boil 
 another Ib. of the shreds, proceeding in the samo 
 manner; and likewise a third and fourth pound. 
 Whilst this is doing, dissolve 1J Ibs. of cuttle-fish 
 bone in 1 Ib. of strong aquafortis in a glass re- 
 ceiver; add more of the bone if it appear to pro- 
 duce any ebullition in the aquafortis, and pour 
 this strained solution gradually into the other; 
 but if any ebullition be occasioned, more of the 
 cuttle-fish bone must be dissolved as before, and 
 added till no ebullition appears in the mixture. 
 The crimson sediment deposited by this liquor is 
 the lake: pour off the water, and stir the lake in 
 
 2 galls, of hard spring-water, and mix the sedi- 
 ment in 2 galls, of fresh water; let this method 
 be repeated 4 or 5 times. If no hard water can 
 be procured, or the lake appears too purple, an 
 
ARTISTS' OIL COLORS. 
 
 337 
 
 oz. of alum should be added to each quantity of 
 water before it is used. Having thus sufficiently 
 freed the latter from the salts, drain off the water 
 through a filter, covered with a worn linen cloth. 
 When it has been drained to a proper dryness, let 
 it be dropped through a proper funnel on clean 
 boards, and the drops will become small cones or 
 pyramids, in which form the lake must be dried, 
 and the preparation is completed. 
 Another Method. 
 
 BOJ! 2 oz. of cochineal in 1 pt. of water; filter 
 the solution through paper, and add 2 oz. of penrl- 
 ash dissolved in ^ pint of warm water and fil- 
 tered through paper. Make a solution of cuttle- 
 bone, as in the former process, and to 1 pt. of it 
 
 add 2 oz. of alum dissolved in 
 
 of water. Put- 
 
 this mixture gradually to the cochineal and pearl- 
 ash as long as any ebullition arises, and proceed 
 as above. 
 
 A beautiful lake may be prepared from Brazil- 
 wood, by boiling 3 Ibs. of it for an hour in a solu- 
 tion of 3 Ibs. of common salt in 3 galls, of water, 
 and filtering the hot fluid through paper; add to 
 this a solution of 5 Ibs. of alum in 3 galls, of water. 
 Dissolve 3 Ibs. of the best pearlash in 1 J galls, of 
 water, and purify it by filtering; put this grad- 
 ually to the other till the whole of the color appears 
 to be precipitated and the fluid is left clear and 
 colorless. But if any appearance of purple be 
 Been, add a fresh quantity of the solution of alum 
 by degrees, till a scarlet hue is produced. Then 
 pursue the directions given in the first process 
 with regard to the sediment. If Ib. of seed-lac 
 be added to the solution of pearlash, and dissolved 
 in it before its purification by the filter, and 2 Ibs. 
 of the wood and a proportional quantity of com- 
 mon salt and water be used in the colored solu- . 
 tion, a lake will be produced that will stand well 
 in oil or water; but it is not so transparent in oil 
 as without the seed-lac. The lake with Brazil- 
 wood may be also made by adding i oz. of anatto 
 to each pound of the wood; but the anatto must 
 be dissolved in the solution of pearlash. 
 
 After the operation, the dryers of plaster, ox the 
 bricks, which have extracted the moisture from the 
 precipitate, are exposed to the sun, that they may 
 be fitted for another operation. 
 
 To make Prussian Slue. 
 
 Dissolve sulphate of iron (copperas, green vi- 
 triol) in water; boil the solution. Add nitric acid 
 until red fumes cease to come off, and enough 
 sulphuric acid to render the liquor clear. This 
 is the persulphate of iron. To this add a solution 
 of ferrocyanide of potassium (yellow prussiate 
 of potash), as long as any precipitate is produced. 
 Wash this precipitate thoroughly with water acid- 
 ulated with sulphuric acid, and dry in a warm 
 place. 
 
 Soluble Prussian Blue. 
 
 Add ferrocyanide of potassium to a solution 
 freshly made of green vitriol in water. The white 
 precipitate which falls, becomes blue on exposure 
 to the air, and is soluble in water. 
 
 Chrome Red. 
 
 Melt saltpetre in a crucible heated to dull red- 
 ness, and throw in gradually chrome yellow until 
 no more red fumes arise. Allow the mixture to settle ; 
 pour off the liquid portion, and wash rapidly the 
 sediment. The liquid portion contains chromate 
 of potash, and may be used to make chrome yellow. 
 
 To make Blue. 
 A diluted solution of sulphate of indigo. 
 
 To make Pink. 
 
 Cochineal boiled with bitartrate of potash and 
 22 
 
 sulphate alumina, or a decoction of Brazil-wood 
 with sulphate alumina; the color may be varied 
 by the addition of carbonate potash. 
 
 To make Purple 
 
 A decoction of Brazil-wood and logwood affords, 
 with carbonate of potash, a permanent purple. 
 To make Orange Lake. 
 
 Boil 4 oz. of the best anatto and 1 Ib. of pearl- 
 ash, i an hour, in 1 gall, of water, and strain the 
 solution through paper. Mix gradually with this 
 li Ibs. of alum, in another gallon of water, desist- 
 ing when no ebullition attends the commixture. 
 Treat the sediment in the manner already directed 
 for other kinds of lake, and dry it in square bits 
 or lozenges. 
 
 To make a Yellow Lake. 
 
 Take 1 Ib. of turmeric-root, in fine powder, 3 
 pt. of water, and 1 oz. of salt of tartar ; put all into 
 a glazed earthen vessel, and boil them together 
 over a clear gentle fire, till the water appears 
 highly impregnated and stains a paper to a beau- 
 tiful yellow. Filter this liquor, and gradually 
 add to it a strong solution of alum, in water, till 
 the yellow matter is all curdled and precipitated. 
 After this, pour the whole into a filter of paper, 
 and the water will run off, and leave the yellow 
 matter behind. Wash it with fresh water till the 
 water conies off insipid, and then is obtained the 
 beautiful yellow called lacqtie of turmeric. 
 
 In this manner make a lake of any of the sub- 
 stances that are of a strong texture, as madder, 
 logwood, etc., but it will not succeed in the more 
 tender species, as the flowers of roses, violets, etc., 
 as it destroys the nice arrangement of parts in 
 those subjects on which the color depends. 
 
 To make another Yellow Lake. 
 Make a lye of potash and lime sufficiently 
 strong; in this boil, gently, fresh broom-flowers 
 till they are white; then take out the flowers, and 
 put the lye to boil in earthen vessels over the fire ; 
 add as much alum as the liquor will dissolve ; then 
 empty this lye into a vessel of clean water, and it 
 will give a yellow color at the bottom. Settle, 
 and decant off the clear liquor. Wash this powder, 
 which is found at the bottom, with more water, 
 till all the salts of the lye are washed off; then 
 separate the yellow matter, and dry it in the shade, 
 
 To Make a Yellow. 
 
 Gum guttse and terra merita give very beautiful 
 yellows, and readily communicate their color to 
 copal varnish made with turpentine. Aloes give 
 a varied and orange tint. 
 
 Chloride of lead tinges vitreous matters of a yel- 
 low color. Hence the beautiful glazing given to 
 Queen's ware. It is composed of 80 Ibs. of chlo- 
 ride of lead, and 20 Ibs. of flints ground together 
 very fine, and mixed with water till th whole 
 becomes as thick as cream. The vessels to be 
 glazed are dipped in the glaze and suffered to dry. 
 
 To make Chinese Yellow* 
 
 The acacia, an Egyptian thorn-, is- a species of 
 mimosa, from which the Chinese make that yel- 
 low which bears washing in their silks and stuffs, 
 and appears with so much elegance in their paint- 
 ing on paper. The flowers are gathered before 
 they are fully opened, and put into an earthen 
 vessel over a gentle heat, being stirred continually 
 until they are nearly dry, and of a yellow color: 
 then to i Ib. of the flowers a sufficient quantity 
 of rain-water is added, to hold the flowers incor- 
 porated together. It is then to be boiled until it 
 becomes thick, when it must be strained. To the 
 liquor is added i oz. of common alum, and 1 OK. 
 of calcined oyster-shells, reduced to a fine powder. 
 
338 
 
 PAINTS AND COLORS. 
 
 All these are mixed together into a mass. An 
 addition of a proportion of the ripe seeds to the 
 flowers renders the colors somewhat deeper. For 
 making the deepest yellow add a small quantity 
 ef Brazil-wood. 
 
 Tunic White, 
 
 Largely used as a substitute for white lead, 
 may be made by burning zinc, or by precipitating 
 from a solution by caustic alkali. It is the oxide 
 of the metal, and is not blackened by sulphuretted 
 hydrogen. 
 
 To make a Pearl White. 
 
 Pour some distilled water into a solution of 
 nitrate of bismuth as long as precipitation takes 
 place; filter the solution, and wash the precipitate 
 with distilled water as it lies on the filter. When 
 properly dried, by a gentle heat, this powder is 
 what is generally termed pearl white. 
 Chrome Green. 
 
 Mix bichromate of potnsh with half its weight 
 of muriate of ammonia ; heat the mixture to red- 
 ness, and wash the mass with plenty of boiling 
 water. Dry the residue thoroughly. It is a ses- 
 quioxide of chromium, and is the basis of the 
 green ink used in bank-note printing. 
 
 Another. Mix chrome yellow and Prussian 
 blue. 
 
 Gnignefs Chrome Green. 
 
 Mix 3 parts of boracic acid and 1 part of bichro- 
 mate of potassa, heat to about redness. Oxygen 
 gas and water are given off". The resulting salt 
 when thrown into water is decomposed. The pre- 
 cipitate is collected and washed. This is a remark- 
 ably fine color, solid and brilliant even by arti- 
 ficial light. 
 
 To make Scheele's Green. 
 
 Dissolve 2 Ibs. of blue vitriol in 6 Ibs. of water 
 in a copper vessel; and in another vessel dissolve 
 
 2 Ibs. of dry while potash, and 11 oz. of white 
 arsenic in 2 Ibs. of water. When the solutions are 
 perfect pour the arsenical lye into the other gradu- 
 ally, and about 1 Ib. 6 oz. of good green precipi- 
 tate will be obtained. 
 
 To make Green. 
 
 The acetic copper (verdigris) dissolved in acetic 
 acid, forms an elegant green. 
 
 Brunswick Green. 
 
 This is obtained from the solution of a precipi- 
 tate of copper in tartar and water, which, by eva- 
 poration, yields a transparent cupreous tartar, 
 which is similar to the superfine Brunswick green. 
 Schweinfilrth or Emerald Gree* Color. 
 
 Dissolve in a small quantity of hot water, 6 
 parts of sulphate of copper ; in another part, boil 
 6 parts of oxide of arsenic with 8 parts of potash, 
 until it throws out no more carbonic acid; mix by 
 degrees this hot solution with the first, agitating 
 continually until the effervescence has entirely 
 ceased ; these then form a precipitate of a dirty 
 greenish yellow, very abundant; add to it about 
 
 3 parts of acetic acid, or such a quantity that 
 there may be a slight excess perceptible to the 
 smell after the mixture; by degrees the precipi- 
 tate diminishes the bulk, and in a few hours there 
 deposes spontaneously at the bottom of the liquor, 
 entirely discolored, a powder of a contexture 
 slightly crystalline, and of a very beautiful green ; 
 afterwards the floating liquor is separated. 
 
 Green Colors free from Arsenic. 
 Some green colors free from the objections 
 which apply to the arsenical greens, are described 
 by Eisner. The first, called " Eisner Green," is 
 made by adding to a solution of sulphate of cop- 
 per a decoction of fustic, previously clarified by a 
 
 solution of gelatine; to this mixture is then ad- 
 ded 10 or 11 per cent, of protochloride of tin, and 
 lastly an excess of caustic potash soda. The pre- 
 cipitate is then washed and dried, whereupon it 
 assumes a green color, with a tint of blue. 
 
 The "Tin-copper Green" is a stannnte of cop- 
 per, and possesses a color which Geritele states i* 
 not inferior to any of the greens free from arse- 
 nic. The cheapest way of making this is to hea 
 59 parts of tin in a Hessian crucible, with 100 parts 
 of nitrate of soda, and dissolve the mass, when 
 cold, in a caustic alkali. When clear, this solu- 
 tion is diluted with water, and a cold solution of 
 sulphate of copper i. added. A reddish ye!low 
 precipitate falls, which, on being washed and 
 dried, becomes a beautiful green. 
 . Titanium Green was first prepared by Eisner in 
 1846. It is made in the following way : Iserin 
 (titaniferous iron) is fused in a Hessian crucible 
 with 12 times its weight of sulphate of potash. 
 When cold, the fused mass is treated with hydro- 
 chloric acid, heated to 50 C. and filtered hot; 
 the filtrate is then evaporated until a drop placed 
 on a glass plate solidifies. It is then allowed to 
 cool, and when cold a concentrated solution of sal 
 ammoniac is poured over the mass, which is well 
 stirred and then filtered. The titanic acid which 
 remains behind is digested at 50 or 70 with di- 
 lute hydrochloric acid, and the acid solution, after 
 the addition of some solution of prussiate of pot- 
 ash, quickly heated to boiling. A green precipi- 
 tate falls, which must be washed with water acidu- 
 lated with hydrochloric acid, and then dried under 
 100 C. Titanium green then forms a beautiful 
 dark green powder. 
 
 A Green Color which may be employed in Confec- 
 tionary. 
 
 Infuse for 24 hours 0.32 grammes of saffron ra 
 7 grammes of distilled water; take 0.26 gramme 
 of carmine of indigo and infuse in 15.6 gramme! 
 of distilled water. On mixing the two liquids a 
 beautiful green color is obtained, which is harm- 
 less. Ten parts will color 1000 parts of sugar. It 
 may be preserved for a long time by evaporating 
 the liquid to dryness, or making it into a syrup. 
 
 To mix the Mineral Substances in Linseed Oil. 
 
 Take 1 Ib. of the genuine mineral green, pre- 
 pared and well powdered, 1 Ib. of the precipitate 
 of copper, li Ibs. of refiners' blue verditer, 3 Ibs. 
 of white lead, dry powdered, 3 oz. of sugar of lead, 
 powdered fine. Mix the whole of these ingredi- 
 ents in linseed oil, and grind them in a levigating 
 mill, passing it through until quite fine; it will 
 thereby produce a bright mineral pea-green paint, 
 preserve a blue tint, and keep any length of time in 
 any climate without injury, by putting oil or wa- 
 ter over it. 
 
 To use this color for house or ship painting, 
 take 1 Ib. of the green color paint, with 1 gill of 
 pale boiled oil; mix them well together, and this 
 will produce a strong pea-green paint; the tint 
 may be varied at pleasure by adding a further 
 quantity of white lead ground in linsted oil. 
 This color will stand the weather and resist salt 
 water; it may also be used for flatting rooms, by 
 adding 3 Ibs. of white lead ground in half linseed 
 oil and half turpentine, to 1 Ib. of the green, then 
 to be mixed up in turpentine spirits, fit for use. It 
 may also be used for painting Venetian window- 
 blinds, by adding to 1 Ib. of the green paint 10 oz. 
 of white lead, ground in turpentine, then to be 
 mixed up in turpentine varnish for use. In all 
 the aforesaid preparations it will retain a blue 
 tint, which is very desirable. When used for 
 blinds, a small quantity of Dutch pink may be 
 
VARNISHES. 
 
 339 
 
 put to the white lead if the color is required of a 
 yellow cast. 
 
 To Imitate Flesh-color. 
 
 Mix a little white and yellow together, then add 
 a little more red than yellow. These form an ex- 
 cellent imitation of the complexion. 
 
 A White for Painters, which may be Preserved 
 Forever. 
 
 Put into a pan 3 qts. of linseed oil, with an equal 
 quantity of brandy and 4 qts. of the best double- 
 distilled vinegar, 3 doz. of whole new-laid eggs, 4 
 Ibs. of mutton suet, chopped small; cover all with 
 a lead plate and lute it well ; lay this pan in the 
 cellar for 3 weeks, then take skilfully the white 
 off, and dry it. The dose of this composition is 6 
 oa. of white to 1 of bismuth. 
 
 To Clean Pictures. 
 
 Take the picture out of the frame, lay a coarse 
 towel on it for 10 or 14 days; keep continually 
 wetting it until it has drawn out all the filthiness 
 from the picture ; pass some linseed oil, which has 
 been a long time seasoned in the sun, over it, to 
 purify it, and the picture will become as lively on 
 the surface as new. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 Put into 2 qts. of the oldest lye J Ib. of Genoa 
 soap, rasped very fine, with about a pint of spirit 
 of wine, and boil all together; then strain it 
 through a cloth, and let it cool. With a brush 
 dipped in the composition rub the picture all over, 
 and let it dry; repeat this process and let it dry 
 again ; then dip a little cotton in oil of nut, and 
 pass it over its surface. When perfectly dry, rub 
 it well over with a warm cloth, and it will appear 
 of a beautiful freshness. 
 
 To Restore Discolored White. 
 
 In paintings, where the white has become black- 
 ened by sulphuretted hydrogen, the application 
 of Thenard's oxygenated water will instantly re- 
 Btore it. Probably a solution of permanganate of 
 potassa would have the same effect. (See CONDY'S 
 SOLUTION). * 
 
 To Restore Paintings. 
 
 Prof. Pettenkoffer has shown that the change 
 which takes place in old paintings, is the discon- 
 tinuance of molecular cohesion, which, beginning 
 on the surface in small fissures, penetrates to the 
 very foundation. His process is to expose the pic- 
 ture in a tight box to the vapor of alcohol, ether, 
 benzine, turpentine, or other similar solvent. The 
 process has been successfully tried in several in- 
 stances. 
 
 Compound for Receiving the Colors used in En- 
 caustic Painting. 
 
 Dissolve 9 oz. of gum arabic in 1 pt. of water, 
 add 14 oz. of finely powdered mastic and 10 oz. 
 of white wax, cut in small pieces, and, whilst hot, 
 add by degrees 2 pts. of cold spring-water; then 
 strain the composition. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 Mix 24 oz. of mastic with gum-water, leaving 
 out the wax, and when sufficiently beaten and dis- 
 solved over the fire, add by degrees 1 pts. of cold 
 water, and strain. 
 
 Or, dissolve 9 oz. of gum arabic in H P ts - of 
 water; then add 1 Ib. of white wax. Boil them 
 over a slow fire, pour them into a cold vessel, and 
 beat them well together. When this is mixed with 
 the colors, it will require more water than the 
 others. This is used in painting, the colors being 
 mixed with these compositions as with oil, adding 
 water if necessary. When the painting is fin- 
 ished, melt some white wax, and with a hard brush 
 varnish the painting, and, when cold, rub it to 
 make it entirely smooth. 
 
 Grecian Method of Painting on Wax. 
 Take 1 oz. of white wax and 1 oz. of gum mas- 
 tic, in drops, made into powder; put the wax into 
 a glazed pan over a slow fire, and when melted 
 add the mastic; then stir the same until they are 
 both incorporated. Next throw the paste into 
 water, and when hard take it out, wipe it dry, and 
 beat it in a tnortar; when dry pound it in a linen 
 cloth till it is reduced to a fine powder. Make 
 some strong gum-water, and when painting take 
 a little of the powder, some color, and mix them 
 all with the gum-water. Light colors require but 
 a small quantity of the powder, but more must be 
 put in proportion to the darkness of the colors, 
 and to black there should be almost as much of 
 the powder as of color. 
 
 Having mixed the colors, paint with water, as 
 is practised in painting with water colors, a 
 ground on the wood being first painted of some 
 proper color, prepared as described for the pic- 
 ture. When the painting is quite dry, with a hard 
 brush, passing it one way, varnish it with white 
 wax, which is melted over a slow fire till the pic- 
 ture is varnished. Take care the wax does not 
 j boil. Afterwards hold the picture before a fire, 
 near enough to melt the wax, but not to run, and 
 when the varnish is entirely cold and hard, rub it 
 gently with a linen cloth. Should the varnish 
 blister, warm the picture again very slowly, and 
 the bubbles will subside. 
 
 Solvents for India-Rubier and Quito, Percha. 
 
 1. Benzine. There are two bodies sold as ben- 
 zine or benzole : one obtained by distilling coal or 
 coal-tar the true benzine used in making coal- 
 tar colors; the other, from petroleum, contains but 
 little true benzine. They may be used instead of 
 turpentine in mixing paints and the true benzine 
 for varnishes. Commercial benzine will not gen- 
 erally do for varnishes; that from petroleum is 
 much the cheaper. Either forms an excellent sol- 
 vent for india-rubber. 
 
 2. Bisulphide of Carbon is an excellent rubber 
 
 solvent; acts in the cold ; is made by passing th 
 vapor of sulphur over red-hot charcoal. 
 
 3. Chloroform is very good, but costly. 
 
 Turpentine acts slowly, and takes long to dry. 
 India rubber should always be cut into fine stringg 
 or shreds before being submitted to the action of 
 solvents. 
 
 Solvent for Old Paint or Putty. 
 
 Caustic soda, applied with a broom or brush 
 made of vegetable matter. It ia sold in the shopi 
 as concentrated lye. 
 
340 
 
 VARNISHES. 
 
 To give a Drying Quality to Poppy Oil. 
 
 into 3 Ibs. of pure water put 1 oz. of sulphate 
 of zinc (white vitriol), and mix the whole with 2 
 Ibs. of oil of pinks, or poppy oil. Expose this mix- 
 ture, in an earthen vessel capable of standing the 
 fire, to a degree of heat sufficient to maintain it 
 in a slight state of ebullition. When one-half or 
 two- thirds of the water has evaporated, pour the 
 whole into a large glass bottle or jar, and leave it 
 at rest till the oil becomes clear. Decant the 
 clearest part by means of a glass funnel, the beak 
 of which is stopped with a piece of cork. When 
 the separation of the oil from the water is effected, 
 remove the cork stopper, and supply its place with 
 the forefinger, which must be applied in such a 
 manner as to suffer the water to escape, and to re- 
 tain only the oil. 
 
 Poppy-oil, when prepared in this manner, be- 
 comes, after some weeks, exceedingly limpid and 
 colorless. 
 
 To give a Drying Quality to Fat Oils. 
 
 Take of nut-oil, or linseed-oil, 8 Ibs.; white lead, 
 Slightly calcined, yellow acetate of lead (sal sa- 
 turni), also calcined, sulphate of zinc (white vit- 
 riol), each 1 oz.; vitreous oxide of lead (litharge), 
 12 oz. ; a head of garlic, or a small onion. 
 
 When the dry substances are pulverized, mix 
 them with the garlic and oil, over a fire capable 
 of maintaining the oil in a slight state of ebulli- 
 tion. Continue it till the oil ceases to throw up 
 scum, till it assumes a reddish color, and till the 
 head of garlic becomes brown ; a pellicle will then 
 be soon formed on the oil, which indicates that the 
 operation is completed. Take the vessel from the 
 fire, and the pellicle, being precipitated by rest, 
 will carry with it all the unctuous parts which 
 rendered the oil fat. When the oil becomes clear, 
 separate it from the deposit, and put it into wide- 
 mouthed bottles, where it will completely clarify 
 itself in time, and improve in quality. 
 Another Method. 
 
 Take of litharge, 1 oz. ; sulphate of zinc, f of 
 an oz. ; linseed or nut-oil, 16 oz. The operation 
 must be conducted as in the preceding case. 
 
 The choice of the oil is not a matter of indiffer- 
 ence. If it be destined for painting articles ex- 
 posed td the impression of the external air, or for, 
 delicate painting, nut-oil or poppy-oil. Linseed- 
 oil is used for coarse painting, and that sheltered 
 from the effects of the rain and of the sun. 
 
 A little negligence in the management of the 
 fire has often an influence on the color of the oil, 
 to which a drying quality is communicated; in this 
 case it is not proper for delicate painting. This 
 inconvenience may be avoided by tying up the 
 drying matters in a small bag ; but the dose of the 
 litharge must then be doubled. The bag must be 
 suspended by a piece of packthread fastened to a 
 tick, which is made to rest on the edges of the 
 vessel in such a manner as to keep the bag at the 
 distance of an inch from the bottom of the vessel. 
 A pellicle will be formed as in the first operation, 
 but it will be slower in making its appearance. 
 
 Another. A drying quality may be commu- 
 nicated to oil by treating, in a heat capable of 
 maintaining a slight ebullition, linseed or nut-oil, 
 to each pound of which is added 3 oz. litharge, 
 reduced to fine powder. 
 
 The preparation of floor-cloths, and^all paint- 
 ings of large figures or ornaments, in which argil- 
 laceous colors, such as yellow and red boles, Dutch 
 pink, etc. are employed, require this kind of prep- 
 aration, that the desiccation may not be too slow ; 
 but painting for which metallic oxides are used, 
 such as preparations of lead, copper, etc., require 
 Only the doses before indicated, because these ox- 
 
 ides contain a great deal of oxygen, and the oil, by 
 their contact, acquires more of a drying quality. 
 
 Another. Take of nut-oil, 2 Ibs. ; common water, 
 3 do.; sulphate of zinc, 2 oz. 
 
 Mix these matters, and subject them to a slight 
 ebullition, till little water remains. Decant the 
 j oil, which will pass over with a small quantity of 
 water, and separate the latter by means of a fun- 
 nel. The oil remains nebulous for some time; 
 after which it becomes clear, and seems to be very 
 little colored. 
 
 Another. Take of nut-oil, or linseed-oil, 6 Ibs.; 
 common water, 4 Ibs. ; sulphate of zinc, 1 oz. j 
 garlic, 1 head. 
 
 Mix these matters in a large iron or copper pan ; 
 then place them over the fire, and maintain the 
 mixture in a state of ebullition during the whole 
 day. Boiling water must from time to time be 
 added, to make up for the loss of that by evapor- 
 ation. The garlic will assume a brown appear- 
 ance. Take the pan from the fire, and having 
 suffered a deposit to be formed, decant the oil, 
 which will clarify itself in the vessel. By this 
 process the drying oil is rendered somewhat more 
 colored. It is reserved for delicate colors. 
 
 Preparation of a Drying Oil for Zinc Paint. 
 
 In order to avoid the use of oxide of lead in 
 making drying oil for zinc paint, oxide of manga- 
 nese has been proposed as a substitute. The pro- 
 cess to be adopted is as follows : 
 
 The manganese is broken into pieces about the 
 size of peas, dried, and the powder separated by 
 means of a sieve. The fragments are then to be 
 introduced into a bag made of iron-wire gauze. 
 This is hung in the oil contained in an iron or 
 copper vessel, and the whole heated gently for 24 
 or 36 hours. The oil must not be allowed to boil, 
 in which case there is great danger of its running 
 over. When the oil has acquired a reddish color, 
 it is to be poured into an appropriate vessel to 
 clear. 
 
 For 100 parts of oil 10 of oxide of manganese 
 may be employed, which will serve for several op- 
 erations when freshly broken and the dust sepa- 
 rated. Experience has shown, that when fresh 
 oxide of manganese is used it is better to intro- 
 duce it into the oil upon the second day. The 
 process likewise occupies a longer time with the 
 fresh oxide. Very great care is requisite in this 
 operation to prevent accident, and one of the prin- 
 cipal points to be observed is that the oil is not 
 overheated. If the boiling should render the oil 
 too thick, this may be remedied by an addition of 
 turpentine after it has thoroughly cooled. 
 
 On the Manufacture of Drying Linseed Oil without 
 Heat. 
 
 When linseed-oil is carefully agitated with vin- 
 egar of lead (tribasic acetate of lead), and the 
 mixture allowed to clear by settling, a copious 
 white, cloudy precipitate forms, containing oxide 
 of lead, whilst the raw oil is converted into a dry- 
 ing oil of a pale-straw color, forming an excellent 
 varnish, which, when applied in thin layers, driea 
 perfectly in 24 hours. It contains from 4 to 5 per 
 cent, of oxide of lead in solution. The following 
 proportions appear to be the most advantageous 
 for its preparation : 
 
 In a bottle containing 4J pts. of rain-water, 18 
 oz. of neutral acetate of lead are placed, and when 
 the solution is complete, 18 oz. of litharge in a 
 very fine powder are added; the whole is then al- 
 lowed to stand in a moderately warm place, fre- 
 quently agitating it to assist the solution of the 
 litharge. This solution may be considered as com- 
 plete when no more small scales are apparent. The 
 deposit of a shining white color (sexbasio acetate 
 
VAKNISHES. 
 
 341 
 
 of lead may be separated by filtration. This con- 
 version of the neutral acetate of lead into vinegar 
 of lead, by means of litharge and water, is effected 
 in about a quarter of an hour, if the mixture be 
 heated to ebullition. When heat is not applied, the 
 process will usually take 3 or 4 days. The solution 
 f vinegar of lead, or tribasic acetate of lead, thus 
 formed, is sufficient for the preparation of 22 Ibs. 
 of drying oil. For this purpose the solution is 
 diluted with an equal volume of rain-water, and 
 to it is gradually added, with constant agitation. 
 22 Ibs. of oil, with which 18 oz. of litharge have 
 previously been mixed. 
 
 When the points of contact between the lead 
 solution and the oil have been frequently renewed 
 by agitation of the mixture 3 or 4 times a day, and 
 the mixture allowed to settle in a warm place, the 
 limpid straw-colored oil rises to the surface, leav- 
 ing a copious white deposit. The watery solution, 
 rendered clear by filtration, contains intact all the 
 acetate of lead at first employed, and may be used 
 in the next operation, after the addition to it as 
 before, of 18 oz. of litharge. 
 
 By filtration through paper or cotton, the oil 
 may be obtained as limpid as water, and by ex- 
 posure to the light of the sun it may also be 
 bleached. 
 
 Should a drying oil be required absolutely free 
 from lead, it may be obtained by the addition of 
 dilute sulphuric acid to the above, when, on being 
 allowed to stand, a deposit of sulphate of lea,d will 
 take place, and the clear oil may be obtained free 
 from all trace of lead. 
 
 Resinous Drying Oil. 
 
 Take 10 Ibs. of drying nut-oil, if the paint is 
 destined for external articles, or 10 Ibs. of drying 
 linseed-oil if for internal,- resin, 3 Ibs.; turpen- 
 tine, 6 oz. 
 
 Cause the resin to dissolve the oil by means of 
 a gentle heat. When dissolved and incorporated 
 with the oil, add the turpentine; leave the varnish 
 at rest, by which means it will often deposit por- 
 tions of resin and other impurities; and then pre- 
 serve it in widemouthed bottles. It must be used 
 fresh ; when suffered to grow old it abandons some 
 of its resin. If this resinous oil assumes too much 
 consistence, dilute it with a little essence, if in- 
 tended for articles sheltered from the sun, or with 
 oil of poppies. 
 
 Fat Copal Varnish. 
 
 Take picked copal, 16 oz. ; prepared linseed oil, 
 er oil of poppies, 8 oz. ; essence of turpentine, 
 16 oz. 
 
 Liquefy the copal in a matrass over a common 
 fire, and then add the linseed oil, or oil of poppies, 
 in a state of ebullition ; when these matters are 
 incorporated, take the matrass from the fire, stir 
 the matter till the greatest heat is subsided, and 
 then add the essence of turpentine warm. Strain 
 the whole, while still warm, through a piece of 
 linen, and put the varnish into a wide-mouthed 
 bottle. Time contributes towards its clarification, 
 and in this manner it acquires a better quality. 
 Varnish for Watch Cases in Imitation of Tortoise- 
 shell. 
 
 Take copal of an amber color, 6 oz. ; Venice 
 turpentine, li oz.; prepared linseed-oil, 24 oz. ; 
 essence of turpentine, 6 oz. 
 
 It is customary to place the turpentine over the 
 copal, reduced to small fragments, in the bottom 
 of an earthen or metal vessel, or in a matrass ex- 
 posed to such a heat as to liquefy the copal ; but 
 it is more advantageous to liquefy the latter alone, 
 to add the oil in a state of ebullition, then the 
 turpentine liquefied, and in the last place the 
 essence. If the varnish is too thick, some essence 
 
 may be added. The latter liquor is a regulator 
 for the consistence in the hands of an artist 
 
 Gold-colored Copal Varnish. 
 
 Take copal in powder, 1 oz. ; essentflil oil of 
 lavender, 2 oz. ; essence of turpentine, 6 oz. 
 
 Put the essential oil of lavender into a matrass 
 of a proper size, placed on a sand-bath heated 
 gently. Add to the oil while very warm, and at 
 several times, the copal powder, and stir the mix- 
 ture with a stick of white wood rounded at the 
 end. When the copal has entirely disappeared, 
 add at three different times the essence almost in 
 a state of ebullition, and keep continually stirring 
 the mixture. When the solution is completed, the 
 result will be a varnish of a gold-color, exceed- 
 ingly durable and brilliant. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 To obtain this varnish colorless, it will be pro- 
 per to rectify the essence of the shops, which is 
 often highly colored, and to give it the necessary 
 density by exposure to the sun in bottles closed 
 with cork stoppers, leaving an interval of some 
 inches between the stopper and the surface of the 
 liquid. A few months are thus sufficient to com- 
 municate to it the required qualities. Besides, 
 essence of the shops is rarely possessed of that 
 state of consistence without having at the same 
 time a strong amber color. 
 
 The varnish resulting from the solution of copal 
 in oil of turpentine, brought to such a state as to 
 produce the maximum of solution, is exceedingly 
 durable and brilliant. It resists the shock of hard 
 bodies much better than the enamel of toys, which 
 often becomes scratched and whitened by the im- 
 pression of repeated friction ; it is susceptible also 
 of a fine polish. It is applied with the greatest 
 success to philosophical instruments, and the 
 paintings with which vessels and other utensils 
 of metal are decorated. 
 
 Camphorated Copal Varnish. 
 
 This varnish is destined for articles which re- 
 quire durability, pliableness, and transparency. 
 
 Take of pulverized copal, 2 oz. ; essential oil of 
 lavender, 6 oz. ; camphor, J oz. ; essence of tur- 
 pentine, a sufficient quantity, according to the con- 
 sistence required to be given to the varnish. 
 
 Put into a phial of thin glass, or into a small 
 matrass, the essential oil of lavender and the cam- 
 phor, and place the mixture on a moderately open 
 fire, to bring the oil and the camphor to a slight 
 state of ebullition ; then add the copal powder in 
 small portions, which must be renewed as they 
 disappear in the liquid. Favor the solution, by 
 continually stirring with a stick of white wood; 
 and when the copal is incorporated with the oil, 
 add the essence of turpentine boiling; but care 
 must be taken to pour in, at first, only a small 
 portion. 
 
 This varnish is a little colored, and by rest it 
 acquires a transparency which, united to the so- 
 lidity observed in almost every kind of copal var 
 nish, renders it fit to be applied with great sucoesi 
 in many cases. 
 
 Ethereal Copal Varnish. 
 
 Take of amberry copal, oz. ; ether, 2 oz. 
 
 Reduce the copal to a very fine powder, and in- 
 troduce it by small portions into the flask which 
 contains the ether; close the flask with a glass or 
 a cork stopper, and having shaken the mixture for 
 | an hour, leave it at rest till the next morning. 
 In. shaking the flask, if the sides become covered 
 with small undulations, and if the liquor be not 
 exceedingly clear, the solution is not complete. 
 In this case add a little ether, and leave the mix- 
 
842 
 
 VARNISHES. 
 
 ture at rest. The varnish is of a white lemon- 
 color. The largest quantity of copal united to 
 ether may be a fourth, and the least a fifth. The 
 use of (fbpal varnish made with ether seems, by 
 the expense attending it, to be confined to repair- 
 ing tnose accidents which frequently happen to 
 the enamel of toys, as it will supply the place of 
 glass to the colored varnishes employed for mend- 
 ing fractures, or to restoring the smooth surface 
 of paintings which have been cracked and shat- 
 tered. 
 
 The great volatility of ether, and in particular 
 its high price, do not allow the application of this 
 Tarnish to be recommended, but for the purposes 
 here indicated. It has been applied to wood with 
 complete success, and the glazing it produced 
 unites lustre to solidity. In consequence of the 
 too speedy evaporation of the liquid, it often boils 
 under the brush. Its evaporation, however, may 
 be retarded, by spreading over the wood a light 
 stratum of essential oil of rosemary or lavender, 
 or even of turpentine, which may afterwards be 
 removed by a piece of linen rag; what remains is 
 sufficient to retard the evaporation of the ether. 
 Fat Amber or Copal Varnish. 
 
 Take of amber or copal of one fusion, 4 oz. ; 
 essence of turpentine, drying linseed oil, of each, 
 10 oz. 
 
 Put the whole into a pretty large matrass, and 
 expose it to the heat of a brlneum mariae, or move 
 it over the surface of an uncovered chafing-dish, 
 but without flame, and at the distance from it of 
 2 or 3 inches. When the solution is completed, 
 add still a little copal or amber to saturate the 
 liquid ; then pour the whole on a filter prepared 
 with cotton, and leave it to clarify by rest. If the 
 varnish is too thick, add a little warm essence to 
 prevent the separation of any of the amber. 
 
 This varnish is colored, but far less so than 
 those composed by the usual methods. When 
 Bpread over white wood, without any preparation, 
 it forms a solid glazing, and communicates a slight 
 tint to the wood. 
 
 If it is required to charge this varnish with 
 more copal, or prepared amber, the liquor must be 
 composed of two parts of essence for one of oil. 
 
 To -Apply Copal Varnish to the Reparation of 
 Opnke Enamels. 
 
 The properties manifested by these varnishes, 
 and which render them proper for supplying the 
 vitreous and transparent coating of enamel, by a 
 covering equally brilliant, but more solid, and 
 which adheres to vitreous compositions, and to 
 metallic surfaces, admit of their being applied to 
 other purposes besides those here enumerated. 
 
 By slight modifications they may be used also 
 for the reparation of opake enamel which has been 
 fractured. These kinds of enamel admit the use 
 of cements colored throughout, or only super- 
 ficially, by copal varnish charged with coloring 
 parts. On this account they must be attended 
 with less difficulty in the reparation than transpa- 
 rent enamel, because they do not require the same 
 reflection of the light. Compositions of paste, 
 therefore, the different grounds of which may al- 
 ways harmonize with the coloring ground of the 
 pieces to be repaired, and which may be still 
 strengthened by the same tint introduced into the 
 solid varnish, with which the articles are glazed, 
 will answer the views of the artist in a wonderful 
 manner. 
 
 The base of the cement ought to be pure clay 
 without color, and exceedingly dry. If solidity 
 be required, *eeruse is the only substance that can 
 be substituted in its place. Drying oil of pinks 
 will form an excellent excipient, and the consist- 
 
 ence of the cement ought to be such that it can b 
 easily extended by a knife or spatula, possessed 
 of a moderate degree of flexibility. This sort of 
 paste soon dries. It has the advantage also of 
 presenting to the colors, applied to it with a brush, 
 a kind of ground which contributes to their solid- 
 ity. The compound mastic being exceedingly dry- 
 ing, the application of it will be proper in cases 
 where speedy reparation of the damaged articles 
 is required. 
 
 In more urgent cases, the paste may be com- 
 posed with ceruse, and the turpentine copal var- 
 nishes, which dry more speedily than oil of pinks; 
 and the colors may then be glazed with the ethereal 
 copal varnish. 
 
 The application of the paste will be necessary 
 only in cases when the accident, which has hap- 
 pened to the enamel, leaves too great a vacuity to 
 be filled up by several strata, of colored varnish. 
 But in all cases the varnish ought to be well 
 dried, that it may acquire its full lustre by polish- 
 ing. 
 
 To make White Copal Varnish. 
 
 White oxide of lead, ceruse, Spanish white, 
 white clay. Such of these substances as are pre- 
 ferred ought to be carefully dried. Ceruse and 
 clay obstinately retain a great deal of humidity, 
 which would oppose their adhesion to drying oil 
 or varnish. The cement then crumbles under the 
 fingers, and does not assume a body. 
 
 Another. On 16 oz. of melted copal, pour 4, 6, 
 or 8 oz. of linseed-oil boiled, and quite free from 
 grease. When well mixed by repeated stirrings, 
 and after they are pretty cool, pour in 16 oz. of the 
 essence of Venice turpentine. Pass the varnish 
 through a cloth. Amber varnish is made the 
 same way. 
 
 To make Black Copal Varnish. 
 
 Lampblack, made of burnt vine-twigs, or black 
 of peach-stones. The lampblack must be carefully 
 washed and afterwards dried. Washing carries 
 off a great many of its impurities. 
 
 To make Yellow Copal Varnish. 
 
 Yellow oxide of lead, of Naples and Montpellier, 
 both reduced to impalpable powder. These yel- 
 lows are hurt by the contact of iron and steel ; in 
 mixing them up, therefore, a horn spatula with a 
 glass mortar and pestle must be employed. 
 
 Gum guttoe, yellow ochre, or Dutch pink, ac- 
 cording to the nature and tone of the color to be 
 imitated. 
 
 To make Blue Copal Varnish. 
 
 Indigo, prussiate of iron (Prussian blue), blue 
 verditer, and ultramarine. All these substances 
 must be very much divided. 
 
 To make Green Copal Varnish. 
 
 Verdigris, crystallized verdigris, compound green 
 (a mixture of yellow and blue). The first two re- 
 quire a mixture of white in proper proportions, 
 from a fourth to two-thirds, according to the tint 
 intended to be given. The white used for this 
 purpose is ceruse, or the white oxide of lead, or 
 Spanish .white, which is less solid, or white of 
 Moudon. 
 
 To make Red Copal Varnish. 
 
 Bed sulphuretted oxide of mercury (cinnabar 
 vermilion), red oxide of lead (minium), different 
 red ochres, or Prussian reds, etc. 
 
 To make Purple Copal Varnish. 
 Cochineal, carmine, and carminated lakes, with 
 ceruse and boiled oil. 
 
 Brick Eed. 
 Dragon's blood. 
 
VARNISHES. 
 
 343 
 
 Chamoit Color. 
 
 Dragon's blcod with a paste composed of flow- 
 ers of zinc, or, what is still better, a little red ver- 
 milion. 
 
 Violet. 
 
 Cinnabar, mixed with lampblack, washed very 
 dry, or with the black of burnt vine-twigs ; and 
 to render it mellower, a proper mixture of red, 
 blue, and white. 
 
 Pearl Gray. 
 
 White and black ; white and blue; for example, 
 ceruse and lampblack; ceruse and indigo. 
 
 Flaxen Gray. 
 
 Ceruse, which forms the ground of the paste, 
 mixed with a small quantity of Cologne earth, as 
 much English red, or carminated lake, which is 
 not so durable, and a particle of Prussian blue. 
 
 Brunswick Black Varnish. 
 
 Melt 4 Ibs. of common asphalt, and add 2 pts. 
 of boiled linseed-oil, and 1 gall, of oil of turpentine 
 or coal-tar naphtha. 
 
 India- Rubber Varnish. 
 
 Four ounces india-rubber in fine shavings are 
 dissolved in a covered jar. by means of a sand- 
 bath, in 2 Ibs. of crude benzole, and then mixed 
 with 4 Ibs. of hot linseed-oil varnish heated, and 
 filtered. (See CEMENTS). 
 
 To make Varnish for Silks, etc. 
 
 To 1 qt. of cold linseed-oil poured off from the 
 lees (produced on the addition of unslaked lime, 
 on which the oil has stood 8 or 10 days at the 
 least, in order to communicate a drying quality, 
 or brown umber burnt and powdered, which will 
 have the like effect,) add oz. of litharge; boil 
 them for hour, then add oz. of the copal var- 
 nish. While the ingredients are on the fire, in a 
 copper vessel, put in 1 oz. of chios turpentine or 
 common resin, and a few drops of neat's-foot oil, 
 and stir the whole with a knife; when cool it is 
 ready for use. The neat's-foot oil prevents the var- 
 nish from being sticky or adhesive, and may be 
 put into the linseed-oil at the same time with the 
 lime or burnt umber. Resin or chios turpentine 
 may be added till the varnish has attained the 
 desired thickness. 
 
 The longer .the raw linseed-oil remains on the 
 unslaked lime or umber, the sooner will the oil 
 dry after it is used ; if some months, so much the 
 be^er. Such varnish will set, that is to say, not 
 run, but keep its place on the silk in four hours ; 
 the silk may then be turned and varnished on the 
 other side. 
 
 Compound Mastic Varnish. 
 
 Take of pure alcohol, 32 oz. ; purified mastic, 
 6 oz. ; gum sandarac, 3 oz. ; very clear Venice 
 turpentine, 3 oz. ; glass, coarsely pounded, 4 oz. 
 
 Reduce the mastic and sandarac to fine powder; 
 mi'x this powder with white glass, from which the 
 finest parts have been separated by means of a 
 hair-sieve ; put all the ingredients with alcohol 
 into a short-necked matrass, and adapt to it a 
 stick of white-wood, rounded at the end, and of 
 a length proportioned to the height of the matrass, 
 that it may be put in motion. Expose the matrass 
 in a vessel filled with water, made at first a little 
 warm, and which must afterwards be maintained 
 in a state of ebullition for 1 or 2 hours. The 
 matrass rnay be made fast to a ring of straw. 
 
 When the solution seems to be sufficiently ex- 
 tended, add the turpentine, which must be kept 
 separately in a phial or pot, and which must be 
 melted by immersing it for a moment in a balneum 
 marias. The matrass must be still left in the water 
 for i hour, at the end of which it is taken off, and 
 
 the varnish is continually stirred till it is some- 
 what cool. Next day it is to be drawn "off and 
 filtered through cotton. By these means it will 
 become exceedingly limpid. 
 
 The addition of glass may appear extraordinary j 
 but this substance divides the parts of the mixture 
 which have been made with the dry ingredients; 
 and it retains the same quality when placed over 
 the fire. It therefore obviates with success two 
 inconveniences which are exceedingly troublesome 
 to those who compose varnishes. In the first 
 place, by dividing the matters, it facilitates the 
 action of the alcohol; and in the second, its 
 weight, which surpasses that of resins, prevents 
 these resins from adhering to the bottom of the 
 matrass, and also the coloration acquired by the 
 varnish when a sand-bath is employed, as is com- 
 monly the case. 
 
 The application of this varnish is suited to ar- 
 ticles belonging to the toilet, such as dressing- 
 boxes, cut-paper works, etc. The following pos- 
 sess the same brilliancy and lustre, but they have 
 more solidity, and are exceedingly drying. 
 
 Camphorated Mastic Varnish for Paintings. 
 
 Take of mastic, cleaned and washed, 12 oz. ; 
 pure turpentine, 1 oz. ; camphor, oz. ; white 
 glass pounded, 5 oz. ; essence of turpentine, 36 oz. 
 Make the varnish according to the method indi- 
 cated for Compound Mastic Varnish. The cam- 
 phor is employed in pieces, and the turpentine is 
 added when the solution of the resin is completed. 
 But if the varnish is to be applied to old paint- 
 ings, or paintings which have been already var- 
 nished, tliu turpentine may be suppressed; as thii 
 ingredient is here recommended only in cases of 
 a first application to new paintings, and just freed 
 from white-of-egg varnish. 
 
 The question by able masters respecting the 
 kind of varnish proper to be employed for paint- 
 ings, has never yet been determined. Some artists 
 who have paid particular attention to this subject, 
 make a mystery of. the means they employ to ob- 
 tain the desired effect. The real end may be ac- 
 complished by giving to the varnish destined for 
 painting, pliability and softness, without being 
 too solicitous in regard to what may add to its 
 consistence or its solidity. The latter quality is 
 particularly requisite in varnishes which are to be 
 applied to articles much exposed to friction; such 
 as boxes, furniture, etc. 
 
 Share's Mastic Varnish for Paintings. 
 Bruise the mastic with a muller on a painter's 
 stone, which will detect the soft parts, or tears, 
 which are to be taken out, and the remainder put 
 into a clean bottle with good spirits of turpentine 
 (twice distilled if you can get it); and dissolve 
 the gum by shaking it in your hand for i hour, 
 without heat. When dissolved, strain it through 
 a piece of calico and place it in a bottle well 
 corked, so that the light of the sun can strike it, 
 for 2 or 3 weeks; which will cause a mucilaginous 
 precipitate, leaving the remainder as transparent 
 as water. It may then be carefully decanted into 
 another bottle and put by for use. The propor- 
 tions of gum and alcohol are: mastic, 6 oz. ; tur- 
 pentine, 14 oz. If found on trial to be too thick) 
 thin it with turpentine. 
 
 To make Painter's Cream. 
 
 Painters who have long intervals between their 
 periods of labor, are accustomed to cover the 
 parts they have painted with a preparation which 
 preserves the freshness of the colors, and which 
 they can remove when they resume their work. 
 This preparation is as follows : 
 
 Take of very clear nut-oil, 3 oz j mastic in tears, 
 
344 
 
 VAKNISHES. 
 
 pulverized, i oz. ; sal saturni, in powder (acetate 
 of lead), oz. Dissolve the mastic in oil over a 
 gentle fire, and pour the mixture into a marble 
 mortar, over the pounded salt of lead ; stir it with 
 a wooden pestle, and add water in small quanti- 
 ties till the matter assume the appearance and 
 eonsistence of cream, and refuse to admit more 
 water. 
 
 Sandarac Varnish. 
 
 Take of gum sandarac, 8 oz.; pounded mastic, 
 2 oz. ; clear turpentine, 2 oz. ; pounded glass, 4 oz. ; 
 pure alcohol, 32 oz. Mix and dissolve as before. 
 Compound Sandarac Varnish. 
 
 Take of pounded copal, of an amber color, once 
 liquefied, 3 oz. ; gum sandarac, 6 oz. ; mastic, 
 cleaned, 3 oz. ; clear turpentine, 3i oz. ; pounded 
 glass, 4 oz. ; pure alcohol, 32 oz. Mix these in- 
 gredients, and pursue the same method as above. 
 
 This varnish is destined for articles subject to 
 friction ; such as furniture, chairs, fan - sticks, 
 mouldings, etc., and even metals; to which it 
 may be applied with success. The sandarac gives 
 it great durability. 
 
 Camphorated Sandarac Varnish for Cut-Paper 
 Works, Dressing-Boxes, etc. 
 
 Take of gum sandarac, 6 oz. ; gum elemi, 4 oz. ; 
 gum animi, 1 oz. ; camphor, oz. ; pounded glass, 
 4 oz. ; pure alcohol, 32 oz. 
 
 Make the varnish according to the directions 
 already giveru The soft resins must be pounded 
 with the dry bodies. The camphor is to be added 
 in pieces. 
 
 Another. Take of gallipot or white incense, 6 
 oz. ; gum animi, gum elemi, each 2 oz. ; pounded 
 glass, 4 oz. ; alcohol, 32 oz. 
 
 Make the varnish with the precautions indicated 
 for the compound mastic varnish. 
 
 The two last varnishes are to be used for ceil- 
 ings and wainscots, colored or not colored. They 
 may even be employed as a covering to parts 
 painted with strong colors. 
 
 Spirituous Sandarac Varnish for Wainscoting small 
 Articles of Furniture, Balustrades, Inside Rail- 
 ings. 
 
 Take gum sandarac, 6 oz. ; shell-lac, 2 oz. ; colo- 
 phonium or resin, white glass pounded, clear tur- 
 pentine, each 4 oz. ; pure alcohol, 32 oz. 
 
 Dissolve the varnish according to the directions 
 given for compound mastic varnish. 
 
 This varnish is sufficiently durable to be applied 
 to articles destined to daily and continual use. 
 Varnishes composed with copal, ought however, 
 in these cases to be preferred. 
 
 Another. There is another composition which, 
 without forming part of the compound varnishes, 
 is employed with success for giving a polish and 
 lustre to furniture made of wood ; wax forms the 
 basis of it. 
 
 Many cabinet-makers are contented with wax- 
 ing common furniture, such as tables, chests of 
 drawers, etc. This covering, by means of repeated 
 friction, soon acquires a polish and transparency 
 which resembles those of varnish. Waxing seems 
 to possess qualities peculiar to itself, but, like var- 
 nish, it is attended with inconveniences as well as 
 advantages. 
 
 Varnish supplies better the part of glazing ; it 
 gives a lustre to the wood which it covers, and 
 heightens the colors of th\t destined, in particu- 
 lar, for delicate articles. These real and valuable 
 advantages are counterbalanced by its want of 
 consistence ; it yields too easily to the shrinking or 
 swelling of the w >od, and rises in scales or splits 
 on being exposed to the slightest shock. These 
 accidents can be repaired only by new strata of 
 
 varnish, which render application to the varnisher 
 necessary, and occasion trouble and expense. 
 
 Waxing stands shocks, but it does not possess 
 in the same degree as varnish the property of 
 giving lustre to the bodies on which it is applied, 
 and of heightening their tints. The lustre it 
 communicates is dull, but this inconvenience is 
 compensated by the facility with which any acci- 
 dent that may have altered its polish can be re- 
 paired by rubbing it with a piece of fjne cork. 
 There are some circumstances, therefore, under 
 which the application of wax ought to be prefer- 
 red to that of varnish. This seems to be the case 
 in particular with tables of walnut-tree wood, ex- 
 posed to daily use, chairs, mouldings and for all 
 small articles subject to constant employment. 
 
 But as it is of importance to make the stratum 
 of wax as thin as possible in order tha.t the veins 
 of the wood may be more apparent, the following 
 process will be acceptable to the reader : 
 
 Melt over a moderate fire in a very clean ves- 
 sel 2 oz. of white or yellow wax, and when lique- 
 fied add 4 oz. of good essence of turpentine; stir 
 the whole until it is entirely cool, and the result 
 will be a kind of pomade fit for waxing furniture, 
 and which must be rubbed over them according to 
 the usual method. The essence of turpentine is 
 soon dissipated, but the wax, which by its mix- 
 ture is reduced to a state of very great division, 
 may be extended with more ease and in a more 
 uniform manner. The essence soon penetrates 
 the pores of the wood, calls forth the color of it, 
 causes the wax to adhere better, and the lustre 
 which thence results is equal to that of varnish, 
 without having any of its inconveniences. 
 Colored Varnish for Violins and other Stringed In- 
 struments, also for Plum-tree, Mahogany and 
 
 Rose-wood. 
 
 Gum sandarac, 4 oz.; seed-lac, 2 oz. ; mastic, 
 Benjamin, in tears, each 1 oz. ; pounded glass, 4 
 oz. ; Venice turpentine, 2 oz. ; pure alcohol, 32 oz. 
 
 The gum sandarac and lac render this varnish 
 durable; it may be colored with a little saffron or 
 dragon's blood. 
 
 French Polish. 
 
 The varnish being prepared (shellac), the arti- 
 cle to be polished being finished off as smoothly 
 as possible with glass-paper, and your rubber 
 being prepared as directed below, proceed to the 
 operation as follows: The varnish, in a narrow- 
 necked bottle, is to be applied to the middle of 
 the flat face of the rubber, by laying the rubber 
 on the mouth of the bottle and shaking up the 
 varnish once, as by this means the rubber will im- 
 bibe the proper quantity to varnish a considerable 
 extent of surface. The rubber is then to be en- 
 closed in a soft linen cloth doubled, the rest of 
 the cloth being gathered up at the back of the 
 rubber to form a handle. Moisten the face of the 
 linen with a little raw linseed-oil, applied with the 
 finger to the middle of it. Placing your work op- 
 posite the light, pass your rubber quickly and 
 lightly over its surface until the varnish becomes 
 dry or nearly so; charge your rubber as before 
 with varnish (omitting the oil), and repeat the 
 rubbing until three coats are laid on, when a little 
 oil may be applied to the rubber and two coats 
 more given to it. Proceeding in this way until 
 the varnish has acquired some thickness, wet the 
 inside of the linen cloth, before applying the var- 
 nish, with alcohol, and rub quickly, lightly and 
 uniformly the whole surface. Lastly, wet the 
 linen cloth with a little oil and alcohol without 
 varnish, and rub as before till dry. 
 To make the Rubber. 
 
 Roll up a strip of thick woolen cloth which hal 
 
LACQUERS. 
 
 345 
 
 been torn off BO as to form a soft, elastic edge. It 
 ihould form a coil from 1 to 3 inches in diameter, 
 according to the size of the work. 
 
 Fat Varnish of a Gold-color. 
 Amber, 8 oz. ; gum-lac, 2 oz. ; drying linseed- 
 oil, 8 oz. ; essence of turpentine, 16 oz. Dissolve 
 separately the gum-lac, and then add the amber, 
 prepared and pulverized, with the linseed-oil and 
 essence very warm. When the whole has lost a 
 part of its heat, mix in relative proportions tinc- 
 ture of anatto, of terra inerita, gum guttae and 
 dragon's blood. This varnish, when applied to 
 white metals, gives them a gold color. 
 
 Fat Turpentine, or Golden Varnish, being a Mor- 
 dant to Gold and Dark Colors. 
 
 Boiled linseed oil, 16 oz. ; Venice turpentine, 8 
 oz. ; Naples yellow, 5 oz. Heat the oil with the 
 turpentine, and mix the Naples yellow pulverized. 
 
 Naples yellow is substituted here for resins, on 
 account of its drying qualities, and in particular 
 of its color, which resembles that of gold ; great 
 use is made of the varnish in applying gold leaf. 
 
 The yellow, however, may be omitted when this 
 species of varnish is to be solid and colored cov- 
 erings. In this case an ounce of litharge to each 
 pound of composition may be substituted in its 
 stead, without this mixture doing any injury to 
 the color which is to constitute the ground. 
 
 To make Turners' Varnish for Boxwood. 
 
 Seed-lac, 5 oz. ; gum sandarac, 2 oz.; gum elemi, 
 1 oz. ; Venice turpentine, 2 oz.; pounded glass, 5 
 ez. ; pure alcohol, 24 oz. 
 
 Another. Other turners employ the gum-lac 
 united to a little elemi and turpentine digested 
 some months in pure alcohol exposed to the sun. 
 If this method be followed, it will be proper to 
 substitute for the sandarac the same quantity of 
 gum-lac reduced to powder, and not to add the 
 turpentine to the alcohol, which ought to be ex- 
 ceedingly pure, till towards the end of the in- 
 fusion. 
 
 Solar infusion requires care and attention. Ves- 
 sels of a sufficient size to allow the spirituous va- 
 pors to circulate freely ought to be employed, be- 
 cause it is necessary that the vessels should be 
 closely shut. Without this precaution the spirits 
 would become weakened and abandon the resin 
 which they laid hold of during the first day's ex- 
 posure. This perfect obituration will not admit 
 of the vessels being too full. 
 
 In general the varnishes applied to articles 
 which may be put into the lathe acquire a great 
 deal of brilliancy by polishing: a piece of woollen 
 cloth is sufficient for the operation. If turpen- 
 tine predominates too much in these compositions, 
 the polish does not retain its lustre, because the 
 heat of the hands is capable of softening the sur- 
 face of the varnish, and in this state it readily 
 tarnishes. 
 
 Loning's Colorless Varnish,. 
 
 For this varnish a prize of 20 guineas was 
 awarded by the Society of Arts, London. Dis- 
 solve 2^ oz. of shellac in a pint of alcohol; boil 
 for a few minutes with 5 oz. of well- burned and 
 recently-heated animal charcoal. A small portion 
 of the solution must then be filtered, and if not 
 colorless more charcoal must be added. When all 
 color is removed, press the liquid through a piece 
 of silk, and afterwards filter through fine blotting- 
 paper. This varnish should be used in a room of 
 at least 60 Fahr., and free from dust. It dries 
 in a few minutes, and is not liable afterwards to 
 chill or bloom. It is particularly applicable to 
 drawings and prints which have been sized, and 
 may be advantageously used upon oil paintings, 
 
 which are thoroughly hard and dry, as it brings 
 out the colors with the purest effect. This quality 
 renders it a valuable varnish for all kinds of 
 leather, as it does not yield to the warmth of the 
 hand and resists damp. 
 
 Dr. Hare's Colorless Varnish. 
 
 Dissolve in an iron kettle 1 part of pearl a?h ii 
 about 8 parts of water; add 1 part of seed or 
 shellac, and heat to boiling. When the lac is dis- 
 solved impregnate the whole with chlorine (made 
 by gently heating 1 part black oxide of manga- 
 nese with 4 of muriatic acid) until the lac is all 
 precipitated. Wash, dry, and dissolve in alcohoL 
 To Varnish Dressing-Boxes. 
 
 The most of spirit of wine varnishes are des- 
 tined for covering preliminary preparations, which 
 have a certain degree of lustre. They consist of 
 cement, colored or not colored, charged with land- 
 scapes and figures cut out in paper, which pro- 
 duces an effect under the transparent varnish. 
 Most of the dressing-boxes, and other small arti- 
 ticles of the same kind, are covered with this par- 
 ticular composition, which, in general, consists of 
 three or four coatings of Spanish white pounded 
 in water, and mixed up with parchment glue. The 
 first coating is smoothed with pumice-stone, and 
 then polished with a piece of new linen and water. 
 The coating in this state is fit to receive the des- 
 tined color, after it has been ground with water 
 and mixed with parchment glue diluted with 
 water. The cut figures with which it is to be em- 
 bellished are then applied, and a coating of gum 
 or fish-glue is spread over them, to prevent the 
 varnish from penetrating to the preparation, and 
 from spoiling the figures. The operation is fin- 
 ished by applying 3 or 4 coatings of varnish, which 
 when dry are polished with tripoli and water, by 
 means of a piece of cloth. A lustre is then given 
 to the surface with starch and a bit of doe-skin, 
 or very soft cloth. 
 
 Gallipot Varnish. 
 
 Take of gallipot, or white incense. 12 oz.: white 
 glass, pounded, 5 oz. ; Venice turpentine, 2 oz.j 
 essence of turpentine, 32 oz. Make the varnish 
 after the white incense has been pounded with the 
 glass. 
 
 Some authors recommend mastic or sandarac in 
 the room of gallipot; but the varnish is neither 
 more beautiful nor more durable. When the color 
 is ground with the preceding varnish and mixed 
 up with the latter, which, if too thick, is thinned 
 with a little essence, and which is applied imme- 
 diately, and without any sizing, to boxes and other 
 articles, the coatings acquire sufficient strength to 
 resist the blows of a mallet. But if the varnish be 
 applied to a sized color it must be covered with a 
 varnish of the first or second genus. 
 
 Varnish for Electrical Purposes. 
 Dissolve the best red sealing-wax in alcohol. 
 Two or three coats will make a complete covering. 
 It may be applied to wood or glass. 
 
 Mastic Gallipot Varnfuh, for Grinding Colors 
 
 Take of new gallipot, r white incense, 4 oz. ; 
 mastic, 2 oz. ; Venice turpentine, 6 oz. ; pounded 
 glass, 4 oz. ; essence of turpentine, 32 oz. When 
 the varnish is made with the precautions already 
 indicated, add prepared nut-oil or linseed-oil, 2 oz. 
 
 The matters ground with this varnish dry more 
 slowly; they are then mixed up with the follow- 
 ing varnish, if it be for common painting, or with 
 particular varnishes destined for colors and for 
 grounds. 
 
 Lacquer for Brass. 
 
 Take of seed-lac, 6 oz. ; amber or copal, ground 
 
846 
 
 VAKNISHES. 
 
 
 or porphyry, 2 oz, ; dragon's blood, 40 grs. ; ex- 
 tract of red sandal-wood, obtained by water, 30 
 grs. ; oriental saffron, 36 grs. ; pounded glass, 4 
 oz. ; very pure alcohol, 40 oz. 
 
 To apply this varnish to articles or ornaments 
 of brass, expose them to a gentle heat, and dip 
 them into varnish. Two or three coatings may 
 be applied in this manner, if necessary. The var- 
 nish is durable and has a beautiful color. Arti- 
 cles varnished in this manner may be cleaned 
 with Wiiter and a bit of dry rag. 
 
 Lacquer for Philosophical Instruments. 
 
 This lacquer or varnish is destined to change 
 or to modify the color of those bodies to which it 
 is applied. 
 
 Take of gum guttae (gamboge), j oz. ; gum san- 
 darac, gum elemi, each 2 oz.; dragon's blood, of 
 the best quality, 1 oz. ; seed-lac, 1 oz. ; terra merit a, 
 | oz. ; oriental saffron, 2 grs. ; pounded glass, 3 oz. ; 
 pure alcohol, 20 oz. 
 
 The tincture of saffron and of terra merita is 
 first obtained by infusing them in alcohol for 24 
 hours, or exposing them to the heat of the sun in 
 summer. The tincture must be strained through 
 a piece of clean linen cloth, and ought to be 
 strongly squeezed. This tincture is poured over 
 the dragon's blood, the gum elemi, the seed-lac, 
 and the gum guttae, all pounded and mixed with 
 the glass. The varnish is then made according to 
 the directions before given. 
 
 It may be applied with great advantage to phi- 
 losophioal instruments. The use of it might be 
 extended also to various cast or moulded articles 
 with which furniture is ornamented. 
 
 If the dnigon's blood be of the first quality it 
 may give too high a color; in this case the dose 
 may be lessened at pleasure, as well as that of the 
 other coloring matters. 
 
 Gfola,- colored Lacquer for Brass Watch-cases, 
 
 Watch-keys, etc. 
 
 Take of seed-lac, 6 oz. ; amber, gum guttae, each 
 2 oz. ; extract of red sandal-wood in water, 24 grs.; 
 dragon's blood, 60 grs.; oriental saffron, 36 grs.; 
 pounded glass, 4 oz.; pure alcohol, 36 oz. Grind 
 the amber, the seed-lac, gum guttae, and dragon's 
 blood on a piece of porphyry ; tben mix them 
 with the pounded glass, and add the alcohol, after 
 forming with it an infusion of the saffron and an 
 extract of the sandal-wood. The varnish must 
 then be completed as before. The metal articles 
 destined to be covered by this varnish are heated, 
 and those which will admit of it are immersed in 
 packets. The tint of the varnish may be varied 
 by modifying the doses of the coloring substances. 
 
 Lacquer of a Less Drying Quality. 
 
 Take of seed-lac, 4 oz. ; sandarac, or mastic, 4 
 oz. ; dragon's blood, ^ oz. ; terra merita, gum 
 guttae, each 30 grs.; pounded glass, 5 oz.; clear 
 turpentine, 8 oz.; essence of turpentine, 32 oz. 
 Extract by infusion the tincture of the coloring 
 substances, and then add the resinous bodies ac- 
 cording to the directions for compound mastic 
 varnish. 
 
 Lacquer or varnishes of this kind are called 
 cnanging, because, when applied to metals, such 
 as copper, brass, or hammered tin, or to wooden 
 boxes and other furniture, they communicate to 
 them a more agreeable color. Besides, by their 
 contact with the common metals, they acquire a 
 lustre which approaches that of the precious 
 metals, and to which, in consequence of peculiar 
 intrinsic qualities or certain laws of convention, a 
 much greater value is attached. It is by ine;ins 
 of these changing varnishes that artists are able 
 to communicate to their leaves of silver and cop- 
 
 per those shining colors observed in foils. Thia 
 process of industry becomes a source of prosperity 
 to the manufacturers of buttons and works formed 
 with foil, which in the hands of the jeweller con- 
 tributes with so much success to produce that 
 reflection of the rays of light which doubles the 
 lustre and sparkling quality of precious stones. 
 
 It is to varnish of this kind that we nre indebted 
 for the manufactory of gilt leather, which, taking 
 refuge in England, has given place to that of pa- 
 pier-mach6, which is employed for the decoration 
 of palaces, theatres, etc. 
 
 In the last place, it is by the effect of a foreign 
 tint, obtained from the coloring part of saffron, 
 that the scales of silver disseminated in confection 
 d'hynciiithe reflect a beautiful gold color. 
 
 The colors transmitted by different coloring sub- 
 stances, require tones suited to the objects for 
 which they are destined. The artist has it in bis 
 own power to vary them at pleasure, by the ad- 
 dition of anatto to the mixture of dragon's blood, 
 saffron, etc., or some changes in the doses of the 
 mode intended to be made in colors. It is here 
 impossible to give limited formulae. 
 
 To make Lacquers of Various Tints. 
 
 There is one simple method by which artists may 
 be enabled to obtain all the different tints they re- 
 quire. Infuse separately 4 oz. of gum guttae in 
 32 oz. of essence of turpentine, and 4 oz. of dra- 
 gon's blood, and 1 oz. of annatto also in separate 
 doses of essence. These infusions may be easily 
 made in the sun. After 15 days' exposure pour a 
 certain quantity of these liquors into a flask, and 
 by varying the doses different shades of color will 
 be obtained. 
 
 These infusions may be employed also for 
 changing alcoholic varnishes ; but in this case the 
 use of saffron, as well as that of red sandal-wood, 
 which does not succeed with essence, will soon 
 give the tone necessary for imitating with other 
 tinctures the color of gold. 
 
 Mordant Varnish for Gilding. 
 
 Take of mastic, 1 oz. ; gum sandarach, 1 oz. ; gum 
 guttaa, i oz.; turpentine, i oz.; essence of turpen- 
 tine, 6 oz. 
 
 Some artists, who make use of mordants, sub- 
 stitute for the turpentine 1 oz. of the essence of 
 lavender, which renders this composition still less 
 drying. 
 
 In general, the composition of mordants admits 
 of modifications, according to the kind of work 
 for which they are destined. The application of 
 them, however, is confined chiefly to gold. When 
 it is required to fill up a design with gold-leaf on 
 any ground whatever, the composition, which is to 
 serve as the means of union between the metal 
 and the ground, ought to be neither too thick nor 
 too fluid ; because both these circumstances are 
 equally injurious to delicacy in the strokes; it 
 will be requisite also that the composition should 
 not dry till the artist has completed his design 
 
 Other Mordants. 
 
 Some prepare their mordants with Jew's pitch 
 :ind drying oil diluted with essence of turpentine. 
 They employ it for gilding pale gold, or for 
 bronzing. 
 
 Other artists imitate the Chinese, and mix with 
 their mordants colors proper for assisting the tone 
 which they are desirous of giving to the go!.d, 
 such as yellow, red, etc. 
 
 Others employ merely fat varnish, to which they 
 add a little red oxide of lead (minium). 
 
 Others make use of thick glue, in which they 
 dissolve a little honey. This is what they call 
 latttire. When they are desirous of heightening 
 
WATER-PROOFING. 
 
 347 
 
 the color of the gold, they employ this glue, to 
 which the gold-leaf adheres exceedingly well. 
 
 Another. T'je qualities of the following are fit 
 for evqry kind of application, and particularly to* 
 metals : Expose boiled oil to a strong heat in a 
 pan ; when a black smoke is disengaged from it, 
 get it on fire, and extinguish it a few moments 
 after by putting on the cover of the pan. Then 
 pour the matter still warm into a heated bottle, 
 and add to it a little essence of turpentine. This 
 mordant dries very speedily; it has body and ad- 
 heres to, and strongly retains, gold-leaf, when ap- 
 plied to wood, metals, and other substances. 
 To Prepare Composition for making Colored 
 Drawings and Prints Resemble Paintings in Oil. 
 
 Take of Canada balsam, 1 oz. ; spirit of turpen- 
 tine, 2 oz. ; mix them together. Before this com- 
 position is applied, the drawing or print should 
 be sized with a solution of isinglass in water, and 
 when dry, apply the varnish with a camel's-hair 
 brush. 
 
 A Varnish to Color Baskets. 
 
 Take either red, black, or white sealing-wax, 
 whichever color you wish to make ; to every 2 oz. 
 of sealing-wax, add 1 oz. of spirit of wine; pound 
 the wax fine, then sift it through a fine lawn sieve, 
 tillyou have made it extremely fine; put it into a 
 large phial with the spirit of wine, shake it, let it 
 stand near the fire 48 hours, shaking it often; 
 then, with a little, brush the baskets all over with 
 it; let them dry, and do them over a second time. 
 To Prepare Anti-attrition. 
 
 According to the specification of the patent, 
 this mixture consists of 1 cwt. of plumbago, to 4 
 cwt. of hog's lard, or other grease ; the two to be 
 well incorporated. The application is to prevent 
 the affects of friction in all descriptions of engines 
 or machines; and a sufficient quantity must be 
 rubbed over the surface of the axle, spindle, or 
 other part where the bearing is. 
 
 Liard, 
 
 A French lubricating compound, is thus made: 
 Into 50 parts of the finest rape-oil put 1 part of 
 India-rubber, cut into strips, and apply a gentle 
 heat until nearly dissolved. 
 
 Varnish for Pales and Coarse Wood-work. 
 
 Take any quantity of tar, and grind it with as 
 much Spanish-brown as it will bear, without ren- 
 dering it too thick to be used as a paint or var- 
 nish, and then spread it on the pales, or other 
 wood, as soon as convenient, for it quickly hardens 
 by keeping. 
 
 This mixture must be laid on the wood to be 
 varnished by a hard brush, or house -painter's 
 tool ; and the work should then be kept as free 
 from dust and insects as possible, till the varnish 
 is thoroughly dry. It will, if laid on smooth 
 wood, have a very good gloss, and is an excellent 
 preservative of it against moisture; on which ac- 
 count, as well as its being cheaper, it is far pre- 
 ferable to painting, not only for pales, but for 
 weather-boarding, and all other kinds of wood- 
 work for grosser purposes. Where the glossy 
 brown color is not liked, the work may be made 
 of a grayish-brown, by mixing a small proportion 
 of white lead, or whiting and ivory black, with the 
 Spanish-brown. Boiled coal-tar is extensively 
 used for the same purpose. 
 
 A Black Varnish for Old Straw or Chip Hats. 
 
 Take of best black sealing-wax, i oz.; rectified 
 spirit of wine. 2 oz. ; powder the sealing-wax, and 
 jHit it with the spirit of wine into a 4 oz. phial; 
 digest them in a sand-heat, or near a fire, till the 
 
 wax is dissolved ; lay it on warm with a fine soft 
 hair-brush, before a fire or in the sun. It giyes a 
 good stiffness to old straw hats, and a beautiful 
 gloss, equal to new, and resists wet. 
 Flexible Paint. 
 
 Take of good yellow soap, cut into slices, 2i Ibs. ; 
 boiling water, 1 galls. Dissolve, and grind the 
 solution while hot with 1J cwt. of good oil-paint. 
 Used to paint on canvas. 
 
 Porous Water-proof Cloth. 
 
 This quality is given to cloth by simply passing 
 it through a hot solution of weak glue and alum. 
 To apply it to the cloth, make up a weak solution 
 of glue, and while it is hot add a piece of alum 
 (about 1 oz. to 2 qts.). and then brush it over the 
 surface of the cloth while it is hot, and it is after- 
 wards dried. Cloth in pieces may be run through 
 this solution, and then run out of it and dried. 
 By adding a few pieces of soap to the glue, the 
 cloth will feel much softer. Goods in pieces may 
 be run through a tubfull of weak glue, soap, and 
 alum, and squeezed between rollers. This would 
 be a cheap and expeditious mode of preparing 
 them. Woollen goods are prepared by brushing 
 them with the above mixture first in the inside, 
 then with the grain or nap of the cloth ; after 
 which it is dried. It is the best to dry this first 
 jn the air, and then in a stove-room at alow heat; 
 but allow the cloth to remain for a considerable 
 time, to expel the moisture completely. This kind 
 of cloth, while it is sufficiently water-proof to keep 
 cut the moisture and rain, being quite impervious 
 to water, is pervious to the air. 
 
 To Thicken Linen Cloth for Screens and Bed- 
 testers. 
 
 Grind whiting with zinc (white), and to prevent 
 its cracking add a little honey to it; then take a soft 
 brush and lay it upon the cloth, and so do 2 or 3 
 times, suffering it the meanwhile to dry between 
 layings on ; and for the last laying, smooth it over 
 with Spanish white ground with linseed-oil; the 
 oil being first heated and mixed with a small quan- 
 tity of the litharge of gold, the better to endure 
 the weather; and so it will be lasting. 
 
 Common Wax, or Varnished. Cloth. 
 
 The manufacture of this kind of cloth is very 
 simple. The cloth and linseed-oil are the principal 
 articles required for the establishment. Common 
 canvas, of an open and coarse texture, is extended 
 on large frames placed under sheds, the sides of 
 which are open, so as to afford a free passage to 
 the external air. The manner in which the cloth 
 is fastened to these frames is as follows: it is fixed 
 to each side of the frame by hooks which catch 
 the edge of the cloth, and by pieces of strong 
 packthread passing through holes at the other 
 extremity of the hooks, which are 'tied around 
 movable pegs in the lower edge of the frame. The 
 mechanism by which the strings of a violin are 
 stretched or unstretched, will give some idea of 
 the arrangement of the pegs employed for extend- 
 ing the cloth in this apparatus. By these means 
 the cloth can be easily stretched or relaxed, when 
 the oily varnish has exercised an action on its 
 texture in the course of the operation. The whole 
 being thus arranged, a liquid paste made with 
 drying-oil, which may be varied at pleasure, is 
 applied to the cloth. 
 
 To make Liquid Paste with Drying-oil. 
 
 Mix Spanish white, or tobacco-pipe clay, or any 
 other argillaceous matter with water, and leave it 
 at rest some hours; which will be sufficient to 
 separate the argillaceous parts, and to produce a 
 sediment. Stir the sediment with a broom, to 
 
348 
 
 VARNISHES. 
 
 complete the division of the earth ; and after it 
 has rested some seconds, decant the turbid water 
 into an earthen or wooden vessel. By this process 
 the earth will be separated from the sand and 
 other foreign bodies, which are precipitated and 
 whicli must be thrown away. If the earth has 
 been washed by the same process on a large scale, 
 it is divided by kneading it. The supernatant 
 water is thrown aside and the sediment placed in 
 sieves, on pieces of cloth, where it is suffered to 
 drain ; it is then mixed up with oil rendered dry- 
 ing by a large dose of litharge, that is about a 
 fourth of the weight of the oil. The consistence 
 of thin paste being given to the mixture, it is 
 spread over the cloth by means of an iron spatula, 
 the length of which is equal to that of the breadth 
 of the cloth. This spatula performs the part of a 
 knife, and pushes forward the excess of matter 
 above the quantity sufficient to cover the cloth. 
 When the fir^t stratum is dry, a second is applied. 
 The inequalities produced by the coarseness of 
 the cloth, or by an unequal extension of the paste, 
 are smoothed down with pumice-stone. The pum- 
 ice-stone is reduced to powder and rubbed over 
 the cloth with a piece of soft serge or cork dipped 
 in water. The cloth must then be well washed in 
 water to clean it; and after it is dried, a varnish 
 of gum-lac dissolved in linseed-oil boiled with 
 turpentine, is to be applied to it. 
 
 This preparation produces yellowish varnished 
 cloth. When wanted black, mix lampblack with 
 the Spanish white or tobacco-pipe clay, which 
 forms the basis of the liquid paste. Various shades 
 of gray may be obtained, according to the quantity 
 of lampblack which is added. Umber, Cologne- 
 earth, and different ochry argillaceous earths, may 
 be used to vary the tints, without causing any 
 addition to the expense. 
 
 To prepare Varnished Silk. 
 
 Varnished silk, for making umbrellas, capots, 
 coverings for hats, etc., is prepared in the same 
 manner as the varnished and polished cloths al- 
 ready described, but with some variation in the 
 liquid paste or varnish. 
 
 If the surface of the silk be pretty large, it is 
 made fast to a wooden frame furnished with hooks 
 and movable pegs, such as that used in the manu- 
 facture of common varnished cloths. A soft paste, 
 composed of linseed-oil boiled with a fourth part 
 of litharge; tobacco-pipe clay, dried and sifted 
 through a silk sieve, 16 parts; litharge, ground on 
 porphyry with water, dried and sifted in the same 
 manner, 3 parts, and lampblack, 1 part. This 
 paste is then spread in a uniform manner over the 
 surface of the silk by means of a long knife, hav- 
 ing a handle at each extremity. In summer, 24 
 hours are sufficient for its desiccation. When 
 dry, the knots produced by the inequalities of 
 the silk are smoothed with pumice-stone. This 
 operation is performed with water, and, when 
 finished, the surface of the silk is washed. It is 
 then suffered to dry, and fat copal varnish is ap- 
 plied. 
 
 If it be intended to polish this varnish, apply a 
 second stratum, after which polish it with a ball 
 of cloth and very fine tripoli. The varnished silk 
 thus made is very black, exceedingly pliable, and 
 has a fine polish. It may be rumpled a thousand 
 ways without retaining any fold, or even the mark 
 of one. It is light, and therefore proper for cover- 
 ings to hats, and for making cloaks and caps so 
 useful to travellers in wet weather. 
 Another Method. 
 
 A kind of varnished silk, which has only a yel- 
 lowish color, and which suffers the texture of the 
 etuff to appear, is prepared with a mixture of 3 
 
 parts boiled oil of pinks, or linseed-oil, and 1 part 
 of fat copal varnish, which is extended with a 
 coarse brush or knife. Two strata are sufficient 
 when oil has been freed from its greasy particle! 
 over a slow fire, or when boiled with a fourth part 
 of its weight of litharge. 
 
 The inequalities are removed by pumice-stone 
 and water, after which the copal varnish is ap- 
 plied. This simple operation gives to white silk a 
 yellow color, which arises from the boiled oil and 
 the varnish 
 
 This varnished silk possesses all those qualifies 
 ascribed to certain preparations of silk which are 
 recommended to be worn as jackets by persons 
 subject to rheumatism. 
 
 To Prepare Water-proof Boots. 
 
 1. Boots and shoes may be rendered impervious 
 to water by the following composition : Take 3 
 oz. of spermaceti and melt it in a pipkin, or other 
 earthen vessel, over a slow fire; add thereto 6 
 drs. of India-rubber, cut into slices, and theso 
 will presently dissolve. Then add, seriatim, of 
 tallow, 8 oz. ; hog's lard, 2 oz. ; amber varnish, 4 
 oz. Mix, and it will be fit for use immediately. 
 The boots or other material to be treated are to 
 receive 2 or 3 coats with a common blacking-brush, 
 and a fine polish is the result. 
 
 2. Half-pound of shoemaker's dubbing, pt. of 
 linseed-oil ; % pt. of solution of India-rubber. 
 Dissolve with a gentle heat (it is very inflamma- 
 ble), and rub on the boots. This will last for sev- 
 eral months. 
 
 India-rubber Varnish. 
 
 Digest India-rubber, cut into small pieces, in 
 "benzine for several days, frequently shaking the 
 bottle containing the materials. A jelly will be 
 formed, which will separate from the benzine; thia 
 dissolved in the fixed and volatile oils, dries fast, 
 does not crack or shine, unless mixed with some 
 resinous substance. 
 
 On Chloroformic Solution of Gutta-percha. 
 Gutta-percha, in small slices, 1 oz. ; chloro- 
 form, 12 fluidounces. To 8 fluidounces of the 
 chloroform contained in a bottle, add the gutta- 
 percha, and shake occasionally till dissolved; then 
 add the carbonate of lead, previously mixed 
 smoothly with the remainder of the chloroform, 
 and, having shaken the whole thoroughly together 
 several times at intervals of i hour, set the mix- 
 ture aside, and let it stand for 10 days, or until 
 the insoluble matter has subsided, and the solu- 
 tion has become limpid, and either colorless or of 
 a slight straw-color. Lastly, decant, and keep the 
 solution in a glass-stopped bottle. 
 
 To make Slack Japan. 
 
 Boiled oil, 1 gall.; umber, 8 oz. ; asphaltura, 3 
 oz. oil of turpentine, as much as will reduce it to 
 the thinness required. 
 
 To Preserve Tiles. 
 
 After the adoption of glazing, varnishing, etc., 
 to increase the hardness of tiles, tarring has been 
 found completely to stop their pores, and to ren 
 der them impervious to water. This process is 
 practicable, and not expensive. Lime and tar, 
 whale-oil or dregs of oil, are equally adapted to 
 the purpose, and still cheaper. Tarring is par- 
 ticularly efficacious when tiles are cracked by the 
 frost. It is calculated that the expense of coal- 
 tar for a roof of a middling extent, and suppos- 
 ing such a roof to require one hundredweight, 
 would not exceed 15 dollars. 
 
 To Bronze Plaster Figures. 
 
 For the ground, after it has been sized and rub- 
 bed down, take Prussian blue, verditer and spruca 
 
BLACKING. 
 
 349 
 
 ochre ; grind them separately in water, turpen- 
 tine, or oil, according to the work, and mix them 
 in such proportions as will produce the color de- 
 ired; then grind Dutch metal in a part of this 
 composition, laying it with judgment on the promi- 
 nent parts of the figure, which produces a grand 
 effect. 
 
 To Polish Varnished Furniture. 
 
 Take 2 oz. of tripoli powdered, put it in an 
 earthen pot with water to cover it; then take a 
 piece of white flannel, lay it over a piece of cork 
 or rubber, and proceed to polish the varnish, al- 
 ways wetting it with the tripoli and water. It 
 will be known when the process is finished by 
 wiping a part of the work with a sponge, and ob- 
 serving whether there is a fair even gloss. When 
 this is the case, take a bit of mutton suet and fine 
 flour and clean the work. 
 
 To Polish Wood. 
 
 Take a piece of pumice-stone and water, and 
 pass regularly over the work until the rising of 
 the grain is cut down ; then take powdered tripoli 
 and boiled linseed-oil, and polish the work to a 
 bright surface. 
 
 To Polish Brass Ornaments inlaid in Wood. 
 
 File the brass very clean with a smooth file; 
 then take some tripoli powdered very fine, and 
 mix it with the linseed oil. Dip in this a rubber 
 of felt, with which polish the work until the de- 
 sired effect is obtained. 
 
 If the work is ebony, or black rosewood, take 
 Some elder coal powdered very fine, and apply it 
 dry after you have done with the tripoli, and it 
 will produce a superior polish. 
 
 The French mode of ornamenting with brass 
 differs widely from ours ; theirs being chiefly 
 waiter-gilt (or-mouhi), excepting the flutes of 
 columns, etc., which are polished very high with 
 rotten-stone, and finished with elder coal. 
 
 To Brown Iron and Steel Objects. 
 
 Dissolve 2 parts of crystallized chloride of iron, 
 2 parts of solid chloride of antimony, and 1 part 
 of gallic acid in 4 or 5 parts of water. With this 
 moisten a piece of sponge or cloth and apply to 
 the object, a gun-barrel for instance. Let it dry 
 in the air, and repeat the operation several times ; 
 then wash with water; dry, and rub with boiled 
 linseed-oil. Objects browned in this way have a 
 rery agreeable dead gray appearance, and the 
 shade deepens according to the number of times 
 the operation is repeated. 
 
 To make Blacking. 
 
 Take of ivory black and treacle, each 12 oz.; 
 Spermaceti oil, 4 oz., white wine vinegar, 4 pts. Mix. 
 
 To make Liquid Blacking. 
 
 Take of vinegar, No. 18 (the common), 1 qt. ; 
 ivory-black and treacle, each 6 oz. ; vitriolic acid 
 and spermaceti (or common oil), each 1^ oz. 
 
 Mix the acid and oil first, afterwards add the 
 etber ingredients ; if, when it is used, it does not 
 dry quickly enough on the leather, add a little more 
 of the vitriol, a little at a time, till it dries quickly 
 enough. When there is too much of the vitriolic 
 acid, which is various in its strength, the mixture 
 will give it a brown color. 
 
 Vinegar is sold by numbers, viz., No. 18 (the 
 weakest), 19, 20, 21, 22. The celebrated blacking 
 is made with No. 18. When this mixture is pro- 
 perly finished, the ivory-black will be about one- 
 third the contents of the bottle. 
 To make Bailey's Composition for Blacking -cakes. 
 
 Take gum tragacanth, 1 oz. ; neat's-foot oil, 
 superfine ivory-black, deep blue, prepared from 
 
 iron and copper, each 2 oz. ; brown sugar cnndy, 
 river-water, each 4 oz. Having mixed well these 
 ingredients, evaporate the water, and form your 
 cakes. 
 
 To make Blacking Balls for Shoes. 
 
 Take mutton suet, 4 oz. ; bees- wax, 1 oz. ; sweet 
 oil, 1 oz. ; sugar candy and gum Arabic, 1 dr. each, 
 in fine powder; melt these well together over a 
 gentle fire, and add thereto about a spoonful of 
 turpentine, and lampblack sufficient to give it a 
 good black color. While hot enough to run, make 
 it into a ball by pouring the liquor into a tin 
 mould; or let it stand till almost cold; or it may 
 be moulded by the hand. 
 
 To make Liquid Japan Blacking. 
 
 Take 3 oz. of ivory-black, 2 oz. of coarse sugar, 
 1 oz. of sulphuric acid, 1 oz. of muriatic acid, 1 
 tablespoonful of sweet oil and lemon acid, and 1 
 pt. of vinegar. First mix the ivory-black and 
 sweet oil together, then the lemon and sugar, with 
 a little vinegar to qualify the blacking; then add 
 the sulphuric and muriatic acids, and mix them all 
 well together. 
 
 Observation. The sugar, oil, and vinegar pre- 
 vent the acids from injuring the leather, and add 
 to the lustre of the blacking. 
 
 A Cheap Method. 
 
 Ivory-black, 2 oz.; brown sugar, 1 oz. ; and 
 sweet oil, i tablespoonful, Mix them well, and 
 then gradually add i pt. of small beer. 
 Another Method. 
 
 A quarter Ib. of ivory -black, i Ib. of moist sugar, a 
 tablespoonful of flour, a piece of tallow about the 
 size of a walnut, and a small piece of gum Arabic. 
 Make a paste of the flour, and while hot put in 
 the tallow, then the sugar, and afterwards mix the 
 whole well together in a quart of water. 
 India Rubber Blacking (Patent.) 
 
 Ivory-black, 60 Ibs. ; treacle, 45 Ibs. ; vinegar 
 (No. 24), 20 galls. ; powdered gum, 1 Ib. ; India- 
 rubber oil, 9 Ibs. (The latter is made by dissolv- 
 ing by heat 18 oz. of India- rubber in 9 Ibs. of rape- 
 oil.) Grind the whole smooth in a paint-mill, 
 then add by small quantities at a time 12 Ibs. of 
 oil of vitriol, stirring it strongly for i an hour a 
 day for a fortnight. 
 
 To render Leather Water-proof. 
 
 This is done by rubbing or brushing into the 
 leather a mixture of drying oils, and any of the 
 oxides of lead, copper, or iron ; or by substituting 
 any of the gummy resins in the room of the metal- 
 lic oxides. 
 
 To make Varnish for Colored Drawings. 
 
 Take of Canada balsam, 1 oz. ; spirit of turpen- 
 tine, 2 oz. Mix them together. Before this com- 
 position is applied, the drawing or print should 
 be sized with a solution of isinglass in water; and 
 when dry apply the varnish with a camel's-hair 
 brush. 
 
 To moike Furniture Paste. 
 
 Scrape 4 oz. of bees'-wax into a basin, and add 
 as much oil of turpentine as will moisten it through. 
 Now powder a i oz. of resin, and add as much 
 Indian red as will bring it to a deep mahogany 
 color. When the composition is properly stirred 
 up, it will prove an excellent cement or paste for 
 blemishes in mahogany and other furniture. 
 Another Method. 
 
 Scrape 4 oz. of beeswax as before. To a pint 
 of oil of turpentine, in a glazed pipkin, add au 
 ounce of alkanet-root. Cover it close and put it 
 over a slow fire, attending it carefully that it may 
 not boil over, or catch fire. When the liquid is 
 
350 
 
 VARNISHES. 
 
 of a deep red, add as much of it to the wax as will 
 moisten it through, also a quarter of an ounce of 
 powdered resin. Cover the whole close, and let it 
 stand 6 hours, when it will be fit for use. 
 
 To make Furniture Oil. 
 
 Take linseed-oil, put it into a gin zed pipkin 
 with as much alkanet-root as it will cover. Let 
 it boil gently, and it will become of a strong red 
 color; when cool it will be fit for use. 
 
 To make Wash for Preserving Drawings made 
 with a Block Lead Pencil. 
 
 A thin wash of isinglass will fix either black 
 lead, or hard black chalk, so as to prevent their 
 rubbing out; or the same effect may be produced 
 by the simple application of skimmed milk, as has 
 been proved by frequent trials. The best wny of 
 using the latter is to lay the drawing flat upon the 
 surface of the milk ; and then taking it up by one 
 corner till it drains and dries. The milk must be 
 perfectly free from cream, or it will grease the 
 paper. 
 
 To make Varnish for Wood, which Resists the 
 Action of Boiling Water. 
 
 Take 1 Ibs. of linseed-oil, and boil it in a red 
 copper vessel, not tinned, holding suspended over 
 it, in a small linen bag, 5 oz. of litharge and 3 
 oz. of pulverized minium; taking care that the 
 bag does not touch the bottom of the vessel. 
 Continue the ebullition until the oil acquires a 
 deep brown color, then take away the bag and 
 substitute another in its place, containing a, clove 
 of garlic: continue the ebullition and renew the 
 clove of garlic 7 or 8 times, or rather put them all 
 in at once. 
 
 Then throw into the vessel 1 Ib. of yellow am- 
 ber, after having melted it in the following man- 
 ner : Add to the pound of amber, well pulverized, 
 2 oz. of linseed oil, and place the whole on a 
 strong fire. When the fusion is complete, pour it 
 boiling into the prepared linseed-oil, and continue 
 t:> leave it boiling for 2 or 3 minutes, stirring the 
 whole up well. It is then left to settle; the com- 
 position is decanted and preserved, when it be- 
 comes cold, in well-corked bottles. 
 
 After polishing the wood on which this varnish 
 is to be applied, you give to the wood the color re- 
 quired ; for instance, for walnut-wood, a slight 
 coat of a mixture of soot with the essence of tur- 
 pentine. When this color is perfectly dry, give 
 it a ooat of varnish with a fine sponge. In order 
 to spread it very equally, repeat these coats four 
 times, taking care always to let the preceding coat 
 be dried. 
 To Restore the Blackness of old Leather Chairs, etc. 
 
 Many families, especially in the country, pos- 
 eess chairs, settees, etc. covered with black lea- 
 ther. These, impaired by long use, may be re- 
 stored nearly to their original good color and gloss 
 by the following easy and approved process : 
 Take yolks of 2 newly-laid eggs and the white 
 of one. Let these be well beaten up, and then 
 shaken in a glass vessel or jug, to become like 
 thick oil; dissolve in about a tablespoonful or less 
 of geneva, an ordinary tea- lump of loaf-sugar; 
 make this thick with ivory black, well worked up 
 with a bit of stick ; mix with the egg for use. Let 
 this be laid on as blacking ordinarily is for shoes ; 
 after a very few minutes, polish with a soft, very 
 clean brush, till completely dry and shining, then 
 let it remain a day to harden. 
 
 The same process answers admirably for ladies' 
 or gentlemen's dress-shoes, but with the follow ' 
 ing addition for protecting the stockings from 
 oil. Let the white or glair of eggs be shaken 
 n a large glass phial until it becomes a perfect ; 
 
 oil, brush over the inner edges of the shoes witk 
 it, and when completely dry, it will prevent all 
 soiling from the leather. This requires to be re- 
 peated. 
 
 Transparent Ivory. 
 
 The process for making ivory transparent and 
 flexible is simply immersion in liquid phosphoric 
 acid, and the change which it undergoes is owing 
 to a partial neutralization of the basic phosphate 
 of lime, of which it principally consists. The 
 ivory is cut in pieces not thicker than the twen- 
 tieth part of an inch, and placed in phosphoric 
 acid of a specific gravity of 1.131, until it has be- 
 come transparent, when it is taken from the bath, 
 washed in water, and dried with a clean linen 
 cloth. It becomes dry in the air without the ap- 
 plication of heat, and softens again under warm 
 water. 
 
 Bleaching of Ivory. 
 
 Ivory knife-handles which have become quite 
 yellow from use, being left for from 2 to 4 houra 
 in a watery solution of sulphurous acid, become 
 quite white again. The acid in the gaseous form 
 makes the ivory crack. 
 
 To Varnish Drawings and Card Work. 
 
 Boil some clear parchment cuttings in water, 
 in a glazed pipkin, till they produce a very clear 
 size. Strain it and keep it for use. 
 
 Give the work 2 coats of the size, passing the 
 brush quickly over the work, not to disturb the 
 colors. 
 
 To make Turpentine Varnish. 
 
 Mix 1 gall, of oil of turpentine and 5 Ibs. of 
 powdered resin ; put it in a tin can, on a stove, 
 and let it boil for \ an hour. When cool it is fit 
 for use. 
 
 Manufacture of Papter-Mache. 
 
 There are at present five principal varieties of 
 papier-mache known in the trade, viz. : 1. Sheets 
 of paper pasted together upon models. 2. Thick 
 sheets or boards produced by pressing ordinary 
 paper pulp between dies. 3. Fibrous slob, which 
 is made of the coarse varieties of fibre only, mixed 
 with some earthy matter, and certain chemical 
 agents introduced for the purpose of rendering 
 the mass incombustible. A cementing size is 
 added, and the whole well kneaded together with 
 the aid of steam. The kneaded mass is passed 
 repeatedly through iron rollers, which squeeze it 
 out to a perfectly uniform thickness. It is then 
 dried at a proper temperature. 4. Carton pierre, 
 which is made of pulp or paper mixed with whit- 
 ing and glue, pressed into plaster piece-moulds, 
 backed with paper, and, when sufficiently set, 
 hardened by drying in a hot room. 5. Martin's 
 Ceramic Papier-Mache, a new composition, pat- 
 ented in 1858, which consists of paper pulp, resin, 
 glue, drying oil, and sugar of lead, mixed in cer- 
 tain fixed proportions and kneaded together. 
 This composition is extremely plastic, and may be 
 worked, pressed, or moulded into any required 
 form. It may be preserved in this plastic condi- 
 tion for several months by keeping the 1 air away, 
 and occasionally kneading the mass. 
 
 The first-mentioned variety ofpapier-macJie&lonQ 
 engages our attention here. A special kind of paper, 
 of a porous texture, is manufactured for this pur- 
 pose. An iron mould, of somewhat smaller size 
 than the object required, is greased with Russian 
 tallow. A sheet of the paper is laid on to the 
 greased surface of the mould, and covered over 
 with a coat of paste made of the best biscuit- 
 flower and glue, which is spread evenly all over 
 the sheet with the hands ; another sheet is then 
 laid on, and rubbed down evenly, so that the two 
 
PAPIER-MACHE. 
 
 351 
 
 iheets are closely pasted together at all points. 
 After this the mould is taken to the drying cham- 
 ber, where it is exposed to a temperature of about 
 120. When quite dry, which it takes several 
 hours to accomplish, it is carried back to the 
 pa sting-room, and another sheet is laid on, with 
 another coat of paste, after which it is returned to 
 the drying chamber; and the same operation is 
 repeated over and over again, until a sufficient 
 thickness is attained, which, for superior articles, 
 such as are manufactured at these works, requires 
 from 30 to 40 sheets of paper, and of course as 
 many coats of paste between. The shell is then 
 removed from the mould, and planed to shape 
 with a carpenter's plane, after which it is dipped 
 in linseed-oil and spirits of tar to harden it; this 
 changes the color from gray to a dingy yellowish- 
 brown tint. The article is then stoved, and 7 or 
 8 coats of varnish are laid on (with a stoving after 
 each), which are cleared off each time, any equal- 
 ities of surface being finally removed with pumice- 
 stone. The number of drying processes the arti- 
 cles have to go through consume so much time, 
 that it takes 3 or 4 weeks to fit them for ornamen- 
 tation, which is applied in bronze-powder, gold, 
 or color, and, for many articles, also in mother-of- 
 pearl. The ornamentation of these articles is 
 sometimes effected in the highest style of the 
 painter's art. 
 
 The gold-leaf is laid on with a solution of isin- 
 glass in water, the design then pencilled on with 
 asphaltum, the superfluous gold removed with a 
 dossil of cotton dipped in water, which leaves in- 
 tact the parts touched with asphaltum, and the 
 latter finally removed with essence of turpentine. 
 After the application of every coat of color or 
 varnish, the object so colored or varnished is dried 
 in an oven or chamber, called a stove, and heated 
 by flues to as high*a temperature as can safely be 
 employed without injuring the articles, or causing 
 the varnish to blister. 
 
 For black grounds, drop ivory-black mixed with 
 dark-colored anime v-arnish is used; for colorec 
 grounds, the ordinary painters' colors, ground with 
 linseed-oil or turpentine, and mixed with anime 
 varnish. 
 
 The colors are protected against atmospheric 
 influences, and made to shine with greater bril 
 liancy, by 2 or 3 coats of copal or anime varnish 
 Superior articles receive as many as 5 or 6 coat 
 of varni.<h, and are finally polished. 
 
 The ornamentation of all such articles as com 
 under the head of toilet wares is effected by th 
 ordinary mode of painting with the camel's-hai 
 pencil, or some fitting substitute; where imitatio- 
 of woods or marble is intended, the ordinar; 
 grainers' tools are used. Many patterns are pro 
 duced upon the various articles by " transfe 
 printing." Designs in mother-of-pearl are lai 
 on with black varnish; the article is then var 
 nished all over, dried, then rubbed down over th 
 design with pumice-stone ; another coat of varnis 
 is then laid on, dried, and the part covering th 
 design again rubbed off with pumice-stone ; an 
 thus several coats are laid on, until all the surfac 
 is level with that of the design. Ornamental line 
 writing, etc., are laid on with color. The inlay- 
 ing with mother-of-pearl is a laborious business, 
 owing to the small size of the pieces at the artist's 
 disposal, and the necessity of attending to a proper 
 distribution and fitting of lights and shades. 
 
 On a Black Varnish for Zinc. 
 M. Boettger describes a process for covering 
 zinc with a chemical, adherent, velvet black var- 
 nish. Dissolve 2 parts by weight of nitrate of 
 copper and 3 parts of crystallized chloride in 64 
 
 rts of distilled water; add 8 parts of hydro- 
 hlorie acid of MO density. Into this liquid 
 .unge the zinc, previously scoured with fine 
 and! then wash the metal with water, and dry it 
 ipidly. 
 
 Protection of Iron and Steel. 
 Moderately-heated benzine dissolves half its 
 eight of wax; and if this solution be carefully 
 pplied to the tool with a brush, the evaporation 
 saves a very adhesive and permanent coating of 
 ax, which will preserve the metal even from the 
 ction of acid vapors. 
 
 Varnish used for Indian Shields. 
 Shields made in Silhet, in Bengal, are noted 
 hrougbout India, for the lustre and durability of 
 he black varnish with which they are covered, 
 'ilhet shields constitute, therefore, no inconsider- 
 ble article of traffic, being in request among 
 atives who carry arms, and retain the ancient 
 iredilection for the scimitar and buckler. The 
 arnish is composed of the expressed juice of the 
 narking-nut, Semecarpus anacardium, and that 
 f another kindred fruit, Holigarna longifolia. 
 
 The shell of the Seniecarpns anacardittm con- 
 ains between its integuments numerous cells, 
 lied with a black, acrid, resinous juice, which 
 ..kewise is found, though less abundantly, in the 
 wood of the tree. It is commonly employed as 
 an indelible ink, to mark all sorts of cotton cloth. 
 Che color is fixed with quicklime. The cortical 
 )art of the fruit of Holigarna longifolia likewise 
 contains between its laminae numerous cells, fillel 
 with a black, thick, acrid fluid. The natives cf 
 Malabar extract by incision, with which they var- 
 nish targets. 
 
 To prepare the varnish according tc the method 
 practised in Silhet, the nuts of the Semecarput 
 jnacardntm, and the berries of the Holigarna 
 longifolia, having been steeped for a month in 
 jlear water, are cut transversely, and pressed in 
 i mill. The expressed juice of each is kept for 
 several months, taking off the scum from time to 
 time. Afterwards the liquor is decanted, and two 
 parts of the one are added to one part of the other, 
 to be used as varnish. Other proportions of in- 
 gredients are sometimes employed, but in all the 
 resinous juice of the Seniecarpus predominates. 
 The varnish is laid on like paint, and when dry is 
 polished by rubbing it with an agate or smooth 
 pebble. This varnish also prevents destruction 
 of wood. etc. by the white ant. 
 
 To Varnish Silver Leaf like Gold. 
 Fix the leaf on the subject, similar to gold leaf, 
 by the interposition of proper glutinous matters; 
 spread the varnish upon the piece with a pencil. 
 When the first coat is dry wash the piece again 
 and again with the varnish till the color appears 
 sufficiently deep. What is called gilt-leather, and 
 many picture- frames, have no other than this gild- 
 ing; washing them with a little rectified spirit of 
 wine affords a proof of this, the spirit dissolving 
 the varnish, and leaving the silver-leaf of its own 
 whiteness. For plain frames thick tin-foil may 
 be used instead of silver. The tin-leaf, fixed on 
 the piece with glue, is to be burnished, then pol- 
 ished with emery and a fine linen cloth, and after- 
 wards with putty applied in the same manner; 
 being then lacquered over with varnish 5 or 6 
 times, it looks very neat.y like burnished gold. 
 The same varnish, made with a less proportion of 
 coloring materials, is applied also on works of 
 brass, both for heightening the color of the metal 
 to a resemblance with that of gold, and for pre- 
 serving it from being tarnished by the air. 
 
 To Recover Varnish. 
 Clear off the filth with a lye made of potash, and 
 
352 
 
 CEMENTS. 
 
 the ashes of the lees of wine; then take 48 oz. of 
 potash and 16 of the above-mentioned ashes, and 
 put them into 6 qts. of water, and this completes 
 the lye. 
 
 To Polish Varnish. 
 
 This is effected with pumice-stone and tripoli 
 earth. The pumice-stone must be reduced to an 
 impalpable powder, and put upon a piece of serge 
 moistened with water: with this rub lightly and 
 equally the varnish substance. The tripoli must 
 also be reduced to a very fine powder, and put 
 upon a clean woollen cloth, moistened with olive- 
 oil, with which the polishing is to be performed. 
 The varnish is then to be wiped off with soft linen, 
 and when quite dry cleaned with starch or Spanish 
 white, and rubbed with the palm of the hand. 
 
 Process for giving various Objects a Pearly Lustre. 
 To produce the iridescence of mother-of-pearl 
 on stone, glass, metal, resin, paper, silk, leather, 
 etc., Reinsch adopts the following process: 2 parts 
 of solution of copal, 2 parts of that of sandarac, 
 and 4 parts of solution of Damara resin (equal 
 parts of resin and absolute alcohol) are mixed 
 with half their volume of oil of bergamot or rose- 
 mary. This mixture is to be evaporated to the 
 thickness of castor-oil. If this varnish be then 
 
 drawn, by means of a feather or brush, over th 
 surface of some water, it will form a beautiful iri 
 descent pellicle. This film is now to be applied to 
 the objects which are to be rendered iridescent. 
 The vessel in which the water is contained, on 
 which the pellicle has been produced, must there- 
 fore be as hirge as or larger than these objects. 
 The water should have about 5 per cent, of pure 
 solution of lime added to it; its temperature 
 should be kept at about 72. The objects are 
 dried in the air. 
 To Prevent the Formation of Fungi in Timber. 
 
 The following paint has been found successful : 
 Flour of sulphur, 3088 grs. ; common linseed-oil, 
 2084 grs. ; refined oil of manganese, 463 grs. 
 Prevention of Rotting of Wood. 
 
 Take 50 parts of rosin, 40 of finely powdered 
 chalk, 300 parts or less of fine, white, sharp sand, 
 4 parts of linseed-oil, 1 part of native red oxide 
 of copper, and 1 part of sulphuric acid. First 
 heat the rosin, chalk, sand and oil, in an iron 
 boiler; then add the oxide, and, with care, the 
 acid. Stir the composition carefully, and apply 
 while hot. If too thick, add more oil. This coat- 
 ing, when cold and dry, forms a varnish hard as 
 stone. 
 
 CEMENTS. 
 
 Hydraulic Mortar. 
 
 Slaked lime, 1 bu. ; calcined clay, 1J bu.; washed 
 sand, 1^ bu. 
 
 Concrete. 
 
 Unslaked lime, 3 bu. ; sand, 3 bu. ; gravel, 2 bu. ; 
 broken stone, 4 bu. 
 
 Cement. 
 
 Hydraulic cement, 6 bu. (6-5 London, or 2 New 
 York bbl.) ; sand, 6 bu. This amount will suffice 
 to lay 1,000 bricks or 2 perches of stone. 
 Mortars. 
 
 1. Stone lime (unslaked), 1 bu. ; sand, 3 bu. 
 
 2. Stone lime (unslaked), 1 bu. ; gravel, 10 bu. 
 
 Beton 
 
 Is superior, in every respect, to concrete. It is 
 made in the same way, using hydraulic instead 
 of common mortar. 
 
 Mastic. 
 
 Sand, 1 00 Ibs. ; marble-dust, 100 Ibs. ; freestone, 
 100 Ibs. ; red lead (minium), 3 Ibs. ; litharge, 3 Ibs. ; 
 linseed-oil, 21 pts. 
 
 Genuine Roman Cement, 
 
 Or pozzuolana, from the neighborhood of Vesu- 
 vius, is a peculiar mixture of silica, clay, and 
 lime, which has been calcined by the volcano. It 
 is used mixed with lime and sand. The following 
 is the formula of Vitruvius : 12 parts pozzuolana 
 well powdered, 6 sharp sand well washed, 9 rich 
 lime, recently slaked. It has the power of rapidly 
 hardening under water. 
 
 Artificial Portland Cement. 
 One hundred Ibs. of pure, dry chalk is moist- 
 ened and ground in a mill with excess of water; 
 to this is added 137i Ibs. of pure alluvial clay, and 
 the two are thoroughly incorporated. The mix- 
 ture is made into balls, which are dried and cal- 
 oined in an ordinary lime-kiln. 
 
 Jtosendale Cement 
 
 Is made by calcining the limestone or cement- 
 stone, found above the Potsdam sandstone and 
 below the Utica slate of the New York survey. It 
 consists of silica, magnesia, alumina, oxide of 
 iron, with some salts of potash and soda. The 
 stone is found in eastern New York, New Jersey, 
 Pennsylvania and Virginia. 
 
 Artificial Hydraulic Cements 
 
 Are made 1, by combining thoroughly slaked lime 
 with from 10 to 40 per cent, unburnt clay, and 
 burning the mixture in a kiln ; 2, by grinding 
 clay and chalk as directed above for Portland 
 Cement; 3, by making artificial pozzuolana from 
 calcareous sand and clay, and calcining it; 4, by 
 the use of silicate of soda: 8 or 10 per cent, of a 
 solution of the consistence of thin syrup, is to b 
 mixed with mortar of fat lime. 
 
 Cement for Rooms. 
 
 A coat of oxide of zinc (zinc white) mixed with 
 size, is applied to the wall, ceiling or wainscot; 
 over this, one of chloride of zinc, prepared in the 
 same way. The two unite and form a cement 
 smooth and polished as glass. 
 
 Parolie Cement. 
 
 Take unsalted curd of skimmed milk, press th 
 whey out, dry and pulverize, and warm over a 
 stove. Of this, 90 parts; caustic quicklime, in 
 fine powder, 10 parts ; powdered camphor, 1 part. 
 Mix intimately and keep in small bottles corked 
 perfectly tight. To use, mix the required amount 
 with water with a palette-knife, and apply imme- 
 diately. 
 
 To make Cement for Floors. 
 
 Earthen floors are commonly made of loam ; 
 and sometimes, especially to make malt on, of 
 lime and brook-sand, and gun-dust or anvil-dust 
 from the forge. The manner of making earthen 
 
CEMENTS. 
 
 353 
 
 floors for plain country habitations is as follows : 
 take $ lime and J coal-ashes well sifted, with a 
 email quantity of loam clay; mix the whole to- 
 gether and temper it well with water, making it 
 up into a heap; let it lie a week or 10 days and 
 then temper it over again. After this, heap it up 
 for 3 or 4 days, and repeat the tempering very 
 high till it becomes smooth, yielding, tough and 
 gluey. The ground being then levelled, lay the 
 floor therewith about 2^ or 3 in. thick, making it 
 smooth with a trowel. The hotter the season is, 
 the better; and when it is thoroughly dried, it 
 will make the best floor for houses, especially 
 malt-houses. 
 
 Pew's Composition for Roofing Buildings. 
 Take the hardest and purest limestone (white 
 marble is to be preferred), free from sand, clay or 
 other matter; calcine it in a reverberatory furnace, 
 pulverize and pass through a sieve. One part, by 
 weight, is to be mixed with 2 parts of clay well 
 baked and similarly pulverized, conducting the 
 whole operation with great care. This forms the 
 first powder. The second is to be made of 1 part 
 of calcined and pulverized gypsum, to which is 
 added 2 parts of clay baked and pulverized. These 
 two powders are to be combined and intimately 
 incorporated, so as to form a perfect mixture. 
 When it is to be used, mix it with about J part 
 of its weight of water, added gradually, stirring 
 the mass well the whole time, until it forms a thick 
 paste, in which state it is to be spread like mortar 
 upon the desired surface. It becomes in time as 
 hard as stone, allows no moisture to penetrate, 
 and is not cracked by heat. When well prepared 
 it will last any length of time. When in its plastic 
 or soft state, it may be colored of any desired tint. 
 
 Zeiodelite. 
 
 Zeiodelite is made by mixing together 19 Ibs. 
 of sulphur and 42 Ibs. of pulverized stoneware 
 and glass. The mixture is exposed to a gentle 
 heat, which melts the sulphur, and then the mass 
 is stirred till it becomes thoroughly homogeneous, 
 when it is run into suitable moulds and allowed 
 to cool. This preparation is proof against acids 
 in general, whatever their degree of concentration, 
 and will last an indefinite time. It melts at about 
 248, and maybe re-employed without loss of any 
 of its qualities, whenever it is desirable to change 
 the form of an apparatus, by melting at a gentle 
 heat and operating as with asphalte. At 230 it 
 becomes as compact as stone, and therefore pre- 
 serves its solidity in boiling water. Slabs of zei- 
 odelite may be joined by introducing between 
 them some of the paste heated to 392, which 
 will melt the edges of the slabs, and when the 
 whole becomes cold it will present one uniform 
 piece. Chambers lined with zeiodelite, in place 
 of lead, the inventor says, will enable manufac- 
 turers to produce acids free from nitrate and sul- 
 phate of lead. The cost will be only one-fifth the 
 price of lead. The compound is also said to be 
 fuperior to hydraulic lime for uniting stone and 
 resisting the action of water. 
 
 To make Cement for Canals, 
 Take 1 part of iron filings, reduced to sifted 
 powder, 3 parts of silica, 4 parts of red clay, the 
 same quantity of pulverized brick, and 2 parts of 
 hot lime ; the whole measured by weight and not 
 by bulk. 
 
 Put the mixture into a large wooden tub, in or- 
 der that nothing foreign may be introduced into 
 it. If sufficient water is poured out to extinguish 
 the lime and give a degree of liquidness to the 
 cement, and if all the component parts are briskly 
 stirred, a great degree of heat will be emitted from 
 23 
 
 the lime, and an intimate union formed by the 
 heat. 
 
 Cement for Cast-Iron. 
 
 In mixing cement for cast-iron, put 1 oz. of 
 sal ammoniac to each hundredweight of borings, 
 and use it without allowing it to heat. Multiply 
 the length of any joint in ft. by the breadth in 
 in., by the thickness in eighths, and by 3 ; the pro- 
 duct will be the weight of dry borings, in Ibs. 
 avoirdupois, required to make cement to fill that 
 joint nearly. 
 
 Or, take of sal ammoniac, 2 oz. ; flowers of sul- 
 phur, 1 oz. ; clean cast-iron borings or filings, 16 
 oz. : mix them well in a mortar, and keep them 
 dry. When required for use, take 1 part of this 
 powder and 20 parts of clean iron borings or fil- 
 ings, mix thoroughly in a mortar, make the mix- 
 ture into a stiff paste with a little water, and apply 
 it between the joints, and screw them together. 
 A little fine grindstone sand added improves the 
 cement. 
 
 A mixture of white paint with red lead, spread 
 on canvas or woollen, and placed between the 
 joints, is best adapted for joints that require to 
 be often separated. 
 
 In 100 Ibs. of iron borings mix 1 oz. of flowers 
 of sulphur, and add 1 oz. of sal ammoniac, dig- 
 solved in hot water. 
 
 To Preserve for Use. 
 
 Pack it close in an iron vessel, and cover with 
 water. 
 
 For Mending Iron Retorts. 
 
 Fifteen Ibs. fire-clay, 1 Ib. saleratus, with water 
 sufficient to make a thick paste. This mixture 
 must be applied to the broken part of the retort 
 when the retort is at a good working heat; after 
 this has been done, cover it with fine coal dust, and 
 charge the retort for working. 
 
 Cement for Rock-icork and Reservoirs. 
 
 Where a great quantity of cement is wanted 
 for coarser uses, the coal-ash mortar (or Welsh 
 tarras) is the cheapest and best, and will hold ex- 
 tremely well, not only where it is constantly kept 
 wet or dry, but even where it is sometimes dry 
 and at others wet ; but where it is liable to be ex- 
 posed to wet and frost, this cement should, at its 
 being laid on, be suffered to dry thoroughly before 
 any moisture has access to it; and, in that case, it 
 will likewise be a great improvement to temper it 
 with the blood of any beast. 
 
 The mortar must be formed of 1 part lime and 
 2 parts of well-sifted coal-ashes, and they must be 
 thoroughly mixed by being beaten together; for 
 on the perfect commixture of the ingredients the 
 goodness of the composition depends. 
 To make Mortar. 
 
 Mortar is composed of quicklime and sand, re- 
 duced to a paste with water. The lime ought to 
 be pure, completely free from carbonic ncid, and 
 in the state of a very fine powder; the sand should 
 be free from clay, partly in the state of fine sand, 
 and partly in that of gravel; the water should be 
 pure, and, if previously saturated with lime, so 
 much the better. The best proportions are 3 parts 
 of fine, and 4 parts of coarse sand, 1 part of quick- 
 lime, recently slaked, and as little water as pos- 
 sible. There should always be enough water 
 added at first; if water is added after the slaking 
 has begun, it will be chilled and the mortar lumpy. 
 
 The addition of burnt bones improves mortar 
 by giving it tenacity and renders it less apt to 
 crack in drying; but they ought never to exceed 
 of the lime employed. 
 
 When a little manganese is added to mortar, it 
 acquires the important property of hardening 
 
354 
 
 CEMENTS. 
 
 under water ; so that it may be employed in con- 
 structing those edifices which are constantly ex- 
 posed to the action of water. Limestone is often 
 combined with manganese ; in that case it becomes 
 brown by calcination. 
 
 Tunisian Cement. 
 
 This is composed of 3 parts of lime, 1 of sand, 
 and 2 of wood-ashes ; these ingredients are mixed 
 up with oil and water alternately, till they com- 
 pose a paste of the desired consistency. 
 Water-cement, or Stucco. 
 
 Take 56 Ibs. of pure coarse sand, 42 Ibs. of pure 
 fine sand; mix them together, and moisten them 
 thoroughly with lime-water; to the wetted sand 
 add 14 Ibs. of pure fresh-burnt lime, and while beat- 
 ing them up together add, in successive portions, 
 14 Ibs. of bone-ash. The quicker and more per- 
 fectly these materials are beaten together, and the 
 sooner they are used, the better will be the cement ; 
 for some kinds of work it will be better to use fine 
 sand alone, and for others coarse sand, remember- 
 ing the finer the sand is the greater quantity of 
 lime is to be employed. 
 
 To make a Fire and Water-proof Cement. 
 
 To i pt. of vinegar add the same quantity of 
 milk; separate the curd, and mix the whey with 
 the whites of 5 eggs; beat it well together, and 
 sift into it a sufficient quantity of quicklime, to 
 convert it to the consistency of a thick paste. 
 Broken vessels mended with this cement never 
 afterwards separate, for it resists the action of both 
 fire and water. 
 
 Turkish Cement for Joining Metals, Glass, etc. 
 
 Dissolve mastic in as much spirit of wine as 
 will suffice to render it liquid ; in another vessel 
 dissolve as much isinglass (which has been pre- 
 viously soaked in water till it is swollen and soft) 
 in brandy as will make 2 oz. by measure of strong 
 glue, and add two small bits of gum-galbanum or 
 ammoniacuui, which must be rubbed or ground 
 till they are dissolved ; then mix the whole with a 
 sufficient heat ; keep it in a phial stopped, and when 
 it is to be used set it in hot water. 
 
 Solution of India-rubber. 
 
 A solution of caoutchouc, or India-rubber, for 
 repairing india-rubber shoes, is prepared in the 
 following manner: Cut 2 Ibs. of caoutchouc into 
 thin, small slices ; put them in a vessel of tinned 
 sheet-iron, and pour over 12 to 14 Ibs. of sulphide 
 of carbon. For the promotion of solution place 
 the vessel in another containing water previously 
 heated up to about 86 Fahr. The solution will 
 take place promptly, but the fluid will thicken 
 very soon, and thus render the application diffi- 
 cult, if not impossible. In order to prevent this 
 thickening and difficulty, a solution of caoutchouc 
 and rosin (colophony) in spirits of turpentine must 
 he added to the solution of caoutchouc in sulphide 
 of carbon, and in such quantity that the mixture 
 obtains the consistency of a thin paste. The so- 
 lution of caoutchouc and rosin in spirit of turpen- 
 tine should be prepared as follows : Cut 1 Ib. of 
 caoutchouc into thin, small slices; beat them in a 
 suitable vessel over a moderate coal fire, until the 
 caoutchouc becomes fluid ; then add i Ib. of pow- 
 dered rosin, and melt both materials at a mod- 
 erate heat. When these materials are perfectly 
 fluid, then gradually add 3 or 4 Ibs. of spirit of 
 turpentine in small portions, and stir well. By 
 the addition of the last solution, the rapid thick- 
 ening and hardening of the compound will be pre- 
 vented, and a mixture obtained fully answering 
 the purpose of gluing together rubber surfaces, etc. 
 Marine Glue. 
 
 Out 3 parts India-rubber into small pieces, and 
 
 
 dissolve it by heat and agitation in 34 parts of 
 cold naphtha, chloroform, or benzine; add to this 
 64 parts of powdered shellac, and heat the whole 
 with constant stirring until the shellac is dissolved j 
 then pour it while hot on metal plates, to form 
 sheets. When used it must be heated to 248 
 Fahr., and applied with a brush. 
 Water-proof Glue. 
 
 Fine shreds of India-rubber dissolved in warm 
 copal varnish, make a water-proof cement for wood 
 and leather. 
 
 Another. Glue, 12 oz.; water, sufficient to dis- 
 solve it; add 3 oz. of rosin, melt them together, 
 and add 4 parts of turpentine or benzine. Tnis 
 should be done in a carpenter's glue-pot, to avoid 
 burning. 
 
 A New Cement. 
 
 M. Edmund Davy prepares a new cement, which, 
 is well spoken of, by melting in an iron vessel 
 equal parts of common pitch and gutta-percha. It 
 is kept either liquid under water, or solid to be 
 melted .when wanted. It is not attacked by wa- 
 ter, and adheres firmly to wood, stone, glass, porce- 
 lain, ivory, leather, parchment-paper, feathers, 
 wool, cotton, hemp, and linen fabrics, and even to 
 varnish. 
 
 Aquaria Cement. 
 
 One part, by measure, of litharge; 1 part plas- 
 ter of Paris; 1 part fine beach-sand; $ part fine 
 powdered rosin ; mix all together. This may be 
 kept for years, while dry, in a well-corked bottle; 
 when used, make in a putty with boiled linseed- 
 oil; a little patent dryer may be used; it will stand 
 water at once, either salt or fresh. 
 
 New Gutta-percha Cements. 
 
 For uniting sheet gutta-percha to silk or other 
 fabrics: Gutta-percha, 40 Ibs.; caoutchouc, 3 Ibs.; 
 shellac, 3 Ibs.; Canada balsam, or Venice turpen- 
 tine, 14 Ibs. ; liquid styrax, 35 Ibs. ; gum mastic, 
 4 Ibs. ; oxide of lead, 1 Ib. 
 
 For uniting sheet gutta-percha to leather, as 
 soles of shoes, etc. : Gutta-percha, 50 Ibs. ; Venice 
 turpentine, 40 Ibs. ; shellac, 4 Ibs. ; caoutchouc, 1 
 Ib. ; liquid styrax, 5 Ibs. 
 
 Metallic Cement. 
 
 A metallic cement, which answers for all pur- 
 poses and becomes hard in the heat, may be ob- 
 tained in the following way : One hundred parts 
 of oxide of zinc, with the same quantity of sul- 
 phate of lead, are triturated with 30 parts of 
 linseed-oil, and then a mixture consisting of 100 
 parts of black oxide of manganese and 100 parts 
 of peroxide of iron added until the mass forms a 
 stiff dough. This is beaten in a mortar for 12 
 hours, during which the remainder of the above 
 mixture of iron and manganese is added by de- 
 grees. The goodness of the cement may be re- 
 cognized by its not crumbling when rolled out be- 
 tween the fingers. 
 
 Cement for Stoneware, by M. Heller. 
 
 Gelatine is allowed to swell in cold water, the 
 jelly warmed, and so much recently-slaked lime 
 added as is requisite to render the mass sufficiently 
 thick for the purpose. A thin coating of this ce- 
 ment is spread while warm over the gently-heated 
 surfaces of fracture of the articles, and let dry 
 under a strong pressure. What oozes out is re- 
 moved directly with a moist rag. 
 
 Yates' Wafer-proof Cement. 
 
 Tnke of the best glue 4 oz. ; of isinglass, 2 oz., 
 an'i dissolve them in mild ale over a slow fire, in 
 a common glue-kettle, to the consistency of strong 
 glue, when 1 oz. of well boiled linseed-oil must 
 be gradually added, and the whole be well mixed 
 by stirring. When cold and made into cakes it 
 
GLUE. 
 
 355 
 
 resembles India-rubber. When wanted for use, 
 dissolve a piece of it in a proportionate quantity 
 of ale. This cement is applicable to all joints of 
 wood, to join earthenware, china, glass. It is an 
 excellent cement for leather, for harness, bands 
 for machinery, etc. The joints of these are to be 
 prepared as if for sewing, the cement to be ap- 
 plied hot, laying/ a weight upon each joint as it is 
 Yiade, in which state it is to be left 6 hours, when 
 the joints will be found nearly as firm as if they 
 were of an entire piece. By adding a little tow 
 to the above, you have an excellent cement for 
 leaks in casks, etc., etc. 
 
 Common Cement for Joining Alabaster, Marble, 
 Porphyry, and other Stones. 
 
 Take of beeswax 2 Ibs., and of resin 1 Ib. j melt 
 them, and add 1$ Ibs. of the same kind of matter, 
 powdered, as the body to be cemented is composed 
 of, strewing it into the melted mixture, and stir- 
 ring them well together, and afterwards kneading 
 the mass in water, that the powder may be thor- 
 oughly incorporated with the wax and resin. The 
 proportion of the powdered matter may be varied 
 where required, in order to bring the cement 
 nearer to the color of the body on which it is em- 
 ployed. 
 
 This cement must be heated when applied, as 
 also the parts of the subject to be cemented to- 
 gether, and care must be taken, likewise, that they 
 may be thoroughly dry. 
 
 To make Lutes. 
 
 These are used for securing the juncture of ves- 
 sels in distillations and sublimations. For the 
 distillation of water, linen dipped in a thin paste 
 of flour and water is sufficient. A lute of greater 
 security is composed of quicklime, made into a 
 paste with the whites of eggs. For the security 
 of very corrosive vapors, clay finely powdered and 
 sifted, made into a paste with boiled linseed-oil, 
 must be applied to the juncture, which must be 
 afterwards covered with slips of linen, dipped in 
 the paste of quicklime and the whites of eggs. 
 The lute must be perfectly dried before the ves- 
 sels are used, or else the heat may cause it to dry 
 too quickly, and thereby cause the lute to crack. 
 If this be the case, it is repaired by applying fresh 
 lute in the cracks, and suffering it to dry gradu- 
 ally. Vessels which are to be exposed to the na- 
 ked fire are frequently coated to resist the effects 
 of the heat, the best coating for which purpose 
 consists in dissolving 2 oz. of borax in 1 pt. of 
 boiling water, and adding to the solution as much 
 slaked lime as is necessary to form a thin paste. 
 The vessel must be covered all over with it by 
 means of a painter's brush, and then suffered to 
 dry. It must then be covered with a thin paste 
 of linseed-oil and slaked lime, except the neck. 
 In 2 or 3 days it will dry of itself, and the retort 
 will then bear the greatest fire without cracking. 
 The cracks of chemical vessels may be secured by 
 the second lute. 
 
 To make Portable Glue. 
 
 Take 1 Ib. of the best glue, boil and strain it 
 very clear; boil likewise 4 oz. of isinglass, put it 
 in a double glue-pot, with i Ib. of fine brown sugar, 
 and boil it pretty thick ; then pour it into moulds ; 
 when cold, cut and dry them in small pieces. This 
 glue is very useful to draughtsmen, architects, 
 etc., as it immediately dilutes in warm water, and 
 fastens the paper without the process of damping. 
 
 To make Glue that will Resist Moisture. 
 Dissolve gum sandarac and mastic, of each, 2 
 oz., in 1 pt. of spirit of wine, adding- about 1 oz. 
 of clear turpentine. Then take equal parts of isin- 
 glass and parchment glue, made according to the 
 
 directions in the preceding article, and having 
 beaten the isinglass into small bits, and reduced 
 the glue to the same state, pourthe solution of the 
 gums upon them, and melt the whole in a vessel 
 well covered, avoiding so great a heat as that of 
 boiling water. When melted, strain the glue 
 through a coarse linen cloth, and then put it again 
 over the fire, adding about 1 oz. of powdeied 
 glass. 
 
 This preparation may behest managed by hang- 
 ing the vessel in boiling water, which will prevent 
 the matter burning to the vessel, or the spirit of 
 wine from taking fire, and indeed it is better to 
 use the same method for all the- evaporation of 
 nicer glues and sizes ; but, in that case, less water 
 than the proportion directed, should be added to 
 the materials. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 A very strong glue, that will resist water, may 
 be also made by adding Ib. of common glue, or 
 isinglass glue, to 2 qts. of skimmed milk, and then 
 evaporating the mixture to the due consistence of 
 the glue. 
 
 To make Parchment Glue. 
 
 Take 1 Ib. of parchment, and boil it in 6 qts. of 
 water, till the quantity be reduced to 1 qt. ; strain 
 off the fluid from the dregs, and then boil it again 
 till it be of the consistence of glue. 
 
 The same may be done with glovers' cuttings of 
 leather, which make a colorless glue, if not burnt 
 in the evaporation of the water. 
 
 A very Strong Compound Glue. 
 
 Take common glue in very small or thin bits, 
 and isinglass glue; infuse them in as much spirit 
 of wine as will cover them, for at least 24 hours. 
 Then melt the whole together, and, while they are 
 over the fire, add as much powdered chalk as will 
 render them an opake white. 
 
 The infusion in the spirit of wine has been di- 
 rected in the recipes given for glue ; but the re- 
 mark on the use of it in one of the preceding arti- 
 cles will hold good also in this, and the mixturj 
 may be made with water only. 
 
 To make Compound Glue. 
 
 Take very fine flour, mix it with white of eggs 
 isinglass, and a little yeast; mingle the materials, 
 beat them well together; spread them, the batter 
 being made thin with gum-water, on even tin 
 plates, and dry them in a stove, then cut them out 
 for use. To color them, tinge the paste with Bra- 
 zil, or vermilion for red ; indigo or verditer, etc., 
 for blue ; saffron, turmeric, or gamboge, etc., for 
 yellow. 
 
 To make Isinglass Glue. 
 
 This is made by dissolving beaten isinglass in 
 water by boiling, and having strained it through 
 a coarse linen cloth, evaporating it again to such 
 a consistence, that, being cold, the glue will be 
 perfectly hard and dry. 
 
 A great improvement is made in this glue by 
 adding spirit of wine or brandy after it is strained, 
 and then renewing the evaporation till it gains the 
 due consistence. 
 
 To make Isinglass Size. 
 
 This may also be prepared in the manner above 
 directed for the glue, by increasing the proportion 
 of the water for dissolving it, and the same holds 
 good of parchment size. A better sort of the com- 
 mon size may be likewise made by treated cut- 
 tings of glovers' leather in the same manner. 
 
 To make Flour Paste. 
 
 Paste is formed principally of wheaten flour 
 boiled in water till it be of a glutinous or viscid 
 
356 
 
 CEMENTS. 
 
 consistence. It may be prepared with those in- 
 gredients simply for common purposes; but when 
 it is used by bookbinders, or for paper-hangings 
 to rooms, it is usual to mix a fourth, fifth, or sixth 
 of the weight of the flour of powdered resin ; and 
 where it is wanted still more tenacious, gum ara- 
 bic or any kind of size may be added. 
 
 To make Chinexe Paste. 
 
 Mix together bullock's blood and quicklime, in 
 the proportion of 1 Ib. of the latter to 10 Ibs. of 
 the former. It becomes a stiff jelly, in which 
 state it is sold to the consumers, who beat it down 
 with an addition, of water, into a state sufficiently 
 fluid for use. 
 
 To Weld Tortoise-shell 
 
 Provide a pair of pincers, the tongs of which 
 will reach 4 inches beyond the rivet. Now file the 
 tortoise-shell clean to a lap-joint, carefully ob- 
 serving that there be no grease about it. Wet the 
 joint with water ; apply the pincers hot, follow- 
 ing them with water, and the shell will be found 
 to be joined, as if it were originally one piece. 
 
 Gas-Fitters' Cement. 
 
 Rosin, 5 Ibs. ; beeswax, 1 Ib. ; red ochre, 1 Ib. ; 
 plaster of Paris, 3 oz. Finely-powdered brick- 
 dust may be used instead of the red ochre and 
 plaster. 
 
 Turners' Cement. 
 
 Soft rosin, 8 oz. ; wax, 1 oz. ; pitch, 1 oz. ; red 
 ochre, oz. ; hard shellac, 2 oz. ; powdered pumice, 
 1 oz. 
 
 Opticians' Cement. 
 
 Sifted wood-ashes, 1 oz. ; melted pitch, 3 oz. 
 
 Lapidaries' Cement. 
 
 Rosin, 10 oz. ; beeswax, 1 oz. ; tallow, i oz.; 
 red ochre, i oz. 
 
 British Gum. 
 
 Take 1000 Ibs. of starch, moisten with a mix- 
 ture of 300 Ibs. of water, and 2 Ibs. of nitric acid, 
 allow it to dry spontaneously, and heat for 1 or 2 
 hours in stoves, at a temperature of 212 to 230 
 Fahr. 
 
 Preparing Glue for Ready Use.. 
 
 1. To any quantity of glue use common whiskey 
 insteady of water. Put both together in a bottle, 
 cork it tight, and set it for 3 or 4 days, when it 
 will be fit foi use without the application of heat. 
 Glue thus prepared will keep for years, and is at 
 all times fit for use, except in very cold weather, 
 when it should be set in warm water before using. 
 To obviate the difficulty of the stopper getting 
 tight by the glue drying in the mouth of the ves- 
 sel, use a tin vessel, with the cover fitting tight on 
 the outside to prevent the escape of the spirit by 
 evaporation. A strong solution of isinglass, 
 made in the same manner, is an excellent cement 
 for leather. 
 
 2. Take of best white glue, 16 oz. ; white lead, 
 dry, 4 oz. ; rain-water, 2 pts. ; alcohol, 4 oz. With 
 constant stirring dissolve the glue and lead in the 
 water by means of a water-bath. Add the alcohol, 
 mud continue the heat for a few minutes. Lastly, 
 pour into bottles while it is still hot. 
 
 Liquid Glue. 
 
 Take 2 and l-5th Ibs. of glue, and dissolving it 
 in 2 and l-9th pts. of water in a glazed pot over 
 a gentle fire, or, what is better, in the water-bath, 
 stirring it from time to time. When all the glue 
 is melted, 7 oz. Av. of nitric acid (spec. grav. 1-32) 
 are to be poured in, in small quantities at a time. 
 This addition produces an effervescence, owing to 
 the disengagement of hyponitric acid. When all 
 
 the acid is added, the vessel is to be taken from 
 the fire, and left to cool. 
 
 Another. Dissolve the best isinglass in the 
 strongest (glacial) acetic acid. 
 
 Bottle Cement. 
 
 Resin, 15 parts; tallow, 4 (or wax, 3) parts; 
 highly dried red ochre, 6 parts; or lampblack suf- 
 ficient to give color. 
 
 Diamond Cement. 
 
 Isinglass, 1 oz. ; distilled water, 5 oz. ; dissolve 
 and boil down to 3 oz. ; add 1 j oz. of alcohol, 
 boil for a minute or two. Strain, and while hot 
 add i oz. of milky emulsion of gum ammoniac, 
 and 5 drs. of tincture of mastic. 
 
 Oxychloride of Zinc Cement. 
 
 In liquid chloride of zinc, of 50 to 60 Beaume", 
 dissolve 3 per cent, of borax or sal ammoniac; 
 add oxide of zinc (zinc white) until the mass is of 
 proper consistence. This cement, when hard, be- 
 comes as firm as marble. It may be cast into 
 moulds like plaster, as used in Mosaic work. 
 Bird Lime. 
 
 Boil the middle part of the holly 7 or 8 hours 
 in water ; drain it, and lay it in heaps in the 
 ground, covered with stones, for 2 or 3 weeks, till 
 reduced to a mucilage. Beat this in a mortar, 
 wash it in rain-water, and knead it till free from 
 extraneous matters. Put it into earthen pots, and 
 in 4 or 5 days it will be fit for use. An inferior 
 kind is made by boiling linseed-oil for some hours, 
 until it becomes a viscid paste. 
 
 Transparent Cement. 
 
 Dissolve 75 parts India-rubber in 60 parts of 
 chloroform or benzine, and add to the solution 15 
 parts of mastic. 
 
 Another. Balsam of fir is a strong cement 
 when not exposed to heat. It is to be warmed 
 and applied to the glass, itself previously warmed. 
 It is used for cementing lenses, mounting micro- 
 scopic objects, etc., and does very well for broken 
 glass when it is not to be washed in warm water. 
 The thicker the balsam the stronger, when too 
 thin it may. be thickened by gentle evaporation. 
 To make Paper Water-proof. 
 
 Dissolve 8 oz. of alum and 3| oz. of white soap 
 in 4 pints of water; in another vessel dissolve 2 
 oz. of gum Arabic and 4 oz. of glue in 4 pints or 
 water. Mix the two solutions and make the mix- 
 ture hot. Immerse the paper in the mixture, and 
 then hang it up to dry or pass it between cyl- 
 inders. 
 
 The alum, soap, glue, and gum form a sort of 
 artificial covering which "protects the surface of 
 the paper from the action of water, and to a cer- 
 tain extent from fire. This paper will be very 
 useful for packages which may be exposed to the 
 inclemency of the weather. 
 
 New Applications for Gun-cotton. 
 In order to obtain cheap gun-cotton it may be 
 made of rags instead of new cotton. It is first 
 dissolved in any of its solvents, such as ether and 
 alcohol, and becomes collodion. To this is now 
 added any of the purest animal and vegetable oils, 
 and it forms the new liquid which is to be used 
 as a cement and vehicle. By adding to it gums 
 and resins a cement is formed, which may be 
 rolled out into sheets and stamped in dies into 
 cups, fancy boxes, and various other articles. The 
 oxide of copper imparts a green color to it, and 
 the chloride of lime added renders it uninflam- 
 mable. The addition of fine flax fibre, or the 
 flocks of wool, renders it strong and flexible. It is 
 stated to be an excellent compound for taking 
 
SEALING-WAX. 
 
 357 
 
 casts requirpd for the purposes of dentistry, th 
 models of jewellers^ and other articles requiring 
 sharp and smooth edges and sides. 
 
 The collodion oil-liquid, when very thin, may also 
 be employed as a varnish for pictures, prints, etc 
 
 Artificial Wood. 
 
 In one of his last lectures at the " Conservatoire 
 des Arts et Metiers," M. Payen called the atten 
 tion of his hearers to the process of making a kind 
 of ebony or artificial wood, very hard, very heavy 
 and capable of receiving a very high polish anc 
 a brilliant varnish. M. Ladry, the inventor of 
 this process, takes very fine saw-dust, mixes i 
 with blood from the slaughter-houses, and sub 
 mits the resulting paste to a very heavy pressure 
 obtained by the hydraulic press. If the paste has 
 been enclosed in moulds it will take the form of 
 the moulds, and resembles pieces of ebony carvec 
 by a skilful hand. 
 
 Another curious application of this paste con- 
 sists in the formation of brushes; the bristles are 
 arranged in the paste while yet soft; the paste is 
 covered by a plate pierced with holes, through 
 which the bristles pass ; the pressure is then ap- 
 plied and brushes are obtained, made of a single 
 piece cheaper and more lasting than the usual 
 kind. This artificial wood of M. Ladry is much 
 heavier than common woods. 
 
 Blood Cement for Coppersmiths. 
 A cement often used by coppersmiths to lay over 
 the rivets and edges of the sheets of copper in 
 large boilers, to serve as an additional security to 
 the joinings, and to secure cocks, etc., from leak- 
 ing, is made by mixing pounded quicklime with 
 ox's blood. It must be applied fresh made, as it 
 goon gets hard. If the properties of this cement 
 were duly investigated, it would probably be 
 found useful for many purposes to which it has 
 never yet been applied. It is extremely cheap, 
 and very durable. 
 
 Entomologist's Cement. 
 
 To a solution of gum ammoniac in proof spirit, 
 add the bist isinglass, and unite them with a gen- 
 tle heat. The great value of this t-ement consists 
 in the re/ 1 din ess with which it melts, and the little 
 tendenc/ it has to be affected by moisture. It is 
 generally employed by entomologists in rejoining 
 the dislocated parts of insects, for which it is very 
 convenient. 
 
 Japanese Cement, or Rice Glue. 
 This elegant cement is made by mixing rice- 
 flour intimately with cold water, and then gently 
 boiling it; it is beautifully white, and dries almost 
 transparent. Papers pasted together by means 
 of this cement will sooner separate in their own 
 eubstance than at the joining, which makes it 
 useful in the preparation of curious paper articles, 
 as tea-trays, ladies' dressing boxes, and other ob- 
 jects that require layers of paper to be cemented 
 together. 
 
 SEALING-WAX. 
 Blue. 
 
 1. Shellac, 2 parts; dammar resin, 2 parts; 
 Burgundy pitch, 1 part ; Venice turpentine, 1 part; 
 artificial ultramarine, 3 parts. 
 
 2. Light Blue. As the last, with 1 part of dry 
 sulphate of lead. 
 
 3. Dark Blue. Venice turpentine, 3 oz. ; finest 
 shellac, 7 oz. ; clear amber or black resin, 1 oz. ; 
 Prussian blue, 1 oz. ; carbonate of magnesia, 1 
 dr. The last two to be made into a stiff paste 
 with oil of turpentine and added to the melted 
 shellac and Venice turpentine. 
 
 Slack. 
 
 1. Venice turpentine, 4i oz.; shellac, 9 01.; 
 colophony, i oz.; lampblack mixed to a past* 
 with oil of turpentine, q. s. 
 
 2. Inferior. Venice turpentine, 4 oz. ; shellac, 
 8 oz. ; 3 oz of colophony, and sufficient lampblack 
 mixed with oil of turpentine to color it. 
 
 3. Shellac, 8 oz. ; Venice turpentine, 4 oz. ; lamp- 
 black, 6 oz. 
 
 4. Common, for Bottles. Resin, 6 oz. ; shellac, 
 2 oz. ; Venice turpentine, 2 oz. ; lampblack, q. s. 
 
 Brown. 
 
 1. Light Brown. Venice turpentine, 4 oz. ; 
 shellac, 7i oz. : brown earth (English umber), 
 oz. ; cinnabar, i oz. ; prepared chalk, i oz. ; car- 
 bonate of magnesia, moistened with oil of turpen- 
 tine, li dr. 
 
 2. Light Brown. Second Quality. Venice tur- 
 pentine, 4 oz. ; shellac, 7 oz. ; resin, 3 oz. ; English 
 umber 3 oz. ; cinnabar, i oz. ; prepared chalk, 1 
 oz. ; magnesia as the last. 
 
 3. Dark Brown. Venice turpentine, 4 oz. ; fine 
 shellac, 7i oz.; English umber, li oz. ; magnesia 
 as before. 
 
 4. Dark Brown. Second Quality. Venice tur- 
 pentine, 4 oz. ; shellac, 7 oz.; colophony, 3 oz.j 
 English umber, li oz. ; magnesia as before. 
 
 Green, 
 
 Venice turpentine, 2 oz. ; shellac, 4 oz. ; colo- 
 phony, li oz. ; King's yellow, i oz. ; Prussian blue, 
 i oz. j magnesia as for brown. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 1. Venice turpentine 4 oz. ; fine shellac, 8 oz. j 
 leaf gold, 14 sheets; bronze powder, i oz. ; mag- 
 nesia (made into a paste with oil of turpentine), 
 li dr. 
 
 2. Use gold talc instead of gold leaf and bronze. 
 
 Marbled. 
 
 Melt each colored wax separately, and just as 
 they begin to grow solid, mix together. 
 Red. 
 
 1. Fine Carmine Wax. Venice turpentine, 2 
 oz. ; finest shellac, 4 oz. ; colophony, 1 oz. ; Eng- 
 lish vermilion, li oz. ; magnesia (moistened with 
 oil of turpentine), li dr. 
 
 2. Finest Red. Venice turpentine, 4 oz. ; shel- 
 lac, 7 oz. : cinnabar, 4 oz. ; carbonate of magnesia 
 (with oil of turpentine), li dr; 
 
 3. As the last, with only 3i oz. of cinnabar. 
 
 4. Venice turpentine, 4 oz. ; shellac, 6i oz. ; colo- 
 phony, i oz.; cinnabar, 2i oz.; magnesia (with 
 oil of turpentine), li dr. 
 
 5. Venice turpentine, 4 oz. ; shellac, 6 oz. ; colo- 
 phony, oz. ; cinnabar, If oz. ; magnesia as before. 
 
 6. As the last, but use colophony and cinnabar, 
 each li oz. 
 
 7. Venice turpentine, 4 oz. ; shellac 5i ex.; 
 colophony, li oz. ; cinnabar, li oz. ; magnesia ai 
 before. 
 
 8. English. Venice turpentine, 2 oz. ; shellac, 
 3 oz. ; vermilion, 1 oz. 
 
 9. Spanish. Venice turpentine, 8 oz. ; shellac, 
 2 oz. ; colophony, 1 oz. ; vermilion, 1 oz. Remove 
 from the fire; and add i oz. rectified spirit. 
 
 Yellow. 
 
 Venice turpentine, 2 oz. ; shellac, 4 oz. ; colo- 
 )hony, li oz. ; King's yellow, oz. ; magnesia as 
 >efore. 
 
 Perfumed Wax. 
 
 Add to any of the above a small quantity of 
 ine benzoin. 
 
 Common Bottle Wax. 
 1. Dark resin, 18 oz. ; shellac, 1 oz. ; beeswax* 
 
858 
 
 INKS. 
 
 1 oz. Mix together and color with red-lead, Veni- 
 tian-red or lampblack. 
 
 2. Resin, 19 oz. ; beeswax, 1 oz. ; color as 
 before. 
 
 India-rubber Court- Plaster. 
 
 A stout frame of wood must be made, about 3 
 yards long and about li yards wide. Within this 
 frame must be placed 2 sides of another frame, 
 running longitudinally and across, so fixed in the 
 outer frame that the 2 pieces may slide indepen- 
 dently of each other backwards and forwards 
 about 6 inches. Tapes of canvas must be tacked 
 round the inside of the inner frame, so as to form 
 a square for the material to be sewn in, which, 
 when done, the two loop-frames must be drawn 
 tightly to the outer by means of a twine passed 
 round each, in order to stretch perfectly free from 
 irregularities the silk or satin previous to laying 
 on the composition. 
 
 To make the Plaster. 
 
 Dissolve India-rubber in naphtha or naphtha 
 and turpentine; lay it on with a flat brush on the 
 opposite side to that which is intended for the 
 plaster. When the silk is perfectly dry, and the 
 smell in a great measure dissipated, it will be 
 ready for the adhesive material ; to make which 
 take equal parts of Salisbury or fine Russian glue 
 and the best isinglass, dissolve in a sufficient quan- 
 tity of water over a water-bath, and lay on with 
 a flat hogtool while warm. It is requisite to use 
 great caution to spread the plaster evenly and in 
 one direction, and a sufficient number of coatings 
 must be given to form a smooth surface, through 
 which the texture of the fabric is not perceptible. 
 Each coating should be perfectly dry before the 
 Bucceeding one is given ; after which the frame is 
 
 to be placed in a situation free from dust, and 
 where a draught of air would facilitate the dry- 
 ing. The quantity of water used and the weight 
 of the two materials must be a little varied, ac- 
 cording to the season and the gelatine strength 
 they possess. Lastly, the plaster being ready to 
 receive the polishing coat, which gives also the 
 balsamic effect to it, a preparation is made in 
 nearly the same manner as the compound tinc- 
 ture of benzoin, with the addition of more gums. 
 This preparation must be laid on once only, and 
 with a brush kept for the purpose. For making 
 plasters on colored silk it is only necessary to se 
 lect the silk a shade deeper than the colors re- 
 quired, as the plaster causes it to appear a little 
 lighter. 
 
 Tooth Cements 
 
 Are only recommended when the decay has pro- 
 ceeded so far that the ordinary plugging is im- 
 possible. Those containing mercury are objected 
 to by many. They consist of an amalgam of silver, 
 gold, or tin, applied warm. The following have 
 been used : 
 
 1. Anhydrous phosphoric acid, 12 grs. ; pure 
 caustic lime, 13 grs.; both finely powdered, and 
 mixed rapidly in a mortar at the time of using. 
 Suioothe off with the finger moistened with a drop 
 of water. 
 
 2. Asbestos, or levigated quartz, made into a 
 paste with mastic varnish. 
 
 Artificial Ivory for Photographers. 
 Tablets of gelatine or glue are immersed in a 
 solution of alumina. When entirely penetrated 
 by the alumina, the slabs are to be removed, dried, 
 and polished like ivory. 
 
 INKS, etc. 
 
 PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 
 
 Ordinary black writing-ink contains a mixture 
 of the tannates and gallates of the proto and ses- 
 quioxide of iron. These are insoluble in water, 
 and are suspended by means of gum. Creosote 
 or essential oils are added to prevent moulding. 
 
 Many receipts are given for inks; those found 
 below are reliable. As a general rule, the use of 
 vinegar, logwood, and salts of copper is not to be 
 recommended. Inks so prepared are richer at 
 first, but will fade and act on pens. 
 
 Most ink is pale when first written with, but 
 becomes dark ; this is owing to oxidation. Such 
 ink lasts better than that which is very black. 
 
 When ink fades, it is from a decomposition of 
 the organic matter; it may be restored by brush- 
 ing over with infusion of galls or solution of ferro- 
 cyanide of potassium. The durability of any ink 
 is impaired by the use of steel pens. 
 
 Writing Fluids. 
 
 Ink which is blue when first used (Stark's, Ste- 
 phens's, Arnold's) contains sulphate of indigo, or 
 soluble Prussian blue. It is an ink which is a 
 true solution, and not merely a suspended precip- 
 itate. The same is true of Runge's Chrome Ink. 
 
 Marking Inks, 
 
 Containing nitrate of silver, are not indelible; 
 they may be removed by cyanide of potassium. 
 
 Carbon inks, such as coal-tar diluted with naph- 
 tha, are indelible. 
 
 Aniline black is nearly indelible ; it is turned 
 yellowish, but not removed, by chlorine. 
 To make common Slack Ink. 
 
 Pour 1 gall, of boiling soft water on ] Ib. of 
 powdered galls, previously put into a proper ves- 
 sel. Stop the mouth of the vessel, and set it in 
 the sun in summer, or in winter where it may be 
 warmed by any fire, and let it stand 2 or 3 days. 
 Then add % Ib. of green vitriol powdered, and, 
 having stirred the mixture well together with a 
 wooden spatula, let it stand again for 2 or 3 days, 
 repeating the stirring, when add further to it 5 oz. 
 of gum Arabic dissolved in a quart of boiling 
 water; and, lastly, 2 oz. of alum; after which let 
 the ink be strained through a coarse linen cloth 
 for use. 
 
 Another. A good and durable black ink may 
 be made by the following directions : To 2 pts. of 
 water add 3 oz. of the dark-colored, rough-skinned 
 Aleppo galls in gross powder, and of rasped log- 
 wood, green vitriol, and gum arabic, each, 1 oz. 
 
 This mixture is to be put in a convenient vessel, 
 and well shaken four or five times a day, for ten 
 or twelve days, at the end of which time it will 
 be fit for use, though it will improve by remaining 
 longer on the ingredients. 
 
 Stark's Ink ( Writing fluid). 
 
 Twelve oz. nut-galls, 8 oz. each, sulphate of indi- 
 go and copperas, a few cloves, 4 or 6 oz. of gum Ara- 
 bic for a gallon of ink. The addition of the sul- 
 phate of indigo renders the ink more permanent 
 
MARKING INK. 
 
 359 
 
 Mid less liable to mould. It is blue when first 
 written with, but soon becomes an intense black. 
 
 Chrome Ink (Range's Ink). 
 
 This ink is of an excellent blua-black, does not 
 fade, and, as it contains no gum, flows freely from 
 the pen. It does not affect steel pens. Take 1 
 oz. extract of logwood, pour over it 2 qts. of boil- 
 ing water, and, when the extract is dissolved, add 
 1 dr. of yellow chromate of potassa. This ink 
 can be made for twenty-five cents a gallon. If 
 put into an old inkstand, it must be thoroughly 
 cleansed, as ordinary ink decomposes chrome ink. 
 
 Non-corrosive Writing Fluid. 
 Dissolve sulphate of indigo (chemic or Saxony 
 blue) in twelve times its weight of water, add car- 
 bonate of soda as long as any precipitate falls, 
 dissolve this in 150 parts of boiling water, let it 
 settle and use the clear portion. It dries nearly 
 black, flows very freely, and will not corrode pens 
 or paper. 
 
 Alizarine InJc. LeonTiardi. 
 Digest 24 parts Aleppo galls with 3 parts Dutch 
 madder and 120 parts warm water. Filter. Mix 
 1.2 parts solution of indigo, 5.2 parts sulphate 
 of iron, and 2 parts crude acetate of iron solution. 
 This ink contains no gum, cannot get mouldy; 
 the tannate of iron is prevented from separating 
 by the sulphate of indigo. Alizarine ink may 
 be evaporated to dryness and formed into cakes. 
 One part with 6 parts hot water will then form 
 an excellent writing fluid. 
 
 Indestructible Ink for Resisting the Action of Cor- 
 rosive Substances. 
 
 On many occasions it is of importance to em- 
 ploy an ink indestructible by any process, and 
 will not equally destroy the material on which it 
 is applied. For black ink, 25 grs. of copal, in 
 powder, are to be dissolved in 200 grs. of oil of 
 lavender, by the assistance of a gentle heat, and 
 are then to be mixed with 2 grs. of lampblack 
 and i gr. of indigo; for red ink use 120 grs. of oil 
 of lavender, 17 grs. of Cop-il, and 60 grains of 
 vermilion. A little oil of lavender or of turpen- 
 tine may be added, if the ink be found too thick- 
 A mixture of genuine asphaltum dissolved in oil 
 of turpentine or benzine, amber varnish and lamp- 
 black, would be still superior. 
 
 This ink is particularly useful in labelling 
 phials, etc. containing chemical or corrosive sub- 
 stances. 
 
 Ink Powder. 
 
 Take 4 oz. powdered galls, dried sulphate of 
 iron, 1 oz. ; powdered gum, 1 oz, ; white sugar, 
 oz. $ to make a quart of ink with water or beer. 
 
 MARKING INK. 
 
 Jules Guillier, who received five years' exclusive 
 privilege in Paris for making marking inks, gives 
 the following formulae. But one preparation is 
 required, and the inventor states that they will 
 not wash out or fade. 
 
 No 1. Nitrate of silver, 11 parts; distilled wa- 
 ter, 85 parts; powdered gum Arabic, 20 parts: 
 
 irbonate of soda, 22 parts; solution of ammonia, 
 .0 parts. Dissolve the carbonate of soda, and af- 
 terwards the gum (by trituration in a mortar) in 
 the water, dissolve the nitrate of silver in the 
 ammonia and add to the carbonate of soda solu- 
 tion. Heat gently to the boiling point; the ink 
 at first turbid, becomes clear and very dark. 
 
 No. 2. Nitrate of silver, 5 parts ; distilled wa- 
 ter, 12 parts; powdered gum Arabic, 5 parts; car- 
 bonate of soda, 7 parts; solution of ammonia, 10 
 parts. Heat as before, and heat until it has a 
 rery dark color. This ink is very black and is 
 uitable for marking by stamps. 
 
 A Pnrple-red Ink for Marking Linc.r. . 
 The place where the linen is to be marked is 
 first wetted with a solution consisting of 3 drs. 
 of carbonate of soda, and 3 drs. of gum Arabic, 
 dissolved in 1 oz. of water, then dried and 
 smoothed. The place is now to be written on 
 with a solution composed of 1 dr. of chloride of 
 platina dissolved in 2 oz. of distilled water, then 
 allowed to dry. When quite dry, the writing is 
 to be painted over with a goose's feather, moist- 
 ened with a liquid consisting of one dr. of proto- 
 chloride of tin dissolved in 2 oz. of distilled water. 
 
 Blue and Indelible Black Ink. 
 Take of iodide of potassium, 1 oz. ; iodine, 6 
 drs.; water, 4 oz. ; dissolve. Make a solution of 
 2 oz. of ferrocyanide of potassium in water. Add 
 the iodine solution to the second. A blue pre- 
 cipitate will fall, which, after filtering, may be 
 dissolved in water, forming a blue ink. This blue, 
 added to common ink, renders it indelible. 
 
 Carmine Ink. 
 
 Dissolve 10 grs. of the best carmine in the least 
 quantity possible of solution of ammonia. Let it 
 stand for 24 hours, and add 2 fl. oz. of distilled 
 water. 
 
 To take out Spots of Ink. 
 
 As soon as the accident happens,. wet the place 
 with juice of sorrel or lemon, or with vinegar, and 
 the best hard white soap, or use a weak solution 
 of oxalic acid. 
 
 To take out Marking Ink. 
 
 Ordinary marking-ink is removed by wetting 
 with a solution of cyanide of potassium, and after- 
 wards washing with water. The cyanide must bd 
 carefully handled, as it is a violent poison. 
 To make New Writing look Old. 
 
 Take 1 dr. of saffron, and infuse it into pt. of 
 ink, and warm it over a gentle fire, and it will 
 cause whatever is written with it to turn yellow, 
 and appear as if of many years' standing. 
 
 To Write on Greasy Paper or Parchment. 
 Put to a bullock's gall 1 handful of salt, and J 
 pt. of vinegar, stir it until it is mixed well ; when 
 the paper or parchment is greasy, put 1 drop of 
 the gall into the ink, and the difficulty will be in- 
 stantly obviated. 
 
 To Restore Decayed Writings. 
 1. Cover the letters with solution of ferrocya- 
 nide of potassium, with the addition of a diluted 
 mineral acid ; upon the application of which, the 
 letters change very speedily to a d'eep blue color, 
 of great beauty and intensity. To prevent the 
 spreading of the color, which, by blotting the 
 parchment, detracts greatly from the legibility, 
 the ferrocyanide should be put on first, and the 
 diluted acid added upon it. The method found 
 to answer best has been to spread the ferrocya- 
 nide thin with a feather or a bit of stick cut to a 
 blunt point. Though the ferrocyanide should oc- 
 casion no sensible change of color, yet the mo- 
 ment the acid comes upon it, every trace of a let- 
 ter turns at once to a fine blue, which soon acquire! 
 its full intensity, and is beyond comparison 
 stronger than the color of the original trace. If, 
 then, the corner of a bit of blotting-paper be care- 
 fully and dexterously applied near the letters, so 
 as to imbibe the superfluous liquor, the staining of 
 the parchment may be in a great measure avoided ; 
 for it is this superfluous liquor which, absorbing 
 part of the coloring matters from the letters, be- 
 comes a dye to whatever it touches. Care must be 
 taken not to bring the blotting-paper in contact 
 with the letters, because the coloring matter is soft 
 
360 
 
 INKS. 
 
 whilst wet, and May easily be rubbed off. The 
 acid chiefly employed is the muriatic ; but both 
 the sulphuric and nitric succeed very well. They 
 should be so far diluted as not to be liable to 
 corrode the parchment, after which the degree 
 of strength does not seem to be a matter of much 
 nicety. 
 
 2. Morid'a Process. The paper or parchment 
 written on is first left for some time in contact 
 with distilled water. It is then placed for 5 seconds 
 in a solution of oxalic acid (1 of acid to 100 of 
 water) ; next, after washing it, it is put in a vessel 
 containing a solution of gallic acid (10 grs. of acid 
 to 300 of distilled water); and finally washed 
 again and dried. The process should be carried 
 forward with care and promptness, that any acci- 
 dental discoloration of the paper may be avoided. 
 
 To tnJce Impressions from Recent Manuscripts. 
 This is done by means of fusible metal. In or- 
 der to show the application of it, paste a piece of 
 paper on the bottom of a China saucer, and allow 
 it to dry; then write upon it with a common wri- 
 ting ink, and sprinkle some finely powdered gum 
 Arabic over the writing, which produces a slight 
 relief. When it is well dried, and the adhering 
 powder brushed off, the fusible metal is poured 
 into the saucer, and is cooled rapidly, to prevent 
 crystallization. The metal then takes a cast of 
 the writing, and, when it is immersed- in slightly 
 warm water to remove adhering gum, impres- 
 sions may be taken from it as from a copper-plate. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 Put a little sugar into a common writing ink, 
 and let the writing be executed with this upon 
 common paper, sized as usual. When a copy is 
 required, let unsized paper be taken and lightly 
 moistened with a sponge. Then apply the wet 
 paper to the writing, and passing lightly a flat-iron, 
 of a moderate heat, such as is used by laundresses, 
 over the unsized paper, the copy will be imme- 
 diately produced. This method requires no ma- 
 chine or preparation, and may be employed in any 
 situation. 
 
 To Produce a Fac-simile of any Writing. 
 The pen should be made of glass enamel ; the 
 point being small and finely polished ; so that the 
 part above the point may be large enough to hold 
 as much ink as, or more than a common writing- 
 pen. 
 
 A mixture of equal parts of Frankfort black, 
 and fresh butter, is now to be smeared over sheets 
 of paper, and rubbed off after a certain time. The 
 paper, thus smeared, is to be pressed for some 
 hours, taking care to have sheets of blotting- 
 paper between each of the sheets of black paper. 
 When fit for use, writing-paper is put between 
 sheets of blackened paper, and the upper sheet is 
 to be written on, with common writing-ink, by the 
 glass or enamel pen. By this method, not only 
 the copy is obtained on which the pen writes, but 
 also two or more, made by means of the blackened 
 paper. 
 
 Substitute for Copying Machines. 
 In the common ink used, dissolve lump sugar 
 (1 dr. to 1 oz. of ink). Moisten the copying paper 
 and then put it in soft cap-paper to absorb the su- 
 perfluous moisture. Put the moistened paper on 
 the writing, place both between some soft paper, 
 and either put the whole in the folds of a carpet 
 or roll upon a ruler 3 or 4 times. 
 
 To Copy Writings. 
 
 Take a piece of unsized paper exactly of the 
 ize of the paper to be copied ; moisten it with 
 water, or with the following liquid : Take of dis- 
 tilled vingar, 2 Ibs., dissolve it in 1 oz. of boracic 
 
 acid ; then take 4 oz. of oyster-shells calcined tc 
 whiteness, and carefully freed from their brown 
 crust; put them into the vinegar, shake the mix- 
 ture frequently for 24 hours, then let it stand till 
 it deposits its sediment; filter the clear part 
 through unsized paper into a glnss vessel; then 
 add 2 oz. of the best Aleppo galls bruised, and 
 place the liquor in a warm place; shake it fie. 
 quently for 24 hours, then filter the liquor again 
 through unsized paper, and add to it after filtra- 
 tion, 1 qt., ale measure, of pure water. It must 
 then stand 24 hours, and be filtered again, if it 
 shows a disposition to deposit any sediment, which 
 it generally does. When paper has been wet with 
 this liquid, put it between 2 thick unsized papera 
 to absorb the superfluous moisture ; then lay it 
 over the writing to be copied, and put a piece of 
 clean writing-paper above it. Put the whole on 
 the board of a rolling-press, and press them 
 through the rolls, as is done in printing copper- 
 dates, and a copy of the writing will appear on 
 ioth sides of the thin moistened paper; on one 
 ide in a reversed order and direction, but on the 
 ither side in the natural order and direction of 
 he lines. 
 
 COPPER-PLATE PRINTERS' INK. 
 
 Ink for the rolling-press is made of linseed-oil, 
 burnt just as for common printing-ink, and is then 
 mixed with Frankfort black, finely ground. There 
 are no certain proportions, every workman adding 
 oil or black to suit. Good ink depends most on 
 the purity of the oil, and on its being thoroughly 
 burned. Test it occasionally by cooling a drop 
 on the inside of an oyster-shell ; feel it between 
 the thumb and finger, and if it draws out into 
 threads, it is burnt enough. Weak oil well 
 barged with black is called stiff ink. Oil fully 
 burne-d and charged with as much black as it 
 will take in, is termed strong ink. The character 
 of the engraving to be printed determines which 
 is suitable. It is cleaned out with spirits of tur- 
 pentine. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 Instead of Frankfort, or other kinds of black 
 commonly used, the following composition may be 
 substituted, and will form a much deeper and more 
 beautiful black than can be obtained by any other 
 method. Take of the deepest Prussian blue, 5 
 parts, and of the deepest colored lake and brown 
 pink, each 1 part, Grind them well with oil of 
 turpentine, and afterwards with the strong ad 
 weak oils in the manner and proportion above 
 directed. The colors need not be bright for this 
 purpose, but they should be the deepest of the 
 kind, and perfectly transparent in oil, as the whole 
 effect depends on that quality. 
 
 PRINTERS' INK. 
 
 Ten or 12 galls, of nut or linseed-oil are set over 
 the fire in a large iron pot, and brought to boil. It 
 is then stirred with an iron ladle; and whilst boil- 
 ing, the inflammable vapor arising from it either 
 takes fire of itself or is kindled, and is suffered to 
 burn in this way for about hour; the pot being 
 
 Sartially covered so as to regulate the body of the 
 ame, and consequently the heat communicated to 
 the oil. It is frequently stirred during this time, 
 that the whole may be heated equally ; otherwise A 
 part would be charred, and the rest left imperfect. 
 The flame is then extinguished by entirely cover- 
 ing the pot. The oil, by this process, has much 
 of its unctuous quality destroyed; and when cold 
 is of the consistence of soft turpentine; it is then 
 called varnish. After this, it is made into ink by 
 mixture with the requisite quantity of lampblack, 
 
SYMPATHETIC INKS. 
 
 of which nbout 2$ oz. are sufficient for 16 oz. of 
 the prepared oil. The oil loses by the boiling 
 about J of its weight, and emits very offensive 
 fumes. Several other additions are made to the 
 oil during the boiling, such as crusts of bread, 
 onions, and sometimes turpentine. These are kept 
 secret by the preparers. The intention of them is 
 more effectually to destroy part of the unctuous 
 quality of oil, to give it more body, to enable it 
 to adhere better to the wetted paper, and to spread 
 on the types neatly and uniformly. 
 
 Besides these additions, others are made by the 
 printers, of which the most important is a little 
 fine indigo in powder, to improve the beauty of 
 the color. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 One pound of lampblack ground very fine or 
 run through a lawn sieve; 2 oz. of Prussian blue 
 ground very fine; 4 oz. of linseed-oil, well boiled 
 and skimmed; 4 oz. of spirit of turpentine, very 
 clear ; 4 oz. of soft varnish, or neat's-foot oil. To 
 be well boiled and skimmed ; and while boiling the 
 top burned off by several times applying lighted 
 paper. Let these be well mixed; then put the 
 whole in a jug, place that in a pan, and boil thjsm 
 very carefully 1 hour. 
 
 A Fine Black Printing- Ink. 
 Less turpentine and oil, without Prussian blue, 
 for common ink. 
 
 Best Printing-ink. 
 
 In a secured ifon pot (fire outside when possi- 
 ble), boil 12 galls, of nut or linseed-oil ; stir with 
 iron ladle, long handle; while boiling put an iron 
 cover partly over, set the vapor on fire by lighted 
 paper often applied ; keep stirring well, and on the 
 fire 1 hour at least (or till the oily particles are 
 burnt) ; then add 1 Ib. of onions cut in pieces, and 
 a few crusts of bread, to get out the residue of 
 oil; also varnish, 16 oz. ; fine lampblack, 3 oz. ; 
 ground indigo, i oz. Boil well 1 hour. 
 Good Common Printing-ink. 
 Take 16 oz. of varnish, 4 oz. of linseed-oil well 
 boiled, 4 oz. of clear oil of turpentine, 16 oz. of 
 fine lampblack, 2 oz. of Prussian blue, fine, 1 oz. 
 of indigo, fine. Boil 1 hour. 
 
 Printers' Red Ink. 
 
 Soft varnish and vermilion with white of eggs 
 not very thick. Common varnish, red lead and 
 orange. Colcothar is indelible. 
 
 Blue. 
 
 Prussian blue and a little ivory-black with var- 
 nish and eggs very thick. Common indigo and 
 varnish ; then wash off with boiling lees. 
 
 Green. 
 
 Sesquioxide of chromium (chrome green). This 
 is the ink used in printing Greenbacks. It is in- 
 destructible, and cannot be photographed. 
 
 Perpetual Ink for Inscriptions on Tombstones, 
 
 Marbles, etc. 
 
 This ink is formed by mixing about 3 parts of 
 pitch with 1 part of lampblack, and making them 
 incorporate by melting the pitch. With this com 
 position, used in a melted state, the letters are 
 filled, and will, without extraordinary violence, en- 
 dure as long as the stone itself. 
 
 Ink for Writing on Zinc Labels. 
 
 Horticultural ink. Dissolve 100 grs. of chloride 
 
 of platinum in a pint of water. A little mucilage 
 
 and lampblack may be added. 
 
 Another. Mix thoroughly 2 parts (by weight) 
 Verdigris, 2 of sal amoniac, 1 of lampblack, and 
 30 of water. Always shake well before using, and 
 
 rite with a quill pen 
 with this ink will keep 
 
 d with a Sinall 
 for a blue- 
 
 Let ivory or lampblack be 
 portion of Prussian blue or in 
 )lack, and let the same blacks be united with raw 
 or burnt umber, bistre, Vandyke or any other 
 irown, instead of the blue, for a brown-black. 
 These should be mixed together in a weak gum- 
 water (perhaps matt-work would answer the pur- 
 pose better), first levigating them very fine, in 
 jommon water, on a marble slab. When dried to 
 he consistence of a paste, let th% glutinous mat- 
 ter be well mixed with them ; that will be found 
 sufficiently strong, which binds the composition, 
 so as to prevent rubbing off by the touch. Indian- 
 ink drawings should be handled as lightly as pos- 
 sible. Too much gum in the composition will 
 reate an offensive gloss. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 Isinglass, 6 oz., and 12 oz. of soft water; make 
 into size ; add 1 oz. of refined liquorice, ground 
 up with 1 oz. of genuine ivory-black, and stir the 
 whole well. Evaporate the water in balneum ma- 
 riae, and form the sticks or cakes. 
 
 A Substitute for Indian-ink. 
 
 Boil parchment slips or cuttings of glove-leather 
 in water till it forms a size, which, when cool, be- 
 comes of the consistence of jelly ; then, having 
 blackened an ea*then plate, by holding it over the 
 flame of a candle, mix up, with a camel-hair pen- 
 cil, the fine lampblack thus obtained with some 
 of the above size, while the plate is still warm. 
 This black requires no grinding, and produces an 
 ink of the same color, which works as freely with 
 the pencil, and is as perfectly transparent as the 
 best Indian-ink. 
 
 SYMPATHETIC INKS. 
 
 Sympathetic inks are such as do not appear 
 after they are written with, but which may be 
 made to appear at pleasure by certain means to be 
 used for that purpose. A variety of substances 
 have been used as sympathetic inks, among which 
 are the following : 
 
 Chloride of Gold and Tin. 
 
 Write with a solution of gold in aqua regia, 
 and let the paper dry gently in the shade. Noth- 
 ing will appear, but draw a sponge over it, wetted 
 with a solution of tin in aqua regia, and the wri- 
 ting will immediately appear, of a purple color. 
 Starch and Iodine. 
 
 Write with weak boiled starch, and when the 
 writing is required to appear, brush over with a 
 weak solution of iodine; the letters will appear 
 blue. 
 
 Chloride of Cobalt, 
 
 When pure, is invisible in dilute solution, but gives 
 a blue when exposed to a gentle heat; if it con- 
 tain (as it usually does) some nickel, the color 
 will be green. A little common salt should be 
 added to the solution, so that it will remain more 
 on the paper. It can then be brought out and 
 suffered to fade for many successive times. 
 
 Other Sympathetic Inks. 
 
 Write on paper with a solution of nitrate of 
 bismuth, and smear the writing over by means of 
 a feather with some infusion of galls. The let- 
 ters, which were before invisible, will now appear 
 of a brown color. If the previous u?e of nitrate 
 of bismuth be concealed from the spectators, great 
 surprise will be excited by the appearance of wri- 
 ting, merely by the dash of a feather. The same 
 phenomenon will take place when infusion of galls 
 
362 
 
 METALLURGY. 
 
 is written with, and the salt of bismuth applied 
 afterwards. 
 
 Another. Write on a sheet of paper any sen- 
 tence with a transparent infusion of nut-galls, and 
 dip the paper in a transparent solution of the sul- 
 phate of iron. The writing, which was before in- 
 visible, will now, on a slight exposure to the air, 
 turns quite black. A neater way of performing 
 this experiment will be by smearing the written 
 parts over with a feather dipped in the solution of 
 the metallic salt ; it may also be reversed, by writing 
 with the salt and smearing with the infusion. 
 
 Another. If a letter be written with a solu- 
 tion of sulphate of iron, the inscription will be 
 invisible, but if it afterwards be rubbed over by a 
 feather dipped in a solution of prussiate of potassa, 
 it will appear of a beautiful blue color. 
 
 Another. Write a letter with a solution of ni- 
 trate of bismuth, The letters will be invisible. 
 If a feather be now dipped in a solution of the 
 prussiate of potass, and rubbed over the paper, the 
 writing will appear of a beautiful yellow color, oc- 
 casioned by a formation of prussiate of bismuth. 
 
 Another. Write with a solution of sugar of 
 lead or tartar emetic; moisten the writing (or 
 drawing) and expose to a current of sulphuretted 
 hydrogen gas. The lead will turn black, and the 
 antimony orange brown. 
 
 Chemical Landscapes. 
 
 These are drawn partly in Indian-ink and partly 
 in sympathetic inks, which are only visible when 
 gently heated. The picture represents ordinarily 
 a winter scene, but when heated the sky becomes 
 blue, the leaves green, and flowers and fruit are 
 Seen. The materials are as follows : Green, chlo- 
 ride of nickel ; blue, pure chloride or acetate of co- 
 balt; yellow, chloride of copper; brown, bromide 
 of copper. If the picture is too highly heated it 
 will not again fade. 
 
 COLORED INKS. 
 
 Gold Ink. 
 
 Mosaic gold, 2 parts, gum Arabic, 1 part, are 
 rubbed up with water until reduced to a proper 
 condition. 
 
 Silver Ink. 
 
 Triturate in a mortar equal parts of silver foil 
 and sulphate of potassa, until reduced to a fine 
 powder ; then wash out the salt, and mix the resi- 
 due with a mucilage of equal parts of gum Arabic 
 and water. 
 
 Brown Ink. 
 
 Digest powdered catechu, 4 parts, with water, 
 60 parts, for some hours ; filter, and add sufficient 
 of a solution of bichromate of potassa, 1 part in 
 16 of water. 
 
 Yellow Ink. 
 Macerate gamboge, 1 part (or 1) j alum, J part ; 
 
 gum Arabic, 1 part, in acetic acid, 1 part, and w*. 
 ter, 24 parts. 
 
 Slue Ink. 
 
 Triturate best Prussian blue, 6 parts, with a so- 
 lution of 1 part of oxalic acid in 6 of water, and 
 towards the end of J of an hour or so add gradu- 
 ally gum Arabic, 18 parts, and water, 280. Pour 
 off clear. 
 
 lied Inks. 
 
 1. Pernambuco-wood, 4 parts ; alum and cream 
 of tartar, each 1 part, with 30 of water ; boil down 
 to 16 parts, let stand, pour off, filter, and dissolve 
 in the liquid gum Arabic, li parts ; white sugar, 1 
 part. 
 
 2. Digest powdered cochineal, 8 parts, and car- 
 bonate of potash, 16 parts, in 144 of water, for 24 
 hours; then boil up with powdered alum, 4 parts, 
 and add 24 of cream of tartar, with 3 parts of 
 tartaric acid, and, when effervescence has ceased, 
 another part of the acid, or enough to produce the 
 color; let cool, filter, and boil the residue on the 
 filter with 12 parts of water; filter again, mix the 
 liquids and dissolve in them 24 parts of gum Ara- 
 bic, and lastly J part of oil of cloves. No iron 
 
 Jm. <*liu ittOLljr 5 pcub VI VMl \Jl \jiui 
 
 <-e!|pls must be used in this process. 
 
 . Digest powdered cochineal, 16 parts; oxalic 
 acid, 2 parts ; dilute acetic acid, 80 parts ; distil- 
 led water, 40 parts, for 36 hours ; then add pow- 
 dered alum, 1 part; gum Arabic, 1 to 10; shake 
 up, let stand for 12 hours, and strain. 
 
 4. Dissolve 1 part of carmine in 8 to 10 parts 
 of aqua ammonia, and add mucilage of gum Arabic 
 sufficient to reduce it properly. 
 
 Violet Ink. 
 
 Eight parts of logwood and 64 parts of water j 
 boil down to one-half, then strain and add 1 part 
 of chloride of tin. 
 
 Green Inks. 
 
 1. Digest 1 part of gamboge with from 7 to 10 
 parts of the blue ink. 
 
 2. To powdered bichromate of potassa, 8 parts, 
 contained in a porcelain dish, add oil of vitriol, 8 
 parts, previously diluted with 64 of water ; then 
 heat, and, while evaporating, add gradually 24 
 parts of alcohol, and reduce to 56 parts, which fil- 
 ter, ad in the clear liquor dissolve 8 parts of gum 
 Arabic. 
 
 Crimson Ink. 
 
 A beautiful crimson ink is made by mixing red 
 ink No. 1 with the violet ink ; about equal parts 
 will answer. 
 
 The parts given are those of weight, not meas- 
 ure. The mucilage of gum Arabic prevents the 
 fine particles of color falling to the bottom in the 
 form of a sediment. Sugar gives to inks a glossy 
 appearance, but very little of it should be used, as 
 it is liable to make the ink sticky. 
 
 ASSAYING OP METALLIC ORES. 
 
 Before metallic ores are worked upon in the 
 large way, it will be necessary to inquire what 
 sort of metal, and what portion of it, is to be found 
 in a determinate quantity of the ore ; to discover 
 whether it will be worth while to extract it largely, 
 and in what manner the process is to be conducted, 
 
 so as to answer that purpose. The knowledge 
 requisite for this is called the art of assaying. 
 
 Assay of Ores in the Dry Way. 
 The assaying of ores may be performed either 
 in the dry or moist way ; the first is the most an- 
 cient, and, in many respects the most advanta- 
 
ASSAYING. 
 
 363 
 
 geous, and consequently still continues to be 
 mostly used. 
 
 Assays are mnde either in crucibles with the 
 blast of the bellows, or in tests under a muffle. 
 Assay Weights. 
 
 The assay weights are always imaginary, some- 
 times an ounce represents a hundredweight on 
 the large scale, and is subdivided into the same 
 number of parts, as that hundredweight is in the 
 great; so that the contents of the ore, obtained 
 by the assay, shall accurately determine by such 
 relative proportion the quantity to be expected 
 from any weight of the ore on a larger scale. 
 
 Roasting the Ore. 
 
 In the lotting of the ores care should be taken 
 to have small portions from different specimens, 
 which should be pulverized, and well mixed in an 
 iron or brass mortar. The proper quantity of the 
 ore is now taken, and if it contain either sulphur 
 or arsenic it is put into a crucible or test, and ex- 
 posed to a moderate degree of heat, till no vapor 
 arises from it. To assist this volatilization some 
 add a small quantity of powdered charcoal. 
 Fluxes. 
 
 To assist the fusion of the ores, and to convert 
 the extraneous matters connected with them into 
 scoria, assayers use different kinds of fluxes. The 
 most usual and efficacious materials for the com- 
 position of these are, borax, cream of tartar, nitre, 
 sal ammoniac, common salt, glass, fluor-spar, char- 
 coal powder, pitch, lime, litharge, etc., in different 
 proportions. 
 
 As the whole process of which we are speaking 
 is merely an experiment, made for the purpose of 
 ascertaining what is the nature of the metal con- 
 tained in the ore, and the proportion the former 
 bears to the latter, the little additional expense in- 
 curred by employing animal instead of vegetable 
 tharcoal is not to be regarded, particularly when 
 4he increased fusibility of the ore, occasioned 
 thereby is considered. 
 
 Crude or White Flux. 
 
 This consists of 1 part of nitre and 2 of cream 
 of tartar, well mixed together. 
 
 Black Flux. 
 
 The above crude flux detonates by means of 
 kindled charcoal, and if the detonation be effected 
 in a mortar slightly covered it becomes black. It 
 is a mixture of carbonate of potassa and charcoal. 
 
 Cornish Reducing Flux. 
 
 Mix well together 10 oz. of cream of tartar, 3 
 oz. and 6 drs. of nitre, and 3 oz. and 1 dr. of borax. 
 
 Cornish Refining Flux. 
 
 Deflagrate, and afterwards pulverize, 2 parts of 
 nitre and 1 part of cream of tartar. 
 
 The above fluxes answer the purpose very well, 
 provided the ores be deprived of all their sulphur, 
 or if they contain much earthy matters; because, 
 in the latter case, they unite with them, and con- 
 vert them into a thin glass; but if any quantity 
 of sulphur remain, these fluxes unite with it, and 
 form a liver of sulphur, which has the power of 
 destroying a portion of all the metals; conse- 
 quently the assay under such circumstances must 
 be very inaccurate. The principal difficulty in 
 assaying appears to be in the appropriation of 
 the proper fluxes to each particular ore, and it 
 likewise appears that such a discriminating knowl- 
 edge can only be acquired from an extensive prac- 
 tice, or from a knowledge of the chemical affinities 
 and actions of different bodies upon each other. 
 
 In assaying we are at liberty to use the most 
 expensive materials to effect our purpose, hence 
 
 the use of different saline fluxes; but in the work- 
 ing at large such expensive means can not' be ap- 
 plied, as by such processes the inferior metals 
 would be too much enhanced in value, especially 
 in working very poor ores. In consequence of 
 which in smelting works, where the object is the 
 production of metals in the great way, cheaper 
 additions are used, such as limestone, feldspar, 
 fluor-spar, quartz, sand, slate, and slags. These 
 are to be chosen according to the different views 
 of the operator and the nature of the ores. Thus 
 iron ores, on account of the argillaceous earth they 
 contain, require calcareous additions, and the cop 
 per ores, rather slags or vitrescent stones, than 
 calcareous earth. 
 
 Humid Assay of Metallic Ores. 
 
 The mode of assaying ores for their particular 
 metals by the dry way is deficient, so far as relates 
 to pointing out the different substances connected 
 with them, because they are always destroyed by 
 the process for obtaining the assay metal. The 
 assay by the moist way is more correct, because 
 the different substances can be accurately ascer- 
 tained. 
 
 Dry Assay of Iron Ores. 
 
 Mix 100 grs. of the ore, thoroughly powdered, 
 with from 30 to 100 grs. of calcined borax. The 
 quality of the latter depends upon the quality of 
 the ore, and is to be increased with the foreign 
 matters. If the ore contains sulphur, it must first 
 be roasted. The mixture is introduced into a cru- 
 cible lined with charcoal, covered with powdered 
 charcoal, on which is laid a piece of charcoal. The 
 crucible is then closed, the cover luted on, and 
 submitted to a white heat for an hour. The iron 
 is found in the form of a button, and is not pure, 
 but gives about the quality of the pig iron which, 
 will be obtained from the ore. 
 
 Humid Assay of Iron Ore. 
 
 Fuch's method is accurate, and determines the 
 relative quantity of protoxide and peroxide in an 
 ore, which is often desirable. The only ores to 
 which it cannot be applied are those containing 
 arsenious acid, and this is not a very common in- 
 gredient. 
 
 Dissolve the ore in muriatic acid, and filter. 
 Put into a small round-bottomed flask, and cork 
 tightly until ready to boil it. Immerse a clean, 
 weighed strip of copper, and, removing the cork, 
 boil until the copper is no longer attacked. It is 
 then taken out, washed, well wiped, and weighed. 
 To ascertain the amount of peroxide multiply this 
 weight by 40 and divide by 31*7. The quotient 
 gives the amount sought. 
 
 To know the whole amount of iron in the ore, 
 another portion is weighed out say 1 gramme 
 (about 15 grs.) and dissolved as before; it is 
 then digested with chlorate of potassa, by which 
 all the iron is converted into peroxide, after which 
 copper will decompose the whole. Multiply the 
 loss by 28 and divide by 31*7 ; the quotient will 
 give the whole amount of iron in the ore. 
 
 The presence of copper in the ore will make it 
 appear poorer than it really is. 
 
 Volumetric Assay of Iron Ore (Percy). 
 Heat 10 grs. of iron-ore, finely pulverized, with 
 strong hydrochloric acid, for i an hour, in a coni- 
 cal-shaped flask with a funnel inserted in the neck; 
 when decomposition is complete dilute the solution 
 with water acidulated with sulphuric acid, and 
 add a few pieces of granulated zinc and boil until 
 all traces of yellow color disappear, or the solu- 
 tion remains of a pale green tint, and free from 
 fine particles of zinc. Transfer to a white porce- 
 lain dish, and dilute to 20 oz. with distilled water. 
 
364 
 
 METALLURGY. 
 
 When cold it is ready for testing with the follow- 
 ing solution. 
 
 Dissolve 50 grs. of crystallized permanganate 
 of potassa in 20 oz. of distilled water, and keep it 
 in a tightly corked bottle, marked "Standard So- 
 lution Permanganate of Potassa." To ascertain 
 the standard of this solution, dissolve 10 grs. of 
 iron piano wire in dilute hydrochloric acid in a 
 narrow-mouth flask with gentle heat. Dilute to 
 10 oz. Take 1 oz. of the diluted iron solution and 
 dilute to 20 oz. with distilled water in a white por- 
 celain dish. 
 
 Allow the solution of permanganate to run 
 slowly in from a graduated pipette, stirring con- 
 stantly until the solution assumes a faint pink 
 color. Record the amount used, this represents 
 1 gr. of metallic iron. 
 
 Proceed in the same manner to test the solution 
 of ore first obtained, noting the amount required 
 to produce the first tint of pink color. Divide 
 this amount by the amounts required for 1 gr. of 
 iron, and the result is the number of grains of 
 metallic iron contained in the ore. 
 
 Tin Ores. 
 
 Mix a quintal of tin ore, previously washed, 
 pulverized, arid roasted till no arsenical vapor 
 arises, with half a quintal of calcined borax, and 
 the same quantity of pulverized pitch; these are 
 to be put in a crucible lined with charcoal, which 
 is placed in an air-furnace. After the pitch is 
 burnt, give a violent heat for a quarter of an hour, 
 and on withdrawing the crucible, the regulus will 
 be found at the bottom. If the ore be not well 
 washed from earthy matters, a larger quantity of 
 borax will be requisite, with some powdered glass ; 
 and if the ore contain iron, some alkaline salt may 
 be added. 
 
 In the Humid Way. 
 
 Dissolve the ore in hot muriatic acid, pass 
 through the solution a current of sulphuretted 
 hydrogen in large excess. Allow the precipitate 
 to subside, add to it, with the aid of heat, nitric 
 acid until no sulphuretted hydrogen is given off. 
 This transforms the tin into stannic acid, wash 
 carefully, dry, and weigh. Stannic acid contains 
 78.61 per cent, of tin. 
 
 Lead Ores. 
 
 As most of the lead ores contain either sulphur 
 or arsenic, they require to be well roasted. Take 
 a quintal of roasted ore, with the same quantity 
 of calcined borax, a quintal of fine powdered 
 glass, J of a quintal of pitch, and as much clean 
 iron filings. Line the crucible with wetted char- 
 coal-dust, and put the mixture into the crucible, 
 and place it before the bellows of a forge-fire. 
 When it is red hot, raise the fire for 15 or 20 
 minutes, then withdraw the crucible, and break it 
 when cold. 
 
 In the Humid Way. 
 
 Powder the ore (Galena) finely. Moisten with 
 fuming nitric acid and digest on the sand-bath. 
 This converts the whole into sulphate of lead. 
 Dilute with water and filter. The insoluble sul- 
 phate of lead will remain in the filter. Wash it 
 thoroughly, dry it, and weigh 100 parts of sul- 
 phate of load contain 73.56 parts of oxide of lead 
 and 68.2Srf of metallic lead. 
 
 Zinc Ores. 
 
 Take the assay weight of roasted ore, and mix 
 it well with one-eighth part of charcoal-dust, put 
 it into a strong luted earthen retort, to which must 
 be fitted a receiver; place the retort in a furnace 
 and raise the fire, and continue it in a violent heat 
 for two hours ; suffer it then to cool gradually, and 
 
 the zinc will be found adhering to the neck of tha 
 retort in its metallic form. . 
 
 In the Humid Way (Percy}. 
 
 Take 20 grs. of the ore (finely pulverized) to b 
 assayed. Digest it for 1 hour in nitric acid 1 
 part, water 2 parts, with a few drops of hydro- 
 chloric acid; add carbonate of ammonia dissolved 
 in liquid ammonia until the reaction is strongly 
 alkaline. Digest for half an hour, dilute with an 
 equal bulk of distilled water; filter and mark the 
 filtrate Sol. A. 
 
 Make a standard solution of zinc by dissolving 
 10 grs. of pure zinc in nitric acid and diluting to 
 10 oz. Sol. B. 
 
 Make a solution of sulphide of sodium, 1 oz. of 
 saturated solution to 10 oz. of distilled water. 
 Sol. C. 
 
 Take of solution chloride of iron, oz. ; distilled 
 water, 5 oz. : add aqua ammonia: separate all of 
 the iron. Shake. Sol. D. 
 
 Take of solution B, 1 oz. ; dilute to 3 oz. ; add 
 of solution D, 1 oz. ; take in a graduated pipette 
 of solution C, and add gradually to the mixture of 
 B and D (stirring rapidly all the while), until the 
 flocculent iron begins to change color to grayish 
 black. Make a memorandum of the number of 
 graduations of solution C required. This is the 
 amount of sulphide of sodium necessary to pre- 
 cipitate 1 gr. of metallic zinc. 
 
 Take of solution A (diluted to 12 oz.) equal 6 
 oz. ; add of solution D, 2 oz. ; then with gradu- 
 ated pipette run in slowly the solution C until the 
 flocculent iron begins to change color as before. 
 The number of graduations required, divided by 
 the number used in the former experiment, indi- 
 cate the number of grains of metallic zinc in 10 
 grs. of the ore, and represent the per centage 
 likewise. 
 
 Copper Ores. 
 
 Take an exact troyounee of the ore, previously 
 pulverized, and calcine it well ; stir it all the time 
 with an iron rod without removing it from the 
 crucible; after the calcination add an equal quan- 
 tity of borax, \ the quantity of fusible glass, i the 
 quantity of pitch, and a little charcoal-dust; rub 
 the inner surface of the crucible with a paste 
 composed of charcoal-dust, a little fine powdered 
 clay, and water. Cover the mass with common 
 salt, and put a lid upon the crucible, which is to 
 be placed in a furnace; the fire is to be raised 
 gradually till it burns briskly, and the crucible 
 continued in it for hour, stirring the metal fre- 
 quently with an iron rod; and when the scoria 
 which adheres to the rod appears clear, then the 
 crucible must be taken out and suffered to cool; 
 after which it must be broken and the regulus 
 separated and weighed. This is called black cop- 
 per; to refine which equal parts of common salt 
 and nitre are to be well mixed together. The 
 black copper is brought into fusion, and a tea- 
 spoonful of the flux is thrown upon it, which is 
 repeated 3 or 4 times, when the metal is poured 
 into an ingot mould and the button is found to bt 
 fine copper. 
 
 In the Humid Way. 
 
 Make a solution of vitreous copper ore in 5 
 times its weight of concentrated sulphuric acid, 
 and boil it to dryness; add as much water as will 
 dissolve the vitriol thus formed. To this solution 
 add a clean bar of iron, which will precipitate the 
 whole of the copper in its metallic form. If the 
 solution be contaminated with iron, the copper 
 must be re-dissolved in the same manner and 
 precipitated again. The sulphur may be sep- 
 arated by filtration. 
 
ASSAYING. 
 
 365 
 
 Volumetric Assay of Copper Ores. (Percy.) 
 Dissolve 10 grs. of the copper ore finely pulver- 
 ized and moistened with strong sulphuric acid, in 
 strong nitric acid, adding the acid gradually ; and 
 when the fumes of hyponitric acid cease to be 
 evolved, add a small amount of water and boil 
 for a few minutes. Dilute to 10 oz. and treat with 
 ammonia in excess, and it will become of a deep 
 blue color. Set aside to cool, and prepare the 
 following solution: Dissolve 500 grs. of granu- 
 lated cyanide of potassium in 20 oz. of distilled 
 water, and keep in a tight-stoppered bottle in the 
 dark. Mark " Standard Solution Cyanide of Po- 
 tassium." To ascertain the standard of this solu- 
 tion, dissolve 10 grs. of electrotype copper in di- 
 lute nitric acid and boil to expel hyponitric acid 
 fumes, and dilute to 10 oz. with distilled water. 
 Take of this solution 1 oz. and dilute to 5 oz. with 
 distilled water, and allow the standard cyanide 
 solution to flow very slowly into it at intervals, 
 from a graduated pipette, and note the amount 
 used to render it nearly colorless. This process 
 takes from J to J of an hour. Proceed in the 
 eame manner to test the solution of ore first ob- 
 tained, noting the amount required to reduce the 
 color to a faint lilac. Divide this amount by the 
 amount found required for 1 gr. of metallic copper, 
 and the result is the number of grains of metallic 
 copper in the ore tested. 
 
 Bismuth Ores. 
 
 If the ore be mineralized by sulphur, or sulphur 
 and iron, a previous roasting will be necessary. 
 The strong ores require no roasting, but only to 
 be reduced to a fine powder. Take the assay 
 weight and mix it with half the quantity of cal- 
 cined borax, and the same of pounded glass; line 
 the crucible with charcoal, melt it as quickly as 
 possible, and when well done, take out the cruci- 
 ble and let it cool gradually. The regulus will be 
 found at the bottom. 
 
 In the Humid Way. 
 
 Bismuth is easily soluble in nitric acid or aqua 
 regia. Its solution is colorless and is precipitable 
 by the addition of pure water; 118 grs. of the 
 precipitate from nitric acid, well washed and 
 dried, are equal to 100 of bismuth in its metallic 
 form. 
 
 Antimonial ores. 
 
 Take a common crucible, bore a number of small 
 holes in the bottom, and place it in another cruci- 
 ble a size smaller, luting them well together ; then 
 put the proper quantity of ore in small lumps 
 into the upper crucible, and lute thereon a cover; 
 place these vessels on a hearth and surround them 
 with stones about 6 in. distant from them ; the 
 intermediate space must be filled with ashes, so 
 that the undermost crucible may be covered with 
 them ; but upon the upper charcoal must be laid, 
 and the whole made red hot by the assistance of 
 hand bellows. The antimony being of easy fusion 
 is separated, and runs through the holes of the 
 upper vessel into the inferior one, where it is col- 
 lected. 
 
 Humid Assay of Arseniated Antimony. 
 Dissolve the ore in aqua regia ; the sulphur is 
 Separated by filtration. Evaporate the solution to 
 dryness and heat below redness until all the nitric 
 acid is expelled. The resulting antimonic acid 
 contains 76.33 per cent, of metallic antimony. 
 
 Manganese Ores. 
 
 The regulus is obtained by mixing the calx or 
 ore of manganese with oil, making it into a ball, 
 and putting it into a crucible lined with powdered 
 charcoal l-10th of an inch on the sides, and i of 
 an inch at bottom ; then filling the empty space 
 
 with charcoal -dust, covering the crucible with 
 another inverted and luted on, and exposing it 
 to the strongest heat of a forge for an hour or 
 more. The ore is very difficult to reduce. 
 Arsenical Ores. 
 
 This assay is made by sublimation in close ves 
 sels. Beat the ore into small pieces and put them 
 into a matrass, which place in a sand-pot with a. 
 proper degree of heat. The arsenic sublimes in 
 this operation and adheres to the upper part of 
 the vessel; when it must be carefully collected, 
 with a view to ascertain its weight. A singla 
 sublimation will not be sufficient. It is better to 
 perform the first sublimation with a moderate 
 heat, and afterwards bruise the remainder and 
 expose it to a stronger heat. The addition of 
 charcoal is useful. 
 
 In the Humid Way. 
 
 Digest the ore in muriatic acid, adding nitrio 
 by degrees, to help the solution. The sulphur 
 will be found on the filter; the arsenic will remain 
 in the solution, and may be precipitated in its 
 metallic form by boiling with a strip of copper. 
 Nickel Ore. 
 
 The ores must be well roasted to expel the sul- 
 phur and arsenic; the greener the calx proves 
 during this torrefaction, the more it abounds in 
 the nickel ; but the redder it is, the more iron it 
 contains. The proper quantity of this roasted ore 
 is fused in an open crucible, with twice or thrice 
 its weight of black flux, and the whole covered 
 with common salt. By exposing the crucible to 
 the strongest heat of a forge fire, and making the 
 fusion complete, a regulus will be produced. This 
 regulus is not pure, but contains a portion of ar- 
 senic, cobalt, and iron. Of the first it may be 
 deprived by a fresh calcination, with the addition 
 of powdered charcoal ; and of the second by scori- 
 fication. But it is with difficulty that it is entirely 
 freed from the iron. 
 
 In the Humid Way. 
 
 By solution in nitric acid it is freed from its 
 sulphur; and by adding water to the solution, 
 bismuth, if any, may be precipitated ; as may 
 silver, if contained it, by muriatic acid ; and cop- 
 per, when any, by iron. 
 
 To separate cobalt from nickel, the two oxides- 
 are dissolved in muriatic acid; the solution diluted 
 with distilled water. The liquor is saturated with 
 chlorine, and when cold, an excess of precipitated' 
 carbonate of baryta added. It is then set aside 
 for 18 hours, when the cobalt will be precipitated 
 as sesquioxide, while the nickel will remain in 
 solution. 
 
 Cobalt Ores. 
 
 Free them as much as possible from earthy mat- 
 ters by well washing, and from sulphur and arse- 
 nic by roasting. The ore thus prepared is to bo 
 mixed with 3 parts of black flux, and a little de- 
 crepitated sea-salt; put the mixture in a lined 
 crucible, cover it, and place it in a forgfr-fire, or 
 in a hot furnace, for this ore is very difficult of 
 fusion. 
 
 When well fused, a metallic regulus will be 
 found at the bottom, covered with a scoria of a 
 deep blue color ; as almost all cobalt ores contain 
 bismuth, this is reduced by the same operation as 
 the regulus of cobalt; but as they are incapable 
 of chemically uniting together, they are always 
 found distinct from each other in the crucible. 
 The regulus of bismuth, having a greater specific 
 gravity, is always at the bottom, and nlay be 
 separated by a blow with a hammer. 
 In the Humid Way. 
 
 Make a solution of the ore in nitric acid, or 
 
366 
 
 METALLURGY. 
 
 aqua regia, and. evaporate to dryness; the resi- 
 duum, treated with the acetic acid, will yield to it 
 the cobalt ; the arsenic should be first precipitated 
 by the addition of water. 
 
 Mercurial Ores. 
 
 The calciform ores of mercury are easily re- 
 duced without any addition. A quintal of the ore 
 is put into a retort, and a receiver luted on, con- 
 taining some water; the retort is placed in a 
 Band -bath, and a sufficient degree of heat given it, 
 to force over the mercury which is condensed in 
 the water of the receiver. 
 
 Sulphuretted Mercurial Ores. 
 The sulphurous ores are assayed by distillation 
 in the mnnner above, only these ores require an 
 equal weight of clean iron-filings to be mixed with 
 them, to disengage the sulphur, while the heat 
 volatilizes the mercury, and forces it into the re- 
 ceiver. These ores should likewise be tried for 
 cinnabar, to know whether it will answer the pur- 
 pose of extracting it from them ; for this a deter- 
 minate quantity of the ore is finely powdered and 
 put into a glass vessel, which is exposed to a gen- 
 tle heat at first, and gradually increased till 
 nothing more is sublimed. By the quantity thus 
 acquired, a judgment may be formed whether the 
 process will answer. Sometimes this cinnabar is 
 not of so lively a color as that which is used in 
 trade; in this ca,se it may b, refined by a second 
 sublimation, and if it be still of too dark a color, 
 it may be brightened by the addition of a quantity 
 of mercury, and subliming it again. 
 
 Humid Assay of Cinnabar. 
 The stony matrix should be dissolved in nitric 
 acid, and the cinnabar being disengaged, should 
 be boiled in 8 or 10 times its weight of aqua regia, 
 composed of 3 parts of nitric, and 1 of muriatic 
 acid. The mercury may be precipitated in the 
 metallic form by zinc. 
 
 Silver Ores. 
 
 Take the assay quantity of the ore finely pow- 
 dered, and roast it well in a proper degree of 
 heat, frequently stirring it with an iron rod; then 
 add to it about double the quantity of granulated 
 lead, put it in a covered crucible, and place it in a 
 furnace ; raise the fire gently at first, and continue 
 to increase it gradually, till the metal begins to 
 work ; if it should appear too thick, make it thin- 
 ner by the addition of a little more lead ; if the 
 metal should boil too rapidly, the fire should be 
 diminished. The surface will be covered by de- 
 grees with a mass of scoria, at which time' the 
 metal should be carefully stirred with an iron 
 hook heated, especially towards the border, lest 
 any of the ore should remain undissolved ; and if 
 what is adherent to the hook when raised from the 
 crucible melts quickly again, and the extremity 
 of the hook, after it is grown cold is covered with 
 a thin, shining smooth crust, the scorification is 
 perfect; but, on the contrary, if, while stirring it, 
 any considerable clamminess is perceived in the 
 scoria, and when it adheres to the hook, though 
 red hot, and appears unequally tinged, and seems 
 dusty or rough, with grains interspersed here and 
 there, the scorification is incomplete; in conse- 
 quence of which the fire should be increased a 
 little, and what adheres to the hook should be 
 gently beaten off, and returned with a small ladle 
 into the crucible again. When the scorification is 
 perfect, the metal should be poured into a cone, 
 previously rubbed with a little tallow, and when 
 it becomes cold, the scoria may be separated by a 
 few strokes of a hammer. The button is the pro- 
 duce of the assay. 
 
 By Cwpellation. 
 
 Take the assay quantity of ore, roast and grind 
 it with an equal portion of litharge, divide it into 
 2 or 3 parts, and wrap each up in a small piece of 
 paper; put a cupel previously seasoned under a 
 muffle, with about 6 times the quantity of lead 
 upon it. When the lead begins to work, carefully 
 put one of the papers upon it, and after this is ab- 
 sorbed, put on a second, and so on till the whole 
 quantity is introduced; then raise the fire, and as 
 the scoria is formed it will be taken up by the 
 cupel, and at last the silver will remain alone. 
 This will be the produce of the" assay, unless the 
 lead contains a'small portion of silver, which may 
 be discovered by putting an equal quantity of the 
 same lead on another cupel, and working it off at 
 the same time ; if any silver be produced it must 
 be deducted from the assay. This is called the 
 witness. 
 
 In the Humid Way Gay Lussac's Method. 
 
 Dissolve the ore or coin in nitric acid. Prepare 
 a standard solution of common salt; 542*74 of 
 common salt will precipitate 1000 parts of silver. 
 It is convenient to have, also, solutions of l-10th 
 the standard strength for the final precipitations. 
 Add the solution until no precipitate appears. 
 From the amount of solution, and consequently of 
 salt used, the amount of silver is at once deter- 
 mined without further weighing. To correct the 
 result a standard silver solution is used at the 
 same time, and any correction it may require is 
 applied to the rest of the assay. 
 
 To Assay the Value of Silver. 
 
 The general method of examining the purity of 
 silver is by mixing it with a quantity of lead pro- 
 portionate to the supposed portion of alloy; by 
 testing this mixture, and afterwards weighing the 
 remaining button of silver. This is the same pro- 
 cess as refining silver by cupellation. 
 
 It is supposed that the mass of silver to be ex- 
 amined consists of 12 equal parts, called penny- 
 weights ; so that if an ingot weighs 1 oz., each of 
 the parts will be l-12th oz. Hence, if the mass 
 of silver be pure, it is called silver of 12 dwts. ; if 
 it contain l-12th of its weight of alloy, it is called 
 silver of 11 dwts. ; if 2-12ths of its weight be alloy, 
 it is called silver of 10 dwts; which parts of pure 
 silver are called 5 dwts. It must be observed 
 here that assayers give the name dwt. to a weight 
 equal to 24 real grs., which must not be con- 
 founded with their ideal weight. The assayers' 
 grs. are called fine grs. An ingot of fine silver, 
 or silver of 12 dwts., contains, then, 288 fine grs.; 
 if this ingot contain l-288th of alloy, it is said to 
 be silver of 11 dwts. and 23 grs. ; if it contain 
 4-288th of alloy, it is said to be 11 dwts., 20 grs., 
 etc. Now a certain real weight must be taken to 
 represent the assay-weights; for instance, 36 real 
 grs. represent 12 fine dwts. ; this is subdivided into 
 a sufficient number of other smaller weights, 
 which also represent fractions of fine dwts. and 
 grs. Thus, 18 real grs. represent 6 fine dwts ; 3 
 real grs. represent 1 fine dwt., or 24 grs; 1 real 
 grs. represent 12 grs.; l-32d of a real gr. repre- 
 sents i of a fine gr., which is only l-752d part of 
 a mass of 12 dwt. 
 
 Double Assay of Silver. 
 
 It is customary to make a double assay. Tho 
 silver for the assay should be taken from opposite 
 sides of the ingot, and tried on a touch stone. 
 Assayers know pretty nearly the value of silver 
 merely by the look of the ingot, and still better 
 by the test of the touch-stone. The quantity of 
 lead to be added is regulated by the portion of 
 alloy, which being in general copper, will b 
 nearly as follows : 
 
PARTING. 
 
 367 
 
 Of silver 
 
 
 dwt. gr. dwt. gr. 
 
 Requires from 
 
 
 11 6 to 
 
 5 to 8 
 
 'd 
 
 
 12 to 
 
 8 to 9 
 
 85 * 
 
 g 
 
 19 18 to 9 
 
 12 to 13 
 
 .~ 
 
 . 
 
 8 6 to 7 12 
 
 13 to 14 
 
 So 
 
 fe 
 
 6 18 to 6 
 
 14 to 15 
 
 . 5 
 
 
 3 to 1 12 
 
 Otol6 
 
 EH ,SP 
 
 
 1 12 to 18 
 
 to 20 
 
 
 
 The cupel must be heated red-hot for half an 
 hour before any metal is put upon them, by which 
 all moisture is expelled. When the cupel is almost 
 white by heat the lead is put into it, and the fire 
 increased till the lead becomes red- hot, smoking, 
 and agitated by a motion of aU its parts, called 
 its circulation. Then the silver is to be put on 
 the cupel, and the fire continued till the silver has 
 entered the lead; and when the mass circulates 
 well, the heat must be diminished by closing more 
 or less the door of the assay furnace. The heat 
 should be so regulated, that the metal on its sur- 
 face may appear convex and ardent, while the 
 cupel is less red ; that the smoke shall rise to the 
 roof of the muffle; that undulations shall be made 
 in all directions; and that the middle of the metal 
 shall appear smooth, with a small circle of litharge, 
 which is continually imbibed by the cupel. By 
 this treatment the lead and alloy will be entirely 
 absorbed by the cupel, and the silver become 
 bright and shining, when it is said to lighten; 
 after which, if the operation has been well per- 
 formed, the silver will be covered with rainbow 
 colors, which quickly undulate and cross each 
 other, and then the button becomes fixed and 
 olid. 
 
 The diminution of weight shows the quantity 
 of alloy. As all lead contains a small portion of 
 silver, an equal weight with that used in the assay 
 is tested off, and the product deducted from the 
 assay- weight. This portion is called the witness. 
 Richardson's Metallic Arts. 
 
 By Specific Gravity. 
 
 The approximate weight of silver or gold in a 
 nugget may be determined by calculation from its 
 specific gravity. See MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 Ores and Earths Containing Gold. 
 
 That which is now most generally used is by 
 amalgamation. The proper quantity is taken and 
 reduced to a powder ; about one-tenth of its weight 
 of pure quicksilver is added, and the whole tritu- 
 rated in an iron mortar. The attraction subsisting 
 between the gold and quicksilver, quickly unites 
 them in the form of an amalgam, which is pressed 
 through shamoy leather; the gold is easily sepa- 
 rated from this amalgam, by exposure to a proper 
 degree of heat, which evaporates the quicksilver, 
 and leaves the gold. This evaporation should be 
 made with luted vessels. 
 
 This is the foundation of all the operations by 
 which gold is obtained from the rich mines of 
 Peru, in South America. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 Take a quantity of the gold-sand and heat it 
 red-hot; quench it in water; repeat this two or 
 three times, and the color of the sand will become 
 a reddish brown. Then mix it with twice its 
 weight of litharge, and revive the litharge into 
 lead, by adding a small portion of charcoal-dust, 
 and exposing it to a proper degree of heat; when 
 the lead revives, it separates the gold from the 
 and ; and the freeing of the gold from the lead 
 must be afterwards performed by cupellation. 
 
 Another. Bergmann assayed metallic ores con- 
 taining gold, by mixing 2 parts of the ore, well 
 pounded and washed, with 1 of litharge, and 3 
 
 of glass ; covering the whole with common salt, 
 and melting it in a smith's forge, in a cov'ered 
 crucible; he then opened the crucible, put a nail 
 into it, and continued to do so till the iron was no 
 longer attacked. The lead was thus precipitated 
 which contained the gold, and was afterwards 
 separated by cupellation. 
 
 Humid Assay of Gold mixed with Iron Pyrites. 
 
 Dissolve the ore in 12 times its weight of diluted 
 nitric acid, gradually added; place it in a proper 
 degree of heat; this takes up the soluble parts, 
 and leaves the gold untouched, with the insoluble 
 matrix, from which it may be separated by aqua 
 regia. The gold may be again separated from the 
 aqua regia by pouring ether upon it; the ether 
 takes up the gold, and by being burnt off leaves 
 it in its metallic state. The solution may contain 
 iron, copper, manganese, calcareous earth, or argil; 
 if it be evaporated to dryness, and the residuum 
 heated to redness for an hour, ammonia will 
 extract the copper; fuming nitric acid the earths; 
 the acetic acid the manganese ; and the muriatic 
 acid the oxide of iron. The sulphur floats on the 
 first solution, from which it should be separated 
 by filtration. 
 
 PARTING. 
 
 By this process gold and silver are separated 
 from each other. These two metals equally re- 
 sisting the action of fire and lead, must therefore 
 be separated by other means. This is effected oy 
 different menstrua. Nitric acid, muriatic arid, 
 and sulphur, which cannot attack gold, operate 
 upon silver; and these are the principal agents 
 employed in this process. 
 
 Parting by nitric acid is most convenient, con- 
 sequently most used; indeed, it is the only sae 
 employed by goldsmiths. This is called simply 
 parting. 
 
 That made by the muriatic acid is by cementa- 
 tion, and is called cemented parting ; and parting 
 by sulphur is made by fusion, and called dry 
 parting. 
 
 Parting by Aqua-fortis. 
 
 This process cannot succeed unless we attend to 
 some essential circumstances : 1st. The gold and 
 silver must be in a proper proportion, viz. the silver 
 ought to be three parts to one of gold ; though a 
 mass containing two parts of silver to one of gold 
 may be parted. To judge of the quality of the 
 metal to be parted, assayers make a comparison 
 upon a touch-stone, between it and certain needles 
 composed of gold and silver, in graduated propor- 
 tions, and properly marked; which are called 
 proof needles. If this trial shows that the silver 
 is not to the gold as three to one, the mass is im- 
 proper for the operation, unless more silver be 
 added. And 2dly, that the parting may be exact, 
 the aqua-fortis must be very pure, especially free 
 from any mixture of the sulphuric or muriatic 
 acid. For if this were not attended to, a quantity 
 of silver proportional to these two foreign acid* 
 would be separated during the solution; and this 
 quantity of silver would remain mingled with & 
 gold, which consequently would not be entirely 
 purified by the operation. 
 
 The gold and silver to be parted ought pre- 
 viously to be granulated by melting it in a cruci- 
 ble, and pouring it into a vessel of water, giving 
 the water at the same time a rapid circular motion, 
 by quickly stirring it round with a stick. The 
 vessels generally used in this operation are called 
 parting glasses, which ought to be very well an- 
 nealed, and chosen free from flaws ; as one of the 
 chief inconveniences attending the operation is, 
 
868 
 
 METALLUKGY. 
 
 that the glasses are apt to crack by exposure to 
 cold, or even when touched by the hand. Some 
 operators secure the bottom of the glasses by a 
 coating composed of a mixture of new-slaked lime, 
 with beer and whites of eggs, spread on a cloth, 
 and wrapped round the glasses at the bottom ; 
 over which they apply a composition of clay and 
 hair. The parting glasses should be placed in 
 vessels containing water supported by trivets, with 
 afire under them ; because if a glass should break, 
 the contents are caught in the vessel of water. 
 If the heat communicated to the water be too 
 great, it may be properly regulated by pouring 
 cold water gradually and carefully down the side 
 of the vessel into a parting glass 15 inches high, 
 and 10 or 12 inches wide at the bottom; placed 
 in a copper pan 12 inches wide at bottom, 15 
 inches wide at top, and 10 inches high, there is 
 usually put about 80 oz. of metal, with twice as 
 much of aqua-fortis. 
 
 The nitric acid ought to be of 22 B., afterwards 
 of 32 B. Little heat should be applied at first, 
 as the liquor is apt to swell and rise over the ves- 
 sel ; but when the acid is nearly saturated, the 
 heat may safely be increased. When the solution 
 ceases, which is known by the effervescence dis- 
 continuing, the liquor is to be poured off; if any 
 grains appear entire, more aqua-fortis must be 
 added, till the silver is all dissolved. If the ope- 
 ration has been performed slowly, the remaining 
 gold will have the form of distinct masses. The 
 gold appears black after parting; its parts have 
 no adhesion together, because the silver dissolved 
 from it has left many interstices. To give them 
 more solidity, and improve their color, they are 
 put into a test under a muffle, and made red-hot, 
 after which they contract and become more solid, 
 and the gold resumes its color and lustre. It is 
 then called grain gold. If the operation has been 
 performed hastily, the gold will have the appear- 
 ance of black mud or powder, which, after well 
 washing, must be melted. 
 
 The silver is usually recovered by precipitating 
 It from the aqua-fortis by means of pure copper, 
 or by precipitation by muriatic acid and reduction. 
 If the solution be perfectly saturated^ no precipi- 
 tation can take place till a few drops of aqua-fortis 
 are added to the liquor. The precipitate of silver 
 must be well washed with boiling water, and may 
 be fused with nitre, or tested off with lead. 
 
 Parting by Cementation. 
 
 A cement is prepared, composed of 4 parts of 
 bricks powdered and sifted; of 1 part of green 
 vitriol calcined till it becomes red; and of 1 part 
 of common salt. This is to be made into a firm 
 paste with a little water. It is called the cement 
 royal. 
 
 The gold to be cemented is reduced into plates 
 as thin as money. At the bottom of the crucible 
 or cementing pot, a stratum of cement, of the 
 thickness of a finger, is put, which is covered with 
 plates of gold ; and so the strata are placed alter- 
 nately. The whole is covered with a lid, which 
 is luted with a mixture of clay and sand. This 
 pot must be placed in a furnace or oven, heated 
 gradually till it becomes red-hot, in which it must 
 be continued during 24 hours. The heat must not 
 melt the gold. The pot or crucible is then suffered 
 to cool ; and the gold carefully separated from the 
 cement, and boiled at different times in a large 
 quantity of pure water. It is then assayed upon 
 a touch-stone, or otherwise ; and if it be not suffi- 
 ciently pure, it is cemented a second time. In 
 this process the sulphuric acid of the calcined vit- 
 riol decomposes the common salt during the ce- 
 mentation,, by uniting to its alkaline base, while 
 
 the muriatic acid becomes concentrated by th 
 heat and dissolves the silver alloyed with the gold, 
 This is a very troublesome process, though it suc- 
 ceeds when the portion of silver is so small that 
 it would be defended from the action of a,qua-fortis 
 by the superabundant gold ; but is little used, 
 except to extract silver, or base metals, from the 
 surface of gold, and thus giving to an alloyed 
 metal the color and appearance of pure gold. 
 
 Pattinson's Process 
 
 For separating silver from lead ores, enables us to 
 reduce profitably ores containing but 1 oz. of sil- 
 ver to the ton. It depends upon the fact that an 
 alloy of lead and silver when cooled, with occa- 
 sional stirring, to near the point of solidification, 
 crystallizes in part, and these crystals are found 
 to contain much less lead than the original fused 
 mass. Eight or ten cast-iron pots are arranged 
 in line and heated. Into the centre one a charge, 
 say 5 tons, of the original alloy is put; as the 
 crystals form they are removed by means of a 
 perforated ladle, and put in the pot to the right 
 until about four-fifths have been removed; the 
 remaining enriched lead is transferred to the pot 
 to the left. This process is continued with the 
 remaining pots, thus gradually enriching to the 
 left and becoming poorer to the right. The rich 
 alloy, termed lead riches, is then cupelled. 
 
 ALLOYS, OR COMPOUND METALS. 
 
 Metals, in general, will unite with each other 
 by fusion or amalgamation, and acquire new pro- 
 perties. Brass is a compound of copper and zinc; 
 and possesses a different color to either of the 
 component parts. 
 
 As metals fuse in different degrees of heat, care 
 should be taken not to add those metals which 
 fuse easily, to others which require a greater de- 
 gree of heat, while they are too hot, because the 
 former may evaporate and leave the compound 
 imperfect. Or, if they are brought into fusion to- 
 gether, it should be under a flux to prevent the 
 volatile metals from evaporating before the" union 
 is effected. 
 
 Or-moulu Mosaic Gold. 
 
 Melt together equal parts of copper and zinc, 
 at the lowent temperature that will fuse the former, 
 stir them well to produce an intimate mixture of 
 the metals, and add by degrees small quantities of 
 zinc; the alloy first assumes a yellow color like 
 brass, on adding a little more zinc it becomes pur- 
 ple, and lastly perfectly white, which is the pro- 
 per appearance of the desired product when fused. 
 The quantity of zinc to be used altogether, should 
 be from 52 to 55 parts out of the hundred. 
 
 Talmi Gold. 
 
 A beautiful gold-colored alloy, sold under the 
 above name, gives on analysis: Copper, 86.4; 
 zinc, 12.2; tin, 1.1; iron, 0.3. The presence of 
 the iron was probably accidental. 
 
 Queen's Metal. 
 
 Melt together 4 Ibs. of tin, Ib. of bismuth, i 
 Ib. of antimony, and i Ib. of lead. A very excel- 
 lent alloy will be formed by using these propor- 
 tions; it is used for making tea-pots and other 
 vessels which are required to imitate silver. They 
 retain their brilliancy to the last. 
 
 Another. A very fine silver-looking metal is 
 composed of 100 Ibs. of tin, 8 of regulus of anti- 
 mony, 1 of bismuth, and 4 of copper. 
 Tombac. 
 
 Melt together 16 Ibs. of copper, 1 Ib. of tin, and 
 1 Ib. of zinc. 
 
ALLOYS. 
 
 Red Tombac. 
 
 Put in to a crucible 5i Ibs. of copper ; when fused 
 dd J Ib. of zinc ; these metals will combine, form- 
 ing an alloy of a reddish color, but possessing 
 more lustre than copper, and also greater dura- 
 bility. 
 
 White Tombac. 
 
 When copper is combined with arsenic, by melt- 
 ing them together in a close crucible, and cover- 
 ing the surface with common salt to prevent oxi- 
 dation, a white brittle alloy is formed. 
 Common Pewter. 
 
 Melt in a crucible 7 Ibs. of tin, and when fused 
 throw in 1 Ib. of lead, 6 oz. of copper and 2 oz. 
 of zinc. This combination of metals will form an 
 alloy of great durability and tenacity j also of con- 
 siderable lustre. 
 
 Best Pewter. 
 
 The best sort of pewter consists of 100 parts of 
 tin, and 17 of regulus of antimony. 
 
 Hard Pewter. 
 
 Melt together 12 Ibs. of tin, 1 Ib. of regulus of 
 antimony, and 4 oz. of copper. 
 Common Solder. 
 
 Put into a crucible 2 Ibs. of lead, and when 
 melted throw in 1 Ib. of tin. This alloy is that 
 generally known by the name of solder. When 
 heated by a hot iron and applied to tinned iron 
 with powdered rosin, it acts as a cement or solder; 
 it is also used to join leaden pipes, etc. 
 
 Hard Solder. 
 
 Melt together 2 Ibs. of copper, and 1 Ib of tin. 
 Soft Solder. 
 
 Melt together 2 Ibs. of tin, and 1 of lead. The 
 lining of tea chests makes a good solder for tin 
 ware, being made of tin and lead in about the 
 proper proportions. 
 
 Gold Solder 
 
 Consists of 24 parts gold, 2 silver, and 1 of copper. 
 Silver Solder. 
 
 Hard 4 parts of silver to 1 of copper. Soft 
 2 parts of silver to 1 of brass wire. 
 Shot Metal. 
 
 Lead, 1000 parts ; metallic arsenic, 3 parts. 
 Printers' Types. 
 
 Put into a crucible 10 Ibs. of lead, and when it 
 Is in a state of fusion, throw in 2 Ibs. of antimony ; 
 these metals, in such proportions, form the alloy 
 of which common printing types are made. The 
 antimony gives a hardness to the lead, without 
 which the type would speedily be rendered use- 
 less in a printing press. Different proportions of 
 lead, copper, brass, and antimony, frequently con- 
 stitute this metal. Every artist has his own pro- 
 portions, so that the same composition cannot be 
 obtained from different foundries ; each boasts of 
 the superiority of his own mixture. 
 
 Small Types and Stereotype Plates. 
 
 Melt 9 Ib?. of lead, and throw into the crucible 
 2 Ibs. of antimony and 1 Ib. of bismuth; these 
 metals will combine, forming an alloy of a pecu- 
 liar quality. This quality is expansion as it cools, 
 it is therefore well suited for the formation of 
 small printing types (particularly when many are 
 oast together to form stereotype plates), as the 
 whole of the mould is accurately filled with the 
 alloy; consequently there can be no blemish in 
 the letters. If a metal or alloy liable to contract 
 in cooling were to be used, the effect of course 
 would be very different. 
 
 Another. The proprietors of different foundries 
 
 adopt different compositions for stereotype plate*. 
 Some form an alloy of 8 parts of lead, 2 parts of 
 antimony, and J part of tin. 
 
 Mode of Casting. 
 
 For the manufacture of stereotype plates, plas- 
 ter of Paris, of the consistence of a batter-pudding 
 before baking, is poured over the letter-press page, 
 and worked into the interstices of the types with 
 a brush. It is then collected from the sides by a 
 slip of iron or wood, so as to be smooth and com- 
 pact. In about 2 minutes the whole mass is hard- 
 ened into a solid cake. This cake, which is to 
 serve as the matrix of the stereotype plate, is now 
 put upon a rack in an oven, where it undergoes 
 great heat, so as to drive off superfluous moisture. 
 When ready for use, these moulds, according to 
 their size, are placed in flat cast-iron pots, and 
 are covered over by another piece of cast-iron per- 
 forated at each end to admit the metallic composi- 
 tion intended for the preparation of the stereotype 
 plates. The flat cast-iron pots are now fastened 
 in a crane, which carries them steadily to the me- 
 tallic bath, or melting pot, where they are im- 
 mersed and kept for a considerable time, until all 
 the pores and crevices of the mould are completely 
 and accurately filled. When this has taken place 
 the pots are elevated from the bath by working 
 the crane, and are placed over a water trough, to 
 cool gradually. When cold the whole is turned 
 out of the pots, and the plaster being separated by 
 hammering and washing, the plates are ready for 
 use ; having received the most exact and perfect 
 impression. 
 
 White Metal. 
 
 Melt together 10 oz. of lead, 5 oz. of bismuth, 
 and 4 drs. of regulus of antimony. 
 
 Another. Melt together 2 Ibs. of regulus of anti- 
 mony, 8 oz. of brass, and 10 oz. of tin. 
 Common Hard White Metal 
 
 Melt together 1 Ib. of brass, 1 oz. of spelter, 
 and i oz. of tin. 
 
 Tutenag. 
 
 Melt together 2 parts of tin and 1 of bismuth. 
 Fusible Alloy. 
 
 Put into a crucible 4 oz. of bismuth, and when 
 in a state of fusion throw in 2 oz. of lead, and 1$ 
 oz. of tin ; these metals will combine, forming an 
 alloy fusible at the temperature of boiling water. 
 Mould this alloy in bars, and take them to a sil- 
 versmith's to be made into a half-a-dozen tea- 
 spoons. If one of these be given to a stranger to 
 stir his tea, as soon as it is poured from the tea- 
 pot, he will be not a little surprised to find the 
 spoon melt in the tea-cup. 
 
 The fusibility of this alloy is certainly surpris- 
 ing, for the fusing temperature of each of its com- 
 ponents, singly, is higher than twice that of boil, 
 ing water. Bismuth fuses at 476, lead at 612, 
 and tin at 442; whilst water boils at 212. 
 
 Another. Melt together 1 oz. of zinc, 1 oz. of 
 bismuth, and 1 oz. of lead. This alloy will be 
 found to be remarkably fusible (although each of 
 the metals, separately, requires considerable heat 
 to melt it), and will melt even in hot water; it 
 will likewise remain in a fused state on a sheet of 
 paper, over the flame of a lamp or candle. Both 
 of these alloys expand on cooling, and are well 
 adapted for taking casts of medals, etc. 
 Wood's (patent) Fusible Metal 
 Melts between 150 and 160 Fahr. It consist! 
 of 3 parts cadmium, 4 tin, 8 lead, and 15 bismuth. 
 It has a brilliant metallic lustre, and does not 
 tarnish readily. 
 
 Casts from Fusible Metal. 
 
 A combination of 3 parts of lead, with 2 of tin 
 
370 
 
 METALLURGY. 
 
 and 5 of bismuth, forms an alloy which melts at 
 the temperature of 197 Fahr. 
 
 In making casts with this and similar alloys it 
 is important to use the metal at a temperature as 
 low as possible; as, if but a few degrees elevated, 
 the water which adheres to the things from which 
 casts are to be taken forms vapor, and produces 
 bubbles. The fused metal must be allowed to cool 
 in a teacup until just ready to set at the edges, 
 and then pour it into the moulds, procuring in 
 this way beautiful casts from moulds of wood, or 
 of other similar substances. When taking im- 
 pressions from gems, seals, etc. the fused alloy 
 should be placed on paper or paste-board, and 
 stirred about till it becomes pasty, from cooling, 
 at which moment the gem, die, or seal should be 
 suddenly stamped on il, and a very sharp impres- 
 sion will then be obtained. 
 
 Metallic Injection. 
 
 Melt together equal parts of bismuth, lead, and 
 tin, with a sufficient quantity of quicksilver. 
 
 This composition, with the addition of a small 
 proportion of mercury, is used for injecting the 
 vessels of many anatomical preparations ; also for 
 taking correct casts of various cavities of the body, 
 as those of the ear. The animal structure may 
 be corroded and separated by means of a solution 
 of potassa in water, and the metallic cast will be 
 preserved in an isolated state. 
 
 For Cushions of Electrical Machines. 
 
 Melt together in a crucible 2 drs. of zinc and 1 
 of tin ; when fused, pour them into a cold crucible, 
 containing 5 drs. of mercury. The mercury will 
 combine with those metals and form an alloy (or 
 amalgam, as it is called) fit to be rubbed on the 
 cushions which press the plate or cylinder of an 
 electrical machine. Before the amalgam is applied 
 it is proper to rub the cushion with a mixture of 
 tallow and beeswax. 
 
 For Varnishing Figures. 
 
 Fuse J oz. of tin with the same quantity of bis- 
 muth in a crucible; when melted add oz. of mer- 
 cury. When perfectly combined take the mixture 
 from the fire and cool it. This substance, mixed 
 with the white of an egg, forms a very beautiful 
 rarnish for plaster figures, etc. 
 
 Moiree Metallique. A Method of Ornamenting the 
 Surface of Tin Plate by Acids. 
 
 The plates are washed by an alkaline solution, 
 then in water, heated, and sponged or sprinkled 
 with the acid solution. The appearance varies 
 with the degree of heat and the nature and 
 strength of the acids employed. The plates, after 
 the application of the acids, are plunged into 
 water slightly acidulated, dried, and covered with 
 white or colored varnishes. The following are 
 some of the acid mixtures used : Nitro-tuuriatie 
 acid, in different degrees of dilution; sulphuric 
 acid, with 5 parts of water; 1 part of sulphuric 
 acid, 2 of muriatic acid, and 8 of water; a strong 
 solution of citric acid; 1 part nitric acid, 2 sul- 
 phuric, and 18 of water. Solution of potash is 
 also used. 
 
 To Plate Looking-glasses. 
 
 This art is erroneously termed silvering, for, as 
 will be presently seen, there is not a particle of 
 silver present in the whole composition. 
 
 On tin-foil, fitly disposed on a flat table, mer- 
 cury is to be poured, and gently rubbed with a 
 hare's-foot: it soon unites itself with the tin, 
 which then becomes very splendid, or, as the 
 Workmen say, is quickened. A plate of glass is 
 then cautiously to be slid upon the tin-leaf, in 
 such a manner as to sweep off the redundant mer- 
 cury which is not incorporated with the tin; leaden 
 
 weights are then to be placed on (he glass, and in 
 a little time the quicksilvered tin foil adheres so 
 firmly to the glass that the weights may be re 
 moved without any danger of its falling off. Th 
 glass thus coated is a common looking-glass. 
 About 2 oz. of mercury are sufficient for covering 
 3 square feet of glass. 
 
 The success of this operation depends much on 
 the clearness of the glass ; and the least dirt or 
 dust on its surface will prevent the adhesion of 
 the amalgam or alloy. 
 
 Liquid Foil for Silvering Glass Globes. 
 
 Melt together 1 oz. of clean lead, and 1 oz. of 
 fine tin, in a clean iron ladle; then immediately 
 add 1 oz. of bismuth. Skim off the dross, remove 
 the ladle from the fire, and before it sets add 10 
 oz. of quicksilver. Now stir the whole carefully 
 together, taking care not to breathe over it, as the 
 fumes of the mercury are very pernicious. Pour 
 this through an earthen pipe into the glass globe, 
 which turn repeatedly round. 
 
 Another. To 4 oz. of quicksilver add as much 
 tin-foil as will become barely fluid when mixed. 
 Let the globe be clean and warm, and inject the 
 quicksilver by means of a pipe at the aperture, 
 turning it about till it is silvered all over. Let 
 the remainder run out, and hang the globe up. 
 
 Another. For this purpose 1 part of mercury 
 and 4 of tin have been used; but if 2 parts of 
 mercury, 1 of tin, 1 of lead, and 1 of bismuth are 
 melted together, the compound which they form 
 will answer the purpose better. Either of them 
 must be made in an iron ladle, over a clear fire, 
 and must be frequently stirred. 
 
 Martin's Process for Silvering Glass. 
 
 Prepare, 1. A solution of 10 grammes of nitrate 
 of silver in 100 grammes of distilled water. 2. 
 Take solution of ammonia of 13 Cartier's areom- 
 eter. 3. A solution of 20 grammes of pure caustic 
 soda in 500 grammes of distilled water. 4. A so- 
 lution of 25 grammes of ordinary white sugar in 
 200 grammes of distilled water. Pour into this 1 
 cubic centimetre of nitric acid, of 36, and boil 
 for 20 minutes ; then make up the volume of 500 
 cubic centimetres with distilled water and 50 cubic 
 centimetres of alcohol at 36. This done, prepare 
 an argentiferous solution, by mixing in a flask 12 
 cubic centimetres of solution 1, then 8 cubic cen- 
 timetres of solution 2, then 20 centimetres of so- 
 lution 3; and, lastly, make up a volume of 100 
 centimetres by 60 centimetres of distilled water. 
 If the directions have been properly observed the 
 liquid will remain limpid, and a drop of solution 
 of nitrate of silver will produce a permanent pre- 
 cipitate. After being left quiet for 24 hours the 
 solution is ready for use. Clean the surface to be 
 silvered with a cotton plug moistened with a few 
 drops of nitric acid; then wash with distilled 
 water, drain, and place it on supports on the sur- 
 face of a bath composed of the argentiferous 
 liquid, to which has been added 1-1 Oth or l-12th 
 of the solution of sugar (4). Under the influence 
 of diffused light the liquid becomes yellow, then 
 brown, and, after from 2 to 5 minutes, the whole 
 surface of the glass will have been silvered. After 
 10 or 15 minutes it will have attained the required 
 thickness. Wash first with ordinary water, then 
 with distilled water; drain, dry, and polish with 
 rouge on chamois. (A table of French Weights 
 and Measures will be found at the end of the 
 volume.) 
 Mode of Repairing the Silvering of Looking-glasses. 
 
 Uncover and clean the damaged spot by very 
 careful rubbing with fine cotton until there is no 
 trace of grease or dustj then with the point of a 
 
ALLOYS. 
 
 371 
 
 knife cut the size of the required piece on the sil- 
 vering of another glass ; a small globule of mer- 
 cury (the size of a pin's head for a surface the size 
 of the finger nail) is dropped upon the cut piece. 
 The mercury penetrates as far as the cut, and al- 
 lows the piece to be removed. It is then gently 
 pressed on the spot with a piece of cotton. 
 
 Bath-metal. 
 Melt together 1 Ib. of brass and 4J oz. of spelter. 
 
 Brass. 
 
 Put 4i Ibs. of copper into a crucible, expose it 
 to heat in a furnace, and when perfectly fused add 
 1^ Ibs. of zinc. The metals will combine, forming 
 that generally used alloy en lied brass. 
 
 Another. For brass which is to be cast into 
 plates, from which pans and kettles are to be 
 made, and wire is to be drawn, braziers use cala- 
 mine of the finest sort instead of pure zinc, and 
 in a greater proportion than when common brass 
 is made; generally 56 Ibs. of calamine to 34 Ibs. 
 of copper. Old brass, which has frequently been 
 exposed to the action of the fire, when mixed with 
 the copper and calamine, renders the brass far 
 more ductile and fitter for the making of fine wire 
 than it would be without it. 
 
 Pinchbeck. 
 
 Put into a crucible 5 oz. of pure copper; when 
 it is in a state of fusion add 1 oz. of zinc. These 
 metals combine, forming an alloy not unlike jew- 
 eller's gold; pour it into a mould of any shape. 
 This alloy is used for inferior jewellery. 
 
 Some use only half this quantity of zinc, in 
 which proportion the alloy is more easily worked, 
 especially in the making of jewellery. 
 
 Another. Melt together 1 oz. of brass with 1 
 or 2 oz. of copper, fused under a coat of charcoal- 
 dust. 
 
 Oreide, a Neio Brass. 
 
 M. M. Mourier and Valient, of Paris, have 
 succeeded in making an alloy which imitates gold 
 sufficiently near to merit the name Oreide. The 
 properties are as follows : Pure copper, 100 parts, 
 by weight; zinc, 17; magnesia, 6; sal ammoniac, 
 3.6; quicklime, 1.80 ; tartar of commerce, 9. The 
 copper is first melted, then the magnesia, sal am- 
 moniac, lime and tartar in powder, little by little; 
 the crucible is briskly stirred for about ^ an hour, 
 so as to mix thoroughly, and then the zinc is ad- 
 ded in small grains by throwing it on the surface 
 and stirring until it is entirely fused; the crucible 
 is then covered and fusion maintained for about 35 
 minutes; the crucible is then uncovered, skimmed 
 carefully and the alloy cast in a mould of damp 
 sand or metal. The oreide melts at a tempera- 
 ture low enough to allow its application to all 
 kinds of ornamentation; it has a fine grain, is 
 malleable, and capable of taking the most bril- 
 liant polish; when, after a time, it becomes tar- 
 nished from oxidation, its brilliancy may be re- 
 stored by a little acidulated water. If the zinc is 
 replaced by tin, the metal will be still more bril- 
 liant. 
 
 Prince's Metal. 
 
 Melt together 3 oz. of copper, and 1 oz. of zinc; 
 or, 8 oz. of brass and 1 oz. of zinc. 
 
 Another. Melt in a crucible 4 oz. of copper, and 
 when fused, add 2 oz. of zinc; they will combine, 
 and form a very beautiful and useful alloy, called 
 Prince Rupert's metal. 
 
 Bronze. 
 
 Melt in a clean crucible 7 Ibs. of pure copper; 
 when fused, throw into it 3 Ibs. of zinc and 2 Ibs. 
 of tin. These metals will combine, forming bronze, 
 which, from the exactness of the impression which 
 it takes from a mould, has, in ancient and modern 
 
 times, been generally used in the formation of 
 busts, medals and statues. 
 
 Specula of Telescopes. 
 
 Melt 7 Ibs. of copper, and when fused add 31bt. 
 of zinc and 4 Ibs. of tin. These metals will com- 
 bine to form a beautiful alloy of great lustre, and 
 of a light yellow color, fitted to be made into 
 specula for telescopes. Mr. Mudge used only 
 copper and grain tin, in the proportion of 2 Ibs. 
 to 14i oz. 
 
 Gun-metal. 
 
 Melt together 112 Ibs. of Bristol brass, 14 Ibs. 
 of spelter, and 7 Ibs. of block tin. 
 
 Another. Melt together 9 parts of copper and 
 1 part of tin ; the above compounds are those used 
 in the manufacture of small and great brass guns, 
 swivels, etc. 
 
 The pieces of ordnance used by the besiegers at 
 the battle of Prague, were actually melted by the 
 frequency of the firing; the mixture of which 
 they were made contained a large portion of lead; 
 it would have been less prone to melt, and conse- 
 quently preferable, had it contained none. A 
 mixture of copper atnd tin is preferred to pure 
 copper, not only for the casting of cannon, but of 
 statues, etc., for pure copper, in running through 
 the various parts of the mould, would lose so 
 much of its heat as to set, or become solid too soon. 
 
 Austrian Gun-metal (Aich's Metal), 
 Remarkable for great strength, being stronger 
 than gun-metal or wrought-iron, consists of cop- 
 per, 55.04; zinc, 42.36; tin, .83; iron, 1.77. 
 
 Aluminum Bronze 
 
 Resembles gold in appearance; is said to be twice 
 as strong as the best gun-metal; as light as 
 wrought-iron ; is not easily tarnished. It is easily 
 stamped and engraved. It is composed of 10 parts 
 of aluminum and 90 of copper. It requires to be 
 re-melted, as the first melting is brittle. 
 Babbitt's Anti-friction Metal. 
 Mix together 24 parts of copper, 24 of tin and 
 8 of antimony. The tin, best quality of Bancoa, 
 is to be added gradually to the melted compo- 
 sition. 
 
 Bell-metal. 
 
 Melt together 6 parts of copper and 2 of tin. 
 These proportions are the most approved for bells 
 throughout Europe and in China. 
 
 Another. Some bells are made in the propor- 
 tion of 10 parts of copper to 2 of tin. It may be 
 in general observed, that a less proportion of tin 
 is used for making church bells than clock bells, 
 and that a little zinc is added for the bells of re- 
 peating watches and other small bells. 
 
 Blanched Copper. 
 
 Melt together 8 oz. of copper and J oz. of neu- 
 tral arsenical salt, fused together, under a flux 
 composed of calcined borax, charcoal dust, and 
 finely-powdered glass. 
 
 Composition of Ancient Statues. 
 According to Pliny, the metal used by the Ro- 
 mans for their statues, and for the plates on which 
 they engraved inscriptions, was composed in the 
 following manner: They first melted a quantity 
 of copper, into which they put a third of its 
 weight of old copper, which had been long in use; 
 to every 100 Ibs. Weight of this mixture they added 
 12^ Ibs. of an alloy composed of equal parts of 
 lead and tin. 
 
 Muntz Metal 
 
 Can be rolled and worked at a red heat. It con- 
 sists of 6 parts of copper and 4 of zinc. 
 
 Mock-platina. 
 Melt together 8 oz. of brass audf I of rpelter. 
 
372 
 
 METALLURGY. 
 
 Fine Casting of Brass, etc. 
 The principal object in fine casting is to have a 
 mould that shall receive a beautiful impression, 
 and at the same time sufficiently adhesive to re- 
 sist the force of the fluid metal, that shall neither 
 wash nor be injured by the heat. The sand that 
 covers or surrounds the model should be fine, close 
 sand; after removing the mould, the model must 
 bo faced with burnt rotten-stone, and covered with 
 loam, each dusted through a bag, and the mould 
 laid down upon it; this facing may be repeated, 
 the mould must be dried and smoked with a torch; 
 in lieu of water, the sand is moistened with a so- 
 lution of tartar, or the lees of wine, or with cream 
 of tartar. Care must be taken to loosen the band 
 quickly, viz. : loosen the first mould while the 
 second is pouring, etc. On removing the work 
 every particle of the facing should be carefully 
 scraped from the mould and thrown away. Part 
 the moulds with coal and black rosin. 
 
 Gilding-metal. 
 
 Melt together 4 parts of copper, 1 of Bristol old 
 brass and 14 oz. of tin to every Ib. of copper. 
 
 For Common Jewellery. 
 
 Melt together 3 parts of copper, 1 of Bristol old 
 brass and 4 oz. of tin to every Ib. of copper. 
 
 If this alloy is for fine polishing, the tin maybe 
 omitted, and a mixture of lead and antimony sub- 
 stituted. Paler polishing metal is made by re- 
 ducing the copper to two or to one part. 
 
 Yellow Dipping-metal. 
 
 Melt together 2 parts of brass, 1 part of cop- 
 per, with a little old brass, and J oz. of tin to 
 every Ib. of copper. This alloy is almost of the 
 color, etc., of gold coin. 
 
 Another. Good dipping-metal may be made of 
 1 Ib. of copper to 5 oz. of spelter; the copper 
 should be tough cake, and not tile. 
 
 When antimony is used instead of tin, it should 
 be in smaller quantity, or the metal will be brittle. 
 
 Imitation of Silver. 
 
 When copper is melted with tin, about f oz. of 
 tin to 1 Ib. of copper, will make a pale bell- metal ; 
 it will roll and ring very near to sterling silver. 
 
 Tutania or Britannia Metal. 
 Melt together 4 oz. of plate-brass and 4 oz. tin. 
 When in fusion, add 4 oz. bismuth and 4 oz. regu- 
 lus of antimony. 
 
 This is the hardening, which is to be added at 
 discretion to melted tin, until it has the requisite 
 color and hardness. 
 
 Another. Melt together 2 Ibs. of plate-brass, 2 
 Ibs. of a mixture of copper and arsenic, either by 
 cementing or melting, 2 Ibs. of tin, 2 Ibs. of bis- 
 muth and 2 Ibs. regulus of antimony. 
 
 This is to be added at discretion to melted tin. 
 Another. Melt together 1 Ib. of copper, 1 Ib. 
 tin and 2 Ibs. regulus of antimony, with or with- 
 out a little bismuth. 
 
 Another. Melt together 8 oz. Shruff brass, 2 Ibs. 
 regulus of antimony and 10 Ibs. tin. 
 This is fit for use as Britannia metal. 
 
 German Tutania. 
 Melt together 2 drs. of copper, 1 oz. of regulus 
 of antimony and 12 oz. of tin. 
 
 Spanish Tutania. 
 To 8 oz. of scrap-iron or steel, at a white heat, 
 add- 1 Ib. of antimony in small portions, with 3 
 ez. of nitre. Melt and harden 1 Ib. of tin with 2 
 oz. of this compound. 
 
 German Silver. 
 
 Melt together 20 parts of copper, 15.8 of nickel, 
 12.7 of zinc. 
 
 Another. Melt together 4 oz. *f antimony, 1 
 
 oz. arsenic, and 2 Ibs. tin. This compound is 
 
 ready for use. The first of these Spanish alloya 
 
 would be a beautiful metal, if arsenic were added. 
 
 Engestroom Tutania. 
 
 Melt together 4 parts copper, 8 parts regulus of 
 antimony, and 1 part bismuth. 
 
 When added to 100 parts of tin, this compound 
 will be ready for use. 
 
 Kustitien's Metal for Tinning. 
 
 To 1 Ib. of malleable iron, at a white heat, add 
 5 oz. regulus of antimony, and 24 Ibs. of the purest 
 Molucca tin. 
 
 This alloy polishes without the blue tint, and is 
 free from lead or arsenic. 
 
 Solder for Steel Joints. 
 
 Take of fine silver, 19 dwts. ; copper, 1 dwt.; 
 and brass, 2 dwts. Melt these under a coat of 
 charcoal-dust. 
 
 This solder possesses several advantages over 
 the usual spelter solder, or brass, when employed 
 "n soldering cast-steel, etc., as it fuses with less 
 heat, and its whiteness has a better appearance 
 than brass. 
 
 Brass Solder for Iron. 
 
 Thin plates of brass are to be melted between 
 the pieces that are to be joined. If the work be 
 very fine, as when two leaves of a broken saw are 
 to be brazed together, cover it with pulverized bo- 
 rax, melted with water, that it may incorporate 
 with the brass powder which is added to it ; the 
 piece must be then exposed 1 to the fire without 
 touching the coals, and heated till .the brass is 
 seen to run. 
 
 Tungsten Steel. 
 
 Experiments have been made at Vienna, Dres- 
 den, and other places, in the use of tungsten or 
 wolfram, in the alloying of steel, and some extra- 
 ordinary results are stated to have been achieved. 
 It is said that steel alloyed with 20 per cent, of 
 tungsten produces a mixture, which, while it re- 
 tains all the general qualities of steel, is so exces- 
 sively hard, that tools made of it will cut, without 
 difficulty, the hardest cast-steel. 
 
 A New Silver Alloy. 
 
 M. De Ruolz and De Fontenay, of France, have 
 lately obtained, after several years' experiments, 
 a new alloy, which may be very useful for small 
 coin and for many industrial uses. It is composed 
 of J silver, 25 to 30 per cent, of nickel, and from 
 37 to 50 per cent, of copper. Its inventors pro- 
 pose to call it tiers-argent, or tri-silver. Its pre- 
 paration is said to be a triumph of metallurgical 
 science. The 3 metals when simply melted to- 
 gether form a compound which is not homogeneous j 
 and to make the compound perfect, its inventors 
 have been compelled to use phosphorus and cer- 
 tain solvents which they have not yet specified. 
 The alloy thus obtained is at first very brittle: it 
 cannot be hammered or drawn, and lacks those 
 properties which are essential in malleable metals. 
 But after the phosphorus is eliminated, the alloy 
 perfectly resembles a simple metal, and possesses, 
 in a very high degree, the qualities to which the 
 precious metals owe their superiority. In color it 
 resembles platinum, and is susceptible of a very 
 high polish. It possesses extreme hardness and 
 tenacity. It is ductile, 'malleable, very easily 
 fused, emits when struck a beautiful sound, is not 
 affected by exposure to the atmosphere, or to any 
 but the most powerful re-agents. It is without 
 odor. Its specific gravity is a little less than that 
 of silver. An alloy possessing these qualities 
 must be very useful to gold and silversmiths. It 
 
FOILS. 
 
 373 
 
 can be supplied at a price 40 per cent, less than 
 silver, and its greater hardness will give it a mark- 
 ed superiority. It may also serve as a substitute 
 for gold-plated or silver-plated articles, which are 
 now so common on account of their cheapness, but 
 which will not bear replating more than a few 
 times, and which are, in the long run, sometimes 
 more expensive than the pure metal. The new 
 alloy, however, will be most useful for small coin. 
 Its preparation and coinage are so difficult that 
 the coin made of it cannot easily be counterfeited. 
 Its hardness would render it more durable than 
 silver ; and thus the expense of re-coining, and 
 the heavy loss arising from the wearing of our 
 silver coinage, would be greatly diminished. 
 Silver Test. 
 
 Silver coins, jewelry, or any other rich alloy, 
 when moistened with a solution of chromic acid, 
 or a mixture of bichromate of potassa and sulphu- 
 ric acid, become covered with a red purple spot of 
 bichromate of silver. This spot does not occur 
 on poor alloys or metals imitating silver. 
 Useful Alloy of Gold with Platinum. 
 
 Put into a clean crucible 7i drs. of pure gold, 
 and when perfectly melted, throw in a dr. of 
 platinum. The 2 metals will combine intimately, 
 forming an alloy rather whiter than pure gold, 
 but remarkably ductile and el antic ; it is also less 
 perishable than pure gold or jewellers' gold; but 
 more readily fusible than that metal. 
 
 These excellent qualities must render this alloy 
 an object of great interest to workers in metals. 
 For springs', where steel cannot be used, it will 
 prove exceedingly advantageous. 
 
 It is a curious circumstance, that the alloy of gold 
 and platinum is soluble in nitric acid, which does 
 not act on either of the metals in a separate state. 
 It is remarkable, too, that the alloy has very nearly 
 the color of platinum, even when composed of 11 
 parts of gold to 1 of the former metal. 
 Ring Gold. 
 
 Melt together of Spanish copper, 6 dwts. and 12 
 grs. ; fine silver, 3 dwts. and 16 grs., to 1 oz. 5 
 dwts. of gold coin. 
 
 Gold from 35s to 40s per oz. 
 
 Melt together 8 oz. 8 dwts. of Spanish copper, 
 10 dwts. of fine silver, to 1 oz. of gold coin. 
 
 Maiiheim-Gold, or Similar. 
 Melt together 3 oz. of copper, 1 oz. of brass, 
 and 15 grs. of pure gold. 
 
 PREPARATION OF FOILS. 
 
 Foils are thin plates or leaves of metal that are 
 put under stones, or compositions in imitation of 
 stones, when they are set. 
 
 The intention of foils is either to increase the 
 lustre or play of the stones, or more generally to 
 improve the color, by giving an additional force 
 to the tinge, whether it be natural or artificial, by 
 that of a ground of the same hue, which the foil 
 is in this case made to be. 
 
 There are consequently two kinds of foils ; the 
 one is colorless, where the effect of giving lustre 
 or play to the stone is produced by the polish of 
 the surface, which makes it act as a mirror, and, 
 by reflecting the light, prevents that deadness 
 which attends the having a duller ground under 
 the stone, and brings it by the double refraction of 
 the light that is caused, nearer to the effect of the 
 diamond. The other is colored with some pig- 
 ment or stain of the same hue as the stone, or of 
 some other which is intended to modify and change 
 the hue of the stone in some degree; as, where a 
 yellow foil may be put under green, which is too 
 
 much inclined to the blue, or under crimson, where 
 it is desired to have the appearance more orange 
 or scarlet. 
 
 Foils may be made of copper or tin ; and silrer 
 has been sometimes used, with which it has been 
 advised, for some purposes, to mix gold ; but the 
 expense of either is . needless, as copper may be 
 made to answer the same end. 
 
 To Prepare Copper for Foils. 
 
 Where colored foils are wanted, copper may 
 therefore be best used, and may be prepared for 
 the purpose, by the following means : 
 
 Take copper plates beaten to a proper thickness, 
 and pass them betwixt a pair of fine steel rollers 
 very close set, and draw them as thin as is possi- 
 ble to retain a proper tenacity. Polish them with 
 very fine whiting, or rotten-stone, till they shine, 
 and have as much brightness as can be given them, 
 and they will then be fit to receive the color. 
 
 To Whiten Foils. 
 
 Where the yellow, or rather orange-color of the 
 ground would be injurious to the effect, as in the 
 case of purples, or crimson red, the foils should be 
 whitened, which may be done in the following 
 manner: 
 
 Take a small quantity of silver and dissolve it 
 in aqua-fortis, and then put bits of copper into the 
 solution, and precipitate the silver; which being 
 done the fluid must be poured off, and fresh water 
 added to it, to wash away all the remainder of the 
 first fluid ; after which the silver must be dried, an 
 equal weight of cream of tartar and common salt 
 mu>t then be ground with it, till the whole be re- 
 duced to a very fine powder; and with this mix- 
 ture, the foils, being first slightly moistened, must 
 be rubbed by the finger, or a bit of linen rag, till 
 they be of the degree of whiteness desired ; after 
 which, if it appear to be wanted, the polish must 
 be refreshed. 
 
 The tin foils are only used in the case of color- 
 less stones, where quicksilver is employed; and 
 they may be drawn out by the same rollers, but 
 need not be further polished, as that effect is pro- 
 duced by other means in this case. 
 
 Foils for Crystals, Pebbles, or Paste, to give the 
 Lustre and Play of Diamonds. 
 
 The manner of preparing foils, so as to giro 
 colorless stones the greatest degree of play and lus- 
 tre, is by raising so high a polish or smoothness on 
 the surface, as to give them the effect of a mirror, 
 which can only be done, in a perfect manner, by 
 the use of quicksilver, applied in the same general 
 way as in the case of looking-glasses. The method 
 by which it may be best performed is as follows : 
 
 Take leaves of tin, prepared in the same man- 
 ner as for silvering looking-glasses, and cut them 
 into small pieces of such size as to cover the sur- 
 face of the sockets or the stones that are to be 
 set. Lay three of these then, one upon another, 
 and having moistened the inside of the socket 
 with thin gum-water, and suffered it to become 
 again so dry that only a slight stickiness remains, 
 put the three pieces of leaves, lying on each other, 
 into it, and adapt them to the surface in as even 
 a manner as possible. When this is done, heat 
 the socket and fill it with warm quicksilver, which 
 must be suffered to continue in it 3 or 4 minutes, 
 and then gently poured out. The stone must 
 then be thrust into the socket, and closed with it, 
 care having been taken to give such room for it 
 that it may enter without stripping off the tin and 
 quicksilver from any part of the furnace. The 
 work should be well closed round the stone, to 
 prevent the tin and quicksilver contained in the 
 socket from being shaken out by any violence. 
 
METALLURGY. 
 
 The lustre of stones set in this manner will con- 
 tinue longer than when they are set in the com- 
 mon way, as, the cavity round them being filled, 
 there will be no passage found for moisture, which 
 is so injurious to the wear of stones treated in 
 any other way. 
 
 This kind of foil likewise gives some lustre to 
 glass or other transparent matter, which has little 
 of itself; but to stones or pastes that have some 
 hare of play it gives a most beautiful brilliance. 
 
 To Color Foils. 
 
 Two methods have been invented for coloring 
 foils : the one by tingeing the surface of the copper 
 of the color required by means of smoke, the 
 other by staining or painting it with some pig- 
 ment or other coloring substance. 
 
 The colors used for painting foils may be tem- 
 pered with either oil, water rendered duly viscid 
 by gum Arabic, size or varnish. Where deep co- 
 lors are wanted, oil is most proper, because some 
 pigments become wholly transparent in it, as lake, 
 or Prussian blue; but yellow and green may be 
 better laid on in varnish, as these colors may be 
 had in perfection from a tinge wholly dissolved in 
 epirit of wine, in the same manner as in the case 
 of lacquers, and the most beautiful green is to be 
 produced by distilled verdigris, which is apt to 
 lose its color and turn black with oil. In common 
 cases, however, any of the colors may be, with 
 least trouble, laid on with isinglass size, in the 
 same manner as the glazing colors used in minia- 
 ture painting. 
 
 Ruby Color*. 
 
 For red, where the ruby is to be imitated, car- 
 mine, a little lake used in isinglass size, or shellac 
 Tarnish is to be employed, if the glass or paste be 
 of a full crimson, verging towards the purple; 
 but if the glass incline to the scarlet or orange, 
 very bright lake (that is, not purple) may be used 
 alone in oil. 
 
 Garnet Red. 
 
 For the garnet red, dragon's blood dissolved in 
 seed-lac varnish may be used ; and for the vinegar 
 garnet, the orange lake, tempered with shellac 
 varnish, will be found excellent. 
 
 Amethyst. 
 
 For the amethyst, lake, with a little Prussian 
 blue, used with oil, and very thinly spread on the 
 foil, will completely answer the end. 
 
 Slue. 
 
 For blue, where a deep color, or the effect of 
 the sapphire is wanted, Prussian blue, that is not 
 too deep, should be used in oil, and it should be 
 spread more or less thinly on the foil, according 
 to the lightness or deepness of which the color is 
 required to be. 
 
 Eagle Marine. 
 
 For the eagle marine, common verdigris with a 
 little Prussian blue, tempered in shellac varnish, 
 may be used. 
 
 Yelloio. 
 
 Where a full yellow is desired, the foil may be 
 colored with yellow lacquer, laid on as for other 
 purposes; and for the slighter color of topazes 
 the burnish and foil itself will be sufficiently strong 
 without any addition. 
 
 Green. 
 
 For green, where a deep hue is required, the 
 crystals of verdigris, tempered in shellac varnish, 
 should be used, but where the emerald is to be 
 imitated, a little yellow lacquer should be added 
 to bring the color to a truer green, and less verg- 
 ing to the blue. 
 
 Other Colors. 
 The stones of more diluted color, such as the i 
 
 amethyst, topaz, vinegar-garnet and eagle-ma- 
 rine, may be very cheaply imitated by transparent 
 white glass or paste, even without foils. This is 
 to be done by tempering the colors above enu- 
 merated with turpentine and mastic, and paint- 
 ing the socket in which the counterfeit stone is to 
 be set with the mixture, the socket and stone it- 
 self being previously heated. In this case, how- 
 ever, the stone should be immediately set, and 
 the socket closed upon it before the mixture cools 
 and grows hard. The orange lake above men- 
 tioned was invented for this purpose, in which it 
 has a beautiful effect, and was used with great 
 success by a considerable manufacturer. The co- 
 lor it produces is that of the vinegar-garnet, which 
 it affords with great brightness. The colors be- 
 fore directed to be used in oil should be extremely 
 well ground in oil of turpentine, and tempered 
 with old nut or poppy-oil ; or, if time can be 
 given for the drying, with strong fat oil diluted 
 with spirit of turpentine, which will gain a fine 
 polish of itself. 
 
 The colors used in varnish should be likewise 
 thoroughly well ground and mixed; and, in the 
 case of the dragon's blood in the seed-lac varnish 
 and the lacquer, the foils should be warmed before 
 they are laid out. All the mixtures should be 
 laid on the foils with a broad, soft brush, which 
 must be passed from one end to the other, and no 
 part should be crossed or twice gone over, or, at 
 least, not till the first coat can be dry; when, if 
 the color do not lie strong enough, a second coat 
 may be given. 
 
 ELECTRO-METALLURGY. 
 
 Galvanoplasty or Electrotype, is the art of cold 
 casting of metals by the agency of electricity. Ita 
 applications are extensive. It is used to multiply 
 engravings and photographs ; to cover the faces of 
 types with harder metal ; to deposit gold, silver, 
 and alloys on other metals, etc. The process de- 
 pends upon the fact that an electrical current 
 passed through a metallic solution properly pre- 
 pared, will cause a decomposition of the solution ; 
 the metal being deposited upon any conducting 
 body attached to the negative pole (cathode) of a 
 voltaic cell or battery. This is the pole attached 
 to the zinc plate in all cases. 
 
 The Battery. 
 
 The term battery is properly applied to several 
 voltaic cells united. Frequently, however, it is 
 used to designate a single cell. The forms usually 
 employed in practice are Smee's, Daniell's, and 
 the nitric acid battery. In order to avoid con- 
 fusion, the following points must be well under- 
 stood. In all the batteries named, there are two 
 plates and ay exciting fluid. One of these plates 
 is of zinc, wnich must be amalgamated by dip- 
 ping it into weak sulphuric acid and rubbing the 
 surface with mercury; or better still, immersing 
 the whole plate in a bath of mercury. This must 
 be repeated from time to time, when the battery is 
 in use. This zinc plate is alone acted on by the ex- 
 citing fluid. It is called the positive plate. Attached 
 to it is a binding screw, by which a wire may be 
 connected with the plate. This screw, or the end 
 of the attached wire, is called the pole or electrode. 
 The name of the pole is opposite to that of the 
 plate. The positive pole or anode being attached 
 to the negative plate, and the negative pole or 
 cathode to the positive (zinc) plate. 
 The Decomposing Cell. 
 
 Usually the liquid to be decomposed (electro- 
 lyte) is kept in a separate vessel, and the current 
 conveyed to it by wires. To the anode is usually 
 attached a piece of metal of the same character 
 
ELECTRO-METALLURGY. 
 
 875 
 
 as that to be depositel. This is gradually eaten 
 away while the deposition is going on, on the 
 cathode, and the solution thus kept of uniform 
 strength. The current may be regulated by alter- 
 ing the distance between the poles. With the 
 saue battery power, the amount of electricity 
 passing will be less as the distance of the poles 
 in the electrolyte is greater. Too powerful a cur- 
 rent must be avoided, as it renders the coating 
 brittle and non-adherent. It should not be strong 
 enough to cause bubbles of gas to arise from the 
 object. A large number of objects can be plated 
 by one battery if they are suspended on copper 
 rods, the ends of which are connected with the pole. 
 
 Smee'a Cell 
 
 Consists of two plates of amalgamated zinc, sep- 
 arated by a piece of baked and varnished wood, 
 and between them a plate of silver having depos- 
 ited on it by the electric current finely divided 
 platinum ; so as to roughen it and prevent the 
 adhesion of hydrogen. The silver plate is fixed 
 in the wood separating the zinc plates j to the 
 zinc and to the silver plates are attached binding 
 screws for the wires. The exciting fluid is dilute 
 sulphuric acid; 1 part of acid to 20 of water, is 
 strong enough. When more intensity is required, 
 several cells are joined by passing wires from the 
 anode of one cell to the cathode of the next. This 
 form of battery is generally preferred on account 
 of its simplicity, constancy, and ease of manage- 
 ment. 
 
 Darnell's Cell. 
 
 In delicate operations, as in copying engraved 
 plates, where great constancy is required, this 
 form of cell is employed. It consists of a plate 
 of amalgamated zinc, one of copper, generally of 
 cylindrical form separated by a cell of porous 
 earthenware (a flower-pot with the hole closed 
 by a cork, makes a very good porous cell). The 
 plates and cell are enclosed in a glass or earthen- 
 ware vessel ; the zinc is excited by dilute sulphuric 
 acid; the copper is kept immersed in saturated 
 solution of sulphate of copper (blue-stone). The 
 solution of copper is gradually decomposed ; the 
 copper being deposited in the copper plate. Hence 
 there should always be a quantity of crystals of 
 the sulphate at the bottom of the cell, and the 
 solution should be stirred from time to time; or 
 the crystals may be suspended in a basket near 
 the top of the solution. 
 
 Nitric Acid Batteries. 
 
 When great intensity is required, as in the de- 
 position of copper on iron, and of certain alloys, 
 the decomposition of fused chlorides for the pur- 
 pose of obtaining certain metals, these batteries 
 are used. In all cases the positive plate is of 
 amalgamated zinc excited by dilute sulphuric 
 acid; which may be as strong as 1 in 10 with 
 l-10th of nitric acid. This is separated by a 
 porous cell from the negative plate, which may be 
 of platinum (Grove), carbon (Bunsen), or passive 
 iron (Callan). The negative plate is immersed 
 in strong nitric acid. Iron may be rendered pas- 
 sive by dipping it once or twice into strong nitric 
 acid, and then washing with water and carefully 
 drying. 
 
 To Prepare Articles for Plating. 
 
 Wash in weak lye to remove grease. Dip into 
 dilute nitric acid to remove oxide. Scour with a 
 hard brush and fine sand. Then having fastened 
 to a wire, dip in strong nitric acid and immerse 
 in the electrolyte as quickly as possible. 
 
 Solution for Silvering. 
 
 Add to a solution of nitrate of silver (made by 
 dissolving silver in pure nitric acid), a solution 
 
 of cyanide of potassium until no further precipi- 
 tate is formed; but not enough to re-dissolve 
 the precipitate already thrown down. Pour off 
 the supernatant liquid, wash with water, and 
 then re-dissolve the precipitate in cyanide of po- 
 tassium. The anode should be of silver. Should 
 the solution change on keeping, add a little fresh 
 cyanide. Use a moderate current. An ounce and 
 a half of silver will give to a surface a foot square, 
 a coating as thick as common writing-paper. And 
 since silver is worth $1.25 per ounce, the value of 
 the silver covering a foot square, would be about 
 $1.87. At this rate, a well plated tea-pot or coffee- 
 pot is plated at a cost in silver of not more than 
 $1.50 to $2. The other expenses, including labor, 
 would hardly be more than half that amount. 
 
 To Recover the Silver from a Bath. 
 
 Add muriatic acid, carefully avoiding the fumea 
 which are given off. Dilute the liquid, decant 
 from the precipitate formed, dry the precipitate, 
 and reduce in a black lead crucible with carbonate 
 of soda. 
 
 Solution for Gilding. 
 
 Electro-gilding is done in like manner. The 
 gold is dissolved in nitro-hydrochloric acid, 
 washed with boiling nitric acid, and then digested 
 with calcined magnesia. The gold is deposited 
 in the form of an oxide, which after being washed 
 in boiling nitric acid, is dissolved in cyanide of 
 potassium, in which solution the articles to be 
 plated with ?. r "M> after due preparation, are placed. 
 Iron, steel, lead, and some other metals that do not 
 readily receive the gold deposit, require to be first 
 lightly plated with copper, or dipped in a solution 
 of nitrate of siver, 1 part; nitrate of mercury, 1 
 part; nitric acid (s. g. 1'384) 4 parts; water, 120 
 parts. The positive plate of the battery must be 
 of gold, the other plate of iron or copper. The 
 process is the same as that above described ; use a 
 feeble current. 
 
 The popular notion is, that genuine electro- 
 gilding must necessarily add a good deal to the 
 cost of the article plated. This is erroneous. A 
 silver thimble may be so handsomely plated as to 
 have the appearance of being all gold for 5 cents, 
 a pencil-case for 20 cents, and a watch-case for 1 
 dollar. An estimate of the relative v;ilue of elec- 
 tro-gilding, as compared with silver-plating, con- 
 sidering the cost of material alone, is about 15 to 1. 
 To Deposit Brass. 
 
 Dissolve 5 oz. powdered acetate of copper in 
 gall, of water, add 1 pt. of solution of anr~-n ; A. 
 Dissolve 10 oz. sulphate of zinc (white vitriOi; ,n 
 1 gall, of water, at 180 Fahr., and when cool add 
 1 pt. of solution of ammonia. Dissolve 4 Ibs. 
 potassa in 1 gall, of water. Lastly, dissolve 8 oz. 
 cyanide of potassium in 1 gall, of hot water. Mix 
 in the following order : add the copper solution to 
 that of zinc, then the potash and cyanide, digest 
 for an hour or so, and add water to make up 8 
 gall. Work with a brass anode and an active 
 battery power, occasionally adding more ammonia 
 and cyanide. 
 
 To Copy Medals. 
 
 Casts of the medals may be made in fusible 
 metal, plaster, wax, etc. In case of a non-metallic 
 mould it must have its face brushed over with 
 black lead. The metallic mould is to be coated 
 on the back with wax or varnish. The wire is 
 usually attached to the edge by soldering or twist- 
 ing. A decomposing cell is not necessary. A 
 water-tight box is divided by a porous (plaster or 
 leather) partition. On one side is a plate of zino 
 immersed in diluted, 1 to 20, sulphuric acid; on 
 the other a solution, kept saturated, of sulphate 
 of copper. A wire from the zinc is attached to a 
 
376 
 
 METALLURGY. 
 
 copper rod, from which the medals are suspended, 
 dipping into the copper solution. 
 
 To Bronze Copper Medals. 
 
 1. Brown. Moisten the surface, well cleaned, 
 with weak nitric acid, allow it to dry, and apply a 
 gentle heat. 
 
 2. Black, Use, instead of nitric acid, sulphy- 
 drate of ammonia or liver of sulphur. 
 
 3. Green. Expose in a close box to the fumes 
 of chloride of lime, or to the vapor of acetic or 
 muriatic acid. 
 
 4. For bronzing all sorts of fine copper or brass 
 work a weak solution of bichloride of platinum is 
 used. By varying the temperature and color, 
 between a steel gray and deep black may be 
 obtained. 
 
 To Deposit Copper on Iron. 
 
 Prepare a solution of cyanide of copper, by dis- 
 solving oxide of copper in cyanide of potassium, 
 or by adding cyanide of potassium to a solution 
 of sulphate of copper, and re-dissolving the pre- 
 cipitate formed. Work with a strong battery 
 power. The copper will not deposit unless the 
 current be strong enough to evolve hydrogen at 
 the cathode, which evolution should always be 
 avoided in depositing the other metals. 
 Voltaic Protection of Metals. 
 
 When two metals are united and exposed to a 
 corrosive agent, which would act unequally upon 
 them if separate, the one which would be most 
 acted on receives most of the force of the corrosion, 
 while the other escapes. Thus iron coated with 
 zinc (galvanized iron) will last for years exposed 
 to the atmosphere. Copper points on lightning- 
 rods remain bright for a long time, when screwed 
 into a zinc ball. 
 
 Coating Electrotype-plates with Iron. 
 
 The following has been successfully employed in 
 coating electrotype deposits with a coating of pure 
 iron, thereby rendering them little inferior to 
 iteel-plate engravings as regards durability: 
 
 Dissolve 1 Ib. of sal ammoniac in 1 gall, of rain- 
 water, then add 2 Ibs. of neutral acetate of iron ; 
 boil the solution in an iron-kettle for 2 hours, re- 
 placing the water lost by evaporation ; when cold, 
 filter the solution, and keep it in close-covered 
 vats (when not in use) to prevent oxidation. 
 
 The iron plate used in the decomposition-cell 
 must be of the same surface as the plate to be 
 coated with iron ; a Smee's battery, of at least 3 
 cells, charged with 1 part sulphuric acid, and 60 
 parts water, being used for the decomposition. 
 
 To insure success the following rules must be 
 observed: 1st. The plate must be thoroughly freed 
 from any greasy matter by immersing in a solu- 
 tion of caustic soda, then rinsed in clean cold rain- 
 water, after which dip it in dilute acetic acid, and 
 immediately transfer it to the solution of iron ; 
 this will insure perfect adhesion between the 
 metals. 2nd. The solution must be filtered pre- 
 vious to use to remove the oxide of iron formed by 
 exposure to the atmosphere. After the plates have 
 been coated with iron they must be well rinsed in 
 clear warm rain-water, then in a weak alkaline 
 solution, well dried with a piece of clean soft cot- 
 ton, and slightly oiled to prevent oxidation. 
 
 The coating of iron is very hard and brittle, re- 
 sembling the white iron used by manufacturers of 
 malleable iron. Should any of the surface be 
 damaged, the whole coating of iron may be re- 
 moved by immersion in dilute sulphuric acid, and 
 re-coated again by the above process. 
 
 Copper Tubes made by Galvanic Process. 
 
 Le Genie Industrial publishes the details of a 
 process for making copper-tubes without soldering, 
 
 which consists simply in depositing copper upon 
 lead patterns by the galvanic battery, and then 
 melting out the lead. It is said to work perfectly, 
 and of course tubes could be made uf any desired 
 form straight, curved, or right-angled. This 
 suggests the idea of forming tubes in the same 
 manner with cores of wax or clay. The clay may 
 be forced into the size of the pipe through a draw- 
 plate, then allowed to harden slightly, when it 
 may be covered with plumbago and an electro- 
 deposit of- copper made upon it with a galvanic 
 battery. When the copper is deposited in suffi- 
 cient thickness the clay may be removed from th 
 interior by boiling the pipe in water. To conduct 
 this manufacture it would require long depositing- 
 troughs, and the expense would probably be too 
 great for making straight copper-tubes ; but for 
 curved tubes, such as the worms of stills, it would 
 perhaps pay. Curved copper-tubes are commonly 
 made by filling straight tubes with hot resin, then 
 twisting the entire tube into its curved form. 
 When the resin becomes cool it is driven out by 
 striking the pipe, which breaks the resin-core into 
 small pieces. 
 
 GILDING, SILVERING, AND TINNING. 
 
 To Gild Glass and Porcelain. 
 
 Drinking and other glasses are sometimes gilt 
 on their edges. This is done, either by an adhe- 
 sive varnish, or by heat. The varnish is prepared 
 by dissolving in boiled linseed-oil an equal weight 
 either of copal or amber. This is to be diluted by 
 a proper quantity of oil of turpentine, so as to be 
 applied as thin as possible to the parts of the glaf v 
 intended to be gilt. When this is done, which 
 will be in about 24 hours, the glass is to be placed 
 in a stove, till it is so warm as almost to burn the 
 fingers when handled. At this temperature the 
 varnish will become adhesive, and a piece of leaf- 
 gold, applied in the usual way, will immediately 
 stick. Sweep off the superfluous portions of the 
 leaf; and when quite cold it may be burnished, 
 taking care to interpose a piece of very thin paper 
 (Indian paper) between the gold and the burnisher. 
 If the varnish is very good, this is the best method 
 of gilding glass, as the gold is thus fixed on more 
 evenly than in any other way. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 It often happens, when the varnish is but indif- 
 ferent, that by repeated washing the gold wears 
 off; on this account the practice of burning it in 
 is sometimes had recourse to. 
 
 For this purpose some gold powder is ground 
 with borax, and in this state applied to the clean 
 surface of the glass by a camel's-hair pencil. 
 When quite dry the glass is put into a stove 
 heated to about the temperature of an annealing 
 oven ; the gum burns off, and the borax, by vitre- 
 fying, cements the gold with great firmness to the 
 glass, after which it may be burnished. The gild- 
 ing upon porcelain is in like manner fixed by heat 
 and the use of borax ; and this kind of ware being 
 neither transparent nor liable to soften, and thus 
 to be injured in its form, in a low red heat, is free 
 from the risk and injury which the finer and more 
 fusible kinds of glass are apt tc sustain from such 
 treatment.. Porcelain and other wares may be 
 platinized, silvered, tinned, and bronzed in a sim- 
 ilar manner. 
 
 Preparation for Gilding Porcelain. 
 
 This preparation, the invention of the brothers 
 Dutuste, is reported on by Salvetat. The peculiar 
 advantage of it is, that after burning the gold is 
 so bright as not to require polishing. Thirty-two 
 grammes of gold are gently warmed with 128 
 
GILDING, SILVERING, AND TINNING. 
 
 377 
 
 grammes of nitric acid and the same weight of 
 hydrochloric acid. To the solution are added 1'2 
 grammes of tin and 1'2 grammes of butter of an- 
 timony, and, when all are dissolved, the solution 
 is diluted with 500 grammes of water. 
 
 A mixture is now prepared by heating" together 
 80 grammes of oil of turpentine. 16 grammes of 
 sulphur, and 16 grammes of Venice turpentine. 
 When the sulphur is dissolved 50 grammes of oil 
 of lavender is added. The gold solution is now 
 added, and the two are well stirred together, until 
 the aqueous solution becomes decolorized, showing 
 that all the gold has united with the balsam. The 
 watery portion is then poured away, and the oily 
 fluid is washed with warm water, and then heated. 
 When the last trace of moisture has disappeared, 
 65 grammes more of lavender oil and 100 grammes 
 of oil of turpentine are added, and the whole 
 warmed to insure the perfect admixture. While 
 quite fluid 5 grammes of subnitrate of bismuth 
 are added. Afterwards the clear part is decanted 
 from any reduced gold and other insoluble mat- 
 and the balsam is concentrated to a fit consistence 
 for painting with. The balsam so prepared is a 
 thick fluid, of a pale-green color, the gold being 
 perfectly dissolved. When proper care is taken 
 to remove all moisture this prepa* ition never blis- 
 ters in burning. 
 
 To Gild Leather-. 
 
 In order to impress gilt figures, letters, and 
 other marks upon leather, as on the covers of 
 books, edgings for doors, etc., the leather must 
 first be dusted over with very finely powdered 
 yellow resin or mastic gum. The iron tools or 
 stamps are now arranged on a rack before a clear 
 fire, so as to be well heated, without becoming red 
 hot. If the tools are letters, they have an alpha- 
 betical arrangement on the rack. Each letter or 
 stamp must be tried, as to its heat, by imprinting 
 its mark on the raw side of a piece of waste leather. 
 A little practice will enable the workman to judge 
 of the heat. The tool is now to be pressed down- 
 wards on the gold-leaf, which will of course be 
 indented, and show the figure imprinted on it. 
 The next letter or stamp is now to be taken and 
 stamped in like manner, and so on with the others, 
 taking care to keep the letters in an even line with 
 each other, like those in a book. By this opera- 
 tion the resin is melted, consequently the gold ad- 
 heres to the leather. The superfluous gold may 
 then be rubbed off by a cloth, the gilded impres- 
 sions remaining on the leather. In this, as in 
 every other operation, adroitness is acquired by 
 practice. 
 
 The cloth alluded to should be slightly greasy, 
 to retain the gold wiped off (otherwise there will 
 be great waste in a few months); the cloth will 
 thus be soon completely saturated or loaded with 
 the gold. When this is the case, these cloths are 
 generally sold to the refiners, who burn them and 
 recover the gold. Some of these afford so much 
 gold by burning as to be worth from seven to ten 
 dollars. 
 
 To Gild Writings, Drawings, etc. on Paper or 
 Parchment. 
 
 Letters written on velum or paper are gilded in 
 3 ways : in the first, a little size is mixed with the 
 ink, and the letters are written as usual ; when 
 they are dry, a slight degree of stickiness is pro- 
 duced by breathing on them, upon which the gold 
 leaf is immediately applied, and by a little press- 
 ure may be made to adhere with sufficient firm- 
 ness. In the second method, some white-lead or 
 chalk is ground up with strong size, and the let- 
 ters are made with this by means of a brush; 
 when the mixture is almost dry the gold leaf may 
 
 be laid on, and afterwards burnished. The last 
 method is to mix up some gold powder with size, 
 and to form the letters of this by means of a brush. 
 It is supposed that this latter method was that used 
 by the monks in illuminating their missals, psal- 
 ters, and rubrics. 
 
 To Gild the Edges of Paper. 
 
 The edges of the leaves of books and letter 
 paper are gilded whilst in a horizontal position in 
 the bookbinder's press, by first applying a com- 
 position formed of four parts of Armenian bole, 
 and one of candied sugar, ground together with 
 water to a proper consistence, and laid on by a 
 brush, with the white of an egg. This coating, 
 when nearly dry, is smoothed by the burnisher, 
 which is generally a crooked piece of agate, very 
 smooth, and fixed in a handle. It is then slightly 
 moistened by a sponge dipped in clean water, and 
 squeezed in the hand. The gold-leaf is now taken 
 upon a piece of cotton from the leathern cushion, 
 and applied on the moistened surface. When dry 
 it is to be burnished by rubbing the agate over it 
 repeatedly from end to end, taking care not to 
 wound the surface by the point of the burnisher. 
 A piece of silk or India-paper is usually inter- 
 posed between the gold and the burnisher. 
 
 Cotton-wool is generally used by bookbinders to 
 take the leaf up from the cushion, being the best 
 adapted for the purpose on account of its pliabil- 
 ity, smoothness, softness, and slight moistness. 
 
 To Gild Silk, Satin, Ivory, etc., by Hydrogen Gas. 
 
 Immerse a piece of white satin, silk, or ivory in 
 
 a solution of chloride of gold, in the proportion of 
 
 1 part of the chloride to 3 of distilled water. 
 Whilst the substance to be gilded is still wet, im- 
 merse it in ajar of hydrogen gas; it will soon be 
 covered by a complete coat of gold. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 The foregoing experiment may be very prettily 
 and advantageously varied as follows : Paint flow- 
 ers or other ornaments with a very fine camel-hair 
 pencil, dipped in the above-mentioned solution of 
 gold, on pieces of silk, satin, etc., and hold them 
 over a Florence flask, from which hydrogen gas 
 is evolved, during the decomposition of the water 
 by sulphuric acid and iron filings. The painted 
 flowers, etc., in a few minutes, will shine with all 
 the splendor of the purest gold. A coating of this 
 kind will not tarnish on exposure to the air or in 
 washing. 
 
 Oil Gilding on Wood. 
 
 The wood must first be covered, or primed, by 
 
 2 or 3 coatings of boiled linseed-oil and carbonate 
 of lead, in order to fill up the pores and conceal 
 the irregularities of the surface occasioned by the 
 veins in the wood. When the priming is quite 
 dry a thin coat of gold size must be laid on. This 
 is prepared by grinding together some red oxide 
 of lead with the thickest drying oil that can be 
 procured, and the older the better. That it may 
 work freely, it is to be mixed, previously to being 
 used, with a little oil of turpentine, till it ia brought 
 to a proper consistence. If the gold-size is good 
 it will be sufficiently dry in 12 hours, more or less, 
 to allow the artist to proceed to the last part of the 
 process, which is the application of the gold. For 
 this purpose a leaf of gold is spread on a cushion 
 (formed by a few folds of flannel secured on a 
 piece of wood, about 8 inches square, by a tight 
 covering of leather), and is cut into strips of a 
 proper size by a blunt pallet-knife; each strip, 
 being then taken upon the point of a fine brush, 
 is applied to the part intended to be gilded, and is 
 then gently pressed down by a ball of soft cotton. 
 The gold immediately adheres to the sticky sur- 
 
378 
 
 METALLUKGY. 
 
 face of the size, and, after a few minutes, the dex- 
 terous application of a large camel's-hair brush 
 sweeps away the loose particles of the gold-leaf 
 without disturbing the rest. In a day or two the 
 eize will be completely dried, and the operation 
 will be finished. 
 
 The advantages of this method of gilding are 
 that it is very simple, very durable, and not readily 
 injured by changes of weather, even when exposed 
 to the open air; and when soiled it may be cleaned 
 by a little warm water and a soft brush. Its chief 
 employment is in out-door work. Its disadvan- 
 tage is that it cannot be burnished, and therefore 
 wants the high lustre produced by the following 
 method : 
 
 To Gild by Burnishing. 
 
 This operation is chiefly performed on picture 
 frames, mouldings, headings, and fine stucco-work. 
 The surface to be gilt must be carefully covered 
 with a strong size, made by boiling down pieces 
 of white leather or clippings of parchment till 
 they are reduced to a stiff jelly. This coating 
 being dried, 8 or 10 more must be applied, con- 
 iisting of the same size, mixed with fine Paris 
 plaster or washed chalk. When a sufficient num- 
 ber of layers have been put on, varying according 
 to the nature of the work, and the whole is be- 
 come quite dry, a moderately thick layer must be 
 applied, composed of size and Armenian bole, or 
 yellow oxide of lead. While this last is yet moist 
 the gold-leaf is to be put on in the usual manner. 
 It will immediately adhere on being pressed by 
 the cotton ball; and, before the size is become 
 perfectly dry, those parts which are intended to 
 be the most brilliant are to be carefully burnished 
 by an agate or a dogs' tooth, fixed in a handle. 
 
 In order to save the labor of burnishing, it is a 
 common, but bad practice, slightly to burnish the 
 brilliant parts, and to deaden the rest by drawing 
 a brush over them dipped in size ; the required 
 contrast between the polished and the unpolished 
 gold is indeed thus obtained ; but the general effect 
 is much inferior to that produced in the regular 
 way, and the smallest drop of water falling on the 
 sized part occasions a stain. This kind of gilding 
 can only be applied on in-door work; as rain, and 
 even a considerable degree of dampness, will occa- 
 sion the. gold to peal off. When dirty it may be 
 cleaned by a soft brush, with hot spirit of wine, or 
 oil of turpentine. 
 
 Matting. 
 
 The parts to be burnished (in gilding on metals) 
 being: covered with the usual guarding, the piece 
 is fastened by five iron wires to the end of an iron 
 rod; it is then to be highly heated until the guard- 
 ing becomes brown, when the gilding will be found 
 to have acquired a fine gold color. It is now to 
 be covered with a mixture of common salt, nitre, 
 and alum, liquefied in the water of crystallization 
 they contain ; the piece to be carried again to the 
 fire and heated until the saline coating is in a 
 state of fusion and becomes nearly transparent, 
 when it must be withdrawn and suddenly plunged 
 into cold water, which removes both coating and 
 guarding. Dip it afterwards in very weak nitric 
 acid, and wash it repeatedly in several separate 
 tubs of water. It may be dried either by exposure 
 to air, or gently wiping it with clean, soft, dry 
 linen. 
 
 To Gild Copper, etc., by Amalgam. 
 
 Immerse a very clean bright piece of copper in 
 a diluted solution of nitrate of mercury. By the 
 affinity of copper for nitric acid, the mercury will 
 be precipitated ; now spread the amalgam of gold 
 rather thinly over the coat of mercury just given 
 to the copper. This coat unites with the amal- 
 
 gam, but of course will remain on the copper. 
 Now place the piece or pieces so operated on in a 
 clean oven or furnace, where there is no smoke. 
 If the heat is a little greater than 660, the mer- 
 cury of the amalgam will be volatilized, and the 
 copper will be beautifully gilt. 
 
 In the large way of gilding, the furnaces are so 
 contrived that the volatilized mercury is again 
 condensed and preserved for further use, so that 
 there is no loss in the operation. There is also a 
 contrivance by which the volatile particles of mer- 
 cury are prevented from injuring the gilders. 
 
 To Gild Steel. 
 
 Pour some of the ethereal solution of chloride 
 of gold into a wineglass, and dip therein the blade 
 of a new penknife, lancet, or razor; withdraw the 
 instrument and allow the ether to evaporate. The 
 blade will be found to be covered by a very beatf- 
 tiful coat of gold. A clean rag, or small piece of 
 very dry sponge, may be dipped in the ether and 
 used to moisten the blade with the same result. 
 
 In this case there is no occasion to pour the 
 liquid into a glass, which must undoubtedly lose 
 by evaporation ; but the rag or sponge may be 
 moistened by it by applying ether to the mouth 
 of the phial. This coating of gold will remain on 
 the steel for a great length of time, and will pre- 
 serve it from rusting. 
 
 This is the way in which swords and other cut- 
 lery are ornamented. Lancets too are in this way 
 gilded with great advantage to secure them from 
 rust. 
 
 Gold Powder for Gilding. 
 
 Gold powder may be prepared in three different 
 ways : Put into an earthen mortar some gold-leaf 
 with a little honey or thick gum-water, and grind 
 the mixture till the gold is reduced to extremely 
 minute particles. When this is done, a little warm 
 water will wash out the honey or gum, leaving the 
 gold behind in a pulverulent state. 
 
 Another. Another way is, to dissolve pure gold 
 (or the leaf) in nitro-muriatic acid, and then to 
 precipitate it by a piece of copper, or by a solution 
 of sulphate of iron. The precipitate (if by cop- 
 per) must be digested in distilled vinegar and then 
 washed (by pouring water over it repeatedly) and 
 dried. This precipitate will be in the form of a 
 very fine powder; it works better and is more 
 easily burnished than gold-leaf ground with honey 
 as above. 
 
 Another. The best method of preparing gold 
 powder is by heating a prepared amalgam of gold 
 in an open clean crucible, and continuing the 
 strong heat until the whole of the mercury is 
 evaporated; at the same time constantly stirring 
 the amalgam with a glass rod. When the mer- 
 cury has completely left the gold, the remaining 
 powder is to be ground in a Wedgwood mortar, 
 with a little water, and afterwards dried. It is 
 then fit for use. 
 
 Although the last mode of operating has been 
 here given, the operator cannot be too much re- 
 minded of the danger attending the sublimation 
 of mercury. In the small way here described, it is 
 impossible to operate without danger; it is there- 
 fore better to prepare it according to the former 
 directions, than to risk the health by the latter. 
 
 To Cover Bars of Copper, etc.. with Gold, so as to 
 
 be Rolled out into Sheets. 
 
 This method of gilding was invented by Mr. 
 Turner of Birmingham. Mr. Turner first pre- 
 pares ingots or pieces of copper or brass, in con- 
 venient lengths and sizes. He then cleans them 
 from impurity, and makes their surfaces level, and 
 prepares plates of pure gold, or gold mixed with 
 
GILDING, SILVERING AND TINNING. 
 
 379 
 
 a portion of alloy, of the same size as the ingots 
 of metal, and of suitable thickness. Having placed 
 apiece of gold upon an ingot intended to be plated, 
 he hammers and compresses them both together, 
 so that they may have their surfaces as nearly 
 equal to each other as possible; and then binds 
 them together with wire, in order to keep them in 
 the same position during the process required to 
 attach them. Afterwards he takes silver-filings 
 which he mixes with borax to assist the fusion of 
 the silver. This mixture he lays upon the edge of 
 the plate of gold, and next to the ingot of metal. 
 
 Having thus prepared the two bodies, he places 
 them on a fire in a stove or furnace, where they 
 remain until the silver and borax placed along the 
 edges of the metals melt, and until the adhesion 
 of the gold with the metal is perfect. He then 
 takes the ingot carefully out of the stove. By this 
 process the ingot is placed with gold, and prepared 
 ready for rolling into sheets. 
 
 To Silver Copper Ingots. 
 
 The principal difficulties in plating copper in- 
 gots are, to bring the surfaces of the copper and 
 silver into fusion at the same time; and to prevent 
 the copper from scaling ; for which purposes fluxes 
 are used. The surface of the copper on which the 
 silver is to be fixed must be made flat by filing, 
 and should be left rough. The silver is first an- 
 nealed, and afterwards pickled in weak muriatic 
 acid: it is planished, and then scraped on the sur- 
 face to be fitted on the copper. These prepared 
 surfaces are anointed with a solution of borax, or 
 strewed with fine powdered borax itself, and then 
 confined in contact with each other, by binding 
 wire. When they are exposed to a sufficient de- 
 gree of heat, the flux causes the surfaces to fuse at 
 the same time, and after they become cold they 
 are found firmly united. 
 
 Copper may likewise be plated by heating it, 
 and burnishing leaf-silver upon it; so may iron 
 and brass. This process is called French-plating. 
 Grecian Gilding. 
 
 Equal parts of sal-ammoniac and corrosive sub- 
 limate, are dissolved in spirit of nitre, and a solu- 
 tion of gold made with this menstruum. The silver 
 is brushed over with it, which is turned black, but 
 on exposure to a red heat, it assumes the color of 
 gold. 
 
 To Dissolve Gold in Aqua Regia. 
 
 Take an aqua regia, composed of 2 parts of 
 nitric acid, and 1 of muriatic acid ; let the gold be 
 granulated, put into a sufficient quantity of this 
 menstruum, and exposed to a moderate degree of 
 heat. During the solution an effervescence takes 
 place, and it acquires a beautiful yellow color, 
 which becomes more and more intense, till it has 
 a golden or even orange color. When the men- 
 struum is saturated, it is very clear and trans- 
 parent. 
 
 To Gild, by Dissolving Gold in Aqua Regia. 
 
 Fine linen rags are soaked in a saturated solu- 
 tion of gold in aqua regia, gently dried, and after- 
 wards burnt to tinder. The substance to be gilt 
 must be well polished; a piece of cork is first dip- 
 ped into a solution of common salt in water, and 
 afterwards into the tinder, which is well rubbed 
 on the surface of the metal to be gilt, and the gold 
 appears in all its metallic lustre. 
 
 Amalgam of Gold in the large way. 
 
 A quantity of quicksilver is put into a crucible 
 or iron ladle, which is lined with clay and exposed 
 to heat till it begins to smoke. The gold to be 
 mixed should be previously granulated, and heated 
 red hot, when it should be added to the quicksil- 
 ver, and stirred about with an iron rod till it is 
 
 perfectly dissolved. If there should be any super- 
 fluous mercury, it may be separated by passing it 
 through clean soft leather; and the remaining 
 amalgam will have the consistence of butter, and 
 contain about 3 parts of mercury to 1 of gold. 
 
 To Gild by Amalgamation. 
 
 The metal to be gilt is previously well cleaned 
 on its surface, by boiling it in a weak pickle, which 
 is a very dilute nitrous acid. A quantity of aqua- 
 fortis is poured into an earthen vessel, and quick- 
 silver put therein ; when a sufficient quantity of 
 mercury is dissolved, the articles to be gilt are 
 put into the solution, and stirred about with a 
 brush till they become white. This is called quick- 
 ing. But, as during quicking by this mode, a nox- 
 ious vapor continually arises, whieh proves very 
 injurious to the health of the workman, they have 
 adopted another method, by which they, in a great 
 measure, avoid that danger. They now dissolve 
 the quicksilver in a bottle containing aqua-fortis, 
 and leave it in the open air during the solution, so 
 that the noxious vapor escapes into the air. Then 
 a little of this solution is poured into a basin, and 
 with a brush dipped therein, they stroke over the 
 surface of the metal to be gilt, which immediately 
 becomes quicked. The amalgam is now applied 
 by one of the following methods, viz : 
 
 1st. By proportioning it to the quantity of arti- 
 cles to be gilt, and putting them into a white hat 
 together, working them about with a soft brush, 
 till the amalgam is uniformly spread. 
 
 Or, 2dly. By applying a portion of the amalgam 
 upon one part, and spreading it on the surface, if 
 flat, by working it about with a harder brush. 
 
 The work thus managed is put into a pan, and 
 exposed to a gentle degree of heat ; when it becomes 
 hot, it is frequently put into a hat, and worked 
 about with a painter's large brush, to prevent an 
 irregular dissipation of the mercury, till at last the 
 quicksilver is entirely dissipated by a repetition of 
 the heat, and the gold is attached to the surface of 
 the metal. This gilt surface is well cleaned by a 
 wire brush, and then artists heighten the color of 
 the gold by the application of various compositions, 
 this part of the process is called coloring. 
 
 Silvering Powders. 
 
 For silvering copper, covering the worn parts 
 of plated goods, etc. 
 
 1. Nitrate of silver, common salt, each 30 grs. ; 
 cream of tartar, 3 drs. Mix. Moisten with cold 
 water and rub on the article to be silvered. 
 
 2. Pure silver (precipitated from the nitrate by 
 copper), 20 grs. ; alum 30 grs. ; cream of tartar, 2 
 drs. ; salt, 2 drs. 
 
 3. Precipitated silver, \ oz. ; common salt, sal 
 ammoniac, each 2 oz. ; corrosive sublimate, 1 dr. 
 Make into a paste with water. Copper utensils 
 are previously boiled with cream of tartar and 
 alum, rubbed with this paste made red hot and 
 afterwards polished. 
 
 4. Nitrate of silver, 1 part; cyanide of potas- 
 sium, 3 parts; water enough to make a paste. 
 
 Removing Silver from Injured Plated Ware. 
 Among the many branches of manufacturing at 
 Nuremberg* in Germany, that of metals into va- 
 rious articles has obtained considerable impor- 
 tance. They include silver-plated ware of different 
 styles and quality ; which necessarily produce 
 large quantities of spoiled materials and clippings, 
 the recovery of which has hitherto been very im- 
 perfectly accomplished; thus causing annually a 
 considerable loss. The reason of it was, the want 
 of a method by which the silver might be removed 
 without much expense, and the copper thus forced 
 from its coating used again. 
 
380 
 
 METALLURGY. 
 
 Repeated experiments have led to a very simple 
 process, by the action of concentrated nitric acid 
 on silver and copper when present together. If 
 these metals are placed into common commercial 
 acid, (sp. gr. 1'47) they will both be strongly acted 
 on; but a separation of the two is unattainable, 
 since the copper, so long as any remains undis- 
 solved, will precipitate the silver from its solution 
 by galvanic action. Nitric acid of the highest 
 specific gravity (1'5), however, acts on the silver, 
 but not on the copper; it renders the copper more 
 electro-negative than before, less oxidizable, and 
 deprives it of the property of decomposing the 
 acid, and precipitating the silver. 
 
 To produce this passive condition of copper, it 
 is not absolutely necessary to employ directly acid 
 of that specific gravity ; for any concentrated 
 nitric acid can be made to answer the purpose by 
 the addition -of a sufficient quantity of the oil of 
 vitriol, which deprives it of a portion of its water, 
 and thus contributes to make it stronger. A mix- 
 ture of one volume of nitric acid (sp. gr. 1,47) and 
 six of vitriol does not dissolve copper at the tem- 
 perature of boiling water ; but with a smaller pro- 
 portion of sulphuric acid, evolution of nitrous acid 
 takes place. The same end and much cheaper, 
 is obtained by employing a mixture of oil of vitriol 
 and nitrate of soda, which are the materials used 
 in the practice. The following is the method now 
 generally employed: Oil of vitriol, together with 
 five per cent, of nitrate of soda, is heated in a 
 cast-iron boiler ; or better, a stoneware pan, to 
 212 Fahr. The silver-plated clippings are placed 
 in a sheet-iron bucket or colander, which is fast- 
 ened to a pulley that may be moved about in the 
 acid. As soon as the silver is removed, the colan- 
 der is raised, allowed to drain, then immersed in 
 cold water and emptied, to be again used in the 
 samo manner. When the acid-bath is fresh, the 
 desilvering proceeds very rapidly, and even with 
 heavy plated ware takes but a few minutes; with 
 the gradual saturation of the bath more time is 
 required, and it is readily perceived when the acid 
 must be renewed. The small amount of acid solu- 
 tion adhering to the copper, precipitates its silver 
 when brought into the water. To obtain its com- 
 plete removal, the clippings, when raised from the 
 desilvering bath and before immersion in water, 
 may be dipped into a second bath prepared in the 
 same manner, which is afterwards to be used in 
 place of the first. 
 
 The saturated bath, on cooling, congeals to a 
 crystalline semi fluid mass of sulphate of copper 
 and of soda. The silver is removed by chloride 
 of sodium, which is added in small portions at a 
 time, while the solution is yet warm. The chloride 
 of silver separates readily, and is washed and re- 
 duced in the usual manner. The acid solution 
 contains but a very small portion of copper, hardly 
 enough to pay for recovering. 
 
 Another Method, 
 
 This process is applied to recover the silver from 
 the plated metal, which has been rolled down for 
 buttons, toys, etc., without destroying any large 
 portion of the copper. For this purpose, a men- 
 struum is composed of 3 Ibs. of oil of vitriol, 1 
 oz. of nitre, and 1 Ib. of water. The plated metal 
 is boiled in it till the silver is dissolved, and then 
 the silver is recovered by throwing common salt 
 into the solution. 
 
 To Plate Iron. 
 
 Iron may be plated by three different modes. 
 
 1. By polishing the surface very clean and level 
 with a burnisher, and afterwards by exposing it 
 to a blueing heat, a leaf of silver is properly placed 
 and carefully burnished down. This is repeated 
 
 till a sufficient number of leaves are applied, to 
 give the silver a proper body. 
 
 2. By the use of a solder; slips of thin solder 
 are placed between the iron and silver, with a little 
 flux, and secured together by binding wire. It is 
 then placed in a clear fire, and continued in it till 
 the solder melts ; when it is taken out, and on 
 cooling is found to adhere firmly. 
 
 3. By tinning the iron first, and uniting the 
 silver by the intermedia of slips of rolled tin, 
 brought into fusion in a gentle beat. 
 
 To Heighten the Color of Yellow Gold. 
 
 Take of saltpetre, 6 oz. ; green copperas, 2 oz. ; 
 white vitriol and alum, of each, 1 oz. 
 
 If it be wanted redder, a small portion of 
 blue vitriol must be added. These p,re to be 
 well mixed, and dissolved in water as the color 
 is wanted. 
 
 To Heighten the Color of Green Gjld. 
 
 Take of saltpetre, 1 oz. 10 dwts. ; sa^ ammoni- 
 ac, 1 oz. 4 dwts.; Roman vitriol, 1 02, 4 ctwt.s. ; 
 verdigris, 18 dwta. Mix them well together and 
 dissolve a portion in water, as occasion requires. 
 
 The work must be dipped in these compositions, 
 applied to a proper heat to burn them off, and 
 then quenched in water or vinegar. 
 
 To Heighten the Color of Red Gold. 
 
 To 4 oz. of melted yellow wax, add, in fine 
 powder, 1^ ox. of red ochre, 1 oz. of verdigris, 
 calcined till it yield no fumes, and \ wt. of calcined 
 borax ; mix them well together. It is necessary 
 to calcine the verdigris, or else by the heat applied 
 in burning the wax, the vinegar becomes so con- 
 centrated as to corrode the surface, and make it 
 appear speckled. 
 
 To Separate Gold from Gilt, Copper and Silver. 
 
 Apply a solution of borax, in water, to the gilt 
 surface, with a fine brush, and sprinkle over it 
 some fine powdered sulphur. Make the piece red- 
 hot, and quench it in water. The gold may be 
 easily wiped off with a scratch-brush, and recov- 
 ered by cupellation. 
 
 Gold is taken from the surface of silver by 
 spreading over it a paste made of powdered sal 
 ammoniac, with aqua-fortis, and heating it till the 
 matter smokes, and is nearly dry, when the gold 
 may be separated by rubbing it with a scratch- 
 brush. 
 
 To Tin Copper and Brass. 
 
 Boil 6 Ibs. of cream of tartar, 4 galls, of water, 
 and 8 Ibs. of grain-tin, or tin shavings. After 
 the materials have boiled a sufficient time, the sub- 
 stance to be tinned is put therein and the boiling 
 continued, when the tin is precipitated in its me- 
 tallic form. 
 
 To Tin Iron or Copper-plate. 
 
 Iron which is to be tinned is first steeped in acid 
 materials, such as sour whey, distillers' wash, etc., 
 then scoured and dipped in melted tin, having 
 been first rubbed over with a solution of sal am- 
 moniac. The surface of the tin is prevented from 
 calcining by covering it with a coat of fat. Cop-, 
 per vessels must be well cleansed, and then a ?uf- 
 ficient quantity of tin with sal ammoniac is put 
 therein and brought into fusion, and the copper 
 vessel moved about. A little resin is sometimes 
 added. The sal ammoniac prevents the copper 
 from scaling, and causes the tin to be fixed wher- 
 ever it touches. 
 
 To prepare the Leaden Tree, 
 
 Put i oz. of the sugar of lead, in powder, into a 
 clear glass globe or wine decanter, filled to the 
 bottom of the neck with distilled water and 10 
 drops of nitric acid, and shake the mixture well. 
 
IRON AND STEEL. 
 
 331 
 
 Prepare a rod of zinc with a hammer and file, so 
 that it may be a quarter of an inch thick and 1 
 inch long, at the same time form notches in each 
 Bide for a thread, by which it is to be suspended, 
 and tie the thread so that the knot shall be up- 
 permost when the metal hangs quite perpendicu- 
 lar. When it is tied, pass the two ends of the 
 thread through a perforation in the cork, and let 
 them be again tied over a small splinter of wood 
 which may pass between them and the cork. 
 When the string is tied, let the length between 
 the cork and the zinc be such that the precipitant 
 (the zinc) may be at equal distances from the 
 sides, bottom and top of the vessel, when immersed 
 in it. When all things are thus prepared, place 
 the vessel in a place where it may not be disturbed, 
 and introduce the zinc, at the same time fitting in 
 the cork. The metal will very soon be covered 
 with the lead, which it precipitates from the solu- 
 tion, and this will continue to take place until the 
 whole be precipitated upon the zinc, which will 
 assume the form of a tree or bush, the leaves and 
 branches of which are laminal, or plates of a 
 metallic lustre. 
 
 To prepare the Tin Tree. 
 
 Into the same, or a similar vessel to that used 
 in the last experiment, pour distilled water as be- 
 fore, and put in 3 drs. of chloride of tin, adding 
 10 drops of nitric acid, and shake the vessel until 
 the salt is completely dissolved. Replace the 
 zinc (which must be cleared from the effects of the 
 former experiment) as before, and set the whole 
 aside to precipitate without disturbance. In a 
 few hours the effect will be similar to the last, only 
 that the tree of tin will have more lustre. 
 
 To prepare the Silver Tree. 
 
 Pour into a glass globe or decanter 4 drs. of ni- 
 trate of silver dissolved in a Ib. or more of dis- 
 tilled water, and lay the vessel on the chimney- 
 pieoe, or in some place where it may not be dis- 
 turbed. Now pour in 4 drs. of mercury. In a 
 short time the silver will be precipitated in the 
 most beautiful arborescent form, resembling real 
 vegetation. This has been termed the Arbor 
 Dianse. 
 
 Chinese Sheet-lead. 
 
 The operation is carried on by two men ; one 
 is seated on the floor with a large flat stone before 
 him, and with a movable flat stone-stand at his 
 side. His fellow-workman stands beside him with 
 a crucible filled with melted lead, and having 
 poured a certain quantity upon the stone, the 
 other lifts the movable stone, and dashing it on 
 the fluid lead presses it out into a flat and thin 
 plate, which he instantly removes from the stone. 
 A second quantity of lead is poured in a similar 
 way, and a similar plate formed, the process being 
 carried on with singular rapidity. The rough 
 edges of the plates are then cut off, and they are 
 loldered together for use. 
 
 IRON AND STEEL. 
 
 Expeditious Mode of Reducing Iron Ore into Mal- 
 leable Iron. 
 
 The way of proceeding is by stamping, wash- 
 ing, etc., the calcine and materials, to separate the 
 ore from extraneous matter; then fusing the pre- 
 pared ore in an open furnace, and instead of cast- 
 ing it, to suffer it to remain at the bottom of the 
 furnace till it becomes cold. 
 New Method of Shingling and Manufacturing Iron, 
 
 The ore being fused in a reverberating furnace, 
 is conveyed, while fluid, into an air-furnace, where 
 it is exposed to a strong heat till a bluish flame 
 
 is observed on the surface, it is then agitated on 
 the surface till it loses its fusibility and is collected 
 into lumps called loops. These loops are then put 
 into another air-furnace, brought to a white or 
 welding heat, and then shingled into half bloomt 
 or slabes. They are again exposed to the nir-fur- 
 nace, and the half-blooms taken out and forged 
 into anconies, bars, half-flats, and rods fortctre/ 
 while the slabes are passed, when of a welding 
 heat, through the grooved rollers. In this way 
 of proceeding, it matters not whether the iron is 
 prepared from cold or hot- short metal, nor is there 
 any occasion for the use of finery, charcoal, coke, 
 chafery or hollow-fire; or any blast by bellows or 
 otherwise, or the use of fluxes in any part of the 
 j,rocess. 
 
 Approved Method of Welding Iron. 
 
 This consists in the skilful bundling of the iron 
 to be welded, in the use of an extraordinarily large 
 forge-hammer, in employing a balling-furnace, in- 
 stead of a hollow-fire or chafery, and in passing 
 the iron, reduced to a melting heat, through 
 grooved mill rollers of different shapes and sizes, 
 as required. 
 
 Welding Steel, or Iron and Cast Steel. 
 
 Melt borax in an earthen vessel, and add 1- 
 10th of pounded sal ammoniac. When well mixed, 
 pour it out on an iron plate, and as soon as it is 
 cold, pulverize and mix it with an equal quantity 
 of unslaked lime. To proceed to the operation, 
 the iron or steel must be first heated to a red 
 heat, and the powder strewed over it; the pieces 
 of metal thus prepared are to be again put in the 
 fire, and raised to a heat considerably lower than 
 the usual welding one, when it is to be withdrawn 
 and well beaten by a hammer till the surfaces are 
 perfectly united. 
 
 Welding by Pressure. 
 
 Soft metals can be welded cold by great pres- 
 sure, and recently hydraulic pressure has been 
 applied by M. Duportail to the welding of heated 
 masses of iron. The advantage of pressure over 
 hammering, is that it reaches the centre of the 
 bar and produces a homogeneous weld. 
 Common Hardening. 
 
 Iron by being heated red-hot, and plunged into 
 cold water, acquires a great degree of hardness. 
 This proceeds from the coldness of the water 
 which contracts the particles of the iron into less 
 space. 
 
 Case-hardening. 
 
 Case-hardening is a superficial conversion of 
 iron into steel by cementation. It is performed 
 on small pieces of iron by enclosing them in an 
 iron box containing burnt leather, bone-dust, or 
 ferrocyanide of potassium, and exposing them for 
 some hours to a red heat. The surface of the iron 
 thus becomes perfectly hardened. Iron thus 
 treated is susceptible of the finest polish. 
 
 To Convert Iron into Steel by Cementation. 
 
 The iron is formed into bars of a convenient 
 size, and then placed in a cementing furnace with 
 a sufficient quantity of cement, which is composed 
 of coals of animal or vegetable substances, mixed 
 with calcined bones, etc. The following are excel- 
 lent cements : 1st, 1 part of powdered charcoal 
 and i a part of wood-ashes well mixed together ; 
 or, 2nd, 2 parts of charcoal, moderately pow- 
 dered, 1 part of borax, horn, hair, or skins of 
 animals, burnt in close vessels to blackness, and 
 powdered, and a part of wood-ashes ; mix them 
 well together. The bars of iron converted into 
 steel, are placed upon a stratum of cement, and 
 covered all over with the same, and the vessel 
 which contains them, closely luted, must be ex 
 
382 
 
 METALLURGY. 
 
 posed to a red heat for 8 or 10 hours, when the 
 iron will be converted into steel. 
 
 Steel is prepared from bar-iron by fusion ; 
 which consist-! of plunging a bar into melted iron, 
 and keeping it there for some time, by which pro- 
 cess it is converted into good steel. 
 
 All iron which becomes harder by suddenly 
 quenching in cold water i called steel; and that 
 Bteel which in quenching acquires the greatest de- 
 gree of hardness in the lowest degree of heat, and 
 retains the greatest strength in and after indura- 
 tion, ought to be considered as the best. 
 
 Improved Process of Hardening Steel 
 
 Articles manufactured of steel for the purposes 
 of cutting, are, almost without an exception, hard- 
 ened from the anvil; in other words, they are 
 taken from the forger to the hardener without un- 
 dergoing any intermediate process ; and such is 
 the accustomed routine, that the mischief arising 
 has escaped observation. The act of forging pro- 
 duces a strong scale or coating, which is spread 
 over the whole of the blade; and to make the evil 
 still more formidable, this scale or coating is un- 
 equal in substance, varying in proportion to the 
 degree of heat communicated to the steel in forg- 
 ing ; it is, partially, almost impenetrable to the 
 action of water when immersed for the purpose of 
 hardening. Hence it is that different degrees of 
 hardness prevail in nearly every razor manufac- 
 tured; this is evidently a positive defect, and so 
 long as it continues to exist, great difference of 
 temperature must exist likewise. Razor-blades 
 not unfrequently exhibit the fact here stated in a 
 very striking manner; what are termed clouds, or 
 parts of unequal polish, derive their origin from 
 this cause ; and clearly and distinctly, or rather 
 distinctly though not clearly, show how far this 
 partial coating has extended, and where the ac- 
 tion of the water has been yielded to, and where 
 resisted. It certainly cannot be matter of aston- 
 ishment, that so few improvements have been 
 made in the hardening of steel, when the evil here 
 complained of so universally obtains, as almost to 
 warrant the supposition that no attempt has ever 
 been made to remove it. The remedy, however, is 
 easy and simple in the extreme, and so evidently 
 efficient in its application, that it cannot but ex- 
 cite surprise, that, in the present highly improved 
 state of our manufactures, such a communication 
 should be made as a discovery entirely new. 
 
 Instead, therefore, of the customary mode of 
 hardening the blade from the anvil, let it be 
 passed immediately from the hands of the forger 
 to the grinder; a slight application of the stone 
 will remove the whole of the scale or coating, and 
 the razor will then be properly prepared to undergo 
 the operation of hardening with advantage. It 
 will be easily ascertained, that steel in this state 
 heats in the fire with greater regularity, and that 
 when immersed, the obstacles being removed to 
 the immediate action of the water on the body of 
 the steel, the latter becomes equally hard from one 
 extremity to the other. To this may be added, 
 that, as the lowest possible heat at which steel be- 
 comes hard is indubitably the best, the mode here 
 recommended will be found the only one by which 
 the process of hardening can be effected with a 
 less portion of fire than is, or can be, required in 
 any other way. These observations are decisive, 
 and will, in all probability, tend to establish in 
 general use, what cannot but be regarded as a 
 very important improvement in the manufacturing 
 of edged steel instruments. Rhodes' Essay on the 
 Manufacture of a Razor. 
 
 Improved Mode of Hardening Steel by Hammering. 
 Gravers, axes, and in fact all steel instruments 
 
 that require to be excessively hard, may be easily 
 rendered so by heating them to the tempering de- 
 gree and hammering them till cold. IT a graver, 
 it is to be heated to a straw-color, hammered on 
 the acute edge of the belly, tempered to the straw- 
 color again, ground and whetted to a proper 
 shape. A graver thus prepared will cut into steel, 
 without previous decarbonization. If the point 
 should on trial be found not sufficiently hard, the 
 operation of heating, hammering, and tempering, 
 etc., may be repeated as often as necessary. 
 
 English Cast- Steel. 
 
 The finest of steel, called English cast-steel, is 
 prepared by breaking to pieces blistered steel, and 
 then melting it in a crucible with a flux composed 
 of carbonaceous and vitrifiable ingredients. The 
 verifiable ingredient is used only inasmuch as it 
 is a fusible body, which flows over the surface of 
 the metal in the crucibles, and prevents the access 
 of the oxygen of the atmosphere. Broken glass is 
 sometimes used for this purpose. 
 
 When thoroughly fused it is cast into ingots, 
 which, by gentle heating and careful hammering, 
 are tilted into bars. By this process the steel be- 
 comes more highly carbonized in proportion to 
 the quantity of flux, and in consequence is more 
 brittle and fusible than before. Hence it sur- 
 passes all other steel in uniformity of texture, 
 hardness, and closeness of grain, and is the mate- 
 rial employed in all the finest articles of English 
 cutlery. 
 
 To make Edge-tools from Cast-Steel and Iron. 
 
 This method consists in fixing a clean piece of 
 wrought iron, brought to a welding-heat, in the 
 centre of a mould, and then pouring in melted 
 steel, so as entirely to envelop the iron ; and then 
 forging the mass into the shape required 
 
 To Color Steel Blue. 
 
 The steel must be finely polished on its surface, 
 and then exposed to a uniform degree of heat. 
 Accordingly, there are three ways of coloring: 
 first, by a flame producing no soot, as spirit of 
 wine; secondly, by a hot plate of iron; and 
 thirdly, by wood-ashes. As a very regular degree 
 of heat is necessary, wood-ashes for fine work 
 bears the preference. The work must be covered 
 over with them, and carefully watched; when the 
 color is sufficiently heightened, the work is per- 
 fect. This color is occasionally taken off with a 
 very dilute muriatic acid. 
 
 To Distinguish Steel from Iron. 
 The principal characters by which steel may b 
 distinguished from iron, are as follows : 
 
 1. After being polished, steel appears of a 
 whiter light gray hue, without the blue cast ex- 
 hibited by iron. It also takes a higher polish. 
 
 2. The hardest steel, when not annealed, ap- 
 pears granulated, but dull, and without shining 
 fibres. 
 
 3. When steeped in acids the harder the steel 
 is, of a darker hue is its surface. 
 
 4. Steel is not so much inclined to rust as iron. 
 
 5. In general, steel has a greater specific 
 gravity. 
 
 6. By being hardened and wrought, it may be 
 rendered much more elastic than iron. 
 
 7. It is not attracted so strongly by the magnet 
 as soft iron. It likewise acquires magnetic pro- 
 perties more slowly, but retains them longer; for 
 which reason, steel is used in making needles for 
 compasses and artificial magnets. 
 
 8. Steel is ignited sooner, and fuses with less 
 degree of heat than malleable iron, which can 
 scarcely be made to fuse without the addition of 
 
STEEL. 
 
 383 
 
 powdered charcoal; by which it is converted into 
 steel, and afterwards into crude iron. 
 
 9. Polished steel is sooner tinged by heat, and 
 that with higher colors than iron. 
 
 10. In a calcining heat, it suffers less loss by 
 burning than sot iron does in the same heat, and 
 the same time. In calcination a light blue flame 
 hovers over the steel, either with or without a sul- 
 phureous odor. 
 
 11. The scales of steel are harder and sharper 
 than those of iron ; and consequently more fit for 
 polishing with. 
 
 12. In a white heat, when exposed to the blast 
 of the bellows among the coals, it begins to sweat, 
 wet, or melt, partly with light-colored and bright, 
 and partly with red sparkles, but less crackling 
 than those of iron. In a melting heat, too, it con- 
 sumes faster. 
 
 13. In the sulphuric, nitric, and other acids, 
 steel is violently attacked, but is longer in dis- 
 solving than iron. After maceration, according 
 as it is softer or harder, it appears of a lighter or 
 darker gray color; while iron on the other hand 
 is white. 
 
 The Bessemer Process of Making Steel. 
 Hematite pig-iron smelted with coke and hot- 
 blast has chiefly been used. The metal is melted 
 in a reverberatory furnace, and is then run into a 
 founder's ladle, and from thence it is transferred 
 to the vessel in which its conversion into steel is 
 to be effected. It is made of stout plate iron and 
 lined with a powdered argillaceous stone found in 
 this neighborhood below the coal, and known as 
 ganister. The converting vessel is mounted on 
 axes, which rest on stout iron standards, and by 
 means of a wheel and handle it may be turned 
 into any required position. There is an opening 
 at the top for the inlet and pouring out of the 
 metal, and at the lowest part are inserted 7 fire- 
 clay tuyeres, each having five openings in them; 
 these openings communicate at one end with the 
 interior of the vessel, and at the other end with a 
 box called the tuyere-box, into which a current of 
 air from a suitable blast engine is conveyed under 
 a pressure of about 14 Ibs. to the square inch, a 
 pressure more than sufficient to prevent the fluid 
 metal from entering the tuyeres. Before com- 
 mencing the first operation, the interior of the 
 vessel is heated by coke, a blast through the 
 tuyeres being used to urge the fire. When suffi- 
 ciently heated, the vessel is turned upside down, 
 and all the unburned coke is shaken out. The 
 molten pig-iron is then run in from the ladle 
 before referred to ; the vessel, during the pouring 
 in of the iron, is kept in such a position that the 
 orifices of the tuyeres are at a higher level than 
 the surface of the metal. When all the iron has 
 run in the blast is turned on, and the vessel 
 quickly moved round. The air then rushes up- 
 wards into fluid metal from each of the 35 small 
 orifices of the tuyeres, producing a most violent 
 agitation of the whole mass. The silicium, always 
 present in greater or less quantities in pig-iron, is 
 first attacked. It unites readily with the oxygen 
 of the air, producing silicic acid; at the same 
 
 time a small portion of the iron undergoes oxida- 
 tion, hence a fluid silicate of the oxide of iron is 
 'ormed, a little carbon being simultaneously elim- 
 nated. The heat is thus gradually increased 
 until nearly the whole of the silicium is oxidized; 
 this generally takes place in about 12 minutes 
 >om the commencement of the process. The 
 carbon now begins to unite more freely with the 
 oxygen of the air, producing at first a small flame, 
 which rapidly increases, and in about three min- 
 utes from its first appearance we hav* a most in- 
 tense combustion going on : the metal rises higher 
 and higher in the vessel, sometimes occupying 
 more than double its former space. The frothy 
 iquid now presents an enormous surface to the 
 action of the oxygen of the air, which unites 
 rapidly with the carbon contained in the crude 
 iron, and produces a most intense combustion, the 
 whole, in fact, being a perfect mixture of metal 
 and fire. The carbon is now eliminated so rapidly 
 as to produce a series of harmless explosions, 
 throwing out the fluid slags in great quantities, 
 while the union of the gases is so perfect that a 
 voluminous white flame rushes from the mouth of 
 the vessel, illuminating the whole building, and 
 indicating to the practised eye the precise condi- 
 tion of the metal inside. The workman may thus 
 leave off whenever the number of minutes he has 
 been blowing and the appearance of the flame in- 
 dicate the required quality of the metal. This is 
 the mode preferred in working the process in 
 Sweden. But here we prefer to blow the metal 
 until the flame suddenly stops, which it does just 
 on the approach of the metal to the condition of 
 malleable iron: a small quantity of charcoal pig- 
 iron, containing a known quantity of carbon, is 
 then added, and steel is produced of any desired 
 degree of carburation, the process having occupied 
 about 28 minutes from the commencement. The 
 vessel is then turned, and the fluid steel is run 
 into the casting ladle, which is provided with a 
 plug rod covered with loam : the rod passes over 
 the top of the ladle, and works in guides on the 
 outside of it, so that, by means of a lever handle, 
 the workmen may move it up and down as desired. 
 The lower part of the plug, which occupies the 
 interior of the ladle, has fitted to its lower end a 
 fire-clay cone, which rests in a seating of the same 
 material let into the bottom of the ladle, thus 
 forming a cone valve, by means of which the fluid 
 steel is run into different-sized moulds, as may be 
 required, the stream of fluid steel being prevented 
 by the valve plug from flowing during the move- 
 ment of the casting ladle from one mould to an- 
 other. By tapping the metal from below, no scoria 
 or other extraneous floating matters are allowed 
 to pass into the mould. 
 
 Uchatius Steel. 
 
 Pig-iron is first granulated by running it in a 
 small stream into cold water kept constantly 
 agitated. The granulated metal is mixed with 
 sparry iron ore, and if necessary a small portion 
 of manganese, and heated in crucibles in the or- 
 dinary cast-steel blast furnace. 
 
384 
 
 PYKOTECHNY, MATCHES, ETC. 
 
 , MATCHES, etc. 
 
 To make Gunpowder. 
 
 Take of refined nitre, 75 parts ; sulphur, 10 
 parts; best refined willow charcoal, 15 parts. 
 Powder each separately, and mix intimately with 
 a little water in a mortar. The paste may be 
 rolled out into thin rods, cut into grains and dried 
 on a board in the sun. On the large scale the 
 grains are made by forcing the paste through 
 sieves, dried by steam-heat and polished by roll- 
 ing against each other in a barrel. Meal-powder 
 is ungrained powder. 
 
 To make Gun-cotton. 
 
 Immerse clean cottonwool in a mixture of equal 
 parts of the strongest nitric and sulphuric acids, 
 allowed to cool for one minute, wash in plenty of 
 cold water, and dry in the sun or by a very gen- 
 tle artificial heat. For soluble gun-cotton used in 
 making collodion, see PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 Lenk's Gun-cotton. 
 
 This process gives a gun-cotton which is con- 
 stant in composition, not liable to change, and of 
 a moderate rapidity of explosiveness. It has been 
 favorably reported on by the Imperial Commis- 
 sion. The following directions are extracted from 
 the specifications of his patent : 
 
 First. The cotton or other vegetable fiber is first 
 taken and spun into loose threads of sufficient 
 strength to be easily handled. 
 
 Second. The cotton must then be thoroughly 
 Tboiled in a solution of potash or of soda, in order 
 to remove all greasy substances which the cotton 
 may contain, and after thus boiled it may be ex- 
 posed to the sun, or wind, or in a heated room, to 
 dry. 
 
 Third. The cotton must now be taken into a 
 room heated to 100 Fahr. in order to make it per- 
 fectly dry. 
 
 Fourth. A mixture is now made containing 1 
 part weight of nitric acid of 1.48 to 1.50 specific 
 gravity, and 3 parts weight of common sulphuric 
 acid. This mixture must stand in closed earthen 
 or glass jars for several days, or until the two 
 acids become fully mixed and cooled. 
 
 Fifth. This mixture of acids is now put into an- 
 apparatus containing three apartments, one for 
 the main bulk of the acids, one for the immersion 
 of the cotton, and one for receiving the cotton af- 
 ter being immersed. This apparatus may be made 
 of cast-iron. 
 
 Sixth. The cotton is now taken and dipped in 
 the acid-bath, in said apparatus, in such a man- 
 ner that every 3 oz. of the cotton must come in 
 contact with 60 Ibs. of the mixture of acids, or in 
 other words, the bath must contain fully 60 Ibs. 
 of the mixture while parcels of 3 oz. of cotton are 
 being dipped. The parcels thus dipped must be 
 gently pressed, and the acids allowed to flow back 
 into the acid-bath, and the parcels are then put 
 into the third apartment of the apparatus, where 
 for every 1 lb. of cotton there must be 10 Ibs. of 
 the said mixture of the acids. The cotton must 
 remain in this state subject to the action of the 
 acids for 48 hours, and the mixture must al- 
 ways have an equally strong concentration, and 
 must be kept under a uniform temperature by a 
 cooling process. 
 
 Seventh. The cotton is now taken out from the 
 acids and pressed, and then put into a centrifugal 
 machine to remove all surplus acids. 
 
 Eighth. The cotton is again put into another 
 centrifugal machine, into which a constant stream 
 of fresh water is admitted. This process is in- 
 tended to remove the last particles of adherent 
 acids. 
 
 Ninth. The cotton is now taken and put into a 
 flume or trough, and secured in such a manner 
 that a running stream of fresh water may pass 
 through and over it; and the same must remain 
 in this situation for at least 14 days. To lessen 
 the time for this operation the cotton may be im- 
 mersed or saturated in alcohol for the space of 24 
 hours. This process is also intended to extract 
 all and the last particles of acids that may possi- 
 bly adhere to the cotton. 
 
 Tenth. The cotton is now taken from the stream 
 of water, or if from the alcohol it must be washed, 
 and then boiled in a solution of common soap 
 and again dried. This process is intended to re- 
 store the cotton to its original softness and ap- 
 pearance. 
 
 Eleventh. The cotton is now taken and im- 
 mersed in a solution of water-glass of 1 lb. to 2 
 Ibs. of soft water which must be 1.09 specific 
 gravity of concentration. To 1 lb. of cottoa 
 198-lOOOths of a lb. of this solution of 46 Beaume 
 is required. The cotton is then taken out of this 
 solution and exposed to the action of the atmos- 
 phere for at least 4 days. This process has the 
 tendency to preserve the material, and also to 
 make its explosive qualities less rapid. 
 
 Twelfth. The gun-cotton is again washed in 
 soft water free from lime, dried, and then packed 
 in wood or metal boxes for storage or exportation j 
 and may be used for artillery, torpedoes, shells, 
 mining, blasting, small arms, and for all purposes 
 where explosive power is required. 
 
 Thirteenth. All other vegetable fibres may be 
 treated and manufactured as herein stated, which, 
 process will make the same explosive, like the gun- 
 cotton and adapted to the same purposes. 
 White Gunpowder (Augendre'a). 
 
 Ferrocyanide of potassium, 28 parts ; sugar, 
 23 parts ; chlorate of potassa, 49 parts. This dos 
 not require granulating or glazing. 
 
 New Explosive Compound, 
 
 Invented by Reynaud de Net. It consists of ni- 
 trate of soda, 52.5 ; spent tan-bark, 27.5 ; pounded 
 sulphur, 20. It is cheap, and applicable to work- 
 ing mines and quarries. 
 
 COLORED FIRES. 
 
 Red. 
 
 Sixty-one per cent, chlorate of potash, 16 sul- 
 phur, 23 carbonate of strontia. 
 Purple-red. 
 
 Sixty-one per cent, chlorate of potash, 16 sul- 
 phur, 23 chalk. 
 
 Rose-red. 
 
 Sixty- one per cent, chlorate of potash, 16 sul- 
 phur, .23 chloride of calcium. 
 
COLORED FIRES. 
 
 385 
 
 Orange-red. 
 
 Ninety-two per uei.c. chlorate of potash, 14 sul- 
 phur, 34 chalk. 
 
 Yellow. 
 
 Sixty-one per cent, chlorate of potash, 16 sul- 
 phur, 23 dry soda. 
 
 Or, 50 per cent, nitre, 16 sulphur, 20 soda, 14 
 gunpowder. 
 
 Or, 61 per cent, nitre, 171 sulphur, 20 soda, li 
 charcoal. 
 
 Light Slue. 
 
 Sixty-one per cent, chlorate of potash, 16 sul- 
 phur, 23 strongly-calcined alum. 
 
 Dark Slue. 
 
 Sixty per cent, chlorate of potash, 16 sulphur, 
 22 carbonate of copper, 12 alum. 
 
 Dark Violet. 
 
 Sixty per cent, chlorate of potash, 16 sulphur, 
 12 carbonate of potash, 12 alum. 
 
 Pale Violet. 
 
 Fifty-four per cent, chlorate of potash, 14 sul- 
 phur, 16 carbonate of potash, 16 alum. 
 
 Green. 
 
 Seventy-three per cent, chlorate of potash, 17 
 sulphur, 10 boracic acid. 
 
 Light Green. 
 
 Sixty per cent, chlorate of potash, 16 sulphur, 
 24 carbonate of baryta. 
 
 For Theatrical Illumination. White. 
 Sixty-four per cent, nitre, 21 sulphur, 15 gun- 
 powder. 
 
 Or, 76 per cent, nitre, 22 sulphur, 2 charcoal. 
 
 Red. 
 
 Fifty-six per cent, nitrate of strontia, 24 sul- 
 phur, 20 chlorate of potash. 
 Green. 
 
 Sixty per cent, nitrate of baryta, 22 sulphur, 18 
 chlorate of potash. 
 
 Pink. 
 
 Twenty per cent, sulphur, 32 nitre, 27 chlorate 
 of potash, 20 chalk, 1 charcoal. 
 
 Slue. 
 
 Twenty-seven per cent, nitre, 28 chlorate of pot- 
 ash, 15 sulphur, 15 sulphate of potash, 15 ammo- 
 nio-sulphate of copper. 
 
 The dark blue is rendered still darker by the 
 addition of some sulphate of potash and ammo- 
 nio-sulphate of copper. It must be borne in mind 
 that the red and purple fires are liable to ignite 
 spontaneously, and serious accidents have hap- 
 pened from this cause. 
 
 Sulphide of Cadmium in Fireworks. 
 In the following composition it is said that sul- 
 phide of cadmium gives a white flame, which is 
 surrounded by a magnificent blue margin : Salt- 
 petre, 20 parts ; sulphur, 5 ; sulphide of cadmium, 
 4; powdered charcoal, 1. 
 
 Iron Sand. 
 
 Used to give corruscations in fireworks, is far 
 better than iron or steel-filings. It is made by 
 beating cast steel or iron into small pieces on an 
 anvil. These are sifted into 4 sizes, the smallest 
 for the smallest pieces; and vice versa. The cor- 
 ruscations produced by these are exceedingly 
 brilliant. The sand should be kept in a dry place 
 in a well-closed bottle, as any rust damages it. 
 Fireworks containing it should not be made very 
 long before using. 
 
 Touch-Paper. 
 
 Soak unglazed paper in a solution of nitre in 
 
 vinegar or water. The stronger the solution, the 
 
 faster will it burn. A good plan is to dip it in a 
 
 weak solution, dry it, try it, and if it burna too 
 
 25 
 
 slowly, make the solution stronger and dip H 
 again. 
 
 Quick-Match 
 
 Is made by immersing lamp-wick in a solutirn of 
 saltpetre with meal powder, winding it on a frame, 
 and afterwards dusting with meal powder. To 1 
 Ib. 12 oz. of cotton, take saltpetre, 1 Ib. ; alcohol, 
 2 qts.; water, 3 qts.; solution of isinglass (1 oz. 
 to the pint), 3 galls. ; mealed powder, 10 Ibs. 
 
 Port Fires. 
 
 Take of sulphur, 2 parts ; saltpetre, 6 parts ; 
 mealed powder, 1 part. This is rammed into 
 cases of from 6 inches to 2 feet long, and inch 
 internal diameter. They should be lightly rammed. 
 To give a brilliant flame, add 1 part of iron sand; 
 for a dark flame, 1 part of powdered charcoal. 
 Stars. 
 
 Common. Saltpetre, 1 Ib. ; sulphur, 4 oa. ; 
 antimony, 4 oz. ; isinglass, Z -J camphor, i oz. ; 
 alcohol, J oz. 
 
 White. Mealed powder, 4 oz. ; saltpetre, 12 oz. ; 
 sulphur, 6i oz. ; oil of spike, 2 oz. ; camphor, 
 5 oz. 
 
 The above are to be made into balls, rolled in 
 grained powder and dried in the sun. Used in 
 Roman candles, rockets, etc. 
 
 Trailed Stars. 
 
 Saltpetre, 4 oz.; sulphur, 6 oz.; sulphate of 
 antimony, 2 oz. ; rosin, 4 oz. 
 
 With Sparks. Mealed powder 1 oz. ; saltpetre, 
 1 oz. ; camphor, 2 oz. 
 
 Colored Stars 
 
 May be made by using any of the receipts for 
 colored fires, with a solution of isinglass, i oz. ; 
 camphor, i oz.; and alcohol, f oz. Make into 
 balls of the requisite size, roll in gunpowder,, dry 
 in the sun. 
 
 Roman Candles. 
 
 Meal-powder, Ib. ; saltpetre, 2i Ibs. ; sulphur, 
 glass dust, each, Ib. This is rammed in cases 
 as follows : Put at the bottom of the case a small 
 quantity of clay, then some gunpowder, then a 
 wad of paper, then of the height of the case of 
 the composition, then a wad and powder and a 
 star or ball, then more composition, and so on till 
 the case is filled. The wads must be loose (only 
 to prevent the mixing of the composition and 
 gunpowder), and the ramming should not be be- 
 gun until the case is J filled, and then should be 
 gentle ]< * t the stars be broken. 
 Chinese Fire. 
 
 Red. Saltpetre, 1 Ib.; sulphur, 3 oz.; charcoal, 
 4 oz. ; iron sand, 7 oz. 
 
 White. Saltpetre, 1 Ib. ; mealed powder, 12 oa. ; 
 charcoal, 7i oz. ; iron sand, fine, 11 oz. 
 Golden Rain. 
 
 Mealed powder, 4 oz. ; saltpetre, 1 Ib. ; sulphur, 
 4 oz. ; brass-filings, 1 oz. ; sawdust, 2i oz. ; glass 
 powder, 6 drs. 
 
 Silver Rain. 
 
 Mealed powder, 2 oz.; saltpetre, 4 oz.; sul- 
 phur, 1 oz. ; steel-dust, f oz. 
 
 Wheel Cases. 
 
 Mealed powder, 2 Ibs. ; saltpetre, 4 oz. ; steel- 
 filings, 6 oz. 
 
 For Rockets. 
 
 Four- Ounce. Mealed powder, 1 Ib. ; charcoa,, 1 
 oz. ; saltpetre, 4 oz. 
 
 Eight-Ounce. Mealed powder, 1 Ib. 1 oz. ; salt- 
 petre, 4 oz. ; sulphur, 3 oz. ; charcoal 1 oz. 
 
 One-Pound. Mealed powder, 1 Ib.; charcoal, 3 
 oz. ; sulphur, 1 oz. 
 
386 
 
 TANNING. 
 
 Two-Pound. Mealed powder, 1 Ib. 4 oz. ; salt- 
 petre, 2 oz. ; charcoal, 3 oz. ; sulphur, 1 oz. ; iron- 
 filings, 2 oz. 
 
 Four-Pound. Mealed powder, % Ib. ; saltpetre, 
 15 Ibs. ; sulphur, 2 Ibs. ; charcoal, 6 Ibs. 
 
 Matches for Instantaneous Light. 
 
 1. Chlorate matches, without sulphur. Chlo- 
 rate of potash, separately powdered, 6 drs. ; ver- 
 milion, 1 dr. ; lycopodium, 1 dr. ; fine flour, 2 drs. ; 
 mix carefully the chlorate with the flour and lyco- 
 podium, avoiding much friction, then add the ver- 
 milion, and mix the whole with a mucilage made 
 with 1 dr. powdered gum Arabic, 10 grs. of traga- 
 canth, 2 drs. of flour, and 4 oz. of hot water; mix, 
 add sufficient water to bring it to a proper con- 
 sistence, and dip in it the wood, previously dipped 
 in a solution of 1 oz. of gum copal, and i oz. of 
 camphor, in 6 oz. of oil of turpentine. 
 
 2. With sulphur. Chlorate of potash, 9 grs. ; 
 sulphur, 2 grs. ; sugar, 3 grs.; vermilion, 1 gr. ; 
 flour, 2 grs. ; spirit of wine, q. s. The chlorate of 
 potash, etc., must be separately reduced to powder, 
 and the whole mixed with as little friction as pos- 
 sible. The wood should be previously prepared 
 as above, or with camphorated spirit. [These are 
 ignited by dipping them in sulphuric acid, and 
 instantly withdrawing them. The acid should 
 be absorbed by asbestos.] They are now become 
 obsolete having given place to 
 
 Lucifer Matches. 
 
 These contain phosphorus in a finely divided 
 state, to which it is reduced by agitating it in 
 some warm solution of gum or glue, then adding 
 the other ingredients, so as to form a paste, into 
 which the wood or card is dipped. It is said that 
 urine and artificial urea have the property of 
 readily dividing phosphorus when warmed and 
 agitated together. The following are some of the 
 published recipes: 
 
 1. Form 6 parts of glue into a smooth jelly, and 
 rub with it 4 parts of phosphorus, at a tempera- 
 
 ture of 140 or 150 Fahr. ; add 10 parts of nitre, 5 
 of red ochre, and 2 of fine smalts. The matches 
 are dipped in melted wax to the depth of l-10th 
 of an inch, first rubbing their ends on a hot iron 
 plate. 
 
 2. Noiseless Congreves. Triturate 9 parts of 
 phosphorus with a solution of 16 parts of gum, 
 and add 14 parts of nitre and 16 of vermilion. 
 
 3. Glue, 6 parts; phosphorus, 4; nitre, 10; red 
 lead, 5 ; smalts, 2 ; the glue is soaked in water for 
 24 hours, then liquefied in a warm mortar, and 
 the phosphorus added, taking care that the tem- 
 perature is not above 167 Fahr. 
 
 4. Glue, 21; phosphorus, 17; nitre, 38; red 
 lead, 24 ; proceed as before. 
 
 Safety Matches. 
 
 Will only ignite upon the prepared surface. For 
 the splints take of chlorate of potassa, 6 parts : 
 sulphuret of antimony, 3 parts ; glue, 1 part. For 
 the friction surface, amorphous phosphorus, 10 
 parts; sulphuret of antimony, or black oxide of 
 manganese, 8 parts ; glue, 3 to 6 parts. Spread 
 evenly upon the surface, previously made rough 
 with glue and sand. 
 
 Matches without Phosphorus. 
 The dangers arising from the universal adop- 
 tion of the common lucifer match have induced 
 chemists to seek a substitute for it. M. Peitzer 
 has recently proposed a compound which is ob- 
 tained in the shape of a violet powder, by mixing 
 together equal volumes of solutions of sulphate of 
 copper, one of which is supersaturated with am- 
 monia, and the other with hyposulphite of soda. 
 A mixture of chlorate of potash and the above 
 powder will catch fire by percussion or rubbing; 
 it burns liLe gunpowder, leaving a black residue. 
 M. Viederhold proposes a mixture of hyposulphite 
 of lead or baryta, or chlorate of potash for matches 
 without phosphorus. The only inconvenience of 
 this compound is that it attracts moisture too 
 easily. 
 
 TAJSTNTNG. 
 
 ^The art of tanning is that by which animal 
 k*ins are converted into leather, a product pos- 
 sessing certain properties differing from those of 
 the raw material, and eminently adapted to the 
 purposes for which it is employed. Chemically 
 considered leather is a compound of tannin and 
 gelatine, possessing the requisites of durability, 
 pliability, insolubility in water, and great power 
 of resisting the action of chemical reagents. 
 
 The name of tan is applied to coarsely powdered 
 bark which is obtained mostly from oak and hem- 
 lock trees, although all barks contain more or less 
 tannin, and in some countries the extract of others 
 is used. 
 
 To tan a skin is to saturate it with tannin in 
 such a manner as to promote the slow combina- 
 tion of this principle with the gelatine, albumen, 
 and fibrine contained in the former. 
 
 The principal steps in the manufacture of lea- 
 ther are, 
 
 1. The washing and soaking in pure water, for 
 the purpose of cleansing and softening the skins, 
 and preparing them for 
 
 2. Theunhairing. This is effected by the use 
 
 of lime, or by sweating the hides, which dissolves 
 or softens the bulbous roots of the hairs, and thus 
 facilitates their removal by mere mechanical 
 scraping with a blunt-edged knife. 
 
 When lime is employed, about 4 bus. are slacked 
 and put into a large vat of clean water, capable 
 of holding 40 hides or 2 hundred calf-skins; the 
 lime is well mixed by a plunger, and the hides or 
 skins are then put into it and allowed to remain 
 from 7 to 10 days for the former, and 10 to 14 
 days for the latter, drawing them out daily to 
 facilitate the process. 
 
 When the hair will slip they are taken out of 
 the lime and plunged into clean water, from which 
 they go to the beam where the hair is scraped off 
 with a long curved blunt-edged knife; they are 
 immersed in water again and taken back to the 
 beam, and all the flesh removed from the inside 
 of the hide or skin with a sharp knii'e similar in 
 shape to the one used in unhairing, after which, 
 they are ready for 
 
 3. Bateiug. As it is all important to have the 
 skins soft and in a condition to absorb the tan- 
 ning liquor readily ; this is accomplished by put- 
 
TANNING. 
 
 387 
 
 ting tliex in water impregnated with pigeon's- 
 duig, 1 bu. being enough for the number of hides 
 or dkins above named. This is called a bate, and 
 aces by means of the muriate of ammonia which 
 it contains, the lime taking the acid becomes muri- 
 ate of lime, which is soluble and easily worked 
 and washed out of the skins, while the ammonia 
 passes off in a gaseous state. 
 
 Hides intended for sole-leather should remain 
 24 hours in this bath, when they may be worked 
 out and are ready for the bark extract; calf-skins, 
 or other upper leather, should remain in the bate 
 from 3 to 5 days, according to the weather (a 
 longer time being required in cold than in hot 
 weather), and during this time they are taken out 
 2 or 3 times and placed on the beam where they 
 are scraped first on the grain side, and lastly on 
 both flesh and grain with a worker similar to the 
 one used in unhairing, after which they are 
 ready for 
 
 4. Tanning. When the hides or skins are taken 
 from the beam-house they are put into vats con- 
 taining a weak solution of ground bark, and should 
 be handled two or three times a day until they are 
 evenly colored, when they should go into a stronger 
 liquor, or ooze, where they may remain a week, 
 being taken out daily and allowed to drain off, at 
 the same time strengthening the ooze. They may 
 now be considered ready for laying away. For 
 this purpose a vat is half filled with a very strong 
 extract of bark, and the hides or skins are care- 
 fully laid in, one at a time, each being covered 
 with finely-ground bark to the depth of half an 
 inch, until all are thus laid away. About a foot 
 in thickness of spent tan is put on for a heading, 
 and the vat covered with boards. 
 
 The hides or skins may be allowed to remain in 
 this their first layer for two weeks, at the expira- 
 tion of which time they must be taken up, washed 
 tslean in the liquor, and the same process repeated, 
 using a new liquor and fresh bark, as the strength 
 has been absorbed from the other. As the tan- 
 ning proceeds the extract is exhausted more 
 slowly, and from 3 weeks to 1 month may be al- 
 lowed for each successive layer, after the first 3 
 layers being enough for calfskins, and 4 to 6 for 
 sole-leather, according to the thickness of the 
 hides. 
 
 When the sole-leather is tanned it is taken out 
 of the vats, washed clean, and hung up to dry in 
 the rolling loft. When nearly dry it is rolled on 
 the grain with a brass roller until it is quite 
 smooth, hung up again, and thoroughly dried, 
 and is ready for the market. 
 
 Currying or Finishing Calfskins. 
 
 When calfskins are sufficiently tanned they 
 should be rinsed in the liquor in the vats, and 
 hung over poles and slightly hardened, being 
 careful not to expose them to the direct rays of 
 the sun in the summer months. Put into piles, 
 so that they will not dry out, dampening any part 
 that may have become too dry. They are now 
 shaved over a currier's beam, during which pro- 
 cess the rough flesh is taken off, and the butts and 
 heads are leveled and the rough edges trimmed 
 off. The skins are then rinsed off, slicked on a 
 marble table with a steel slicker and stiff brush 
 on the flesh side, the dirt and coloring matter of 
 the bark stoned, brushed, and slicked out on the 
 grain side. They should then be hung up, by a 
 loop cut in the head, for a few hours, that the 
 water may be partially dried out of them : they 
 must be then taken down and placed in a pile, 
 and are ready for stuffing. 
 
 The grease called dubbing is composed of equal 
 parts of cod-liver oil and melted tallow, and when 
 
 ready the skin is laid on a wooden table' and 
 slicked on the flesh side. The stretch is in thig 
 manner taken out, and the skin should be per- 
 fectly smooth on the table before the dubbing is 
 coated on ; for which purpose a brush or pad is 
 used, the quantity put on varying, according to 
 the thickness of the skin. They are next hung 
 up by the hind shanks, and allowed to dry. When 
 entirely dry, they must be taken down, and piled 
 flesh to flesh and grain to grain, and should re- 
 main for a week or two, so as to become an evet 
 color, and also to absorb the strength of the 
 grease. When ready to finish the grease must be 
 slicked off' on a finishing table (made of cherry or 
 mahogany wood), and the skins are softened by 
 rolling them with a board having fine grooves cut 
 in it. The surface of the flesh side is smoothed 
 by shaving over it with a currier's knife which 
 has a very fine and delicate edge turned on it, so 
 that the smallest quantity only is taken off. This 
 process is termed whitening. The skins are then 
 stoned on the grain side, and all wrinkles and 
 breaks taken out, and a fine grain is turned on 
 them with a smooth board, or with very fine 
 grooves cut in it. They are matched for size, 
 laid down in a pile, the larger ones in the bottom, 
 and blacked on the flesh side with a compound of 
 lampblack, tanner's oil, and dubbing, and a small 
 quantity of water, to prevent it striking through. 
 As they are blacked they are laid over a strip. 
 They must now be pasted, to prevent the black 
 rubbing off. The paste is composed of wheat-flour 
 and boiling water, stirring in a small quantity of 
 soap and tallow, and is applied with a brush, 
 coating them with as small a quantity as possible. 
 They are hung up by the loop in the head and 
 dried, then glassed with a polished glass slicker 
 on the flesh side, and are ready for the last pro- 
 cess, gumming. The gum used is gum traga- 
 canth, dissolved in water, and is applied with a 
 sponge, on the flesh side, hung up, and when thor- 
 oughly dry, they are ready for sale, or cutting into 
 boots and shoes. 
 
 To Convert Sheep-skins into Leather. 
 
 Sheep-skins, which are used for a variety of 
 purposes, such as gloves, book-covers, etc., and 
 which, when dyed, are converted into mock Mo- 
 rocco leather, are dressed as follows: They are 
 first to be soaked in water and handled, to .sepa- 
 rate all impurities, which may be scraped on" by a 
 blunt knife on a beam. They are then to be hung 
 up in a close warm room to putrefy. This putre- 
 faction loosens the wool, and causes the exudation 
 of an oily and slimy matter, all which are to be 
 removed by the knife. The skins are now to be 
 steeped in milk of lime, to harden and thicken; 
 here they remain for 1 month or 6 weeks, accord- 
 ing to circumstances, and when taken out, they 
 are to be smoothed on the fleshy side with a sharp 
 knife. They are now to be steeped in a bath of 
 bran and water, where they undergo a partial fer- 
 mentation, and become thinner in their substance. 
 
 The skins, which are now called pelts, are to be 
 mmersed in a solution of alum and common salt 
 in water; in the proportion of 120 skins to 3 Ibs. 
 of alum and 5 Ibs. of salt. They are to be much 
 agitated in this compound saline bath, in order to 
 become firm and tough. From this bath they are 
 to be removed to another, composed of bran and 
 water, where they remain until quite pliant by a 
 slight fermentation. To give their upper surfaces 
 a gloss, they are to be trodden in a wooden tub, 
 with a solution of yolks of eggs in water, pre- 
 viously well beaten up. When this solution has 
 become transparent, it is a proof that the skins 
 have absorbed the glazing matter. The pelt may 
 
TANNING. 
 
 now be said to be converted into leather, which is 
 to be drained from moisture, hung upon hooks in 
 a warm apartment to dry, and smoothed over with 
 warm hand-irons. 
 
 Morocco. 
 
 The goat-skins being first dried in the air, are 
 steeped in water 3 days and nights ; then stretched 
 on a tanner's horse, beaten with a large knife, and 
 steeped afresh in waiter every day ; they are then 
 thrown into a large vat on the ground, full of 
 water, where quicklime has been slaked, and there 
 lie 15 days, whence they are taken, and again re- 
 turned every night, and morning. They are next 
 thrown into a fresh vat of lime and water, and 
 shifted night and morning for 15 days longer; 
 then rinsed in clean water, and the hair taken off 
 on the leg with the knife, returned into a third 
 vat, and shifted as before for 18 days; steeped 12 
 hours in a river, taken out, rinsed, put in pails, 
 where they are pounded with wooden pestles, 
 changing the water twice; then laid on the horse, 
 and the flesh taken off; returned into pails of new 
 water, taken out, and the hair-side scraped ; re- 
 turned into fresh pails, taken out, and thrown into 
 a pail of a particular form, having holes at bot- 
 tom ; here they are beaten for the space of an 
 hour, and fresh water poured on from time to time ; 
 then being stretched on the leg, and scraped on 
 either side, they are returned into pails of fresh 
 water, taken out, stretched, and sewed up all 
 round, in the manner of bags, leaving out the 
 hinder legs, as an aperture for the conveyance of 
 a mixture described below. 
 
 The skins thus sewed are put to luke-warm 
 water, where dog's excrements have been dis- 
 solved. Here they are stirred with long poles for 
 $ an hour, left at rest for 12 hours, taken out, 
 rinsed in fresh water, and filled by a tunnel with 
 a preparation of water and sumach, mixed and 
 heated over the fire till ready to boil ; and, as they 
 are filled, the hind legs are sewed up to stop the 
 passage. In this state they are let down into the 
 vessel of water and sumach, and kept stirring for 
 4 hours successively; taken out and heaped on one 
 another ; after a little time their sides are changed, 
 and thus they continue 1 hours till drained. This 
 done, they are loosened, and filled a second time 
 with the same preparation, sewed up again, and 
 kept stirring 2 hours, piled up and drained as 
 before. This process is again repeated, with this 
 difference, that they are then only stirred i of an 
 hour; after which they are left till next morning, 
 when they are taken out, drained on a rack, un- 
 sewed, the sumach taken out, folded in two from 
 head to tail, the hair-side outwards, laid over 
 each other on the leg, to perfect their draining, 
 stretched out and dried ; then trampled under 
 foot by two and two, stretched on a wooden table, 
 what flesh and sumach remains scraped off, the 
 hair-side rubbed over with oil, and that again with 
 water. 
 
 They are then wrung with the hands, stretched, 
 and pressed tight on the table with an iron instru- 
 ment like that of a currier, the flesh-side upper- 
 most; then turned, and the hair-side rubbed 
 strongly over with a handful of rushes, to squeeze 
 out as much of the oil remaining as possible. The 
 first coat of black is now laid on the hair-side, by 
 means of a lock of hair twisted and steeped in a 
 kind of black dye, prepared of sour beer, wherein 
 pieces of old rusty iron have been thrown. When 
 half-dried in the air they are stretched on a table, 
 rubbed over every way with a pautnelle, or wood- 
 en-toothed instrument, to raise the grain, over 
 which is passed a light couche of water, then 
 Sleeked by rubbing them with rushes prepared for 
 
 the purpose. Thus sleeked, they have a second 
 couche of black, then dried, laid on the table, 
 rubbed over with a paumelle of cork, to raise the 
 grain again ; and after a light couche of water, 
 sleeked over anew ; and to raise the grain a third 
 time, a paumelle of wood is used. 
 
 After the hair-side has received all its prepara- 
 tions, the flesh-side is pared with a sharp knife 
 for the purpose; the hair-side is strongly rubbed 
 over with a woollen cap, having before given it a 
 gloss with barberries, citron or orange. The whole 
 is finished by raising the grain lightly, for the 
 last time, with the paumelle of cork; so that they 
 are now fit for the market. 
 
 To Prepare Red Morocco. 
 
 After steeping, stretching, scraping, beating 
 and rinsing the skins as before, they are at length 
 wrung, stretched on the leg, and passed after each 
 other into water where alum has been dissolved. 
 Thus alumed, they are left to drain till morning, 
 then wrung out, pulled on the leg, and folded from 
 head to tail, the flesh inwards- 
 
 In this state they receive their first dye, by 
 passing them after one another into a red liquor, 
 described hereafter. This is repeated again and 
 again, till the skins have got their first color; then 
 they are rinsed in clean water, stretched on the 
 leg, and left to drain 12 hours; thrown into water 
 through a sieve, and stirred incessantly for a day 
 with long poles ; taken out, hung on a bar across 
 the water all night, white against red, and red 
 against white, and in the morning the water stirred 
 up, and the skins returned into it for 24 hours. 
 Ingredients for the Red Color. 
 
 The following is the quantity and proportions 
 of the ingredients required for the red color, for a 
 parcel of 36 skins : 
 
 Cochineal, 130 drs. ; ground suchet (crocus in- 
 dicus), 45 drs. ; gutta gamba, 15 drs. ; gum Ara^ 
 bic, 10 drs. ; white alum, pulverized, 10 drs.; bark 
 of the pomegranate tree, 10 drs.; citron juice, 2 
 drs. ; common water, 120 Ibs. 
 
 The alum is gradually added to the other arti- 
 cles, and boiled in a copper for about 2 hours, till 
 one-tenth part of the water is consumed. 
 
 To Manufacture Leather in Imitation of Morocco f 
 from South American Horse Hides. 
 
 Soften the hide in water; then spread it on a 
 tanner's beam, and let it be wrought with a knife 
 on the flesh-side', and subjected to the action of 
 lime-water. In the succeeding process it is treated 
 as goat-skins for making morocco, i. e. put it into 
 hot water, with dog's dung, to purify the animal 
 juices ; then let it be again wrought with a knife 
 on both sides, on a tanner's beam; afterwards put 
 it into blood-warm water with bran; and, finally, 
 tan it with sumach. 
 
 To Manufacture Russia Leather. 
 
 Calf-skins steeped in a weak bath of carbonate 
 of potass and water, are well cleaned and scraped, 
 to have the hair, etc., removed. They are nrw 
 immersed in another bath, containing dog and 
 pigeon's dung in water. Being thus freed fn.m 
 the alkali, they are thrown into a mixture of oat- 
 meal and water, to undergo a slight fermentation. 
 To tan these hides, it is necessary to use birch b.rk 
 instead of oak bark ; and during the operation they 
 are to be frequently handled or agitated. Whn 
 tanned, and perfectly dry, they are made pliable 
 by oil and much friction ; they are then to be rub- 
 bed over gently with birch tar, which gives thm 
 that agreeable odor peculiar to this kind of leather, 
 and which secures them against the attacks of 
 moths and worms. This odor will preserve the 
 leather for many years; and, on account of it, 
 
TANNING. 
 
 389 
 
 Russia leather is much used in binding handsome 
 nd costly books. The marks, or intersecting 
 lines on this leather, are given to it by passing 
 over its grained surface a heavy iron cylinder, 
 bound round by wires. 
 
 To Tan or Dress Skins in White for Gloves. 
 
 Clean the skins from wool or hair, by laying 
 them in a vat of slaked lime-water for 5 or 6 
 weeks. During this operation the lime and water 
 are to be twice changed, and the skins are to be 
 shifted every day, and when taken out for good, 
 they are to be laid all night in a running water, to 
 clear them frotn the forcing qualities of the lime; 
 next lay them on a wooden leg by sixes, to get 
 the flesh off; then they are to be laid in a vat 
 with a little water, and to be fulled with wooden 
 pestles for a quarter of an hour, after which rinse 
 them well in a full vat of water; place them next 
 on a clean pavement to drain, and afterwards cast 
 them into a fresh pit of water, rinse them again, 
 and re-lay them on the wooden leg, with their hair 
 outside, over which a whetstone is to be briskly 
 rubbed, to fit them for further preparations. 
 They are next to be put into a pit of water, mixed 
 With wheaten bran, and stirred until the bran 
 sticks to the wooden poles. They now arrive to 
 a kind of fermentation, and as often as they rise 
 on the top of the water, are to be plunged down 
 at the same time the liquor, now highly fermented, 
 is to be fined. When the skins have done rising, 
 take them out, and scrape away the bran with a 
 knife on the leg: when sufficiently drained give 
 them their feeding. For 100 large sheep-skins, 
 take 8 Ibs. of alum,%,nd 3 Ibs. of sea-salt, and melt 
 the whole with water in a vessel. Pour the solu- 
 tion out, while lukewarm, into a trough in which 
 is 20 Ibs. of the finest wheat flour, with the yolks 
 of 8 dozen of eggs, of which mixed materials is 
 formed a kind of paste, somewhat thicker than 
 children's pap ; next pour hot water into the trough 
 where the paste was, mixing/2 spoonfuls of the 
 paste with it, with a wooden spoon, which will 
 contain a sufficiency for 12 skins, and when the 
 whole is well incorporated, put 2 dozen of the 
 skins into it, taking care that the water is not too 
 hot. After they have been in some time, take 
 them severally out of the trough, and stretch 
 them twice well out. After they have absorbed 
 the paste, put them into tubs, and full as before. 
 Let them lie in a vat 6 days, and hang them out 
 to dry ; in fair weather, on cords or racks. When 
 dry, put them into bundles, just dipped in clean 
 water, and drained; throw them into an empty 
 tub, and having lain some time they are to be 
 taken out and trampled under foot; hang them 
 up a second time on the cords to dry, and finally 
 smooth them upon a table ready for sale. 
 To Prepare Sheep, Goat, or Kid Skins in Oil, in 
 Imitation of Chamois. 
 Sheep Skins. 
 
 The skins, smeared with quicklime on the 
 fleshy side, are folded lengthways, the wool out- 
 wards, and laid on heaps, to ferment 8 days; or 
 if they had been left to dry after flaying, for 15 
 days. 
 
 Then they are washed out, drained, and half 
 dried, laid on a wooden horse, the wool stripped 
 off with a round staff for the purpose, and laid in 
 a weak pit of slacked lime. 
 
 After 24 hours they are taken out, and left to 
 drain 24 more; then put into another strong pit. 
 Then they are taken out, drained, and put in 
 again by turns ; which begins to dispose them to 
 take oil: and this practice is continued for 6 
 weeks in summer, or 3 months in winter; at the 
 eud whereof they are washed out, laid on the wood- 
 
 en horse, and the surface of the skin on the, wool 
 side peeled off, to render them the softer; then 
 made into parcels, steeped a night in the river, in 
 winter more ; stretched 6 or 7, one over another on 
 the wooden horse ; and the knife passed strongly 
 on the fleshy side, to take off anything superflu- 
 ous, and render the skin smooth. 
 
 Then they are stretched, as before, in the river, 
 and the same operation repeated on the wool sidej 
 then thrown into a tub of water and bran, which is 
 brewed among the skins till the greater part sticks 
 to them; and then separated into distinct tubs, till 
 they swell, and rise of themselves above the water. 
 
 By these means, the remains of the lime are 
 cleared out; they are then wrung out, hung up to 
 dry on ropes, and sent to the mill, with the quan- 
 tity of oil necessary to fill them ; the best oil ii 
 that of cod-fish. 
 
 Here they are first thrown in bundles into the 
 river for 12 hours, then laid in the mill-trough, 
 and fulled without oil, till they are well softened ; 
 then oiled with the hand, one by one, and thus 
 formed into parcels of 4 skins each, which are 
 milled, and dried on cords a second time, then a 
 third; then oiled again and dried. 
 
 This is repeated as often as necessary; when 
 done, if any moisture remains they are dried in a 
 stove, and made up in parcels wrapped up in wool; 
 after some time they are opened to the air, but 
 wrapped up again as before, till the oil seems to 
 have lost all its force, which it ordinarily does in 
 24 hours. 
 
 To Scour the Skins. 
 
 The skins are now returned to the chamoiser, 
 to be scoured, by putting them into a lixivium of 
 wood-ashes, working and beating them in it with 
 poles, and leaving them to steep till the lye has had 
 its effect; then wrung out, steeped in another lix- 
 ivium, wrung again, and this repeated till the 
 grease and oil are purged out. They are then 
 half-dried, and passed over a sharp-edged iron in- 
 strument, placed perpendicularly in a block, which 
 opens and softens them ; lastly, they are thoroughly 
 dried, and passed over the same instrument again, 
 which finishes the operation. 
 
 Kid and Goat Skins. 
 
 Kid, and goat skins, are chamoised in the same 
 manner as those of sheep, excepting that the hair 
 is taken off by heat: and that when brought from 
 the mill they undergo a preparation called ramal- 
 ling, the most difficult of all. 
 
 It consists in this, that as soon as brought from 
 the mill they are steeped in a fit lixivium ; taken 
 out, stretched on a round wooden leg, and the hair 
 scraped off with the knife; this makes them smooth, 
 and in working cast a fine nap. The difficulty is 
 scraping them evenly. 
 
 To Dress Hare, Mole, or Rabbit Skins. 
 
 Take a teaspoonful of alum, and 2 of saltpetre, 
 both finely powdered; mix them well, sprinkle 
 the powder on the flesh side of the skins, then lay 
 the two salted sides together, leaving the fui out- 
 ward ; roll the skin exceedingly tight, and tie it 
 round with pack-thread ; hang it in a dry place for 
 some days, then open it, and if sufficiently dry 
 scrape it quite clean with a blunt knife, and keep 
 it in a dry situation. This finishes the process. 
 
 It may not be generally known, that the bitter 
 apple bruised and put into muslin bags, will effec- 
 tually prevent furs from being destroyed by moths. 
 To make Parchment. 
 
 This article is manufactured from sheep skins, 
 cleared from lime. The skin is stretched on a 
 frame where the flesh is pared off with an iron 
 circular knife ; it is then moistened with a rag, and 
 
390 
 
 ENAMELLING. 
 
 whiting spread over it ; the workman then, with a 
 large pumice-stone, flat at the bottom, rubs over 
 the skin, and scours off the flesh. He next goes 
 over it with the iron instrument as before, and rubs 
 it carefully with the pumice-stone without chalk ; 
 this serves to smooth the flesh side. He drains it 
 again by passing over it the iron instrument as be- 
 fore ; he passes it over the wool side, then stretches 
 it tight on a frame. He now throws more whiting 
 and sweeps it over with a piece of woolly lamb- 
 ekin. It 'is now dried, and taken off the frame by 
 cutting it all round. Thus prepared it is taken 
 out of the skinner's hands by the parchment 
 maker, who, while it is dry, pares it on a summer 
 (which is a calf-skin stretched on a frame), with a 
 sharper instrument than that used by the skinner, 
 who, working it with the arm from the top to the 
 bottom of the skin, takes away about half its sub- 
 stance, which leaves the parchment finished. 
 
 To Convert Old Parchment or Vellum into Leather. 
 Soak and wash the skins well and often in soft 
 water for 24 hours ; then remove them for the same 
 period into a bath composed of 1^ ibs. of white 
 vitriol, 1 Ib. of cream of tartar, and 1 oz. of sal 
 ammoniac, dissolved in 20 galls, of water. Next 
 add 10 Ibs. of vitriolic acid, 1 Ib. of nitric acid, 
 and 1 pt. of spirit of salt, in which steep the skins 
 for a short time to purge away the old lime; next 
 wash them clear of the acid, and rinse them as dry 
 as possible, without damaging the skins. They 
 are then to be put into a tanning liquor, composed 
 of 20 Ibs. of oak bark, 7 Ibs. sumach, 5 Ibs. of 
 elm-bark, 3 Ibs. of sassafras, and the same quan- 
 tity of lignum vitse shavings, portioned to 20 galls. 
 of water, and previously warmed for 12 hours, 
 and cooled down to a new-milk warmth, before 
 the skins are immersed. 
 
 To make Vellum. 
 
 This is a species of parchment made of the skins 
 of abortives, or sucking calves ; it has a much finer 
 grain, and is white and smoother than parchment, 
 but is prepared in the same manner, except its not 
 being passed through the lime-pit. The article is 
 used for binding superior books, and covering of 
 drum heads. 
 
 To Preserve Leather from Mould. 
 
 Pyroligneous acid may be used with success in 
 preserving leather from the attacks of mould, 
 and is serviceable in recovering it after it has re- 
 ceived that species of damage, by passing it over 
 \he surface of the hide or skin, first taking due 
 
 care to expunge the mouldy spots by the applica- 
 tion of a dry cloth. This remedy will be of equal 
 service if applied to boots, shoes, etc., when dam- 
 aged in the same manner. 
 
 To Dye Morocco and Sheep Leather. 
 
 The following colors may be imparted to lea- 
 ther, according to the various uses for which it is 
 intended. 
 
 Sine. 
 
 Blue is given by steeping the subject a day in 
 urine and indigo, then boiling it with alum ; or, 
 it may be given by tempering the indigo with red 
 wine, and washing the skins therewith. 
 
 Another. Boil elderberries or dwarf elder, then 
 smear and wash the skins therewith and wring 
 them out; then boil the elderberries as before in 
 a solution of alum-water, and wet the skins in 
 the same manner once or twice; dry them, and 
 they will be very blue. 
 
 Red. 
 
 Red is given by washing the skins and laying 
 them 2 hours in galls, then wringing them out* 
 dipping them in a liquor made with ligustrum, 
 alum and verdigris ; in water, and lastly in a dye 
 made of Brazil-wood boiled with lye. 
 Purple. 
 
 Purple is given by wetting the skins with a 
 solution of roche alum in warm water, and when 
 dry, again rubbing them with the hand, with a 
 decoction of log-wood in cold water. 
 
 Green. 
 
 Green is given by smearing- the skin with sap- 
 green and alum-water boiled. 
 
 Dark Green. 
 
 Dark green is given with steel-filings and sal 
 ammoniac, steeped in urine till soft, then smeared 
 over the skin, which is to be dried in the shade. 
 
 Yellow. 
 
 Yellow is given by smearing the skin over with 
 aloes and linseed-oil, dissolved and strained, or by 
 infusing it in weld. 
 
 Light Orange. 
 
 Orange color is given by smearing it with fustic 
 berries boiled in aluni-water, or, for a deep orange, 
 with turmeric. 
 
 Sky-color. 
 
 Sky-color is given with indigo steeped in boil- 
 ing water, and the next morning warmed and 
 smeared over the skin. 
 
 THE art of enamelling consists in the applica- 
 tion of a smooth coating of vitrified matter to a 
 bright polished metallic surface. It is, therefore, 
 a kind of varnish made of glass, and melted upon 
 the substance to which it is applied; affording a 
 fine uniform ground for an infinite variety of or- 
 naments, which are also fixed by heat. 
 
 The only metals that are enamelled are gold and 
 copper; and with the latter the opaque enamels 
 only are used. Where the enamel is transparent 
 and colored, the metal chosen should not only 
 have its surface unalterable when fully red hot, 
 but also be in no degree chemically altered by 
 the close contact of melted glass, containing an 
 abundance of some kind of metallic oxide. This 
 is the chief reason why'oolored enamelling on sil- 
 
 ver is impracticable, though the brilliancy of its 
 surface is not impaired by mere heat; for if an 
 enamel, made yellow by oxide of lead or antimony, 
 be laid on the surface of bright silver, and be kept 
 melted on it for a certain time, the silver and tho 
 enamel act on each other so powerfully that the 
 color soon changes from a yellow to an orange, 
 and lastly to a dirty olive. Copper is equally 
 altered by the colored enamels; so that gold is 
 the only metal that can bear the long contact of 
 the colored glass at a full red heat, without being 
 altered by them. 
 
 To Enamel Dial- Plates. 
 
 A piece of thin sheet-copper, hammered to th 
 requisite convexity, is first accurately cut out, a 
 hole drilled in the middle for the axis of the 
 
ENAMELLING. 
 
 391 
 
 hands, and both the surfaces made perfectly bright 
 with a brush. A small rim is then made round 
 the circumference with a thin brass band rising a 
 little above the level, and a similar rim round the 
 margin of the central hole. The use of these is 
 to confine the enamel when in fusion, and to keep 
 the edges of the plate quite neat and even. The 
 substance of the enamel is a fine white opaque 
 glass; this is bought in lump by the enamellers, 
 and is first broken down with a hammer, then 
 ground to a powder sufficiently fine with some 
 water, in an agate mortar; the superfluous water 
 being then poured off, the pulverized enamel re- 
 mains of about the consistence of wetted sand, 
 and is spread very evenly over the surface of the 
 copper plate. In most enamellings, and especially 
 on this, it is necessary also to counter enamel the 
 under concave surface of the copper plate, to pre- 
 vent its being drawn out of its true shape by the 
 unequal shrinking of the metal and the enamel 
 on cooling. For this kind of work, the counter- 
 enamel is only about half the thickness on the 
 concave, as on the convex side. For flat plates 
 the thickness is the same on both sides. 
 
 The plate, covered with the moist enamel pow- 
 der, is warmed and thoroughly dried, then gently 
 set upon a thin earthen ring that supports it only 
 by touching the outer rim, and put gradually 
 into the red-hot muffle of the enameller's furnace. 
 This furnace is constructed somewhat like the 
 assay-furnace ; but the upper part alone of the 
 muffle is much heated, and some peculiarities are 
 observed in the construction, to enable the artist 
 to govern the fire more accurately. 
 
 The precise degree of heat to be given here, as 
 in all enamelling, is that at which the particles 
 of the enamel run together into a uniform pasty 
 consistence and extend themselves evenly, show- 
 ing a fine polished face ; carefully avoiding on the 
 other hand so great a heat as would endanger the 
 melting of the thin metallic plate. When the 
 enamel is thus seen to sweat down, as it were, to 
 a uniform glossy glazing, the piece is gradually 
 withdrawn and cooled ; otherwise it would fly by 
 the action of cold air. 
 
 A second coating of enamel is then laid on and 
 fired as before ; but this time the finest powder of 
 enamel is taken, or that which remains suspended 
 in the washings. It is then ready to receive the 
 figures and division marks, which are made of a 
 black enamel ground in an agate mortar to a most 
 impalpable powder, worked up on a pallet with oil 
 of lavender, and laid on with an extremely fine 
 hair brush. The plate is then stoved to evaporate 
 the essential oil, and the figure is burnt in as be- 
 fore. Polishing with tripoli, and minuter parts 
 of the process, need not be here described. 
 
 To make the Purple Enamel used in the Mosaic 
 Pictures of St. Peter's at Home. 
 
 Take of sulphur, saltpetre, vitriol, antimony and 
 oxide of tin, each, 1 Ib. ; minium, or oxide.of lead, 
 60 Ibs. Mix all together in a crucible and melt 
 jn a furnace; next take it out and wash it, to 
 carry off the salts ; after melting in the crucible, 
 add 19 oz. of rose copper, % oz. of prepared zaffre, 
 li oz. of crocus martis, made with sulphur, 3 oz. 
 of refined borax, and 1 Ib. of a composition of 
 gold, silver and mercury. 
 
 When all are well combined, the mass is to be 
 stirred with a copper rod, and the fire gradually 
 diminished, to prevent the metals from burning. 
 The composition thus prepared is finally to be put 
 into crucibles and placed in a reverberatory fur- 
 nace, where they are to remain 24 hours. The 
 game composition will answer for other colors, by 
 merely changing the colo-ing matter. This com- 
 
 position has almost all the characters of real stone, 
 and when broken exhibits a vitreous fracture. 
 
 To make White Enamel, for Porcelain. 
 Mix 100 parts of pure lead with from 20 to 25 
 of the best tin, and bring them to a low red heat 
 in an open vessel. The mixture then burns nearly 
 as rapidly as charcoal, and oxidizes very fast. 
 Skim off the crusts of oxide successively formed, 
 till the whole is thoroughly calcined. Then mix 
 all the skimmings and again heat as before, till 
 no flame arises from them, and the whole is of a 
 uniform gray color. Take 100 parts of this oxide, 
 100 of white sand, and 25 or 30 of common salt, 
 and melt the whole by a moderate heat. This 
 gives a grayish mass, often porous and apparently 
 imperfect ; but which, however, runs to a good 
 enamel when afterwards heated. 
 
 For Metals and Finer W*rk. 
 
 The sand is previously calcined in a very strong 
 heat with a fourth of its weight; or if a more 
 fusible compound is wanted, as much of the oxides 
 of tin and lead as of salt are taken, and the whole 
 is melted into a white porous mass. This is then 
 employed instead of the rough sand, as in the 
 preceding process. 
 
 The above proportions, however, are' not inva- 
 riable; for if more fusibility is wanted, the dose 
 of oxide is increased, and that of the sand dimin- 
 ished ; the quantity of common salt remaining the 
 same. The sand employed in this process is not 
 the common sort, however fine ; but a micaceous 
 sand, in which the mica forms about one-fourth 
 of the mixture. 
 
 New Enamel for Porcelain. 
 
 Melt together pulverized feldspar, 27 parts; 
 borax, 18 parts; sand, 4 parts; potash, nitre, and 
 potter's earth, 3 parts each. Then add 3 parts of 
 borax reduced to fine powder. 
 
 From the trial which the Society of Arts in 
 London ordered to be made of this enamel, it has 
 been found superior to any hitherto known. It is 
 easily and uniformly applied, and spreads without 
 producing bubbles or spoutings out; it neither 
 covers nor impairs even the most delicate colors. 
 It incorporates perfectly with them, and the por- 
 celain which is covered over with it may pass a 
 second time through the fire without this enamel 
 cracking or breaking out. 
 
 Material for Opaque Enamels. 
 
 Neri, in his valuable treatise on glass making, 
 has long ago given the following proportions for 
 the common material of all the opaque enamels, 
 which Kunckel and other practical chemists have 
 confirmed: Calcine 30 parts of lead with 33 of 
 tin, with the usual precautions. Then take of 
 this calcined mixed oxide 50 Ibs., and as much of 
 powdered flints (prepared by being thrown into 
 water when red-hot, and ground to powder), and 
 8 oz. of salt of tartar ; melt the mixture in a strong 
 fire kept up for ten hours, after which reduce the 
 mass to powder. 
 
 To make it White. 
 
 Mix 6 Ibs. of the compound with 48 grs. of the 
 best black oxide of manganese, and melt in a clear 
 fire. When fully fused throw it into cold water; 
 then re-melt and cool as before 2 or 3 times, till 
 the enamel is quite white and fine. 
 
 Rich Red-colored Enamel. 
 
 The most beautiful and costly color known in 
 enamelling is an exquisitely fine, rich red, with a 
 purplish tinge, given by the salts and oxides of 
 gold ; especially by the purpH precipitate formed 
 by tin in one form or other, and by nitromuriate 
 of gold, and also by the fulminating gold. Thi* 
 
892 
 
 ENAMELLING. 
 
 beautiful color requires much skill in the artist, 
 to be fully brought out. When most perfect it 
 should come from the fire quite colorless, and af- 
 terwards receive its color by the flame of a candle. 
 
 Other and common reds are given by the oxide 
 of iron, but this requires the mixture of alumina, 
 or some other substance refractory in the fire, 
 otherwise at a full red heat the color will degen- 
 erate into black. 
 To Prepare the Flux for Enamelling on Glass Vessels. 
 
 Take of saturnus glorificatut, 1 Ib. ; natural 
 crystal, calcined to whiteness, Ib.; salt of pwlve- 
 rine, 1 Ib. Mix them together, and bake in a 
 slow heat for about 12 hours ; then melt the mass, 
 and pulverize the same in an agate mortar, or any 
 other proper vessel, which is not capable of com- 
 municating any metallic or other impurity. 
 To Prepare Glorijicatus. 
 
 Take litharge of white lead, put it in a pan, 
 pour on distilled vinegar, stirring it well over a 
 gentle fire till the vinegar becomes impregnated 
 with the salt of the lead; evaporate half the vin- 
 egar, put it in a cool place to crystallize, and 
 keep the crystals dry for use. 
 
 To make Green Enamel. 
 
 Take of copper-dust, 1 oz. ; sand, 2 oz. ; litharge, 
 1 oz. ; nitre, oz. Or, copper, 2 oz. ; sand, 1 oz.; 
 litharge, 2 oz. ; nitre, 1J oz. 
 
 Mix them with equal parts of flux, or vary the 
 proportions of them as may be found necessary, 
 according to the tint of color required. 
 
 Another. Take of opaque or transparent 
 enamel, 10 parts ; oxide of chromium, 1 to 2 parts. 
 Black Enamel. 
 
 Take of calcined iron, cobalt, crude or prepared, 
 each 1 oz. Or, zaffre, 2 oz. ; manganese, 1 oz. 
 
 Mix them with equal parts of flux, by melting 
 r grinding together. 
 
 Yellow Enamel. 
 
 Take of lead and tin ashes, litharge, antimony, 
 and sand, each 1 oz. ; nitre, 4 oz. 
 
 Calcine, or melt them together; pulverize, and 
 mix them with a due proportion of flux, as the 
 nature of the glass may require; or take more or 
 less of any or all of the above, according to the 
 depth of color desired. Or, opaque or transparent 
 enamel, 6 parts ; chloride of silver, 1 to 2 parts. 
 
 Blue Enamel. 
 
 Take of prepared cobalt, sand, red-lead, and 
 nitre, each 1 oz. ; flint-glass, 2 oz. 
 
 Melt them together by fire, pulverized and 
 fluxed according to the degree of softness or 
 strength of color required. 
 
 Olive Enamel. 
 
 Take of the blue, as prepared above, 1 oz.; black, 
 i oz. ; yellow, i oz. Grind them for use. If 
 necessary add flux to make it softer. 
 
 White Enamel. 
 
 Take of tin, prepared by aqua-fortis, and red- 
 lead, each 1 oz. ; white pebble-stone, or natural 
 crystal, 2 oz. ; nitre, 1 oz. ; arsenic, 1 dr., with 
 equal parts of flux, or more or less, as the softness 
 or opacity may require. Melt together, calcine, 
 or use raw. 
 
 Purple Enamel. 
 
 Take of opaque or transparent enamel, 12 parts ; 
 purple of Cassius, 1 to 2 parts, regulated with sal 
 ammoniac. Put it in a sand-heat for about 48 
 kours, to digest the gold. Collect the powder, 
 grind it with 6 times its weight of sulphur; put it 
 into a crucible on the fire till the sulphur is evap- 
 orated, then amalgamate the powder with twice 
 its weight of mercury; put it into a mortar or 
 
 other vessel, and rub it together for about 8 hours, 
 with a small quantity of water in the mortar, which 
 change frequently; evaporate the remaining mer- 
 cury in a crucible, and add to the powder 10 times 
 its weight of flux, or more or less, as the hardness 
 or softness of the color may require. 
 Rose-colored Enamel. 
 
 Take purple as prepared above, mix it with 30 
 times its weight of flux, and l-100th part of iti 
 weight of silver-leaf, or any preparation of silver, 
 or vary the proportion of the flux and silver as the 
 quality of the color may require; or any of the 
 other preparations for purple will do, varying the 
 proportions of the flux and silver as above; or 
 any materials, from which purple can be pro- 
 duced, will, with the addition of silver and flux, 
 answer. 
 
 Brown Enamel. 
 
 Take of red-lead, 1 oz. ; calcined iron, 1 oz.; 
 antimony, 2 oz. ; litharge, 2 oz. ; zaffre, 1 oz. ; 
 sand, 2 oz. 
 
 Calcine, or melt together, or use raw, as may 
 be most expedient; or vary the proportions of any 
 or all the above, as tint or quality may require. 
 Mode of Application. 
 
 The preceding colors may be applied to vessels 
 of glass in the following manner, viz., by painting, 
 printing, or transferring, dipping, floating, and 
 grounding. 
 
 By Painting. Mix the colors (when reduced by 
 grinding to a fine powder) with spirits of turpen- 
 tine, temper them with thick oil of turpentine, and 
 apply them with camel-hair pencils, or any other 
 proper instrument, or mix them with nut or spike 
 oil, or any other essential or volatile oil, or with 
 water, in which case use gum Arabic, or any other 
 gum that will dissolve in water, or with spirits, 
 varnishes, gums of every kind, waxes, or resins; 
 but the first is conceived to be the best. 
 
 By Printing. Take a glue-bat, full size for the 
 subject, charge the copper plate with the oil or 
 color, and take the impression with the bat frcm 
 the plate, which impression transfer on the glass. 
 If the impression is not strong enough, shake 
 some dry color on it which will adhere to the 
 moist color ; or take any engraving, or etching, or 
 stamp, or cast, and, having charged it with the 
 oil or color, transfer it on the glass by means of 
 prepared paper, vellum, leather, or any other sub- 
 stance that will answer; but the first is the best. 
 Any engravings, etchings, stamps, casts, or de- 
 vices may be charged with waters, oils, varnishes, 
 or glutinous matters of any kind, reduced to a 
 proper state, as is necessary in printing in gene- 
 ral. Any or all of these may be used alone, or 
 mixed with the colors. When used alone the 
 color is to be applied in powder. 
 
 By Dipping. Mix the color to about the con- 
 sistency of a cream, with any of the ingredients 
 used for printing, in which dip the glass vessel, 
 and keep it in motion till smooth. 
 
 By Floating. Mix the color with any of the 
 ingredients usd for printing, to a consistency ac- 
 cording to the strength of the ground required, 
 float it through a tube, or any other vessel, moving 
 or shaking the piece of glass till the color is spread 
 over the part required. 
 
 By Grounding. First charge the glass vessel 
 with oil of turpentine, with a camel-hair pencil, 
 and while moist apply the color in a dry powder, 
 which will adhere to the oil ; or, instead of oil of 
 turpentine, use any of the materials used for 
 printing ; but the first is the best. 
 
 Cautions to be Observed in making Colored 
 Enamels. 
 
 In making these enamels, the following general 
 
ENAMELLING. 
 
 393 
 
 cautions are necessary to be observed. 1st. That 
 the pots be glazed with white glass, and be such 
 as will bear the fire. 
 
 2J. That the matter of enamels be very nicely 
 mixed with the colors. 
 
 3d. When the enamel is good, and the color 
 well incorporated, it must be taken from the fire 
 with a pair of tongs. 
 
 General Method of making Colored Enamels. 
 
 Powder, sift, and grind all the colors very 
 nicely, and first mix them with one another, and 
 then with the common matter of enamels ; then 
 set them in pots in a furnace, and when they are 
 well mixed and incorporated, cast them into water, 
 and when dry set them in a furnace again to melt, 
 and when melted take a proof of it. If too deep 
 colored, add more of the common matter of ena- 
 mels ; and if too pale add more of the colors. 
 
 To Obtain Black Enamel with Platina. 
 
 Mix some chloride of platina, dissolved in water, 
 with neutral nitrate of mercury, and expose the 
 precipitate, which will be formed, to a heat simply 
 sufficient to volatilize the proto-chloride of mer- 
 cury ; there will be obtained a black powder, 
 which, applied with a flux, gives a beautiful black 
 enamel. 
 
 To make Enamel, calledNiello. 
 
 Take 1 part of pure silver, 2 of copper, and 3 
 of pure lead, fuse them together, and pour the 
 amalgam into a long-necked earthenware matrass, 
 half filled with levigated sulphur; let the mouth 
 of the vessel be immediately closed, and the con- 
 tents left to cool. The mass which results, when 
 levigated and washed, is ready for the purposes 
 of the artist. The cavities left by the fusion hav- 
 ing been filled with it, the plate is to be held over 
 a small furnace, fed with a mixture of charcoal 
 and wood, taking care to distribute the enamel 
 with the proper instrument. As soon as fusion 
 has taken place, the plate is to be removed; and, 
 when sufficiently cooled, is to be cleared by the 
 file, and polished by fine pumice and tripoli. 
 
 To Paint in Enamel. 
 
 The enamel painter has to work, not with actual 
 colors, but with mixtures, which he only knows 
 from experience will produce certain colors after 
 the delicate operation of the fire; and to the com- 
 mon skill of the painter, in the arrangement of 
 his palette and choice of his colors, the enameller 
 has to add much practical knowledge of the chemi- 
 cal operation of one metallic oxide on another; 
 the fusibility of bis materials; and the utmost de- 
 gree of heat at which they will retain, not only 
 the accuracy of the figures which he has given, 
 but the precise shade of color which he intends to 
 lay on. 
 
 Painting in enamel requires a succession of 
 firings; first of the ground which is to receive the 
 design, and which itself requires two firings, and 
 then of the different parts of the design itself. 
 The ground is laid on in the same general way as 
 the common watch-face enamelling. The colors 
 are -the different metallic oxides, melted with some 
 vitrescent mixture, and ground to extreme fine- 
 ness. These are worked up with an essential oil 
 (that of spikenard is preferred, and next to it oil 
 of lavender) to the proper consistence of oil colors, 
 and are laid on with a very fine hair brush. The 
 The essential oil should be very pure, and the use 
 of this rather than of any fixed oil, is that the 
 whole may evaporate completely in a moderate 
 boat, and leave no carbonaceous matter in contact 
 with the color when red hot, which might affect 
 its degree of oxidation, and thence the shade of 
 color which it is intended to produce. As the 
 
 color of some vitrified metallic oxides (sueh as 
 that of gold) will stand at a very moderate heat, 
 whilst others will bear, and even require a higher 
 temperature to be properly fixed, it forms a great 
 part of the technical skill of the artist to supply 
 the different colors in proper order; fixing first 
 those shades which are produced by the colors 
 that will endure the highest, and finishing with 
 those that demand the least, heat. The outline 
 of the design is first traced on the enamel, ground 
 and burnt in; after which the parts are filled up 
 gradually by repeated burnings, to the last and 
 finest touches of the tenderest enamel. 
 
 Transparent enamels are scarcely ever laid upon 
 any other metal than gold, on account of the dis- 
 coloration produced by other metals. If, however, 
 copper is the metal used, it is first covered with a 
 thin enamel coating, over which gold-leaf is laid 
 and burnt in, so that, in fact, it is still this metal 
 that is the basis of the ornamental enamel. 
 
 To Man'^pture Mosaic as at JRomt. 
 
 Mosaic work consists of variously shaped pieces 
 of colored glass enamel ; and when these pieces 
 are cemented together, they form those regular 
 and other beautiful figures which constitute tessel- 
 lated pavements. 
 
 The enamel, consisting of glass mixed with me- 
 tallic coloring matter, is heated for 8 days in a 
 glass-house, each color in a separate pot. The 
 melted enamel is taken out with an iron spoon 
 and poured on polished marble placed horizon- 
 tally; and another flat marble slab is laid upon 
 the surface, so that the enamel cools into the form 
 of a round cake, of the thickness of three-tenths 
 of an inch. 
 
 In order to divide the cake into smaller pieces, 
 it is placed on a sharp steel anvil, called tagliulo, 
 which has the edge uppermost; and a stroke of an 
 edged hammer is given on the upper surface of 
 the cake, which is thus divided into long paral- 
 lelepipeds, or prisms, whose bases are three- 
 tenths of an inch square. These parallelepipeds 
 are again divided across their length by the tag- 
 liulo and hammer into pieces of the length of 
 eight-tenths of an inch, to be used in the Mosaic 
 pictures. Sometimes the cakes are made thicker 
 and the pieces larger. 
 
 For smaller pictures, the enamel, whilst fused, 
 is drawn into long parallelepipeds, or quadrangu- 
 lar sticks ; and these are divided across by the tag- 
 liulo and hammer, or by a file; sometimes, also, 
 these pieces are divided by a saw without teeth, 
 consisting of a copper blade and emery; and the 
 pieces are sometimes polished on a horizontal 
 wheel of lead with emery. 
 
 Gilded Mosaic. 
 
 Gilded Mosaic is formed by applying the gold- 
 leaf on the hot surface of a brown enamel, imme- 
 diately after the enamel is taken from the fur- 
 nace; the whole is put into the furnace again for 
 a short time, and when it is taken out the gold is 
 firmly fixed on the surface. In the gilded enamel, 
 used in Mosaic at Rome, there is a thin soat of 
 transparent glass over the gold. 
 
 On the Different Glazes used for Cooking Utentilt. 
 
 The wrought and cast-iron vessels which are to 
 be placed on the fire are often covered with en- 
 amel, which protects the liquid from metallic con- 
 tact with the sides. 
 
 Two compositions are generally employed foi 
 this purpose, one having for its base silicate of 
 lead, and the other boro-silicate of soda. These 
 enamels are applied to the scoured surface of the 
 metal in the form of a powder, which is fixed by 
 heating it to a sufficiently high temperature to fuse 
 
894: 
 
 POTTEKY. 
 
 it ; it then spreads over and covers the metal with 
 a vitreous varnish. 
 
 The boro-silicate of soda enamel possesses great 
 superiority over that of silicate of lead, for it is 
 unattacked by vinegar, marine salt, the greater 
 number of acid or saline solutions, even when 
 concentrated, and resists the action of the agents 
 employed in cooking or chemical operations. 
 
 The silicate of lead enamel is whiter and more 
 homogeneous, which explains the preference given 
 to it by the public, but it gives up oxide of lead 
 to vinegar or to common salt ; it acts upon a great 
 number of coloring matters, and it is attacked by 
 
 nitric acid, which immediately communicates a' 
 dull appearance to it. On evaporation the liquid 
 leaves a white crystalline residue of nitrate of 
 lead. This enamel is instantly darkened by dis- 
 solved sulphides, and also by cooking food contain- 
 ing sulphur, such as cabbage, fish, and stale eggs. 
 It is very easy to distinguish these two enam- 
 els by means of a solution of sulphide of potas- 
 sium, sodium, or ammonium. On allowing of one 
 of these reagents to fall on the vessel to be tested, 
 the lead enamel darkens in a few moments, whilst 
 the boro- silicate of soda enamel retains its white 
 color. 
 
 POTTERY. 
 
 To manufacture English Stoneware. 
 Tobacco-pipe clay from Dorsetshire is beaten 
 much in water ; by this process the finer parts of 
 the clay remain suspended in the water, while the 
 coarser sand and other impurities fall to the bot- 
 tom. The thick liquid, consisting of water and 
 the finer parts of clay, is further purified by pass- 
 ing it through hair and lawn sieves of different 
 degrees of fineness. After this the liquor is mixed 
 (in varions proportions for various ware) with an- 
 other liquor of the same density, and consisting 
 of flints calcined, ground and suspended in water. 
 The mixture is then dried in a kiln, and being af- 
 terwards beaten to a proper temper, it becomes fit 
 for being formed at the wheel into dishes, plates, 
 bowls, etc. When this ware is to be put into the 
 furnace to be baked, the several pieces of it are 
 placed in the cases made of clay, called seggars, 
 which are piled one upon another, in the dome of 
 the furnace ; a fire is then lighted, when the ware 
 is brought to a proper temper, which happens in 
 about 48 hours, it is glazed by common salt. The 
 salt is thrown into the furnace through holes in 
 the upper part of it, by the heat of which it is 
 instantly converted into a thick vapor, which, 
 circulating through the furnace, enters the seggar 
 through holes made in its side (the top being cov- 
 ered to prevent the salt from falling on the ware), 
 and attaching itself to the surface of the ware, it 
 forms that vitreous coat upon the surface which is 
 called its glaze. 
 
 To make Yellow or Queensware. 
 
 This is made of the same materials as the flint- 
 ware, but the proportion in which the materials 
 are mixed is'not the same, nor is the ware glazed 
 in the same way. The flintware is generally made 
 of 4 measures of liquid flint, and 18 of liquid clay ; 
 the yellowware has a greater proportion of clay in 
 it. In some manufactories they mix 20, and in 
 others 24 measures of clay with 4 of flint. The 
 proportion for both sorts of ware depends very 
 much upon the nature of the clay, which is very 
 variable even in the same pit. Hence a previous 
 trial must be made of the quality of the clay, hy 
 burning a kiln of the ware. If there be too 
 much flint mixed with the clay, the ware, when 
 exposed to the air after burning, is apt to crack, 
 and if there be too little, the ware will not receive 
 the proper glaze from the circulation of the salt 
 vapor. 
 
 To manufacture English Porcelain. 
 
 The iron-stone, which contains a portion of ar- 
 gil and silex, is first roasted in a common biscuit- 
 kiln, to facilitate its trituration, and to expel sul- 
 
 phur and other volatile ingredients which it may 
 contain. A large earthen crucible is constructed 
 after the exact model of an iron forge, a part of 
 the bottom of which is filled with charcoal or 
 cokes; these having been previously strewed with 
 ore and about J part of lime, are raised to an in- 
 tense heat by a strong blast of air, introduced un- 
 der the cokes at the bottom. By this heat the ore 
 is fused, and the fluid iron drops through the fuel 
 to the bottom; then follows the scoria, which 
 floats upon the top of the fluid iron. This latter 
 scoria, or, as the workmen call it, slag, is the ma- 
 terial used in the manufacture of china, and is 
 much impregnated with iron, and of a compact 
 and dense structure. The slag is next let off, by 
 a hole through the forge, into a clean earthen ves- 
 sel, where it cools. This last vessel is then bro- 
 ken, in order to detach the slag from it, with 
 hammers. The scoria is next pounded into small 
 pieces and ground in water to the consistence of 
 a fine paste, at the flint-mills of the country. 
 This paste is then evaporated to dryness on a slip- 
 kiln, well known amongst potters. Thus evapo- 
 rated to dryness, it is used with the other ingre- 
 dients in. the following proportions, viz. : 
 
 Prepared iron-stone, 3 cwt.; ground flint, 4 
 cwt.; ground Cornwall stone, 4 cwt.; Cornwall 
 clay, 4 cwt. ; blue oxide of cobalt, 1 Ib. 
 
 These having been mixed together with water 
 by the slip-maker, are again evaporated on the 
 slip-kiln to the proper consistency for use. The 
 clay, thus prepared, is of course used in the usual 
 manner in the fabrication of the several kinds of 
 vessels. 
 
 To make Porcelain, or China. 
 
 Porcelain, or china, is a semi-vitrified earthen- 
 ware of an intermediate nature between common- 
 ware and glass. Chinese porcelain is composed 
 of two ingredients, one of which is hard-stone, 
 called petunse, which is carefully ground to a very 
 fine powder, and the other, called kaolin, is a white 
 earthy substance, which is intimately mixed with 
 the ground stone. 
 
 Several compositions of mingled earth may 
 yield a true porcelain by being burnt, and the 
 porcelains of various countries differ in their mix- 
 tures. But the principal basis of any true por- 
 celain is that kind of clay which becomes white 
 by baking, and which, either by intermingled 
 heterogeneous earth, or by particular additions, 
 undergoes in the fire an incipient vitrification, in 
 which the true nature of porcelain consists. Feld- 
 spar and gypsum, if added, may give that prop- 
 erty to infusible clay. 
 
 When porcelain is to be made, the clay is prop- 
 
CHINAWAEE. 
 
 395 
 
 erly selected, carefully washed from impurities, 
 and again dried. It is then finely sifted, and 
 most accurately mingled with quartz, ground very 
 fine, to which then is added some burnt and finely- 
 pulverized gypsum. This mass is worked with 
 water to a paste and duly kneaded ; it is usually 
 suffered to lie in this state for years. The vessels 
 and other goods formed of this mass are first 
 moderately burnt in earthen pots, to receive a cer- 
 tain degree of compactness and to be ready for 
 glazing. The glazing consists of an easily-melted 
 mixture of some species of earths, as the petro- 
 eilex or chert, fragments of porcelain and gypsum, 
 which, when fused together, produce a crystalline 
 or vitreous mass, which, after cooling, is very finely 
 ground, and suspended in a sufficient quantity of 
 water. Into this fluid the rough ware is dipped, 
 by which the glazing matter is deposited uniformly 
 on every part of its surface. After drying, each 
 article is thoroughly baked or burned in the vio- 
 lent heat of the porcelain furnace. It is usual to 
 decorate porcelain by paintings, for which pur- 
 pose enamels or pastes, colored by metallic ox- 
 ides, are used, so easy of fusion as to run in a heat 
 less intense than that in which the glazing of the 
 ware melts. 
 
 To make Delftware. 
 
 This is a kind of pottery made of sand and clay, 
 and but slightly baked, so that it resists sudden 
 applications of heat. Articles made of this are 
 glazed with an enamel, composed of common salt, 
 sand ground fine, oxide of lead, and oxide of tin. 
 The use of the latter is to give opacity to the 
 glaze. 
 
 To make Chinaware. 
 
 The composition of the eastern or proper china- 
 ware, according to accounts that have great marks 
 of authenticity, is from two earths; one of which 
 is, as was before mentioned, called petunse ; the 
 other a refractory earth, called kaolin. 
 
 The preparation of the petunse, or aluminous 
 earth, is by pounding the stone till it is reduced 
 to a very fine powder, and then washing it over to 
 bring it to the most impalpable state, which is thus 
 performed : After the stone is rendered as fine as 
 it can be by pounding or grinding, the powder 
 must be put into a large tub full of water, and, 
 being stirred about, the upper part of the water 
 must be laded out into another tub, by which 
 means the finest particles of the powder will be 
 carried into it. The water in the second tub must 
 be then suffered to stand at rest till the powder be 
 subsided, and as much as can be laded off clear 
 must be put back into the first tub, and there being 
 again stirred about, and loaded with a fresh quan- 
 tity of the most subtle part of the powder, must 
 be laded again into the -second tub as before, and 
 this must be repeated till none be left in the first 
 tub but the grosser part of the stone, which, not 
 being of a due fineness, must be again pounded, 
 and treated as at first. The fine powder obtained 
 in the second tub, must be then freed from the 
 water, by lading off the clear part, and suffering 
 what remains to exhale, till the matter becomes of 
 the consistence of soft clay, when it will be fit to 
 te commixed with the kaolin for use. 
 
 The kaolin is prepared in the same manner by 
 Cashing over ; but some specimens are so fine, that 
 there is no occasion for this or any other purifica- 
 tion. 
 
 From these two mixed together, the clay or 
 paste is formed ; but it is said that the proportion 
 of the respective quantities is made to vtiry ac- 
 cording to the intended goodness of the ware, the 
 best being made from equal quantities, and the 
 worst from, two of the kaolin to one of the 
 petunse. 
 
 To make Saxon or Dresden China. ' 
 
 The Saxon composition, of which the chinawara 
 is formed, is greatly similar to that of the eastern. 
 In the place of the petunse, a stone is used, which 
 is improperly called in the German language, bley- 
 spatt, or spar of lead. It is a stone of a very oppo- 
 site nature, as spars are calcareous, and will, on 
 calcining, become lime; on the other hand, this 
 stone is of a vitreous nature. This spar is of a 
 very hard texture, and of a light flesh-color, or 
 pale whitish red. It is prepared by pounding and 
 washing over, which may be done as above di- 
 rected, and it is then ready for compounding with 
 the mica. The mica is employed in the Saxon 
 composition for the other ingredients ; and is like- 
 wise prepared by grinding and washing over, 
 when it is not in a perfect and pure state; but 
 when it is entirely clean, it may be tempered with 
 the texture, thoroughly broken, and it will be of 
 the consistence of soft clay. 
 
 The two kinds of earth being prepared in the 
 state of a soft paste, they are to be incorporated 
 and blended into one mass, which is done by rol- 
 ling and stirring them well after they are in the 
 same vessel, and then kneading them with the feet 
 till they are thoroughly united. When the com- 
 pound mass is formed, it is made into cakes, or 
 square pieces, and put by layers into cases of wood 
 or stone, which must be placed in a moist situa- 
 tion, and left for 2 or 3 months; during which 
 time a kind of ferment enters into the mixture, 
 by which the parts of the different matter com- 
 bine and form a substance with new qualities, un- 
 known while separate. This change shows itself 
 upon the whole mass by a fetid smell, and a green- 
 ish or bluish color, and a tenacity like that of 
 clay, or the argillaceous moistened earths. If the 
 time of keeping the paste in this condition be 
 prospered to a year or more, it will further im- 
 prove its qualities, but great care must be taken 
 to prevent its becoming dry; to prevent which, 
 there may be occasion to water it. When, how- 
 ever, the described qualities are found in the mat- 
 ter, it is fit for use, and vessels, etc., may be 
 wrought of it without any other preparation, the 
 case below excepted. 
 
 Composition of English China. 
 
 The following composition will produce wares, 
 which will possess the properties of the true 
 china, if judiciously managed. 
 
 Mix the best white sand, or calcined flints, 
 finely powdered, 20 Ibs. ; of very white pearlash, 
 5 Ibs. ; of white calcined bones, 2 Ibs. Temper 
 the whole with the gum Arabic or Senegal, dis- 
 solved in water. 
 
 This requires a considerable force and continu- 
 ance of heat to bring it to perfection, but it will 
 be very white and good when it is properly treated. 
 Where mica can be obtained, it is preferable to 
 calcined bones, and as it will form a kind of paste 
 for working, a weaker gum-water will answer the 
 purpose. 
 
 To Sake Chinaware. 
 
 The furnace for this purpose may be con- 
 structed in the same manner as the potter's kilng 
 usually are. The size of the furnace should be ac- 
 cording to the quantity of ware required to be 
 baked ; but it must not be too small, lest the body 
 of fire may not be sufficient to produce tbe requi- 
 site heat. 
 
 The caffettes, or coffins, to contain the pieces 
 when placed in the furnace, are the most material 
 utensils. They should be of good potter's clay, 
 with a third of sand, and are generally made of a 
 round form, with a flat bottom, the rim forming 
 
396 
 
 POTTERY. 
 
 sides, being adapted to the height of the pieces to 
 be inclosed. 
 
 The furnace and caffettes being prepared ; the 
 ware to be baked must be sorted in the eaffettes in 
 the most advantageous manner as to room, and as 
 many caffettes must be set upon them as the fur- 
 nace will conveniently contain, leaving space for 
 the free passage of the fire betwixt the piles : take 
 care to cover over the uppermost caffettes in each 
 pile, then close the mouth of the furnace, and 
 raise the fire so as to heat the caffetes red hot in 
 every part, and keep them red hot for 12 or 14 
 tours. It is then to be extinguished, and the fur- 
 nace left to cool gradually ; and when little or no 
 heat remains, the mouth may be opened, and the 
 pieces taken out of the caffettes ; when they will be 
 in a condition to receive the glazing, or to be 
 painted with such colors as are used under the 
 glaze. 
 
 To make Tobacco-pipes. 
 
 These require a very fine, tenacious, and refrac- 
 tory clay, which is either naturally of a perfectly 
 white color, or, if it have somewhat of a gray cast 
 will necessarily burn white. A clay of this kind 
 must contain no calcareous or ferruginous earth, 
 and must also be carefully deprived of any sand it 
 may contain by washing. It ought to possess, 
 besides, the property of shrinking but little in the 
 fire. If it should not prove sufficiently ductile, it 
 may be meliorated by the admixture of another 
 sort. Last of all, it is beaten, kneaded, ground, 
 washed, and sifted, till it acquires the requisite 
 degree of fineness and ductility. When, after this 
 preparation, the clay has obtained a due degree 
 of ductility, it is rolled out in small portions to 
 the usual length of a pipe, perforated with the 
 wire, and put, together with the wire, into a brass 
 mould, rubbed over with oil, to give it its external 
 form; after which it is fixed into a vice, and the 
 hollow part of the head formed with a stopper. 
 The pipes, thus brought into form, are cleared of 
 the redundant clay that adheres to the seams, a 
 rim or border is made round the head, they are 
 then marked with an iron stamp upon the heel, 
 and the surfaces smoothed and polished. When 
 they are well dried, they are put into boxes, "and 
 baked in a furnace. 
 
 To make White Glaze. 
 
 Take 26 parts of glass, 7 parts litharge, 3 parts 
 nitre, 1 part arsenic, part blue calx; either frit- 
 ted in a glass oven or not. 
 
 Black Glazing. 
 
 Take 8 parts of red-lead, 3 parts of iron filings, 
 3 parts of calcined copper, and 2 parts of zaffre. 
 This, when fused, will produce a brown-black ; 
 but if wanted a truer black color, the proportion 
 of zaffre must be increased. 
 
 Silicious Glaze without Lead. 
 
 M. Hardsmith proposes the following in place 
 of the ordinary lead glaze : Take boracic acid, 
 15 Ibs. ; calcareous spar, 5 Ibs. ; wood charcoal, 1 
 Ib. Powder the mixture, and calcine to complete 
 fusion ; allow it to cool ; powder again and apply 
 it as the common lead glaze is applied. 
 
 To make China Glaze for Printing Blue Frit. 
 
 Take 10 parts of glass, 2 parts lead, and 3 or 3J 
 parts blue calx, as required. 
 
 To make White Frit. 
 
 Take 16 parts of glass, 5 parts lead, 1 part arse- 
 nic, 2i parts nitre. 
 
 Take 11 parts white frit to the whole of blue 
 frit, and grind them together. Then take of the 
 mica frit, 8 parts of the above, 5 parts flint, 13 
 parts Cornish stone, 23 parts lead, and 6 oz. com- 
 mon salt. 
 
 To make Cream-colored Glaze. 
 Take 60 parts of Cornish stone, 20 pares flint, 
 and 120 parts white-lead. Stained with 1 oz. of 
 smalts, as above. 
 
 To form a Yellow Glaze. 
 
 Take 2 parts of litharge, 2 parts tin-ash, and 1 
 part antimony. 
 
 To prepare White Glaze. 
 
 Take 15 parts of Cornish stone, 10 parts flint 
 glass, 5 parts ai.ica flint, 5 parts nitre, 5 parts bo. 
 rax, 1 part common salt, and 1 part sal soda ; 
 fritted in a glass oven. Then add 2 parts frit, as 
 above, to 1 part white-lead. Send to mill to grind 
 very fine, and stain with 7 oz. blue calx. 
 
 To make a Mixture for Glaze. 
 Take 20 Ibs. of white frit, 10 Ibs. flint, 26 Ibs. 
 stone, 50 Ibs. lead, and 4 oz. of blue. 
 
 To make a Mixture of Glaze for Printing Blujt. 
 Take 6 parts of white frit, 5 parts flint, 13 parta 
 stone, 25 parts lead, and 55 parts glass. 
 
 To make a Shining Black Glaze. 
 Take 100 parts of lead, 18 parts flint, and 40 
 parts manganese. 
 
 To make a Purple under Glaze. 
 Take i oz. of fluxed blue, 1 oz. manganese, 1 oa. 
 red-lead, and 1 oz. flint. 
 
 To prepare an Orange Sponge Dip. 
 Take 1 qt. of yellow slip, to 1 oz. zaffre. 
 
 To prepare a Brown under Glaze. 
 Take 8 oz. of glass antimony, 16 oz. litharge, 3 
 oz. manganese, and 4 drs. blue calx. 
 
 To prepare a China Glaze. 
 
 Take 42 parts of flint-glass, 3 oz. blue calx. 
 Stain. 16 oz. flint-glass, 1 oz. red-lead, 1 oz. 
 arsenic, and 1 oz. nitre. White enamel. Run 
 down in glass oven ; then send with the above 
 stain to the mill, 8 parts of white enamel, dry it 
 and it will be fit for use. Eight parts of the above 
 mixture (stain and white enamel), 6 parts dry 
 flint, 14 parts Cornish stone, 24 parts white stone, 
 which, when sifted, is fit for use. 
 
 To prepare a China Glaze for Flotts. 
 Take 27 parts of flint, 15 parts nitre, 4J parta 
 lime, 3i parts stain. This run down in a glass 
 oven, and, when sent to the mill, add 75 parts of 
 glass, 15 parts lead, 10 parts white enamel ; add 
 2 pailsful of lime, and when it conies from the 
 mill, add 135 parts of lead. Stain to the above, 
 
 10 parts of glass, and 5 oz. of blue. 
 
 To prepare White Enamel. 
 
 Take 7 oz. of arsenic, 12 oz. potash, 6 oz. nitre, 
 5 oz. glass, 2 oz. flint, and 3 oz. white-lead. 
 
 To prepare China Glaze. 
 
 Take 56 parts of stone, 46 parts borax, 18 parts 
 glass, 15 parts flint, and 40 parts lead. 
 
 To prepare Green Edge Glaze. 
 Take 20 parts of lead, 60 parts stone 20 parti 
 flint, and 10 parts ground glass. 
 
 To prepare Materials for Common Ware. 
 Take 25 parts of flint, 60 parts stone, 95 parta 
 lead, and 8 parts frit. 
 
 To prepare Glaze for Green Edge. 
 Take 175 parts of lead, 100 parts stone, and 36 
 parts flint. 
 
 To prepare Fluxes for Blue Printing. 
 Take 5 parts of blue calx, 5i parts coke stont, 
 
 11 parts glass, and 1 part flint. 
 
POTTEKY. 
 
 397 
 
 To prepare Flux for Black Printing. 
 
 Take 7i parts of flint-glass, 2 parts red-lead, 
 and 2 parts borax. 
 
 To prepare Red Flux. 
 
 Take 5 parts of lead, 1 oz. of borax, and 12 oz. 
 of glass. 
 
 To prepare Black for Printing. 
 
 Take 1 part of calcined copper, li parts red flux. 
 Passed through the enamel kiln, If of calx, sent 
 to the mill for grinding. 
 
 To prepare Copper Black. 
 
 Take 1 Ib. of calcined copper, pounded fine, and 
 put into the enamel kiln, and it will come out 
 black. Then H oz. of red flux, put through the 
 enamel kiln, second time; then 1 of the above, 
 and 1} of flux, ground fine for use. 
 
 To prepare Red for Printing. 
 
 Take green copperas calcined to a fine powder, 
 wash it well 10 or 12 days, and dry it (colcothar); 
 1 of the above to 6 of red flux. 
 
 To prepare Umber Black. 
 
 Take 5 oz. of umber, 2 oz. borax, 1 oz. blue 
 calx. One of the above to 2 flux, as under ; 7i 
 flint-glass, 2 red-lead, and 2 borax. 
 To prepare Black. 
 
 Take 3 oz. of calcined umber, 1 oz. borax; run 
 down together. This will fine with gold. 
 To prepare Oil for Black Printing. 
 
 Take % pt. of linseed-oil, boiled well until of a 
 proper consistence, to which add a small quantity 
 of Barbadoes tar, prepared the same way. 
 
 Another. Take 1 qt. of linseed-oil, 4 oz. flowers 
 of sulphur, 4 oz. balsam of sulphur, 8 oz. black 
 rosin. 
 
 To Form a Stone Body. 
 
 Take 2 parts blue clay, 2 parts china clay, 4 
 parts composition. 
 
 To Form an Egyptian Black Body. 
 
 Take blue clay, 30 parts ; black marl, 5 parts ; 
 calcined car, 25 parts; manganese, 2 parts. 
 Common Glazing for Earthenware. 
 
 Take of white sand, 40 Ibs. ; red-lead, 20 Ibs. ; 
 pearlash, 20 Ibs; common salt, 12 Ibs. Powder 
 this sand by grinding before it be mixed with the 
 other ingredients, and then grind them together, 
 after which, calcine them for some time with a 
 moderate heat, which must be less than will make 
 them melt and run to glass; and when the mix- 
 ture is cold, grind it to powder again, and, when 
 wanted, temper it with water, and it will then be 
 fit for use. 
 
 The proportions of these ingredients may be 
 varied occasionally, for, where the glazing can be 
 fluxed conveniently with a very strong fire, the 
 quantity of sand may be increased to 60 or 70 Ibs., 
 which not only renders the glazing stronger, but 
 makes a saving in the expense. The proportion 
 of pearl-ashes may likewise be diminished, or they 
 may be wholly omitted where the ware is designed 
 for very coarse purposes, and not for domestic 
 uses, where the lead is very improper, being ex- 
 tremely apt to be corroded by acids, and to pro- 
 duce a very unwholesome substance. On this ac- 
 count, where good manufactories are established, 
 the lead ought to be excluded from the composition 
 of the glazings, and other fluxes used in its stead, 
 a* in the following : 
 
 Transparent Glazing for Earthenware. 
 
 Take of white sand, 40 Ibs.; of pearlash, 21 
 Ibs. ; and of common salt, 15 Ibs. Calcine, and 
 proceed as above. 
 
 Where the expense is no object, this glazing may 
 be improved by adding 1 or 2 Ibs. of borax, and 
 diminishing the pearlash, in the proportion of 
 6 lb for 1 Ib. of borax added, or 10 Ibs. for 2 ; in 
 
 the latter case, 2 Ibs. of salt may be also kept out 
 of the composition. The reason for this change 
 is, that if the composition contain so large a pro- 
 portion of salt, and the glazing be not fluxed for 
 a long time after it is laid on the ware, it will be 
 apt to be dissolved by boiling water, and peel off, 
 if it be exposed to the action of it for any long 
 time. 
 
 Another. Take of sand, 40 Ibs. ; of wood-ashes, 
 perfectly burnt, 50 Ibs.; of pearlash, 10 Ibs.; of 
 common salt, 12 Ibs. 
 
 This will make an admirable glazing, where the 
 ashes are pure, and a strong fire can be given to 
 flux it when laid on the ware. It will be perfectly 
 free from the imperfection of the above, and will 
 be very hard and glossy, and where the expense 
 can be afforded, it may be made more yielding to 
 the fire by the addition of borax, in which case no 
 alteration need be made in the proportion of the 
 other ingredients. 
 To Prepare Masticot used as the Ground of Glazing. 
 
 Take of clean sand, 1 cwt., of soda, 44 Ibs., and 
 pearlash, 30 Ibs. Calcine the mixture. 
 Masticot for White Glazing. 
 
 Take of masticot, prepared as in the preceding, 
 100 Ibs. ; calx of tin, 80 Ibs., and of common salt, 
 10 Ibs. Calcine and powder this composition three 
 several times. 
 
 The calx of tin is prepared and sold under the 
 name of putty. Its goodness consists in its white- 
 ness and purity ; the first of which ss easily known 
 by comparing it with a specimen of any that is 
 known to be good. 
 
 Another Preparation. 
 
 Take of mastic, 10 Ibs. ; red lead, 60 Ibs. ; cal- 
 cined tin or putty, 20 Ibs., and of common salt, 
 10 Ibs. Mix them, and calcine and powder the 
 mixture several times. 
 
 Another. Take 2 Ibs. of lead, and somewhat 
 more than 1 Ib. of tin. Calcine the two metals 
 till reduced to a powder, by the means used by 
 potters. Then take 2 parts of these ashes, 1 part 
 of white sand, calcined flints or broken white glass, 
 and i pint of common salt. Mix well together 
 the several ingredients, and set the matter to bake 
 in a proper furnace, and urge it at length to melt. 
 
 The trouble of calcining the tin and lead may 
 be saved here, as well as on the occasions above- 
 mentioned, by procuring them already reduced to 
 a proper state. 
 
 Another. Take 1 Ibs. of lead and 1 Ib. of tin. 
 Reduce them to the state of a calx, and then take 
 of the calcined matter, 8 parts, and of calcined 
 flints and common salt, each 4 parts. Bring the 
 mixture, by heat, to a state of fusion. 
 
 Another. Take of lead, 3 parts, and of tin, 1 
 part. Calcine them, and then take of this matter 
 and of calcined flints and common salt, each, 2 
 parts. Fuse them as above. 
 
 Another. Take of lead, 4 Ibs. ; tin, 1 Ib. Cal- 
 cine them, and take of the matter 8 parts; of cal- 
 cined flints, 7 parts, and of common salt, 4 parts. 
 Fuse them as the others. 
 
 White Glazing for Copper Vessels. 
 
 Take of lead, 4 Ibs. ; of tin, 1 Ib. ; of flints, 4 Ibs. ; 
 of common salt, 1 Ib., and of flint-glass, 1 Ib. Melt 
 the mixture, and it will be fit for use. 
 
 Another. Take of lead, 4 Ibs., and of tin, 1 Ib. 
 Calcine them, and take of the matter, 12 parts; 
 of flints, 14 parts, and of common salt, 8 parts. 
 Fuse them as the others. 
 
 Very fine White Glazing. 
 
 Take of lead, 2 parts, and of tin, 1 part. Cal- 
 cine them, and take of the matter, 1 part; of flints 
 and common salt, each, 1 part. Fuse the mixture. 
 
398 
 
 POTTERY. 
 
 Enamel for Earthenware. 
 
 Take of tin, any quantity, and enclose it in clay 
 or loam and put it in a crucible. Place the cruci- 
 ble in a fire, that the tin may cnlcine, and then 
 break it. There will be a pound of calx very 
 White, and when it is used to paint with on a 
 white ground, the color will come forth and be 
 much whiter than that of the ground. 
 
 Yellow Glazing. 
 
 Take of tin and antimony, each 2 Ibs. ; of lead, 
 8 Ibs. ; or, according to some, equal quantities of 
 all the three ingredients. Calcine the whole, and 
 put them at last in fusion, that they may be vitri- 
 fied. This glazing will run very soon, and be of 
 a fine yellow color. 
 
 The calcining the tin, lead, and antimony to- 
 gether, as here directed, would be a very tedious 
 operation. The calcined tin and red-lead should 
 therefore be used, and the antimony calcined alone. 
 But it is not to be understood that the antimony 
 is to be calcined for this purpose to whiteness, or 
 the stiUe of a perfect calx; which is not easily 
 practicable without nitre, and, if effected, would 
 render the antimony incapable of producing any 
 other color than white. The operation must there- 
 fore be performed with a slow fire, by roasting, as 
 it were, the antimony till it loses its metallic ap- 
 pearance, and becomes a greenish powder; as is 
 practised in making the glass of antimony. 
 
 Another. Take 5 parts of red-lead, 2 parts of 
 powdered bark, 1 part of sand, 1 part of any of 
 the preceding white glazings, and 2 parts of anti- 
 mony. This mixture must be calcined and then 
 fused, and it will give a fine yellow glazing. 
 
 Another. Take 7 parts of the mixture of the 
 calxes of tin and lead, mentioned before in the 
 recipe for preparing the masticot for a whke glaz- 
 ing. Add 1 part of antimony, and fuse them to- 
 gether. 
 
 Another. Take 4 parts of white glass, 1 part 
 of antimony, 3 parts of red-lead, and 1 part of 
 iron scales. Fuse the mixture. 
 
 Another. Take 16 parts of flints, 1 part of fil- 
 ings of iron, and 24 parts of litharge. Fuse the 
 mixture. 
 
 Lemon-colored Glazing. 
 Take of red-lead, 3 parts ; of powdered bricks, 
 very red, 3 parts ; and of antimony, 1 part Cal- 
 cine the mixture day and night, for the space of 4 
 days, in the ash-hole of a glass-house furnace. 
 Urge it at last to fusion, and it will produce a 
 very fine lemon-colored glazing. 
 
 The success of this operation depends greatly 
 on the fineness of the color of the bricks that are 
 powdered. Those which are of a fine red and very 
 brittle, are the best; but such as are gray will not 
 at all answer the end. The same attention should 
 be paid to this matter wherever bricks are used in 
 this kind of preparations. 
 
 Light Yellow Glazing. 
 Take of red-lead, 4 parts ; of antimony, 3 parts ; 
 of the mixture of the calxes of lead and tin, be- 
 fore mentioned in the masticot for white glazing, 
 8 parts; and of glass, 3 parts. 
 
 When the red-lead and calx of tin are used, the 
 proportion of the ingredients will be of red-lead 
 10 parts; of antimony and glass, each, 3 parts 
 and of calcined tin, 2 parts. 
 
 Gold-colored Glazing. 
 
 Take of red-lead, 3 parts ; of antimony, 2 parts; 
 of colcothar, 1 part. Fuse the mixture; and, 
 having powdered the mass, melt it again, and re- 
 peat this operation till the fourth time, and a fine 
 gold-colored yellow will be produced. 
 
 Any preparation of the calcined iron may be 
 used in the t>lace of the colcothar : and the re- 
 
 peated fusions and levigations seem unnecessary. 
 
 Another. Take of red lead and white flints, 
 each, 12 parts ; and of filings of iron, 1 part. Fuse 
 them twice. 
 
 This glazing will be transparent. Care must 
 therefore be taken what ground it be laid upon 
 or it will not answer the end of a yellow, but 
 combine with that of the ground ; and, indeed, the 
 body of color is too weak to produce any other 
 than a faint yellowish cast, even on a pure white 
 ground. 
 
 Green Glazing to be laid on a White Ground. 
 Take of calcined copper 1 part, and 2 parts of 
 any of the preceding yellow glazings. Fuse them 
 twice, but when the composition is used it must 
 not be laid on too thick, for that would render the 
 color too deep. 
 
 Fine Blue Glazing. 
 
 Take of red-lead, 1 Ib. ; powdered flints, 2 Ibs. ; 
 common salt, 2 Ibs.; tartar, 1 Ib. Calcine till it 
 is almost white. White flint-glass, Ib., and 
 zaffre, i Ib. Fuse the whole mixture, and quench 
 the melted mass in water. Repeat the same ope- 
 ration several times. The same proceeding must 
 be adhered to in all the compositions where the 
 tartar enters, otherwise they would be too much 
 charged with salt, and the color would not prove 
 fine. It is proper, moreover, to calcine the mix- 
 ture gently, day and night, for 48 hours, in a glass- 
 house furnace. 
 
 Another. Take 1 Ib. of tartar, i Ib. of red-lead, 
 oz. of zaffre ; and Ib. of powdered flints. Fuse 
 the whole, and proceed in the manner stated 
 above. 
 
 Violet-blue Glazing. 
 
 Take 12 parts of tartar and an equal quantity 
 of flints and zaffre. Proceed as with the above. 
 
 Another. Take 4 oz. of tartar, 2 oz. of red-lead, 
 5 oz. of powdered flints, and i dr. of magnesia. 
 Proceed as with the above. 
 
 Fine Red Glazing. 
 
 Take 3 Ibs. of antimony, 3 Ibs. of red-lead, and 
 1 Ib. of colcothar. Grind the whole as fine as 
 possible, and then paint with it. 
 
 Another. Take 2 Ibs. of antimony, 3 Ibs. of red- 
 lead, and 1 Ib. of colcothar. Proceed as with the 
 above. 
 To Prepare Varnish for Pottery Ware, free from 
 
 Lead. 
 
 Melt and keep in fusion for 14 minutes a mix- 
 ture of 1 oz. of fire-stone and glass, 2 drs. of salt, 
 i oz. of pipe-clay, and 1 oz. of borax. Varnish 
 the pots over with this matter, after they have been 
 in the fire, and put them again in it for about 18 
 hours. 
 
 Varnish for Earthenware. 
 
 This varnish is made of equal parts of white 
 glass and soda, finely pulverized, carefully sifted, 
 and mixed. 
 
 Chinese Mode of Glazing China. 
 They take the finest pieces of the petunse and 
 treat them as before mentioned, by pounding and 
 washing over, but extract, by repeated washings, 
 over, the very finest part of the powder, which 
 keeps so moist with the water that the mixture 
 forms a liquid mass, which they call the oil of 
 petunse. With this oil they mix an equal weight 
 of borax ; they then slake a quantity of quicklime 
 and form layers of that and dried furze, which 
 they set on fire. When they have raised a large 
 heap, after the first one is burnt to ashes, they 
 collect them and the lime, and form layers of them 
 again, with a fresh quantity of the furze, which 
 they burn as before, and they repeat this 5 or 6 
 times. They then put the ashes and lime into a 
 vessel with water, adding some borax in the pro- 
 
GLASS. 
 
 399 
 
 portion of 1 Ib. to 1 cwt. of the ashes ; they next 
 wash over the finer part of this mixture, and pour 
 off at last all fluid from the dregs, which they 
 keep together with the solid part, washed over. 
 They mix this composition of lime, ashes, and 
 ealts with the mixture above mentioned, of an 
 equal quantity of the oil of petunse and borax, 
 and this compound forms the matter for glazing 
 the ware. 
 
 Instead of the petunse, the quartz used in the 
 Saxon manufacture may be employed for forming 
 a similar glazing, by treating it in the same man- 
 ner; and it is said the glazing of the Dresden 
 China is actually made in this way. 
 
 English Glazing for China. 
 
 Take of the finest white sand, or calcined flints, 
 20 Ibs. ; red-lead, 18 Ibs. ; pearlash, 10 Ibs. ; and 
 common salt, decrepitated, 4 Ibs. Levigate the 
 sand or calcined flints and red-lead well together, 
 and afterwards mix them thoroughly with the 
 pearlash and common salt. Fuse the compound 
 in the manner directed for the treatment of glass, 
 till it be perfectly vitrified; then separate the 
 fragments of the pot-carefully from it, and reduce 
 it in a flat agate or porphyry mortar to an impal- 
 pable powder. Finally, temper it with water to 
 the proper consistence for painting or glazing. 
 Modification of the above. 
 
 When this glazing is used for embossed or othfer 
 fine work it should be mixed with a third of its 
 weight of the spar of lead, or other vitrescent 
 earth, in lieu of the petunse, in the composition 
 of the ware paste. Take care that this earth is 
 formed of the best pieces of spar or other sub- 
 stance used, and that it is rendered to an extreme 
 fineness, by washing it over. The design of this 
 addition is to weaken the fluxing powder of the 
 glaze, which, if used alone, would run the corners 
 and edges of the smaller part and impair the sharp- 
 ness and spirit of the work. It is necessary 'to 
 pursue the same method with pieces that are to be 
 painted with more delicate designs ; for the glaz- 
 
 ing, melting otherwise again, in the burning in 
 of the colors would become too fluid, and spread 
 them so as to take away the effect of the fine 
 touches. 
 
 To apply, on every kind of Ware, Colors which pro- 
 duce Herborizations. 
 
 Herborizations can be of all colors; but the 
 most agreeable is that called bistre, which is com- 
 posed in the following manner: 
 
 A pound of calcined manganese, 6 oz. of burnt- 
 iron straw or 1 Ib. of iron ore, and 3 oz. of flint 
 powder. 
 
 The manganese and straw or iron ore must b 
 pounded separately in a mortar, after which tho 
 whole is calcined together in an earthen pot. This 
 mixture, thus prepared, is all pounded together, 
 and then mixed in a small tub of water. 
 
 The blue, green, and other colors must be com- 
 posed of the divers substances known to produce 
 them, and mixed, calcined, and pounded in the 
 same manner as for the bistres. 
 
 To make the application of these various colors 
 to the pieces it is necessary, instead of diluting 
 them with water, as is practised for ordinary 
 painting, to make use of any kind of mordant. 
 The most advantageous, and which are employed 
 with the greatest success, are urine, and the es- 
 sence of tobacco. 
 
 If the essence of tobacco is made use of, infuse 
 2 oz. of good tobacco, in leaves, during 12 hours, 
 in a bottle of cold water, or very simply infuse th 
 2 oz. of tobacco in a bottle of hot water. 
 
 The pieces of clay, after taking a little cotsis- 
 tency, are steeped in white or colored wormseei 
 until the bath puts them in a state of moisture. 
 To produce herborizations it will be sufficient, 
 whilst the wormseed is still fresh, and at the mo- 
 ment when the piece is taken down from the tub 
 to lay on slightly, and with a brush, one or several, 
 drops of other colors. Each drop produces a tree 
 more or less great, according as the workman hat 
 charged his brush with colors. 
 
 To Manufacture Glass. 
 
 Glass is a combination of sand, flint, spar, or 
 some other silicious substances, with one or other 
 of the fixed alkalies, and in some cases with a me- 
 tallic oxide. Of the alkalies, soda is commonly 
 preferred; and of the silicious substances, white 
 sand is most in repute at present, as it requires 
 no preparation for coarse goods, while mere wash- 
 ing in water is sufficient for those of a finer quali- 
 ty. The metallic oxide usually employed, is 
 litharge, or some other preparation of lead. Iron 
 is used in bottle-glass. 
 
 The silicious matter should be fused in contact 
 ttith something called a flux. The substances 
 proper for this purpose are lead, borax, arsenic, 
 nitre, or any alkaline matter. The lead is used 
 in the state of red-lead ; and the alkalies are soda, 
 pearlash, sea-salt, and wood-ashes. When red- 
 lead is used alone, it gives the glass a yellow cast 
 and requires the addition of nitre to correct it. 
 Arsenic, in the same manner, if used in excess, is 
 apt to render tne glass milky. For a perfectly 
 transparent glass, the pearlash is found much 
 iuperior to lead; perhaps better than any other 
 
 flux, except it be borax, which is too expensive to 
 be used, except for experiments, or for the best 
 looking-glasses. 
 
 The materials for making glass must first be 
 reduced to powder, which is done in mortars or 
 by horse mills. After sifting out the coarse parts, 
 the proper proportions of silex and flux are mixed 
 together, and put into the calcining furnace, where 
 they are kept in a moderate heat for 5 or 6 hours, 
 being frequently stirred about during the process. 
 When taken out the matter is called frit. Frit is 
 easily converted into glass by only pounding it, 
 and vitrifying it in the melting pots of the glass 
 furnace ; but in making fine glass, it will some- 
 times require a small addition of flux to the frit 
 to correct any fault. For, as the flux is the most 
 expensive article, the manufacturer will rather put 
 too little at first than otherwise, as he can remedy 
 this defect in the melting pot. The heat in the 
 furnace must be kept up until the glass is brought 
 to a state of perfect fusion ; and during this pro- 
 cess any scum which arises must be removed by 
 ladles. When the glass is perfectly melted, th 
 glaas-blowers commence their operations. 
 
400 
 
 GLASS. 
 
 For the best flint-glass, 120 Ibs. of white sand, 
 50 lbj. of red-lead, 40 Ibs. of the best pearlash, 20 
 Ibs. of nitre, and 5 oz. of manganese ; if a pound or 
 two of arsenic be added, the composition will fuse 
 much quicker, and with a lower temperature. 
 
 For a cheaper flint-glass, take 120 Ibs. of white 
 sand, 35 Ibs. of pearhish, 40 Ibs. of red-lead, 13 
 Ibs. of nitre, 6 Ibs. of arsenic, and 4 oz. of mag- 
 nesia. 
 
 This requires a long heating to make clear glass, 
 and the heat should be brought on gradually, or 
 the arsenic is in danger of subliming before the 
 fusion commences. A still cheaper composition 
 is made by omitting the arsenic in the foregoing, 
 and substituting common sea-salt. 
 
 For the best German crystal-glass, take 120 Ibs. 
 of calcined flints or white sand, the best pearlash, 
 70 Ibs. ; saltpetre, 10 Ibs. ; arsenic, \ Ib. ; and 5 oz. 
 of manganese. Or, a cheaper composition for the 
 same purpose is 120 Ibs. of sand or flints, 46 Ibs. 
 of pearlash, 7 Ibs of nitre, 6 Ibs. of arsenic, and 5 
 oz. of manganese. This will require a long con- 
 tinuance in the furnace ; as do all others where 
 much of the arsenic is employed. 
 
 For looking-glass plates, washed white sand, 60 
 Ibs. ; purified pearlash, 25 Ibs.; nitre, 15 Ibs. ; and 
 7 Ibs. of borax. If properly managed, this glass 
 will be colorless. But if it should be tinged by 
 accident, a trifling quantity of arsenic, and an 
 equal quantity of manganese, will correct it; an 
 ounce of each may be tried first, and the quantity 
 increased if necessary. 
 
 The ingredients for the best crown-glass must 
 be prepared in the same manner as for looking- 
 glasses, and mixed in the following proportions: 
 60 Ibs. of white sand, 30 Ibs. of pearlash, and 15 
 Ibs. of nitre, 1 Ib. of borax, and Ib. of arsenic. 
 
 The composition for common green window- 
 glass is, 120 Ibs. of white sand, 30 Ibs. of unpuri- 
 fied pearlash; wood-ashes, well burnt and sifted, 
 60 Ibs. ; common salt, 20 Ibs. ; and 5 Ibs. of arsenic. 
 
 Common green bottle-glass is made from 200 
 Ibs. of wood-ashes, and 100 Ibs. of sand; or 170 
 Ibs. of ashes, 100 Ibs. of sand, and 50 Ibs. of the 
 slag of an iron furnace ; these materials must be 
 well mixed. 
 
 The materials employed in the manufacture of 
 glass, are by chemists reduced to three classes, 
 namely, alkalies, earths, and metallic oxides. 
 
 The fixed alkalies may be employed indiffer- 
 ently ; but soda is preferred in this country. The 
 soda of commerce is usually mixed with common 
 salt, and combined with carbonic acid. It is pro- 
 per to purify it from both of these foreign bodies 
 before using it. This, however, is seldom done. 
 
 The earths are silica (the basis of flints), lime, 
 and sometimes a little alumina (the basis of clay). 
 Silica constitutes the basis of glass. It is em- 
 ployed in the state of fine sand or flints ; and some- 
 times for making very fine glass, rock crystal is 
 employed. When sand is used, it ought, if possi- 
 ble, to be perfectly white, for when it is colored 
 with metallic oxides, the transparency of the glass 
 is injured. Such sand can only be employed for 
 very coarse glasses. It is necessary to free the 
 sand from all the loose earthy particles with which 
 it may be mixed, which is done by washing it well 
 with water. 
 
 Lime renders glass less brittle, and enables it to 
 withstand better the action of the atmosphere. 
 It ought in no case to exceed the 20th part of the 
 silica employed, otherwise it corrodes the glass 
 pots. This indeed may be prevented by throwing 
 a little clay into the melted glass; but in that case 
 a green glass only is obtained. 
 
 The metallic oxides employed are the red oxide 
 of lead or litharge, and the white oxide of arsenic. 
 
 The red oxide of lead, when added in sufficient 
 quantity, enters into fusion with silica, and forms 
 a milky hue like the dial-plate of a watch. When 
 any combustible body is present, it is usual, in 
 some manufactories, to add a little white oxide of 
 arsenic. This supplying oxygen, the combus- 
 tible is burnt, and flies off, while the revived ar- 
 senic is at the same time volatized. 
 
 There are several kinds of glass adapted to dif- 
 ferent uses. The best and most beautiful are the 
 flint and the plate-glass. These, when well made, 
 are perfectly transparent and colorless, heavy and 
 brilliant. They are composed of fixed alkali, pure 
 silicious sand, calcined flints and litharge, in dif- 
 ferent proportions. The flint glass contains a 
 large quantity of oxide of lead, which by certain 
 processes is easily separated. The plate glass is 
 poured in the melted state upon a table covered 
 with copper. The plate is cast an inch thick 
 or more, and is ground down to a proper degree 
 of thickness, and then polished. 
 
 Crown-glass, that used for windows, is made 
 without lead, chiefly of fixed alkali fused with 
 silicious sand, to which is added some black oxide 
 of manganese, which is apt to give the glass a 
 tinge of purple. 
 
 Bottle-glass is the coarsest and cheapest kind, 
 in this little or no fixed alkali enters the com- 
 position. It consists of alkaline earth and oxido 
 of iron combined with alumina and silica. In 
 this country it is composed of sand and the refuse 
 of the soap-boiler, which consists of the lime em- 
 ployed in rendering this alkali caustic, and of the 
 earthy matters with which the alkali was contam- 
 inated. The most fusible is flint-glass, and the 
 least fusible is bottle-glass. 
 
 Glass for Looking-glass Plates, No. 1. 
 
 Take of white sand, cleansed, 60 Ibs. ; of puri- 
 fied pearlash, 25 Ibs.; of saltpetre, 15 Ibs; and of 
 borax, 7 Ibs. 
 
 'This composition should be continued long in 
 the fire, which should be for some time strong, 
 and afterwards more moderate, that the glass may 
 be entirely free from bubbles before it is worked. 
 It will be entirely clear of all color, unless in case 
 of some accident ; but if any yellow tinge should, 
 nevertheless, unfortunately infect it, there is no 
 remedy except by adding a small proportion of 
 manganese, which should be mixed with an equal 
 quantity of arsenic, and after their being put into 
 the glass, giving it a considerable heat again, and 
 then suffering it to free itself from bubbles in a 
 more moderate one, as before. If the tinge be 
 slight, an ounce of manganese may be first tried, 
 and if that prove insufficient, the quantity must 
 be increased, but the glass will always be obscure 
 in proportion to the quantity that is admitted. 
 Looking-glass Plates. No. 2 
 
 Take of the white sand, 60 Ibs. ; of pearlash, 
 20 Ibs.; of common salt, 10 Ibs. ; of nitre, 7 Ibs.; 
 and of borax, 1 Ib. 
 
 This glass will run with as little heat as the for- 
 mer, but it will be more brittle and refract the 
 rays of the light in a greater degree. 
 
 Crown or Seat Window-glass, No. 1. 
 
 Take of white sand, 60 Ibs. ; of purified pearlash, 
 30 Ibs.; ^f saltpetre, 15 Ibs,; of borax, 1 Ib.; and 
 of arsenic, i Ib. 
 
 This will be very clear and colorless if the in- 
 gredients be good, and will not be very dear. It 
 will run with a moderate heat ; but if it be desired 
 to be yet more fusible and soft, $ a Ib. or a pound 
 more of arsenic may be added. 
 
 If the glass should prove yellow, he manganese 
 must be used as above directed for the looking- 
 glass. 
 
GLASS. 
 
 401 
 
 Cheaper kind of Window-glass, No. 2. 
 Take of whi*.e sand, 60 Ibs.; of unpurified pearl 
 sh, 25 Ibs.: of common salt, 10 Ibs.; of nitre, 
 *bs. ; of arsenic, 2 Ibs; and of manganese, 1^ oz 
 This will be inferior to the above kind, but ma 1 
 toe improved, where desired, by purifying the 
 pearlash. 
 
 Common or Green Window-glass, No. 3. 
 Take of white sand, 60 Ibs. , of unpurified pearl 
 *sh, 30 Ibs. ; of common salt, 10 Ibs.; of arsenic 
 2 Ibs. ; and of manganese, 2 oz. 
 
 This is a cheap composition and will not appea 
 too green nor be very deficient in transparency. 
 
 Common or Green Window-glass, No. 4. 
 Take of the cheapest kind of white sand, 12( 
 Ibs.; of unpurified pearlash, 30 Ibs.; of wood-ashes 
 well burnt and sifted, 60 Ibs.; of common salt, 2 
 Ibs. ; and of arsenic, 5 Ibs. 
 
 This composition is very cheap, and will pro 
 duce a good glass with a greenish cast. 
 
 Best Phial-glass, No. 1. 
 
 Take of white sand, 120 Ibs.; of unpurifiec 
 pearlash, 50 Ibs. ; of common salt, 10 Ibs.; of ar 
 senic, 5 Ibs. ; and of manganese, 5 oz. 
 
 This will be a very good glass for the purpos< 
 and will work with a moderate heat, but requires 
 time to become clear, on account of the propor 
 tion of arsenic ; when, however, it is once in gooc 
 condition, it will come very near to the crystal 
 glass. 
 
 Cheapest Green or Common Phial-glass, No. 2. 
 Take of the cheapest kind of white sand, 120 
 Ibs. ; of wood-ashes, well burnt and sifted, 80 Ibs. 
 of pearlash, 20 Ibs.; of common salt, 15 Ibs; anc 
 of arsenic, 1 Ib. 
 
 This will be green, but tolerably transparent 
 and will work with a moderate fire, and vitrify 
 quickly with a strong one. 
 
 Green or Bottle-glass. 
 
 Take of wood-ashes. 200 Ibs.; and of sand, 100 
 
 Ibs. Mix them thoroughly by grinding together. 
 
 This is the due proportion where the sand is 
 
 good and the wood-ashes are used without any 
 
 other addition. 
 
 The same, with the addition of scoria. 
 
 Take of wood-ashes, 170 Ibs.; of sand 100 Ibs.; 
 
 and of scoria, or clinkers, 50 Ibs. Mix the whole 
 
 well by grinding them together. 
 
 The clinkers should be well ground before they 
 are used, if they admit of it ; but frequently they 
 are too hard, nd in that case they should be bro- 
 ken into as small bits as can be done conveniently 
 and mixed with the other matter without any 
 grinding. The harder they are, the less material 
 will be the powdering of them as they will the 
 sooner melt of themselves in the furnace, and 
 consequently mix with the other ingredients. 
 
 The most Perfect kind of Flint-glass, No. 1. 
 Take of white sand, 120 Ibs. ; red-lead, 50 Ibs. ; 
 the best pearlash, 40 Ibs.; nitre, 20 Ibs.; man- 
 ganese, 5 oz. 
 
 If this composition be fused with a very strong 
 fire, and time be given to it, a glass will be pro- 
 duced that will have the play of the best flint- 
 glass, and yet be hard and strong. It is not so 
 cheap as the compositions given below, where 
 arsenic or common salt is introduced, or where 
 more of the pearlash are used ; in either of which 
 cases, savings may be made by diminishing pro- 
 portion ably the quantities of nitre. But the qual- 
 ities of this glass will be found to come nearer to 
 the standard of perfection, which is to unite the 
 lustre and hardness together in the greatest degree 
 they are compatible with each other. 
 26 
 
 If this composition be, however, desired 'to flux 
 with less heat, and quicker, a pound or two of 
 arsenic may be added, which will be found effooU 
 ually to answer the purpose. 
 
 Flint-glass, No. 2. 
 
 Take of sand, 120 Ibs. ; the best pearlash, 54 
 Ibs.; red-lead, 36 Ibs.; nitre, 12 Ibs.; manganese, 
 6 oz. 
 
 This will require much the same heat as the 
 other, but will be harder in its texture. If it be 
 desired to be made more yielding to the fire, ar- 
 senic may be added, or the quantity of sand may 
 be lessened. In these cases the glass will be softer 
 and weaker. 
 
 White Flint-glass, No. 3. 
 
 Take of white sand, 120 Ibs. ; the best pearlash 
 35 Ibs. ; arsenic, 6 Ibs. ; manganese, 4 oz. 
 
 This glass will require a considerable time in 
 the fire to become clear, and must not, if it can bo 
 avoided, be strongly urged at first. This glass 
 will not be so hard as those of the above composi- 
 tions, but it will be very clear, and may be em- 
 ployed for large vessels, where a sufficient thick- 
 ness can be allowed to give it strength. 
 
 Cheaper Composition of Glass, No. 4. 
 Take the proportions of the other ingredients 
 given in the last, and omitting the arsenic, add in 
 its stead 15 Ibs. of common salt. 
 
 This will be more brittle than the last, and 
 therefore cannot be recommended, unless for the 
 fabrication of such kind of vessels, or other pieces, 
 where the strength is of little moment. 
 Cheapest Composition of White Flint-glass, No. 5. 
 Take of white sand, 120 Ibs. ; red-lead, 30 Ibs.; 
 the best pearlash, 20 Ibs. ; nitre, 10 Ibs. ; common 
 salt, 15 Ibs. ; arsenic, 6 Ibs. 
 
 This glass will fuse with a moderate heat, but 
 requires time, like the last, to take off the milky 
 appearance of the arsenic; it is yet softer than 
 the last, and may therefore be deemed thu worst 
 kind of flint that can be made. 
 
 Best German Crystal-glass, No. 6. 
 Take of calcined flints, or white sand, 120 Iks. j 
 the best pearlash, 70 Ibs.; saltpetre, 10 Ibs.; arse- 
 nic, i Ib. ; manganese, 5 oz. 
 
 If the pearlash be pure and good, this glass 
 will equal the best of this kind that ever was 
 made. Borax has been frequently used also in 
 the compositions of this sort of glass, but its great 
 price, without any equivalent advantage, will deter 
 from the employing it in large manufactures, as 
 there is no sort of transparent glass (plate ex- 
 cepted), that can bear the expense of it. 
 
 German Crystal-glass, No. 7. 
 Take of calcined flints, or white sand, 120 Ibs.; 
 pearlash, 46 Ibs. ; manganese, 5 oz. 
 
 This composition requires a long continuance 
 of heat, on account of the arsenic, for the reason 
 aefore given. It produces a glass equally or more 
 ;ransparent and colorless than the preceding, but 
 somewhat more brittle. The arsenic is, however, 
 so disagreeable an ingredient, from the deleteriout 
 qualities of the fumes, which will necessarily rise 
 copiously till the fusion of the other ingredients 
 heck it, that, where the advantage is not more 
 onsiderable than the saving arising from the dif- 
 erence of these two recipes, it is scarcely worth 
 while to submit to the inconvenience of it. 
 
 To Anneal Glass. 
 
 "Nealing," as it is called by the workmen, is a 
 
 rocess in the glass-houses, and consists in putting 
 
 he glass vessels, as soon as they are formed, and 
 
 bile they are yet hot, into a furnace or an oven, 
 
 lot so hot as to re-melt them, and in which they 
 
402 
 
 GLASS. 
 
 are suffered to cool gradually. This is found to 
 Drevent their breaking easily, particularly on ex- 
 oosure to heat. 
 
 A similar process is used for rendering cast-iron 
 vessels less brittle, and the effect depends on the 
 same principles. 
 
 To Polish and Grind Glass. 
 
 To grind plate-glass, lay it horizontally upon a 
 flat stone table, made of a very fine grained free- 
 stone ; and for its greater security, plaster it down 
 with mortar or stucco. The stone table is sup- 
 ported by a strong wooden frame, with a ledge all 
 round its edges, rising about 2 inches above the 
 glass. Upon the plate to be ground is laid another 
 rough glass, not above half as big, and so loose 
 as to slide upon the former; but cemented to a 
 wooden plank, to guard it from the injury it must 
 otherwise receive from the scraping of the wheel 
 whereto the plank is fastened, and from the 
 weights laid upon it to promote the triture or 
 grinding of the glasses. The whole is covered 
 witli a wheel made of hard light wood, about 6 
 inches in diameter, by pulling of which backwards 
 and forwards alternately, and sometimes turning 
 it round, the workmen, who always stand oppo- 
 site to each other, produce a constant attrition be- 
 tween the two glasses, and bring them to whatever 
 degree of smoothness they please, by first pouring 
 in water and coarse sand; after that, a finer sort 
 of sand, as the work advances, till at last they 
 pour in the powder of smalt. As the upper or 
 incumbent glass becomes smooth,, it must be re- 
 moved, and another, from time to time, substituted 
 for it. 
 
 The engine just described is called a mill by the 
 workmen, and is employed only in grinding the 
 largest-sized glasses. In grinding lesser glasses, 
 they usually work without a wheel, having four 
 wooden handles fastened to the corners of the 
 etone that loads the upper plank, by which they 
 work it about. The grinders' part done, the glass 
 is turned over to the polisher, who, with fine pow- 
 der of tripoli stone or emery, brings it to a per- 
 fect evenness and lustre. The instrument made 
 use of in this branch, is a board furnished with a 
 felt and small roller, which the workman moves 
 by means of a double handle at both ends. The 
 artist, in working this roller, is assisted by a 
 wooden hoop or spring, to the end of which it is 
 fixed; for the spring, by constantly bringing the 
 Toller back to the s:une points, facilitates the action 
 of the workman's arm. 
 
 To make Frit. 
 
 Frit, in the glass manufacture, is the matter or 
 ingredients of which glass is to be made, when 
 they have been calcined or baked in a furnace. 
 There are three kinds of frit: the first, crystal 
 frit, or that for crystal or clear glass, is made with 
 salt of pulverine and sand. The second and ordi- 
 nary frit is made of the bare ashes of the pulve- 
 rine or barilla, without extracting the salt from 
 them. This makes the ordinary white or crystal- 
 glass. The third is frit for green glasses, made 
 of common ashes, without any preparation. This 
 'iast frit will require 10 or 12 hours' baking. The 
 materials in each are to be finely powdered, washed 
 and searced; then equally mixed, and frequently 
 stirred together in the melting-pot. 
 To bring Pearlash, or any other Fixed Alkaline 
 Salt, to the Highest Degree of Purity. 
 
 Take of the best pearlash 3 Ibs., and of salt- 
 petre 6 oz. Pound them together in a glass or 
 marble mortar, till they are thoroughly well mixed, 
 and then put part of them into a large crucible, 
 and set it in a furnace, where it may undergo a 
 strong heat. When the part of the matter that 
 
 was first put into the crucible is heated red hot, 
 throw in the rest gradually, and if the crucible 
 will not contain the whole, pour part of the melted 
 matter out on a moistened stone, or marble, and 
 having made room in the crucible, put in the rest, 
 and let it continue there likewise till it be red 
 hot. Pour it out then as the other, and after- 
 wards put the whole into an earthen or very clean 
 iron pot, with 10 pts. of water, aud heat it over 
 the fire, till the salts be entirely melted. Let it 
 then be taken off the fire, stand till it is cold, and 
 afterwards filter it through paper in a pewter col- 
 ander. When it is filtered, return the fluid again 
 into the pot, and evaporate the salt to dryness, 
 which will then be as white as snow, the nitre 
 having burnt all the combustible matter that 
 remained in the pearlash after its former calci- 
 nation. 
 
 To Polish Optical-glasses. 
 
 The operation of polishing optic-glasses, after 
 being properly ground, is one of the most difficult 
 points of the whole process. Before the polish- 
 ing is begun, it is proper to stretch an even, well- 
 wrought piece of linen over the tool, dusting upon 
 it some very fine tripoli. Then taking the glass 
 in the hand, run it round 40 or 50 times upon the 
 tool, to take off the roughness of the glass about 
 the border of it. This cloth is then to be re- 
 moved, and the glass to be polished upon the na- 
 ked tool, with a compound powder, made of four 
 parts tripoli mixed with one of fine blue vitriol, 
 6 or 8 grains of which mixture are sufficient for 
 a glass 5 in. broad. This powder must be wetted 
 with 8 or 10 drops of clear vinegar in the middle 
 of the tool, being first mixed and softened thor- 
 oughly with a very fine small muller. Then, with 
 a nice brush, having spread this mixture thinly 
 and equably upon the tool; take some very fine 
 tripoli, and strew it thinly and equably upon the 
 tool so prepared, after which take the glass to 
 be polished, wiped very clean, and apply it on 
 the tool, and move it gently twice or thrice in 
 a straight line backwards and forwards; then 
 take it off, and observe whether the marks of the 
 tripoli, sticking to the glass, are equably spread 
 over the whole surface; if not, it is a sign that 
 either the tool or glass is too warm, in which case 
 wait awhile and try it again, till the glass takes 
 the tripoli everywhere alike. Then begin to pol- 
 ish boldly, there being no danger of spoiling the 
 figure of the glass, which in the other case would 
 infallibly happen. 
 To Purify Pearlash for the manufacture of Mirrors, 
 
 Take any quantity of the best pearlash, and 
 dissolve it in 4 times its weight of water boil- 
 ing, which operation may be best performed in 
 a pot of cast iron. When they are dissolved, let 
 the solution be put in a clean tub, and suffered to 
 remain there 24 hours or longer. Let the clear 
 part of the fluid be then decanted off from the 
 dregs or sediment, and put back into the iron pot, 
 in which the water must be evaporated awny till 
 the salts be left perfectly dry again. They should 
 then, if not used immediately, be kept in stone 
 jars, well secured from moisture and air, till such 
 time as they are wanted. 
 
 Great care should be always taken in this treat- 
 ment of the salts to keep the iron pot thoroughly 
 clean from rust, which would give a yellow tinge 
 to the glass, not to be removed without greatly in- 
 juring it. 
 
 To Ornament all kinds of Glass in Imitation of 
 Engraving, etc. 
 
 The method heretofore known for engraving on 
 glass, has been by means of a machine with 
 wheels, of different substances, which have been 
 
IMITATION OF PKECIOUS STONES, ETC. 
 
 403 
 
 employed with sand, etc., to grind off some parts 
 of the surface of the glass which is to be engraved 
 on, and then by means of grinding and polishing 
 different parts on the rough surface, the different 
 figures are formed according to the designs given. 
 By this invention, instead of grinding or taking 
 off any part of the surface of the glass, the pat- 
 entee lays on an additional surface or coating of 
 glass, prepared for the purpose, which, when sub- 
 jected to a proper degree of heat, will incorporate 
 with the glass to be operated upon, so as to pro- 
 duce an effect similar to that' which has hitherto 
 been obtained by means of grinding. When it is 
 required to ornament glass, then, previously to the 
 heat being applied, with an etching or engraving 
 tool such parts are to be taken out as will produce 
 the required effect, and that in a much superior 
 way to the effect produced by the usual mode of 
 grinding, polishing, etc. The materials used are 
 to be melted in a crucible, or other pot, and they 
 are to be made up in the same manner as if used 
 for the making of the best flint-glass, broken 
 glass, or, as it is usually denominated, "cullitt," 
 being the principal ingredient in it. Several mix- 
 tures are given, of which the first is 160 parts of 
 cullitt, 10 of pearlash, 40 of red-lead, and 10 of 
 arrence. 
 
 The second is 120 parts of cullitt, 160 of red- 
 lead, 60 of sand, and 60 of borax. 
 
 The third is 70 parts of red-lead, 22 of sand, 
 and 410 of calcined borax. 
 
 When these are subjected to such a heat as to be 
 thereby completely fused, take equal parts of each 
 mixture and grind them to an impalpable powder, 
 for the purpose of being mixed with a menstruum 
 proper for coating the glass. 
 
 The menstruum consists of 1 part of refined loaf 
 sugar dissolved in 2 parts of pure water, to which 
 is added, at the time of mixing the powder, about 
 i part of common writing-ink; the effect, we are 
 told, produced by this addition of oxide of man- 
 ganese, used in a small quantity by the glass- 
 makers in making their best flint-glass, because 
 without such an addition the specimens would be 
 of a cloudy or milky appearance. A quantity of 
 this menstruum is used sufficient to render the 
 ground-mixture of a proper consistence for laying 
 on with a thin, smooth surface. When the coat- 
 ing or mixture is thus prepared, the glass is to be 
 Coated by means of acamel's-hair brush, or squir- 
 rel's-foot, etc. It is then to be exposed to a heat 
 sufficient to produce a semi-vitrification of the 
 coaty surface, and to incorporate it with the sub- 
 stance or body of glass so coated. But the heat 
 must not be carried higher than this, because in 
 that case a complete vitrification would ensue, and 
 the desired effect of having a surface in imitation 
 of the rough surface produced by grinding would 
 not be obtained; the article must, under such cir- 
 cumstances, be re-coated and submitted again to 
 the fire. If, after the coating has been applied, 
 any borders, cyphers, or other ornaments, are 
 wanted to be executed thereon, then, previously to 
 the heat being applied with an etching or engra- 
 ving tool, such parts of the coated surface must 
 be chased out as will produce the desired effect, 
 after which the requisite degree of heat is to be 
 applied. 
 
 This invention is not only applicable to all 
 kinds of useful and ornamental articles of glass- 
 ware on which the common methods of engraving 
 have been practised, but may be applied to win- 
 dow-glass and plate-glass of every description, in 
 place of grinding for the purpose of making win- 
 dow-blinds. It is also said to be peculiarly adapted 
 to produce beautiful specimens of art for the win- 
 dows of altar-pieces, libraries, museums, coach- 
 
 windows, and for the glass used in ornamental 
 buildings of all descriptions. This invention haa 
 another advantage over the common method of 
 the work wearing much cleaner than the work of 
 ground glass, the surface of which being fractured 
 by the action of the wheel, etc., is therefore liable 
 to gather dirt on the rough, unpolished parts of 
 the borders, etc. 
 
 To make the Bologna Phial. 
 
 The Bologna, or philosophical phial, is a small 
 vessel of glass which has been suddenly cooled, 
 open at the upper end, and rounded at the bottom. 
 It is made so thick at the bottom that it will bear 
 a smart blow against a hard body without bieiik- 
 ing, but if a little pebble or piece of flint is let 
 fall into it, it immediately cracks, and the bottom 
 falls into pieces, but unless the pebble or flint is 
 large and angular enough to scratch the surface 
 of the glass, it will not break. 
 
 To make Prince Rupert's Drops. 
 
 Prince Rupert's drops are made by letting drops 
 of melted glass fall into cold water; the drop as- 
 sumes by that means an oval form, with a tail or 
 neck resembling a retort. They possess this sin- 
 gular property, that if a small portion of the tail 
 is broken off, the whole bursts into powder, with 
 an explosion, and a considerable shock is commu- 
 nicated to the hand that grasps it. 
 
 To Break Glass in any Required Way. 
 
 Dip a piece of worsted thread in spirits of tur- 
 pentine, wrap it round the glass in the direction 
 required to be broken, and then set fire to the 
 thread, or apply a red hot wire round the glass, 
 and if it does not immediately crack, throw cold 
 water on it while the wire remains hot. By thia 
 means glass that is broken may often be fashioned 
 and rendered useful for a variety of purposes. 
 
 GLASS AND PASTES TO IMITATE PRE- 
 CIOUS STONES. 
 
 The Best and Hardest Glass for Receiving Colors, 
 No. 1. 
 
 Take of the Best sand, cleansed by washing, 12 
 Ibs. ; of pearlash, or fixed alkaline salt, purified 
 with nitre, 7 Ibs. ; of saltpetre, 1 Ib. ; and of borax, 
 ilb. 
 
 The sand being first reduced to powder in a 
 glass or flint mortar, the other ingredient? should 
 be put to it, and the whole well mixed by pound- 
 ing them together. 
 
 Best Glass, but not so Hard, No. 2. 
 
 Take of the white sand, cleansed, 12 Ibs.; of 
 pearlash, purified with saltpetre, 7 Ibs. ; of nitre, 
 1 Ib. ; of borax, Ib. ; and of arsenic, 4 oz. 
 
 Proceed as in the last; but if the glass be re- 
 quired to melt with yet less heat, 1 Ib. of borax 
 may be used instead of the i Ib., and 1 Ib. of com- 
 mon salt may be added. But this last is apt to 
 make the glass more brittle, which is an injury 
 done to such as is to be cut into very small pieces, 
 and ground with so many angles in the figure, in 
 imitation of jewels. 
 Soft Glass or Paste for Receiving Colors. No. 3. 
 
 Take of white sand, cleansed, 6 Ibs. ; of red-lead, 
 3 Ibs.; of purified pearlash, 2 Ibs.; and of nitre, 
 lib. 
 
 Proceed with the mixture as with the foregoing. 
 
 Glass or Paste, Softer than the above, No. 4. 
 
 Take of white sand, cleansed, 6 Ibs. ; of red-lead 
 and purified pearlash, each 3 Ibs. ; of nitre, 1 Ib. ; 
 of borax, Ib. ; and of arsenic, 3 oz. 
 
 This is very soft and will fuse with a very gentl* 
 heat, but requires some time to become e'ear, on 
 
404: 
 
 GLASS. 
 
 account of the areenic. It may even be prepared 
 and tinged in a common fire without a furnace, if 
 the pot? containing it can be surrounded by burn- 
 ing coals, without danger of their falling into it. 
 The borax, being a more expensive ingredient 
 than the others, may be omitted where a some- 
 what greater heat can be applied, and the glass is 
 not intended for very nice purposes, or 1 Ib. of 
 common salt may be substituted in its place; but 
 the glass will be more clear and perfect, and free 
 itself much sooner from bubbles, where the borax 
 is used. 
 
 This glass will be very soft, and will not bear 
 much water, if employed for rings, buckles, or 
 euch imitations of stones as are exposed to much 
 rubbing; but for ear-rings, ornaments worn on 
 the breast, or such others as are but seldom put 
 on, it may last a considerable time. 
 
 In all these soft compositions care should be 
 taken that part of the sand be not left unvitrified 
 in the bottom of the pot, as will sometimes hap- 
 pen, for in that case the glass, abounding too 
 much with salt and lead, will not bear the air, 
 but, being corroded by it, will soon contract a 
 mistiness and specks in the surface, which will 
 entirely efface all the lustre of the paste. 
 
 Hard Glass of a f nil Blue Color. No. 1. 
 
 Take of the composition of hard glass, No. 1 or 
 2, 10 Ibs. ; zaffre, 6 dr. ; and of manganese, 2 dr. 
 Proceed as with the above. 
 
 If this glass be of too deep a color, the propor- 
 tion of the zaffre and manganese to the glass may 
 be diminished ; and if it verge too much on the 
 purple, to which cast it will incline, the manganese 
 should be omitted. If a very cool or pure blue be 
 wanted, instead of the manganese, half an ounce of 
 calcined copper may be used, and the proportion 
 of zaffre diminished by one-half. 
 
 
 
 Paste of a Full Slue Color, No. 2. 
 
 Take of the composition for paste, No. 1 or 2, 
 10 Ibs., and proceed as with the foregoing. 
 
 Sard Glass Resembling the Sapphire, No. 3. 
 
 Take of the composition for hard glass, No. 1 
 or 2, 10 Ibs. ; of zaffre, 3 drs. and 1 scr. ; of pur- 
 ple of Cassius, 1 dr. Proceed as with the above. 
 
 Cheaper Hard Glass for Resembling the Sapphire, 
 No. 4. 
 
 As the foregoing, only, instead of the purple of 
 Cassius, use 2 drs. and 2 scr. of manganese. 
 
 If this be well managed, the color will be very 
 good, and the glass, when set and cut, will not be 
 easily distinguishable from the true sapphire; but 
 the preceding will be a finer color, as there is a 
 foulness in the tinge of the manganese, which will 
 always diminish, in some degree, the effect of 
 brighter colors, when with them. 
 
 Paste Resembling the Sapphire, No. 5. 
 
 Take of the composition for paste, No. 3 or 4, 
 and proceed as with the foregoing. 
 
 It is not worth while to bestow the expense of 
 coloring paste with the gold, and it is therefore 
 more expedient, in the case of such, to use the 
 other method. 
 
 Sard Glass and Paste for Sapphire, by means of 
 Smalt, No. 6. 
 
 Take of the compositions for hard glass and 
 paste, any quantity, and mix with them one-eighth 
 of their weight of smalt, the brightest and most 
 inclining to purple that can be procured. 
 
 If it be desirable to give a more purple tinge, 
 manganese may be added in the proportion re- 
 quired. 
 
 Sard Glass Resembling Eagle Marine, No. f. 
 
 Take of the composition for bard glass, No. 1 or 
 2,10 Ibs.; of oxide of copper, highly calcined with 
 sulphur, 3 oz., and of zaffre, 1 scr. Proceed aa 
 with the foregoing. 
 
 Paste for Eagle Marine, No. 8. 
 
 Take of the composition for paste, No. 1 or .2, 
 10 Ibs., and proceed as with the above. 
 
 Sard Glass of a Gold or Yellow Color, No. 1. 
 
 Take of the composition for hard glass, No. 1 or 
 2, 10 Ibs., but omit the saltpetre, and for every 
 pound add 1 oz. of calcined borax, or, if that do 
 not render the glass sufficiently fusible, 2 oz. ; of 
 red tartar, the deepest color that can be procured, 
 10 oz. ; of manganese, 2 oz. ; of soft charcoal, 2 
 drs. Proceed as with the rest. 
 
 Paste of a Gold or Yellow Color, No. 2. 
 
 Take of the composition for paste, No. 3 or 4, 
 prepared without the saltpetre, 10 Ibs.; of colco- 
 thar, strongly calcined, li oz. Proceed as with 
 the others. 
 
 The crude tartar and the charcoal must not be 
 used where lead enters into the composition of the 
 glass, and the nitre may be spared, because the 
 yellow tinge, given to the glass by the lead, on ac- 
 count of which the nitre is used, is no detriment 
 in this case, but only adds to the proper color. 
 This color may also be prepared by crude anti- 
 mony, as well as the colcothar, but it is more dif- 
 ficult to be managed, and not superior in its effect. 
 Sard Glass Resembling the Topaz, No. 3. 
 
 Take of the composition for hard glass, No. 1 or 
 2, 10 Ibs. and an equal quantity of the gold-colored 
 hard glass. Powder and fuse them together. 
 
 As there is a great variety in the color of the 
 topaz, some being a deeper yellow, and others 
 slightly tinged, the proportions of the yellow glasf 
 to the white may be accordingly varied at pleasure 
 the one here given being for the deepest. 
 Paste Resembling the Topaz, No. 4. 
 
 This may be done in the same manner as the 
 preceding, but the saltpetre may be omitted in the 
 original composition of the glass, and for the re- 
 semblance of the very slightly colored topazes nei- 
 ther the gold-colored paste nor any other tinging 
 matter need be added, that of the lead being suffi- 
 cient, when not destroyed by the nitre. 
 
 Glass Resembling the Chrysolite, No. 5. 
 Take of the composition for hard glass, No. 1 or 
 2, 10 Ibs. ; of colcothar, 6 drs. Proceed as with 
 the above. 
 
 Paste Resembling the Chrysolite., No. 6. 
 Take of the composition for paste, No. 3 or 4, 
 prepared without saltpetre, 10 Ibs. ; and of colco- 
 thar, 5 drs. Proceed as with the rest. 
 
 Sard Glass Resembling the Emerald, No. 1. 
 Take of the composition for hard glass, No. 1 or 
 2, 9 Ibs. ; of oxide of copper, 3 oz. ; and of precipi- 
 tated oxide of iron, 2 drs. 
 
 Paste Resembling the Emerald. No. 2. 
 Take of the composition for paste, No. 1 or 2, 
 and proceed as with the above; but if the saltpetre 
 be omitted in the preparation of the paste, a less 
 proportion of the iron will serve. 
 
 Sard Glass of a Deep and very Bright Purple 
 
 Color. No. 1. 
 
 Take of the composition for hard glass, No. 1 or 
 2, 10 Ibs. ; of zaffre, 6 drs. ; of purple of Cassius, 
 1 dr. Proceed as with the rest. 
 
 Sard Glass of a Deep Purple Color, No. 2. 
 Take of the composition for hard glass, No. 1 or 
 
IMITATION OF PEECIOUS STONES, ETC. 
 
 405 
 
 /, 10 Ibs. ; of manganese, 1 oz. ; and of zaffre, i oz. 
 Proceed as with the other. 
 
 Paste of a Deep Purple Color, No. 3. 
 
 Take of the composition for pastes, No. 3 or 4, 
 
 10 Ibs., and treat them as the foregoing. 
 
 Hard Glass of the Color of the Amethyst. No. 4. 
 
 Take of the composition of hard glass, No. 1 or 
 
 2, 10 Ibs.; of manganese, 1 oz. ; and of zaffre, 1 
 
 dr. Proceed as with the rest. 
 
 Paste of the Color of the Amethyst, No. 5. 
 Take of the composition for paste, No. 1 or 2, 1C 
 Ibs., and treat it as the preceding. 
 
 Paste Resembling the Diamond. 
 Take of white sand, 6 Ibs.; of red-lead, 4 
 Ibs.; of pearlash, purified as above directed, ? 
 Ibs. ; of nitre, 2 Ibs. ; or arsenic, 5 oz. ; and of 
 manganese, 1 scr. Proceed as with the others, but 
 continue the fusion for a considerable time on ac 
 count of the large proportion of arsenic. 
 
 If this composition be thoroughly vitrified, and 
 kept free from bubbles, it will be very white, and 
 have a very great lustre; but if, on examination, 
 it appears to incline to yellow, another scruple or 
 more of the manganese may be added. It may be 
 rendered harder by diminishing the proportion of 
 lead, and increasing that of the salts, or fusing il 
 with a very strong fire; but the diminution of the 
 proportion of lead will make it have less of the 
 lustre of the diamond. 
 
 Hard Glass, Perfectly Black. 
 
 Take of the composition for hard glass, No. 1 or 
 
 2, 10 Ibs. ; of zaffre, 1 oz. ; of manganese and of col- 
 
 cothar, strongly calcined, each, 7 drs. Proceed as 
 
 with the rest. 
 
 Paste, Perfectly Slack. 
 
 Take of the composition for paste, No. 1 or 2, 
 
 prepared with the saltpetre, 10 Ibs. ; of zaffre, 1 
 
 oz. ; of manganese, 6 drs. ; and of colcothar, 5 drs. 
 
 Proceed as with the others. 
 
 White Opaque Glass, No. 1. 
 Take of the composition for hard glass, No. 1 or 
 2, 10 Ibs. ; of horn, ivory, or bone, calcined per- 
 fectly, white, I Ib. Proceed as with the others. 
 
 Paste of an Opaque Whiteness, No. 2. 
 Take of the composition No. 3 or 4, 10 Ibs., and 
 make the same addition as to the above. 
 Glass of an Opaque Whiteness formed by Arsenic, 
 
 No. 3. 
 
 Take of flint-glass 10 Ibs., and of very white 
 arsenic, 1 Ib. Powder and mix them thoroughly, 
 by grinding them together, and then fuse them 
 with a moderate heat till they be well incorpor- 
 ated, but avoid liquefying them more than to 
 make a perfect union. 
 
 This glass has been made in great quantities, 
 and has not only been formed into a variety of 
 different kinds of vessels, but, being very white 
 and fusible with a moderate heat, has been much 
 used, as a white ground, for enamel in dial-plates, 
 and other pieces which have not occasion to go 
 several times into the fire to be finished. It will 
 not, however, bear repeated burnings, nor a strong 
 heat continued for any length of time, when ap- 
 plied to this purpose, without becoming transpa- 
 rent, to which likewise the smoke of a coal fire 
 will also greatly contribute; but it answers the 
 end very well in many cases, though even in those, 
 enamel of the same degree of whiteness would be 
 preferable, as this is always brittle, and of less 
 firm and tenacious texture. 
 Hard Glass, or Paste, Formed by Calx of Tin or 
 
 Antimony, No. 4. 
 Take of any of the compositions for hard glass 
 
 or pastes, 10 Ibs ; of oxide of tin (commonly called 
 putty), or of antimony, or tin calcined by means 
 of nitre, 1 Ibs. ; mix them well by grinding them 
 together, and then fuse them with a moderate heat, 
 The glass of this kind made with the composi- 
 tion for pastes, differs in nothing from white 
 enamel, but in the proportion of the calx of tin 
 and antimony. 
 
 Semi-transparent White Glass and Paste Resemb- 
 ling the Opal, No. 5. 
 
 Take of any of the compositions for hard glass 
 or paste, 10 Ibs. ; of horn, bone, or ivory, calcined 
 to a perfect whiteness, i Ib. Proceed as with the 
 rest. 
 
 This white hard glass is much the same with 
 the German glass formerly brought here in por- 
 ringers, cream pots, vinegar cruets, and other such 
 pieces, of which we frequently meet with the 
 remains. 
 
 Fine Red Glass Resembling the Ruby, No. 1. 
 
 Take of the hard glass, No. 1 or 2, 1 Ib. of the 
 purple of Cassius, 3 drs. Powder the glass, and 
 grind the calx of gold afterwards with it in a glass, 
 flint, or agate mortar, and then fuse them together. 
 
 This may be made of a stronger or more diluted 
 color, by varying the proportion of the gold, in 
 adjusting which proper regard should be had to 
 the application of the glass when made; for where 
 this glass is set in rings, bracelets, or other close 
 work, where foils can be used, a great saving may 
 be made with regard to the color of it, without 
 much injury to the effect; but for ear-rings, or 
 other purposes where the work is set transparent, 
 a full strong color should be given, which may be 
 effected by the proportions directed in the com- 
 position. 
 
 Paste Resembling the Ruby, No. 2. 
 
 Take of the paste No. 3 or 4, 1 Ib. and of calx 
 caffei, or precipitation of gold by tin, 2 drs. Pro- 
 ceed in the mixture as with the above. 
 
 This will be equally beautiful with the above, 
 and defective only in softness; but as that greatly 
 takes away the value for some purposes, such as 
 is appropriated to them may be tinged in a cheaper 
 manner by the following means. 
 
 A Cheaper Paste Resembling the Ruby, No. 3. 
 
 Take of the composition for paste, No. 3 or 4, 
 of glass of antimony, each Ib., and of purple of 
 Cassius, 1^ dr. Proceed as with the others. 
 
 This will be considerably cheaper, and will have 
 much the same effect, except that it recedes more 
 from the crimson to the orange. 
 
 Hard Glass Resembling the Garnet, No. 4. 
 
 Take of the composition for hard glass, No. 1 or 
 2, 2 Ibs. ; of glass of antimony, 1 Ib. ; of manganese, 
 and of purple of Cassius, each 1 dr. 
 
 This composition is very beautiful, but too ex- 
 pensive, on account of the gold, for the imitation 
 of garnets for common purposes ; on which account 
 the following may be substituted. 
 
 Hard Glass Resembling the Garnet, No. 5. 
 
 Take of the composition, No. 1 or 2, 2 Ibs. ; of 
 the glass of antimony, 2 Ibs.; and of manga nese, 
 2 dr. 
 
 If the color be found too dark and purple in 
 either this or the preceding composition, the pro- 
 portion of manganese must be diminished. 
 Paste of the Color of Garnet, No. 6. 
 
 Take of the composition for paste, No. 1 or 2, 
 and proceed as with the above. 
 
 Hard Glass Resembling the Vinegar Garnet, No. 7. 
 
 Take of the composition, No. 1 or 2, 2 Ibs. ; of 
 
 glass of antimony, 1 Ib. ; of colcothar, i oz. Mix 
 
406 
 
 GLASS. 
 
 the colcothar with the uncolored glass, and fuse 
 them together till the mass be perfectly transpa- 
 rent, then add the glass of antimony, powdered, 
 Stirring the mixture with the end of a tobacco- 
 pipe, and continue them in the heat till the whole 
 be perfectly incorporated. 
 
 Paste Resembling the Vinegar Garnet, No. 8. 
 Take of the composition for paste, No. 3 or 4, 
 and proceed as with the foregoing. 
 
 Fictitious or Counterfeit Lapis Lazuli. 
 
 Take of any of the preceding compositions for 
 bard glass, or paste, 10 Ibs. ; of calcined bones, 
 horn, f>r ivory, Ib. ; of zaffre, 1 oz. Fuse the 
 uncolored composition with the zaffre and man- 
 ganese, till a very deep transparent blue glass be 
 produced. The mass being cold, powder it, and 
 mix it with the calcined matter, by grinding them 
 together. After which fuse them with a moderate 
 heat till they be thoroughly incorporated, and 
 then form the melted mass into cakes, by pouring 
 it on a clean bright plate of copper or iron. 
 
 Another, If it be desired to have it veined with 
 gold, it may be done by mixing the gold powder 
 with an equal weight of calcined borax, and tem- 
 pering them with oil of spike, by which mixture, 
 the cakes being painted with such veins as are 
 desired, they must be put into a furnace of a 
 moderate heat, and the gold will be cemented to 
 the glass as firmly as if the veins had been natural. 
 
 Another. If the counterfeit lapis lazuli be de- 
 sired of a lighter hue., the quantity of zaffre and 
 manganese must be diminished; or, if it be re- 
 quired to be more transparent, that of the cal- 
 cined horn, bone, or ivory, should be lessened. 
 
 To make Glass Resembling Red Cornelian. 
 
 Take of the composition for hard glass, No. 1 
 or 2, 2 Ibs.; of glass of antimony, 1 Ib. ; of col- 
 cothar, 2 oz. ; and of manganese, 1 dr. 
 
 Fuse the glass of antimony and manganese with 
 the other glass first together, and then powder 
 them well, and mix them with the colcothar, by 
 grinding them together, and afterwards fuse the 
 mixture with a gentle heat, till they are incorpo- 
 rated, but the heat must not be continued longer 
 than is absolutely required to form them into a 
 vitreous mass. 
 
 If it be desired to have the composition more 
 transparent, part of the colcothar must be 
 omitted. 
 
 Paste Resembling the Red Cornelian. 
 
 Take of the composition for paste, No. 1 or 2, 
 2 Ibs. ; and proceed as with the above. 
 
 Hard Glass Resembling White Cornelian. 
 Take of the composition for hard glass, No. 1 
 or 2, 2 Ibs.; of yellow ochre, well washed, 2 dr.; 
 and of calcined bones, each 1 oz. Mix them well 
 by grinding them together, and fuse them with a 
 gentle heat till the several ingredients be well in- 
 corporated in a vitreous mass. 
 
 Paste Resembling White Cornelian. 
 Take of the composition for pastes, No. 1 or 2, 
 1 Ib., and proceed as with the foregoing. 
 
 Hard Glats or Paste Resembling the Turquoise . 
 Stone. 
 
 Take of the composition for blue glass or paste, 
 No. 7 or 8 (being those resembling the eagle ma- 
 rine), 10 Ibs.; of calcined bone, or ivory, Ib. 
 Powder and mix them well, and then fuse them 
 in a moderate heat till they are thoroughly incor- 
 porated. 
 
 If the color be not so deep as may be desired, a 
 email proportion of smalt may be added. 
 
 Brown Venetian Glnss with Gold Spangle*. 
 Take of the composition for hard glass, No. 2, 
 and the composition for paste, No. 1, each 5 Ibs., 
 and of colcothar, 1 oz. Mix them well, and fuse 
 them till the iron be perfectly vitrified, and have 
 tinged the glass of a deep transparent yellow 
 brown color. Powder this glass, and add to it 2 
 Ibs. of powdered glass of antimony, and mix them 
 well by grinding them together. Take part of 
 this mixture and rub into it 80 or 100 leaves of 
 Dutch metal ; and when the particles of the leaf 
 seem sufficiently divided, mix the powder con- 
 taining it with the other part of the glass. Fuse 
 the whole then with a moderate heat till the 
 powder runs into a vitreous mass, fit to be wrought 
 into any of the figures or vessels into which it ia 
 usually formed; but avoid a perfect liquefaction, 
 because that destroys, in a short time, the equal 
 diffusion of the spangles, and vitrifies, at least, 
 part of the matter of which they are composed, 
 converting the whole into a kind of transparent 
 olive-colored glass. 
 
 TO PAINT AND STAIN GLASS AND POR- 
 CELAIN. 
 
 To paint upon glass is an art which has gene>- 
 rally appeared difficult; yet there is no represen- 
 tation more elegant than that of a mezzotinto 
 painted in this manner, for it gives all the softness 
 that can be desired in a picture, and is easy to- 
 work, as there are no outlines to draw, nor any 
 shades to make. 
 
 The prints are those done in mezzotinto; for 
 their shades being rubbed down on the glass, the 
 several lines, which represent the shady part of any 
 common print, are by this means blended together, 
 and appear as soft and united as in any drawing 
 of Indian-ink. 
 
 Provide such mezzotintos as are wanted ; cut off 
 the margin ; then get a piece of fine crown -glass, 
 the size of the print, and as flat and free from knots 
 and scratches as possible; clean the glass, and lay 
 some Venice turpentine, quite thin and smooth, on 
 one side, with a brush of hog's hair. Lay the print 
 flat in water, and let it remain on the surface till it 
 sinks, it is then damp enough ; take it carefully 
 out, and dab it between some papers, that no 
 water may be seen, yet so as to be damp. 
 
 Next lay the damp print with its face uppermost 
 upon a flat table ; then hold the glass over it, with- 
 out touching the turpentine, till it is exactly even 
 with the print, let it fall gently on it. Press the 
 glass down carefully with the fingers in several 
 parts, so that the turpentine may stick to the print; 
 after which take it up, then holding the glass to- 
 wards you, press the prints with the fingers, from 
 the centre towards the edges, till no blisters re- 
 main. 
 
 When this is done, wet the back of the paint with 
 a sponge, till the paper will rub off with the fingers ; 
 then rub it gently, and the white paper will roll off, 
 leaving the impression only upon the glass; then 
 let it dry, and, with a camel's hair pencil, dipped 
 in oil of turpentine, wet it all over, and it will be 
 perfectly transparent, and fit for painting. 
 Improved Method. 
 
 The first thing to be done, in order to paint, or 
 stain glass in the modern way, is to design, and 
 even color the whole subject on paper. Theo 
 choose such pieces of glass as are clear, even, and 
 smooth, and proper to receive the several parts. 
 Proceed to distribute the design itself, or the pa- 
 per it is drawn on, into pieces suitable to those of 
 the glass ; always taking care that the glasses may 
 join in the contours of the figures, and the folds of 
 the draperies; that the carnations and other finer 
 
PAINTING AND STAINING GLASS, ETC. 
 
 40" 
 
 parts may not be impaired by the lead with which 
 the pieces are to be joined together. The distri- 
 bution being ma<Jp, mark all the glasses, as well 
 as papers, that they may be known again ; which 
 done, apply every part of the design upon the glass 
 intended for it ; and copy or transfer the design 
 upon this glass with the black color diluted in 
 gum-water, by tracing and following all the lines 
 and strokes that appear through the glass, with the 
 point of a pencil. 
 
 When these strokes are well dried, which will 
 be in about 2 days (the work being only in black 
 and white), give it a slight wash over with urine, 
 gum-arabic, and a little black; and repeat this 
 several times, according as the shades are desired 
 to be heightened, with this precaution, never to 
 apply a new wash till the former is sufficiently 
 dried. This done, the lights and risings are given 
 by rubbing off the color in the respective places 
 with a wooden point, or by the handle of the 
 pencil. 
 
 The colors are used with gum-water, the same 
 as in painting in miniature, taking care to apply 
 them lightly, for fear of effacing the outlines of 
 the design : or even, for the greater security, to 
 apply them on the other side; especially yellow, 
 which is very pernicious to the other colors, by 
 blending therewith. And here too, as in pieces of 
 black and white, particular regard must always be 
 had not to lay color on color, till such time as the 
 former is well dried. 
 
 When the painting of all the pieces is finished, 
 they are carried to the furnace to anneal, or to 
 bake the colors. 
 
 Colors Proper to Paint with Upon Glass. 
 
 The several sorts of colors, ground in oil for this 
 purpose, may be had :it all the color-shops, etc. 
 
 Whites. Flake white, podium. 
 
 Black*. Lampblack, ivory-black. 
 
 Browtts. Spanish brown, umber, spruce ochre, 
 Dutch pink, orpiment. 
 
 Blues. Blue bice, Prussian blue. 
 
 Reds. Rose-pink, vermilion, red-lead, Indian- 
 red, lake cinnabar. 
 
 Yellows. English pink, masticot, English ochre, 
 Saunders blue, smalt. 
 
 Greens. Verdigris, terra vert, verditer. 
 
 The ultramarine for blue, and the carmine for 
 red, are rather to be bought in powders, as in that 
 state they are less apt to dry ; and as the least tint 
 of these will give the picture a cast, mix up what 
 is wanted for present use with a drop or two of 
 nut-oil upon the pallet with the pallet-knife. 
 
 Then lay a sheet of white paper on the table, 
 and taking the picture in the left hand, with the 
 turpentine side next you, hold it sloping (the bot- 
 tom resting on the white paper), and all outlines 
 and tints of the prints will be seen on the glass; 
 and nothing remains but to lay on the colors pro- 
 per for the different parts, as follows: 
 
 To Use the Colors. 
 
 As the lights and shades of the picture open, lay 
 the lighter colors first on the lighter parts of the 
 print, and the darker over the shaded parts; and 
 having laid on the brighter colors, it is not mate- 
 rial if the darker sorts are laid a little over them ; 
 for the first color will hide those laid on after- 
 wards. For example : 
 
 Red*. Lay on the first red-lead, and shade 
 with lake or carmine. 
 
 Yellows. The lightest yellow may be laid on 
 first, and shaded with Dutch pink. 
 
 Bines. Blue bice, or ultramarine, used for the 
 lights, may be shaded with indigo. 
 
 Greens. Lay on verdigris first, then a mixture 
 
 of that and Dutch pink. This green may to 
 lightened by an addition of Dutch pink. 
 
 When any of these are too strong, they may 1 je 
 lightened, by mixing white with them upon tie 
 pallet; or darken them as much as required by 
 mixing them with a deeper shade of the same 
 color. 
 
 The colors must not be laid on too thick ; but 
 if troublesome, thin them before using them, with 
 a little turpentine oil. 
 
 Take care to have a pencil for each color, and 
 never use that which has been used for green, with 
 any other color without first washing it well with 
 turpentine-oil, as that color is apt to appear pre- 
 dominant when the colors are dry. 
 
 Wash all the pencils, after using, in turpentine- 
 oil. 
 
 The glass, when painted, must stand 3 or 4 days 
 free from dust before it is framed. 
 
 To Draw on Glass. 
 
 Grind lampblack with gum-water and some com- 
 mon salt. With a pen or hair-pencil, draw the 
 design on the glass, and afterwards shade and 
 paint it with any of the following compositions : 
 
 Color for Grounds on Glass. 
 
 Take iron-filings and Dutch yellow beads, equal 
 parts. If a little red cast is wanted, add a little 
 copper filings. With a steel muller grind these 
 together on a th'uk and strong copper plate, or on 
 porphj'ry. Then add a little gum Arabic, borax, 
 common salt, and clear water. Mix these with a 
 little fluid, ;md put the composition in a phial for 
 use. 
 
 When it is to be used there is nothing to do but, 
 with a hair pencil, to lay it quite flat on the design 
 drawn the day before ; and having left this to dry 
 also for another day, with the quill of a turkey, 
 the nib unsplit, heighten the lights in the same 
 manner as with crayons on blue paper. Whenever 
 there are more coats of the above composition put 
 one upon another, the shade will naturally be 
 stronger; and when this is finished, lay the colors 
 fo.r garments and complexions. 
 
 To Prepare Lake for Glass. 
 
 Grind the lake with water impregnated with 
 gum and salt ; then make use of it with the brush. 
 The shading is operated by laying a double, treble, 
 or more coats of the color, where it is wanted 
 darker. 
 
 Blue Purple for the same. 
 
 Make a compound of lake and indigo, ground 
 together with gum and salt water, and use it aft 
 directed in the preceding article. 
 Green. 
 
 Mix with a proportionable quantity of gamboge 
 ground together as above. 
 
 Yellow. 
 
 Grind gamboge with salt water only. 
 White. 
 
 Heighten much the white parts with a pen. 
 To Transfer Engravings on Glass. 
 
 Metallic colors prepared and mixed with fat oil, 
 are applied to the stamp on the engraved plate. 
 Wipe with the hand in the manner of the printers 
 of colored plates; take a proof on a sheet of silver 
 paper, which is immediately transferred on the 
 tablet of glass destined to be painted, being careful 
 to turn the colored side against the glass; it ad- 
 heres to it, and as soon as the copy is quile dry, 
 take off the superfluous paper by washing it with 
 a sponge; there will remain only the color trans- 
 ferred to the glass ; it is fixed by passing the glass 
 through the ovens. 
 
408 
 
 GLASS. 
 
 The bases of ail the colors employed in painting 
 on glass, are oxidized metallic substances. 
 
 In painting on glass, it is necessary that the 
 matter should be very transparent. 
 
 To Prepare Metallic Oxides and Precipitates of 
 
 Gold. 
 
 A solution of gold in aqua-regia, which is eva- 
 porated to dry ness, leaves gold, which is used for 
 glass, enamel, and porcelain gilding; or by pre- 
 cipitating the solution with green vitriol dissolved 
 in water, a similar powder is produced. This pow- 
 der is mixed with some essential oil, as oil of spike, 
 and calcined borax, and the whole made to adhere 
 to the surface of the glass by a solution of gum 
 Arabic. It is then applied with a fine pencil, and 
 burnt in under a muffle. 
 
 To Prepare Oxide of Cobalt. 
 
 When regulus of cobalt is exposed to a moderate 
 fire in the open air, it calcines; and is reduced to 
 a blackish powder. 
 
 This oxide vitrifies with verifiable matters and 
 forms beautiful blue glasses. Cobalt is, at present, 
 the only substance known which has the property 
 of furnishing a very fine blue that is not changed 
 by the most intense heat. 
 
 To Prepare Zaffre. 
 
 Zaffre is the oxide of cobalt, for painting pottery 
 ware and porcelain of a blue coLn-. Break the co- 
 balt with hammers into pieces abouf the size of a 
 hen's egg; and the stony gangue, with such other 
 foreign matters, separate as much ;is possible. 
 Pound the chosen mineral in stamping mills, and 
 eift it through brass-wire sieves. Wash off the 
 lighter parts by water, and afterwards put it into 
 a large flat-bottomed arched furnace resembing a 
 baking-oven, where the flame of the wood rever- 
 berates upon the ore, which stir occasionally, and 
 turn with long-handled iron hooks or rakes ; and 
 the process is to be continued till its fumes cease. 
 The oven or furnace terminates by a long hori- 
 zontal gallery, which serves for a chimney, in 
 which the arsenic, naturally mixed with the ore, 
 sublimes. If the ore contains a little bismuth, as 
 this semi-metal is very fusible, collect it at the 
 bottom of the furnace. The cobalt remains in 
 the state of a dark gray oxide, and is called zaffre. 
 This operation is continued four, or even nine 
 hours, according to the quality of the ore. The 
 roasted ore being taken out from the furnace, such 
 parts as are concreted into lumps, pound and sift 
 afresh. Zaffre, in commerce, is never pure, being 
 mixed with two, or rather three parts of pow- 
 dered flints. A proper quantity of the best sort 
 of these, after being ignited in a furnace, are to 
 be thrown into water, to render them friable and 
 more easily reduced to powder ; which, being 
 Bifted, is mixed with the zafFre, according to the 
 before-mentioned dose; and the mixture is put 
 into casks, after being moistened with water. This 
 oxide, fused with 3 parts of sand and 1 of potassa, 
 forms a blue glass which, when pounded, sifted, 
 and ground in mills (included in large casks), 
 forms smalt. 
 
 The blue of zaffre is the most solid and fixed 
 
 of all the colors employed in vitrification. It 
 suffers no change from the mo&t violent fire. It 
 is successfully employed to givjf shades of blue to 
 enamels, and to crystal-glass made in imitation 
 of opaque and transparent precious stones; as 
 the lapis lazuli, the turquoise, the sapphire, and 
 others. 
 
 Purple of Cassius. 
 
 Dissolve some pure gold in nitro-muriatic aoulj 
 add either acid or metal, until saturation takes 
 p.lace. Now dissolves some pure tin in the same 
 kind of acid; observethe same point of saturation 
 as with the gold, and pour it into the solution of 
 gold. A purple powder will be precipitated, which 
 must be collected and washed in distilled water. 
 
 This beautiful purple color, as before mentioned, 
 is extremely useful to enamellers and to glass- 
 stainers. 
 
 When brought into fusion with a clear, trans- 
 parent glass, it tinges it of a purple, red, or violet 
 color. Hence the method of making false rubie* 
 and garnets. 
 
 To Paint Colored Drawings on Glass. 
 
 This art is exercised two ways. 1. Plates of 
 stained glass are cut into the shape of figures and 
 joined by leaden outlines. On these plates a 
 shading is afterwards traced by the painter, which 
 gives features to the face and folds to the drapery. 
 
 2. Vitrifiable colors are attached to plates of 
 white glass, which are afterwards placed in the 
 oven, and thus converted into a transparent enam- 
 elling. The first sort is cheaper, but the shading 
 wears off by the insensible corrosion of the atmos- 
 phere. The second sort defies every accident ex- 
 cept fracture; but the color of the figures suffers 
 in the oven. For small objects, the first sort, and 
 for large objects, the second, as far as art is con- 
 cerned, seems best adapted. 
 
 Flux for Staining Glass. 
 
 1. When the colors used are not affected by 
 lead, 100 parts powdered quartz, 125 red-lead, 50 
 of bismuth. 
 
 2. When the flux is required free from lead, 100 
 parts quartz, 75 glass of borax, 12 saltpetre, 12$ 
 powdered statuary marble. 
 
 Colors for Staining Glass. 
 
 To 6 cwt. of flux or flint-glass are to be added 
 as follows : 
 
 White (soft), 24 Ibs. white arsenic, 6 Ibs. anti- 
 mony. 
 
 White (hard), 200 Ibs. putty-powder. 
 
 Blue (transparent), 2 Ibs oxide of cobalt. 
 
 Azure. 6 Ibs. protoxide of copper. 
 
 Ruby, 4 oz. oxide of gold. 
 
 Amethyst, 20 Ibs. oxide of manganese. 
 
 Common Orange, 12 Ibs. iron ore, 4 Ibs. oxide 
 of manganese. 
 
 Emerald Green, 12 Ibs. copper scales and 12 Ibg. 
 iron ore. 
 
 Gold Topaz (canary glass), 3 Ibs. oxide of ura- 
 nium. 
 
 The colors will vary with the degree of heat to 
 which the glass is subjected. The whole glass 
 may be colored, or the mixture of flux and oxide 
 j may be laid on the surface, and then vitrified. 
 
PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 409 
 
 APOTHECARIES' weight is used throughout this 
 article. In case of liquids the abbreviation oz. 
 signifies fluidounce. 
 
 COTTON. 
 
 To make Pyroxyline or Gun-cotton, suitable for 
 Photographic Collodion. 
 
 1. By nitre process : Oil of vitriol (s. g. 1*70), 
 6 oz, ; dried nitrate of potash, 3^ oz. ; water, 1 
 oz. Mix the acid and the water in a porcelain 
 vessel, and add the pulverized nitre, gradually 
 stirring with a glass rod until the lumps disappear 
 and the mixture becomes transparent. Place a 
 thermometer in the mixture, and when it indicates 
 between 145 and 150 Fahr., the cotton should 
 be immersed. Take 60 grs. of clean cotton, and 
 separate it into 10 or 12 bolls, and immerse the 
 bolls separately, and leaving the whole in the mix- 
 ture for 10 minutes. Should the temperature fall 
 to 140, float the cup on boiling water, and main- 
 tain it between 140 and 150. At the expiration 
 of 10 minutes lift the cotton with glass rods, and 
 squeeze out the acid quickly and dash the mass 
 into a large vessel of clean, cold water, sepa- 
 rating the mass so as to wash it thoroughly 
 and quickly. Complete the washing by immer- 
 sion for several hours in running water, then 
 spread it out to dry spontaneously. 
 
 2. By mixed acids: Oil of vitriol (s. g. 1-845), 
 18 oz. ; nitric acid (s. g. T457), 6 oz.; water, 5 oz. 
 Mix the nitric acid and water in a porcelain ves- 
 sel, then add the oil of vitriol and mix thoroughly 
 and allow the mixture to cool to 150 Fahr., when 
 immerse the cotton. Take 300 grs. of clean cot- 
 ton, well loosened, and immerse piecemeal, so as 
 to saturate thoroughly with the acids. Allow the 
 whole to remain 7 minutes, after which time lift 
 it out with the rods and wash it precisely as di- 
 tected in last process. 
 
 Photographic Collodion. 
 
 Pure alcohol (s. g. '805), 10 oz. ; pure ether 
 (s. g. 0-725), 20 oz. ; prepared cotton, 300 grs. 
 Pour the alcohol into a 40 oz. glass bottle, add the 
 cotton, and shake until the cotton is thoroughly 
 wetted ; then add the ether, shake well and set 
 away in a cool, dark place for several weeks to 
 settle. Mark " Plain Collodion." In very warm 
 weather increase the proportion of alcohol by ad- 
 dition a day before use or at time of iodizing, 
 lodizers for Photographic Collodion. 
 
 Iodide of ammonium, 90 grs. ; iodide of cad- 
 mium, 90 grs.; bromide of ammonium, 40 grs.; 
 alcohol (-810), 10 oz. 
 
 Or, iodide of magnesium, 200 grs.; bromide of 
 cadmium, 50 grs.; alcohol ('810), 10 oz. 
 
 Pulverize the salts, and add gradually to the al- 
 cohol, commencing with the bromide; shake until 
 completely dissolved, and set away in a dark place. 
 Mark "Iodizing Solution." 
 
 To Iodize Collodion. 
 
 Plain collodion, 3 oz. ; iodizing solution, 1 oz. 
 Mix and set away in a dark, cool place 12 hours 
 before using. 
 
 Any of the ordinary iodides or bromides can be 
 substituted in the above formulae. 
 Sensitizing Baths. 
 
 For positives: Pure re-crystallized nitrate of 
 silver (437 gr.), 1 oz. ; pure nitric acid, 3 minims; 
 alcohol, 2 drs. ; distilled water, 10 yz. ; iodide 
 
 of potassium, 1 gr. Dissolve the nitrate of silver 
 in 3 oz. of the distilled water, add the iodide of 
 potassium, shake and allow to settle; test for 
 acidity with blue litmus paper, and, if present, 
 neutralize carefulty with a solution of carbonate 
 of soda. When neutral, add the remaining 7 oz. 
 of distilled water, filter and add the alcohol and 
 nitric acid, and the bath is ready for use. 
 
 For negatives : Pure re-crystallized nitrate of 
 silver, 1 oz.; glacial acetic acid, 5 minims; alco- 
 hol, 3 drs. ; iodide of potassium, 1 gr. ; distilled 
 water, 10 oz. Dissolve the silver in 3 oz., and 
 treat precisely as for bath for negatives, observing 
 that it is to be acidified with glacial acetic acid in 
 place of nitric acid. 
 
 These baths should be kept in a dark place, and 
 always show an acid test. When out of order, boil 
 for a few minutes, add one-tenth volume of dis- 
 tilled water and restore to the original strength 
 by adding strong solution of crystallized nitrate 
 of silver in distilled water, and acidifying with 
 the proper acids. 
 
 Developers. 
 
 For positives : 1. Pure sulpha te of iron, 150 grs. j 
 glacial acetic acid, 6 fl. drs. ; water, 10 oz. ; nitric 
 acid, 2 minims. Dissolve the sulphate of iron in 
 the water, and add the acetic and nitric acid and 
 cork tightly. 
 
 2. Sulphate of iron, 480 grs. ; nitrate of baryta, 
 320 grs.; alcohol, 1 oz. ; nitric acid, 30 minims; 
 water, 10 oz. Powder the nitrate of baryta and 
 dissolve in the water warmed ; when dissolved, 
 add the powdered sulphate of iron, stirring for a 
 few minutes; filter, and when the liquid becomes 
 cold, add the nitric acid and alcohol separately. 
 Bottle and cork tightly. 
 
 For negatives : 1. Pyrogallic acid, 10 grs. ; gla- 
 cial acetic acid, 3 drs. ; distilled water, 10 oz. Dis- 
 solve the pyrogallic acid in the water, add the gla- 
 cial acetic acid, cork tightly. 
 
 2. Sulphate of iron and ammonium, 2 oz., or 
 sulphate of iron, 1 oz. ; glacial acetic acid, i 
 oz., or acetic acid No. 8, if oz. ; alcohol, oz.j 
 distilled water, 10 oz. Add to the distilled water 
 in the order indicated, the iron-salt to be first dis- 
 solved. In warm weather this developer requires 
 dilution, and must be washed from the plate the 
 instant the details appear. 
 
 Fixing Solutions. 
 
 For positives : Cyanide of potassium, 120 grs.; 
 nitrate of silver, 6 grs.; water, 10 oz. When 
 this solution requires mole than a minute or two 
 to clear the picture, add a small amount of cyanide 
 of potassium. 
 
 [This solution is highly poisonous, and should 
 not be allowed to touch unsound skin, nor should 
 the fumes be bre-ithed.] 
 
 For negative : The above solution of cyanide 
 of potassiut>> answers very well, or hyposulphite 
 of soda, 1C ^. ; water, 10 oz. ; ether, 30 minims. 
 
 Strengthening or Intensifying Solutions 
 Should be employed after the picture has been de- 
 veloped, fixed and carefully washed: 
 
 Nitrate of silver, 200 grs.; distilled water, 10 
 ounces. 
 
 Or, Bi-chloride of mercury, 30 grs. ; distilled 
 water, 40 oz. 
 
 Cleaning the Glass Plates. 
 
 Before washing the glasses, each square should 
 be roughened on the edges and at the corners by 
 
410 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 means of a file, whetstone, or a sheet of emery- 
 paper; or more simply by drawing the edges of 
 two plates across each other. 
 
 A cream of Tripoli powder and spirits of wine, 
 with a little ammonia added, is commonly em- 
 ployed. A tuft of cotton is to be dipped in this 
 mixture and the glasses well rubbed with it for a 
 few minutes. 
 
 After wiping the glass carefully, complete the 
 process by polishing with an old silk handkerchief, 
 avoiding contact with the skin of the hand. Lea- 
 thers may be used instead of silk for the final 
 polishing; they must be first beaten, then washed 
 in pure water, dried in the sun and well pulled 
 out until they are soft and yielding. Before de- 
 ciding that the glass is clean, hold it in an angular 
 position and breathe upon it. 
 
 Other modes of cleaning glasses have been re- 
 commended, of which, perhaps, the residues of 
 collodion are the most simple. Add a fluidracbm 
 of water to the ounce of collodion until the pyroxy- 
 line begins to form a white deposit not redissolved 
 on agitation ; this will prevent the collodion from 
 evaporating too quickly. Then pour a little upon 
 the glass and rub with a tuft of wool or piece of 
 cambric. Clean off with a second piece, and fin- 
 ish with cloth and leathers as before; no water 
 will be required. 
 
 New glass plates are frequently dotted on the 
 surface with little gritty particles, which consist 
 of carbonate of lime. They are not removed by 
 potash or any alkali, but dissolve readily in a di- 
 luted acid, such as oil of vitriol, with about four 
 parts of water added, or dilute nitric acid. 
 Lea's Cleaning Solution. 
 
 Water, 1 pt. ; sulphuric acid, oz. ; bichromate 
 potash, oz. The glass plates, varnished or 
 otherwise, are left, say 10 or 12 hours or as much 
 lorger as desired, in this solution, and then rinsed 
 in clean water and wiped or rubbed dry with soft 
 white paper. It removes nitrate of silver stains 
 from the fingers. 
 
 Coating the Plate. 
 
 When the collodion is properly cleared from 
 sediment, take a glass plate, previously cleaned, 
 and wipe it gently with a broad camel's-hair brush, 
 in order to remove any particles of dust which 
 may have subsequently collected. If it be a plate 
 of moderate size it may be held by the corners in 
 a horizontal position, between the forefinger and 
 thumb of the left hand. The collodion is to be 
 poured on steadily until a circular pool is formed 
 extending nearly to the edges of the glass, 
 
 By a slight inclination of the plate the fluid is 
 made to flow towards the corner marked 1 in the 
 above diagram, until it nearly touches the thumb 
 by which the glass is held ; from corner 1 it passes 
 to corner 2, held by the forefinger; from 2 to 3, 
 and lastly, the excess poured back into the bottle 
 from the corner marked No. 4. It is next to be 
 held over the bottle for a moment until it nearly 
 ceases to drip, and then by raising the thumb a lit- 
 tle the direction of the plate is changed so as to 
 give a rocking movement, which makes the diag- 
 onal lines coalesce and produces a smooth surface. 
 
 The operation of coating a plate with collodion 
 must not be done hurriedly, and nothing is re- 
 quired to ensure success but steadiness of hand 
 and a sufficiency of the fluid poured in the first in- 
 stance upon the plate. 
 
 With regard to the time which ought to elaps 
 between coating and dipping, observe the follow- 
 ing: After exposing a layer of collodion to the 
 air for a short time, the greater part of the ether 
 evaporates and leaves the pyroxyline in a state in 
 which it is neither wet nor dry, but receives the 
 impression of the finger without adhering to it. 
 This is termed setting, and when it takes place, 
 the time has come for submitting the plate to the 
 action of the bath. 
 
 When the plate is ready, rest it upon the glass 
 dipper, collodion side uppermost, and lower it into 
 the solution by a slow and steady movement and 
 let it remain until the oily appearance on the sur- 
 face disappears. 
 
 Exposure. 
 
 After the plate has been taken out of the bath, 
 it should be exposed and developed with all con- 
 venient despatch, otherwise the film will become 
 partially dry, the developing solutions will not 
 flow easily, and the negative will be weak and 
 metallic. 
 
 Development. 
 
 The pyrogallic acid solution having been pre- 
 viously measured out (about 3 drs. for a stereosco- 
 pic plate or a plate 5X4, 1 oz. for a 9X7, and 12 
 drs. for a plate 10X8), hold the glass in the hand 
 in the same manner as when coating it with col- 
 lodion, and flow the liquid on evenly. 
 
 Development with Sulphate of Iron. 
 
 This reducing agent developes the picture so 
 rapidly, when the collodion contains only iodide, 
 that its employment requires care. The solution 
 should be thrown on to the plate rather quickly, 
 and with a sweep. In the course of a few seconds 
 the image appears in all its parts, and the liquid 
 on the film shows signs of commencing turbidity. 
 When this happens, the developer must be poured 
 off immediately, and the plate washed with water, 
 otherwise the shadows will be misty from adhe- 
 rent particles of silver. Plates developed with sul- 
 phate of iron may be further blackened by wash- 
 ing the film and pouring over it a 20-gr. solution 
 of nitrate of silver, followed by a second applica- 
 tion of sulphate of iron. A better process, how- 
 ever, is to wash away all traces of the iron salt by 
 a stream of water applied for a few seconds, and 
 then to mix the ordinary solution of pyrogallic 
 acid with nitrate of silver. 
 
 Fixing and Varnishing the Negative. 
 
 Wash the film gently with water, and pour the 
 solution of hyposulphite on and off until the whole 
 of the iodide has been cleared away. The solu- 
 tion of hyposulphite becomes nearly black after a 
 time, but this is of no importance, some operators 
 considering that even a preliminary washing to 
 remove the pyrogallic acid solution is unnecessary. 
 A thorough washing after the hyposulphite will 
 be essential. After the negative has been washed 
 flow it over with a solution of gum Arabic, stand 
 it on clean blotting-paper to dry; otherwise dust 
 will ascend the film by capillary action, and give 
 an appearance as if impurities had drained down 
 from above. It is important that the plate should 
 be dried by artificial heat before varnishing, and 
 the negative will also look more neat if a damp 
 cloth be first run along the edge with the finger 
 and thumb, so as to scrape away the collodion, 
 and leave a clear margin of J to i of an inch all 
 round. After doing so remove with the nail or a 
 camel's-hair brush any loose or detached particles 
 
PAPER PRINTS. 
 
 411 
 
 of collodion, which otherwise might he washed on 
 
 to the image by the varnish, and produce a spot. 
 
 To Adjust Camera for Chemical Focus. 
 
 Take a photograph of a printed sheet with the 
 full aperture of the portrait lens, the central letters 
 being carefully focussed as before. Then examine 
 at what part of the plate the greatest amount of 
 distinctness of outline is to be found. It will, 
 sometimes, happen that whereas the exact centre 
 was focussed visually, the letters on a spot mid- 
 way between the centre and edge are the sharpest- 
 in the photograph. In that case the chemical 
 focus is longer than the other, and by a distance 
 equivalent to, but in the opposite direction of, the 
 space through which the lens has to be moved, in 
 order to define those particulars sharply to the eye. 
 , Direct Positives on Glass. 
 
 In developing a glass positive, the solution of 
 sulphate of iron should be flowed evenly over the 
 film, and in some quantity, so as to wash off a 
 portion of nitrate of silver into the sink. 
 
 Pyrogallic Acid Developer. 
 
 Forty grs. of pyrogallic acid being dissolved in 
 1 oz. of glacial acetic acid, and 20 minims added 
 to 1 oz. of water when required for use. The 
 strong solution becomes black from decomposition 
 in the course of a few weeks, but when diluted it 
 has only a faint yellow tint, and is tolerably effec- 
 tive in bringing out the image. In place of acetic 
 acid strong alcohol may be used as a solvent, \ a 
 dr. of pyrogallic acid being dissolved in 1 oz. of 
 spirit, and 20 minims of the resulting liquid added 
 to each oz. of acidified water. No attempt must 
 be made, however, to combine acetic acid and 
 gpirit in one solution, since abundance of acetic 
 ether would be generated by so doing. These 
 plans of preparing a concentrated developer are 
 useful for a few weeks' keeping, but are not recom- 
 mended for an unlimited time. 
 
 To Copy Engravings. 
 
 To photograph a full-sized steel engraving on a 
 plate not largor than 7X6 or 5X4, is a very simple 
 operation, and no special directions will be needed. 
 Remove the engraving from its frame (the glass 
 would cause irregular reflection), and suspend it 
 vertically and in a reversed condition, in a good 
 diffused light, placing a black cloth behind it, if 
 any bright reflecting surface be presented to the 
 lens. Point at it a camera mounted with a por- 
 trait-lens, and if the image upon the ground glass 
 appears misty towards the edge, make a dia- 
 phragm, and place it in front of the anterior glass. 
 Instead of a portrait-lens an ordinary view-lens 
 may be used, and as the field to be covered is 
 small, a comparatively large diaphragm will suffice. 
 
 Be careful not to over-expose the plate, develop 
 with pyrogallic acid, and fix with hyposulphite. 
 Copying Prints. 
 
 The additional deposit obtained, as above de- 
 scribed, will often be found sufficient, and when 
 such is the case the method is to be preferred, be- 
 cause the half-tones of a photograph are easily 
 obliterated by too much intensifying. In the case 
 of large copies of maps taken with orthoscopic 
 lenses of long focus, the iodine method proves in- 
 sufficient, and the fine lines of the drawing become 
 partly obliterated during the prolonged develop- 
 ment. In such a case it is advised to develop the 
 plate only partially in the first instance, and to fix 
 it with cyanide of potassium; then to intensify 
 twice with pyrogallic acid, citric acid, and nitrate 
 of silver, and lastly to treat the plate with the two 
 following liquids : No 1. Iodine, 6 grs. ; iodide of 
 potassium, 12 grs. ; water, 6 oz. No. 2. Sulphide 
 of potassium, 1 4r. ; water, 6 oz. 
 
 Apply No. 1, either in the yellow room, or in the 
 daylight, until the whole of the image is converted 
 into iodide of silver, and the deposit appears yel- 
 low throughout. Then pour water on the image 
 from a jug, and apply No. 2, which must be al- 
 lowed to remain until the yellow color changes to 
 a deep reddish-brown. Lastly, dry the plate, and 
 varnish in the usual way. 
 
 Stereoscopic Pictures. 
 
 Photographs for the refracting stereoscope are 
 taken with small lenses of about 4$ inches focus. 
 For portraits a camera may advantageously be 
 fitted with two double-combination lenses, of 1J 
 inches diameter, exactly equal in focal length and 
 in rapidity of action. The caps are removed 
 simultaneously, and the pictures impressed at the 
 same instant. The centres of the lenses may be 
 separated by 3 inches, when the camera is placed 
 at about 6 or 8 feet from the sitter. Pictures taken 
 with binocular camera of this kind require to be 
 mounted in a reversed position to that which they 
 occupy on the glass, or a pseudoscopic effect will 
 be produced. The negatives may be cut in half, 
 the right half being printed on the left side, or the 
 finished prints may be removed before mounting. 
 Stereoscopic Transparencies. 
 
 Sensitive films prepared by Russell's Tannin 
 Process. Place the negative and the prepared 
 plate in contact, and squeeze them togeiher in an 
 ordinary pressure-frame; not too strongly, how- 
 ever, or it will probably be found, after throwing 
 off a few impressions, that the negative has been 
 scratched. Lay a strip of black velvet behind the 
 sensitive film to absorb stray light. 
 Fixing Bath. 
 
 Take of hyposulphite of soda, 1 oz. ; water, 6 oz. 
 Dissolve without filtering, and preserve the solu- 
 tion in a stock-bottle ready for use. 
 
 PAPER PRINTS. 
 
 Albuminized Paper. 
 
 Formula 1. Take of chloride of ammonium, 
 200 grs.; wa,ter 5 oz. ; albumen, 15 oz. 
 
 Chloride of barium is sometimes used in salting 
 paper, instead of chloride of ammonium, but is 
 contraindicated when the alkaline gold-toning 
 process is adopted, since the carbonate of soda 
 would throw down carbonate of baryta in the 
 paper. 
 
 When pure albumen is used without water, from 
 5 to 8 grs. of salt to each ounce will be sufficient. 
 The less the quantity of salt the warmer the color, 
 but it must not be so far reduced as to injure the 
 contrast and depth of shadow in the print. 
 
 If distilled water cannot be procured, rain-water, 
 or even common spring-water, will often answer 
 the purpose. For the albumen use eggs nearly 
 fresh, and be careful that in opening the shell the 
 yolk be not broken. Each egg will yield about 
 one fluidounce of albumen. 
 
 When the ingredients are mixed, take a bundle 
 of quills or a fork, and beat the whole into a per- 
 fect froth. As the froth forms it is to be skimmed 
 off and placed in a flat dish to subside. The suc- 
 cess of the operation depends very much upon this 
 part of the process, for, if the albumen be not thor- 
 oughly beaten, flakes of animal membrane will be 
 left in the liquid, and will cause streaks upon the 
 paper. When the froth has partially subsided 
 transfer the liquid part to a tall and narrow jar, 
 and allow to stand for several hours, that th 
 membranous shreds may settle to the bottom; 
 then pour off the upper clear portioj, which will 
 be fit for use. Albuminous liquids are too glutin- 
 ous to run well through a paper filter, and are 
 
412 
 
 .fHOTOGKAPHY. 
 
 better cleared by subsidence. Lower the paper on 
 the liquid by one steady movement, since, if a 
 pause be made, a line will be formed. Some pa- 
 pers are not readily wetted by the albumen, and 
 when such is the case a few drops of spirituous 
 solution of bile, or a fragment of the prepared ox- 
 gall sold by the artists' oolormen, will be found a 
 useful adjunct. Care must be taken, however, not 
 to add an excess, or the albumen will be rendered 
 too fluid, and will sink into the paper, leaving no 
 gloss. 
 
 To render the Paper Sensitive. 
 
 This operation must be conducted by the light 
 of a candle or by yellow light. 
 
 Take of nitrate of silver, 60 grs.; distilled water, 
 1 oz. Prepare a sufficient quantity of this solu- 
 tion, and pour it out into a porcelain dish. After 
 it has been a short time in use, the albumen, dis- 
 solved out of the papers, will cause a greasy scum 
 to form upon the liquid, which, if allowod to re- 
 main, produces marble stains upon the sensitive 
 paper; it must therefore be removed by folding a 
 strip of blotting-paper the exact breadth of the 
 dish, and drawing it lightly along the surface; 
 lay the sheet upon the solution in the same man- 
 ner as above described for the albumen. Three 
 minutes' contact will be sufficient with thin paper, 
 but if a thick paper be used 4 or 5 minutes must 
 be allowed for the decomposition. The papers are 
 raised from the solution by a pair of bone forceps, 
 or common tweezers tipped with sealing-wax ; or 
 a pin may be used to lift up the corner, which is 
 to be held by the finger and thumb, and allowed 
 to drain a little before again putting in the pin, 
 otherwise a mark will be produced upon the paper, 
 from decomposition of the nitrate of silver. When 
 the sheet is hung up a small strip of blotting-paper, 
 suspended from the lower edge of the paper, will 
 serve to drain off the last drop of liquid. 
 
 Formula 2. Preparation of Plain Paper. 
 
 Take of chloride of ammonium, 200 grs. ; citrate 
 of soda, 200 grs. ; gelatine, 20 grs. ; water, 20 oz. 
 To prepare the citrate of soda dissolve 112 grs. of 
 citric acid in 20 oz. of water, and add 133 grs. of 
 the dried bicarbonate or sesquicarbonate of soda 
 used for effervescing draughts. Supposing the 
 citric acid to be adulterated with tartaric acid, the 
 above quantity of carbonate of soda would be too 
 great, and free alkaline carbonate would then re- 
 main in the liquid after the neutralization was 
 complete. The size of the paper would be liable 
 to suffer in such a case, and the print would not 
 be clean and bright. Excess of citric acid, on the 
 other hand, gives very clean pictures, but they are 
 too pale and red, without depth of shadow. Ama- 
 teurs, desirous of simplifying the formula, may 
 substitute an equal weight of " Rochelle salt" for 
 the citrate of soda. This substance is a tartrate 
 of potash and soda, and is sold by druggists in 
 large crystals. Both tartrates and citrates are 
 used for the purpose of giving a red and warm 
 tone to the prints. 
 
 Render sensitive by floating for 2 or 3 minutes 
 upon the solution of nitrate of silver employed for 
 the albuminized paper. 
 
 Formula 3. Ammonio- Nitrate Paper. 
 
 This is always prepared without albumen, which 
 is dissolved by ammonio-nitrate of silver, 
 
 Take of chloride of ammonium, 40 grs.; gela- 
 tine, 20 grs. ; water, 20 oz. Dissolve by the aid 
 of heat, and filter when cold. 
 
 Take 10 or 12 sheets of thin Saxe paper, and, 
 having marked the right side, immerse them bodily 
 in the liquid, 1 by 1, with care to remove air-bub- 
 bles; then turn the batch over, and remove them 
 singly, beginning with the sheet first immersed. 
 
 Each paper will thus be a similar length of tim 
 in the salting liquid. 
 
 This salting solution is very weak, but it must 
 be borne in mind that the papers being immersed 
 will take up a large quantity, and also that the 
 ammonio-nitrate process requires less salt, inas- 
 much as the silver solution is to be laid on with a 
 brush. 
 
 An ammonio-nitrate paper, yielding a very rich 
 color, is made by salting Towgood's paper, or Pa- 
 pier Saxe, with a mixed chloride and citrate, in 
 quantity exactly one-half of that advised in the 
 la.st page, and afterwards sensitizing it with an 
 80 gr. solution of ammonio-nitrate. 
 
 Render sensitive by a solution of ammonio-ni- 
 trate of silver, 60 grs. to the oz. of water, prepared 
 as follows: Dissolve the nitrate of silver in one- 
 half of the total quantity of water; then take a 
 pure solution of ammonia and drop it in carefully, 
 stirring meanwhile with a glass rod. A brown 
 precipitate of oxide of silver first forms, but on the 
 addition of more ammonia it is redissolved. When 
 the liquid appears to be clearing up, add the am- 
 monia very cautiously, so as not to incur an excess. 
 In order still further to secure the absence of free 
 ammonia it is usual to direct that, when the liquid 
 becomes perfectly clear, a drop or two of solution 
 of nitrate of silver should be added until a slight 
 turbidity is again produced. Lastly, dilute with 
 water to the prope,r bulk. If the crystals of ni- 
 trate of silver employed contain a large excess of 
 free nitric acid no precipitate will be formed on 
 the first addition of ammonia; the free nitric acid, 
 producing nitrate of ammonia with the alkali, 
 keeps the oxide of silver in solution. From the 
 presence of nitrate of ammonia, it is often useless 
 to attempt to convert an old nitrate bath, already 
 used for sensitizing, into ammonio-nitrate. Or, 
 dissolve 60 grs. of nitrate of silver in oz. of 
 water, and drop in ammonia until the precipi- 
 tated oxide of silver is exactly redissolved; then 
 divide this solution of ammonio-nitrate of silver 
 into 2 equal parts, to one of which add nitric acid 
 cautiously, until a piece of immersed litmus-paper 
 is reddened by an excess of the acid; them mix 
 the two together, fill up to 1 oz. of water, and filter 
 from the milky deposit of chloride or carbonate of 
 silver, if any be formed. 
 
 Ammonio-nitrate of silver should be kept in a 
 dark place, being more prone to reduction than 
 the nitrate of silver. 
 
 To Apply the Liquid. 
 
 It is not usual to float the paper when the am- 
 monio-nitrate of silver is used. Brushes are man- 
 ufactured expressly for applying silver solutions, 
 but the hair is soon destroyed unless the brush is 
 kept scrupulously clean. Lay the salted sheet 
 upon blotting-paper, and wet it thoroughly by 
 drawing the brush first lengthwise and then 
 across. Allow it to remain flat for a minute or so, 
 in order that a sufficient quantity of the solution 
 may be absorbed (you will see when it is evenly 
 wet by looking along the surface), and then pin 
 up by the corner in the usual way. If, on drying, 
 white lines appear at the points last touched by 
 the brush, it is probable that the paper was too 
 highly salted, or that the ammonio-nitrate con- 
 tained free ammonia. 
 
 'Ammonio-nitrate paper is more prone to spon- 
 taneous decomposition than either albuminized or 
 plain paper; hence it cannot be kept many hours 
 after sensitizing without turning yellow. 
 Toning Bath. 
 
 No. 1. Solution of chloride of gold, 1 dr.j 
 sesquicarbonate of soda, 10 grs. ; distilled water, 
 6 oz. No. 2. Solution of chloride of gold, 1 dr.j 
 
PHOTOGRAPHIC PRINTING. 
 
 ordinary phosphate of soda, 20 grs.; distilled wa- 
 ter, 2 oz. 
 
 Examine the chloride of gold, and if its solu- 
 tion immediately colors litmus-paper of a bright 
 red, add to each grain a fragment of carbonate 
 of soda about the size of a pin's head. 
 
 The solution of chloride of gold contains a grain 
 to each fluidrachm of water, and will keep for an 
 unlimited time without appreciable change, pre- 
 viously to the addition of the carbonate of sodn. 
 The toning baths, however, must not be kept 
 ready mixed, since they gradually become color- 
 less and eventually lose their toning properties in 
 great measure. A useful simplification, substi- 
 tuting measure for weight, consists in having 
 always on hand an aqueous solution of carbonate 
 of soda containing 20 grs. to the oz. ; or for the 
 second formula, a solution of phosphate of soda 
 containing 40 grs. to the oz. Half an oz. of the 
 alkaline liquid would then in each case require a 
 fluidrachm of the solution of chloride of gold, 
 and a subsequent dilution with water to the full 
 amount given in the formula. 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHIC PRINTING. 
 
 Sensitive papers ought not to be exposed in the 
 frame until they are quite dry. The shutter at 
 the back of the frame is removed, and the nega- 
 tive laid flat upon the glass, collodion-side upper- 
 most. A sheet of sensitive paper is then placed 
 upon the negative, sensitive-side downwards; next 
 comes a layer of thick felt ; and the whole is then 
 tightly compressed by replacing and bolting down 
 the shutter. The amount of pressure required is 
 not very considerable, but if the springs of the 
 frame become too weak after a time, a few pieces 
 of mill-board may be placed beneath them. 
 
 The time of exposure to light varies much with 
 the density of the negative and the power of the 
 actinic rays, as influenced by the season of the 
 year and weather. 
 
 If the exposure to light has been correct the 
 print appears slightly darker than it is intended 
 to remain. The toning bath dissolves away the 
 lighter shades, and reduces the intensity, for which 
 allowance is made in the exposure to light. A 
 little experience soon teaches the proper point; 
 but much will depend upon the state of the toning 
 bath, and albuminized paper will require to be 
 printed somewhat more deeply than plain paper. 
 If, on removal from the printing-frame, a pecu- 
 liar spotted appearance is seen, produced by un- 
 equal darkening of the chloride of silver, either 
 the nitrate bath is too weak, the sheet removed 
 from its surface too speedily, or the paper is of 
 inferior quality. 
 
 If, in the exposure to ordinary diffused daylight, 
 the shadows of the proof became very decidedly 
 coppery before the lights are sufficiently printed, 
 the negative is in fault. Ammonio-nitrate paper 
 highly salted is particularly liable to this excess of 
 reduction, and especially so if the light is powerful. 
 Toning. 
 
 The print should be first washed in common 
 water until the soluble nitrate of silver is removed. 
 This is known to be the case when the liquid 
 flows away clear; the first milkiness being caused 
 by the soluble carbonates and chlorides in the 
 water precipitating the nitrate of silver. Ten 
 minutes in water running slowly from a tap will 
 be sufficient to cleanse a print from nitrate of 
 silver ; or three or four changes in a dish, pouring 
 off quite dry between each change. It is an ad- 
 vantage to finish off with a solution of salt (2 grs. 
 to the oz.). Pour the toning bath out into a flat 
 dish, anil put the prints into it 2 or 3 at a time, 
 
 waving the dish meanwhile backwards and for- 
 wards to secure a constant movement. Continue 
 to keep the prints moving, and watch the changes 
 in color. 
 
 If the prints are removed as soon as the blue 
 color of the gold is seen, they will usually change 
 in the fixing bath to a warm shade of brown ; but 
 when left for 2 or 3 minutes longer in the toning 
 bath, the darker tint becomes permanent. 
 fixing. 
 
 One oz. of hyposulphite of soda dissolved in 6 
 oz. of water would fix two batches of stereoscopic 
 prints, 20 in each batch. Allow the prints to re- 
 main in the fixing bath for 20 minutes, with occa- 
 sional movement, after which they may be trans- 
 ferred to a dish of clean water. 
 Washing. 
 
 It is essential to wash out every trace of hypo- 
 sulphite of soda from the print, if it is to be 
 preserved from fading, and to do this properly 
 requires care. 
 
 Always wash with running water when it can 
 be obtained, and choose a large shallow vessel 
 exposing a considerable surface in preference to 
 one of lesser diameter. A constant dribbling of 
 water must be maintained for 4 or 5 hours, and 
 the prints should not lie together too closely, or 
 the water will not find its way between them. 
 
 When the prints have been thoroughly washed, 
 blot them off between sheets of porous paper and 
 hang them up to dry. 
 
 Mounting. 
 
 Mount the proofs with a solution of gelatine in 
 hot water, freshly made; gum-water, prepared 
 from the finest commercial gum, and free from 
 acidity, may also be used, but it should be made 
 very thick, so as not to sink into the paper, or 
 produce " cockling up" of the cardboard on drying. 
 Positive Printing by Development. 
 
 Negative printing processes will be found useful 
 during the dull winter months, and at other times 
 when the light is feeble, or where it is required to 
 produce a large number of impressions from a 
 negative in a short space of time. The proofs, 
 however, as thus obtained, are not equal to direct 
 sun-prints in beauty and gradation of tone. 
 
 Take of iodide of potassium, 120 grs.; bromide 
 of ammonium, 30 grs.; water, 20 oz. 
 
 Float the paper on the iodizing bath until it 
 ceases to curl up, and lies flat upon the liquid:' 
 then pin up to dry in the usual way. 
 
 Render sensitive upon a bath of aceto-nitrate 
 of silver, containing 30 grs. of nitrate of silver 
 with 30 minims of glacial acetic acid to each oz. 
 of water. 
 
 Place the dried sheets in contact with the nega- 
 tive in a pressure frame, and expose to a feeble 
 light. About 30 seconds will be an average time 
 upon a dull winter's day, when it would be im- 
 possible to paint in the ordinary way. Develop 
 by immersion in a saturated solution of gallio 
 acid. After the picture is fully brought out, wash 
 in cold and subsequently in warm water, to re- 
 move the gallic acid, which, if allowed to remain, 
 would discolor the hyposulphite bath. Fix the 
 print in a solution of hyposulphite of soda, one 
 part to two of water, continuing the action until 
 the yellow color of the iodide disappears. Wash 
 thoroughly in plenty of water. 
 Negative Printing Process upon Chloride of Silver. 
 
 To salt the papers, prepare the following solu- 
 tion : Chloride of ammonium, 100 grs. ; citric acid, 
 56 grs. ; sesquicarbonate of soda, 66 grs ; gelatine, 
 40 grs. ; distilled water, 20 oz. Float the sheet* 
 for 1 minute; render sensitive upon a bath of 
 
414 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 aceto-nitrate of silver. Take of nitrate of silver, 
 SO grs. ; glacial acetic acid, 30 minims ; water, 1 
 ot. Float the papers upon this bath for 3 min- 
 utes, and suspend them to dry. The exposure to 
 light is conducted in the ordinary printing frame. 
 The developing solution is prepared as follows : 
 Gallic acid, 2 grs.; water, 1 oz. Filter through 
 blott ; ng-paper, to remove floating particles, which 
 woul 1 produce spots in this process ; pour the so- 
 lution of gallic acid into a flat dish, and immerse 
 the prints, 2 or 3 at a time, moving them about, 
 and using a glass rod to remove air-bubbles; wash 
 the prints for several minutes in 1 or 2 changes 
 of water, in order to extract the gallic acid ; tone 
 in bath of chloride of gold and phosphate of soda; 
 fix in hyposulphite, and wash. 
 
 RUSSELL'S TANNIN PROCESS, MODIFIED. 
 
 Cleaning the Plate. 
 
 In order to clean the plates, make a stock solu- 
 tion of 2 oz. of bichromate of potash, 2 oz. of sul- 
 phuric acid, and 1 qt. of water (a green quart 
 wine bottle may be used). Pour the solution into 
 a shallow tray ; soak in it the plates to be cleansed, 
 and afterwards wash the plates in water and dry 
 them ; then pour on each plate a small quantity 
 of old collodion ; rub it all over the plate with a 
 tuft of cotton, and then clean it off with a dry 
 linen cloth. It will perfect the cleaning if the 
 plate be dipped in pure water and again dried 
 with a clean linen cloth. The bichromate of pot- 
 ash solution may be filtered back into the bottle 
 for future use. 
 
 To Coat the Plate. 
 
 1. Cover the plate with a bromised collodion. 
 Take care, in all cases, gently to oscillate on run- 
 ning off the excess of collodion, or white marks, 
 visible in a subsequent stage of the process, will 
 be formed. 
 
 2. When the film is somewhat fixed, put the 
 plate, by the aid of a dipper, in a well-bath of a 
 50 gr. nitrate of silver solution, and let it remain 
 in the solution 10 minutes. 
 
 3. Put the plate in a well-bath of distilled 
 water until what are called the " greasy " marks 
 disappear. 
 
 4. Put the plate in a well-bath of a 10 gr. so- 
 lution of bromide of ammonium, or cadmium, or 
 magnesium, or of potassium. It may be best to 
 adopt that bromide which enters into the prepa- 
 ration of the collodion. Let the plate remain in 
 this solution about 1 minute. Occasionally filter 
 this bath solution, in order to remove the excess 
 of bromide of silver which is deposited in the 
 bath. Keep a stock bottle of this bromide solu- 
 tion to supply the waste drippings. 
 
 5. Put the plate for a short time in a well-bath 
 of distilled water. 
 
 6. Wipe the back of the plate, and let it drain 
 for a short time, and then place it in a well-bath 
 of 10 or 15 grs. of tannin to the oz. of distilled 
 water; let the plate remain in this solution 4 or 5 
 minutes, and then, on removing it from this bath, 
 let it rest on one end, to dry. When dry, it is 
 ready for the camera, and itwill keep along time. 
 It should be rapidly and evenly dried, and a stone 
 bottle of hot water may be so used as to hasten 
 the drying. Tannin which dissolves most easily 
 in water, is to be preferred. Add to the tannin- 
 bath 3 or 4 drops of creosote, and it will keep 
 clear. A little experience will show how long a 
 time the plate must be exposed to light in the 
 camera. It will be best, in the beginning, not to 
 make a very short exposure; harsh pictures are 
 the result of long exposures, and soft pictures 
 of short exposures to the light. These plates 
 
 will bear a considerable amount of exposure in 
 the camera without being fogged even for 10 
 minutes. 
 
 Developing. 
 
 1. The film sometimes appears to be in a rotten 
 state, and to crack up when water is poured on it. 
 This will not happen if a small quantity of alco- 
 hol be added to the water solution first poured 
 over it. 
 
 2. Take a solution of 2 grs. to the oz. of water 
 of carbonate of ammonia; add to it some alco- 
 hol, and flush the plate with it; pour this off into 
 a glass, and add to it from i gr. to 1 gr. of pyro- 
 gallic acid, in solution, and pour it back again on 
 the plate. This picture will instantly appear, and 
 the details.may be allowed to come out well. The 
 image will not be dark. 
 
 3. Pour off the alkaline pyro-solution, and 
 gently wash the plate; add a few drops of citric 
 acid (1 or two grs. of citric acid to the oz. of dis- 
 tilled water) ; pour it over the plate, and run off; 
 or pour an acid pyro-solution over the plate in- 
 stead of acid solution alone. Again gently pour 
 distilled water on the plate, and run it off. 
 
 4. It will be found to be convenient to dissolve 1 
 dr. of pyrogallic acid in 1 oz. of alcohol, and to 
 add to this 1 oz. of distilled water. Use 1 dr. 
 graduate, and 16 minims of this solution will give 
 1 gr. of pyrogallic acid ; also have a 2 oz. bottle 
 of distilled water and dissolve in it 2 drs. of citrio 
 acid ; 8 minims of this will be 1 gr. of citric acid. 
 Have also an oz. bottle of a 10 gr. solution of ni- 
 trate of silver; and lastly, have at hand a pint 
 bottle of distilled water, 1 or 2 glass oz. gradu- 
 ates, and 3 or 4 developing-glasses, which hold 
 about a fluidounce. 
 
 5. The development of a plate is completed by 
 solutions of ^ gr. to 1 gr. of pyrogallic acid, and 
 1 gr. or more of citric acid to theoz. of water, and 
 the addition of 1 drop to 3, 4, or more of the 10 
 gr. nitrate of silver solution. If the picture i 
 strongly out when the ammonia is washed off, let 
 it be dosed with an excess of acid silver; if feeble, 
 let an excess of pyrogallic acid be used. If there 
 be a sign of fogging when pushing the develop- 
 ment with an excess of nitrate of silver, immedi- 
 ately pour off the developer, gently wash (.he plate 
 and flush it with the 8 gr. bromide solution. The 
 image, as it at first shows its strength or weak- 
 ness, very soon teaches the manner in which the 
 plate is to be dealt with. 
 
 Lastly. Gently wash the plate, fix the image 
 with a strong solution of hyposulphite of soda, 
 and, when the picture is "cleared," wash it with 
 distilled or common water, and dry it. 
 
 The three steps which have made the tannia 
 process of Major Russell simple, clean, and cer- 
 tain, are: First, the use of the bromide bath; 
 second, the use of the tannin bath, and third, the 
 use of the acid solution, either alone or mixed 
 with pyrogallic acid, after the alkaline solution of 
 carbonate of ammonia has been washed off, not 
 forgetting the mixture of some alcohol with the 
 first application of water to the film on the de- 
 velopment. 
 
 FOTHERGILL'S DRY PROCESS. 
 
 The directions for coating and dipping in the" 
 bath are the same as for " Russell's Process." 
 After removing the stereoscopic plate from the 
 nitrate bath, stand it vertically on blotting puper 
 and allow it to drain as long as it would be re- 
 quired for a wet plate, wiping the back meanwhile 
 in the usual manner. 
 
 Then take it in the left hand, either by one 
 corner or with the pneumatic holder, and having 
 
TAUPENOT'S AND THE WOTHLYTYPE PROCESSES. 
 
 415 
 
 arranged the yellow light so that it falls nicely 
 upon the surface of the film, hold it quite level 
 and pour on oz. of water, waving it backwards 
 and forwards. It should not be poured on entirely 
 at one spot, "or too much of the nitrate of silver 
 would be displaced, producing a circular mark of- 
 imperfect development. As, however, a vacant 
 space of a quarter of an inch in breadth is usually 
 allowed at each end of a stereoscopic plate, this 
 will be found convenient for pouring on the water, 
 w.hich must be allowed to run into each corner 
 until greasiness has disappeared. It will proba- 
 bly touch the fingers by which the plate is held, 
 and when they are not scrupulously clean, stains 
 will, in consequence, result. After pouring away 
 the water (which ought then to measure at least 3 
 drs. if the operation was well performed), drain the 
 plate for an instant, and it will be ready for the 
 albumen. 
 
 The Albumen Solution. 
 
 Take the white of a fresh egg and add to it 1 
 oz. of distilled water with 3 drops of strong am- 
 monia. Shake for 10 minutes in a bottle, and 
 pour out the liquid on a filter previously wetted. 
 
 Apply the filtered albumen twice or thrice to 
 the film in the same manner as collodion. Then 
 pour water over the plate for a minute, in order 
 to remove the excess of albumen, and afterwards 
 rear the glass on end to drain upon blotting paper. 
 When the plates are perfectly dry they are ready 
 for exposure. 
 
 Development, 
 
 This process is not quick as regards develop- 
 ment. When pyrogallic acid is used, each drachm 
 of the liquid is previously mixed with about 5 
 minims of a solution of nitrate of silver, contain- 
 ing 20 grains to the oz. of water. The film is 
 wetted and the mixed developer poured on and 
 off from a glass measure. 
 
 Fix with hyposulphite of soda. 
 
 TAUPENOT'S COLLODIO-ALBUMEN PRO- 
 CESS. 
 Cleaning the Glasses. 
 
 This part of the process must be conducted 
 with care. 
 
 Sensitizing and Washing. 
 
 Employ 2 nitrate baths in this process, one for 
 the collodion and the other for the second film, 
 viz. the albumen. The albumen nitrate bath 
 must contain free acetic acid, and therefore if one 
 solution be employed for both films it should be a 
 bath of aceto- nitrate. 
 
 Sensitize the collodion in the ordinary way. 
 nolding it rather longer than usual before dipping. 
 
 Having arranged 2 dishes of common water, 
 Bide by side, lay the plate face uppermost in the 
 first dish, and wave the water backwards and for- 
 wards for about 30 seconds. Then put the plate 
 into the second dish and leave it whilst another 
 glass is being coated and immersed in the sensitiz- 
 ing bath. Now drain plate No. 1 closely on blot- 
 ting-paper, and it will be ready for the iodized 
 albumen. Plate No. 2 remains in the sensitizing 
 bath until the first glass has been coated with al- 
 bumen and placed to dry. 
 
 Preparation of the Iodized A Jbumen. 
 
 Take of albumen, 3 oz.; distilled water, 1 oz.; 
 strong ammonia, 10 minims; iodide of potassium, 
 10 grs. ; bromide of ammonium, 10 grs. 
 
 First mix the ammonia and the water, then add 
 the other ingredients and shake together in a bot- 
 tle. Iodide of ammonium may be advantageously 
 used. 
 
 , To Apply the Albumen. 
 
 For a stereoscopic size, measure out 1 dr. of 
 
 the albumen and pour it on and off twice lo dis- 
 place the surface water of the washed collodion 
 film. Then apply a second quantity. 
 
 Stand the albuminized plates vertically on blot- 
 ting-paper to drain and dry. 
 
 The Aceto-nitrate Bath. 
 
 Take an ordinary collodion negative bath and 
 add to each fluidounce 30 minims of glacial acetic 
 acid, keep it in glass or gutta percha and continue 
 to use it until it has become blackened by the ac- 
 tion of the albumen. The film of albumen must 
 be rendered quite dry by holding it to the fire 
 before it is dipped in the aceto-nitrate bath. Leave 
 them in the bath any time between 30 seconds 
 and 2 minutes, and then remove the wash with 
 water. Use two dishes for washing and allow 20 
 or 30 seconds in each dish ; then rear up again to 
 dry, and the plates will be ready for exposure.' 
 Artificial heat may be used with advantage. 
 
 The most successful operators in Taupenot's 
 process give a very long exposure. 
 
 Development. 
 
 Prepare a saturated solution of gallic acid in 
 distilled water, adding 4 grs. to each oz. Fil- 
 ter this developer through paper. 
 
 The solution of nitrate of silver for use with the 
 gallic acid may be made of the strength of 20 grs. 
 to the ounce. 
 
 Add 15 minims to 1 oz. of gallic acid solution. 
 Previous to the application of the developer the 
 surface of the film must be moistened with water. 
 
 From half an hour to an hour must be allowed 
 for the full development with gallic acid. I? 
 with a saturated solution of hyposulphite. 
 
 PICTURES ON PORCELAIN. 
 
 The plates for these pictures are sold as porce- 
 lain, but are really an opaque white glass. The 
 plate is coated with collodion, rendered sensitive 
 in the usual way, and the image received from a 
 negative adjusted as follows : 
 
 The negative is placed at one end of a box, the 
 other end of which joins the front end of a camera 
 having a quarter tube. The object of this box is 
 to cut off extraneous light. The negative is placed 
 toward the sun, or a piece of white paper placed 
 in the sun. The image formed by the negative is 
 focussed on the ground glass of the camera, in the 
 usual manner. The box in front should admit of 
 being varied in length, in order to alter the size 
 of the picture, by changing the distance of the 
 negative from the lens. 
 
 The white sensitive plate is then exposed and 
 developed with the ordinary iron developer. After 
 washing off with the developer, fix with a weak 
 solution of cyanide of potassium. 
 
 The picture requires to be darkened with a weak 
 solution of bichloride of mercury, chloride of gold, 
 or chloride of platinum. As soon as the picture 
 appears of the proper shade arrest the action of 
 the strengthening agent, by washing the plate 
 under a copious stream of water. 
 
 THE WOTHLYTYPE PROCESS. 
 
 I. To Prepare the Uranic Salt. 
 Dissolve the ordinary commercial nitrate of ura- 
 nium in distilled water; add ammonia till no more 
 precipitate is formed. This precipitate is uranate 
 of ammonia, insoluble in water. Wash in several 
 waters, and then redissolve in nitric acid. The 
 solution, crystallized and dried over a water-bath, 
 constitutes the "uranammonium nitrium" of the 
 specification, and is probably a double salt of ura- 
 niun and ammonia. If it be very acid, dissolve 
 in distilled water and again crystallize. 
 
416 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 II. The Sensitizing Liquor. 
 To a saturated solution of the above salt in 6 oz. 
 of distilled water add 220 grs. of nitrate of silver, 
 previously dissolved in 1 oz. of distilled water, 
 and intimately mix. This mixture, when crystal- 
 lized over a water-bath, is the salt used to sensi- 
 tize the collodion. It may be kept in a bottle, but 
 not necessarily in a dark place, because it is only 
 sensitive to light when brought into contact with 
 organic substances. 
 
 Dissolve 3 oz. of this salt in 10 oz. of alcohol, to 
 which 5 drs. of distilled water and a few drops of 
 nitric acid have been added. This is the sensi- 
 tizing liquor, and does not require to be kept in 
 the dark. 
 
 III. Preparation of the Resinized Collodion. 
 
 The collodion may be the ordinary plain prepa- 
 ration, containing about 5i grs. pyroxyline (not 
 powdery) to the ounce of ether and alcohol, mixed 
 in the proportion of 6 to 2 ; but, in order to give 
 it an organic reaction with the sensitizing salt, it 
 is necessary to add to each pint of the collodion 
 about 10 drops of so-called " harz oel," which is 
 thus prepared : Take equal parts of castor oil and 
 Canada balsam ; dissolve the latter in sufficient 
 ether to enable it, when mixed with the castor oil, 
 to pass through a filter. After filtration, evapo- 
 rate the mixture over a water-bath till it is of the 
 ordinary consistence of a fatty oil. The collodion 
 is now ready for being sensitized. 
 
 IV. To Sensitize the Resinized Collodion. 
 
 To every 3 oz. of the collodion thus prepared 
 add frbm 1 to 1J oz. of the sensitizing solution, 
 with a few drops of nitric acid, and intimately 
 mix. The collodion is now sensitive to light, and 
 must be kept in the dark. 
 
 V. Sizing of the Paper. 
 
 This is an important preliminary to prevent the 
 image from sinking into the body of the paper. 
 It is effected either by a tolerably strong solution 
 of starch, Iceland or Irish moss, beaten up with 
 about one-eighth its bulk of albumen and a few 
 grains of acetate of lead. The paper may be 
 floated on this in the usual way, and when dry is 
 ready for the reception of the sensitive collodion. 
 VI. Applying the Collodion. 
 
 The paper is pinned down by 3 of its corners to 
 a flat board, a little larger than the sheet to be 
 collodionized. The collodion is poured on in the 
 usual way, and the excess run off at the unpinned 
 corner into the stock-bottle. This may be done 
 with great deliberation, and more may be poured 
 on to any part, where there is a deficiency, with- 
 out much chance of its running in ridges, as would 
 inevitably be the case if a glass plate were so 
 treated. Hang up to dry in a dark room, and it 
 is fit for the printing-frame. 
 
 VII. Preliminary Fixing. 
 
 When the picture is printed to the proper 
 Strength, that is to say, to the depth which it is 
 wished finally to retain for uranic-developed pic- 
 tures lose very slightly in the toning and fixing 
 process place it in a bath containing distilled 
 water 40 oz., acetic acid 1 oz., and hydrochloric 
 acid 1 oz., for the space of 10 minutes. The ob- 
 ject of this bath is to remove the uranic salts in- 
 soluble in water. The prints are afterwards washed 
 in several waters before being placed in ttie toning 
 solution. 
 
 VIII. Toning the Pictures. 
 
 The ordinary alkaline gold-bath answers very 
 satisfactorily, and tones uranic prints muck more 
 rapidly than similar prints on chlorized papsr. 
 IX. Fixing the Proofs. 
 
 If the picture be toned in hyposulphite of loda 
 and gold no further fixing will be necessary ; but 
 
 if in the usual alkaline gold-bath, they will have 
 to pass through a hyposulphite or sulphocyanide 
 solution, to remove the silver salts insoluble in 
 water. When thoroughly washed the process is 
 complete. 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHY WITHOUT A NITRATE OP 
 SILVER BATH. (Sayce's process.) 
 
 Preparation of Collodion. 
 
 Take of bromide of cadmium, 6 grs.; bromide 
 of ammonium, 2 grs. ; soluble cotton, 6 grs. ; ether 
 and alcohol, each, i oz. Mix, and after standing 
 a week, filter. Then take 12 grs. cryst. nitrate 
 of silver, in fine powder,- add to it a drop or two 
 of water, so as to produce a kind of pulp. Then 
 in a chemically dark room, mix the collodion and 
 silver, stirring as the mixture is poured into the 
 bottle intended for its reception. Then shake up 
 well, and allow it to stand. 
 
 To use the Collodion in the Wet State. 
 Take perfectly clean plate -glass, free from 
 scratches; tip the edges for J of an inch with 
 a solution of 1 gr. of India-rubber in 1 oz. of 
 benzine. Then coat with the collodio-bromide of 
 silver, allow it to set the usual time, and place it 
 in a dish of water until the greasy appearance 
 has vanished. Warm water is preferable when it 
 can be procured. When the water flows freely 
 over the film, take the plate out of the dish, wipe 
 the back, and drain for a moment upon a piece of 
 blotting-paper. Then place in the dark slide for 
 exposure in the camera. Expose a little longer 
 than wet collodion, with the nitrate-bath. Wet 
 the film with a little water, and pour over it pro- 
 tosulphate of iron, 25 grs.; glacial acetic acid, 
 25 minims; water, 1 oz. To 3 drs. of which, 2 
 drops of a 20 gr. solution of nitrate of silver. 
 Fix with cyanide of potassium, 20 grs. to the oz. 
 Intensification may be accomplished by any of 
 the means adapted to wet plates. 
 
 To use the Collodio- Bromide in the Preparation of 
 
 Tannin Plates. 
 
 Coat the plates as directed in the last paragraph, 
 and place them in a tank of water. Take the 
 plates out of the tank in rotation, and place them 
 in water as hot as the hand can bear, for about 
 30 seconds, and then into a bath of tannin solu- 
 tion of 15 grs. to the ounce of water well filtered. 
 The following tannin solution is preferable: Tan- 
 nin, 10 grs. ; gallic acid, 5 grs. ; water, 1 oz. ; grape 
 sugar, 5 grs.; alcohol, 10 minims. Dissolve the 
 tannin in a portion of the water and filter; dis- 
 solve the gallic acid in another portion by the aid 
 of heat, and filter; mix the two, add the grape 
 sugar, and when dissolved, filter; then add the 
 alcohol. If the plate be allowed to remain in the 
 above solution three minutes, and is properly ex- 
 posed, very little intensification will be necessary. 
 Dry the plates evenly and quickly, and expose 
 about half the usual time. 
 
 Development of the Dry Plates. 
 Prepare the following solutions : 1. Alcohol and 
 water, each, oz. 
 
 2. Carbonate of ammonia, 40 grs. to water, 20 oz. 
 
 3. Pyrogallic acid, 96 grs. to alcohol, 1 oz. 
 
 4. Bromide of potassium, 10 grs. to water, 1 oz. 
 
 5. Nitrate of silver, 30 grs. ; citric acid, 15 grs.; 
 distilled water, 1 oz. 
 
 Pour over the dry plate once or twice, enough 
 of No. 1 to cover it, and return to the bottle for 
 use in the next plate. Then place the plate in a 
 dish of water until the greasy appearance has 
 vanished. Then pour evenly, enough of No. 2 
 with a few drops of No. 3 and ^wo drops of No. 4 
 added, and wave to and fro with a rocking motion. 
 
KECOVEBY OF SILVER, GOLD, ETC. 
 
 417 
 
 The image should very soon appear, and may 
 be developed until the shadows become slightly 
 tinged. Then wash the surface and back of the 
 
 Slate freely with water, and rinse with a little very 
 ilute acetic acid ; say 2 drops of glacial acid to 
 the ounce. Wash again, and if any intensification 
 is required, it may be accomplished by adding to 
 2 dr. of water 3 drops of No. 3 and 3 of No. 5 
 solution. When dense enough, wash and fix with 
 cyanide, 20 grs. to the ounce of water. 
 
 FAILURES AND IMPERFECTIONS. 
 On Glass. 
 
 1. Universal clouding from over exposure or 
 diffused .light in preparation or development of 
 the plate, or alkalinity of the bath, or too much 
 nitric acid i" bath, or organic matter in the bath, 
 or the use t colorless collodion; also vapors of 
 ammonia or sulphuretted hydrogen. Such nega- 
 tives may sometimes be recovered by the applica- 
 tion of a weak solution of iodine, followed by 
 hyposulphite of sod'a. 
 
 2. Spots upon the plate from excess of bromide 
 of potassium in the collodion, impure nitrate of 
 silver in the bath, super-saturation of the bath 
 with iodide of silver, dust upon the glass or coat- 
 ing, the concentration of nitrate of silver by dry- 
 ing before exposure. 
 
 3. Curtain-like marks upon the edge, from the 
 plate being too dry before dipping, not long enough 
 in the bath to remove the greasy appearance. 
 
 4. Wavy lines, from the use of a glutinous, thick 
 collodion from want of rocking when pouring off 
 the collodion (common with cadmium sensitigus). 
 
 5. Rottenness of film, from bad cotton or dipping 
 too soon after proving before properly set. 
 
 6. Oily lines, from the removal from the bath 
 too soon. 
 
 7. Curved lines, from the developer not covering 
 the whole plate immediately. 
 
 8. Silver stains, from reversing the plate be- 
 tween the bath and slide. 
 
 9. Yellow patches, imperfect removal of the 
 iodide of silver in the fixing bath. 
 
 10. Scum upon the surface upon removal from 
 the bath, over iodized collodion. 
 
 11. Image black and white without half tones, 
 from under-exposure in the camera. 
 
 12. Collodion curls from the glass upon drying, 
 from dirty glass, insufficient alcohol in the collo- 
 dion, want of roughness of the edges of the glass. 
 
 13. Blueness of film, want of iodizer in collodion. 
 
 14. Crystals on film when dried, hyposulphite 
 not washed entirely out. 
 
 15. Developer flows greasily, from want of al- 
 cohol in developer. 
 
 16. Circular transparent spots of large size, from 
 pouring on the developer at one place. 
 
 On Paper. 
 
 1. Marbling and spots, from weak nitrate-bath. 
 
 2. Marbling after toning, from the prints over- 
 lying each other. 
 
 3. Spots by transmitted light, from imperfect 
 removal of the silver salt. 
 
 4. Cold and faded appearance, from weakness 
 f bath or excess of chloride in paper. 
 
 5. Yellowness, from acidity of bath. 
 
 6. Bronzing of deep shadows, negative is too 
 transparent. 
 
 RECOVERY OF SILVER AND GOLD FROM 
 WASTE SOLUTIONS. 
 
 Baths of Nitrate. 
 
 Throw down the silver as a chloride by muriatic 
 acid ; settle, pour off the clear part, and wash the 
 precipitate ; place the chloride in a dish, together 
 27 
 
 with some bars of zinc, and pour over it sulphuric 
 acid largely diluted with water (1 of acid to 60 of 
 water). As soon as it ceases to give off gas add 
 more acid until the zinc is entirely dissol/ed. 
 Should any chloride remain add more zino and 
 acid. The gray powder is metallic silver, and 
 may be run into an ingot in a crucible by mixing 
 with twice its weight of carbonate of soda or borax. 
 
 Hyposulphite Baths. 
 
 Boil for several hours with a suspended bar of 
 zinc, filter out the precipitate, and fuse with car- 
 bonate of soda or borax. The button contains 
 silver and gold if the solution has been used to tone 
 and fix prints. 
 
 Toning Baths (Alkaline'). 
 
 Add a solution of sulphate of iron, filter out and 
 wash the precipitate; digest with diluted nitric 
 acid for several hours ; filter out the residue, which 
 is metallic gold. 
 
 All waste solutions, containing silver, in the labo- 
 ratory should be run into a large vessel, and acid- 
 ulated with muriatic acid every evening, and the 
 clear liquid siphoned off in the morning; the pre- 
 cipitates will be principally chloride of silver, and 
 when enough has accumulated it should be removed 
 from the vessel, and reduced, as advised for baths 
 of nitrate of silver. 
 
 Paper Clippings. , 
 
 The clippings of sensitized paper should be pre- 
 served, and when a quantity has accumulated 
 burned to ashes; the ashes to be in a crucible, 
 mixed with twice their weight of a mixture of car- 
 bonate of soda and borax. If carefully brought to 
 a full red heat, and allowed to cool, the silver will 
 be found collected into an ingot at the bottom of 
 the crucible. It is best to trim the prints before 
 washing or toning, but the whole of the cuttings 
 are worth saving. 
 
 Removal of Silver Stains. 
 
 1. By rubbing with a moistened lump of cya- 
 nide of potassium, and washing freely with water. 
 This mode is dangerous, on account of the highly 
 poisonous nature of the cyanide. 
 
 2. By rubbing the spot with moistened iodide 
 of potassium, then with diluted nitric acid, and 
 then with hyposulphite of soda, and washing with 
 water. 
 
 3. Apply a paste of chloride of lime for a few 
 minutes, wash thoroughly with water; rub with 
 moistened iodide of potassium, and dissolve out 
 the iodide of silver formed by hyposulphite of 
 soda. 
 
 4. For Linen or other Fabrics. Rub with solu- 
 tion : Cyanide of potassium, 100 grs.; iodine, 10 
 grs.; water, 1 oz. ; (very poisonous;) and wash 
 with large amount of water. , 
 
 TOOVELY'S (PATENT) PHOTOLITHOGRA- 
 PHIC PROCESS. 
 
 From a negative on glass or paper a positive 
 impression is taken on paper prepared in the fol- 
 lowing manner : Take sized paper, very smooth 
 and even in texture, which coat with a solution of 
 gum Arabic in pure water, saturated with bichro- 
 mate of potash ; it is known that bichromate of 
 potash, in combination with an organic substance, 
 such as gum, gelatine and starch, becomes insolu- 
 ble in water after a certain exposure to light. The 
 paper, prepared as above, is then exposed to light 
 behind a negative, and when the photographic 
 image is sufficiently developed, such parts of the 
 gum impregnated with bichromate of potash as 
 receive the rays of light become insoluble, or 
 partly so, exactly according to the gradation of 
 
418 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 toe in the negative employed. The s,ieet of pre- 
 pared paper, with the photographic image thus 
 printed, is placed face downwards on a lithogra- 
 phic stone, grained very fine, or polished accord- 
 ing to the nature of the image to be reproduced, 
 and previously arranged in a percussion-press (it 
 can be done in a lithographic press, but the result 
 is uncertain). Place several sheets of damped 
 paper upon the stone over the photographic proof, 
 and apply a heavy pressure ; the water contained 
 in the damp paper is pressed through the photo- 
 graphic proof, and dissolves the parts of gum re- 
 maining at liberty; the dissolved gum attaches 
 itself to the surface .of the stone. When the stone 
 has remained a certain length of time in the press, 
 sufficient to allow the small quantity of soluble 
 gum in the dark shadows to attach itself to the 
 surface of the stone remove the pressure, and 
 withdraw the photographic proof carefully from 
 the stone; a negative image is then visible in gum 
 on the stone, with all the gradations of tone. Dry 
 the stone, either spontaneously or by gently warm- 
 ing it ; when well dried, cover the whole surface 
 of the stone with greasy ink, which may be ap- 
 plied with a roller or otherwise ; the greasy ink is 
 thus brought into contact with all the parts of the 
 stone untouched by gum; the coating of ink is 
 then removed by passing through the lithographic 
 press, by spirits of turpentine or otherwise, and all 
 the gum removed from the surface by washing. 
 The stone is then rolled in with ordinary print- 
 ing-ink, and the positive image appears in black ; 
 it is then printed as every lithographic drawing, 
 but has the great peculiarity of requiring no etch- 
 ing, the gum having so far penetrated by pressure 
 into the substance of the stone as to allow of a 
 great number of impressions being taken off. Gum 
 Arabic is preferable, but similar substances can be 
 used instead, such as gelatine, dextrine, and mu- 
 oilaginous solutions. 
 
 In photozincography proceed as above de- 
 scribed, substituting a zinc plate for a lithogra- 
 phic stone. 
 
 In photographic engraving on copper, steel or 
 other metal plates, the preliminary operations are 
 the same as those employed for stone or zinc, ex- 
 cepting that a positive image on glass or paper 
 should, in the first instance, be used instead of a 
 negative. When the plate is withdrawn from the 
 press, and the photographic proof detached from 
 it, it should be well dried for the stone. The 
 plate is then covered with a thin coating of var- 
 nish, and when dry may be soaked in water to re- 
 move the gum, or immediately plunged in a weak 
 solution of acid, and etched in the usual way of 
 etching on steel or copper. 
 
 Wherever the plate is protected from the var- 
 nish by the gum it will be attacked by the acid, 
 and an engraving is produced, which is then 
 printed as an ordinary etching on metal plate. 
 
 OfiBORNE'S (PATENT) PHOTOLITHOGRA- 
 PHIC PROCESS. 
 
 Let us suppose that a map has been compiled 
 and drawn with great care, and that it is desired 
 to multiply copies of this original in the litho- 
 graphic process. The first step in the process is 
 to obtain a negative ; for which purpose the map 
 is placed upright upon a plane-board, and the 
 camera opposite to it at such a distance as to give 
 the desired ratio between original and copy. A 
 negative is now taken on glass coated with collo- 
 dion in the usual way, observing the greatest 
 care to avoid distortion of all kinds, and to pro- 
 duce a negative of the highest excellence, success 
 in which depends entirely upon the knowledge, 
 
 judgment and experience of the operator. A 
 sheet of plain, positive photographic paper is now 
 coated on one side with a mixture, consisting of 
 gelatine, softened and dissolved in water, to which 
 a quantity of bichromate of potash and albumen 
 has been added. The paper, evenly covered with 
 this fluid, is dried in the dark, when it will be 
 found possessed of a smooth glassy surface, and a 
 bright yellow color. This surface is still further 
 improved by passing it through the press in con- 
 tact with a polished plate. 
 
 A suitable piece of positive photolithographic 
 paper thus manufactured is now to be exposed to 
 the action of the light under the negative of the 
 map already described. This is accomplished in an 
 ordinary pressure-frame, the time required vary- 
 ing from 10 to 15 seconds, or several minutes, ac- 
 cording to the brightness of the weather. The 
 positive thus obtained presents itself to the eye as 
 a brown drawing upon the clear yellow of the 
 sheet. 
 
 The exposed photographic copy of the original 
 is covered all over, while dry, with transfer-ink, 
 which is accomplished by running it through the 
 press with its face in contact with a stone which 
 has already received a coating of such ink. After 
 it is separated from the blackened stone it will be 
 found to have brought away with it an evenly dis- 
 tributed film of inky matter, forced by the pres- 
 sure into intimate contact with the unexposed, as 
 well as the exposed portion of the surface. This 
 operation is known as "blacking" the positive 
 print; that now to be described is called "coagu- 
 lation," its object being to effect a change of that 
 nature upon the albumen contained in the coating 
 of the organic matter. For this purpose moisture 
 and heat are necessary, and both are applied very 
 simply, by letting the blackened photographic 
 copy swim upon the surface of boiling water with 
 its inky side upwards, for it is important not to 
 wet that with hot water. After the lapse of a cer- 
 tain period, determined by the experience of the 
 operator, he proceeds to the next step in the pro- 
 cess, that of " washing off." For this purpose the 
 print is laid upon a smooth surface, such as a 
 plate of glass or porcelain, and friction with a wet 
 sponge, or other suitable material, is applied to 
 the black inky coating, under which the photogra- 
 phic image still exists, and to develop which is 
 now the object in view. The operator soon be- 
 comes aware that the moisture which percolated 
 through the paper from the back, has exerted a 
 softened or gelatinizing influence upon the gela- 
 tine in the sensitive coating; it has caused it to 
 swell, and to let go its bold upon the ink. But 
 this change does not extend to those parts of the 
 coating which were acted on by light; in other 
 words, to those places which were unprotected by 
 the opacity of the negative; they remain intact, 
 uninfluenced by the solvent or moistening effect 
 of the water. Accordingly the operator finds a 
 fac-simile of the original map gradually develop 
 under his hand as he continues the friction. This 
 process is proceeded with until all traces of ink are 
 removed, save those required to form the picture, 
 which must be clear and distinct in all its details. 
 Abundance of hot water is then poured over it, so 
 as to remove every particle of soluble matter, and 
 it is then finally dried, which completes its prepa- 
 ration. 
 
 A stone to which a fine smooth surface has beea 
 imparted, is now slightly warmed, and put in the 
 lithographic press; upon this is placed (inverted) 
 the positive print, after it has been damped by 
 lying between moist paper, and the whole is then 
 passed repeatedly through the press. On exami- 
 nation the paper will now be found to have at- 
 
ENGRAVING. 
 
 419 
 
 tached itself firmly to the stone, so that some 
 force is required to separate the two. When the 
 former is removed it brings with it its albuminous 
 coating, which gives to it while damp a parchment- 
 like appearance; but the ink is gone : it has left 
 the paper for the stone, and on the latter we find 
 a reversed drawing of the map, one which, after 
 it has been properly " prepared," will print as well 
 as if it had been drawn by hand. 
 
 PRETSCH'S PROCESS OF PHOTO-GALVAN- 
 
 OGRAPHY. 
 
 Take a plate of glass, and spread on it ordinary 
 glue, to which bichromate of potash and a small 
 quantity of nitrate of silver has been added. For 
 instance, take 2 or 3 solutions of glue, into one of 
 which put a little nitrate of silver, into another 
 bichromate of potash, and into another iodide of 
 potassium. The silver and the iodide are for the 
 purpose of producing a little iodide of silver on 
 the sensitive film, so as to produce on the picture 
 that grain which is necessary for holding the ink 
 in the process of printing. Take the photographic 
 picture obtained by any of the customary pro- 
 cesses, and place it on the sensitive plate thus 
 
 prepared and exposed to the action of the light. 
 In the course of a short time (all those parts 
 which are dark in the photograph, protecting th 
 plate from change, and all those which are white, 
 allowing the sunlight freely to pass through and 
 the change to take place), we have a combination 
 of bichromate of pota.*h and gelatine in two dif- 
 ferent states, one soluble and the other ; nsoluble. 
 Consequently, when the plate is then put into water 
 all the parts which remain soluble are dissolved 
 out, whilst the other parts remain as they were, 
 and we have the picture produced not only in dif- 
 ferent lights and shades, but also in different 
 depths, the solution being eaten into by the pro- 
 cess. When the plate is prepared to this point, 
 there is poured upon it a preparation of gutta- 
 percha, which, being kept under pressure for a 
 short time, receives the reverse image of the pho- 
 tographic picture. This is now prepared for the 
 voltaic battery by being simply rubbed over with 
 fine black lead, and it being placed in connection 
 with the trough, copper is precipitated on the 
 plate, which receives an image the reverse of the 
 mould. Then by the ordinary electrotype process 
 another plate may be obtained, from which copies 
 may be printed. 
 
 THE different modes of engraving are the fol- 
 lowing: 
 
 1. In strokes cut through a thin wax, laid upon 
 the plate, with a point, and these strokes bitten or 
 corroded into the plate with acid. This is called 
 etching. 
 
 2. In strokes with the graver alone, unassisted 
 by acid. In this instance, the design is traced 
 with a sharp tool, called a dry point, upon the 
 plate, and the strokes are cut or ploughed upon the 
 copper with an instrument distinguished by the 
 name of a graver. 
 
 3. In mezzotinto, which is performed by a dark 
 ground raised uniformly upon the plate with a 
 toothed tool. 
 
 4. In aqnatinta, the outline is first etched, and 
 afterwards a sort of wash is laid by the acid 
 upon the plate, resembling drawings in Indian- 
 ink, bistre, etc. 
 
 5. On wood. 
 
 6. Lithography. 
 
 Etching. 
 
 Etching is a method of working on copper or 
 steel, wherein the lines or strokes, instead of be- 
 ing cut with a graver, are eaten with acid. 
 Materials, etc. 
 
 The principal materials for this art are, the 
 copper or steel-plate, hard and soft ground (the 
 first for winter, and the other for summer), a 
 dabber, turpentine-varnish, lampblack, soft wax, 
 and aqua-fortis. 
 
 The tools are an oil-rubber, a burnisher, a 
 ecraper, a hand-vice, etching-boards, etching- 
 needles, an oil stone, and a parallel ruler. 
 
 LINE ENGRAVING. 
 
 So called because the result is produced by a com- 
 bination of lines of various sizes, forms, lengths 
 and textures, is the most beautiful and useful 
 style of multiplying copies of works of art. All 
 other modes are only efforts at lessening cost, not 
 
 of excelling in quality. In producing a plate 
 upon this principle, cutting with the graver, etch- 
 ing with the point, and biting or corroding with 
 acids, are the ordinary means employed. This 
 combination of chemical and mechanical together 
 with the artistic, is universal in line engraving. 
 Gravers are of various shapes; those most useful, 
 however, are the lozenge and square. With lines 
 laid in and cut up with this tool, it is useful to 
 represent drapery, hair, flesh, in fact all that per- 
 tains to human figure, while with lines slightly 
 cut into the metal through an etching ground, 
 bitten with acid and finished with the assistance 
 of the graver, that kind of line and character of 
 manipulation best calculated to represent landscape, 
 architecture, animals, etc., is obtained. As the steel 
 point with which the etching is done is used much in 
 the manner of a pen or lead-pencil, an ease, free- 
 dom and disposition of line is secured, which can- 
 not result from the use of the graver alone. The 
 burnisher is also an important tool, as by a skilled 
 use of this instrument much of the delicary and 
 tenderness which characterizes a well finished line 
 engraving, is obtained. The scraper is princi- 
 pally used to free the lines made by the other tonlt 
 from the burr, or roughness which accompanies 
 their application. It is intended in this article to 
 treat of engraving on steel. Copper is now sel- 
 dom used, but the remarks and instructions, ex- 
 cept in so far as biting is concerned, are equally 
 applicable to both. Nitrons acid diluted with wa- 
 ter is the medium of corroding copper; nitric di- 
 luted with acetic, or even with water, is used for 
 steel. The plates, properly prepared, can be ob- 
 tained of the manufacturers. 
 
 Solid Etching-ground 
 
 Is composed of burgundy pitch, 3 parts; asphal- 
 tum, 3 parts; beeswax, 1-j parts. Increase the 
 wax in proportion to the desired softness ; when 
 thoroughly melted by heat, pour into hot wate]* 
 and work into balls of convenient size. 
 
420 
 
 ENGKAVING. 
 
 Liquid Ground. 
 
 Take a ball of etching ground, break it into 
 pieces of convenient size, place them in a bottle, 
 and pour on sulphuric ether. If too thick, add 
 ether ; if too thin, take the cork out until it evap- 
 orates to proper consistency. 
 
 To Lay a Solid Ground. 
 
 Put a ball of ground into a piece of silk; make 
 a dabber with a circular piece of pasteboard from 
 2 to 3 in. in diameter, and a pad of wadding on 
 ne surface about 1 inch in thickness, tied in a 
 piece of kid-skin or good smooth silk, disposed 
 evenly over this on the under side. Clean the 
 gurface of the plate thoroughly with whiting or 
 air-slaked lime; attach in hand-vice; heat the 
 plate until hot enough to boil spittle on the back ; 
 rub the ground evenly over the surface required, 
 and use the dabber to distribute it smoothly. If 
 the plate has cooled, heat again to former temper- 
 ature, then turning the ground downwards, with 
 a lighted candle or taper moved slowly back and 
 forth, as near the surface as may be without 
 touching the ground with the wick, smoke it till 
 sufficiently black. Carefully avoid dust during 
 the whole operation. 
 
 To lay Liquid Ground. 
 
 Clean the surface of the plate, first with tur- 
 pentine, then a clean rag and whiting; take an 
 ordinary etching dabber, or make a small ball 
 with raw cotton, cover it with a piece of silk vel- 
 vet, carefully drawn tight to avoid creases, then 
 dip the dabber in the liquid or pour it on the plate 
 >nd draw and streak it quickly and evenly; the 
 evaporation of the ether leaves a clear, firm 
 ground. 
 
 To Transfer the Outline to the Surface. 
 Various plans are used. If the design to be 
 copied be the size to engrave, the outline may be 
 traced with a pencil on a piece of oil-paper laid 
 over it. This tracing may be transferred by lay- 
 ing it upon the ground, and while damp passing 
 it through the printing press with a piece of damp 
 printing paper laid over it. It may also be retraced 
 upon the ground by laying between the tracing 
 and plate a piece of thin paper, coated on the un- 
 der side with vermilion or black-lead, and going 
 carefully over the outline with a blunt point, or 
 lead-pencil. 
 
 A better plan is to use gelatine paper. Trace 
 the outline on this article with a sharp point, cut- 
 < ting into it ; scrape off the raised edges from the 
 lines with a smooth scraper; then fill the cuts 
 with vermilion or black-lead ; carefully wipe off 
 the superfluous dust; lay in proper position, fix 
 down with wax, and, while slightly damp, pass it 
 through the printing press, or with the gelatine 
 dry burnish over the back sufficiently firm to set 
 off the outline, taking care not to break the 
 ground. The best and most recent mode is to get 
 a daguerreotype of the design, the requisite size; 
 eut cleanly and smoothly with a sharp point into 
 the copper over all the outline; this done, remove 
 all the raised edges with the scraper, and get an 
 impression from the copper. While this is still 
 damp place it on the ground and pass it through 
 the press. If the impression has been taken with 
 red ink, the outline will at once appear; if in 
 black, pass a hair-pencil dipped in vermilion 
 lightly over the ground, which must be first freed 
 from damp, so that the vermilion may adhere 
 only to the oil from the impression. 
 
 Etching. 
 
 Fix down with wax, strips of wood or leather 
 about in. thick upon the margin. The best and 
 most useful point, is a good stub small round file. 
 
 Set it true in a tube, such as are used for handles 
 for parasols; grind off the cutting, and smooth on 
 an oil-stone. The point must be sharpened by 
 rolling it between the palms of the hands, keeping 
 the point on the stone ; when once set, it can be 
 easily put in order, by holding it in the right 
 hand, and, while causing it to rotate between the 
 thumb and second finger, draw it smoothly down 
 upon a piece of fine emery paper until the point 
 is perfectly round and sharp, extreme sharpness 
 being undesirable. Hold the point nearly perpen- 
 dicular between the finger and thumb, draw it 
 without pressure, gently over the emery. The ex- 
 amination of a good specimen of the art will give 
 the best idea of the necessary width, style, etc. 
 As a general rule, the more distant parts are 
 etched close, and the space between the lines 
 should increase, as the approach is made forward. 
 Sufficient pressure must be exerted to cut well into 
 the steel, yet not enough to impede an easy mo- 
 tion. Cut with a steady and equal pressure, so 
 that the lines may all present the same color to 
 the eye, as all inequalities show when bitten. 
 
 Siting Hard St*el. 
 
 The etching completed, carefully cover the un- 
 etched surface of the plate with stopping-out var- 
 nish, composed of asphaltum dissolved in turpen- 
 tine, or gum resins, or good sealing-wax, dissolved 
 in alcohul. When dry, form a well around the 
 work, of walling wax, composed of beeswax and 
 burgundy pitch, equal parts dissolved together. 
 Make a convenient spout by which to pour off the 
 acid. The best acid for biting the steel in ordi- 
 nary use is the commercial nitric, 1 part; acetic, 3 
 parts. For delicate tints, such as skies, distances, 
 etc., this mixture may be diluted at pleasure with 
 water to any extent, down to the sharpness of 
 strong vinegar. Steel is acted upon by acid, with 
 great rapidity as compared with copper; it must 
 therefore be quickly put on, and quickly removed, 
 and luke-warm water poured over the surface; 
 blow dry with the bellows ; the operation is much 
 facilitated by heating both the plate and acid. 
 Scrape off small portions of the ground on the 
 lighter parts, to judge thereby of the quality of 
 line, and stop out carefully all that may be con- 
 sidered dark enough. Continue this process until 
 the stronger portions assume sufficient color for 
 the first biting. 
 
 Siting Soft Steel. 
 
 The use of acids even on hard steel is uncertain 
 and precarious, much more so on soft or partially 
 decarbonised ; on such nitric acid being unsatis- 
 factory, resort is had to other materials in search 
 of that success denied to the ordinary means. 
 
 1. Corrosive sublimate, i oz.; alum, i oz. ; dis- 
 solved in a pint of warm water, bites a fair line. 
 Keep sweeping off the sediment deposited during 
 the process, with a hair-pencil or feather. 
 
 2. Spencer's, or magnetic acid; dissolve in i oz. 
 of commercial nitric acid and the same quantity of 
 water, and 1 oz. of fine silver. In the like propor- 
 tions, of acid and water, dissolve 1 oz. of mercury. 
 Then mix solution of silver and of mercury, each, 
 1 part; water, 25 parts; solution of nitric acid, i 
 part. 
 
 This mixture bites very rapidly when once 
 started; it will, however, lie perfectly inactive un- 
 til some one of the following plans is used. 1 . Heat 
 a steel point by rapid friction or fire, and with it 
 touch the steel through the acid and ground; a 
 black deposit at once forms ; sweep it off with a 
 feather. 2. With a strip of zinc polished at both 
 ends, touch with one end the acid, and with the 
 other, a clear piece of steel. 3. Wet a part of tho 
 surface of the plate with spittle; this is a very 
 
ENGKAVING. 
 
 421 
 
 ready means. 4. Dip a point in corrosive subli- 
 mate ; this pressed into the steel will force action; 
 or, 5. Put corrosive sublimate on for a moment, 
 pour rapidly off, and as quickly put on the mag- 
 netic acid. 
 
 To Set and Use (he Graver. 
 
 Lay the sides, the angles of which form the 
 belly, on the oil-stone; rub gently, taking care to 
 keep the part flat upon the stone, until the edge is 
 sufficiently sharp; then, with the handle of the 
 graver in the hollow of the hand, and the fore- 
 finger on the belly, hold it at an angle of about 30 
 degrees, and rub the end till a good point is ob- 
 tained. In cutting, hold the handle of the graver 
 in the hollow of the hand, and the graver, be- 
 tween the forefinger and thumb, the plate lying 
 solid upon the table, turning it as occasion may 
 require. The outlines of figures are usually dotted 
 in with the etching, slightly bitten, and stopped 
 out, and the serious part of figure engraving now 
 commences, by laying in the lines, according to 
 the taste and skill of the workman, lightly at first, 
 and gradually cutting deeper and broader into the 
 darker parts. Sand-bags and oil-Tubbers are ex- 
 ploded institutions. 
 
 Aquatint Engraving. 
 
 Etch the outline; bite slightly in the distance 
 and light parts ; more strongly those near at home. 
 Clean the plate well to lay the ground, which is 
 thus done: dissolve resin in proof alcohol; for 
 distance, less resin is required. Increase the quan- 
 tity for the nearest parts. Pour this mixture over 
 the plate, run off the superfluous matter, and in 
 drying it will form a granulation on the surface. 
 This granulation is fine or coarse in proportion to 
 the quantity, more or less, of resin contained in 
 the alcohol. When the resin is in excess no granu- 
 lation will form. Stop out, bite, and re-bite, as in 
 etching. 
 
 MEZZOTINTO ENGRAVING. 
 
 So called from the circumstance that the sub- 
 jects treated by this method in the earliest period 
 after its invention, were such as admitted of a 
 large amount of middle-tint or half-tone in the 
 distribution of the masses of light and dark ; it 
 being then believed that such only were suited to 
 this style of art. The process is of the utmost 
 simplicity, and as the best general idea of it may 
 be obtained from the anecdote related of what 
 suggested the invention, it is perhaps advisable 
 to begin by repeating the story, whether founded 
 on fact or not. 
 
 Prince Rupert, to whom its origin is popu- 
 larly attributed, is said to have taken the idea 
 from observing a soldier in camp polishing a rusty 
 sword. The rust had been, on some parts of the 
 blade, entirely removed, while on others it re- 
 mained in all its original roughness, and in some 
 portions the polishing was half done. This acci- 
 dent suggested that a rapid and effective style of 
 engraving might result, if a metal plate were 
 roughened all over its surface by some means, so 
 that it would take secure hold of a coating of 
 plate-printers' ink when applied, and then, being 
 again removed by grinding, or scraping, or bur- 
 nishing wherever the middle tints and lights of 
 the picture required, would thus retain the prin- 
 ters' ink just in proportion to the degree of such 
 removal. Where the plate was polished bright, 
 the ink would readily wipe clean away, and in 
 printing leave the paper unstained, forming the 
 high lights of the picture, while in the parts 
 where the roughening was left the ink would 
 refuse to wipe away, and thus would print the 
 extreme darks of the picture. Such was the 
 
 theory framed; the result of experiment proved it 
 to have been well founded, and mezzo-tinto, a com- 
 pound Italian term, signifying middle-tint, took a 
 permanent and respected position among the arta. 
 
 So it is already seen that the operation of mez- 
 zotinto engraving is exactly the reverse of every 
 other kind, being from dark to light; as in draw- 
 ing a picture by means of white chalk on black 
 paper, or by taking a panel of light-colored wood, 
 and having charred with fire the whole surface to 
 blackness, scrape this away again in various de- 
 grees of completeness in such manner as to present 
 the lights and shadows of a picture. 
 
 The contrivance first used for producing the 
 roughened surface on the copper-plate, termed the 
 mezzotinto ground, was a wooden roller, in which 
 were securely fixed multitudes of steel points, 
 sharp ends outwards. This was rolled over the 
 plate with moderate pressure, backwards and for- 
 wards in every direction, until no particle of the 
 original polished surface remained unpunctured 
 by a dot. But the difficulty presented itself of 
 there being no means of sharpening the steel 
 points when they broke off, or were worn dull by 
 repeated use. Consequently there was substituted, 
 in place of the roller, the instrument called the 
 rocker, or cradle-tool, or more properly the (/round- 
 ing tool, which continues in use to the present 
 day, notwithstanding its obvious imperfections, 
 for it can easily be sharpened when dull, lasts a 
 long time, and nothing better has yet been 
 thought of. 
 
 The grounding tool is made in form like a broad 
 chisel, two inches wide, cut all over one side with 
 grooved straight lines parallel to each other, ex- 
 actly equi-distant and of equal depth. These run 
 lengthwise on the tool, so that when the end is 
 sharpened to a bevel, they form a saw-like edge 
 of teeth. The toothed edge being sharpened to a 
 curved shape, the tool is held in a nearly upright 
 position, its teeth resting on the plate, and is 
 rocked from side to side, advancing forward with 
 a slightly zigzag motion. The handle, attached 
 to a shank at the upper end, is firmly grasped, 
 the wrist being kept stiff. The elbow rests on the 
 table as a pivot of the motion. Guide-lines are 
 drawn on the plate with a pencil or charcoal 
 against a ruler, parallel to each other, and not 
 quite so wide apart as the breadth of the tool. 
 The grounding tool is then held in the position 
 described, not quite upright, but slightly inclined 
 forwards, the middle of the tool midway between 
 the lines, and the elbow in place so that an ima- 
 ginary line between it and the tool is in the same 
 direction as the pencil guide-lines on the plate. 
 The rocking motion is then made with moderate 
 pressure, stopping on each side as nearly on the 
 guide-line as possible, great care being observed 
 to avoid digging in the corner of the tool by rock- 
 ing too wide a line, and also to avoid rocking re- 
 peatedly in the same place, thus making a deep 
 irremediable cut. Having continued this opera- 
 tion until all the spaces between the lines have 
 been rocked through, what is termed one way hug 
 been completed. Precisely the same operation itt 
 repeated with the guide-lines in another direction, 
 and then in another, and so on until a full black 
 ground has been produced, which is when every 
 particle of the original polish has disappeared. 
 It is well to make a scale to assist in varying the 
 direction of the ways, such as a half circle of paper 
 with lines drawn on it radiating to the circum- 
 ference, like the spokes of awheel; the straight 
 edge of the paper being laid against the edge of 
 the plate, the ruler is laid against one of the lines 
 as a guide for the direction about to be worked. 
 The outline of the intended picture is then 
 
422 
 
 ENGRAVING. 
 
 made on the ground, either by sketching it deli 
 eately with the end of the burnisher, using it as 
 a pencil, aided by division squares; or by trans 
 ferring an outline previously drawn upon paper 
 on to the plate by means of the copper-plate roller 
 press. The entirs effect is next obtained by 
 scraping away the ground to various degrees of 
 lightness, scraping it entirely away only where 
 the highest lights of the picture are, and leaving 
 it totally unscraped only where the extreme darks 
 are. All the sudden bright lights of the picture 
 are made with the burnisher, and also the pure 
 white lights are finished with it. The scraper 
 used is a simple band of steel, about f of nn inch 
 wide, and not quite thin enough to spring or bend 
 in using, sharpened lancet- like towards the end 
 where it is applied to the plate, both edges being 
 used. It is, when new, 4 or 5 inches long, and is 
 employed without a handle. A correct judgment 
 of the progress of the work can only be had by 
 occasionally procuring a proof of the plate from 
 the printer, during the progress. 
 
 As the plate almost always yields an impression 
 darker than would be expected, the engraver is 
 not apt to scrape his tints too light, but if this 
 should happen, the tint must be replaced by means 
 of the grounding tool. To do this it is only 
 necessary to lay what is termed a gauze ground 
 over the part requiring renewal; that is, a ground 
 composed of but from five to seven crossings, sel- 
 dom more. Then scrape away again delicately 
 to the proper degree of lightness. If a light form 
 should have been inadvertently extended too far 
 over on to its adjoining tint, the defect may be 
 corrected by puncturing a few rows of dots by 
 means of the rulette, a tool resembling a horse- 
 man's spur, only on a minute scale, and then deli- 
 cately removing the burr raised with a very sharp 
 scraper. 
 
 The foregoing description is of mezzotinto pure 
 and simple, but it has become the practice of late 
 years to aid and support it largely by a foundation 
 of etching, in lines and dots. This is all done on 
 the plate before commencing the mezzotinto 
 ground. The process is described under its pro- 
 per head. The drawing of the outline on the 
 plate with the burnisher is then rendered unne- 
 cessary, as the etched forms are faintly visible 
 through the ground. 
 
 The field of application of this style of engrav- 
 ing has been immensely widened since the intro- 
 duction to the engravers' use of plates of annealed 
 or softened steel, which occurred about the year 
 1820, or a little earlier. Previous to that, copper 
 had been the metal in use from the time of Tomaso 
 Finiguerra, the Florentine goldsmith, who, in 
 1460, invented the important art of plate-printing. 
 Mezzotinto engraving was invented in the ear- 
 lier part of the seventeenth century, most proba- 
 bly by Ludwig von Siegen, an officer in the service 
 of the Landgrave of Hesse. There is a portrait 
 print by him in this style extant, of Amelia Eliz- 
 abetha, Princess of Hesse, dated 1643. 
 
 TO ENGRAVE ON WOOD. 
 
 The block is commonly made of pear-tree or 
 box, and differs in thickness according to its size. 
 The surface for the engraving is on the transverse 
 section of the wood; the subject is drawn upon it 
 with a pen and Indian-ink, with all the finishing 
 that is required to have in the impression. The 
 spaces between the lines are cut away with knives, 
 chisels, and gouges, leaving the lines that have 
 been drawn with the ink. 
 
 The taking impressions from blocks of wood 
 differs from that of copper-plate in this, that in the 
 latter they are delivered from the incision, while 
 
 in the wooden blocks they are delivered from th 
 raised part. 
 
 To Prepare Box-wood for Engraving. 
 
 The wood being chosen, and cut into a proper 
 form and size, it must be planed as evenly and truly 
 as possible, and will be then ready to receive the 
 drawing or chalking of the design to be engraved. 
 
 Now take white-lead and temper it with water, 
 by grinding; then spread it first thinly on the 
 surface by a brush pencil, and afterwards rub it 
 well with a fine linen rag, while yet wet, and when 
 it is dry, brush off any loose or powdery part by 
 a soft pencil. 
 
 If the design be sketched on the wood by draw- 
 ing, it may be done by Indian or common ink (but 
 the first is far preferable), either by a pen or pen- 
 cil, or by a black-lead pencil, though that scarcely 
 marks strongly enough for finer work. 
 Chiar' Oscwo. 
 
 This method of engraving is performed with 
 three blocks. The outline-is cut in one, the deep 
 shadows in a second, and the third gives a tint 
 over the whole, except where the lights are cut 
 away. These are substituted in their turn, each 
 print receiving an impression from each block. 
 This mode of engraving was designed to represent 
 the drawings of the old masters. 
 
 To Secure Copperplates from Corrosion. 
 
 Take equal parts of wax and turpentine and 
 double the quantity of olive oil, with the same 
 quantity of hog's lard. Melt the whole over the 
 fire in an earthen vessel, taking care to mix the 
 ingredients well, and leave them to boil some 
 time, till they are well incorporated. 
 
 The advantage of this mixture is, that it may 
 at any time, being warmed, be put with the finger 
 on the places desired to be covered; by which 
 means the further operation of the aqua-fortis on 
 such places may be instantly prevented without 
 any other trouble or preparation, or without in- 
 terrupting or delaying the principal operation. 
 
 This mixture may be employed equally well 
 with the hard as with the soft varnish. The in- 
 tention of using such a composition is, if any 
 scratches or false strokes happen in the etching 
 they are to be stopped out with a hair-pencil dip- 
 ped in this composition, mixed with lampblack, 
 previously to laying on the aqua-fortis, or, as it is 
 called, biting in. 
 
 To Choose Copper for Engraving. 
 
 Plates intended for engraving ought to be of the 
 best copper, which should be very malleable, firm, 
 and with some degree of hardness, free from veins 
 or specks. The redness of copper is a presumptive 
 mark of its being good, but not an infallible one; 
 for though it is, in general, a proof of the purity 
 of the copper, yet it does not evince that the qual- 
 'ties may not have been injured by too frequent 
 fusion. 
 
 Copper-plates may be had ready prepared in 
 most large towns, but, when these cannot be had, 
 procure a pretty thick sheet of copper, rather 
 "arger than the drawing, and let the brazier plan- 
 sh it well; then take a piece of pumice-stone, 
 and with water rub it all one way, till it becomes 
 ;olerably smooth and level. A piece of charcoal 
 s next used with water for polishing it still far- 
 ther, and removing the deep scratches made by 
 ,he pumice-stone, and it is then finished with a 
 )iece of charcoal of a finer grain, with a little oil. 
 
 To Etch upon Glass. 
 
 Procure several thick, clear pieces of crown- 
 glass, and immerse them in melted wax, so that 
 each may receive a complete coating, or pour over 
 them a solution of wax in benzine. When per- 
 
ENGRAVING. 
 
 423 
 
 fectly cold draw on them, with a fine steel point, 
 flowers, trees, houses, portraits, etc. Whatever 
 parts of the drawing are intended to be corroded 
 with the acid should be perfectly free from the 
 least particle of wax. When all these drawings 
 are finished the pieces of glass must be immersed 
 one by one in a square leaden box or receiver, 
 where they are to be submitted to the action of 
 hydrofluoric acid gas, made by acting on pow- 
 dered fluor spar by concentrated sulphuric acid. 
 
 When the glasses are sufficiently corroded they 
 are to be taken out, and the wax is to be removed 
 by first dipping them in warm and then in hot 
 water, or by washing with turpentine or benzine. 
 Various colors may be applied to the corroded 
 parts of the glass, whereby a very fine painting 
 may be executed. In the same manner sentences 
 and initials of names may be etched on wine- 
 glass.es, tumblers, etc. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 Glass may also be* etched by immersing it in 
 liquid hydrofluoric acid, after having been coated 
 with wax and drawn on, as in the last method. 
 There is this difference, however, in the use of the 
 liquid and the gas, that the former renders the 
 etching transparent, whilst that produced by the 
 gas is quite opaque. 
 
 In this method the potassa of the glass is set 
 free, whilst the silex or sand is acted on, conse- 
 quently no vessel of glass can ever be employed 
 with safety to contain this acid in a liquid state, 
 as it would soon be corroded into holes. It is, 
 therefore, generally preserved in leaden bottles, 
 on which it has no power to act. 
 
 Glass in Imitation of Muslin, 
 
 This is a simple and ingenious means of giving 
 to glass the appearance of delicately-wrought 
 muslin. The process, which comes to us from 
 Germany, consists in spreading very smoothly a 
 piece of lace or tulle and covering it with some 
 fatty substance by means of a printer's roller. 
 The glass being carefully cleaned, the cloth is laid 
 upon it so as to leave in fat a print on the surface 
 of all the threads of the fabric. The glass is then 
 exposed about 5 minutes to the vapors of hydro- 
 fluoric acid, which roughens the spaces between 
 the lines and leaves the polish on the surface 
 under the fat. 
 
 A glass thus prepared becomes like a veil, pro- 
 tecting from exterior indiscretion persons who, 
 from their apartment, desire to look commodiously 
 outside. 
 
 To Transfer Engravings to Glass. 
 
 Fix the printed surface to the glass with ordi- 
 nary paste. Etch with liquid hydrofluoric acid, 
 8. g. 1*14. At the end of 3 or 4 minutes wash off 
 the paper, and the design will be found repro- 
 duced upon the glass, the printers' ink having 
 protected it. Mr. Napier, the patentee, prefers to 
 have the glass ground enamelled or veneered be- 
 forehand, when the object stands out in relief. If 
 the veneer or enamel is colored, of course the pic- 
 ture remains colored, while the body of the glass 
 ]a white. 
 
 To Engrave on Precious Stones. 
 
 The first thing to be done in this branch of en- 
 graving is to cement two rough diamonds to the 
 ends of two sticks large enough to hold them 
 steady in tho hand, and to rub or grind them 
 against each other, till they be brought to the 
 form desired. The dust or powder that is rubbed 
 off serves afterwards to polish them, which is per- 
 formed by a kind of mill that turns a wheel of 
 soft iron. The diamond is fixed in a brass dish, 
 and, thus applied to the wheel, is covered with 
 
 diamond dust, mixed up with oil of olives ; and 
 when the diamond is to be cut facet-wise, first one 
 face and then another is applied to the wheel. 
 Rubies, sapphires, and topazes are cut and formed 
 the same way on a copper wheel, and polished 
 with tripoli diluted in water. Agates, amethysts, 
 emeralds, hyacinths, granites, rubies, and others 
 of the softer stones, are cut on a leaden wheel 
 moistened with emery and water, and polished 
 with tripoli on a pewter wheel. Lapis-lazuli, opal, 
 etc. are polished on a wooden wheel. 
 
 To fashion and engrave vases of agate, crystal, 
 lapis-lazuli, or the like, a kind of lathe is made 
 use of, similar to that used by pewterers, to hold 
 the vessels, which are to be wrought with proper 
 tools. The engraver's lathe generally holds the 
 tools, which are turned by a wheel, and the vessel 
 cut and engraved, either in relievo or otherwise, 
 the tools being moistened from time to time with 
 diamond dust and oil, or at least emery and water. 
 To engrave figures or devices on any of these 
 stones, when polished, such as medals, seals, etc., 
 a little iron wheel is used, the ends of whose axis 
 are received within two pieces of iron, placed up- 
 right, as in the turner's lathe, and to be brought 
 closer, or set further apart, at pleasure; at one end 
 of the axis are fixed the proper tools, being kept 
 tight by a screw. Lastly, the wheel is turned by 
 the foot, and the stone applied by the hand to the 
 tool, then shifted and conducted as occasion re- 
 quires. 
 
 The tools ;ire generally of iron, and sometimes 
 of brass. Their form is various : some have small 
 round heads, like buttons; others like ferrels, to 
 take the pieces out, and others flat, etc. When 
 the stone has been engraved it is polished on 
 wheels of hair-brushes and tripoli. 
 
 CLEANING AND PRESERVATION OF 
 ENGRAVINGS. 
 
 In commencing to restore an engraving, some 
 attention must be given to the kind of injury it 
 has suffered. A general brown color more or less 
 deep, resulting from atmospheric action only, is 
 the least possible change. Spots and stains, caused 
 by ink, colored fluids, oil or insects, must be first 
 treated, and all pencil marks removed by India- 
 rubber or bread-crumbs. A fluid acid, obtained 
 by dissolving 1 oz. of crystals of oxalic acid in i 
 pt. of warm water, may be used for application to 
 all stains, and the paper should be wet with it 
 thoroughly where spots of any kind exist. 
 
 Excepting in a few cases, this acid will not 
 cause the removal of stains immediately, but 
 generally it combines with the bases of them, and 
 they are removed by subsequent steps; the tlior- 
 ough wetting should be done a few hours before 
 proceeding to clean the engraving. The engrav- 
 ing should be placed in a shallow tub or other 
 vessel, and allowed to rest upon a piece of opeu 
 cotton stuff, or millinet. This material of suitable 
 dimensions, should have 2 rods or sticks sewn to 
 opposite edges. These sticks will hang over the 
 sides of the vessel, and permit the prints to be 
 withdrawn or moved without any risk of injury, 
 and they should remain in soak with warm or cold 
 water for 12 or 24 hours. When the prints no 
 longer discolor the water on being agitated, the 
 fluid should be withdrawn, and enough clean water 
 added to cover them. Half a pound of chloride 
 of lime should be made into a paste with cold 
 water, and stirred up with 2 qts. of water, and 
 allowed to settle for 6 hours. Part of the clear 
 solution should be added to the bath till the smell 
 of chlorine is perceived, and the prints should be 
 moved to facilitate the action. In very bad cases, 
 1 oz. of muriatic acid mixed with a pint of water 
 
424 
 
 LITHOGRAPHY. 
 
 way be added, and when the bleaching is effected 
 the prints should be well washed with fresh water 
 and slowly dried. 
 
 On the first trial of this process, remarks Dr. 
 Hayes, a degree of alarm will be felt in the case of 
 a highly prized favorite at this seeming careless 
 
 treatment; but it must be borne in mind that 
 paper is a firmly felted mass of short fibres which 
 may be soaked in various fluids for weeks, and 
 resist all diluted acids and most chemical agent? 
 for a long time wet, if not exposed to mechanical 
 abrasion by touch or rapid motion. 
 
 LITHOOR^JPHY. 
 
 To Write and Engrave on Stone. 
 The stone used in lithography is a limestone 
 (carbonate of limestone), of very hard and com- 
 pact texture, admitting of being ground to a fine 
 surface. There are three qualities recognized by 
 dealers, which are called the blue, gray, and yel- 
 low stones, of which the blue is regarded as the 
 best, and commands the highest price. The best 
 lithographic stones are the production of a very 
 limited district, in the kingdom of Bavaria. Sev- 
 eral localities are known in the United States, and 
 some years since it was reported that a quarry had 
 been discovered in the State of Missouri, of very 
 superior quality. The stone must have the quali- 
 ties of imbibing both water and grease or oil; the 
 crayon used in drawing upon it k-ing composed 
 of grease, wax, soap, shellac, and ivory-black, 
 which is also the composition of the ink used in 
 printing, with little variation. 
 
 The stone must be rubbed down with fine sand, 
 to a perfect level, after which it is ready to receive 
 the drawing; a weak solution of nitric acid should 
 be thrown over the stone. This operation will 
 slightly corrode its surface, and dispose it to im- 
 bibe moisture, with more facility. While the stone 
 is still wet, a cylinder of about 3 inches in diame- 
 ter, covered with common printer's ink, should 
 be rolled over the whole surface of the stone. 
 While the wet part refuses to take the ink, the 
 chalk, being greasy, will take a portion of it from 
 the roller. The stone is then ready for printing. 
 
 The press consists of a box drawn by a wheel, 
 nnder a wooden scraper, pressing on it with great 
 power. After the first impression, the stone must 
 be wetted afresh, again rolled over with the cylin- 
 der, drawn under the scraper, and so on. 
 
 The same process is employed for ink drawings, 
 except that the solution of nitric acid must be 
 stronger, and the printing ink stiffer. 
 
 Imitations of wood-cuts are produced by cover- 
 ing the stone with lithographic ink, and scraping 
 out the intended lights. As the finer touches may 
 be added with a hair pencil, prints far superior to 
 wood-cuts may be obtained, but the chief advan- 
 tage of wood-cuts, that of printing them at the 
 same time with the text of the book, is lost. 
 
 Within the last 20 years the art of engraving on 
 stone has been brought to great perfection, and at 
 this time nearly all maps used for school atlases, 
 and by engineers, surveyors, etc., and nearly all 
 bills of exchange, checks, drafts, and other blanks 
 used for commercial purposes are thus engraved. 
 The engraving is done with a pointed or sharp in- 
 strument, and is very similar to copper-plate en- 
 graving. The engraved stones are printed only 
 when very small editions are required, transfers 
 from these to other stones being much more easily 
 printed. 
 
 The art of transferring and printing from trans- 
 fers is now one of the most important and useful 
 processes of lithography, and in the United States 
 onstitutes the greater part of the business of the 
 
 lithographer. It is applicable to engravings on 
 either stone or metal, and it is done from copper- 
 plates, to a considerable extent, in maps, charts, 
 and other engravings, which consists mainly of 
 lines and letters, without elaborate shading. This 
 process was invented in Europe about 30 years 
 since. An impression is taken from the engraved 
 plate or stone with a greasy ink, and on paper 
 having the surface prepared with a composition 
 which is essentially albumen. This impression is 
 carefully applied to the surface of another stone, 
 and on removing the paper by dampening it, and 
 with very careful manipulation, the impression in 
 ink remains. It is then treated with diluted acid 
 precisely as a drawing, and becomes fixed, as it is 
 technically called, in relief on the stone, and can 
 be printed from with entire facility. Much care is 
 required in this process, and the method of doing 
 it was for some years regarded as one of the most 
 valuable secrets of the lithographic art. Engrav- 
 ings of any kind can, of course, be transferred, 
 but in finely engraved pictures, or when there is 
 much shading, the fine lines become massed to- 
 gether, or blurred in transferring. In printing 
 small maps or other suitable descriptions of en- 
 gravings, printing from transfers has a great ad- 
 vantage over plate-printing, in the fact that seve- 
 ral copies of the same engraving can be put upon 
 the stone at once, and thus printed much more 
 rapidly and economically. Maps printed from well- 
 prepared transfers can scarcely be distinguished 
 from those printed from copper or steel-plates. 
 
 Laurent's Method of Draining in Stone. 
 
 Take the outline of the original design upon 
 transparent paper, by tracing all the lines of the 
 original with a dry point; the outline is then 
 glued by its edges on a board, and there is spread 
 over it, with a piece of fine linen, a tolerably hard 
 paste, formed of lithographic ink, dissolved in es- 
 sence of turpentine. The outline is then rubbed 
 hard with a piece of clean linen, until the linen 
 ceases to have a black tint. The outline is then 
 transferred to the stone by means of the press, 
 placing in a vertical paper press the stone and the 
 outline in contact, laying upon the latter 24 
 sheets of paper, wetted in water with some solu- 
 tions of calcined muriate of lime. Upon these 
 last sheets are placed large plates of paper, about 
 1 inch thick, to prevent injury from a thick and 
 straight plank, which is to be laid over them. 
 Pressure is now applied for 1 hour, when the out- 
 line will be found adhering to the stone. The 
 paper is to be removed by hot water and the de- 
 sign will be left on the stone, which is now 
 washed with cold water till no trace of the paper 
 remains. 
 
 Thenard and Blainville's Lithographic Ink. 
 
 Soap, J; mutton-suet, ; yellow wax, 1 partj 
 mastic in tears, i; and as much lampblack as 
 necessary. 
 
NATURE PRINTING. 
 
 425 
 
 Three Different Methods of Printing from Stone. 
 
 In the chemical printing-office at Vienna, 3 dif- 
 ferent methods are employed, but that termed in 
 relief, is most frequently used. This is the gene- 
 ral mode of printing music. 
 
 The 2nd method is the sunk, which is preferred 
 for prints. 
 
 The 3rd method is the flat, that is, neither raised 
 nor sunk. This is useful for imitating drawings, 
 particularly where the impression is intended to 
 resemble crayons. For printing and engraving 
 in this method, a block of marble is employed, or 
 any other calcareous stone that is easily corroded, 
 and will take a good polish. It should be 2^ inches 
 thick, and of a size proportioned to the purpose 
 for which it is intended. A close texture is cort- 
 gidered as advantageous. When the stone is well 
 polished and dry, the first step is to trace the 
 drawing, notes, or letters to be printed with a pen- 
 cil; the design is not very conspicuous, but it is 
 rendered so by passing over the strokes of the 
 pencil a particular ink, of which a great secret is 
 made. This ink is made of a solution of lac in 
 potash, colored with the soot from burning wax, 
 and appears to be the most suitable black for the 
 purpose. When the design has been gone over 
 with this ink, it is left to dry about 2 hours. After 
 it is dry, nitric acid, more or less diluted, accord- 
 ing to the degree of relief desired, is poured on 
 the stone, which corrodes every part of it, except 
 when defended by the resinous ink. The block 
 being washed with water, ink, similar to that 
 commonly used for printing, is distributed over it 
 by printer's balls; a sheet of paper disposed on a 
 frame is laid on it, and this is pressed down by 
 means of a copper roller or copper press. 
 
 The sunk or chalk method differs from that 
 termed relief, only in having stone much more 
 corroded by the nitric acid. In the flat method, 
 less nitric acid is used. It is not to be supposed 
 that the surface is quite plain in this way, but the 
 line? are very little raised so that they can scarcely 
 be perceived to stand above the ground, but by 
 the finger. 
 
 To make Lithographic Pencils. 
 
 Mix the following ingredients : Soap, 3 oz.; tal- 
 low, 2 oz. ; wax, 1 oz. 
 
 When melted smooth, add a sufficient quantity 
 of lampblack, and pour it into moulds. 
 To take Impressions on Paper from Designs made 
 in Stone. 
 
 The stone should be close grained, and the 
 drawing or writing should be made with a pen 
 dipped in ink, formed of a solution of lac, in lyes 
 of pure soda, to which some soap and lampblack 
 fihould be added, for coloring. Leave it to harden 
 for a few days ; then take impressions in the fol- 
 lowing manner: Dip the surface in water, then 
 djib it with printer's ink and printer's balls. The 
 ink will stick to the design and not to the stone, 
 and the impressions may be taken with wet paper, 
 by a rolling or screw press, in the ordinary way. 
 Several hundred copies may be taken from the 
 same design, in this simple manner. 
 
 Cheap Substitute for Lithographic Stone. 
 
 Paste-board, or card-paper, covered with an ar- 
 gillo-calcareous mixture, has been employed with 
 complete success, and effects a great saving. The 
 material is to be reduced to a powder, and laid on 
 wet ; it sets, of course, immediately, and may be 
 applied to a more substantial article than paper, 
 and upon a more extensive scale than the inven- 
 tor has yet carried it on. This coating receives 
 the ink or crayon in the same way that the stone 
 does, and furnishes impressions precisely in the 
 same manner. 
 
 Another substitute for lithographic stone is zino, 
 which has been used to some extent lately for 
 transfer-printing. The transfer is made on the 
 surface from an engraving on metal or stone, and 
 the method is nearly the same as that alluded to 
 above. 
 
 Printing in colors is now much practised in 
 Lithography, and quite attractive show-cards, 
 lamp-shades, etc., are produced. Every color re- 
 quires a separate design or drawing, and one color 
 only is printed at a time. Skill and care is re- 
 quired in registering, as it is called, or in making 
 the colors properly join together in the picture, 
 and also in preparing the colors. Parts of pictures 
 intended to be colored by hand in the usual man- 
 ner, can frequently be printed more cheaply. 
 
 Photographing on stone is perhaps at present 
 the most interesting of newly discovered processes 
 in lithography. It is very useful in making either 
 reductions or enlargements of drawings or engrav- 
 ings intended to be printed from stone, and is also 
 applicable to obtaining and fixing figures of minute 
 objects obtained by means of the microscope. The 
 surface of the stone is prepared in a suitable man- 
 ner, and the photograph made upon it ; after which 
 it is treated and printed as in other processes of 
 this art. This method has at present the appear- 
 ance of becoming very important and useful in 
 I lithography. 
 
 Process for Printing from Veneers. 
 
 A process of veneering by transfer is mentioned 
 with approval in the French journals. The sheet 
 of veneer or inlaying to be copied, is to be exposed 
 for a few minutes to the vapor of hydro-chlorio 
 acid. This novel plate is then laid upon calico or 
 paper, and impressions struck off with a printing- 
 press. Heat is to be applied immediately after the 
 sheet is printed, when a perfect impression of all 
 the marks, figures, and convuluted lines of the 
 veneer is said to be instantaneously produced. 
 The process, it is affirmed, may be repeated for an 
 almost indefinite number of times. The designs 
 thus produced are said all to exhibit a general 
 wood-like tint, most natural when oak, walnut, 
 maple, and the light -colored woods have been 
 employed. 
 
 New Tracing Paper. 
 
 Moisten a sheet of paper with benzine, by means 
 of a sponge. The paper becomes temporarily 
 transparent, and lines may be traced through it. 
 In a few hours the benzine evaporates, and the 
 paper becomes opaque as before. 
 
 Rapid Stereotyping. 
 
 The process now adopted by many newspapers 
 is to take a cast of the form in a composition of 
 strong glue, with alum and plaster of Paris. Into 
 this the metal is poured. It requires only sixteen 
 minutes to mould, cast, and finish the stereotype 
 plate. 
 
 A utogrnphy. 
 
 On a plate of chalk or plaster, the artist sketches 
 the design with a gummy ink (at present a -secret). 
 By means of a silk rag, the portions of the plate 
 not protected by the ink are rubbed away. A copy 
 is then obtained in fusible metal or by the electro- 
 type. 
 
 NATURE PRINTING. 
 
 If the original be a plant, a flower, or an insect, 
 a texture, or in short, any lifeless object whatever, 
 it is passed between a copper plate and a lead 
 plate, through two rollers that are closely screwed 
 together. The original, by means of the pressuie, 
 leaves its image impressed with all its peculiar 
 delicacies with its whole surface, as it were on 
 
426 
 
 NATURE PRINTING. 
 
 the lead plate. If the colors are applied to this 
 stamped lead plate, as in printing a copper plate, 
 a copy in the most varying colors, bearing a strik- 
 ing resemblance to the original, is obtained by 
 means of one single impression of each plate. If 
 a great number of copies are required which the 
 lead form, on account of its softness, is not capa- 
 ble of furnishing it is stereotyped, in case of 
 being printed at a typograpical press; or galvan- 
 ized, in case of being worked at a copper-plate 
 press, as many times as necessary; and the im- 
 pressions are taken from the stereotyped or gal- 
 vanised plate instead of from the lead plate. When 
 a copy of a unique object, which cannot be sub- 
 jected to pressure, is to be made, the original must 
 be covered with dissolved gutta percha; which 
 form of gutta percha, when removed from the 
 original, is covered with a solution of silver, to 
 render it available for a matrix for galvanic mul- 
 tiplication. 
 
 This process is also applicable to the purpose of 
 obtaining impressions of fossils or of the structure 
 of an agate or other stone. In all the varieties 
 of agate, the various layers have different degrees 
 of hardness. Therefore, if we take a section of an 
 agate and expose it to the action of hydro-fluoric 
 acid, some parts are corroded and others not. If 
 ink is at once applied, very beautiful impressions 
 can be at onoe obtained; but for printing any 
 number, electrotype copies are obtained. These 
 will have exactly the character of an etched plate, 
 and are printed from in the ordinary manner. 
 The silicious portions of fossil, and the stone in 
 which they are imbedded, may in like manner 
 be acted upon by acid; and from these, either 
 stereotyped or electrotyped copies are obtained 
 for printing from. 
 
 Dresser's Process of Nature Printing. 
 
 The process is one by which images of foliage 
 may be taken by any who have leisure and 
 choose to devote an hour or two to the regis- 
 tration of the beautiful forms of our leaves. The 
 process, by its simplicity, commends itself; and 
 the results gained are of the most charming char- 
 acter. The Vienna process of nature printing has 
 achieved much, and produced results of the most 
 admirable character; but the process necessitates 
 the use of dried vegetable specimens, in order to 
 the production of the image. While this is at 
 least no drawback in the case of ferns, and is per- 
 haps even an advantage, yet it strongly militates 
 against the process in the case of many other 
 plants. In order to meet this difficulty, Dr. Dresser 
 suggested an " Improved Nature Printing" pro- 
 cess which he patented, in conjunction with Dr. 
 Lyon Play fair, in wh : ch impressions are taken 
 from the living plant, and which may be substan- 
 tially described as follows : A sheet of foolscap 
 writing-paper should be provided, a handful of 
 fine cotton-wool, a piece of muslin, one or more 
 tubs of common oil-paint (according to the color 
 required), a little sweet-oil, and a quantity of 
 mooth, soft, cartridge-paper, or better, plate- 
 paper. Having placed the sheet of foolscap-paper 
 while doubled (the two thicknesses making it a 
 little softer), on a smooth table, squeeze from the 
 tube about as much oil-color as would cover a shil- 
 ling, and place this on one corner of the sheet of 
 foolscap ; now form a " dabber" by enclosing a 
 quantity of the cotton-wool in two thicknesses of 
 muslin, and tying it up so as to give it roundness 
 of form. Take up a portion of the oil-paint from 
 the corner of the paper, with the dabber, and by 
 dabbing give the central portion of the sheet of 
 foolscap a coat of color. This dabbing may be 
 
 continued for half an hour or more with auvan 
 tage, taking a small quantity more color when th* 
 paper becomes dry ; two or three drops of sweet- 
 oil may now be added to the paper and distributed 
 by the aid of the dabber, if the color is thick, 
 when the paper will be fully prepared for use. 
 
 The paper may be left for an hour or two after 
 being first coated with color without injury, and, 
 indeed, this delay is favorable, for until the paper 
 becomes impregnated with oil, the results desired 
 are not so favorable as they become after the paper 
 is more fully enriched with this material. While 
 the color is soaking into the paper, a number of 
 leaves should be gathered which are perfect in 
 form and free from dust; and these can be kepi 
 fresh by placing them in an earthenware pan, the 
 bottom of which is covered with a damp cloth, but 
 it will be well to place a damp cloth over the 
 orifice of the pan also. Selecting a woolly, hairy 
 leaf, place it on the painted portion of the sheet 
 of foolscap, and dab it with the dabber till it ac- 
 quires the color of the paint used ; this being done 
 turn the leaf over and dab the other side; now 
 lift it from the paint paper by the stalk, and place 
 it with care between a folded portion of the 
 " plate" or "cartridge" paper, and if the stalk of 
 the leaf appears to be in the way, cut it off with a 
 pair of scissors : now bring down the upper portion 
 of the folded piece of paper upon the leaf, and rub 
 the paper externally with the finger, or a soft rag, 
 bringing the paper thus in contact with every por- 
 tion of the leaf. If the paper is now opened, and 
 the leaf removed, a beautiful impression of both 
 sides of the leaf will be found remaining. In like 
 manner, impressions of any tolerably flat leaves 
 can be taken ; but harsh leaves will be found most 
 difficult, and should hence be avoided by the be- 
 ginner. While the paper is yet rich in color, 
 downy leaves should be chosen ; but color may at 
 any moment be added, care being always taken 
 to distribute the paint evenly over the paper with 
 the dabber before the latter is applied to the leaf, 
 and the dabber is always removed from the painted 
 paper till the color is exhausted, when the paper 
 is again replenished from the reserve in the 
 corner. 
 
 As the color on the paper becomes less and less 
 in quantity, smoother leaves may be employed; 
 and when the paper seems to be almost wholly 
 without paint, the smoothest leaves will prove suc- 
 cessful, for these require extremely little color. 
 Should the natural color of the leaf be desired, it 
 can begot by using paint of the color required; 
 but, in many cases, purely artificial tints produce 
 the most pleasing and artistic results; thus, burnt 
 sienna gives a very pleasing red tint; and of all 
 colors this will be found to work with the greatest 
 ease. 
 
 By the process now described, the most beauti- 
 ful results can be gained; but the effect will b 
 better, if, when the impression is being rubbed 
 off, the leaf, together with the paper in which it is 
 enclosed, is placed on something soft, as half a 
 quire of blotting paper. Should the first attempt 
 not prove very satisfactory, a little experience will 
 be found to be all that is required, and now the 
 most common leaf will be seen to have a form of 
 the most lovely character. 
 
 Collections of leaves of forest-trees will prove 
 of the deepest interest, or of all the species which 
 we have of any kind of plant; thus, if the leaves 
 of the black, red, American, and golden currant 
 be printed together with that of the gooseberry, 
 all of which belong to one botanical genus or 
 group, the variation or modification of the form 
 will be seen to be of the deepest interest. 
 
WEIGHTS AND MEASUKES. 
 
 427 
 
 WEIQHTS 
 
 MEASURES. 
 
 Troy Weight is used by jewellers and at the 
 Mint. Its denominations are the pound, lh., = 12 
 ounces = 5,760 grains; ounce, oz., = 480 grains; 
 and pei n.y weight, dwt., = 24 grains. 
 
 Apothecaries' Weiyht is used in prescribing and 
 dispensing medicines, and in chemical and phar- 
 maceutical operations generally. It is the offici- 
 nal standard of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. The 
 British Pharmacopoeia uses the avoirdupois pound 
 and ounce; hence the two agree only in the grain 
 measure. The denominations of apothecaries' 
 weight are the pound, ft, = 12 ounces = 5,760 
 grains; the ounce, 3jj, = 8 drachms = 480 grains; 
 the drachm, ^j, = 3 scruples = 60 grains ; the 
 Bcruple, J)j, = 20 grains; and the grain, gr. 
 
 Avoirdupois Weight is the commercial weight, 
 and is generally employed in the receipts in this 
 volume. Its pound, lb., = 16 ounces, oz., = 7,000 
 grains. The ounce contains 437 5 grains. The 
 apothecaries' or troy ounce contains 42 grains 
 more than the avoirdupois ounce, and the apothe- 
 caries or troy pound contains 1-240 grains lens 
 than the commercial or avoirdupois pound. The 
 troy pound contains 12 oz., the avoirdupois 16 oz. 
 
 RELATIVE VALUE OF TROY AND AVOIR- 
 DUPOIS WEIGHTS. 
 
 Useful in determining the troy weight of silver 
 by ordinary weights. 
 
 1 lb. troy = 0-822857 lb. av. = 13 oz. 72-5 grs. 
 
 1 lb. avoirdupois = 1-215277 lb. troy = 1 lb. 2 oz. 
 280 grs. 
 
 UNITED STATES COINS 
 
 Are convenient standards of weight. Those of 
 gold are to be preferred, and when new will rarely 
 be found to vary more than the tenth of a grain 
 from the following weights : 
 
 Double eagle, $20, weighs 516 grs. 
 
 Eagle, $10, 
 
 Half eagle, $5, 
 Quarter eagle, $2 50, 
 Three dollar, $3, 
 One dollar, $1, 
 
 258 
 129 
 
 77-4 
 25-8 
 
 MEASURES OF CAPACITY FOR LIQUIDS. 
 
 In the United States the old wine gallon (Cong.), 
 of 231 cubic inches = 58,328-8 grains of water at 
 60, is used. In England the Imperial gallon of 
 
 277-274 cubic inches 70,000 grains = 10 lb. av. 
 is used. The minim of the former = '95 gr., of the 
 latter = '91 gr. The former contains 16 fluid- 
 ounces to the pint (0.), the latter 20. The follow- 
 ing tables give the value of each in grains of pure 
 water, at 60. 
 
 Wive Measure, (U. S. P.) 
 60 minims = fXJ^ HUx = 56- 9 grs. water. 
 480 " = fgj = fz v iii = 455-7 " 
 7,680 " = Oj = f$xvi = 7,291-2 " " 
 61,440 " = Congj = Oviii = 58,328-8 " 
 
 Imperial Measure, (B. P.) 
 60minims = fXj= Tt\,lx= 54 -6 grs. water. 
 480 = f|j = fzyiii= 437-5 " " 
 9,600 = Oj=f1$xx = 8,750 " " 
 76,800 " = Congj = 6 via =70. 000 " " 
 To convert Imperial ( Br.) into Wine ( U. S. P.} 
 
 3f ensure. 
 
 Imperial. Wine or Apothecaries'. 
 
 1 gallon = 6 pts., 13 fl. oz., 2 fi. drs., 23 minims. 
 1 pint = 16 5 " 18 " 
 
 1 fluidounce = 1 " " 20 " 
 
 1 fluidrachm= 1 " 2'5 " 
 
 1 minim = 1-04" 
 
 THE DECIMAL SYSTEM, 
 Adopted in France and on the Continent, is used 
 in this country in scientific research. The stan- 
 dard of length is the metre (J^,^^O^-Q^ of a 
 quadrant of the earth's meridian), which is equal 
 (as corrected by Prof. Bache) to 39'36850535 
 inches, or, roughly, about 3J feet. This, as well 
 as the measures of capacity and weight, is in- 
 creased or divided decimally. The prefixes are 
 deca (10 times), hecto (100 times), kiln (1000 times), 
 and myria (10,000 times); deci (,' ff ), ccnti (7^5), 
 nn'lle (yn'off)- The kilometre is equal to about 
 two-thirds of a mile. 
 
 The cubic decimetre is the unit of capacity, and 
 is called a litre, and is equal to 1'765 imperial 
 pints, or 2*1135 wine pints (the latter are used in 
 the United States). The weight of 1 litre of water, 
 at 39-10, is called a kilogramme, nnd that of a 
 milliUtre of water a gramme = 15'434 grains. 
 The kilogramme is rather less than 2 Ibs. avoir- 
 dupois. The metrical pound of France is half a 
 kilogramme. One fluidounce equals in capacity 
 29'53 cubic centimetres. 
 
 Comparative Table of Decimal with Avoirdupois and Apothecaries' (U. S.) Weights. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Equivalent in 
 Grammes. 
 
 Equivalent in 
 Grains. 
 
 Equivalent in 
 Avoirdupois. 
 
 Equivalent in Apotheca- 
 ries' Weight, (U. S. P.) 
 
 
 
 
 lb. oz. 
 
 gr. 
 
 lb. oz. dr. gr. 
 
 Milligramme = ... 
 
 001 
 
 0154 
 
 
 
 
 Centigramme == ... 
 
 01 
 
 1543 
 
 
 
 
 Decigramme = ... 
 
 1 
 
 1-5434 
 
 
 
 1-5 
 
 Gramme = ... 
 
 1- 
 
 15-4340 
 
 
 
 15-4 
 
 Decagramme = ... 
 
 10- 
 
 154-3402 
 
 01 
 
 45 
 
 2 34-0 
 
 Hectogramme = ... 
 
 100- 
 
 15434023 
 
 3# 
 
 12-152 
 
 3 1 43-0 
 
 Kilogramme* = ... 
 
 1,000' 
 
 15434-0234 
 
 2 3* 
 
 12-173 
 
 2 8 1 14- 
 
 Myriagrarnine= ... 
 
 10,000- 
 
 154340-2344 
 
 22 0| 
 
 12- 
 
 26 9 4 20- 
 
 ' Abbreviated kilo. 
 
428 
 
 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 
 
 Comparison of Decimal Measures of Capacity with 
 
 Wine (U. S. P.) and Imperial Measures. 
 
 Wine Measure. 
 
 v n v T v. Apothecaries' or Wine 
 Eng. Cubic Inches. Measure. 
 
 Millilitre = -061028 = 16-2318 minims. 
 
 Centilitre = -610280= 2-7053 fluidrachms. 
 
 Decilitre = 6-102800= 3-3816 fluidounces. 
 
 Litre = 61-028000= 2-1135 pints. 
 
 Decalitre = 610-280000= 2-6419 gallons. 
 Hectolitre = 6102800000 
 Kilolitre = 61028-000000 
 
 Imperial Measure. 
 
 1 litre = 0-22017 galls., 0-88066 qts., 1-76133 pts. 
 Stere (cubic metre) = 220-16643 galls. 
 
 CAPACITY OF BOXES. 
 Dry Measure. 
 
 A box 20 inches square, and 16J inches deep, 
 will contain 1 barrel (3 bushels). 
 
 A box 15 inches square, and 14J inches deep, 
 will contain half a barrel. 
 
 A box 17 inches by 14 inches, and 9 inches 
 deep, will contain 1 bushel. 
 
 A box 10 inches by 12 inches, and 9 inches 
 deep, will contain half a bushel. 
 
 A box 8 inches square, and 8f inches deep, will 
 contain 1 peck. 
 
 A box 8 inches square, and 4 T 3 R inches deep, will 
 contain 1 gallon (dry) = & bushel = 268J cubic 
 inches. 
 
 A box 4 inches square, and 4$ 3 2 inches deep, will 
 eontain 1 quart. 
 
 LINEAR MEASUREMENT. 
 
 12 inches = 1 foot. 3 feet = 1 yard. 
 1 mile = 1760 yards = 5280 feet = 63,360 inches. 
 
 Inches expressed in Decimals of a Foot. 
 
 1 inch = 0-08333 foot. 
 2 inches = 0-16666 
 3 " = 0-25000 
 4 = 0-33333 
 5 = 0-41666 
 6 = 0-50000 
 
 7 inches = 0-58333 foot. 
 8 = 0-66666 
 9 = 0-75000 
 10 = 0-83333 
 11 =0-91666 
 12 = 1-00000 
 
 Fractions of an Inch expressed in Decimals of an 
 Inch, and in Decimals of a Foot. 
 
 Dec. of an 
 
 I-nch. inch. Dec. of a foot. 
 
 Dec. of an 
 Inch. inch. Dec. of a foot. 
 
 T l ff = 0-0625 = 0-0052083 
 
 T 9 g = 0-5625 = 0-0468747 
 
 =0-1250 = 0-0104166 
 
 & =0-6250 = 0-0520833 
 
 _3 g== 0-1875 = 0-0156249 
 
 { = 0-6875 = 0-0572913 
 
 i =0-2500 = 0-0288332 
 
 | =0-7500 = 0-0624996 
 
 _5_ = 0-3125 = 0-0260415 
 | =0-3750 = 0-0312498 
 
 -j 3 = 0-8125 = 0-0677079 
 g =0-8750 = 0-0729162 
 
 jr ff = 0-4375 = 0-0364581 
 
 If = 0-9375 = 0-0781245 
 
 i =0-5000 = 0-0416664 
 
 16 = 1. =0-0833328 
 
 1 b 
 
 1. In a right-angled triangle the sum of the 
 squares of the two shorter sides = the square of 
 the hypothenuse : the square of the hypothenuse 
 less the square of one side = the square of the 
 third side. 
 
 2. The diameter of a circle X 3-1416 = the cir- 
 cumference. 
 
 3. The circumference of a circle X 0-31831 = 
 the diameter. 
 
 4. Given a chord and versed sine to find the 
 diameter of the circle. Divide the square of half 
 the chord by the versed sine, and add the versed 
 iine to the product = the diameter. 
 
 5. To find the length of an arc of a circle, when 
 the cord of the whole arc and the chord of one- 
 half of the arc are known, from 8 times the chord 
 of one-half the arc, subtract the chord ot the whole 
 arc : one-third of the remainder will be the length 
 of the arc nearly. 
 
 6. Periphery of an elipse. Multiply the square 
 root of the sum of the squares of the axes by 2.22. 
 
 SURFACE MEASUREMENT. 
 Areas. Product of two Linear Dimensions (pro- 
 portioned to the squares of similar sides). 
 
 144 square inches = 1 square foot. 
 9 " feet =1 " yard. 
 Acre = 43,560 square feet = 4480 yards = (660 X 
 
 feet). 
 Square mile = 640 acres. 
 
 1. Parallelogram (square, rectangular or 
 rhomboidal) = the product of the length of one 
 sideX by perpendicular height. 
 
 2. Triangle product of base X by one-half 
 the perpendicular height. 
 
 Triangle Area from 3 sides given. From 
 the half sum of the three sides subtract each side 
 separately; multiply the half sum and the three 
 remainders together, and the square root of the 
 product will be the area. 
 
 4. Trapezoid = the sum of the two parallel sides 
 X by half the perpendicular height. 
 
 5. Circle = the square of the diameter X '7854, 
 or square of the circumference X '07958. 
 
 6. Sector of a Circle = radius of the circle X by 
 one-half the arc of the sector. 
 
 7. Segment of a Circle. Find the area of a sec- 
 tor of a circle having the same arc, and deduct the 
 triangle formed between the two radii and the 
 chord of the arc. 
 
 Siyerficial Area of Solids. 
 
 8. Cube. 
 
 9. Parallelopipidon. 
 
 10. Prism. 
 
 11. Cylinder= circumference of base X height 
 + area of bases. 
 
 10 p ") C Circumference of bases X 
 
 Jo B 6 ' -A r = \ one-half slant height + 
 13. Pyramid. J | &rea of bage 
 
 Sphere = square of diameter X 3.1416. 
 French square metre, 1550-85 square inches 1 " 
 10-7698 square feet. 
 
 Sum of area of sides 
 and bases. 
 
 SOLID MEASUREMENT. 
 
 Cubic Content. Product of three Linear Dimen- 
 sions (proportional to cube of similar sides). 
 Cubic foot = 1,728 cubic ins. 
 
 < yard =27 cubic ft. = 46,656 " 
 
 Barrel = 4-8125 " = 8,316 " 
 
 Bushel = 1-2438 " = 2,150 " 
 
 Gallon (wine) = = 231 " 
 
 Ton = 2240 Ibs. avoirdupois. 
 1 gallon of water weighs 58,328*8 grains troy * 
 10-126 Ibs. troy. 
 Cylindrical inches X '0004546 = cubic feet. 
 
 feet X '02909 = " yards. 
 Cubic inches X '00058 =* " feet. 
 
 feet X '03704 = " yards. 
 
 " feet X 7'48 = U. States gallon. 
 
 " inches X '004329 = " " 
 
 Cylindrical feet X 5'874 = " " 
 
 inches X '0034 = " " 
 
 Contents of Casks. Add into one sum 39 times 
 the square of the bung diameter, 25 times the 
 square of the head diameter, and 26 times the 
 product of the two diameters; then multiply the 
 
SPECIFIC GKAVITY. 
 
 429 
 
 sum by the length, and the product again by 
 oo IB 2 4 for wine gallons. 
 
 General Rule for finding Cubic Content contained 
 
 between two Parallel planes. 
 Let A and B be areas of ends of solids, and C 
 the area of a section parallel to, and equidistant 
 from the ends, and L the distance between the 
 ends : 
 
 A-f B+4C 
 
 Solidity = -- X L. 
 6 
 
 1. Cube = side X side X side, or = area of base 
 X perpendicular height. 
 
 2. Par,,lM V ipido ) ( AreaofbageXbyper . 
 hr rl P-dWar height. 
 
 3. Cone \ \ Area of bases X b y i the 
 Pyramid J " { perpendicular height. 
 
 4. Frustrum of Cone or Pyramid = sum of the 
 areas of the two ends + the square root of their 
 product X by of the perpendicular height. 
 
 5. Sphere = cube of the diameter X 0-5236. 
 
 6. Spherical Segment = 3 times the square of 
 the radius of its base + the square of its height 
 X the height X 0-5s36. 
 
 MEASUREMENT OF STONE-WORK. 
 1 Perch, Masons' or Quarrymen's Measure. 
 16i feet long, j , 22 cubic feet To be mea _ 
 16 inches wMe, j=| sured in wall. 
 
 16i feet long, f 24-75 cubic feet. Tobemea- 
 
 1 cubic yard = 3 feet X 3 feet X 3 feet = 2 cubic 
 feet. 
 
 The cubic yard has become the standard for all 
 contract work of late years. 
 
 Stone walls less than 16 inches thick count as if 
 16 inches thick to mason; -over 16 inches thick, 
 each inch additional is measured. 
 Bricks required for Walls of various Thickness. 
 
 Number for each Square Foot of Face of Wall. 
 Thickness Thickness 
 
 of Wall. of Wall. 
 
 4 inches ............. 7i 24 inches ............. 46 
 
 8 ............ 15 28 " ............. 52i 
 
 12 " ............. 22* 32 " ............. 60 
 
 16 ............. 30 36 " ............. 67i 
 
 20 " ............. 37i 42 " ............. 75 
 
 Cubic yard = 600 bricks in wall. 
 Perch (22 cubic feet) = 500 bricks in wall. 
 To pave 1 sq. yard on flat requires 41 bricks. 
 1 " edge " 68 " 
 
 BOARD MEASURE. 
 
 Boards are sold by superficial measure at so 
 much per foot of 1 inch or less in thickness, adding 
 one-fourth to the price for each quarter-inch 
 thickness over an inch. 
 
 SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 
 
 In ordinary language the terms density and 
 specific gravity (s. g.) are used to represent the 
 relative weights of equal bulks or volumes of dif- 
 ferent substances. In order to compare these con- 
 veniently, pure water at 60 is taken as the stand- 
 ard. A cubic foot of water weighs 1000 oz., hence 
 to determine the weight of a given bulk of any 
 body the specific gravity of which is known, mul- 
 tiply the cubic content in feet by 1000, and this by 
 the s. g., and the product will be the weight in 
 ounces avoirdupois. Thus, the s. g. of cast-iron 
 is 7.207, that is, it is 7.207 times heavier than an 
 equal bulk of water. A cylinder of cast-iron 1 
 
 bot in diameter and 10 feet high, would 
 
 10 cubic feet, 10 X 1000 X 7.207 = 72.070 oz. - 
 
 4500 Ibs. 
 
 Specific Gravity of Solids. 
 
 1. By the Pitcher. 1 Ul a pitcher, or similar 
 vessel, brim full, put in toe body, it will displace 
 
 ts own bulk of water; catch this water as it over- 
 lows and weigh it. Divide the weight of the body 
 by that of the water displaced, the quotient will be 
 
 ts specific gravity. A very neat instrument for 
 performing this process accurately has been con- 
 trived by Messrs. Eckfeldt and Dubois, of the 
 United States Mint. 
 
 2. By the Hydrostatic Balance. Weigh the 
 body, fasten it, preferably by a horse- hair, im- 
 merse it in water, and note the loss of weight. The 
 weight in air divided by the loss of weight in 
 water = the s. g. 
 
 3. When the Body is Lighter than Water. At- 
 tach to it some heavy body of known weight in 
 air and water. Weigh the two together, first in 
 air and then in water ; note the loss. The loss of 
 weight of the heavy body in water being known 
 the difference between these losses divided into 
 the weight of the light body in air, will give the 
 specific gravity. Thus, a bit of wood weighed in 
 air 200 grains, attached to a piece of copper the 
 two weighed in air 2247 grains, and in water 1620 
 grains, suffering a loss of 627 grains, the copper 
 alone loses in water 230 grains, 627 230 = 397, 
 the loss of the wood ; 200 H- 397 = .504, s. g. of the 
 wood. 
 
 When the Solid is Soluble in Water. 
 
 Take its s. g. in regard to some liquid which 
 does not dissolve it, multiply this by the s. g. of 
 the liquid. 
 
 Thus, a piece of sugar weighed in air 400 grs., 
 it lost in oil of turpentine 217.5. 400 *- 217.5 = 
 1.84. The s. g. of turpentine is .87; 1.84 X .87 
 = 1.6., 8. g. of the sugar. 
 
 When the Body is in Powder. 
 
 Introduce it into a counterpoise bottle, of which 
 the capacity is known. Fill the bottle with pure 
 water at 60. It will hold as much less as is 
 equal to the bulk of the powder, and the weight 
 of the powder in air divided by this difference 
 will give the s. g. 
 
 Thus, the bottle holds 1000 grs. of water; 100 
 grs. of emery are introduced, and the bottle filled 
 up with water. If no water were displaced the 
 two should weigh 1100 grs., they really weigh 
 1070; the difference, 30 grs. = the weight of water 
 displaced; 100 -*- 30 = 3.333, s. g of the emery. 
 
 When the Solid is Compound, 
 As a nugget of gold and quartz. Take the s. g. of 
 the nugget, that of gold and quartz being known, 
 then apply the following formulae : 
 s. g. nugget s. g. quartz ^s.g. gold 
 s. g. gold s. g. quartz s. g. nugget 
 of nugget = weight of gold in nugget. 
 B. g. gold - s. g. nugget s. g. quartz 
 s. g. nugget 
 
 ^ 
 
 s. g. gold s. g. quartz 
 
 of nugget = weight of quartz in do. 
 
 This method will do approximately, but not 
 accurately for alloys of metals generally. 
 
 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF LIQUIDS. 
 
 By the Balance. 
 
 Take a bit of glass rod, note its loss when 
 weighed in water and in the liquid under trial. Di- 
 vide the latter by the former, the quotient will be 
 the s. g. of the liquid. Thus a glass rod loses in 
 wafer 171 grs., in alcohol, 143 grs. 143-;- 371 
 .836. s. g. of the alcohol. 
 
430 
 
 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 
 
 Specific Gravity bottles. 
 
 These are made to hold 100 or 1000 grs. of pure 
 water at 60, and are accompanied by a counter- 
 poise. It is only necessary to fill the bottle with 
 the liquid to be tested. Counterpoise and weigh ; 
 the weight in grains will be the s. g. Oily and 
 viscous matter should never be introduced into 
 the s. g. bottle. In case the s. g. bottle is not at 
 hand any light flask will do. Make a file mark on 
 the neck, counterpoise it, fill to the mark with 
 pure water at 60, note the weight of the water. 
 Empty, dry thoroughly and fill with the liquid to 
 be tested ; the weight of this divided by that of 
 the water = 8. g. 
 
 Hydrometert 
 
 Are instruments for determining the specific 
 gravity of liquids by noting the depth to which 
 a stem sinks. They consist of a cylinder with a 
 weight beneath it to make it float upright, and a 
 graduated stem. When intended for liquids light- 
 er than water, the or point at which they float in 
 pure water at 60 is at the lower point of the stern, 
 and as the liquid is lighter they sink more deeply ; 
 for liquids heavier than water the is at the top of 
 the scale. Many are graduated according to their 
 proposed use, as alcoholometers, lactometers, sac- 
 charoineters. (See DISTILLATION). The graduation 
 most empoyed is that of Beau me*. Excellent hy- 
 drometers with the degrees and the true s. g. on 
 the same stem are made by Dr. W. H. Pile of Phil- 
 adelphia. 
 To Convert Degrees Beaume into Specific Gravity . 
 
 1. For liquids heavier than water Subtract the 
 degree B. from 145, and divide into 145, the quo- 
 tient is the s. g. 
 
 2. For liquids lighter than water Add the de- 
 gree B. to 130, and divide it into 140. The quo- 
 tient is the s. g. 
 
 To Convert Specific Gravity into Degrees Beaume. 
 
 1. For liquids heavier than water. Divide the 
 B. g. into 145, and subtract from 145. The re- 
 mainder is the degree B. 
 
 2 For liquids lighter than water. Divide the 
 B. g. into 140 and subtract 130 from the quotient. 
 The remainder will be the degree B. 
 
 Table of Specific Gravity. 
 
 Mercury 13,600 
 
 Lead 11,325 
 
 Copper 9,000 
 
 Cast Brass 8,000 
 
 Steel 7,850 
 
 Wrought Iron 7,780 
 
 Cast Iron 7,207 
 
 Tin 7,300 
 
 Marble 2,690 
 
 Common Stone 2,520 
 
 Brick 1,<;00 @ 2,000 
 
 Boil 1,974 
 
 Coal, an hracite 1,436 @ 1,640 
 
 " bituminous 1,270 
 
 Sand 1,520 
 
 Sea-water. 1,030 
 
 COMMON WATER 1,000 
 
 Oak, (dry) 925 
 
 Ash " 800 
 
 Maple " 755 
 
 Elm " 600 
 
 Yellow Pine, " | 660 
 
 White Pine " 554 
 
 Cork 249 
 
 Carb. Acid 1-9 
 
 Air 1-25 
 
 Coal Gas 0-6 
 
 Hydrogen 0-0848 
 
 The specific gravity in table also represents the 
 number of ounces in each substance in 1 cubio 
 foot-s- 16= = lbs. 
 
 1 cubic foot of Cast Iron = 450 Ibs. 
 
 1 " White Pine = 34'6 " 
 
 1 " Water = 62'5 " 
 
 10-9 cubic feet of Air = !- 
 
 22 " Coal Gas = !- 
 
 GAS. 
 To Read the Gas Meter. 
 
 THOUSAND 
 
 10.000 
 
 1.000 
 
 100. EACH 
 
 The figures on the index at the right hand de- 
 note even hundred*. When the hand completes 
 the entire circle it denotes ten hundred, and is re- 
 gistered by the hand in the centre circle, pointing 
 to one each figure in the centre circle being a 
 thousand this entire circle being ten thousand, 
 and is registered on the index of the left hand 
 circle by the hand, there denoting by each figure, 
 ten thousand. 
 
 The quantity of gas which passes through the 
 meter, is ascertained by reading from the index 
 at the time the amount is required to be known, 
 and deducting therefrom the quantity shown by 
 the index at a previous observation. 
 If the whole is registered by the hands on 
 
 the three circles above, Vindicates 49,900 
 
 Amount at previous observation, as shown 
 
 by the dotted lines 42,500 
 
 Shows amount which passed through since 
 
 last taken off 7,400 
 
 The register at all times shows the quantity 
 that has passed through since the meter was first 
 set, by deducting from which the amount that has 
 been paid for (without any regard to the time 
 when), shows that the difference remains unpaid. 
 
 To Avoid Waste of Gas. 
 
 Turn the gas partly off at the meter; much gaa 
 is burned to waste by too great pressure in cer- 
 tain localities. In buildings of any size a good 
 regulator will soon pay for itself. Cresson's is 
 the best. 
 
 Gas-burners. 
 
 The following are those in common use : 
 
 Batswing. This has a single slit at the top of 
 the burner. It is very steady; does not change 
 its form under any pressure. It is, therefore, used 
 in street lamps. It is not, however, economical. 
 
 Fish-tail. This form is generally used in houses ; 
 it has two openings in the top, from which the jets 
 of gas issue and form a flat flame, the plane of 
 which is at right angles to that of the openings. 
 When the pressure is too great the flame elon- 
 gates and sings, thus calling attention to the waste. 
 It is an economical burner, but flickers. This un- 
 steadiness is trying to the eyes, and the fish-tail 
 should never be used to read or write by. 
 
 Argand. These are the steadiest and most 
 economical burners, but require a chimney. The 
 gas is allowed to escape by a ring of holes, and 
 the air is admitted both inside and outside of this 
 ring. In the patent Argand the outer ring of air 
 passes through a series of small openings, and the 
 inner ring is deflected into the flame by a button ; 
 
FOREIGN GOLD AND SILVER COINS. 
 
 431 
 
 it requires a swelled chimney. By cutting off the 
 button a steadier light is obtained, and the econo- 
 my is nearly the same; straight chimneys are 
 more easily obtained than the others. The best 
 flint-glass chimneys are in the end the cheapest; 
 great loss of light ensues if they are not kept 
 clean. But putting a chimney into hydrant-wa- 
 ter, and gradually heating it, it may be cleaned 
 safely; paper gives the best finish. The larger 
 the burner the greater the relative economy. 
 
 Relative Light for Unit of Gas. 
 
 Batswing consuming 5 feet, I'OOO 
 
 Large patent Argand ) tt tf 2 . S8fl 
 
 burner j 
 
 Common Argand " 5-4 2-132 
 
 Single jet " 2'2 " M91. 
 
 Fish-tail (Union jet) 4-5" 1.513 
 
 Large Batswing " 11-3 " 2-03 
 
 Wax candle, 4 to Ib 0-143 
 
 Sperm " 6 " (Mil 
 
 Tallow" 5 " 0.1 
 
 Photometry. 
 
 1 wax candle, 4 to a Ib. burns 13 hours. 
 
 1 spermaceti candle, 6 " "8 " 
 
 1 Tallow " 6 " "6 " 40 m. 
 
 A STATEMENT OF FOREIGN GOLD AND 
 SILVER COINS, FROM THE ANNUAL RE- 
 PORT OF THE DIRECTOR OF THE MINT. 
 
 Explanatory Remarks. 
 
 The first column embraces the names of the 
 countries where the coins are issued; the second 
 contains the names of the coin, only the principal 
 denominations being given. The other sizes are 
 proportional ; and when this is not the case, the 
 deviation is stated. 
 
 The third column expresses the weight of a sin- 
 gle piece in fractions of the Troyounce, carried to 
 the thousandth, and in a few cases to the ten 
 thousandth, of an ounce. The method is prefera- 
 ble to expressing the weight in grains for com- 
 mercial purposes, and corresponds better with the 
 terms of the Mint. It may be readily transferred 
 to weight in grains by the following rule: Remove 
 the decimal point; from one-half deduct four per 
 cent, of that half, and the remainder will be 
 grains. 
 
 The fourth column expresses the fineness in 
 thousands, i. e., the number of parts of pure gold 
 or silver in 1000 parts of the coin. 
 
 The fifth column expresses the valuation of coin 
 The value of silver fluctuates. 
 
 Gold Coins. 
 
 Country. 
 
 Denominations. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Fineness. 
 
 Value. 
 1864. 
 
 Australia .. .. 
 
 
 Oz. Dec. 
 
 0-281 
 
 Thous. 
 916.5 
 
 $ 5.32.37 
 
 Austria .. .. 
 
 Sovereign, 1855-60 
 
 0-256.5 
 0-112 
 
 916 
 
 986 
 
 4.85.58 
 2.28.28 
 
 
 
 0-363 
 
 900 
 
 6.75.35 
 
 n 
 
 
 0-357 
 
 900 
 
 6.64.19 
 
 
 Twenty-five Francs 
 
 0-254 
 
 899 
 
 4.72.03 
 
 
 
 0-867 
 
 870 
 
 15.59.25 
 
 Bra/il 
 
 
 0-575 
 
 917.5 
 
 10.90.57 
 
 
 
 0-209 
 
 853.5 
 
 3.68;75 
 
 Chili 
 
 Old Doubloon 
 
 0-867 
 
 870 
 
 15.59.26 
 
 
 
 Ten Pesos 
 
 0-492 
 
 900 
 
 9.15.35 
 
 
 
 0-427 
 
 895 
 
 7.90.01 
 
 
 
 0-433 
 
 844 
 
 7.55.46 
 
 
 Pound or Sovereign, new 
 
 0-256.7 
 
 916.5 
 
 4.86.34 
 
 
 Pound or Sovereign, average 
 
 0-256.2 
 
 916 
 
 4.84.92 
 
 
 
 0-207.5 
 
 899.5 
 
 3.85.83 
 
 
 
 Twenty Francs, average 
 
 0-207 
 
 899 
 
 3.84.69 
 
 r N th 
 
 Ten Thaler 
 
 0-427 
 
 995 
 
 7.90.01 
 
 
 
 Ten Thaler Prussian 
 
 0-427 
 
 903 
 
 7.97.07 
 
 <( <( 
 
 
 0-357 
 
 900 
 
 6.64.20 
 
 
 Ducat 
 
 0-112 
 
 986 
 
 2.28.28 
 
 
 
 0-185 
 
 900 
 
 3.44.19 
 
 
 
 0-374 
 
 916 
 
 7.08.18 
 
 
 
 0-207 
 
 898 
 
 3.84.27 
 
 
 
 0-362 
 
 568 
 
 4.44.0 
 
 fj 
 
 
 0-289 
 
 572 
 
 3.57.6 
 
 
 
 0-867.5 
 
 866 
 
 15.52.98 
 
 
 
 
 0-867.5 
 
 870.5 
 
 15.61.05 
 
 Naples 
 
 
 0'245 
 
 996 
 
 5.04.43 
 
 
 
 0-215 
 
 899 
 
 3.99.56 
 
 
 
 0-868 
 
 870 
 
 15.61.06 
 
 a << 
 
 
 0-867 
 
 858 
 
 15.37.75 
 
 it (( 
 
 
 0-525 
 
 891.5 
 
 9.67.51 
 
 Peru 
 
 
 0-867 
 
 868 
 
 15.5567 
 
 
 
 0-308 
 
 912 
 
 5.80.66 
 
 
 
 0-357 
 
 900 
 
 6.64.19 
 
 
 
 0-140 
 
 900 
 
 ' 2.60.47 
 
 Russia 
 
 Five Roubles 
 
 0-210 
 0-268 
 
 916 
 
 896 
 
 3.97.64 
 4.96.39 
 
 a 
 
 
 0-215 
 
 869.5 
 
 3.86.44 
 
 q i 
 
 
 0-111 
 
 975 
 
 2.23.72 
 
 T 
 
 
 0-161 
 
 900 
 
 2.99.54 
 
 Turkey 
 
 
 0-231 
 
 915 
 
 4.36.93 
 
 
 
 0-112 
 
 999 
 
 2.31.29 
 
 
 
 
 
 
432 
 
 CHEMICAL RECEIPTS. 
 Silver Coins. 
 
 Country. 
 
 Denominations. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Fineness. 
 
 Value. 
 1804. 
 
 
 Old Rix Dollar 
 
 Oz. Dec. 
 
 0'902 
 
 Thoui. 
 
 833 
 
 $ 1 02 27 
 
 t( 
 
 Old Scudo 
 
 0-836 
 
 902 
 
 1.02 64 
 
 
 
 Florin before 1858 
 
 0*451 
 
 833 
 
 51 14 
 
 t 
 
 New Florin 
 
 0*397 
 
 900 
 
 48.63 
 
 4 < 
 
 
 0-596 
 
 900 
 
 73 01 
 
 (t 
 
 Maria Theresa Dollar, 1780 
 
 0'895 
 
 838 
 
 1.02.12 
 
 
 
 0*803 
 
 897 
 
 98 04 
 
 
 New Dollar 
 
 0'643 
 
 903 5 
 
 79 07 
 
 (4 
 
 Half Dollar 
 
 0*432 
 
 667 
 
 39 22 
 
 
 Double Milreis , 
 
 0*820 
 
 918 5 
 
 1 02 53 
 
 
 Twenty Cents 
 
 0*150 
 
 925 
 
 18 87 
 
 
 Dollar 
 
 0*866 
 
 850 
 
 1 00 19 
 
 Chili 
 
 Old Dollar 
 
 0'864 
 
 908 
 
 1 06 79 
 
 u 
 
 New Dollar 
 
 0-801 
 
 900 5 
 
 98 17 
 
 
 
 0'927 
 
 877 
 
 1 10 65 
 
 
 Shilling, new . 
 
 0'182 5 
 
 924 5 
 
 22 96 
 
 
 
 0'178 
 
 925 
 
 22 41 
 
 France 
 
 Five Francs, average 
 
 O'SOO 
 
 900 
 
 98 00 
 
 
 Thaler, before 1857 
 
 0'712 
 
 750 
 
 72 67 
 
 (. 
 
 New Thaler 
 
 fl'fiQ"; 
 
 900 
 
 72 89 
 
 
 Florin, before 1857 
 
 0*340 
 
 900 
 
 41 65 
 
 a * 
 
 New Florin (assumed) 
 
 0*340 
 
 900 
 
 41 65 
 
 
 Five Drachms 
 
 0*719 
 
 900 
 
 88 08 
 
 
 Rupee 
 
 0*374 
 
 916 
 
 46 62 
 
 
 Itzebu 
 
 0*279 
 
 991 
 
 37 63 
 
 jtf ex j co 
 
 New Itzebu 
 Dollar, new ,. 
 
 0*279 
 0*867 5 
 
 890 
 903 
 
 33.80 
 1 06 62 
 
 a 
 
 
 0*866 
 
 901 
 
 1 06 20 
 
 Naples 
 
 Scudo 
 
 0*844 
 
 830 
 
 95 34 
 
 
 Two and a half Guild 
 
 0*804 
 
 944 
 
 1 03 31 
 
 
 Specie Daler 
 
 0*927 
 
 
 1 10 65 
 
 
 Dollar of 1857 
 
 0*803 
 
 896 
 
 97 92 
 
 Peru 
 
 Old Dollar 
 
 0*866 
 
 901 
 
 1 06 20 
 
 ft 
 
 Dollar of 1858 
 
 0*766 
 
 909 
 
 94 77 
 
 ft 
 
 Half Dollar, 1835-'38 
 
 0*433 
 
 650 
 
 38 31 
 
 
 Thaler before 1857 
 
 0*712 
 
 750 
 
 72 63 
 
 
 
 New Thaler 
 
 0*595 
 
 900 
 
 72 89 
 
 
 
 0*864 
 
 900 
 
 1 05 84 
 
 Russia 
 
 Rouble 
 
 0*667 
 
 875 
 
 79 44 
 
 
 Five Lire 
 
 0*800 
 
 900 
 
 98 00 
 
 Spain 
 
 
 0*166 
 
 899 
 
 20 31 
 
 
 Rix Dollar 
 
 1*092 
 
 750 
 
 1 11 4.8 
 
 
 
 0*323 
 
 899 
 
 39 52 
 
 
 Five Piastres 
 
 0*511 
 
 COQ K. 
 
 fi9 4.Q 
 
 
 Twenty Piastres 
 
 0*770 
 
 830 
 
 86 93 
 
 
 Florin 
 
 0*220 
 
 OOK 
 
 97 fid 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CHEMICAL RECEIPTS. 
 
 TESTS FOR THE PRECIOUS METALS. 
 For Gold. 
 
 To a diluted colorless solution of chloride of 
 gold, add a few drops of a solution of any salt 
 of tin ; or stir the solution of gold with a slip of 
 metallic tin ; in either case, the production of a 
 beautiful purple or port wine color will be the im- 
 mediate result. If the mixture is allowed to settle, 
 it becomes colorless ; a purple powder (which is 
 an oxide of gold combined with a little tin) being 
 precipitated. This powder is employed in the 
 painting of china, and is called the purple precip- 
 itate of Cassius. 
 
 For Silver. 
 
 Let fall a drop of a solution of nitrate of silver 
 
 into a glassful of water, and add to it a grain of 
 common salt. Mutual decomposition of the salts 
 will take place, and chloride of silver (in the form 
 of a white powder) will be precipitated. This 
 precipitate is soluble in ammonia, and blackens 
 on exposure to light. 
 
 For Copper. 
 
 Add a few drops of a solution of nitrate of cop- 
 per to a test glass of water ; the mixture will be 
 colorless; pour into it a little liquid ammonia. 
 The mixture will then assume a fine deep blue 
 color. 
 
 Another. Ferrocyanide of potassium gives a 
 dense brown precipitate with the salts of copper. 
 This is very delicate. 
 
BOILER INCRUSTATIONS. 
 
 433 
 
 To Detect Copper in Pickles or Green Tea. 
 Put a few leaves of the tea or some of the pickle, 
 eat small, into a phial with 2 or 3 drs. of liquid 
 mmonia, diluted with one-half the quantity of 
 water. Shake the phial ; when, if the most minute 
 portion of copper be present, the liquid will assume 
 a fine blue color. Or immerse a polished knife- 
 blade ; the copper will deposit upon it. 
 For Iron. 
 
 Infusion of galls gives a bluish black, and ferro- 
 eyanide of potassium a blue precipitate. 
 For Manganese. 
 
 Sulphydrate of ammonia (made by passing a 
 current of sulphuretted hydrogen gas through 
 solution of ammonia until no more is absorbed), 
 gives a flesh- colored precipitate. 
 For Mercury. 
 
 Protochloride of tin gives a grayish precipitate. 
 A piece of gold introduced into a solution con- 
 taining mercury and touched with a piece of iron, 
 has the mercury deposited upon it. 
 For Lead. 
 
 Sulphydrate of ammonia gives a black precipi- 
 tate ; chromate of potassa and iodide of potassium, 
 yellow. 
 
 To make Oxygen. 
 
 Heat in a retort, flask, or test tube, finely pow- 
 dered chlorate of potassa, mixed with about one- 
 fourth its weight of black oxide of manganese. 
 The gas must be collected by attaching a tube to 
 the flask, the end of which dips under water; a 
 jar full of water being inverted over the end of 
 the delivering tube. 
 
 To make Hydrogen. 
 
 Act on zinc scraps with diluted sulphuric acid ; 
 say 1 part of acid to 10 of water. A common 
 bottle with a perforated cork fitted with a glass 
 tube or bit of pipe-stem, and another bottle to 
 collect the gas, are all the apparatus required. In 
 collecting the gas, the tube must reach quite to 
 the top of the collecting vessel. Care must be 
 taken that all the air has been driven out of each 
 vessel before a light is applied, or an explosion 
 will ensue. 
 
 To make Laughing Gas. 
 
 Heat gently in a flask or retort, nitrate of am- 
 monia (made by adding carbonate of ammonia to 
 nitric acid until no more gas comes off"). It should 
 be allowed to stand some time over water before 
 being breathed. 
 
 To make Carbonic Acid. 
 
 Pour muriatic acid upon fragments of chalk or 
 marble. The gas being heavy may be collected 
 without the use of water, by simply allowing the 
 delivery tube to pass to the bottom of the receiv- 
 ing vessel. 
 
 To make Chlorine. 
 
 Heat gently a mixture of muriatic acid and 
 black oxide of manganese. It may be collected 
 like carbonic acid. Care must be taken not to 
 inhalo it. 
 
 T make Sulphurous Acid. 
 
 To 12 oz. of sulphuric acid, in a glass retort 
 add 2 oz. of sulphur and apply a gentle heat. 
 This is a cheap and easy process. 
 
 To make Sulphuretted Hydrogen. 
 
 Pour dilute sulphuric acid on sulphuret of iron. 
 This is made by applying a roll of sulphur to a 
 bar of iron heated white hot, or by heating in a 
 crucible a mixture of 2 parts, by weight, of iron- 
 filings and 1 of flowers of sulphur. 
 Gun-cotton as a Filter. 
 
 Gun-cotton, carefully prepared, is scarcely acted 
 on by the most energetic chemical agents at ordi 
 
 nary temperatures. It may therefore be used as 
 a filter for solutions containing strong acids, alka- 
 lies, etc. 
 
 To Determine whether Wheat Flour, or Bread bt 
 
 Adulterated with Chalk. 
 
 Mix with the flour to be tried, a little sulphuric 
 acid ; if chalk or whiting be present, an efferves- 
 cence (arising from the discharge of the carbonic 
 acid of the chalk) will take place; but if the flour 
 be pure, no effervescence is produced. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 Pour boiling water on some slices of bread, and 
 then pour into the water some sulphuric acid; if 
 there be any chalk in the bread, an effervescence 
 will ensue as before ; but if none be in it, no effer- 
 vescence will take place. 
 
 To Prepare Soda Water. 
 
 Soda water is prepared (from powders) precisely 
 in the same manner as ginger beer, except that, 
 instead of the two powders there mentioned, the 
 two following are used : For one glass, 30 grs. of 
 carbonate of soda; for the other, 25 grs. of tartarie 
 (or citric) acid. 
 
 To Prepare Ginger-Beer Powders. 
 
 Take 2 drs. of fine loaf sugar, 8 grs. of ginger, 
 and 26 grs. of carbonate of potassa, all in fine pow- 
 der; mix them intimately in a Wedgwood's war 
 mortar. Take also 27 grs. of citric or tartarie acid 
 (the first is the pleasantest, but the last is the 
 cheapest). The acid is to be kept separate from 
 the mixture. The beer is prepared from the pow- 
 ders thus: Take two tumbler- glasses, each half 
 filled with water; stir up the compound powder 
 in one of them, and the acid powder in another, 
 then mix the two liquors ; an effervescence takes 
 place, the beer is prepared and may be drunk off. 
 
 The effervescence is occasioned by the discharge 
 of the carbonic acid of the carbonate of potass. 
 If the beer is allowed to stand for a few minutes 
 it becomes flat; this is owing to its having lost all 
 its carbonic acid. The cost of these powders is 
 20 cents a dozen sets. 
 
 To Determine whether Water be Hard or Soft. 
 
 To ascertain whether or not water be fit for do- 
 mestic purposes, to a glassful of the water add a 
 few drops of the solution of soap in alcohol. If 
 the water be pure, it will continue limpid ; if hard, 
 white flakes will be formed. 
 
 To Preserve Phosphorus. 
 
 Keep it in places where neither light nor heat 
 has access. It is obtained from druggists in rolls; 
 these are put into a phial filled with cold water, 
 which has been boiled to expel air from it, and the 
 phial is enclosed in an opaque case. 
 
 Expeditious Method of Tinning. 
 
 Plates or vessels of brass or copper are rapidly 
 and firmly coated with tin by boiling them with a 
 solution of stannate of potassa, mixed with trim- 
 mings of tin, or by boiling them with tin-filings 
 and caustic, potash or cream of tartar. 
 
 PREVENTING AND REMOVING BOILER 
 
 INCRUSTATIONS. 
 
 The following substances have been used, with 
 more or less success, in preventing and removing 
 the incrustations which are formed by using hard 
 water : 
 
 Krause's Anti-incrustation Powder for Steam 
 
 Boilers. 
 
 Powdered charcoal, sal soda, alum, each 1 Ib. 
 sawdust, 8 Ibs. Mix. Most of the secret incrus- 
 tation powders sold are but modifications of this. 
 
434 
 
 CHEMICAL RECEIPTS. 
 
 Potatoes. 
 
 By using about l-50th of potatoes to the weight 
 of water in a boiler, scale will be prevented, but 
 not removed. Their action is mechanical; they 
 coat the calcareous particles in the water, and 
 prevent them from adhering to the metal. 
 Extract of Oak Bark. 
 
 A mixture has been used of 12 parts of chloride 
 of sodium, 2 parts of caustic soda, J extract of 
 oak bark, J of potash, for the boilers of station- 
 ary and locomotive engines. The principal agent 
 in this case appears to be the tannin or the ex- 
 tract of oak bark. 
 
 Pieces of Oak Wood, 
 
 Suspended in the boiler and renewed monthly, 
 prevent all deposit; even from water containing 
 a large quantity of lime. The action depends 
 principally upon the tannic acid. 
 Sawdust. 
 
 Mahogany and oak sawdust has been used to 
 prevent and remove scale; but care must be exer- 
 cised not to allow it to choke up pipes leading to 
 and from the boiler. Catechu contains tannic 
 acid, and has also been used satisfactorily for 
 boilers. A very small quantity of free tannic acid 
 will attack the iron ; therefore, a very limited 
 quantity of these substances should be employed. 
 Slippery-Elm Bark. 
 
 This article has also been used with some suc- 
 tess in preventing and removing incrustations. 
 Soda. 
 
 The carbonate of soda has the sanction of Pro- 
 fessors Kuhlman and Fresenius, of Germany, 
 Grace Calvert, of England, and others. It is sat- 
 isfactorily employed for the purpose. 
 Tin Salt. 
 
 The chloride of tin is equal to the muriate of 
 ammonia, and is similar in its action in prevent- 
 ing scale. 
 
 Extract of Tobacco, and Spent Tanner's Bark 
 Ha-ve been employed with some degree of satis- 
 faction. The sulphate, not the carbonate, of 
 lime, is the chief agent in forming incrustations. 
 By frequent blowing off, incrustations from car- 
 bonate of lime in water will be greatly prevented. 
 Ammonia. 
 
 The muriate of ammonia softens old incrusta- 
 tions. Its action is chemical ; it decomposes the 
 scale. About 2 oz. placed in a boiler, twice per 
 week, have kept it clean, without attacking the 
 metal. 
 
 Fatty Oils. 
 
 It is stated that oils and tallow in a boiler pre- 
 vent incrustations. A mixture, composed of 3 
 parts of black-lead, and 18 parts of tallow, ap- 
 plied hot, in coating the interior of a boiler, has 
 been found to prevent scale. It should be applied 
 every few weeks. 
 
 Molasses. 
 
 About 13 Ibs. of molasses, fed occasionally into 
 a boiler of 8-horse power, has prevented incrusta- 
 tions for 6 months. 
 
 Curious Mode of Silvering Ivory. 
 
 Immerse a small slip of ivory in a weak solution 
 of nitrate of silver, and let it remain till the solu- 
 tion has given it a deep yellow color; then take 
 it out and immerse it in a tumbler of clear water, 
 and expose it in the water to the rays of the sun. 
 In abou f 3 hours the ivory acquires a black color; 
 but the black surface on being rubbed, soon be- 
 comes changed to a brilliant silver. 
 Soluble Silica. 
 
 Add to soluble glass (water-glass) an excess of 
 muriatic acid; put it into a box, the bottom of 
 
 which is made of parchment-paper, afloat on the 
 surface of water (dialysis) ; after a few days silica, 
 combined with water, will be found in the box. It 
 may be used for the preservation of building-stone, 
 or to render wood fire and water proof. 
 
 Stoppers of Bottles for Chemical Re-agentt. 
 Paraffine is the best material for lubricating the 
 stoppers of bottles containing caustic alkali, as it 
 is not acted upon by chemical agents under ordi- 
 nary circumstances, and lubricates perfectly. 
 To Loosen Tight Stoppers. 
 
 1. Tap the stopper gently, upwards and side- 
 wise, with a bit of wood. 
 
 2. Fasten the upper part of the stopper in the 
 crack of a door or a drawer, and work the bottle 
 gently from side to side. 
 
 3. Fasten a string firmly around the stopper 
 (see KNOTS), attach it to a fixed body, and jerk 
 the bottle suddenly downward. 
 
 4. When the stopper adheres on account of the 
 solidification of matters dissolved in the liquid in 
 the bottle, a little of the same liquid poured around 
 the base of the stopper, and allowed to remain 
 awhile will often dissolve the hardened matter, and 
 'free the stopper. 
 
 5. The most effectual way, but one requiring 
 care, is to heat the neck of the bottle evenly and 
 rapidly over an alcohol or gas-flame. The neck 
 expands sooner than the stopper, and it is very 
 rarely that any difficulty is found in the removal 
 of the latter. If the bottle contain inflammable 
 liquids, it is safer to wrap a cloth dipped in boil- 
 ing water around the neck, instead of exposing it 
 to the naked flame. 
 
 To Remove Ink from Paper. 
 
 Wash alternately, with a camel's-hair brush, 
 dipped in a solution of oxalic acid and cyanide of 
 potassium. 
 
 Artificial Tourmalines. 
 
 Dissolve 50 grains of disulphate of quinine in 2 
 fl. oz. of acetic acid, and 2 oz. of proof-spirit, 
 warmed to 130 Fa.hr., in a very wide-mouthed 
 flask or glass beaker; then slowly add 50 dropl 
 of a mixture of 40 grs. of iodine in 1 oz. of recti- 
 fied spirits ; agitate the mixture, and then set it 
 carefully aside for 6 hours, in an apartment main- 
 tained at a temperature of about 50 Fahr. The 
 utmost care must be taken to avoid any motion 
 of the vessel; indeed, all accidental vibrations 
 should be guarded against by suspending the ves- 
 sel by a string, or by allowing it to rest on a mass 
 of cotton and wool. If, in 6 hours, the large lam- 
 inae of the salt have not formed, warm the fluid 
 with a spirit lamp, and when it has become clear, 
 add a few drops of the solution of iodine in spirit. 
 The large laminae form on the top of the fluid, and 
 should be removed carefully by gliding under one 
 of them a circular piece of thin glass. The speci- 
 men should be drained by resting the edge of the 
 glass on a piece of bibulous paper, but it must not 
 be touched on account of its extreme fragility; if 
 any small crystals adhere to its surface, they must 
 be washed off by pouring over it a few drops of 
 watery solution of iodine. When dry the speci- 
 men should be placed for a few minutes under a 
 bell-glass by the side of a watch-glass, containing 
 a few drops of tincture of iodine; and, lastly, a 
 very little fluid Canada balsam should be dropped 
 on it, and a thin glass cover applied without heat. 
 Specimens may thus be obtained of extiome thin- 
 ness, and i an inch in diameter, or even larger, 
 possessing scarcely the slightest color, and yet 
 completely polarizing transmitted light. 
 New Materials for Buttons. 
 
 Excellent buttons, and even handsome cameos, 
 
ANTISEPTICS AND DISINFECTANTS. 
 
 435 
 
 may be made with talc or steatite, provided, after 
 they are made, they be heated for several hours at a 
 nearly white heat. By this strong calcination the 
 steatite gets so hard that it strikes fire with flints, 
 and resists the best tempered file. They may be pol- 
 ished by emery, tripoli, and jeweller's putty; and 
 colored by mineral or organic matters ; chloride 
 of gold colors them purple; nitrate of silver, black ; 
 exposure to the reducing flame increases very 
 much the brilliancy of the color. 
 
 ARTIFICIAL COLD. 
 
 When a solid body becomes liquid, a liquid va- 
 por, or, when a gas or vapor expands, heat is ab- 
 stracted from neighboring bodies, and the pheno- 
 mena or sensation of cold is produced. 
 
 Evaporation produces cold, as is seen familiarly 
 in the chilliness caused by a draught of air blow- 
 ing on the moist skin. Water may be cooled to 
 60, in warm climates, by keeping it in jars of 
 porous earthenware; a flower-pot, moistened and 
 kept in a draught of air, will keep butter, placed 
 beneath it, hard in warm weather. In India 
 water is exposed at night in shallow pans, placed 
 on straw in trenches, and freezes even when the 
 thermometer does not fall below 40 Water may 
 be frozen by its own evaporation under the re- 
 ceiver of an air-pump over sulphuric acid; the 
 process is a delicate one, and not adapted for use 
 on the large scale. 
 
 Twining's ice-machine freezes water by the 
 evaporation of ether, aided by the vacuum pro- 
 duced by a pump worked by a steam-engine. The 
 same ether may be used over again indefinitely. 
 The apparatus works well, but, in case of a leak, 
 the ether vapor, mixed with air, would explode; 
 there is always danger of fire. 
 
 Carre's Apparatus 
 
 Freezes by the evaporation of liquid ammonia, 
 the ammoniacal gas produced being absorbed by 
 water which will take up over 500 times its bulk 
 of the ammonia, which it gives out again on heat- 
 ing. As liquid ammonia boils at 42 below zero, 
 an intense cold is produced. This apparatus is 
 efficient, but as the internal pressure rises some- 
 times to over 100 Ibs. to the inch, it is not quite 
 safe, although no accidents have yet been re- 
 ported. 
 
 Compressed Air. 
 
 Air, when compressed, gives out heat which is 
 re-absorbed when it is allowed to expand. By 
 forcing the air into a strong receiver and carrying 
 off the heat developed by a stream of water, it 
 may, on expanding, re-absorb enough to reduce 
 the temperature below 32. It is thus used in the 
 paraffine works in England, and would be an ex- 
 cellent method of at once ventilating and cooling 
 large buildings. 
 
 Freezing Mixtures 
 
 Depend upon the conversion of solid bodies into 
 liquids. There are two classes, those used with- 
 out ice and those in which it is employed. Where 
 extreme cold is required, the body to be frozen 
 should be first cooled as much as possible by one 
 portion of the mixture, and then by a succeeding 
 one. 
 
 Without Ice. Four oz. each of nitre and sal 
 ammoniac in 8 of water will reduce the tempera- 
 ture from 50 to 10. 
 
 Equal parts of nitrate of ammonia and water, 
 from 50 to 4. The salt may be recovered by 
 evaporation and used over again. 
 
 Equal parts of water, crystallized nitrate of am- 
 inonia, carbonate of soda, crystallized and in pow- 
 der, from 50 to 7. 
 
 Five parts of commercial muriatic acid and c 
 of Glauber's salt, in powder, from 50 to 0. 
 
 With Tee. Snow is always preferable. Ice is 
 best powdered by shaving with a plane like a car- 
 penter's, or it may be put into a canvas bag and 
 beaten fine with a wooden mallet. 
 
 Equal parts of snow and common salt will pro- 
 duce a temperature of 4, which may be main- 
 tained for hours. This is the best mixture for 
 ordinary use. 
 
 Three parts of crystallized chloride of calcium 
 and 2 of snow will produce a cold sufficient to 
 freeze mercury, and to reduce a spirit thermom- 
 eter from 32 to 50. The chloride may oe recov- 
 ered by evaporation. There are many other 
 freezing mixtures given in the books, but none are 
 so cheap and efficient as the above. 
 
 ANTISEPTICS AND DISINFECTANTS. 
 
 Antiseptics are bodies which prevent or retard 
 decay; disinfectants those which are supposed 
 similarly to retard or prevent the spread of disease, 
 whether epidemic or contagious. The latter term, 
 however, is popularly applied to deodorizers or 
 bodies which remove the offensive smell accom- 
 panying decaying organic matter. 
 Antiseptics. 
 
 Salt, spices and sugar are too well known to re- 
 quire comment. Professor Morgan's method of 
 salting meat is to inject the brine into the aorta, 
 or main artery; this process is highly recom- 
 mended on the score of simplicity and economy. 
 Alcohol and glycerine are used as preservative so- 
 lutions. The latter does not shrink or alter the 
 color of animal or vegetable substances preserved 
 in it. 
 
 Goodby's Solutions. 
 
 1. (For ordinary use in preserving specimens.) 
 Alum, 1 oz. ; bay salt, 2 oz. ; corrosive sublimate, 
 1 gr. ; water, 1 pt. In very tender tissues, or 
 where there is a tendency to mouldiness, use 2 
 grs. of corrosive sublimate. 
 
 2. (For objects containing carbonate of lime.) 
 Bay salt, i Ib. ; corrosive sublimate, 1 gr. ; water, 
 1 pt. 
 
 3. (For old preparations.) Bay salt, i Ib. ; ar- 
 senious acid (white arsenic), 10 grs. ; water, 1 pt. 
 Dissolve by the aid of heat. When there is a ten- 
 dency to softening, add 1 gr. of corrosive sub- 
 limate. 
 
 Reboulet's Solution. 
 
 Nitre, 1 part; alum, 2 parts; chloride of lime, 
 4 parts ; water, 16 or 20 parts ; to be diluted as 
 may be necessary. For pathological specimens. 
 
 Stapleton's Solution. 
 Alum, 2 J oz. ; nitre, 1 dr. ; water, 1 qt. 
 
 Burnett's Solution 
 
 Is made by adding scrap zinc to muriatic acid so 
 long as any gas (hydrogen) is evolved. If it be 
 required neutral, add carbonate of soda until a 
 slight precipitate is seen. It is largely used in 
 the preservation of timber,". and in embalming, 
 being in the latter case injected into the aorta. 
 
 Kyan's Solution 
 
 Is a strong solution of corrosive sublimate in wa- 
 ter; used for the same purposes as Burnett's, but 
 now generally superseded by the latter. 
 
 Coal Tar 
 
 Is used to preserve wood; it is boiled and applied 
 as a paint, or forced into the pores of the wood 
 under pressure. 
 
 Disinfectants. 
 
 The only true method to prevent the spread of 
 contagious or epidemic diseases is thorough clean- 
 liness. Abundance of air to di.^ite the poison, and 
 the removal of organic effete suAtJser ijr liberal us* 
 
436 
 
 CHEMICAL RECEIPTS. 
 
 of water or soap and water, are effectual. Lime 
 acts by destroying organic matter and absorbing 
 certain offensive gases. Hence the use of white- 
 washing. Sulphurous acid checks organic change 
 or fermentation. A high temperature, say 240 
 Fahr., is useful in disinfecting clothes, letters, etc. 
 Condy's Solution acts by destroying organic mat- 
 ter; solutions of chloride of zinc, corrosive subli- 
 mate, persulphate or perchloride of iron act by 
 coagulating certain organic matters and prevent- 
 ing further decay; they also absorb sulphuretted 
 hydrogen. Chloride of lime (bleaching salt), chlo- 
 rine, nitrate of lead, and copperas are merely de- 
 odorizers. Pastils (see PERFUMERY), burned sugar, 
 vinegar, and burning tar, merely disguise offen- 
 sive odors. 
 
 Condy's Solution. 
 
 A saturated solution of permanganate of po- 
 tassa is one of the most efficient and elegant of all 
 disinfectants. A teaspoonful in a soup-plate of 
 water, exposed in a room, quickly removes any 
 offensive smell; when the pink color disappears 
 more must be added. It has been used to remove 
 the smell of bilge-water, and guano from ships. 
 It speedily cleanses foul water and makes it drink- 
 able. A teaspoonful to a hogshead is generally 
 enough, but more may be added, until the water 
 retains a slight pinkish tint. This will disappear, 
 by putting a stick into the water for a few min- 
 utes. 
 
 Ledoyen's Solution. 
 
 Litharge, 13 oz. ; nitric acid, s. g. 1'38, 12 oz., 
 previously diluted with water, 6 pts. It contains 
 nitrate of lead, and is merely a deodorizer. 
 
 Chlorine. 
 
 Free chlorine is seldom used, on acount of its 
 offensive and suffocating qualities. 
 
 Chloride of lime contains hypochlorite of lime 
 and chloride of calcium and lime. It is made into 
 a paste with water; acids cause it to evolve chlo- 
 rine. 
 
 Eau de Javelle is made by adding to chloride of 
 lime 1 part, water 15 parts, and agitate at inter- 
 vals for an hour; then dissolve 2 oz. carbonate 
 of potassa in i pint water. Mix the solutions, and 
 when the mixture has settled pour off the clear 
 part. Or, by passing a stream of chlorine through 
 a solution of carbonate of potassa to saturation. 
 It contains hypochlorite of potassa and chloride 
 of potassium. 
 
 Labarraque's Solution. 
 
 Pass chlorine through a solution of carbonate 
 of soda (1 Ib. in water 1 qt.) to saturation; or, to 
 a mixture of chloride of lime i Ib., and water 3 
 pints, add 7 oz. crystallized carbonate of soda, in 
 1 pt. of water. Proceed in all respects as for Eau 
 de Javelle. These solutions will remove fruit- 
 stains from linen. 
 
 Iron Compounds. 
 Perchloride of Iron is made by dissolving iron 
 in muriatic acid, and while boiling add nitric acid 
 as long as red fumes are evolved. It is a power 
 ful styptic. 
 
 Monsel's Solution, subsulphate of iron, is made 
 by dissolving copperas 12 oz. (troy), in water 12 
 CE., adding sulphuric acid 510 grs., and then while 
 boiling adding nitric acid as long as red fumes 
 come off. It is much used as a styptic and astrin- 
 gent, and is a cheap and powerful deodorizer. 
 Copperas mixed with its weight of lime is a 
 cheap and popular agent in deodorizing sinks. 
 
 Carbolic Acid, 
 
 Or coal-tar creosote, coagulates organic matter 
 is a powerful antiseptic and deodorizer. It is usec 
 mixed with lime. Ridge wood's disinfecting pow 
 
 der contains 5 to 8 per cent, each of lime and of 
 carbolic acid, and 70 to 80 per cent, of fuller's earth. 
 
 Charcoal 
 
 Is a useful deodorizer and purifier; it acts by ita 
 ttraction for organic matter and ga?es. By con- 
 densing the latter as well as the oxygen of the air 
 n its pores it causes rapid combination. Small 
 animals buried in charcoal are rapidly converted 
 nto skeletons, while no offensive smell is noticed 
 even in warm weather. Water is best kept in 
 charred casks; foul water is purified by filtration 
 ;hrough charcoal. Meat lightly tainted is restored 
 )y wrapping in powdered charcoal; animal char- 
 coal is the best. Lampblack is nearly worthless 
 or these purposes. Animal charcoal is an anti- 
 dote to all animal and vegetable poisons; it rap- 
 dly removes organic coloring matters and also 
 vegetable bitters from solution. Picric acid is 
 not thus removed, and may in this way be de- 
 leted when used instead of hops in brewing. 
 
 Noxious Vapors. 
 
 To prevent the effects of noxious vapors from 
 (veils, cellars, fermenting liquors, etc., procure a 
 free circulation of air, either by ventilators, or 
 opening the doors or windows where it is confined, 
 >r by keeping fires in the infected place; or throw- 
 ng in lime, recently burnt or powdered. 
 
 Old wells, vaults, and sewers, which have been 
 ong shut up from the air, are generally occupied 
 oy vapors which soon prove fatal to persons 
 oreathing them. The property which these va- 
 pors have of extinguishing flame, affords the 
 means of detecting their presence, and thereby 
 avoiding the danger of an incautious exposure to 
 them. When such places, therefore, are opened 
 to be cleaned out or repaired, a lighted candle 
 should be let down slowly by means of a cord, 
 before any person is suffered to descend ; and if it 
 burns freely until it gets to the surface of the 
 water, or other matter covering the bottom, the 
 workmen may then venture down with safety. 
 But, if without any accident, the candle is extin- 
 guished, and continues to be so on repeated trials, 
 then the air of the place is highly noxious. 
 
 Parchment Paper 
 
 Is made by immersing unsized paper for a few 
 seconds into a mixture (cold) of 2 parts, by measure, 
 of commercial sulphuric acid, and 1 part of water; 
 then washing in water, and afterwards in dilute 
 solution of ammonia. It is water-proof, about 6 
 times as strong as paper, and may be used in all 
 cases as a substitute for parchment, which it re- 
 sembles. The same effect is produced by soaking 
 paper in a solution of neutral chloride of zinc, 
 s. g. 2100. It is then treated as before. This 
 paper is used in Mr. Graham's process for dialysis. 
 
 New Mode of Preparing Paper for the Use of 
 
 Draughtsmen, etc. 
 
 Reduce to a powder, and dissolve quickly in a 
 glazed earthen vessel, containing cold water, some 
 gum tragacanth, having been well worked with a 
 wooden spatula, to free it from lumps. There 
 must be a sufficient quantity of water, to give to 
 this diluted gum the consistence of a jelly. Pa- 
 per, and some sorts of stuffs, upon which, if this 
 composition be smoothly applied, with a pencil or 
 a brush, and dried before a gentle fire, will receive 
 either water or oil colors ; in using water colors, 
 they must be mixed with a solution of the above 
 gum. This cloth or paper, so prepared, will take 
 any color except ink. When it is intended to 
 retouch any particular part of the drawing, it 
 should be washed with a sponge, or clean linen, 
 or a pencil (containing some of the above-men- 
 
IMPKESSIONS IN SAND, ETC. 
 
 437 
 
 tioned liquid) j if the part is only small, it will 
 then rise quickly, and appear as if repainted. 
 
 New Mode of Preserving Impressions in Sand, etc. 
 
 A sheet of thin iron-plate was placed over the 
 marks made, and supported by an iron stand, at 
 a distance of about 1 iuches from the surface of 
 the ground; a quantity of lighted charcoal was 
 then placed on the iron plate, which soon became 
 red hot, and of course heated the spot over which 
 it was placed. When the latter was raised to 100 
 Centigrade (212 Fahr.) the fire, together with the 
 plate, was removed, and a quantity of finely- 
 divided stearic acid was strewed over the impres- 
 Bion by means of a sieve. The powder used was 
 that of a common stearine candle, dissolved by 
 heat in alcohol, and then thrown into a large 
 quantity of cold water, when the stearine falls to 
 the bottom in the form of a fine precipitate. This 
 powder is so light and impalpable, that it is said 
 it might be sifted over an impression in the dust 
 of a common road, without, in the slightest degree, 
 interfering with the faintest mark. The instant it 
 touched the heated surface of the ground in ques- 
 tion it melted, and, as it were, sealed the whole 
 of the loose atoms into one compact mass. When 
 a sufficient quantity of the stearine had been ap- 
 plied, the place was left until it had become com- 
 pletely cold ; the surrounding earth was then dug 
 out carefully at some little distance from the 
 edges of the impression, and the portion contain- 
 ing this latter was lifted up in one entire block, 
 and laid on a cloth several times doubled, the 
 edges of which were raised up so as to form a kind 
 of border, or rather framing, into which, and 
 against the sides of the sandy earth containing the 
 impression, plaster of Paris was poured; and 
 when the latter was set, the whole could be han- 
 dled without danger, and was firm enough to bear 
 packing and carriage to any distance. It is evi- 
 dent, therefore, that if necessary it might also be 
 used as a mould, from which casts in plaster could 
 be obtained. The value of such a process, as an 
 aid in criminal cases, is too self-evident to require 
 demonstration ; the production of the tell-tale im- 
 pressions in a court of justice, where every mark 
 can be conveniently exhibited and compared with 
 the object by which it was produced, may be 
 equally useful in the proof of guilt and of inno- 
 cence, and it would be strange, indeed, if a use 
 for such a process be not discovered in matters of 
 scientific or practical interest. 
 
 To make Writing Indelible. 
 
 The following simple process will make lead- 
 pencil writing or drawing as indelible as if done 
 With ink. Lay the writing in a shallow dish, and 
 pour skimmed milk upon it. Any spots not wet 
 at first may have the milk placed upon them 
 lightly with a feather. When the paper is all wet 
 over with the milk take it up and let the milk 
 drain off, and whip off with the feather the drops 
 which collect on the lower edge. Dry it carefully, 
 and it will be found to be perfectly indelible. It 
 cannot be removed even with India-rubber. It is 
 an old recipe and a good one. 
 
 To render Paper Fire-proof. 
 
 Whether the paper be plain, written, printed on, 
 or even marbled, stained, or painted for hangings, 
 dip it in a strong solution of alum-water, and then 
 thoroughly dry it. In this state it will be fire- 
 proof. This will be readily known by holding a 
 slip thus prepared over a candle. Some paper re- 
 quires to imbibe more of the solution than by a 
 single immersion, in which case the dipping and 
 drying must be repeated until it becomes fully 
 saturated. Neither the color nor quality of the 
 
 paper will be in the least affected by this process, 
 but, on the contrary, will be improved. 
 
 A Composition to render Wood Fire -proof. 
 Glass made by heating sand with twice its weight 
 of soda-ash or pearlash is soluble in boiling water, 
 when finely powdered. Applied with a brush, it 
 renders woodwork fire-proof, and when once dry 
 is not affected by cold water. 
 
 To Render Dresses Incombustible. 
 Take of a solution of tungstate of soda, of a spe- 
 cific gravity 1-14, 100 parts ; phosphate of soda, 3 
 parts. The articles are dipped in the solution, and 
 allowed to dry before ironing. This solution keeps 
 well, and is used in the Royal laundry. 
 
 How to Act when the Clothes take Fire, 
 
 Three persons out of 4 would rush right up to 
 the burning individual, and begin to paw with 
 their hands without any definite aim. It is use- 
 less to tell the victim to do this or that, or call for 
 water. In fact, it is generally best to say not a 
 word, but seize a blanket from a bed, or a cloak, 
 or any woollen fabric if none is at hand, take 
 any woollen material hold the corners as far 
 apart as you can, stretch them out higher than 
 your head, and, running boldly to the person, 
 make a motion of clasping in the arms, most about 
 the shoulders. This instantly smothers the fire, 
 and saves the face. The next instant throw the 
 unfortunate person on the floor. This is an ad- 
 ditional safety to the face and breath, and any rem- 
 nant of flame can be put out more leisurely. The 
 next instant, immerse the burnt part in cold water, 
 and all pain will cease with the rapidity of light- 
 ning. Next, get^ome common flour, remove from 
 the water, and cover the burnt parts with an inch 
 thickness of flour, if possible ; put the patient to 
 bed, and do all that is possible to soothe until the 
 physician arrives. Let the flour remain until it 
 falls off itself, when a beautiful new skin will be 
 found. Unless the burns are deep, no other ap- 
 plication is needed. The dry flour for burns is the 
 most admirable remedy ever proposed, and the in- 
 formation ought to be imparted to all. The prin- 
 ciple of its action is that, like the water, it causes 
 instant and perfect relief from pain, by totally ex- 
 cluding the air from the injured parts. Spanish 
 whiting and cold water, of a mushy consistency, 
 are preferred by some. Dredge on the flour until 
 no more will stick, and cover with cotton batting. 
 To Bleach Sponges. 
 
 Wash in hot dilute soda lye ; then immerse in 
 dilute muriatic acid, 1 part to 10 of water, until 
 all gritty particles are removed, and no more gag 
 arises ; then immerse in a second bath of dilute 
 muriatic acid, containing 3 per cent, of hyposul- 
 phite of soda, for 48 hours. 
 
 To take out Mildew. 
 
 Wet the linen where spotted in Labarraque's 
 Solution (solution of chlorinated soda), or solution 
 of chloride of lime (bleaching salt), or chlorine 
 water; it will immediately disappear. Wash out 
 at once with warm water. This is a better plan 
 than that given in p. 314. Fruit and wine a.ains 
 of all kinds may be removed in the same manner. 
 Simple Mode of Purifying Water. 
 
 A tablespoonful of pulverized alum sprinkled 
 into a hogshead of water (the water stirred at the 
 same time) will, after a few hours, by preeipitaf ing 
 to the bottom the impure particles, so purify it 
 that it will be found to possess nearly all the 
 freshness and clearness of the finest spring- water. 
 A pailful, containing 4 gallons, may be purified 
 by a single teaspoonful of ttie alum. 
 
438 
 
 CHEMICAL KECEIPTS. 
 
 Another. Add to a hogshead of water a table- 
 gpoonful of a saturated solution of permanganate 
 of potassa; this effectually destroys all organic 
 matter. If the water retain a pink hue, put a stick 
 or chip in it when the color will shortly disap- 
 pear. 
 
 To Cure Dry-rot in Timber. 
 
 Saturate the wood in a weak solution of cop- 
 peras, for joists, beams, rafters, and floorings; or, 
 soak the wood in lime-water, suffering it to dry, 
 and then apply water in which there is a weak 
 solution of vitriolic acid; or wash it with a strong 
 solution of potash, then with pyroligneous acid 
 in which the oxide of lead or iron has been dis- 
 solved ; and finally, with alum-water. 
 
 A current of air under a floor will always pre- 
 vent the dry-rot, and stop it when it has com- 
 menced. 
 
 In boarding kitchens and other rooms on the 
 basement story, the planks should be steeped in 
 a strong solution of vitriol or alum, and when 
 they are dried, the side next to the earth should 
 receive a coat of tar or common paint. 
 
 Solutions used in Preserving Timber. 
 
 The following have been employed. They are 
 forced into the pores of the wood by putting it 
 into a close vessel, exhausting the air, and then 
 allowing the liquid to flow in. In some cases the 
 timber is merely immersed ; in others the liquid 
 flows in under heavy pressure. In Boucherie's 
 method the green tree is felled, the branches 
 trimmed off, and a bag containing sulphate of 
 copper or other antiseptic agent attached to the 
 butt. The sap is gradually expelled by displace- 
 ment, and flows from the free end of the log, the 
 antiseptic solution taking its place. 
 
 These solutions probably act by coagulating the 
 albuminous matters of the wood, and thus pre- 
 venting the beginning of decay or dry-rot. They 
 also prevent the attacks of insects. Corrosive 
 sublimate (Ky an), chloride of zinc (Burnett), sul- 
 phate of copper (Boucherie), chloride of calcium, 
 followed by sulpbate of iron (Payne), crude pyro- 
 ligneous acid, saturated with iron scraps (Beth- 
 ell), coal tar. 
 
 Prevention of Decay in Timber. 
 
 Well-seasoned timber may be preserved by 
 charring the surface. The process adopted in the 
 French dockyards is to use a jet of mixed coal-gas 
 and air; the two being conveyed by India-rubber 
 tubes, which unite at the jet. The air is forced 
 in by a bellows worked by the foot of the opera- 
 tor. A slight previous coating of tar is useful by 
 filling up cracks, and causing a uniformity of 
 action of the flame. 
 
 To Check the Warping of Planks. 
 The face of the planks should be cut in the di- 
 rection from east to west as the tree stood. The 
 strongest side of a piece of timber is that which, 
 in its natural position, faced the north. 
 
 To Get Oil out of Boards. 
 
 Mix together fuller's earth and soap lees, and 
 rub it into the boards. Let it dry and then scour 
 it off with some strong soft soap and sand, or use 
 lees to scour it with. It should be put on hot, 
 which may easily be done by heating the lees. 
 
 To Prevent the Splitting of Logs and Planks. 
 
 Logs and planks split at the ends because the 
 exposed surface dries faster than the inside. Sat- 
 urate muriatic acid with lime and apply like white- 
 wash tc the ends. The chloride of calcium formed 
 attracts moisture from the air, and prevents the 
 splitting. 
 
 Mode of Detecting Decay in Timber. 
 
 The Cosmos reports from the other journals a 
 simple mode, said to have been adopted from 
 immemorial times in the ship-yards of Venice, for 
 ascertaining the fitness of timber for their con- 
 structions. "A person applies his ear to the middle 
 of one of the ends of the timber, while another 
 strikes upon the opposite end. If the wood is 
 sound and of good quality, the blow is very dis- 
 tinctly heard, however long the beam may be. If 
 the wood were disaggregated by decay 01- other- 
 wise, the sound would be for the most part de- 
 stroyed. 
 
 To Preserve Polished Irons from Rust. 
 
 Polished iron-work may be preserved from rust 
 by a mixture not very expensive, consisting of 
 copal varnish intimately mixed with as much 
 olive-oil as will give it a degree of greasiness, 
 adding thereto nearly as much spirit of turpen- 
 tine as of varnish ; or varnish with wax dissolved 
 in benzine. The cast-iron work is best preserved 
 by rubbing it with black-lead. 
 
 But where rust has begun to make its appear- 
 ance on grates or fire-irons, apply a mixture of 
 tripoli, with half its quantity of sulphur, inti- 
 mately mingled on a marble slab and laid on with 
 a piece of soft leather; or emery and oil may be 
 applied with excellent effect; not laid on in the 
 usual slovenly way, but with a spongy piece of 
 the fig-tree fully saturated with the mixture. This 
 will not only clean, but polish, and render the use 
 of whiting unnecessary. 
 
 To Preserve Brass Ornaments. 
 
 Brass ornaments, when not gilt or lackered, may 
 be cleaned in the same way, and a fine color may 
 be given to them by two simple processes. The 
 first is to beat sal ammoniac into a fine powder, 
 then to moisten it with soft water, rubbing it on 
 the ornaments; which must be heated over char- 
 coal and rubbed dry with bran and whiting. The 
 second is to wash the brass work with roche alum 
 boiled in strong lye, in the proportion of an ounce 
 to a pint. When dry it must be rubbed with fine 
 tripoli. Either of these processes will give to brass 
 the brilliancy of gold. 
 Easy Mode of Taking Impressions from Coins, etc* 
 
 A very easy and elegant way of taking the im- 
 pressions of medals and coins, not generally 
 known, is thus described by Dr. Shaw: Melt a 
 little isinglass glue with brandy, and pour it thinly 
 over the metal so as to cover its whole surface ; let 
 it remain on for a day or two, till it is thoroughly 
 dried and hardened, and then taking it off it will 
 be fine, clear, and as hard as a piece of Muscovy 
 glass, and will have a very elegant impression of 
 the coin. It will also resist the effects of damp 
 air, which occasions all other kinds of glue to 
 soften and bend if not prepared in this way. 
 
 Adamas, 
 
 A substitute for metal in the manufacture of gas- 
 burners, journal bearings, taps, etc., is made of 
 finely-powdered soapstone, pressed into moulds 
 and annealed. 
 
 Soapstone Powder as a Lubricator. 
 
 Soapstone powder, in the form of dust, is pro- 
 posed as a lubricant for the axles of machines. 
 For this purpose it is prepared as follows : It is 
 first reduced to the condition of very fine powder; 
 then it is washed to remove all gritty particles j 
 then it is steeped for a short period in dilute mu- 
 riatic a/cid (about 1 qt. of acid to 20 of water), in 
 which it is stirred until all particles of iron which 
 it contains are dissolved. The powder is then 
 washed in pure water again, to remove all traces 
 
BAEOMETERS. 
 
 439 
 
 of acid ; then it is dried, and is the purified stea- 
 tite powder used for lubrication. It is not used 
 alone, but is mixed with oils and fats, in the pro- 
 portion of about 35 per cent, of the powder, added 
 to paraffine, rape, or other oil. This steatite pow- 
 der, mixed with any of the soapy compounds, 
 which are also now used, in many cases, for lubri- 
 cation, also answers a good purpose. It is chiefly 
 intended for heavy machinery, such as the jour- 
 nals of water-wheels, railway and other carriages. 
 
 Ranitome's Artificial Stone. 
 Make sand or gravel into a paste with fluid sil- 
 icate of soda (water-glass), mould it to the desired 
 shape, and dip into a solution of chloride of cal- 
 cium. This solution is made by neutralizing mu- 
 riatic acid with lime, chalk, limestone, or marble. 
 The mass becomes solid in a few minutes, and is 
 exceedingly strong and durable. 
 
 To Imitate Ground Glass. 
 
 A ready way of imitating ground glass is to dis- 
 solve Epsom salts in beer, and apply with a brush. 
 As it dries it crystallizes. 
 
 To Drill Glass. 
 
 Wet an ordinary drill with petroleum or ben- 
 zine ; turpentine will answer, but not so well; it 
 will then bore common glass nearly as rapidly as 
 steel. If it is intended to bore through, the glass 
 should be first countersunk on each side with a 
 drill dressed off so as to form a very flat three- 
 sided pyramid. Flint and plate-glass are very 
 difficult to bore. 
 
 A New Kind of Electric Machine. 
 The electro-magnetic coil has, in a great mea- 
 sure, superseded the electric machine; the latter, 
 however, will never cease to be an object of 
 interest; and, it is probable, will always be pre- 
 ferred for some purposes. The expense and diffi- 
 culty of managing large plates and cylinders of 
 glass have hitherto been obstacles to the use of 
 large electric machines. These obstacles appear 
 now removed glass being rendered unnecessary 
 by the discovery of a far more convenient and 
 effective material. M. Edmond Bequerel exhibited 
 to the Academy of Sciences on a recent occasion an 
 electric machine, the plate of which was made of in- 
 durated red sulphur, the invention of a civil engi- 
 neer. It was 80 centimetres in diameter,and afforded 
 a spark 14 centimetres in length. No amalgamated 
 cushions were required with it, the skin of a cat 
 being quite sufficient to produce every desired 
 effect. Sulphur undergoes extraordinary changes 
 by successive fusions; becoming extremely hard 
 and tenacious. After the third fusion it no longer 
 acts on metals, or possesses its characteristic odor. 
 The plate used by M. Bequerel was formed by 
 fusing the sulphur 3 times in a cast-iron vessel, at 
 a temperature between 250 and 300 Cent., and 
 allowing it, after each fusion, to cool thoroughly. 
 After the 1st and 2nd fusions it was crushed to a 
 coarse powder ; and, after the 3rd, it was poured 
 into a plaster-mould. Plates, 4 metres in diame- 
 ter, may easily be made in this way; they cost ex- 
 tremely little; and, besides being more efficient, 
 are far less hygrometric than glass. 
 
 WEATHER PROQNOSTICS. 
 
 TO CONSTRUCT BAROMETERS. 
 
 The tubes intended for barometers ought to be 
 sealed hermetically on both ends, immediately 
 after they are made at the glass-house, and to be 
 kept in this state until they are fitted up. With- 
 out this precaution they are apt to be sullied with 
 dust, moisture, and other impurities, which it is 
 afterwards almost impossible to remove on ac- 
 count of the smallness of their diameters. When 
 they are opened, which may be done with a file, 
 care should be taken not to breathe into them, 
 nor to wash them with spirit of wine, or other 
 fluid, experience having proved that in tubes so 
 treated, the mercury always stands a little below 
 its proper level ; this is owing to the adhesion of a 
 little of the spirit of wine to the sides of the tube. 
 When cleaning is necessary, it must be done with 
 a fine linen rag that has been previously well 
 dried. 
 
 The tubes ought to be as perfectly cylindrical 
 as possible, though, in some cases, this is not ab- 
 solutely necessary. They should be about 33 
 inches in length, and the diameter of their bore 
 ehould be at least 2 or 2^ lines, otherwise the 
 friction, and the capillary action will be apt to 
 affect the free motion of the mercury. The glass 
 should not be very thick, as it is apt in that case 
 to break; when the mercury is boiled in the tube 
 half a line is sufficient. 
 
 The mercury ought to be perfectly pure and 
 free from all foreign metals. The best is that 
 vrhieh has been recently revived from cinnabar ; 
 
 the common mercury of the shops being often 
 adulterated intentionally with tin, lead, and bis- 
 muth, stands at various heights in the tube, ac- 
 cording to the nature and quantity of the foreign 
 substances with which it is amalgamated. 
 
 To Obtain the Mercury Pure. 
 For this purpose take a pound of cinnabar and 
 reduce it to powder; mix it well with 5 or 6 OB. 
 of iron or steel filings; and, having put the mii- 
 ture into an iron retort, expose the whole to the 
 heat of a reverberatory furnace; the mercury will 
 soon pass over in a state of great purity, and may 
 be obtained by adapting to the retort an earthen 
 receiver, which has been previously half filled with 
 water. Commercial mercury may be purified by 
 distilling it over a portion of cinnabar. These 
 are put into an iron bottle with an iron tube at- 
 tached ; to the end of the iron tube is one made 
 of leather or India-rubber which dips beneath the 
 surface of water constantly renewed. 
 
 Process of Filling the Tube. 
 
 Before being introduced into the tube, the 
 mercury ought to be well heated, or even boiled 
 in a glazed earthen pipkin, in order to drive off 
 any moisture which may adhere to it, but this will 
 be unnecessary if the mercury has been recently 
 reduced. 
 
 The mercury ought likewise to be boiled in the^ 
 tube to expel any air or moisture which may stilL 
 remain attached to it, or to the inside of the tube. 
 This is done in the following manner : POUOJ- its 
 
440 
 
 WEATHEB PROGNOSTICS. 
 
 much mercury into the tube as will make it stand 
 to the length of 3 or 4 inches ; and introduce a 
 long wire of iron to stir it during the boiling. 
 Expose the mercury in the tube gradually to the 
 heat of a chafing-dish of burning charcoal, or a 
 well regulated gas flame; and when it begins to 
 boil, stir it gently with the iron wire, to facilitate 
 the disengagement of the bubbles of the air. When 
 the first portion of the mercury has been suffi- 
 ciently boiled, and all the air extricated, remove 
 the tube from the chafing-dish and allow the 
 whole to cool, taking care not to bring it into con- 
 tact with any cold substance. Introduce an equal 
 quantity of mercury, and treat it in the same 
 manner, withdrawing the wire a little so that it 
 may not reach below the upper part of the mer- 
 cury already freed from air. The chafing-dish 
 must also be placed immediately under the mer- 
 cury which has been last poured in. Repeat the 
 same process with each successive portion of mer- 
 cury till the tube is filled, always applying the 
 heat very cautiously ; and be equally careful in 
 allowing it to cool before a fresh portion of mer- 
 cury is poured in. 
 
 The Aneroid Barometer 
 
 Consists of a brass-box partially exhausted of air 
 with an elastic lid of corrugated brass. Changes 
 of atmospheric pressure are indicated by the move- 
 ments of the lid which are transmitted to an index 
 hand. It is light, portable, contains no liquid, 
 and is more sensitive than the mercurial barometer. 
 
 READING THE BAROMETER. 
 
 The following manual of the barometer has 
 been compiled by Rear-Admiral Fitzroy, and pub- 
 lished by the Board of Trade. It has been slightly 
 altered to suit the climate of the United States. 
 
 Familiar as the practical use of weather-glasses 
 is, at sea as well as on land, only those who have 
 long watched their indications and compared 
 them carefully, are really able to conclude more 
 than that the rising glass usually fortells less wind 
 or rain, a falling barometer more rain or wind, 
 or both ; a high one fine weather, and a low one the 
 contrary. But useful as these general conclusions 
 are in most cases, they are sometimes erroneous, 
 and then remarks may be rather hastily made, 
 tending to discourage the inexperienced. 
 
 By attention to the following observation (the 
 results of many years' practice, and many persons' 
 experience), any one not accustomed to use a 
 barometer may do so without difficulty. The 
 barometer shows whether the air is getting lighter 
 or heavier, or is remaining in the same state. The 
 quicksilver falls as the air becomes lighter, rises 
 as it becomes heavier, and remains at rest in the 
 glass tube while the air is unchanged in weight. 
 Air presses upon everything within about 40 miles 
 of the world's surface, like a much lighter ocean, 
 at the bottom of which we live, not feeling its 
 weight because our bodies are full of air, but feel- 
 ing its currents, the winds. Towards any place 
 from which the air has been drawn by suction, air 
 presses with a force or weight of nearly 15 Ibs. on 
 a square inch of surface. Such a pressure holds 
 the limpit to the rock when, by contracting iteelf, 
 the fish has made a place without air under its 
 shell. Another familiar instance is, that of the 
 fly, which walks on the ceiling with feet that 
 stick. The barometer tube, emptied of air and 
 filled with pure mercury, is turned down into a 
 cup or cistern containing the same fluid, which 
 feeliug the weight of air, is so pressed by it as to 
 balance a column of about 30 inches (more or less) 
 in the tube, where no air presses on the top of the 
 oolumn. 
 
 If a long pipe, closed at one end only, were 
 emptied of air, filled with water, the open end 
 kept in water, and the pipe held upright, the water 
 would rise in it more than 30 feet. In this way 
 water barometers have been made. A proof of 
 this effect is shown by any well with a sucking- 
 pump, up which, as is commonly known, the water 
 will rise nearly 30 feet by what is called suction, 
 which is, in fact, the pressure of air towards an 
 empty place. 
 
 The words on scales of barometers should not 
 be so much regarded for weather indications as 
 the rising or falling of the mercury, for if it stand 
 at "changeable," and then rise towards "fair," 
 it presages a change of wind or weather, though 
 not so great as if the mercury had risen higher; 
 and, on the contrary, if the mercury stand above 
 " fair," and then fall, it presages a change, though 
 not to so great a degree as if it had stood lower; 
 besides which, the direction and force of the wind 
 are not in any way noticed. It is not from the 
 point at which the mercury may stand that we 
 are alone to form a judgment of the state of the 
 state of the weather, but from its rising or falling, 
 and from the movements of immediately preced- 
 ing days, as well as hours, keeping in mind effects 
 of change of direction and dryness or moisture, 
 as well as alteration of force or strength of wind. 
 
 In this part of the world, towards the higher 
 latitudes, the quicksilver ranges, or rises and falls, 
 nearly three inches namely, between about thirty 
 inches and nine-tenths (30.9), and less than twen- 
 ty-eight inches (28.0) on extraordinary occasions; 
 but the usual range is from about thirty inches 
 and a half (30.5) to about twenty-nine inches. 
 Near the Line, or in equatorial places, the range 
 is but a few tenths, except in storms, when it 
 sometimes falls to twenty-seven inches. 
 
 The sliding scale (Vernier) divides the tenths 
 into 10 parts each, or hundredths of an inch. The 
 number of divisions on the Vernier exceeds that in 
 an equal space of the fixed scale by one. 
 
 By a thermometer the weight of air is not shown. 
 No air is within the tube, none can get in. But 
 the bulb of the tube, is full of mercury which con- 
 tracts by cold and swells by heat, according to 
 which effect the thread of metal in the small tube 
 is drawn down or pushed up so many degrees, and 
 thus shows the temperature. 
 
 If a thermometer ha,ve a piece of linen round 
 the bulb, wetted enough to keep it damp by a 
 thread or wick dipping into a cup of water, it will 
 show less heat than a dry one, in proportion to 
 the dryness of the air and quickness of drying. 
 In very damp weather, with or before rain, fog, 
 or dew, a wet and dry bulb thermometer will be 
 nearly alike. 
 
 For ascertaining the dryness or moisture of air, 
 the readiest and surest method is the comparison 
 of two thermometers, one dry, the other just 
 moistened and kept so. Cooled by evaporation as 
 much as the state of the air admits, the moist (or 
 wet) bulb thermometer shows a temperature nearly 
 equal to that of the other one, when the atmos- 
 phere is extremely damp or moist; but lower afc 
 other times in proportion to the dryness of air 
 and consequent evaporation as far as 12 or 15 
 in this climate, 20 or even more elsewhere. From 
 4 to 8 of difference is usual in England, and 
 about 7 is considered healthy for inhabited rooms. 
 The wet and dry bulb thermometer on the same 
 frame, the water being supplied by a bird foun- 
 tain, constitutes August's or Mason's hygrometer. 
 
 The thermometer fixed to a barometer intended 
 to be used only as a weather-glass, shows the tem- 
 perature of air about it, nearly, but does nut show 
 the temperature of mercury within, exactly. It 
 
BEADING THE BAROMETER. 
 
 441 
 
 does so, however, near enough for ordinary prac- 
 tical purposes, provided that no sun, nor fire, nor 
 lamp heat is allowed to act on the instrument 
 partially. 
 
 The mercury in the cistern and tube being af- 
 fected by cold or heat, makes it advisable to con- 
 sider this when endeavoring to foretell coming 
 weather by the length of the column. 
 
 Briefly, the barometer shows weight or pressure 
 of the air; the thermometer, heat and cold, or tem- 
 perature ; and the wet thermometer, compared with 
 a dry one, the degree of moisture or dampness. 
 
 It should always be remembered that the state 
 of the air foretells coming weather rather than 
 shows the weather that is present an invaluable 
 fact too often overlooked; that the longer the time 
 between the signs and the change foretold by 
 them, the longer such altered weather will last, 
 and, on the contrary, the less the time between a 
 warning and a change, the shorter will be the con- 
 tinuance of such foretold weather. 
 
 To know the state of the air not only barome- 
 ters and thermometers should be watched, but the 
 appearance of the sky should be vigilantly noticed. 
 
 If the barometer has been about its ordinary 
 height, say near 30 inches (at the sea level), and is 
 steady, or rising while the thermometer falls, and 
 dampness becomes less, northwesterly or northerly 
 wind, or less wind, less rain or snow may be ex- 
 pected. 
 
 On the contrary, if a fall takes place with a ris- 
 ing thermometer and increased dampness, wind 
 and rain may be expected from the south-east- 
 ward, southward or south-westward. A fall with 
 a low thermometer foretells snow. A rise during 
 frost indicates snow. 
 
 Exceptions to these rules occur when a north- 
 easterly wind with wet (rain, hail or snow) is im- 
 pending, before which the barometer often rises 
 (on account of the direction of the coming wind 
 alone) and deceives persons, who from that sign 
 only (the rising) expect fair weather. 
 
 When the barometer is rather below its ordinary 
 height, say down to near 29J inches (at the sea lev- 
 el), a rise foretells less wind, or a change in its 
 direction toward the northward, or less wet ; but 
 when it has been very low, about 29 inches, the 
 first rising usually precedes or indicates strong 
 wind; at times heavy squalls from the northwest- 
 ward, northward or northeastward, after which 
 violence a gradually rising glass foretells improv- 
 ing weather, if the thermometer falls ; but if the 
 warmth continue, probably the wind will back 
 (shift against the sun's course) and more southerly 
 or southwesterly wind will follow, especially if 
 the barometer's rise is sudden. 
 
 The most dangerous shifts of wind or the heavi- 
 est northerly gales happen soon after the barome- 
 er first rises from a very low point, or if the wind 
 veers gradually at some time afterwards. 
 
 Indications of approaching changes of weather 
 and the direction and force of winds are shown 
 less by the height of the barometer than by its 
 falling or rising. Nevertheless, a height of more 
 than thirty (30.0) inches (at the level of the sea) is 
 indicative of fine weather and moderate winds, 
 except from east to north occasionally or during 
 frost, when northeast winds and snow are indi- 
 cated. 
 
 The barometer is said to be falling when the 
 mercury in the tube is sinking, at which time its 
 upper surface is sometimes concave or hollow; or 
 when the hand of the wheel barometer or Aneroid 
 moves to the left. The barometer is rising when 
 the mercurial column is lengthening, its upper 
 surface being convex or rounded, or when the hand 
 moves to the right. 
 
 A rapid rise of the barometer indicates unset- 
 tled weather, a slow movement the contrary ; aa 
 likewise a steady barometer, which, when contin- 
 ued, and with dryness, foretells very fine weather. 
 
 The greatest depressions of the barometer are 
 with gales from S.E., S., or S.W. ; the greatest 
 elevations, with wind from N.W., N., or N.E., or 
 with calm. 
 
 Though the barometer generally falls with a 
 southerly and rises with a northerly wind, the 
 contrary sometimes occurs; in which case?, the 
 southerly wind is usually dry with fine weather, 
 or the northerly wind is violent and accompanied 
 by rain, snow or hail; perhaps with lightning. 
 
 When the barometer sinks considerably, much 
 wind, rain (perhaps with hail) or snow will follow ; 
 with or without lightning. The wind will be from 
 the northward, if the thermometer is low, (for the 
 season), from the southward if the thermometer is 
 high. Occasionally a low glass is followed or at- 
 tended by lightning only, while a storm is beyond 
 the horizon. 
 
 A sudden fall of the barometer with a westerly 
 wind, is sometimes followed by a violent storm 
 from N.W., or N., or N.E. 
 
 If a gale sets in from the E. or S.E., and the 
 wind veers by the S., the barometer will continue 
 falling until the wind is near a marked change, 
 when a lull may occur, after which the gale will 
 soon be renewed, perhaps suddenly and violently, 
 and the veering of the wind towards the N.W., 
 N., or N.E., will be indicated by a rising of the 
 barometer with a fall of the thermometer. 
 
 Three causes (at least) appear to affect a bar- 
 ometer : 
 
 1. The direction of the wind; the northeast 
 wind tending to raise it the most, the southwest to 
 lower it the most, and wind from points of the 
 compass between them proportionally as they are 
 nearer one or the other extreme point. 
 
 N.E. and S.W. may, therefore, be called the 
 wind's extreme bearings. 
 
 The range or difference of height shown, due 
 to change of direction only, from one of these 
 bearings to the other (supposing strength or force 
 and moisture to remain the same), amounts in 
 these latitudes to about an inch (as read off). 
 
 2. The amount taken by itself of vapor (moist- 
 ure, wet, rain, or snow in the wind remaining the 
 same), seems to cause a change amounting in an 
 extreme case to about an inch. 
 
 3. The strength or force alone of wind, from any 
 quarter (moisture and direction being unchanged), 
 is preceded or foretold by a fall or rise, according 
 as the strength will be greater or less, ranging in 
 extreme cases to more than 2 inches. 
 
 Hence, supposing three causes to act together, 
 in extreme cases, the height would vary from 
 near 31 in. (30'9) to about 27 in. (27'0), which has 
 happened, though rarely (and even in tropical 
 latitudes). 
 
 In general the three causes act much less 
 strongly, and are less in accord, so that ordinary 
 varieties of weather occur much more frequently 
 than extreme changes. 
 
 Another general rule requires attention, which 
 is, that the wind usually appears to veer, shift, or 
 go round with the sun (right-handed, or from left 
 to right), and that when it does not do so, or backs, 
 more wind or bad weather may be expected, in- 
 stead of improvement. 
 
 It is not by any means intended to discourage 
 attention to what is usually called " weather wis- 
 dom." On the contrary, every prudent person 
 will combine observation of the elements with 
 such indications as he may obtain from instru- 
 ments, and will find that the more accurately the 
 
442 
 
 WEATHER PROGNOSTICS. 
 
 two sources of foreknowledge are compared and 
 combined, the more satisfactory their results will 
 prove. 
 
 A barometer begins to rise considerably before 
 the conclusion of a gale, sometimes even at its 
 commencement. Although it falls lowest before 
 high winds, it frequently sinks very much before 
 heavy rain. The barometer falls, but not always, 
 on the approach of thunder and lightning. Be- 
 fore and during the earlier part of settled weather 
 it usually stands high and is stationary, the air 
 being dry. 
 
 Instances of fine weather with a low glass oc- 
 cur, however, rarely, but they are always preludes 
 to a duration of wind or rain, if not both. 
 
 After very warm and calm weather, a storm or 
 squall, with rain, may follow; likewise at any 
 time when the atmosphere is heated much above 
 the usual temperature of the season. 
 
 Allowance should invariably be made for the 
 previous state of the glasses during some days, as 
 well as some hours, because their indications may 
 be affected by distant causes, or by changes close 
 at hand. Some of these changes may occur at a 
 greater or less distance, influencing neighboring 
 regions, but not visible to each observer whose 
 barometer feels their effect. 
 
 There may be heavy rains or violent winds be- 
 yond the horizon, and the view of an observer, by 
 which his instruments may be affected considera- 
 bly, though no particular change of weather oc- 
 curs in his immediate locality. 
 
 It may be repeated that the longer a change of 
 wind or weather is foretold before it takes place, 
 the longer the presaged weather will last, and con- 
 versely, the shorter the warning the less time, 
 whatever causes the warning, whether wind or a 
 fall of rain or snow, will continue. 
 
 Sometimes severe weather from the southward, 
 not lasting long, may cause no great fall, because 
 followed by a duration of wind from the north- 
 ward, and at times the barometer may fall with 
 northerly winds and fine weather, apparently 
 against these rules, because a continuance of 
 southerly wind is about to follow. By such changes 
 as these one may be misled, and calamity may be 
 the consequence if not duly forewarned. 
 
 A few of the more marked signs of weather, 
 useful alike to seaman, farmer and gardener, are 
 the following ; 
 
 Whether clear or cloudy, a rosy sky at sunset 
 presages fine weather; a red sky in the morning 
 bad weather, or much wind (perhaps rain) ; a gray 
 sky in the morning, fine weather; a high dawn, 
 wind ; a low dawn, fair weather. 
 
 Soft-looking or delicate clouds foretell fine 
 weather, with moderate or light breezes ; hard- 
 edged, oily-looking clouds, wind. A dark, gloomy, 
 blue sky is windy, but a light, bright, blue sky 
 indicates fine weather. Generally, the softer 
 clouds look, the less wind (but perhaps more rain) 
 may be expected ; and the harder, more " greasy," 
 rolled, tufted, or ragged, the stronger the coming 
 wind will prove. Also, a bright yellow sky at 
 sunset presages wind ; a pale yellow, wet ; and 
 thus by the prevalence of red, yellow, or gray 
 tints, the coming weather may be foretold very 
 nearly; indeed, if aided by instruments, almost 
 exactly. 
 
 Small, inky-looking clouds foretell rain; light 
 scud-clouds driving across heavy masses show 
 wind and rain, but, if alone, may indicate wind 
 only. 
 
 High, upper clouds crossing the sun, moon, or 
 tars, in a direction different from that of the 
 lower clouds, or the wind then felt below, foretell 
 ft change of wind. 
 
 After clear, fine weather, the first signs in the sky 
 of a coming change fire usually light streaks, curls, 
 wisps, or mottled patches of white distant clouds, 
 which increase and are followed by an overcast- 
 ing of murky vapor that grows into cloudiness. 
 This appearance, more or less oily, or watery, as 
 wind or rain will prevail, is an infallible sign. 
 
 Usually the higher and more distant such clouds 
 seem to be, the more gradual but general the com- 
 ing change of weather will prove. 
 
 Light, delicate, quiet tints or colors, with soft, 
 undefined forms of clouds, indicate and accom- 
 pany fine weather, but gaudy or unusual hues, 
 with hard, definitely outlined clouds, foretell rain, 
 and probably strong wind. 
 
 Misty clouds forming or hanging on heights, 
 show wind, if they remain, increase, or descend. 
 If they rise or disperse, the weather will improve 
 or become fine. 
 
 When sea-birds fly out early, and far to sea- 
 ward, moderate wind and fair weather may be ex- 
 pected; when they hang about the land, or over 
 it, sometimes flying inland, expect a strong wind 
 with stormy weather. As many creatures besides 
 birds are affected by the approach of rain or wind, 
 such indications should not be slighted by an ob- 
 server who wishes to foresee weather. 
 
 There are other signs of a coining change in 
 the weather, known less generally than may be 
 desirable, and therefoie worth notice, such as when 
 birds of long flight, rooks, swallows, or others, 
 hang about home, and fly up and down, or low, 
 rain or wind may be expected. Also, when ani- 
 mals seek sheltered places, instead of spreading 
 over their usual range; when pigs carry straw to 
 their styes; when smoke from chimneys does not 
 ascend readily (or straight upwards during calm), 
 an unfavorable change is probable. 
 
 Dew is an indication of fine weather; so is fog. 
 Neither of these two formations occur under an 
 overcast sky, or when there is much wind. One 
 sees fog occasionally rolled away, as it were, by 
 wind, but seldom or never formed while it is 
 blowing. 
 
 Remarkable clearness of atmosphere near the 
 horizon, distant objects, such as hills, usually visi- 
 ble, or raised (by refraction), and what is called 
 "a good hearing day," may be mentioned among 
 the signs of wet, if not wind, to be expected. 
 
 More than usual twinkling of the stars, indis- 
 tinctness or apparent multiplication of the moon's 
 horns, haloes, " wind-dogs," and the rainbow, are 
 more or less significant of increasing wind, if not 
 approaching rain, with or without wind. 
 
 Near land, in sheltered harbors, in valleys, or 
 over low ground, there is usually a marked dimi- 
 nution of wind during part of the night, and a 
 dispersion of clouds. At such times an eye on an 
 overlooking height may see an extended body of 
 vapor below (rendered visible by the cooling of 
 night), which seems to check the wind. 
 
 Lastly, the dry ness or dampness of the air and 
 its temperature (for the season) should always be 
 considered, with other indications of change, or 
 continuance of wind and weather. 
 
 THERMOMETRIC SCALES. 
 The two natural points on the therinometrio 
 scale are the temperature of boiling water (at 30 
 in bar.), and that of melting ice. The latter is 
 on the Centigrade and Reaumur scale, 32 on Fah- 
 renheit. The former is 100 on the Centigrade, 80 
 on Reaumur's, and 212 on Fahrenheit's. Hence 
 100 C. = 80 R. = 170 Fahr. To reduce Reau- 
 mur degrees to Fahrenheit, multiply by 9, divide 
 by 4, and add 32 To reduce Centigrade to Fah- 
 renheit, multiply by 9, divide by 5, and add 32. 
 
ANGLING. 
 
 FISH 
 
 THE Editor is indebted to Mr. Freas, editor of 
 the Germa^town Telegraph, for the following val- 
 uable articles: 
 
 ANGLING. 
 
 Among the lakes, rivers and brooks of our coun- 
 try, the lover of the " gentle art " has rare oppor- 
 tunities for indulging in his favorite amusement. 
 Yet how few there are, comparatively speaking, 
 that feel an interest in it. Considering that an- 
 gling, and trout-fishing particularly, usually leads 
 us among the wildest and most beautiful scenes 
 of nature, it is, indeed, remarkable that this de- 
 lightful recreation is not more generally indulged 
 in. It is not our intention, however, to enter into 
 a treatise upon this manly sport, but merely to 
 embody within the limits of a single article in- 
 formation, that may be useful to an unpractised 
 hand, in regard to fish which properly come un- 
 der the angler's notice. 
 
 Salmon. 
 
 In the United States there is but one distinct 
 species of the salmon. He is a bold biter, a sly 
 and handsome fish, and, on account of his strength 
 and build, possesses great leaping powers. He is 
 a voracious feeder, and may be taken by the an- 
 gler with his favorite food, minnows, the sea-sand 
 eel, or any small and delicate fish, but the surest 
 bait is the common red worm. The rivers of Cali- 
 fornia, Oregon, and Washington Territory, are the 
 only streams within the limits of the United States 
 where the salmon is numerous, and the angler can 
 have good sport. They may also be taken with 
 rod and line in considerable numbers in nearly all 
 the streams which flow into the St. Lawrence from 
 the north, below Quebec, and those which empty 
 into the Gulf of St. Lawrence^nd into the Atlan- 
 tic, along the coast of Labrador. Anglers usually 
 take the salmon with the artificial fly, and use an 
 elastic-pointed rod, about 18 feet in length, with 
 reel capable of holding from 300 to 500 feet of 
 twisted hair and silk line. The fishing season in 
 Canada and New Brunswick commences about the 
 10th of June, and in Nova Scotia about one month 
 earlier. 
 
 Trout. 
 
 This beautiful fish, -with the exception of the 
 salmon, is the most superb game-fish in the world. 
 There are several species. In nearly all the pure 
 cold-water streams of the Northern, Middle and 
 Eastern States the speckled trout abounds. The 
 best bait, in early spring, is the red dung- 
 worm, but in June and July the fly is probably 
 the most killing. In many of the States a very 
 proper law is in force for the protection of the fish, 
 allowing them to be taken only during the spring 
 and summer months. Of the artificial flies the " red 
 tackle" is usually preferred. The outfit of the trout 
 angler should consist of alight, elastic rod and small 
 reel, with 50 or 60 feet of plaited hair and silk 
 line, and a silk worm " leader," 6 feet in length, 
 attached. At the end of this, when bait is used, 
 fasten a long-shanked Kirby hook of small size, 
 and, if the current should be very swift, attach a 
 split buck-shot to the leader about a foot above 
 the hook. Put a whole live worm on the hook, 
 allowing the head and tail to be free, so that it 
 wiU make as natural an appearance as possible in 
 the water. A small woollen bag pinned or but- 
 toned to the pantaloons is the best receptacle for 
 
 XlY,*'"" - "'I /ff? 
 
 V OF THE * 
 
 'U NITER SIT' 
 
 worms. As it is usually necessary to wade the 
 streams, a large and easily-fitting pair of shoes, 
 with nails projecting i inch from the soles to pre- 
 vent slipping, should be worn. Trout are usually 
 found beneath falls, in eddies, or in portions of 
 the brook where the current is not very swift. 
 The stream should be waded very cautiously, and 
 the fly or bait thrown as far as possible, as the 
 trout is the most timid of all the finny tribes. 
 When you feel the fish biting, draw the line slowly 
 towards you 2 or 3 feet, and if it seems to be se- 
 curely fastened draw him directly out of the water 
 if small; when otherwise, allow him to remain in 
 the water, giving him as much line as he desires 
 until sufficiently exhausted to be drawn to the 
 shore and lifted out. In Pennsylvania, New Jer- 
 sey and Maryland trout are but seldom caught 
 exceeding a pound in weight. In a day's sport 
 in the most favored localities in these States, the 
 weight of fish in the angler's reel would not ex- 
 ceed \ Ib. each. In New York and the Eastern 
 States the run of trout is much larger. In many 
 of the lakes and tributaries of Maine they are ex- 
 ceedingly numerous and of very large size. On 
 certain days they will not touch the most tempt- 
 ing bait, while at other times they rise savagely 
 at any kind of artificial flies, and the angler fre- 
 quently kills 3 at a cast weighing 2 or 3 Ibs. each. 
 They are often caught weighing as much as 8 Ibs., 
 and are most numerous in Maine, in Moosehead, 
 Memfremagog, Mubagog and Schudic lakes, and 
 their tributaries. 
 
 The most agreeable months to visit these lakes 
 are August and September. Earlier in the season 
 black flies, gnats and ticks are very annoying. 
 Even early in the spring, before the snow has 
 melted from the mountains, they trouble the an- 
 gler. Insects of any kind, however, may be kept 
 at a respectful distance by covering the hands and 
 face with a preparation consisting of J oil of pen- 
 nyroyal and the remainder sweet oil. 
 
 The Salmon-trout is a fish of much larger 
 growth than the speckled trout, and is less appre- 
 ciated as an article of food, but nevertheless af- 
 fords the angler capital sport. They are nume- 
 rous in many of the lakes of New York and Maine, 
 in Lake Superior and in the Straits of Mackinaw. 
 The same tackle used for salmon fishing could be 
 advantageously used for the salmon-trout or for 
 the speckled trout in Maine. 
 
 Perch. 
 
 The white perch is a bold biter and a decidedly 
 pretty fish. It is found in nearly all the rivers 
 of the Atlantic coast, from Boston to Norfolk. In 
 the Delaware, Susquehanna, and Potomac, they 
 are particularly numerous, and give the angler 
 rare sport. On the Delaware a contrivance for 
 catching them called a bow-line or deepse& ; is 
 much used. Usually about eight small sized hooks 
 are attached to it. It can be obtained at the fish- 
 ing-tackle stores. This style of fishing requires 
 no skill whatever, and is much less interesting 
 than angling. Along the edge of the water-docks 
 which skirt these rivers, or in among the leaves 
 of the plants, when the tide is sufficiently high, 
 fine sport may be had during the summer months 
 with rod and line. Dung-worms are the best bait 
 for white perch ; but they are often caught of large 
 size wtth the minnow. This fish, when cooked an 
 
444 
 
 FISH. 
 
 hour or two after being taken, in our opinion, 
 unsurpassed in flavor by any, with the exceptio. 
 of the salmon and shad. It is but seldom kille 
 in the rivers by anglers, exceeding a pound and 
 quarter in weight; although in ponds, canals, an 
 inlets fed by the rivers, it frequently attains 
 much larger size. Like the salmon, shad, an 
 herring, they are a migratory fish ; and whe 
 enclosed in fresh water ponds they never propa 
 gate, and often become emaciated shortly after th 
 migratory season. Those that survive the firs 
 year usually grow to a large size. 
 
 The yellow perch, although a pretty fish and 
 strong biter, is considered rather inferior as a 
 esculent. It inhabits nearly all the rivers an 
 large ponds of the Eastern and Middle States 
 They bite at almost anything. Indeed, we wer 
 informed by a fisherman residing in a cabin on th 
 banks of a beautiful pond, in Pike County, Penn 
 sylvania, that he has caught them with a whortle 
 berry attached to a hook. This fish frequently 
 attains a weight of from three to four pounds. 
 
 Black Bass. 
 
 This superb member of the finny tribe is pecu 
 liar to the West and South. It is found in the 
 greatest numbers in the tributaries of the uppe 
 Mississippi, in nearly all the lakes of New York 
 and Canada, including the great lakes, with the 
 exception of Superior, and in the river St. Law 
 rence. He is a fierce biter, and, unlike the trout 
 is not a timid fish. He is particularly fond of 
 romantic streams and dilapidated mill-dams. He 
 bites freely at the red worm, rises readily at the 
 fly or minnow, and may be taken as early as Apri 
 and May, according to location. 
 
 Rock. 
 
 This superb game fish, also known as the Stripec. 
 Bass, is found in all the rivers from the Penobscol 
 to Savannah, but is most numerous along the 
 shores of Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachu- 
 setts, and Maine. Block Island, within four miles 
 of the Rhode Island coast, is considered about the 
 best locality. Just after a heavy gale is the most 
 opportune time to troll for them, as the largest 
 fish then come near to shore. Trolling from a 
 boat with a rod, is the usual style of angling. For 
 a bait, the skin of an eel attached to a " squid," is 
 usually used. For still river fishing, minnows or 
 the roe of any kind of fish, is most killing. The 
 rock frequently attains a weight of 100 pounds. 
 
 Pike. 
 
 This savage creature is considered the longest 
 lived of all fresh water fish. In this country, as 
 in England, it is also known as the Pickerel, but 
 reaches its greatest perfection here. A peculiarity 
 of this fish is its great voraciousness, about which 
 there are many anecdotes told. He is not very 
 particular in regard to food, but it usually con- 
 sists of fish and frogs. He inhabits nearly all 
 the lakes and inland waters of the Northern and 
 Middle States. A simple and good equipment for 
 pike fishing is a stout rod and reel, a strong linen 
 line, a brass leader, a sharp Kirby hook, and a 
 small landing net. For still fishing a live minnow 
 is excellent bait, and for trolling a small " shiner" 
 should be used. In the winter, when the lakes 
 and ponds are frozen, by making an opening in 
 the ice very fine pike are frequently taken with 
 liv-5 minnows. For this purpose the bait should 
 be obtained in the summer or fall and kept alive 
 in spring-water. Pike often attain the weight of 
 from 50 to 60 Ibs. 
 
 Muskalonge. 
 
 This fish belongs to the pike family, and usually 
 weighs from 20 to 40 Ibs. It is a favorite with 
 
 anglers on the great lakes, the upper Mississippi, 
 the St. Lawrence, and along the shores of the Ohio 
 and the Tennessee. He is very fierce in his na- 
 ture and attacks almost every species of the finny 
 tribe. Small fish are excellent bait. 
 
 Catfish. 
 
 These well-known members of the fish family 
 are, with one exception, fond of muddy waters, 
 and are numerous North and South* There are 
 several varieties. The white catfish when not ex- 
 ceeding a pound or two in weight is excellent eat- 
 ing. He is usually found in streams affected by 
 the tides, and is fond of clear water. He can 
 be propagated, however, in all the Northern 
 streams and ponds. The yellow catfish, we be- 
 lieve, inhabits ponds, lakes, and rivers in every 
 portion of the Union. In the Mississippi they 
 grow to the weight of a hundred pounds, but 
 elsewhere they don't often exceed ten pounds. 
 They may be taken with various kinds of bait. 
 The white catfish prefers a piece of minnow or 
 the soft portion of clams. 
 
 Sunfish. 
 
 This beautifully colored fish is familiar to al- 
 most every school boy. They are usually found 
 in shallow water, are very strong biters and 
 tolerably good eating. They show great intelli- 
 gence in constructing nests for the reception of 
 their spawn. In the shallow streams of Maryland 
 they can be taken in immense numbers. They 
 are not very particular in regard to bait, but pre- 
 fer either grasshoppers, crickets, or young beea. 
 To catch them with the greatest satisfaction, a 
 short rod, a light line with float, and small Kirby 
 hook, are necessary. The sunfish but seldom ex- 
 ceeds a pound in weight. The largest are taken 
 in August and September, and can be as readily 
 captured with the artificial fly as with bait. 
 
 Ed. 
 
 This slippery fish inhabits nearly all the lakes, 
 rivers and ponds of the United States. It is a 
 singular fact, however, that the great Mississippi 
 s destitute of it. When not exceeding 1 or 2 Ibs. 
 n weight they are capital eating. The most rapid 
 vay of catching them is with the " bob," com- 
 >osed of large earth-worms, strung together. For 
 his purpose waxed homespun thread, with a long 
 ieedle, should be used. Pass the needle and thread 
 hrough the entire length of the worms, until a 
 tring about 6 feet in length is formed, which 
 hould be doubled up with loops a few inches in 
 ength, securely tied together, and fastened to a 
 trong stick 5 or 6 feet in length an old broom- 
 iandle would answer very well. Keep the worms 
 n the bed of the stream, and when the eels pull 
 t them quickly jerk them up into the boat, or 
 pon the shore, wherever you may happen to be. 
 'requently 4 and 5 fish are taken at a single haul. 
 With rod and line a piece of minnow is excellent 
 ait. Young eels, a few inches in length, are a 
 ery killing bait for perch, pike and rock. 
 
 Chub. 
 
 Throughout the Eastern, Northern and Middle 
 tales this pretty flsh is very numerous. He is a 
 old biter, and is often found in trout streams, 
 e takes the fly readily, and is decidedly a game 
 sh. Like the trout he is very shy, but for eating 
 urposes is quite inferior. He sometimes weighs 
 s much as 5 and 6 Ibs. 
 
 Sucker. 
 
 Of this rather clumsy fish there appears to be 
 wo varieties. Those inhabiting cold water streams 
 re more slender and more comely shaped than 
 hose found in rivers and ponds. The former are 
 
PISCICULTURE. 
 
 445 
 
 a better flavored fish than chub, and may be taken 
 with the red worm in deep water at any season. 
 They are poor biters, but often show considerable 
 fight after being hooked. A full grown fishweigha 
 from 3 to 4 Ibs. 
 
 Herring. 
 
 This is the most numerous of all the migratory 
 fish in the United States. He will'take the red 
 worm or shad-roe, and on clear days, with a south- 
 ern wind, will jump at a gaudy fly or piece of red 
 flannel fastened to a hook. For eating purposes, 
 after going through a course of " curing," he is a 
 very palatable fish. He don't often exceed a Ib. in 
 weight. 
 
 Roach. 
 
 This fish is found in nearly every portion of the 
 United States; is a fair biter, but the poorest of 
 all as an esculent, He don't usually exceed i Ib. 
 in weight, and may be taken at any season with a 
 little piece of dough attached to a small hook. 
 Redfin. 
 
 This pretty little fish, we believe, is scarcely 
 noticed in any of the works on angling. He fre- 
 quents many of the streams in the northern and 
 middle portions of the United States, but grows 
 large in cold-water brooks, and fs often taken 
 alongside of the trout. He but seldom exceeds 7 
 or 8 inches in length, and is an excellent pan-fish. 
 Very light tackle, small, long-shanked Kirby 
 hook, and red worms for bait, should be used. He 
 bites only during the spring months. 
 
 Salt-water Fish. 
 
 We have given a brief account of all the prin- 
 cipal fresh-water fish of the United States that 
 are of interest to the angler. Of the salt-water 
 fish, those that are most fished for, are the sheeps- 
 head, Spanish mackerel, weakfish, bluefish, black 
 fish, croaker, flounder, porgy and sea-bass. Fish- 
 ermen along the seaboard usually use the hand- 
 line, but the true angler should fish with a strong 
 rod with reel, and stout flax line with large hooks. 
 The usual baits are soft-shell crabs and clams, 
 large shrimps, fiddlers, young crabs and muscles. 
 The fishing season extends from June to October. 
 
 THE CULTURE OF FISH. 
 
 Pisciculture 
 
 Is the name of a new and very important art 
 destined, we believe, ere long, to hold a conspicu- 
 ous place in human interests and pursuits. The 
 extent to which Nature may be aided by artificial 
 methods in the breeding of fishes, is a truly won- 
 derful discovery. That eventually, and at no dis- 
 tant day, it will become the means of adding 
 largely not only to the quantity but the variety 
 also of those supplies for man's sustenance and 
 luxury, admits scarcely of a do"ubt. 
 
 Fishes, whether in the freedom of nature or in 
 artificial receptacles, show plainly enough the 
 approach of spawning. The belly of the female 
 becomes distended and yields readily to pressure. 
 There is a fluctuation under the hand, which 
 shows that the eggs are free from the ovary and 
 easily displaced. This being the case, take up in 
 your left hand a female fish, and hold it suspended 
 by the head and thorax over a flat-bottomed ves- 
 sel containing clear water. Then with the right 
 hand passed from above downwards, squeeze the 
 loosened eggs through the anal opening. A male 
 fish is then taken, and the milt is expressed in 
 the same way, though often it flows by the mere 
 act of suspending. This substance, white and 
 ereana-like, soon gives to the water the appear- 
 ance of whey. To insure effectual fecundation, 
 
 the mixture in this state should be gently stirred 
 with the hand, or with a soft brush. It requires 
 but 2 or 3 minutes to accomplish the fecundation. 
 
 The subsequent processes may be carried on 
 upon the spot, or the impregnated eggs may, like 
 those of the silk-worm, be packed and transported 
 to other places, there to be hatched. 
 
 In the first case, the water with the eggs in it 
 is poured immediately into the hatching appa- 
 ratus. "This may be very simple. Mr. Coste tells 
 us that he has often used a long and narrow wooden 
 box lined with zinc or lead, -with a fish-box of 
 earthenware. In the laboratory of the colleges 
 of France, the troughs used are of potter's en- 
 amelled ware. The eggs are spread upon a mova- 
 ble frame or grate composed of glass rods, about 
 one-tenth of an inch apart. It seems to be a 
 condition of Nature that this operation of hers, 
 like the great water lily of the tropics, can go on 
 well only in running-water. The water which 
 jrupplies the hatching-trough must have a con- 
 tant flow, 
 
 Double sieves of wire gauze set in floating 
 frames, which keep them immersed, but near the 
 surface, have been used for hatching fish in ponds 
 and rivers ; but the mud is apt to gather in them, 
 incrusting the eggs and making it necessary to 
 remove them for the purpose of cleaning. Such 
 changes retard the process of incubation. Even 
 after they are hatched, the young fish are apt to 
 chafe the umbilical vesicle by coming in contact 
 with the wire, an injury which generally proves 
 fatal. 
 
 In preference to the above M. Coste recommends 
 the use of a wooden box with hinged ends and 
 cover, in all of which are openings for the water, 
 protected by wire gauze, and containing also a 
 fourfold frame of glass rods for the accommoda- 
 tion of the spawn. 
 
 In the course of a few hours after the process 
 of fecundation, a change may be seen in the eggs. 
 At first they become opaque, but soon resume their 
 transparency. A small, round spot next appears, 
 which gradually extends until one end takes the 
 shape of a tail, and the other that of a spatula- 
 shaped head. Two black points upon the sides 
 presently turn into eyes. It is not long before 
 the young animal gives sign of life by motion of 
 
446 
 
 KNOTS. 
 
 the tail. As the eggs open the head and rail first 
 emerge, and then the umbilical vesicle attached 
 to the belly of the fish, and there retained for some 
 time, as the only source of nutriment. 
 
 In case the eggs in the hatching-box become 
 covered with film from the impurity of the water, 
 they should be cleansed with a feather, or with a 
 fine brush of badger's hair. 
 
 The eggs may be transferred from one vessel to 
 another by means of a glass pipe, the stem of 
 which is closed by the finger. The egg is made 
 to enter the tube by removing the finger. 
 
 The young fish very soon displays differences 
 of nature and instinct. Some, like the pike and 
 perch, quickly free themselves from the umbilical 
 vesicle and shoot about with great vivacity. Oth- 
 ers, as the salmon and trout, retain their provision 
 bags longer, seem more sluggish, and huddle to- 
 gether in dark corners. Some kinds are so bold 
 and hardy that they require but little care. The 
 pike, for instance, and the trout, may very soon 
 be put into ponds and rivers, where they will look 
 out for themselves. But others, more delicate and 
 often more valuable, must be kept in artificial ba- 
 sins until they have acquired strength to resist 
 the destructive agencies that await them in the 
 ravenous waters. 
 
 In a box less than 2 feet long, 6 inches wide and 
 4 inches deep, Prof. Coste has sometimes reared to 
 a sufficient size for removal, no less than 2000 
 salmon at a time. 
 
 The basin used at the College of France may 
 serve as a model for the receptacles above named. 
 It has different compartments for the fish of dif- 
 ferent ages. The wall is built waist-high, that 
 the fish may be conveniently overlooked. Here 
 and there, on the gravelly bed, are small heaps of 
 rounded pebbles. Little shelters of earthenware 
 are scattered about, that the fish may have dark 
 places in which to hide and rest. A few aquatic 
 plants are added to complete the conditions which 
 would be found in nature. 
 
 The salmon, the trout and the eel, are fed upon 
 
 boiled beef or horse-flesh, which is prepared fcr 
 them by pounding in a mortar. These delicate 
 morsels are eagerly seized by the young fish. 
 After 8 or 10 days the boiled flesh is exchanged 
 for raw, which is pounded and given in little pel- 
 lets. At Hummingue , salmon and trout are fed 
 with the flesh of other and cheaper fish, which is 
 prepared for them by pounding. Small earth- 
 worms and the minute Crustacea of stagnant wa- 
 ters are sought with avidity by these young fry. 
 
 For the proper acclimation of fishes, and for 
 other reasons, it is often desirable to transport 
 the eggs to a considerable distance. When the 
 eggs are free and separate, with a tough covering, 
 as in the case with the salmon and the trout, pine 
 boxes are used. These are filled with sand or 
 moss, or fragments of sponge, or with some aquatio 
 plant, in the moist folds of which the eggs are 
 ranged in layers. 
 
 The eggs, which come in agglutinated clusters, 
 with tender envelopes, such as the spawn of the 
 carp, the ronch, the perch, etc., cannot be con- 
 veyed so easily. The best method is to put them 
 intojars three-quarters filled with water and con- 
 taining some aquatic plant. There is another 
 class of eggs which are deposited upon grass or 
 small sticks. Let these, with the objects to which 
 they adhere, be wrapped up in a wet cloth, and 
 then be put into a box or basket. 
 
 The young fish also are often transported to 
 great distances in bottles containing water and 
 some living aquatic plants. The water must be 
 renewed from time to time. To keep up the sup- 
 ply of air, which fishes must have, no less than 
 animals which live in it, an ingenious apparatus 
 has been devised by some fishermen of the Vos- 
 ges. The vessel which holds the fish is swung at 
 the back in the style of the rag-picker. A bel- 
 lows, like that of the Scotch bagpipe, worked un- 
 der the arm, sends at pleasure its current of air 
 through the water that contains the fish. An oc- 
 casional squeeze of the bellows keeps the fish in 
 good breathing condition. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 TO TIE KNOTS. 
 
 FKW persons know how to tie a knot; even 
 women with their neatness in all other matters tie 
 very badly. It is as easy, indeed more easy, to 
 make a neat, firm knot, easy to untie, as one 
 clumsy, insecure, and readily jammed. In prac- 
 tising, it is better at first to use a coarse cord or 
 fine rope. The knots given below can all be mas- 
 tered in an hour's practice, and will be found of 
 daily use. 
 
 Fig. 1. The Reefing Knot, 
 
 Also called the flat knot, is the one best adapted 
 for ordinary use in tying the two ends of a string. 
 It is neat, flat, does not readily slip, and is easily 
 
 untied. It is the same as is used in tying shoe- 
 strings and neck-ties, except that the ends are 
 drawn through. It is essential that the two parts 
 of each string should be on the same side or there 
 will be formed a " granny" knot. 
 
 Fig. 2. The Sheet Bend, 
 
 Also called the weavers' knot, is used where great 
 firmness is required; it is small, cannot slip, and 
 can be made when one end of the string is just 
 long enough to make a loop. It is more liable to 
 jam than the one last named. Bend one end of 
 the cord into a loop, which hold in the left hand, 
 pass the other end through the loop, around it 
 and then under itself. A little practice will en- 
 
KNOTS. 
 
 447 
 
 able the learner to use both hands at once, in 
 which case it can be tied very quickly. It is 
 easily made after learning the flat knot, by pass- 
 ing one end across or under the loop instead of 
 through it. It is obvious that in having the free 
 eiid of the loop long it can be used instead of an- 
 other end, and thus heavy bodies, as window-sash 
 weights and clock weights are hung. 
 
 Fig. 3. The Binding Knot 
 
 Is used for fastening broken sticks or rods after 
 serving them with several turns of the cord which 
 should never overlap. Before beginning the serv- 
 ing make a loop a little longer than the proposed 
 extent of the turns (a Fig. 3). When the serving 
 is finished pass the end of the cord through this 
 loop, and hy pulling in its free end the other is 
 drawn within the serving and made secure (6 
 Fig. 3). 
 
 Fig. 4. The Single Half -hitch 
 
 Is made more quickly than any other tie, can be 
 instantly undone, and is very secure. It is used 
 to fasten ends of ropes in rings, etc., when they 
 are to be quickly cast off, and may be used for 
 slinging light bodies of small diameter. It is also 
 put over the tops of bottles to fasten in the corks, 
 and is then called the beer-knot : in this case the 
 two ends are afterwards tied. By reversing it it 
 becomes a running knot, or "sailor's knot." In 
 practising, at first take the fixed or "standing" 
 part of the line in the left hand, make a loop in 
 it; then make a second loop in the right-hand 
 part, and put it through the first (a, Fig. 4). Af- 
 terwards try it through rings, and around rods 
 and small posts (6, Fig. 4). For large posts use 
 the clove-hitch; the single half-hitch will slip. 
 Remember that when it is to hold, the strain must 
 come on the standing part. It differs but slightly 
 from the common single bow-knot, and can be 
 made as easily with a little practice. 
 
 Fig. 5. The Clove-hitch. 
 
 One of the most useful of all fastenings ; it is not 
 properly a knot, for it is neither tied nor untied. 
 It is largely employed on ship-board and in re- 
 ducing dislocations, but opportunities for its use 
 
 in ordinary life are of daily occurrence. In prac- 
 tising, take the fixed or standing part of the rope 
 
 in the left hand, turn the free end under it, and 
 put it over the thumb; repent this, and the hitch 
 is made. (Fig. 5.) When the clove-hitch is made 
 on the standing part of the rope, after it has passed 
 around a post or box, it is called two half-hitches, 
 and is the best method of fastening boxes or bun- 
 dles. In this case it should never be fastened to 
 the cord at right angles to its own, but that in a 
 line with it. (Fig. 6.) 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 Fig. 7. The Bowline 
 
 Is used in slinging heavy bodies; it cannot slip, 
 and will never jam under the heaviest strain. It 
 is difficult to understand at first, but with a little 
 practice can be made very rapidly. Take the 
 fixed or standing part of the rope in the left hand 
 (this should be done in making all knots), lay the 
 free end over it, and then by a twist of the wrist 
 make a loop in the standing part which shall in- 
 close the free end (a, Fig. 7) ; then carry the free 
 end behind the standing part and through the 
 loop, parallel with itself (b, Fig. 7). This knot 
 will well repay the trouble spent in learning it. 
 
KNITTING, CROCHETING, ETC. 
 
 KNITTING. 
 Shetland Wool Shawl (for the Centre). 
 
 Cast on 200 stitches on needles No. 7. 
 
 First Row. Knit two ; knit two together 
 thread forward ; knit one ; thread forward ; kni 
 two together; knit one; knit two together; threac 
 forward; knit one; thread forward; knit two to 
 gether: knit one. 
 
 Second Rorv. Plain knitting. 
 
 Third Row. Knit two together; knit one 
 thread forward; knit three; thread forward; kni 
 three together ; thread forward ; knit three ; threac 
 forward ; knit three together. At the end of this 
 row plain knit the two last stitches. 
 
 Fourth Row. Plain knitting. 
 
 Fifth. Row. Knit two; thread forward; kni 
 two together; knit one; knit two together; thread 
 forward; knit one; thread forward ; knit two to- 
 gether; knit one; knit two together; thread for- 
 ward : knit one. 
 
 Sixth Row. Plain knitting. 
 
 Seventh Row. Knit three ; thread forward ; knit 
 three together; thread forward; knit three; thread 
 forward ; knit three together ; thread forward. ' At 
 the end of this row bring the thread forward ; knit 
 two. 
 
 Eighth Row. Plain knitting. 
 
 These eight rows must be repeated until a square 
 is knitted. 
 
 Border for the Shetland Wool Shawl (This is for 
 one-half.) 
 
 Cast on 600 stitches on needles No. 3. 
 
 First Row. Knit two together four times ; 
 thread forward; knit one eight times; knit two 
 together four times; purl one; knit two together 
 four times; thread forward; knit one eight times; 
 knit two together four times ; purl one. 
 
 Second Roto. Purl knitting. 
 
 Third Row. Plain knitting. 
 
 Fourth Row. Purl ; commence again as at first 
 row. After having knitted a piece half a yard in 
 depth, knit six rows plain and purled alternately; 
 then six rows of holes, worked thus : one row 
 plain, second row thread forward ; knit two in one, 
 and so on ;' third plain ; then six rows of plain and 
 purled. To form the corner two and three stitches 
 must be knitted together in the centre and at the 
 ends, commencing from the plain rows. 
 
 A Knitted Muff, in Imitation of Sable pretty for 
 Children. 
 
 Cast on 70 or 80 stitches. 
 
 First, Second, and Third Rows. Plain knitting. 
 
 Fourth Row. Bring the wool forward; knit two 
 together, taken at the back; continue the same to 
 the end of the row. 
 
 Repeat these 4 rows until the piece be about 1 8 
 inches long, admitting that the shading, comes in 
 correctly. 
 
 Two No. 19 needles are required, and double 
 German wool, in 4 distinct shades, to match the 
 color of sable. Commence with the lightest shade ; 
 then the second, third, and darkest, reversing them 
 again to the lightest. 
 
 Another Muff. 
 
 Cast on 45 stitches. 
 
 Every row is worked the same, with a slip-stitch 
 at the beginning; knit one; purl one; repeat to 
 the end of the row. 
 
 It will require a piece of about 20 inches long 
 to make a moderate-sized muff, which must be 
 lined with silk, and stuffed with wool and a suffi- 
 cient quantity of horse-hair to retain it in shape. 
 Cord and tassels to match the color of the muff 
 may be sewn at the ends, or it may be drawn up 
 with ribbons.- 
 
 CROCHETING. 
 A pretty Toilet Slipper. 
 
 Make a chain of fifteen stitches in single cro- 
 chet; crochet two stitches in the middle stitch of 
 every row, until you have completed twelve rows, 
 which is sufficient for the front. Take up twelve 
 stitches on one side ; crochet thirty rows, and join 
 them to the other side of the front ; then catch the 
 stitches up round the top, and crochet one row. 
 
 For the frill, crochet the stitches in every loop in 
 single crochet, very loose, to form a full frill. 
 
 When finished, turn the slipper inside out, and 
 sew in a cork sole; then pass the ribbon round 
 under the frill and tie in front in a bow. The 
 above is exceedingly pretty in shaded Berlin wool. 
 
 MANAGEMENT OF CANARY BIRDS 
 
 Breeding. 
 
 The breeding cage should have plenty of fine 
 gravel or sea-sand at the bottom, and a lump of 
 old mortar, for the birds to pick. Goats' hair 
 must be supplied for the nest. The birds when 
 put up should be fed on bread, the yolk of boiled 
 eggs and a little sugar. Let them have fresh 
 greens in moderation. The birds should not be 
 allowed to breed more than twice or thrice a year. 
 The period of incubation is 14 days; in very warm 
 weather, 13. The last of March is early enough 
 to put the birds in the breeding-cage. 
 
 If the hen desert her eggs, they are probably 
 bad, and should be thrown out. 
 
 If the hen eat her eggs, feed her well very early 
 in the morning, or late at night. If the male 
 break the eggs, let him have two hens ; these 
 must not be allowed in the same cage, or they 
 will fight. 
 
 If the hen neglect to feed her young, stir her out 
 of the nest and supply her with an abundance of 
 delicate food. As soon as the young are hatched, 
 place beside the usual feeding-trough a cup con- 
 taining finely grated hard-boiled egg and stale 
 bread rubbed fine and soaked in milk ; also, one 
 containing crushed rape-seed, boiled and after- 
 wards washed with fresh water. 
 
 The young may be placed in separate cages in 
 about 4 weeks. 
 
 Feeding. 
 
 Canary-seed alone is sufficient, but usually a 
 mixture of canary, hemp, millet and rape, known 
 
 bird-seed, is used. Each cage should have a 
 piece of cuttle-fish bone. Food is best supplied 
 in the evening, and all stale food and refuse of 
 every kind should be removed daily. The bottom 
 of the cage should be strewn with fine gravel or 
 sand, fresh water supplied daily, and a saucer of 
 water for bathing twice a week. Greens should 
 be cautiously supplied. 
 
 To Distinguish the Sex. 
 
 The throat of the male vibrates while singing; 
 ;his never happens with the hen. The males are 
 arger, more yellow above the bill, under the throat 
 and in the pinions of the wings. The body of 
 the male is longer and more tapering. 
 
 Singing. 
 
 Birds with long, straight and tapering bodies 
 are the best singers. By putting 2 or -3 birds to- 
 gether they will vie with each other. 
 
 Diseases. 
 
 Surfeit from improper or excessive food is shown 
 >y swelling of the belly, which, on blowing up 
 he feathers, appears transparent and covered 
 with little bloodvessels. In birds from 1 to 3 years 
 Id it shows itself in scabs and humors about the 
 lead. Take away canary-seed, and add some 
 
BIKDS, DOGS, ETC. 
 
 449 
 
 grits, which will purge; put a little saffron in the 
 water. Anoint the affected parts with almond-oil. 
 
 Husk, from cold. It produces a dry, husky 
 cough, and is difficult to cure, (live them some 
 fluxseed mixed with the bird-eeed and a little 
 rock-candy in the water, and for a few mornings a 
 little boiled bread and milk. 
 
 - Excessive perspiration from a warm season, con- 
 fined locality, or sitting too closely on the nest. 
 The feathers are ruffled and damp, and the bird 
 feoble. Wash with salt and water for several 
 mornings, or sprinkle a few drops of sherry over 
 the bird, and put it in the sun to dry. 
 
 Etiy-bomid, from cold. Give the bird a little 
 moist sugar, or anoint the abdomen with warm 
 sweet oil; if these fail, give a drop of castor-oil. 
 
 Moulting. Avoid cold, give sunshine, some 
 bread and egg, with saffron in the water. 
 
 Sneezing is caused by obstruction of the nostril, 
 which may be removed by a small quill. 
 
 Fits. Plunge the bird suddenly into cold wa- 
 ter, and cut two of its claws short enough for the 
 blood to run. 
 
 Lice. Allow the birds to bathe frequently ; 
 keep the cage very clean, with plenty of dry sand 
 in the bottom. Put some hollow sticks in the 
 cage ; the lice will collect in them, and may be 
 removed. 
 
 Drooping. When a bird continues sickly with- 
 out apparent cause, give a little powdered char- 
 eoal mixed with bread and egg. 
 
 Accidents. For a broken leg or wing, put the 
 bird in a cage without perches, and covered at the 
 bottom with soft hay. Let its food be within easy 
 reach, and keep the cage covered. 
 
 DOGS. 
 
 Of the Best Breed of Dogs for Shooting Game. 
 
 " The breed of dogs which I prefer, beyond all 
 others, are those which are bred between a setter 
 and a pointer, but not bred from those setters 
 which have no natural point in them, for I have 
 no idea of shooting to a dog which does not stop 
 at birds the very first day he is taken into the 
 field. I have not had a setter which was broken 
 by force for above 20 years, nor ever will have one. 
 Leave them at home only one week, for the next 
 two days you must turn to dog-breaking, and not 
 to shooting. . I prefer those between a pointer and 
 a setter, which take after the setter, for, generally 
 speaking, they have better feet, which is a great 
 point in a dog, for certain they have more hair on 
 their feet, which is a great preservative to the 
 foot, if it be kept clean. I never kept a cocker 
 spaniel in my life; I always shoot to pointers, even 
 in the strongest covers, with bells round their 
 necks. I know, for certain, you will not find so 
 much game, but then what you find you are sure 
 to shoot at. Here is the great benefit of shooting 
 to pointers : you may shoot every day in a wood, 
 and not drive the game away. But, if you turn 
 cocking spaniels into a wood, which quest, when 
 they come on to the foot of a pheasant, in a very 
 few days you will drive every pheasant out of the 
 wood. A Newfoundland dog, tutored to keep be- 
 hind you in the fields, and not to go above a dozen 
 or twenty yards from you in a wood, is of wonder- 
 ful utility in retrieving and bringing wounded 
 game. I have had several that were uncommonly 
 useful." 
 
 How to know the Age of a Dog until he i Six 
 Years Old. 
 
 A dog has a very visible mark in his teeth, as 
 
 well as a horse, which mark does not disappear 
 
 totally until he is very near or full 6 years old. 
 
 Look to the 4 front teeth, both in the upper and 
 
 29 
 
 lower jaw, but particularly to the teeth in the up- 
 per jaw, for in those 4 front teeth the mark re- 
 mains the longest. At 12 months old you will ob- 
 serve every one of the 4 front teeth, both in the 
 upper and under jaw, jagged and uneven, nearly 
 in the form of a fleur de Us, but not quite so 
 pointed at the edges of the jags as a fleur de lit 
 ia. As the dog advances in age these marks will 
 wear away, gradually decrease and grow smoother 
 and less jagged every year. Between 3 and 4 
 years old these marks will be full half worn down, 
 and when you observe all the 4 front teeth, both 
 in the upper and lower jaw, quite worn smooth 
 and even, and not in the least jagged, then you 
 may conclude that the dog is nearly if not full 6 
 years old. When those marks are worn quite flat 
 and even, and those teeth quite level and even, 
 you can no longer judge the age of a dog. Many 
 huntsmen and game-keepers ignorantly look at 
 the side and eye-teeth of a dog ; there are many 
 dogs not 2 years old which have had the canker 
 in the mouth, with hardly one sound tooth in their 
 heads. 
 
 Distemper in Dogs 
 
 Is characterized by a running from the nose and 
 eyes, and a short dry cough, followed by a wast- 
 ing of the flesh, and loss of strength and spirits. 
 At length the brain suffers, and fits, paralysis of 
 the extremities, or convulsions come on. Give a 
 teaspoon ful of magnesia every other night, or the 
 same quantity of washed flowers of sulphur. 
 
 Mange in Dogs 
 
 Is allied to the itch in man, and requires the same 
 treatment. Wash with soft soap, and apply sul- 
 phur ointment. 
 
 Worms in Dogs 
 
 Are a frequent cause of fits, and when they get 
 into the nostrils, windpipe, etc., generally cause 
 death. For those in the bowels', Youatt recom- 
 mends powdered glass made up into a roll with 
 butter or lard. Cowhage (cow-itch, mucuna) is 
 probably quite as effectual, and is safer. A teaspoon- 
 ful may be given in lard, and repeated if neces- 
 sary. Turpentine should not be given to dogs. 
 
 Sportsman's Beef. 
 
 Take a fine round of beef, 4 oz. of saltpetre, f 
 of an oz. of allspice ; rub it well on the beef, and 
 let it stand 24 hours; then rub in as much com- 
 mon salt as will salt it. Lay it by* 12 days, turn- 
 ing it every day ; then put it into a pan, such as 
 large pies are baked in, with 3 or 4 Ibs. of beef- 
 suet, some under, some over. Cover it with a 
 thick crust, and bake it for 6 hours. It will keep 
 for two months, and most excellent it is. 
 
 TO DESTROY INSECTS. 
 
 Persian Insect Powder 
 
 Is the pyrethrum roeun> Caucasicum. The central 
 or tubular florets are alone used. They are ground 
 to powder. Although destructive to insect life it 
 is harmless to man or domestic animals. 
 
 To Destroy Body Lice. 
 
 1. Mercurial ointment well rubbed on the in- 
 fected part and washed off with warm water and 
 soap. In the army a common practice was to 
 wear a string saturated with the ointment around 
 the waist as a means of protection. This might 
 produce salivation. 
 
 2. Corrosive sublimate, 1 dr.; sal ammoniac, 2 
 drs.; water, 8 oz. This is to be used as the first j 
 it is more cleanly. 
 
 3. Coculns indicus, 1 oz. ; boiling water, 1 pt. ; 
 use when cool. 
 
450 
 
 INSECTS. 
 
 To Destroy Fleas on Animals. 
 Wash with infusion of coculus Indicus, or with 
 t)al-oil, and then with soap and warm water. 
 
 Chloride of Lime to Destroy Insects. 
 By scattering chloride of lime on a plank in a 
 stable, biting fleas are driven away. Sprinkling 
 beds of vegetables with a weak solution of this 
 salt effectually preserves them from caterpillars, 
 slugs, moths, etc. It has the same effect when 
 sprinkled on fruit trees or shrubbery. Mixed in 
 a paste with fatty matter and applied in a narrow 
 band around the trees, it prevents insects from 
 creeping up. 
 
 Coal-oil a Remedy for Insects. 
 
 At a late meeting of the Cincinnati Horticultural 
 Society, Mr. Wells made the following statements : 
 
 He said he had found coal-oil a very effectual 
 remedy for all insects, both on plants and trees. 
 When he desired to rid his trees of the trouble- 
 some pests, as had been the case a year ago, when 
 his plum crop threatened from their inroads to be 
 a total failure, he had used with entire success 
 the following truly valuable preparation : One pt. 
 of soft soap mixed with half the quantity of coal- 
 oil, the whole then being stirred into 7 or 8 galls, 
 of rain-water. The application he had made with 
 a powerful syringe, deluging the tops after the 
 blossoming of the tree, and when the immature 
 fruit began to fall, continuing the operation for 
 3 or 4 nights in succession, and afterwards once 
 or twice a week. 
 
 He had also tried coal-oil on his cabbage plants, 
 to prevent the depredations of the cut-worm, and 
 had found the remedy uniformly successful. In 
 this case he saturated the coarse chips from a 
 planing-mill with undiluted oil, placing a hand- 
 ful of them, so prepared, around each plant. 
 
 He had tried experiments on plants, using dif- 
 ferent preventions with the following results: 
 One hundred cabbage plants treated in the cus- 
 tomarjr manner, with ashes, were still attacked by 
 the worm, and suffered from the. depredations of 
 the louse. One hundred plants surrounded with 
 common planing-mill chips one plant slightly 
 eaten; worm found dead beneath the leaves. One 
 hundred plants surrounded with chips saturated 
 with coal-oil free from lice and untouched by 
 the worm. He had been equally fortunate in his 
 application of *oal-oil to melon and other vines to 
 prevent the inroads of the bugs. 
 
 To Destroy Slugs and Earthworms 
 Water the plants with a solution of carbonate 
 of ammonia, 1 oz. to the gallon. They will come 
 to the surface and perish. The ammonia will pro- 
 mote the growth of the plants. 
 
 Roach Poison. 
 
 Put a drachm of phosphorus in a flask with 2 
 oz. of water; plunge the flnsk into hot water, and 
 when the phosphorus is melted, pour the contents 
 into a mortar with 2 or 3 oz. of lard. Triturate 
 briskly, adding water, and Ib. of flour, with 1 or 
 2 oz. of brown sugar. Plaster of Paris, with oat- 
 meal, is said to destroy roaches. 
 
 Roach Wafers. 
 
 These are made with flour, sugar, and red-lead, 
 heated in wafer irons. 
 
 Ant- Trap. 
 
 Procure a large sponge, wash it well and press 
 it dr}', which will leave the cells quite open; then 
 iprinkle it with fine white sugar, and place it 
 near where the ants are troublesome. The ants 
 will soon collect upon the sponge, and take up 
 their abode in its cells. It is then only necessary 
 
 to dip the sponge in boiling water when the anti 
 will be destroyed, and it may be set over and 
 over again. Cyanide of potassium is employed 
 in Cuba, but is a violent poison and its use is not 
 recommended. 
 
 To keep Ants out of Closets or Drawers. 
 
 Draw a line with a brush dipped in the follow- 
 ing solution around the shelf to be protected. The 
 ants will not cross it. Corrosive sublimate, 1 oz.; 
 muriate of ammonia, 2 oz. ; water, 1 pint. This 
 solution may also he used to destroy bed-bugs by 
 applying it to the cracks with a feather or brush., 
 
 Destruction of Insects in Grain. 
 
 In M. Louvel's plan the grain is put into a 
 hollow cast-iron cylinder, from which the air is 
 partially exhausted. No animal c:m there live, 
 fermentation itself ceases as it has neither air 
 nor moisture. On the large scale, the vacuum is 
 created by filling a communicating cylinder with 
 steam, which is then condensed. A vacuum of 20 
 inches is quite sufficient. 
 
 To Drive away Moths. 
 
 If the articles are to be wrapped up, enclose 
 camphor, snuff, or Persian insect powder. Furs 
 should be kept in cedar boxes, and opened out 
 and beaten occasionally during the summer. It 
 is stated that the Russians preserve furs by wrap- 
 ping up with them a quill containing a small 
 quantity of mercury and securely corked. In 
 collections of birds open bottles of ether are placed 
 in the cases; benzine is much cheaper and would 
 probably- answer. When articles become infested 
 the surest remedy is to bake them in an oven at 
 a temperature below that which would scorch 
 them. Feathers may be preserved by dipping 
 them in a solution of 16 grs. of strychnia in a 
 pint of alcohol. 
 
 Bibron's Antidote for Snake-Bites. 
 Take of bromine, 2J- drs. ; iodide of potassium, 
 2 grs. ; corrosive sublimate, 1 gr. ; diluted alcohol, 
 30 fl. drs. Dose, 1 fl. dr., in 1 table-spoon ful of 
 wine or brandy, to be repeated as required by the 
 case. 
 
 For Bites and Stings of Small Reptiles and Insects. 
 
 The local pain produced by the bites and stings 
 of reptiles and insects, in general, is greatly re- 
 lieved by the following application : Make a lotion 
 of 5 oz. of distilled water, and 1 oz. of tincture of 
 opium. To be applied immediately. 
 
 Another. Mix 5 oz. of soft water, and oz. 
 of water of ammonia. Wash the part repeatedly 
 with this lotion until the pain abates. 
 
 To Remove Bugs, etc. 
 
 The bedsteads ought to be taken down three or 
 four times a year, the screws rubbed with pure 
 oil, and a good manual cleaning given to all its 
 parts. This plan, which has been slightly noticed 
 under the general head of cleanliness, will render 
 all poisonous mixtures unnecessary. 
 
 To Avoid Injury from Bees. 
 
 A wasp or bee swallowed may be killed before 
 it can do harm by taking a teaspoon ful of common 
 salt dissolved in water. It kills the insect and 
 cures the sting. Salt at all times is a good cure 
 for external stings; sweet-oil, pounded mallows, 
 or onions, powdered chalk made into a pa.te with 
 water, or weak ammonia, are also efficacious. 
 
 If bees swarm upon the head, smoke tobacco 
 and hold an empty hive over the head, and they 
 will enter it. 
 
PETROLEUM, TELEGRAPH. 
 
 451 
 
 PETROLEUM. 
 
 This name, meaning rock oil, is applied to cer 
 tain bituminous fluids found in the earth. Solic 
 bitumen, or asphalt, differs but little in chemica 
 composition from petroleum, both being com 
 pounds of carbon and hydrogen. 
 | Many varieties of petroleum, and perhaps nil 
 become thicker by exposure to the air, and finally 
 solid, resembling asphaltum. Bitumen, and doubt 
 less petroleum also, was known from the earlies 1 
 ages, being the " pitch " which Noah used in build- 
 ing the Ark, and the 4< slirne" used for mortar in 
 the Tower of Babel, being dug from pits in the Val 
 ley of Sodom, precisely as is done in the sam< 
 ri/gion at the present day, where the Arabs an 
 nually extract considerable quantities. 
 
 The fluid petroleum has been collected in Bur 
 mah for at least 15 centuries. It is used by the 
 inhabitants for light and fuel. The product ob 
 tained, at the present time, from 520 wells, is saic 
 to be 420,000 hogsheads annually. In the United 
 States, petroleum is not, as many suppose, a ne 
 discovery. Years ago springs of it were known 
 at many localities, but its use was very limited 
 No method of purifying it was known, so that il 
 was looked upon as valueless, and several welli 
 bored for salt water were abandoned on accoun 
 of the oil rendering the salt impure. In 1861 il 
 was purified, and introduced extensively as an 
 illuminating oil, to take the place of burning fluic 
 (camphene and alcohol), the price of which was 
 greatly enhanced, and which, by the explosive 
 qualities of its vapor, was causing many severe acci 
 dents. The trade increased, new wells were bored 
 and some of them yielding several hundred bar- 
 rels a day, and making their possessors at once 
 wealthy, started what has been known as the oi 
 fever. Lands sold for fabulous prices, sometimes 
 for 500 times as much as 2 or 3 years before. 
 
 Petroleum has probably been formed by a slow 
 decomposition of organic matter under the earth's 
 surface. It is found in cavities and crevices, anc 
 through the substance of the rock. In mining for 
 it, a well 3 or 4 inches in diameter, and sometimes 
 VOO or 800 feet deep, is bored by drills, generally 
 by steam-power. When rock containing petroleum 
 is being bored through, what is called " a show of 
 oil" is found. The chips and water drawn up 
 from the well show and smell of the oil, but, un- 
 less the drill strikes a cavity or crevice filled with 
 oil, the well is not productive. This uncertainty 
 is the most unfortunate peculiarity of oil-mining, 
 and makes it, to a great extent, a lottery, for 
 there are no surface indications by which these 
 cavities can be discovered. 
 
 Petroleum is much lighter than water, of a dark 
 green or black color, with a peculiar, and, to most 
 persons, unpleasant odor. It is commercially di- 
 vided into two kinds, the heavy, or lubricating oil, 
 and the light oil. The former is more dense, and 
 sometimes of the consistence of thin molasses. It 
 is used, without preparation, for lubricating ma- 
 chinery, for which it is admirably suited. The 
 light oil, before it can be used, is submitted to 
 several purifying processes, the most important of 
 which is distillation. 
 
 For this purpose the crude oil is pumped into 
 stills holding from 200 to 1000 galls, each, and 
 submitted to a gradually increasing heat, the 
 vapors being passed through a worm immersed in 
 cold water. At first there comes over a very light, 
 mobile, and volatile liquid exceedingly inflam- 
 mable. This is benzine, largely used as a cheap 
 substitute for turpentine in painting, and as a 
 solvent for India-rubber. It differs from benzole 
 (obtained by distillation from coal-gas tar), and 
 the beautiful colors obtained from the latter can- 
 
 not be made from the benzine of Petroleum. The 
 terms benzine and benzole are often confounded, 
 and even used as synonyms, but the name benzol* 
 is properly applied only to one of the many sub- 
 stances contained in coal-tar, and from which the 
 aniline colors are obtained. 
 
 Next, there condenses a less volatile and in- 
 flammable liquid, of greater specific gravity. This 
 is the burning oil, and is generally the most abun- 
 dant and valuable product. When the heat rises 
 to near 500 Fahr., the oil that comes over is no 
 longer suitable for burning, but is an excellent 
 lubricant for light machinery. Finally, a sub- 
 stance (paraffine) solid at common temperatures, 
 distils over, and there remains in the retort, as 
 the heat has been less or greater, a thick tarry 
 matter, or a porous coke. When the lubricating 
 oil, just mentioned, is exposed to cold, a consider- 
 able portion of paraffine separates from it, and 
 cnn be collected upon filters, purified, and used 
 for candles, and for other purposes. 
 
 All these products, and especially the burning 
 oil f require further purification after the distilla- 
 tion. This usually consists in agitation, first 
 with water, followed by strong sulphuric acid, 
 caustic soda, and finished with water. The 
 effect of this is to render the oil colorless, and to 
 diminish the odor. 
 
 The relative amount of these several products 
 varies very greatly in different regions, and in- 
 deed in the oil of different wells in the same region. 
 Thus, the oil from Canada contains little or no 
 benzine, much burning oil, and much paraffine, 
 while that from Ohio and Western Virginia con- 
 tains much benzine, about the same amount of 
 burning oil as the former, and but little paraffine. 
 
 Petroleum is found in many localities on this 
 continent. Among these may be mentioned as 
 the most important, Canada West, Pennsylvania, 
 Ohio, Western Virginia, California, Kentucky, and 
 Tennessee. The first four yield more than nine- 
 tenths of all now obtained, but it is probable that 
 other regions will yield equally well when as 
 thoroughly explored. 
 
 To Test Burning Oil. 
 
 Burning oil is sometimes adulterated with ben- 
 zine, or with the heavy oil. To detect the former, 
 pour an ounce or two into a small tin cup, and 
 put it on a stove or over a lamp, placing the bulb 
 of a thermometer in the oil. The* as the tempera- 
 ture rises, try with a lighted taper when the oil 
 gives off inflammable vapor. If this be below 
 100 110 Fahr., the oil is dangerous to use, as 
 its vapor becoming mixed with air in the lamp 
 may take fire and explode. The adulteration 
 with heavy oil is shown by dimness of the flame 
 after having burned for some time, accompanied 
 by a charring of the wick. 
 To Extinguish the Flame of Petroleum or Benzine. 
 
 Water, unless in overwhelming quantity, will 
 not extinguish the flame of petroleum or benzine. 
 It may, however, be speedily smothered by a 
 woollen cloth, or carpet, or a wet muslin or linea 
 cloth, or earth or sand being thrown over it. 
 These act by excluding the air, without which com- 
 bustion cannot be maintained. 
 
 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC TELEGRAPH. 
 
 This telegraph is based upon the principle that 
 a magnet may be endowed and deprived at will 
 
 ith the peculiarity of attracting iron by connecting 
 or disconnecting it with a galvanic battery j all 
 nagnetic telegraphs are based solely upon this 
 principle. The telegraphs bearing the names of 
 ,he several inventors, as Morse (who may be called 
 he pioneer in this invention), House, Bain, etc., 
 
452 
 
 TELEGKAPH, BOOK-KEEPING, ETC. 
 
 are simply modifications in the application of this 
 great principle. 
 
 It is by breaking off the magnetic circuit, which 
 is done near the battery, that certain marks are 
 produced by means of a style or lever, which is 
 depressed when the current is complete, and of 
 the length of the interval of the breaking of this 
 current, that signs of different appearances and 
 lengths are produced and written out upon paper, 
 making in themselves a hieroglyphic alphabet, 
 readable to those who understand the key. This 
 is the entire principle of electro-magnetic tele- 
 graphing. 
 
 It was formerly considered necessary to use a 
 second wire to complete the magnetic circuit, now 
 but one wire is used, and the earth is made to per- 
 form the office of the other. 
 
 Where the distance is great between the places 
 to be communicated with a relay battery is neces- 
 sary to increase the electric current, and in this 
 manner lines of great length may be formed. 
 
 The House apparatus differs from the Morse 
 only that by means of an instrument resembling a 
 piano-forte, having a key for every letter, the ope- 
 rator, by pressing upon these keys, can reproduce 
 these letters at the station at the other end of the 
 line, and have them printed in ordinary printing 
 type upon strips of paper, instead of the characters 
 employed on the Morse instrument to represent 
 these letters. 
 
 The Bain telegraph differs from either of the 
 two preceding methods, simply in employing the 
 ends of the wires themselves, without the means 
 of a magnet or style to press upon the paper, the 
 paper being first chemically prepared; so that 
 when the circuit of electricity is complete, the cur- 
 rent passes through the paper from the point of 
 the wires, and decomposes a chemical compound, 
 with which the paper is prepared, and leaves the 
 necessary marks upon it. There is not the same 
 need for relay batteries upon this line as upon the 
 others. 
 
 The greatest and most important telegraphic 
 attempt is the successful laying of the cable across 
 the Atlantic Ocean, which was finally completed 
 and open for business July 28th, 1866. The cable 
 lost in mid-ocean in the unsuccessful attempt of 
 the summer of 1865, has been recovered, and now 
 forms the second cable laid, connecting the Eastern 
 with the Western Continent. 
 
 The operation of telegraphing is very simple, and 
 can easily be learned, being purely mechanical. 
 
 BOOK-KEEPING. 
 
 Double-entry book-keeping consists simply in 
 this great principle that every debit must have a 
 corresponding credit, and every credit a correspond- 
 ing debit. This simple rule is the whole theory of 
 Double-entry book-keeping. For instance, you 
 charge a person with $100 worth of merchandise. 
 Merchandise must have a corresponding credit of 
 $100 for producing this debit or charge ; and the 
 entry would read thus: A. B. to Merchandise, 
 Dr., $100; Merchandise, Or. by A. B., $100; thus 
 making an equalization in the two entries. 
 
 Two other short rules in book-keeping are im- 
 portant : 
 
 Debit, that which cost us value. 
 
 Credit, " " produces us value. 
 
 Merchandize in the case above cited, produced 
 the charge to the individual, hence merchandize 
 gets credit, and the party who receives gets the 
 harge or debit. 
 
 The Day-Book 
 
 Is used to enter all daily transactions, as its name 
 imports, excepting those belonging to Cash. 
 
 The Cash- Boob, 
 
 For cash entries only. The left hand, or debit 
 side, for receipts; the right hand, or credit side, 
 for payments. 
 
 The Journal, 
 
 To arrange together in more convenient form for 
 posting (or entering into the Ledger) the several 
 entries in the Day-Book, Cash-Book, and such 
 other books as may be kept. 
 
 The Ledger 
 
 Is to contain the final results of the preceding 
 books, arranged under their proper heads. The 
 left hand side, in individual accounts, shows all 
 the party owes the right hand side, his payments, 
 or other credits due him. 
 
 The Editor of this work recommends the fol- 
 lowing (furnished by a practical printer, Mr. J. 
 H. Morris) to the attention of authors, editors, 
 and all those who write for the press : 
 
 ON PREPARING COPY AND MARKING 
 
 PROOF. 
 Hints from a Typo. 
 
 As there are not a few who undertake to write 
 for newspapers and to "make books," who do not 
 appear to know how to prepare their copy, the 
 writer of this article, who knows how copy should 
 be prepared, respectfully offers a few suggestions: 
 
 A sentence, composed of fine, well-chosen words, 
 may be so marred by inaccurate punctuation and 
 arrangement, as to seem to an ordinary reader but 
 a senseless string of words. Now, it is the in- 
 terest of an author, as well as his duty, not only 
 to select the words, but to arrange and punctuate 
 them so that his meaning may be readily per- 
 ceived by any reader possessed of common sense. 
 This duty should not be forced upon the composi- 
 tor. It is no part of a compositor's business to 
 edit what he " sets up ;" in fact, it is not generous, 
 or even just, to expect him to lose time (which to 
 him is bread) in "making sense" by punctuating, 
 capitalizing, paragraphing, or otherwise arrang- 
 ing, his copy. 
 
 Copy should be written only on one side of each 
 leaf, in a clear, legible hand, and, as far as possi- 
 ble, without erasures or interlineations ; when these 
 are unavoidable, they should be so marked as to 
 leave no excuse for mistake. Proper names, tech- 
 nical or scientific terms, and all unusual words, 
 should be so written as to show each letter dis- 
 tinctly. If the author wish a word emphasized 
 by Italics or SMALL CAPITALS, he should under- 
 score it, with one line for the former, and two lines 
 for the latter; three lines under a word indicate 
 that it is to be in CAPITALS. It is always safer 
 to indicate where paragraphs are to be commenced 
 by prefixing to the first word the paragraph mark,^T. 
 When a word is to have a capital initial letter, 
 it is well to make three strokes under the letter, 
 though this is unnecessary if the writer makes an 
 unmistakable difference between his capitals and 
 lower case or common letters. If cuts or engrav- 
 ings are to be inserted, they should all be ready 
 before the copy is put in hand, and should be 
 marked in just where the author wishes them in- 
 serted. If the work contain formulae, algebraic 
 problems, tables, or other peculiar matter, special 
 care should be bestowed upon them, so as to have 
 their arrangement clear to the compositor; it must 
 be borne in mind that not every first-rate com- 
 positor understands the sciences and kindred sub- 
 jects. The author should always make his com- 
 mas, semi-colons, colons, periods, dashes, paren- 
 theses, etc., just where he wishes them to appear 
 n print. If the work is to be set in different 
 
PROOF-READING. 
 
 453 
 
 sizes or styles of type, the copy should be marked 
 accordingly. Poetry should always be properly 
 indented by the author. 
 
 In short, copy should be, in all respects, pre- 
 pared as it is intended to appear in print, so that 
 the author need see no proof, or if he desire, for 
 any reason, to see proofs, it may be unnecessary for 
 him to make alterations. It should be borne in 
 mind that the making of alterations is charged 
 extra by the compositor, and, in proportion as 
 they are numerous, they entail a heavy extra out- 
 lay on the part of the publisher. 
 
 -Wff C CASTING Types. 
 
 C ., WHILJS there has been much diversity o 
 "~.it opinion with respect to the nameof the ' 
 
 W ventorjas well as the time of the invention; 
 
 II 
 
 v l ^i of Printing, there caniquestion but that to 
 
 0.C, Peter SCH(EFPR of Gernsheim belongs the < 
 
 / honor of originating the casting e-aetiug of 
 Li metal leters, thus utilizing the ir of arts. 
 
 flTt/ ,he had learned fro4r the world .renowned 
 '' t A = A, 
 
 |ey^5j Guttetnbergs the art of cutting letbw^Tr^e*- 
 
 wood. 
 
 J-; 
 
 Not satisfied with this sl.>w. tedious mode 
 
 / V 1 /" > 
 
 I of rnakingTlettersj helhit/happilylupon the 
 
 expedient of cutting the characters each in 
 
 a matrix ; [thus many letters might be made 
 
 / ,- 
 
 in the sanie time that it had formerly { too 
 
 by the cutting method, to make each 
 
 I Faust was so pleased with Schoeffers dis- U/ 
 
 *^ \ \ 
 
 covery, that he gave himh is only daugh; l-l 
 
 %/ 
 
 t|r Christina in marriage. [Little did either 
 anticipate the vast triumphs to be achieved 
 Uhis discovery. 
 
 The caption to an article is sometimes run in 
 befoVe the first paragraph with a period and short 
 dash, . (in which case Italics or SMALL CAPITALS 
 are generally used) ; but usually it is put above 
 the article, in the centre of the line, in capitals, as 
 in the example, or in some appropriate head -letter. 
 
 The marks above explain themselves, but, al- 
 though, in my efforts to illustrate as many marks 
 as possible, I have made the example dirtier than 
 I should like to see the proof of any fellow-crafts- 
 man, I yet have been unable to show all the marks 
 that are used in correcting proof. Two or three 
 of the above marks need a word of explanation : 
 
 If a word or line, from any cause, is crooked, 
 draw a line above and below, and two horizontal, 
 parallel lines in the margin. 
 
 If a sentence or more than four words be left 
 out, make a carat where the omission occurs, and 
 on the margin write Out, see copy. 
 
 When the proof-reader doubts the correctness 
 of a word, phrase, or anything else, he encircles 
 or underscores it, and in the margin writes Qr., 
 with or without a suggested correction, encircled. 
 Should the author adopt the suggestion, he draws 
 a line across only the Qr. ; if he rejects it, he 
 crosses also the correction. When the author, not 
 having the copy at hand, suspects a deviation 
 
 It was proposed to give some rules for punctua- 
 tion, but to be reasonably exact in giving such 
 rules would take up more space than such a work 
 as this can spare; hence, I will only say that, as ' 
 the object of punctuation is to make the meaning 
 of the author clear to the reader, commas and 
 other points should only be used where the sense 
 would be obscure without them. 
 
 The following example of proof-marking, with, 
 the brief remarks appended, may be instructive to 
 authors and others who are called upon to read 
 proof, as well as interesting to the curious : 
 
 CASTING TYPES. 
 
 WHILE there has been much diversity of 
 opinion with respect to the name of the in- 
 ventor (as well as the time of the inven- 
 tion) of Printing, there can be no question 
 but that to PETER SCHCEFFER of Gern- 
 sheim belongs the honor of originating 
 the casting of metal letters, thus utilizing 
 the, art of arts. 
 
 He had learned from the world-renowned 
 Guttembergs the art of cutting letters 
 from wood. Not satisfied with this slow, 
 tedious mode of making letters, he happily 
 hit upon the expedient of cutting the cha- 
 racters each in a matrix; in this the let- 
 ters might be cast, and thus many letters 
 might be made in the same time that it 
 had formerly taken, by the cutting me- 
 thod, to make each one. 
 
 Faust was so pleased with Schceffer's dis- 
 covery, that he gave him his only daugh- 
 ter Christina in marriage. 
 
 Little did either anticipate the vast tri- 
 umphs to be achieved through this dis- 
 covery. 
 
 from copy, and wishes the copy literally followed, 
 he encircles or underscores the doubtful word or 
 phrase, and writes in the margin Qr., see copy. 
 
 I might perhaps extend these remarks, but it is 
 impossible to mention every supposable correction 
 that can be made, and I think any author, with 
 the above example and remarks and the exercise 
 of his own common sense, should be able to mark 
 a proof intelligibly. 
 
 & 
 
 THE ART OF ROWING, 
 Requisites for a Perfect Stroke. 
 
 1. Taking the whole reach forward, and falling 
 back gradually a little past the perpendicular, 
 preserving the shoulders throughout square, and 
 the chest developed at the end. 
 
 2. Catching the water and beginning the stroke 
 with a full tension on the arms at the instant of 
 contact. 
 
 3. A horizontal and dashing pull through the 
 water immediately the blade is covered, without 
 deepening in the space subsequently traversed. 
 
 4. Rapid recovery after feathering by an elas- 
 tic motion of the body from the hips, the arms 
 being thrown forward perfectly straight simulta- 
 neously with the body, and the forward motion of 
 each ceasing at the same time. 
 
454 
 
 BOWING, ETC. 
 
 5. Lastly, equability in all the actions, preserv- 
 ing full strength without harsh, jerking, isolated 
 and uncornpensated movements in any single part 
 of the frame. 
 
 Faults in Roicing. 
 
 The above laws are sinned against when the 
 rower 
 
 1. Does not straighten both arms before him. 
 
 2. Keeps two convex wrists instead of the out- 
 side wrist flat. 
 
 3. Contrives to put his hands forward by a sub- 
 sequent motion after the shoulders have attained 
 their reach, which is getting the body forward 
 without the arms. 
 
 4. Extends the arms without a corresponding 
 bend on the part of the shoulders, which is get- 
 ting the arms forward without the body. 
 
 5. Catches the water with unstraightened arms 
 or arm, and a slackened tension as its consequence; 
 thus time may be kept, but not stroke; keeping 
 stroke always implying uniformity of work. 
 
 6. Hangs before dipping downwards to begin 
 the stroke. 
 
 7. Does not cover the blade up to the shoulder. 
 
 8. Rows round and deep in the middle, with 
 hands high and blade still sunken after the first 
 contact. 
 
 9. Curves his back forward or aft. 
 
 10. Keeps one shoulder higher than the other. 
 
 11. Jerks. 
 
 12. Doubles forward and bends over the oar at 
 the feather, bringing the body up to the handle, 
 and not the handle up to the body. 
 
 13. Strikes the water at an obtuse angle, or rows 
 the first part in the air. 
 
 14. Cuts short the end, prematurely slackening 
 the arms. 
 
 15. Shivers out the feather, commencing it too 
 soon and bringing the blade into a plane with the 
 water while work may yet be done; thus the oar 
 leaves the water in perfect time, but stroke is not 
 kept. This and No. 5 are the most subtle faults 
 in rowing, and involve the science of shirking. 
 
 1 6. Rolls backward, with an inclination towards 
 the inside or outside of the boat. 
 
 17. Turns his elbows at the feather instead of 
 bringing them sharp past the flanks. 
 
 18. Keeps the head depressed between the shoul- 
 ders instead of erect. 
 
 19. Looks out of the boat instead of straight be- 
 fore him. (This almost inevitably rolls the boat.) 
 
 20. Throws up the water instead of turning it 
 well aft off' the lower angle of the blade. A wave 
 thus created is extremely annoying to the oar fur- 
 ther aft; there should be no wave travelling as- 
 tern, but an eddy containing two small circling 
 swirls. 
 
 MACADAMIZED ROADS. 
 
 Stone is to be procured in some form in almost 
 every part of the country, and a road made of 
 small broken stone to the depth of 10 inches, will 
 be smooth, solid, and durable. 
 
 The size of stones for a road should be about 
 that of a hen's egg. It must be in due proportion 
 to the space occupied by a wheel of ordinary di- 
 mensions on a smooth level surface; this point of 
 contact will be found to be longitudinally, about 
 1 inch ; and every piece of stone put into a road, 
 which exceeds 1 inch in any of its dimensions, is 
 mischievous. 
 
 In repairing an old road no addition of mate- 
 rials is to be brought upon it, unless in any part it 
 be found that there is not a quantity of clean stone 
 equal to 10 inches in thickness. 
 
 The stone already in the road is to be loosened 
 
 up. The road is then to be laid as flat as possible, 
 a rise of 3 inches from the centre to the side is suf- 
 ficient for a road 30 feet wide. 
 
 The stones when loosened in the road are to ba 
 gathered off by means of a strong heavy rake to 
 the side of the road, and there broken. 
 
 When the large stones have been removed, the 
 road is to be put in shape, and a rake employed 
 to smooth the surface. 
 
 When the road is so prepared, the stones that 
 have been broken by the side of the road are then 
 to be carefully spread on it not to be laid on it 
 in shovelsful, but scattered over the surface, one 
 shovelful following another, and spreading over 
 a considerable space. 
 
 When additional jtone is wanted on a road that 
 has consolidated bt use, the old hardened surface 
 of the road is to be loosened with a pick, in order 
 to make the fresh materials unite with the old. 
 
 Every road is to be made of broken stone, with- 
 out mixture of earth, clay, chalk, or any other 
 matter that will imbibe water and be affected with 
 frost; nothing is to be laid on the clean stone on 
 pretence of binding; broken stone will combine by 
 its own angles into a smooth solid surface that 
 cannot be affected by vicissitudes of weather, or 
 displaced by the action of wheels, which will pass 
 over without a jolt, and consequently without in- 
 jury. 
 
 Flint makes an excellent road, if due attention 
 be paid to the size ; but, from want of that atten- 
 tion, many of the flint roads are rough, loose, and 
 expensive. 
 
 Limestone, when properly prepared and ap- 
 plied, makes a smooth, solid road, and becomes 
 consolidated sooner than any other material; but 
 from its nature is not the most lasting. 
 
 To Manage Water-pipes in Winter. 
 
 When the frost begins to set in, cover the wa- 
 ter-pipes with hay or straw bands, twisted tight 
 round them. Let the cisterns and water-butts be 
 washed out occasionally ; this will keep the water 
 pure and fresh. 
 
 In pumping up water into the cistern for the 
 water-closet, be very particular, in winter time. 
 Let all the water be let out of the pipe when done; 
 but if this is forgotten, and it should be frozen, 
 take a small gimblet and bore a hole in the pipe, 
 a little distance from the place where it is let off, 
 which will prevent its bursting. Put a peg into 
 the hole when the water is let off. 
 
 To make an JEolian Harp. 
 
 Of very thin cedar, pine, or other soft wood 
 make a box 5 or 6 inches deep, 7 or 8 inches wide, 
 and of a length just equal to the width of the win- 
 dow in which it is to be placed. Across the top, 
 near each end, glue a strip of wood half an inch 
 high and a quarter of an inch' thick, for bridges. 
 Into the ends of the box insert wooden pins, liko 
 those of a violin, to wind the strings around, two 
 pins in each end. Make a sound-hole in the mid- 
 dle of the top, and string the box with small cat- 
 gut, or blue first-fiddle strings. Fastening ont 
 end of each string to a metallic pin in one end of 
 the box, and, carrying it over the bridges, wind it 
 around the turning-pin in the opposite end of the 
 box. The ends of the box should be increased in 
 thickness where the wooden pins enter, by a piece 
 of wood glued upon the inside. Tune the striugs 
 in unison and place the box in the window. It is 
 better to have four strings, as described, but a 
 harp with a single string produces an exceedingly 
 sweet melody of notes, which vary with the forco 
 of the wind. 
 
CLEANING OP FURNITURE, ETC. 
 
 455 
 
 To Cure Smoky Chimneys. 
 
 The common causes of smoky chimneys are 
 either that the wind is too much let in above at 
 the mouth of the shaft, or else that the smoke is 
 stifled below. They may also proceed from there 
 being too little room in the vent, particularly 
 whe r e several open into the SJime funnel. The 
 situation of the house may likewise affect them, 
 especially if backed by higher ground or higher 
 buildings. 
 
 The best method of cure is to carry from the air 
 a pipe under the floor and opening under the fire; 
 or, when higher objects are the cause, to fix a 
 movable cowl at the top of the chimney. 
 
 In regard to smoky chimneys, a few facts and 
 cautions may be useful; and a very simple rem- 
 edy may often render the calling in of masons and 
 bricklayers unnecessary. 
 
 Observe that a northern aspect often produces a 
 gmoky chimney. 
 
 A single chimney is apter to smoke than when 
 it forms part of a stack. 
 
 Straight funnels seldom draw well. 
 
 Large fire-places are apt to smoke, particularly 
 when the aperture of the funnel does not corres- 
 pond in size. For this a temporary remedy may 
 be found in opening a door or window a perma- 
 nent cure by diminishing the lower aperture. 
 
 When a smoky chimney is .so incorrigible as to 
 require a constant admission of fresh air into the 
 room, the best mode is to introduce a pipe, one of 
 whose apertures shall be in the open air and the 
 other under the grate; or openings may be made 
 near the top of the apartment, if lofty, without 
 any inconvenience even to persons sitting close by 
 the fire. 
 
 This species of artificial ventilation will always 
 be found necessary for comfort where gas is used 
 internally, whether a fire is lighted or not. 
 
 Where a chimney only smokes when a fire is 
 first lighted, this may be guarded against by al- 
 lowing the fire to kindle gradually; or more 
 promptly by laying any inflammable substance, 
 such as shavings, on the top of the grate, the rapid 
 combustion of which will warm the air in the 
 chimney, and give it a tendency upwards, before 
 any smoke is produced from the fire itself. If old 
 stove-grates are apt to smoke, they may be im- 
 proved by setting the stove further back. If that 
 fails, contract the lower orifice. 
 
 In cottages, the shortness of the funnel or chim- 
 ney may produce smoke ; in which case the lower 
 orifice must be contracted as small as possible by 
 means of an upright register. 
 
 If a kitchen chimney overpowers that of the 
 parlor, as is often the case in small houses, apply 
 to each chimney a free admission of air, until the 
 evil ceases. 
 
 When a chimney is filled with smoke, not of its 
 own formation, but from the funnel next to it, an 
 easy remedy offers, in covering each funnel with 
 a conical top, or earthen crock, not cylindrical, 
 but a frustum of a cone, by means of which the 
 two openings are separated a few inches, and the 
 cold air or the gust of wind no longer forces the 
 smoke down with them. 
 
 If these remedies fail it will be generally found 
 that the chimney only smokes when the wind is 
 in a particular quarter, connected with the posi- 
 tion of some higher building, or a hill, or a grove 
 of tree^. In such cases the common turncap, as 
 made by tinmen and ironmongers, will generally 
 be found fully adequate to the end proposed. A 
 case has occurred of curing a smoky chimney ex- 
 posed to the northwest wind, and commanded by 
 a lofty building on the southeast, by the follow- 
 ing contrivance. 
 
 A painted tin cap, of a conical form, was sus- 
 pended by a ring and swivel, so as to swing over 
 the mouth of the chimney-pot by means of an 
 arched strap or bar of iron nailed on each side of 
 the chimney. When a gust of wind laid this cap 
 (which, from its resemblance in form and use to 
 an umbrella, is called a paravent or wind-guard) 
 close to the pot on one side, it opened a wider 
 passage for the escape of the smoke on the oppo- 
 site side, whichever way the wind came, while 
 rain, hail, etc. were effectually prevented from de- 
 scending the flue. 
 
 To Clean Chimneys. 
 
 The top of each chimney should be furnished 
 with a pot somewhat in the shape of a bell, un- 
 derneath the centre of which should be fixed a 
 pulley, with a chain of sufficient length for both 
 ends to be fastened, when not in use, to nails or 
 pins in the chimney, out of sight, but within reach 
 from below. One or both of these ends should be 
 adapted to the reception of a brush of an appro- 
 priate construction ; and thus chimneys may be 
 swept as often as desired, by servants, with very 
 little additional trouble. 
 
 To Extinguish a Chimney on Fire. 
 
 Shut the doors and windows, throw water on 
 the fire in the grate, and then stop up the bottom 
 of the chimney. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 The gas pro luced by throwing a handful of 
 flowers of sulfur on the burning coal, where a 
 chimney is on fire, will immediately extinguish 
 the flames. 
 
 To Clean Furniture. 
 
 Keep the paste or oil in a proper can or jar, that 
 there may be no danger of upsetting when using 
 it. Have two pieces of woollen cloth, one for 
 rubbing it on, the other for rubbing it dry and 
 polishing; also an old linen cloth to finish with, 
 and a piece of smooth soft cork to rub out the 
 stain. Use a brush if the paste be hard. Always 
 dust the table well before the oil or paste is put 
 on; and, if it should be stained, rub it with a 
 damp sponge, and then with a dry cloth. If the 
 stain does not disappear, rub it well with a cork 
 or a brush the way the wood grows ; for if rubbed 
 cross-grained it will be sure to scratch it Be 
 careful to keep the cork and brush free from dust 
 and dirt. When the dust is cleaned off and the 
 stains have been got out, put on the oil or paste, 
 but not too much at a time; rub it well into the 
 wood. If oil, be as quick as possible in rubbing 
 it over the table, and then polish it with another 
 woollen cloth. If wax, put a little bit on the wool- 
 len cloth, with the finger or a small stick ; rub it 
 well with this till the table has a high polish, then 
 have another cloth to finish it with. Be very care- 
 ful to have the edges of the table well cleaned, and 
 the oil and wax well rubbed off. 
 
 The furniture which is not in constant use will 
 not require to be oiled above once a week ; it ought, 
 however, to be dusted every day and well rubbed. 
 Tables which are used daily must be well rubbed 
 every morning, and great care should be taken to 
 remove all spots from them, particularly ink. 
 This can very easily be done, if not left to dry 
 long, by putting on a little salt of lemons with the 
 finger. 
 
 When cleaning tables or chairs, be careful to 
 remove them into the middle of the room, or at a 
 distance from the wall. If the sideboard or side- 
 table is fixed to the wall, be still more careful in 
 cleaning it, and roll up the woollen cloth tight ia 
 the hand, and into a small compass. 
 
 To Clean Looking-glasses, Mirrors, etc. 
 If they should be hung so high that they cannot 
 
456 
 
 CLEANING OF PCJRNITUEE, ETC. 
 
 be conveniently reached, have a pair of steps to 
 gtand upon; but mind that they stand steady. 
 Then take a piece of soft sponge, well washed and 
 cleaned from everything gritty, just dip it into 
 water and squeeze it out again, and then dip it 
 into some spirit of wine. Rub it over the glass ; 
 dust it over with some powder blue, or whiting 
 sifted through muslin ; rub it lightly and quickly 
 off again with a cloth; then take a clean cloth 
 and rub it well again, and finish by rubbing it 
 with a silk handkerchief. 
 
 If the glass be very large clean one half at a 
 time, as otherwise the spirit of wine will dry be- 
 fore it can be rubbed off. If the frames are not 
 varnished the greatest care is necessary to keep 
 them quite dry, so as not to touch them with the 
 sponge, as this will discolor or take off the gilding. 
 
 To clean the frames, take a little raw cotton in 
 the state of wool, and rub the frames with it; this 
 will take off all the dust and dirt without injuring 
 the gilding. If the frames are well varnished rub 
 them with spirit of wine, which will take out all 
 spots and give them a fine polish. Varnished 
 doors may be done in the same manner. Never 
 use any cloth to frames, or drawings, or unvar- 
 nished oil-paintings, when cleaning and dusting 
 them. 
 
 To Clean Knives and Forks. 
 
 Procure a smooth board, free from knots, or one 
 covered with leather. If the latfer, melt a suffi- 
 cient quantity of mutton-suet, and put it hot upon 
 the leather with a piece of flannel ; tnen take two 
 pieces of soft Bath brick, and rub them one against 
 the other over the leather till it is covered with 
 the powder, which rub in until no grease comes 
 through when a knife is passed over the leather, 
 which may easily be known by the knife keeping 
 its polish. 
 
 If only a plain board, rub the Bath brick 2 or 
 3 times over it; for if too much be put on at once 
 it will make the blades of the knives look rough 
 and scratched. Let the board be of a proper 
 height, and set so that the person may be a little 
 on the stoop while cleaning the knives. Take a 
 knife in each hand, holding them back to back ; 
 stand opposite the middle of the board ; lay the 
 knives flat upon it, and do not bear too hard upon 
 them ; by this method it will be easier to clean tw<T 
 knives at a time than one, and they will be less 
 liable to be broken, for good knives will snap when 
 pressed on too heavily. Many will say that they 
 cannot clean two knives at once, or that they can 
 get through them faster one by one ; but if they 
 will only try it a few times in the way recom- 
 mended, they will find it not only much more ex- 
 peditious, but easier. 
 
 Be careful in keeping a good edge on the knives. 
 Carving-knives in particular ought to be kept 
 sharp, which may easily be done by taking one in 
 each hand, back to back when cleaning, scarcely 
 letting them touch the board when expanding the 
 arms, but when drawing the hands together again 
 bearing a little hard on the edge of the knives ; 
 this will give them both a good edge and a fine 
 polish, and is much better than sharpening them 
 with a steel. 
 
 The best way to clean steel forks is to fill a 
 small barrel with fine gravel, brick-dust, or sand, 
 mixed with a little hay or moss; make it moder- 
 ately damp, press it well down, and let it always 
 be kept damp. By running the prongs of the 
 Steel forks a few times into this, all the stains on 
 them will be removed. Then have a small stick, 
 shaped like a knife, with leather round it, to pol- 
 ish between the prongs, having first carefully 
 brushed off the dust from them as soon as they 
 are taken out of the tub. A knife-board is often 
 
 spoiled in cleaning forks upon it, and likewise the 
 backs of the knives ; to prevent this have a piece 
 of old hat or leather put on the board where the 
 forks and backs of the knives are cleaned. 
 
 Always turn the back of the knives towards the 
 palm of the hand in wiping them, this will prevent 
 all danger from cutting. In wiping the forks put 
 the corner of the cloth between the prongs, to re- 
 move any dirt or dust that may not have been 
 thoroughly brushed out; and if there should be 
 silver ferules on the knives and forks, or silver 
 handles, they must be rubbed with a piece of lea- 
 ther and plate powder, keeping the blades covered 
 while the handles are cleaning. 
 
 Wipe the knives and forks as soon as possible 
 after being used, as the longer they are left with 
 grease and stains on them the harder they will be 
 to clean ; particularly if they have been used for 
 acids, salads, tarts, etc., have then a jug of hot 
 water ready to put them into as soon as done with, 
 and wipe them as before directed. 
 
 In order to keep knives and forks in good con- 
 dition when they are not in use, rub the steel part 
 with a flannel dipped in oil; wipe the oil off after 
 a few hours, as there is often water in it ; or dust 
 the blades and prongs with quicklime, finely 
 powdered and kept in a muslin bag. 
 To Brush Clothes. 
 
 Have a wooden horse to put the clothes on, and 
 a small cane to beat the dust out of them; also a 
 board or table long enough for them to be put 
 their whole length when brushing them. Have 
 two brushes, one a hard bristle, the other soft; use 
 the hardest for the great coats, and for the others 
 when spotted with dirt. Fine cloth coats should 
 never be brushed with too hard a brush, as this 
 will take off the nap, and make them look bare in 
 a little time. Be careful in the choice of the cane; 
 do not have it tog large, and be particular not to 
 hit too hard. Be careful also not to hit the but- 
 tons, for it will scratch if not break them ; there- 
 fore a small hand-whip is the best to beat with. 
 
 If a coat be wet and spotted with dirt, let it be 
 quite dry before brushing it; then rub out the 
 spots with the hands, taking care not to rumple 
 it in so doing. If it want beating do it as before 
 directed, then put the coat at its full length on a 
 board ; let the collar be towards the left hand and 
 the brush in the right. Brush the back of the 
 collar first, between the two shoulders next, and 
 then the sleeves, etc., observing to brush the cloth 
 the same way that the nap goes, which is towards 
 the skirt of the coat. When both sides are prop- 
 erly done fold them together; then brush the in- 
 side, and last of all the collar. 
 
 To Clean a Hair- Brush. 
 
 Put a tablespoonful of spirits of hartshorn 
 (aqua ammonia?) in a pint of water and wash the 
 brush in it; it will very quickly make the brush 
 clean as new. This is also an excellent method 
 of cleansing or shampooing the hair. 
 
 Japanning Old Tea- Trays. 
 
 First clean them thoroughly with soap and 
 water and a little rotten-stone; then dry them by 
 wiping and exposure at the fire. Now get some 
 good copal varnish, mix with it some bronze pow- 
 der, and apply with a brush to the denuded parts. 
 After which set the tea-tray in an oven, at a heat 
 of 212 or 300, until the varnish is dry. Two 
 coats will make it equal to new. 
 To Cleanse Silver. 
 
 Clean silver with hot water, followed by a solu- 
 tion of equal parts of spirits of ammonia and spirits 
 of turpentine ; and after this, if necessary, pre- 
 pared chalk, whiting, magnesia, or rouge. 
 
CLEANING OF CHINA, ETC. 
 
 457 
 
 To Pack Glass or China. 
 
 Procure some soft straw or hay to pack them 
 in, and, if they are to be sent a long way and are 
 heavy, the hay or straw should be a little damp, 
 which will prevent them slipping about. Let the 
 largest and heaviest things be always put under- 
 most in the box or hamper. Let there be plenty 
 of straw, and pack the articles tight; but never 
 attempt to pack up glass or China which is of 
 much consequence, till it has been overlooked by 
 gome one used to the job. The expense will be 
 but trifling to have a person to do it who under- 
 stands it, and the loss may be great, if articles of 
 such value are packed up in an improper manner. 
 To Clean China and Glass. 
 
 The best material for cleaning either porcelain 
 or glassware is fuller's earth, but it must be beaten 
 into a fine powder and carefully cleared from all 
 rough or hard particles, which might endanger the 
 polish of the brilliant surface. 
 
 To Clean Wine Decanters. 
 
 Cut some brown paper into very small bits, so 
 as to go with ease into the decanters; then cut a 
 few pieces of soap very small, and put some water, 
 milk warm, into the decanters, upon the soap and 
 paper; put in also a little pearlash. By well work- 
 ing this about in the decanters it will take off the 
 crust of the wine and give the glass a fine polish. 
 Where the decanters have been scratched, and the 
 wine left to stand in them a long time, have a 
 small cane, with a bit of sponge tied tight at one 
 end ; by putting this into the decanter any crust 
 of the wine may be removed. When the decanters 
 have been properly washed let them be thoroughly 
 dried and turned down in a proper rack. 
 
 If the decanters have wine in them when put 
 by, have some good corks always at hand to put 
 in instead of stoppers; this will keep the wine 
 much better. 
 
 To Decant Wine. 
 
 Be careful not to shake or disturb the crust 
 when moving it about or drawing the cork, par- 
 ticularly Port wine. N^ever decant wine without 
 a wine-strainer, with some fine cambric in it to 
 prevent the crust and bits of cork going into the 
 decanter. In decanting Port wine do not drain it 
 too near; there are generally two-thirds of a wine- 
 glass of thick dregs in each bottle, which ought 
 not to be put in; but in white wine there is not 
 much settling. Pour it out, however, slowly, and 
 raise the bottle up gradually. The wine should 
 never be decanted in a hurry; therefore always do 
 it before the family sits down to dinner. Do not 
 jostle the decanters against each other when mov- 
 ing them about, as they easily break when full. 
 To Preserve Hats. 
 
 Hats require great care or they will soon look 
 shabby. Brush them with a soft camel-hair 
 brush ; this will keep the fur smooth. Have a 
 stick for each hat to keep it in its proper shape, 
 especially if the hat has got wet. Put the stick 
 in as soon as the hat is taken off, and when dry 
 put it into a hat-box, particularly if not in con- 
 stant use, as the air and dust soon turn hats brown. 
 If the hat is very wet, handle it as lightly as pos- 
 sible; wipe it dry with a cloth or silk handker- 
 chief, then brush it with the soft brush. If the 
 nap sticks so close, when almost dry, that it can- 
 not be got loose with the soft brushes, then use 
 the hard ones; but if the nap still sticks, damp it 
 a little with a sponge dipped in beer or vinegar; 
 then brush it with a hard brush till dry. 
 To Clean Boots and Shoes. 
 
 Good brushes and blacking are indispensably 
 necessary. First remove all the loose dirt with a ( 
 
 wooden knife, and never use a sharp steel one, as 
 the leather is too often cut, and the boots and shoes 
 spoiled. Then take the hard brush and brush off 
 the remainder, and all the dust; they must also 
 be quite dry before blacking, or they will not 
 shine. Do not put on too much blacking at a 
 time, for if it dries before using the shining brush 
 the leather will look brown instead of black. If 
 there are boot-trees, never clean boots or shoes 
 without them, but take care that the trees are al- 
 ways kept clean and free from dust. Never put 
 one shoe within another, and when cleaning la- 
 dies' boots or shoes, be careful to have clean 
 hands, that the linings may not get soiled. Al- 
 ways scrape off the dirt when wet from boots or 
 shoes, but never place them too near the fire when 
 dry, as that cracks the leather. 
 
 To Keep Up Sash Windows. 
 This is performed by means of cork, in the sim- 
 plest manner, and with scarcely any expense. 
 Bore 3 or 4 holes in the sides of the sash, into 
 which insert common bottle-cork, projecting about 
 the sixteenth part of an inch. These will press 
 against the window frames along the usual groove, 
 and by their elasticity support the sash at any 
 height which may be required. 
 
 To Choose a Carpet. 
 
 Always select one the figures of which are 
 small ; for in this case the two web? in which the 
 carpeting consists, are always much closer inter- 
 woven than in carpets where large figures upon 
 ample grounds are represented. 
 
 Starch. 
 
 Use two kinds of clear starch in washing. For 
 shirts and collars the pearl starch is preferred. It 
 should be well boiled and smooth. To 1 qt. of 
 starch put in a piece of spermaceti as large as a 
 walnut; or dissolve 2 oz. of gum Arabic in 1 pint 
 of water, and strain through a cloth ; of this add 
 a tablespoonful to each pint of starch. In bottling, 
 a, very little corrosive sublimate may be put with 
 the gum to make it keep. 
 
 To Stain Floors. 
 
 To strong lye of wood-ashes add enough cop- 
 peras for the required oak shade. Put this on 
 with a mop, and varnish afterwards. 
 
 To Tell Good Efj(ja. 
 
 Put them into water; if the butt ends turn up 
 they are not fresh. This is said to be a certain 
 test. 
 
 Preservation of Egc/8. 
 
 A writer says : The best method I know of to 
 preserve eggs is to fill the pores of the shell with 
 fresh, clean lard, so as to exclude all the air. It 
 is my opinion that this simple and easy method is 
 preferable to any now in use. Some put them in 
 lime-water, some lay them down in salt, some put 
 them in saw-dust. But the lime cooks them, so 
 that they have a dried appearance; salt has a sim- 
 ilar effect, while eggs saturated with lard (as far 
 as my experience goes) open fresh and nice. In 
 Paris, however,where they understand these things 
 thoroughly, eggs are preserved by immersion in 
 hot water, as follows : Water is made to boil in a 
 kettle, a dozen eggs are put into a colander, which 
 is plunged into the kettle, left there about a min- 
 ute, and then withdrawn with the eggs. By this 
 means a thin layer or yolk becomes coagulated, 
 and forms in the interior surface of the shell a 
 sort of coating, which opposes itself to the evapo- 
 ration of the substance of the egg, and conse- 
 quently to the contact of the air which rushes in 
 to fill the void left by the evaporation. 
 
 A Method of Preserving Lime- Juice. 
 The juice, having been expressed from the fruit, 
 
458 
 
 PRESERVATIOK-OF FOOD, POTICHOMANIA, ETC. 
 
 was strained and put into quart bottles : these hav- 
 ing been carefully corked, were put into a pan of 
 cold water, which was then by degrees raised to 
 the boiling point. At that temperature it was 
 kept for half an hour, and was then allowed to 
 cool down to the temperature of the air. After 
 being bottled for 8 months the juice was in the 
 Btate of a whitish, turbid liquor, with the acidity 
 and much of the flavor of the lime; nor did it 
 appear to have undergone any alteration Some 
 of the juice, which had been examined the year 
 before, and which had since only been again 
 Seated and carefully bottled, was still in good 
 condition, retaining much of the flavor of the re- 
 cent juice. Hence it appears that, by the appli- 
 cation of the above process, the addition of rum 
 or other spirit to lime or lemon-juice, may be 
 avoided, without rendering it at all more liable to 
 spontaneous alteration. 
 
 To P.-eserve Milk. 
 
 Provide bottles, which must be perfectly clean, 
 sweet, and dry. Draw the milk from the cow into 
 the bottles, and, as they are filled, immediately 
 cork them well up, and fasten the corks with 
 pack-thread or wire. Then spread a little straw on 
 the bottom of a boiler, on which place the bottles 
 with straw between them, until the boiler contains 
 a sufficient quantity. Fill it up with cold water; 
 heat the water, and as soon as it begins to boil 
 draw the fire, and let the whole gradually cool. 
 When quite cold take out the bottles, and pack 
 them with straw or saw-dust in hampers, and 
 stow them in the coolest part of the house or 
 ship. Milk preserved in this manner, although 
 18 months in the bottles, will be as sweet as when 
 first milked from the cow. 
 
 To Preserve Cabbages and other Esculent Vegeta- 
 bles Fresh during a /Sect Voyage or a Severe 
 
 Winter. 
 
 Cut the cabbage so as to leave about 2 inches 
 or more of the stem attached to it; after which 
 scoop out the pith to about the depth of 1 inch, 
 taking cure not to wound or bruise the rind by 
 the operation. Suspend the cabbage by means of 
 a cord tied around the stem, so that that portion 
 of it from which the pith is taken remains upper- 
 most, which regularly fill every morning with fresh 
 water. By this simple method cabbages, cauli- 
 flowers, brocoli, etc. may be preserved fresh during 
 a long voyage, or in a severe winter, for domestic 
 use. 
 
 Fish-House (State of Schuylkill] Punch. 
 
 One-third pt. of lemon-juice, J Ib. white sugar, 
 i pt. peach brandy, i pint cogniac brandy, pt. 
 Jamaica rum, no water, but a large lump of ice. 
 To Whitewash. 
 
 Put some lumps of quicklime into a bucket of 
 cold water, and stir it about till dissolved and 
 mixed, after which a brush with a large head, and 
 a long handle, to reach the ceiling of the room, is 
 used to spread it thinly on the walls, etc. When 
 dry, it is beautifully white, but its known cheap- 
 ness has induced the plasterers to substitute a mix- 
 ture of glue size and whiting for the houses of 
 their opulent customers; and this, when once 
 used, precludes the employment of limewashing 
 ever after, for the latter, when laid on whiting, be- 
 comes yellow. 
 
 Whitewashing is an admirable manner of ren- 
 dering the dwellings of the poor clean and whole- 
 some. 
 
 First. For rough outside walls those exposed 
 to the weather the best mixture is clear lime and 
 water. Any animal or vegetable substance added 
 diminishes the adhesion and durability of the wash. 
 
 Second. But if the wall is hard and smooth, the 
 
 wash is improved by a mixture of very fine sand- 
 as much as will mix and can be applied. 
 
 Third. For inside walls an addition of a little 
 glue say i Ib. to 3 pailfuls increases the ad- 
 hesion. If it is desired to have the walls very 
 white,,the whites of eggs may be used in the place 
 of the glue. 
 
 To Prevent the Smoking of a Lamp. 
 
 Soak the wick in strong vinegar, and dry it well 
 before you use it; it will then burn both sweet 
 and pleasant, and give much satisfaction for the 
 trifling trouble in preparing it. 
 Easy Method of Preserving Meat in the Country, 
 
 for a Few Days, without Salt and without Ice. 
 
 Put the meat into the water running from a 
 spring. It will sink examine it daily when it 
 begins to rise from the bottom it must be used; it 
 will be found perfectly sound and tender, and may 
 be boiled or roasted. Meat may be preserved in 
 this manner 3 or 4 days in summer-time, free from 
 taint. The outside will appear somewhat whitened, 
 but the flavor is not injured. It would be advis- 
 able to have a box or tub, with a cover, into and 
 out of which the water shall have free passage, 
 which may be put either inside or outside of the 
 spring-house. 
 
 Ready Mode of Mending Cracks in Stoves, Pipes, 
 and Iron Ovens, as Practised in Germany. 
 
 When a crack is discovered in a stove, through 
 which the fire or smoke penetrates, the aperture 
 may be completely closed in a moment with a 
 composition consisting of wood-ashes and common 
 salt, made up into paste with a little water, and 
 plastered over the crack. The good effect is 
 equally certain, whether the stove, etc., be cold or 
 
 hot. * 
 
 POTICHOMANIA ; 
 Or, to make Glass Jars look like China. 
 
 After painting the figures, cut them out, so that 
 none of the white of the paper remains, then take 
 some thick gum Arabic water, pass it over all the 
 figures, and place them on the inside of the glass to 
 taste; let them stand to dry for 24 hours, then 
 clean them well with a wet cloth betwixt the prints, 
 and let them stand a few hours longer lest the water 
 should move any of the edges, then take white wax 
 and flake white, ground very fine, and melt them 
 together; with a japanning-brush go over all tha 
 glass above the prints; done in this manner they 
 will hold water; or, boil isinglass to a strong 
 jelly, and mix it up with white lead, ground tine, 
 and lay it on in the same manner; or use nut-oil 
 and flake-white. For a blue ground, do it with 
 white wax and Prussian blue, ground fine; for 
 red, wax and vermilion, or carmine; for green, 
 wax and verdigris; for a chocolate color, wax 
 and burnt umber. 
 
 To make Grindstones without Moulds. 
 
 Take of river sand, 3 parts; of seed-lac, washed, 
 1 part. Mix them over a fire in a pot, and form 
 the mass into the shape of a grindstone, having 
 a square hole in the centre; fix it on an axis with 
 liquefied lac, heat the stone moderately, and by 
 turning the axis it may easily be formed into an 
 exact circular shape. Polishing grindstones are 
 made only of such sand as will pass easily through 
 fine muslin in the proportion of 2 parts of sand to 
 1 of lac. This sand is found at Ragimaul. It ia 
 composed of small angular crystalline particles 
 tinged red with iron ; 2 parts to 1 of black mag- 
 netic sand. The stone-cutters, instead of sand, 
 use the powder of a very hard granite called corune. 
 These grindstones cut very fast. When they want 
 to increase their power they throw sand upon them, 
 or let them occasionally touch the edge of a vitrj 
 
EXPECTATION OF LIFE, ETC. 
 
 459 
 
 fied brick. The same composition is formed upon 
 aticks for cutting stones, shells, etc., by the hand. 
 
 To make Wax Candle*. 
 
 Place a dozen wicks on an iron circle, at equal 
 distances, over a large copper vessel tinned and 
 full of melted wax; pour a ladlefull of the wax 
 on the tops of the wicks, one after another; what 
 the wick does not take will drop into the vessel, 
 which must be kept warm by a pan of coals; con- 
 tinue this process till the candles are as large as 
 required. If they are wanted of a pyramidal 
 form, let the first three ladlesful be poured on at 
 the top of the wick, the fourth at the height of 
 three-quarters, the fifth at half, nnd the sixth at 
 a quarter; then take them down hot, and lay them 
 beside each other in a feather-bed folded in two 
 to preserve their warmth and keep the wax soft; 
 then take them down and roll them one by one 
 on a smooth table, and cut off the thick end as 
 required. 
 
 To make Kitchen Vegetables Tender. 
 When peas, French beans, etc., do not boil 
 easily, it bus usually been imputed to the coolness 
 of the season, or to the rains. This popular no- 
 tion is erroneous. The difficulty of boiling them 
 soft arises from an excess of gypsum imbibed 
 during their growth. To correct this, throw a 
 small quantity of carbonate of soda into the pot 
 alone with the vegetables. 
 
 To Prevent Haystacks from Taking Fire. 
 When there is any reason to fear that the hay 
 which is intended to be housed or stacked is not 
 sufficiently dry, let a few nandfuls of common salt 
 be scattered between each layer. This, by ab- 
 sorbing the humidity of the hay, not only pre- 
 vents the fermentation, and consequent inflamma- 
 tion of it, but adds a taste to it, which stimulates 
 the appetites of cattle and preserves them from 
 many diseases. 
 
 To Frame a Polygraph, or Instrument for Writing 
 Two Letters at Once. 
 
 In this instrument, two pens, and even three, if 
 necessary, are joined to each other by slips of wood 
 acting upon the pivot; one of these pens cannot 
 move without drawing the other to follow all its 
 movements; the rules are inflexible, and they 
 preserve in all their positions the parallelism which 
 is given by uniting them. The movements of one 
 of these pens are identically the same as those of 
 the other; the characters traced by the first are 
 the exact counterpnrt of those which the second 
 has formed; if the one rise above the paper and 
 cease to write, or rather, if it make a scratch, or 
 advance towards the ink-bottle, the other, faithful 
 to the movements which are transmitted to it by 
 the species of light wood which directs it, either 
 rises or scratches or draws ink, and that without 
 having occasion to give any particular attention to 
 it. The copy is made of itself, and without ever 
 thinking of it. 
 
 The polygraph is not expensive ; it is used with- 
 out difficulty, and almost with the same facility as 
 in ordinary writing. The construction is as sim- 
 ple as it is convenient; all the parts are collected 
 BO as to be taken to pieces, and put up again very 
 easily. Its size admits of its taking every desira- 
 ble position, horizontal, perpendicular, or oblique, 
 according to the application whicbj is made of it, 
 and the piece of furniture to which it is to be 
 adapted ; for it may be fixed to a drawer, a desk, 
 an inkstand, an easel, or simply laid upon the 
 table; it is generally accompanied by a drawer, 
 and a case of the form and bulk of an ordinary 
 desk. 
 
 Castor Oil as a Dressing for Leather. 
 
 Castor oil, besides being an excellent dressing 
 for leather, renders it vermin-proof; it should 
 be mixed, say half and half, with tallow or other 
 oil. Neither rats, roaches, nor other vermin will 
 attack leather so prepared. 
 
 Substitute for a Corkscrew. 
 
 A convenient substitute for a corkscrew, when 
 the latter is not at hand, may be found in the use 
 of a common screw, with an attached string to pull 
 the cork. 
 
 Another. Stick two forks vertically into the 
 cork on opposite sides, not too near the edge. 
 Run the blade of a knife through the two, and 
 give a twist. 
 
 Another. Fill the hollow at the bottom of the 
 bottle with a handkerchief or towel; grasp the 
 neck with one hand, and strike firmly and steadily 
 with the other upon the handkerchief. 
 To send Messages in Cypher. 
 
 Any document written in cypher, by which 
 signs are substituted for letters, or even for words, 
 is liable to be decyphered. The following plans 
 are free from such objection: The correspondents 
 select two copies of the same edition of a book, the 
 word to be used is designated by figures referring 
 to the page, line, and number of the word in the 
 line; or the message may be written on a slip of 
 paper wound spirally around a rod of wood ; these 
 can only be decvphered by bringing them into 
 their original position, by wrapping around a 
 second rod of the same size. [For SYMPATHETIC 
 INKS, see INKS.] 
 
 Expectation of Life at any Age from Five to Sixty 
 Yt-urs. 
 
 Every man, woman, and child has a property in 
 life. What is the value of this property? Mr. 
 Charlos M. Willich has establshed an extremely 
 easy rule i'or expressing this value this " Expec- 
 tation of Life" at any age from 5 to 60. His for- 
 mula stand thus: e = (80 a); or, in plain words, 
 the expectation of life is equal to two-thirds of the 
 difference between the age of the party and 80. 
 Thus, say a man is now 20 years old, between that 
 age and 80 there are 60 years; two-thirds of 60 
 are 40 ; and this is the sum of his expectation of 
 life. If a man be now 60 years, he will have an 
 expectarion of life nearly 14 years more. By the 
 same rule, a child of 5 has a lien of life for 50 
 years. Every one can apply the rule to his own 
 age. Mr. Willich's hypothesis may be as easily 
 remembered as that by De Moivre in the last cen- 
 tury, which has now become obsolete, from the 
 greater accuracy of the mortality tables. The re- 
 sults obtained by the new law correspond very 
 closely with those from Dr. Farr's English Life- 
 Table, constructed with great care from an im- 
 mense mass of returns. 
 
 Grafting Wax. 
 
 Five parts of rosin, 1 part of beeswax, 1 part of 
 tallow. Melt these in a skillet, tin cup, or any 
 metal vessel ; the skillet being preferable, as it can 
 be handled better, and the wax keeps warm longer 
 in it. Mix these over the fire, and mix together 
 well. When the scions are set say as many as 
 20 or 30, or as few as wished hare the mix- 
 ture ready and apply it warm with a small wooden 
 paddle. See that every part is covered, and the 
 air completely excluded. It requires no bandage. 
 We have made the wax in different proportions to 
 the above, but we find these to be best adapted to 
 the purpose. The object to be attained is to have 
 the wax of such consistency that it will not crack 
 in the cold winds of March and April, nor run in 
 the hot suns of summer. 
 
460 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS MEDICAL KECEIPTS. 
 
 To Prepare a cheap Hortus Siccus. 
 All the smaller plants should be expanded under 
 water, in a plate, upon a piece of writing-paper 
 sunk to the bottom. In this state they will assume 
 their natural form and position. The paper, with 
 the plant upon it, must be withdrawn from the 
 water gently ; and the plant and paper afterwards 
 placed betwixt two or three sheets of blotting- 
 paper and pressed with a book or flat board. It 
 is then to be laid up in a quire of blotting paper, 
 under pressure, for a day or two, when, if dry, it 
 may be placed permanently upon writing-paper. 
 
 To make Artificial Red Coral Branches, for the 
 Embellishment of Grottoes. 
 
 Take clear rosin, dissolve it in a brass pan ; to 
 every ounce of which add 2 drs. of the finest ver- 
 milion; when stirred well together, choose the 
 twigs and branches, peeled and dried, then take a 
 pencil and paint the branches all over whilst the 
 composition is warm; afterwards shape them in 
 imitation of natural coral. This done, hold the 
 branches over a gentle coal fire, till all is smooth 
 and even as if polished. In the same manner 
 white coral may be prepared with white-lead, and 
 black coral, with lampblack. A grotto may be 
 built, with little expense, of glass, cinders, peb- 
 bles, pieces of large flint, shells, moss, stones, 
 counterfeit coral, pieces of chalk, all bound or 
 cemented together with the above described 
 cement. 
 
 To Prevent Cold Feet at Night. 
 
 Draw off the stocking, just before undressing, 
 and rub the ankles and feet with the hand as hard 
 as can be borne for 5 or 10 minutes. This will 
 diffuse a pleasurable glow, and those who do so 
 will never have to complain of cold feet in bed. 
 Frequent washing and rubbing them thoroughly 
 dry with a linen cloth or flannel, is useful for the 
 same purpose. 
 
 A Natural Dentifrice. 
 
 The common strawberry is a natural dentifrice, 
 and its juice, without any preparation, dissolves 
 the tartareous incrustations on the teeth, and 
 makes the breath sweet and agreeable. 
 
 Fine Clay as a Dressing for Sores. 
 Dr. Schreber, of Leipzic, recommends the use 
 of clay as the most " energetic, the most innocent, 
 the most simple, and the most economical of pal- 
 liative applications to surfaces yielding foul and 
 moist discharges." He, moreover, considers that 
 it has a specific action in accelerating the cure. 
 Clay softened down in water, and freed from all 
 gritty particles, is laid, layer by layer, over the 
 affected part to the thickness of about a line. If 
 it become dry and fall off, fresh layers are applied 
 to the cleansed surface. The irritating secretion 
 is' rapidly absorbed by the clay, and the contact 
 of air prevented. The cure thus goes on rapidly. 
 This clay-ointment has a decisive action in cases 
 of foetid perspiration of the feet or arm-pits. A 
 single layer applied in the morning will destroy 
 all odor in the day. It remains a long time sup- 
 ple, and the pieces which fall off in fine powder 
 produce no inconvenience. 
 
 To Prevent the Effects of Drinking Cold Liquors in 
 Warm Weather, or when Heated by Exercise. 
 Avoid drinking water whilst warm, or drink only 
 a small quantity at once, and let it remain a short 
 time in the mouth before swallowing it, or wash 
 the hands and face and rinse the mouth with cold 
 water before drinking. If these precautions have 
 been neglected, and the disorder incident to drink- 
 ing cold water or eating ice when the body is 
 heated, has been produced the first and in most 
 
 instances the only remedy to be administered if 
 60 drops of laudanum in spirits and water, or 
 warm drink of any kind. 
 
 If this should fail of giving relief, the same 
 quantity may be given 20 minutes afterwards. 
 
 When laudanum cannot be obtained, rum and 
 water, brandy and water, or even warm p vater 
 alone, should be given. 
 
 To Remedy the Effects of Dram-drinking. 
 
 Whoever makes the attempt to abandon spirit- 
 drinking, will find, from time to time, a rankling 
 in the stomach, with a sensation of sinking, cold- 
 ness and inexpressible anxiety. This may be re- 
 lieved by taking often a cupful of an infusion of 
 cloves made by steeping about an oz. of them in 
 a pint of boiling water for 6 hours, and then strain- 
 ing off the liquor, or from a teaspoon ful to a table- 
 spoonful of elixir of valerianate of ammonia. In 
 a state of permanent languor and debility, 1 oz. 
 of the cascarilla bark (being also first bruised in 
 a mortar), should be added to the infusion. This 
 mixture taken in the quantity above specified 3 
 times a day will be found a useful strengthener 
 of the stomach and bowels when they have been 
 disordered by frequent excess and intoxication. 
 The Portland Powder. 
 
 Take of aristolochia rotunda, or birthwort root, 
 gentian root, tops and leaves, germander, tops and 
 leaves, ground pine, tops and leaves, centaury, 
 tops and leaves. Take of all these, well dried, 
 powdered and sifted fine, equal weight; mix them 
 well together, and take 1 dr. of this mixed pow- 
 der every morning, fasting, in a cup of wine ani 
 water, broth, tea, or any other vehicle you like 
 best; keep fasting 1 hours after it; continue this 
 for 3 months without interruption, then diminish 
 the dose to f dr. for 3 months longer, then to i 
 dr. for 6 months more, taking it regularly every 
 morning if possible; after the first year it will be 
 sufficient to take i dr. every other day. As this 
 medicine operates insensibly, it will perhaps take 
 2 years before you receive any great benefit, so 
 you must not be discouraged, though you do not 
 perceive at first any great amendment; it works 
 slowly but surely ; it does not confine the patient 
 to any particular diet, so one lives soberly, and 
 abstains from those meats and liquors that have 
 always been accounted pernicious in the gout, as 
 champagne, drams, high sauces, etc. 
 
 In rheumatism which is not habitual, a few of 
 the drachm doses may do, but if habitual or of 
 long duration, the powder must be taken as for 
 the gout. The remedy requires patience, as it 
 operates but slowly in both distempers. 
 
 Pradier's Cataplasm. 
 
 Pradier's remedy for the gout was purchased by 
 the Emperor Napoleon, pro bonopnblico, for 2500. 
 Take of balm of Mecca, 6 dr.; red bark, 1 oz.; 
 saffron, ^ oz. ; sarsaparilla, 1 oz. ; sage, 1 oz. ; rec- 
 tified spirit of wine, 3 Ibs. Dissolve separately 
 the balm of Mecca in J of the spirit of wine; ma- 
 cerate the rest of the substances in the remainder 
 for 48 hours; filter, and mix the two liquors for 
 use; the tincture obtained is mixed with twice or 
 thrice the quantity of lime-water ; the bottle must 
 be shaken in order to mix the precipitate settled 
 at the bottom by standing. 
 
 Mode of Application. 
 
 The following is the mode of applying the 
 remedy: A poultice must be prepared of linseed 
 meal, which must be of good consistency and 
 spread very hot of the thickness of a finger on a 
 napkin, so as completely to surround the part af- 
 fected ; if it be required for both legs, from the 
 feet to the knees, it will take about 3 qts. of lin- 
 
LIEBIG'S SOUPS FOR INVALIDS AND CHILDREN, 
 
 461 
 
 seed meal. When the poultice is prepared, and 
 as hot as the patient can bear it, about 2 oz. of 
 the prepared liquor must be poured equally over 
 the whole of the s irface of each, without its being 
 imbibed; the part affected is then to be wrapped 
 up in it, and bour d up with flannel and bandages 
 to preser/e the heat. The poultice is generally 
 changed every 24 hours, sometimes at the end of 
 twelve. 
 
 Liebig's Soup for Invalids. 
 Take i Ib. of newly-killed beef or fowl, chop it 
 'fine, add l&'lba. of distilled water, with 4 drops of 
 pure muriatic acid, and 34 to 67 grains of common 
 salt, and stir well together. After an hour the 
 whole is to be thrown on a conical hair-sieve, and 
 the fluid allowed to flow through without any 
 pressure. The first thick portions which pass 
 through are to be returned to the sieve, until the 
 fluid runs off quite clear. Half a Ib. of distilled 
 water is to be poured, in small portions at a time, on 
 the flesh residue in the sieve. There will be ob- 
 tained in this way about 1 Ib. of fluid (cold extract 
 of flesh), of a red color, and having a pleasant 
 taste of soup. The invalid is allowed to take it 
 old, a cupful at a time, at pleasure. It must not 
 be heated, as it becomes muddy by heat, and de- 
 posits a thick coagulum of albumen and coloring 
 matter of blood. In soup prepared in the usual 
 way by boiling, all those constituents of flesh are 
 wanting which are necessary for the formation of 
 blood albumen; and the yolk of egg, which is 
 added, is poor in those substances, for it contains 
 in all 82i per cent, of water and fat, and only 17 
 per cent, of a substance, the same or very similar 
 to albumen of egg. But whether it is equal in its 
 power of nutrition to the albumen of flesh, is at 
 least d<3ubtf'ul from the experiments of Magendie. 
 Besides the albumen of flesh, the new soup con- 
 tain s a certain quantity of coloring matter of 
 blood, and with it a much larger quantity of the 
 necessary iron for the formation of the blood-cor- 
 puscles, and finally, the muriatic acid to assist di- 
 gestion. A great obstacle to the use of this soup 
 in summer is its liability to change in warm 
 weather. It enters into fermentation like sugar 
 with yeast, but without acquiring a bad odor. 
 What may be the substance which gives rise to 
 this fermentation is a question well worthy of 
 being investigated. The extraction of the flesh 
 must consequently be made with very cold water, 
 and in a cool place. Iced water, and external 
 cooling with ice, completely removes this difficulty. 
 But the most important point to be attended to is 
 to employ meat quite recently killed, and not sev- 
 eral days old. The soup has been successfully 
 employed in low fevers and the summer-complaint 
 of children. 
 
 Liebig's Soup for Children. 
 
 With that remarkable estimation of the great- 
 ness of small things which is the most valuable of 
 his many high intellectual qualities, and with a 
 tender appreciation of the importance of small 
 people, Baron Liebig devotes a special article in 
 an English scientific periodical to the description 
 of a new diet which he conceives to be the most 
 fitting substitute for the natural nutriment of chil- 
 dren robbed of their mother's milk. It is well 
 known the cow's milk does not adequately repre- 
 sent the milk of a healthy woman, and when 
 wheaten flour is added, as it commonly is, Liebig 
 points out that, although that starch be not un- 
 fitting for the nourishment of infants, the change 
 of it into sugar in the stomach during digestion 
 imposes an unnecessary labor on the organiza- 
 tion, which will be spared it if the starch be 
 changed into the soluble forma of sugar and dex- 
 
 trine. This he effects by adding tc the wheaten 
 flour a certain quantity of malt. As wheaten flour 
 and malt flour contain less alkali than woman's 
 milk he supplies this when preparing the soup. 
 This soup may be shortly prepared, as follows: 
 " Half an oz. of wheaten flour and an equal quan- 
 tity of malt flour ; 7i grs. of bicarbonate of potash 
 and 1 oz. of water are to be well mixed ; 5 oz. of 
 cow's milk are then to be added, and the whole 
 put on a gentle fire; when the mixture begins to 
 thicken it is removed from the fire, stirred during 
 5 minutes, heated and stirred again till it becomes 
 fluid, and finally made to boil. After the separa- 
 tion of the bran by a sieve it is ready for use. By 
 boiling it for a few minutes it loses all taste of the 
 flour." The immediate inducement for Baron 
 Liebig making this soup arose from the fact that 
 one of his grandchildren could not be suckled by 
 its mother, and that another required, besides his 
 mother's milk, a more concentrated food. The 
 soup proved an excellent food the children 
 thrived on it. Baron Liebig has himself used this 
 soup with tea as a breakfast, and a most thor- 
 oughly nutritious meal it must be. The tempera- 
 ture before boiling should not exceed 148 Fahr. 
 
 To Write for the Use of the Blind. 
 Let an iron pen be used, the point of which ia 
 not split. Blind persons writing without ink, and 
 pressing on a strong paper, will produce charac- 
 ters in relief, which they can immediately read by 
 passing their fingers over the projecting charac- 
 ters on the opposite side of the paper, in the con- 
 trary direction. 
 
 On the Honing and Stropping of a Razor. 
 Let the hone be seldom and but sparingly re- 
 sorted to, and never, unless by frequent and re- 
 peated stropping the edge of the razor is entirely 
 destroyed ; use the best pale oil, and be careful 
 to preserve the hone clean and free from dust. 
 Previously to the operation of shaving, it will be 
 found of service, particularly to those who have a 
 strong beard and a tender skin, to wash the face 
 well with soap and water, and the more time is 
 spent in lathering and moistening the beard, the 
 easier will the process of shaving become. Dip 
 the razor in hot water before applying it to the 
 face ; use the blade nearly flat, always taking care 
 to give it a cutting instead of a scraping direc- 
 tion. Strop the razor immediately after using it, 
 for the purpose of effectually removing any mois- 
 ture that may remain upon the edge, and be care- 
 ful not to employ a common strop, as the compo- 
 sition with which they are covered is invariably 
 of a very inferior quality, and injurious to a ra- 
 zor. ' The strop should always be of the best 
 manufacture, and when the composition is worn 
 off it will be found particularly useful to rub it 
 over, lightly, with a little clean tallow, and then 
 put upon it the top part of the snuff of a candle, 
 which, being a fine power, will admirably supply 
 the place of the best composition ever used for 
 the purpose. Another excellent mode of renova- 
 ting a razor-strop is by rubbing it well with pew- 
 ter, and impregnating the leather with the finest 
 metallic particles. 
 
 Paste for Sharpening Razors. 
 
 Take oxide of tin levigated, vulgarly termed 
 prepared putty, 1 oz. ; saturated solution of oxalio 
 acid, a sufficient quantity to form a paste. This 
 composition is to be rubbed over the strop, and 
 when dry a little water may be added. The oxa- 
 lic acid having a great attachment for iron, a little 
 friction with this powder gives a fine edge to the 
 
462 
 
 DANGERS AND EMERGENCIES. 
 
 Horses Pulling at the Halter. 
 
 Many remedies have been proposed for curing 
 this bad habit, but a simple and effective one is to 
 discard the common halter, and get a broad, strong 
 leather strap to buckle around the neck for a few 
 inches below the cars. A horse may pull at this, 
 but will soon give it up. 
 
 To Escape from or Go into a House on Fire. 
 
 Creep or crawl with your face near the ground, 
 and although the room be full of smoke to suffoca- 
 tion, yet near the floor the air is pure, and may be 
 breathed with safety. The best escape from upper 
 windows is a knotted rope, but if a leap is una- 
 voidable, then a bed should be thrown out first, or 
 beds be placed by those outside for the purpose. 
 
 To Bring Horses oat of a Stable on Fire. 
 
 Throw the harness or saddles to which they may 
 have been accustomed, over the backs of the horses 
 in this predicament, and they will come out of the 
 stable as tractably as usual. 
 Hoio to know whether a Horse has a Strong and 
 
 Good Eye, or a Weak Eye, and likely to go Blind. 
 
 People generally turn a horse's head to a bright 
 light to examine his eyes. You can know very 
 little by this method what sort of an eye the horse 
 has, unless it be a very defective one. You must 
 examine the eye first, when the horse stands with 
 his head to the manger. Look carefully at the 
 pupil of the eye in a horse ; it is of an oblong 
 form ; carry the size of the pupil in your mind, 
 and turn the horse about, bring him to a bright 
 light, and if in the bright light the pupil of the 
 eye contracts and appears much smaller than it 
 was in the darker light, then you may be sure the 
 horse has a strong, good eye, but. provided the 
 pupil remains nearly of the same size as it ap- 
 peared in the darker light, the horse has a weak 
 eye, therefore have nothing to do with him. There 
 are contracting and dilating muscles in the eye, 
 which will plainly show you in what state the eye 
 is, whether it be a strong or a weak one. 
 How to Catch Wood-pigeons. 
 
 Wood-pigeons are very easily caught in hard 
 weather, particularly when snow is on the ground. 
 You have but to sweep the snow on one side for 
 about a dozen yards long and about 3 feet broad. 
 Lay about 20 small eel-hooks, fastened by a peg 
 into the ground, and with a small bean on each ; 
 be sure you put the point of the hook only through 
 the top of the bean and the barb standing quite 
 out on the side, otherwise if the hook be totally 
 buried in the bean, when the bird struggles he will 
 pull the hook out of his throat. 
 
 I think as good a way as any is to punch 2 or 3 
 holes in horse-beans with an iron bodkin, and 
 then boil them in some common gin ; many will 
 be so drunk that they cannot fly up ; others will 
 perch on the adjacent trees ; watch them, and you 
 will see them tumble down. 
 
 How to Catch Wild-fowl. 
 
 If you have a large pond or lake frequented by 
 wild-fowl, in the shallow water, about 1 ft. deep, 
 where you observe them feed, lay a few rabbit- 
 traps, with a few beans on the bridge of the trap, 
 under the water. This is a sure method of catch- 
 ing them. Where the water is about 2 ft deep, 
 put a stick in about 1 foot above the water ; cut a 
 slit at the top of the stick; tie a strong piece of 
 pack-thread round a brick-bat, or to a large stone ; 
 let the string, after having tied it round the stone, 
 be about a foot longer ; to the other end fasten a 
 small eel-hook, baited with a piece of bullock's 
 lights, sheep's paunch, or a horse-bean ; then about 
 3 or 4 in. from the brick-bat fasten a stick nearly 
 
 as big as your little finger and about 4 in. long, 
 tying the string with a single knot exactly to th 
 centre of the stick ; then place that part of the 
 string which is between the brick-bat and the 
 short stick into the notch at the top of the long 
 stick which is stuck in the bottom of the pond. 
 The short stick will prevent the -weight of the 
 brick-flat from drawing the string through the 
 notch, and the hook will hang a few inches from the 
 water and the brick-bat hang fast by the notch in 
 the top of the stick. When the water-fowl takes 
 the baited hook he pulls the stick and the brick- 
 bat, and the latter pulls him under water and 
 drowns him. 
 
 Assistance to a Person in Danger of Drowning. 
 
 If the spectator is unable to swim, and can make 
 the sufferer hear, he ought to direct him to keep 
 his hands and arms under water until assistance 
 comes; in the mean time throw towards him a 
 rope, a pole, or any thing that may help to bring 
 him ashore, or on board; he will eagerly seize 
 whatever is placed within his reach ; thus he may, 
 perhaps, be rescued from his perilous situation. 
 
 But this desirable object appears attainable by 
 the proper use of a man's hat and pocket handker- 
 chief, which, being all the apparatus necessary, 13 
 to be used thus : Spread the handkerchief on the 
 ground, or deck, and place a stiff hat, with the brim 
 downwards, on the middle of it; then tie the hand- 
 kerchief round the hat, like a bundle, keeping the 
 knots as near the centre of the crown as possible. 
 Now, by seizing the knots in one hand, and keep- 
 ing the opening of the hat upwards, a person 
 without knowing how to swim, may fearlessly 
 plunge into the water, with whatever may be neces- 
 sary to save the life of a fellow creature. 
 
 The best manner in which an expert swimmer 
 can lay hold of a person he wishes to save from 
 sinking, is to grasp his arm firmly between the 
 shoulder and the elbow; this will prevent him 
 from clasping the swimmer in his arms, and thus 
 forcing him under water, and, perhaps, causing 
 him to sink with him. 
 
 To Estimate the Distance of a Thunder-clond. 
 
 Sound travels at the rate of 1120 feet per second. 
 Count the number of seconds between the flash 
 and the thunder, and multiply by 1120. By this 
 means the distance of a cannon or blast of rocka 
 may also be estimated. The pulse of a healthy 
 adult beats about 70 times a minute. 
 
 To Escape the Effects of Lightning. 
 
 When persons happen to be overtaken by a 
 thunder-storm, although they may not be terrified 
 by the lightning, yet they naturally wish for 
 shelter from the rain which usually attends it; 
 and, therefore, if no house be at hand, generally 
 take refuge under the nearest tree they can find. 
 But in doing this, they unknowingly expose them- 
 selves to a double danger; first, because their 
 clothes being thus kept dry, their bodies are ren- 
 dered more liable to injury the lightning often 
 passing harmless over a body whose surface is wet; 
 and secondly, because a tree, or any elevated ob- 
 ject, instead of warding off, serves to attract and 
 conduct the lightning, which, in its passage to the 
 ground, frequently rends the trunks or branches, 
 and kills any person or animal who happens to 
 be close to it at the time. Instead of seeking pro- 
 tection, then, by retiring under the shelter of a 
 tree, hay-stack, pillar, wall, or hedge, the person 
 should eitl.er pursue his way to the nearest house, 
 or get to a part of the road or field which has no 
 high object that can draw the lightning towards 
 it, and remain there until the storm has subsided. 
 
 It is particularly dangerous to stand near leaden 
 
DIALYSIS, RIDING. 
 
 463 
 
 spouts, iron gates, or palisadoes, at such times; 
 metals of all kinds having so strong an attraction 
 for lightning, as frequently to draw it out of the 
 course which it would otherwise have taken. 
 
 When in a house, avoid sitting or standing near 
 the window, dcor, or walls, during a thunder- 
 storm. The neirer a person is to the middle of a 
 room the bettev. 
 
 Means of Restoring Persons who have been 
 
 Famished. 
 
 In our attempts to recover those who have suf- 
 fered under the calamities of famine, great cir- 
 cumspection is required. Warmth, cordials, and 
 food, are the means to be employed: but it is evi- 
 dent that these may prove too powerful in their 
 operation, if not administered with caution and 
 judgment. For the body, by long fasting, is re- 
 duced to a state of more than infantile debility; 
 the minuter vessels of the brain, and of the other 
 organs, collapse for want of food to distend them ; 
 the stomach and intestines shrink in their capa- 
 city ; and the heart languidly vibrates, having 
 scarcely sufficient energy to propel the scanty cur- 
 rent of blood. Under such circumstances a pro- 
 per application of heat seems an essential measure, 
 and may be effected, by placing on each side, a 
 healthy man in contact with the patent. Pedi- 
 luvia, or fomentation of the feet, may also be used 
 with advantage. 
 
 The temperature of these should be lower than 
 that of the human body, and gradually increased 
 according to the effects of their stimulus. New 
 milk, weak broth, or water-gruel, ought to be 
 employed, both for the one and the other ; as 
 nourishment may be conveyed into the system 
 this way, by passages, properly the most pervious 
 in a state of fasting, if not too long protracted. 
 
 It appears safer to advise the administration of 
 cordials in very small doses, and, at first, consider- 
 ably diluted with either wine or spirits; but slen- 
 der wine whey will very well answer this purpose, 
 and afford, at the same time, an easy and pleasant 
 nourishment. When the stomach has been a little 
 strengthened, an egg may be mixed with the whey, 
 or administered under some other agreeable form. 
 The yolk of one was, to Cornaro, sufficient for a 
 meal; and the narrative of that noble Venetian, 
 in whom a fever was excited by the addition of 
 only two ounces of food to his daily allowance, 
 shows, that the return to a full diet should be 
 conducted with great caution, and by very slow 
 gradations. 
 
 Welsh Rabbit. 
 
 Cut your cheese into small slips, if soft; if hard, 
 grate it down. Have ready a spirit-of-wine lamp, 
 etc., and df.ep block-tin dish ; put in the cheese 
 with a lump of butter, and set it over the lamp. 
 Have ready the yolk of an egg whipped, with half 
 a glass of Madeira, and as much ale or beer; stir 
 your cheese when melted, till it is thoroughly 
 mixed with the butter, then add gradually the 
 egg and wine, keep stirring till it forms a smooth 
 mass. Season with Cayenne and grated nutmeg. 
 To be eaten with a thin hot toast. 
 
 Impromptu Chafing Dish. 
 
 It often happens that in travelling, the mate- 
 lials for a, rabbit may be had when there is nothing 
 else in the house the gourmand can eat. In this 
 case, if there is no blazer, or chafing dish, an ex- 
 cellent substitute is formed in a moment by two 
 soup plates, sej arated from each other by pieces 
 of a bottle-cork placed on the rim of the lower 
 one, which should contain any kind of spirits. 
 Put your cheese into the top one, fire the spirits 
 with a slip of paper, and set your rabbit on the 
 
 corks. ; it answers as well as the most expensive 
 heater in Christendom. 
 
 DIALYSIS 
 
 Is the term applied by Professor Graham to a pro- 
 cess devised by him for separating bodies by taking 
 advantage of their tendency to form crystals or to 
 remain in the amorphous or glue-like condition. 
 
 It is well known that many bodies have a ten- 
 dency to crystallize, such as salt, sugar and alum ; 
 others, as albumen (white of egg), glue and the 
 like are never known to assume the crystalline 
 form. Professor Graham has found that if a mix- 
 ture of the former, which he terms crystalloids, 
 with the latter (colloids), be placed in a vessel hav- 
 ing its sides or bottom constructed of animal mem- 
 brane or parchment paper (page 436) and floated 
 or immersed in water, the crystalloid will pass 
 through into the surrounding liquid, while the 
 colloid will remain. This is not an action analo- 
 gous to ordinary filtration, for the membrane is 
 water-proof, but is of a more complex nature. 
 
 The dialyzer of Professor Graham consists of a 
 hoop of wood having its bottom made of parch- 
 ment-paper ; it resembles, in fact, an ordinary tam- 
 bourine. This is floated on the surface of a liquid 
 and the mixture is poured into it. After a time 
 the liquid gives on evaporation the crystalloid, salt, 
 for instance, while the colloid, jelly, for instance, 
 remains within the dialyzer. 
 
 Among the results of investigation with this ap- 
 paratus have been the discovery of silica (sand, 
 rock-crystal) in a soluble form (page 434) and the 
 separation of crystalline poisons from organic mat- 
 ters in the stomach after death ; many others will 
 be found in the recent scientific journals. 
 
 Utilization of Brine. 
 
 Mr. A. Whitelaw has proposed to use the process 
 of dialysis for obtaining the large amount of nu- 
 tritious matter which exists in the brine of salted 
 meats, and which is usually thrown away. Ac- 
 cording to Mr. W., 2 galls, of brine yield 1 Ib. of 
 solid extract, which makes a palatable and nutri- 
 cious soup. It is only necessary to enclose the 
 brine in bags of animal membrane, and immerse 
 them in water ; the salt passes through, and the 
 albuminous and extractive matters remain. 
 
 To Freshen Salt Meat. 
 
 Another application of dialysis is that of ren- 
 dering salt meat more juicy, tender and digesti- 
 ble. The meat is placed in a bag of untanned 
 skin, which is nearly filled with brine from the 
 beef-barrel. This is placed in sea-water for sev- 
 eral days, when the brine, having lost its salt by 
 dialysis, becomes reduced in strength to that of 
 sea-water. The beef, which had been contracted 
 by the action of the salt, gives up its salt to the 
 brine in the bag, swells and absorbs part of the 
 juice which it had given out to the brine. In this 
 way no loss is sustained by steeping, and the brine 
 left in the bags, after a nightly dialysis, may be 
 used for soup. 
 
 Thoroughly salted meat without bone gradually 
 takes up nearly J of its weight of juices from the 
 brine. It becomes then somewhat like fresh meat, 
 and may be cooked in a variety of ways which are 
 inadmissible for salt meat. 
 
 HIDING. 
 Sitting a Horse. 
 
 The body of the rider is divided into three parts, 
 of which two are movable and one immovable; 
 one of the first consists of all the upper part of 
 the body down to the waist, the other of the lower 
 part of the legs, from the knee down j the immov- 
 
RIDING AND MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 able portion is from the waist to the knees. The 
 rider should sit square on the middle of the sad- 
 dle, the upper part of the body presenting a free 
 and unconstrained appearance, the chest not much 
 thrown forward, the ribs resting freely on the hips 
 the waist and loins not stiffened, and thus not ex- 
 posed to tension or effort from the motions of the 
 horse; the upper part of the body should lean 
 slightly to the rear, rather than forward; the 
 thighs, inclining a little forward, lie flat and firmly 
 on the saddle, covering the surcingle, of which only 
 a small part behind the knee, should be seen ; the 
 lower part of the leg, hanging vertically from the 
 knees, touches the horse, but without .the slightest 
 pressure; the toes are pointed up without con- 
 straint, and on the same line with the knees, for if 
 the toes are turned outward it not only causes the 
 horse to be unnecessarily pricked by the spurs (if 
 Worn), but the firmness of the seat is lost; the heels 
 should be seven-eighths of an inch below the toes, 
 and the stirrups so adjusted that when the rider 
 raises himself on them, there may be the breadth 
 of 4 fingers between the crotch and the saddle ; to 
 make this adjustment, when the rider has acquired 
 a firm and correct seat he should, without chang- 
 ing that seat, push the bottom of the stirrup to 
 the hollow of the foot, and then, with the foot hori- 
 zontal, feel a slight support from the stirrup ; when 
 this is accomplished he replaces the foot properly 
 in the stirrup, and the heel will then be seven- 
 eighths of an inch below the toes. 
 
 To give the rider a correct seat, the instructor, 
 having caused him to mount, seizes the lower part 
 of his leg, and stretches it straight toward the 
 fore-quarters of the horse, so as to bring the but- 
 tocks of the rider square on the saddle; then, 
 resting one hand on the man's knee, he seizes the 
 lower part of the leg with the other, and carries 
 back the thigh and knee so as to bring the crotch 
 square on the saddle, the thighs covering the sur- 
 cingle, the lower part of the leg, from the knee 
 down, also over the surcingle, and sees that the 
 rider does not sit too much on his crotch, but has 
 his buttocks well under him. He then explains to 
 the rider that the firmness of the seat consists in 
 this : that the rider grasps the horse with his legs ; 
 that both thighs press equally upon the saddle, in 
 conformity with the movements of the body, and 
 that the general movements of the body and thighs 
 must conform to those of the horse. He should 
 be taught, too, how to hold the feet, without al- 
 lowing him to place them in the stirrups, for this is 
 one of the most essential conditions for a good seat. 
 
 Dough-nuts. 
 
 Take two deep dishes, and sift 5 of a pound of 
 flour into each. Make a hole in the centre of one 
 of them, and pour in a wineglassful of the best 
 brewer's yeast ; mix the flour gradually into it, 
 netting it with lukewarm water; cover it, and set 
 it by the fire to raise for two hours. In the mean- 
 time, cut up 5 oz. of butter into the other dish of 
 flour, and rub it fine with your hands ; add % Ib. 
 of powdered sugar, a teaspoonful of powdered 
 cinnamon, a grated nutmeg, atablespoonful of rose- 
 water, and i pint of milk. Beat 3 eggs very 
 light, and stir them hard into the mixture. Then, 
 when the sponge is perfectly light, add it to the 
 other ingredients, mixing them all thoroughly 
 with a knife. Cover it, and set it by the fire for 
 another hour. When it is quite light, flour your 
 paste-board, turn out the lump of dough, and cut 
 it into thick diamond or round shape cakes. If 
 you find the dough so soft as to be unmanagable, 
 mix in a little more flour. Have ready a skillet 
 of boiling lard, put the dough nuts into it, and 
 fry them brown. 
 
 Crullers. 
 
 One and a half Ibs. of flour, 5 eggs, f of a Ib. 
 of sugar, 6 oz. of butter, 1 teaspoonful of cinna- 
 mon and nutmeg mixed, 1 wineglassful of rose- 
 water, 1 tablespoonful of saleratus. Rub the but- 
 ter, sugar, and flour together, add the spice, rose- 
 water, and saleratus. Beat the eggs very light, 
 mix all into a dough, knead it well, and roll it 
 out an inch thick. Cut it into slips, twist them 
 into various forms, fry in hot lard until they are 
 of a light brown. When cold, sift sugar over 
 them. 
 
 How to make Otto of Roses. 
 
 Gather the leaves of the hundred-leaved rose 
 (rosa centifolia), put them in a large jar or cask, 
 with just sufficient water to cover them ; then put 
 the vessel to stand in the sun, and in about a 
 week afterward the otto (a butyraceous oil) will 
 form a scum on the surface, which should be re- 
 moved by the aid of a piece of cotton. 
 
 How to Keep Fresh Fish. 
 
 Draw the fish and remove the gills, then insert 
 a piece of charcoal in their mouths, and two or 
 three pieces in their bellies. If they are to be 
 conveyed any distance, wrap each fish separately 
 in paper and place them in a box. Fish thus pre- 
 served will keep fresh for several days. 
 
 To Varnish Articles of Iron and Steel. 
 
 Dissolve 10 parts clear grains of mastic, 5 parts 
 camphor, 15 grs. sandarac, and 5 parts elemi, in 
 a sufficient quantity of alcohol, and apply this 
 varnish without heat. The articles will not only 
 be preserved from rust, but the varnish will re- 
 tain its transparency, and the metallic brilliancy 
 of the articles will not be impaired. 
 
 To Keep Water Pure in Iron Kettles. 
 
 Keep an oyster-shell in the bottom of the kettle, 
 this will prevent the iron from rusting and keep 
 the water clear. 
 
 To Wash Flannels. 
 
 Wash first in warm soap-suds and rinse them 
 in warm water, having the water neither too h'ot 
 nor too cold. 
 
 Pharaoh's Serpent's Eggs. 
 
 These are little cones of sulphocyanide of mer- 
 cury, which, when lighted, give forth a long, ser- 
 pent-like, yellowish-brown body. 
 
 Prepare nitrate of mercury by dissolving red 
 precipitate in strong nitric acid as long as it is 
 ;aken up. Prepare also sulphocyanide of ammo- 
 nium by mixing one volume of bisulphide of car- 
 >on, four of strong solution of ammonia, and four 
 of alcohol. This mixture is to be frequently 
 shaken. In the course of about 2 hours the bisul- 
 phide will have dissolved, forming a deep red solu- 
 ion. Boil this until the red color disappears and 
 he solution becomes of a light yellow color. This 
 s to be evaporated at about 80 Fahr. until it 
 jrystallizes. Add little by little the sulphocyanide 
 ,o the mercury solution. The sulphocyanide of 
 mercury will precipitate; the supernatent liquid 
 may be poured off, and the mass made into cones 
 about half an inch in height. The powder of the 
 iulphocyanide is very irritating to the air pas- 
 ages, and the vapors from the burning conea 
 hould be avoided as much as possible. To ignite, 
 et them on a plate or the like, and light them 
 at the apex of the cone. The result is certainly 
 most remarkable; the fiery vapors, winding and 
 wisting in the strangest fashion, render them 
 ibjects of curiosity and astonishment to all who 
 witness their performance. 
 
DECALCOMANIA AND MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 465 
 
 DECALCOMANIA, 
 
 Or the Art of Ornamenting China, Glass, Earth- 
 enware, Wooden ware, Fancy Boxes, Ivory, and 
 Paper Mac he* Goods, Japannedware, Binding of 
 Books, Fans, Leather Work, etc., etc. 
 
 Directions. Cover the picture entirely (taking 
 eare not to go beyond the outlines) with a slight 
 oat of fixing varnish; then put the picture on 
 the object to be ornamented, being careful to place 
 it properly at once, in order not to spoil it by 
 nuving. The varnish newly applied being too 
 liquid, the picture should be left to dry eight or 
 ten .minutes, and placed on the object to be orna- 
 mented, when just damp enough to be still adher- 
 ent; l^iis done, cover the back of the picture with 
 a piece of cloth steeped in water, then, by means 
 of a knife or pen-holder, rub it all over, so as to 
 fix ever) cart of it; then remove the piece of cloth 
 and rinse *.he paper with a paint-brush steeped in 
 water; at Uie end of a few minutes the paper will 
 oome off, leaving the painting transferred. 
 
 Care must be taken that the piece of cloth, with- 
 out being toe wet, should be sufficiently so for the 
 paper to be entirely saturated. The picture must 
 now be washed with a wet paint-brush, and dried 
 yery lightly witLv so <ne blotting paper. The orna- 
 mented article shouli, after this, be put near the 
 Btove or any other ^varm place, to make it dry 
 well and to improve Jhe adhesiveness of the pic- 
 tures. The polishing varnish should not be ap- 
 plied until the next day, keeping the pictures in 
 the meantime carefully out of the dust. The lat- 
 ter varnish should be put on as lightly as possible. 
 
 If dark-colored objects are to be ornamented, 
 guch as bindings of books, Russian leather, leather 
 bags, &G., the picture must first be coveted with a 
 mixture of white lead and turpentine, following 
 the outlines of the design and covering it entirely. 
 When this coat is perfectly dry, proceed according 
 to the above instructions. 
 
 To print on silk, paper, or materials that cannot 
 bear washing after the process, proceed as follows : 
 Cover the picture entirely with a light coat of fix- 
 ing varnish and let it dry for an hour or two; 
 then pass a sponge, lightly damped, over the 
 whole surface of the paper, in order to take away 
 the composition which is on it in the blank parts, 
 and which often cleans the material. 
 
 When the paper is dry, re-varnish the picture, 
 and transfer it on to the material by means of a 
 paper cutter, avoiding to employ the piece of cloth 
 or anything damp ; then, with a paint-brush 
 slightly steeped in water, wet the paper lightly, 
 and leave it a full quarter of an hour on the object 
 before removing it. 
 
 To remove a spoiled print, rub it with a soft rag 
 imbibed in turpentine. 
 
 Our readers will at once appreciate the merits 
 of this invention ; the facility with which it can 
 be applied, also ito numerous applications. 
 
 Cstmetic for the Complexion. 
 
 Mix glycerine with water, together with a small 
 quantity of alcohol, add Cologne, or other per- 
 fume, and you have a preparation closely resemb- 
 ling the celebrated Email de Paris. This pre- 
 paration is said to impart a soft, white, and ele- 
 gant skin of the texture and color of polished 
 ivory, and to remove all discolorations, black worm 
 peeks, and roughness of the skin, and smooths 
 out the marks of small-pox. 
 
 Cheap Outside Paint. 
 
 Take 2 parts (in bulk) of water-lime ground fine 
 
 1 part (in bulk) of white lead ground in oil. Mix 
 
 them thoroughly, by adding best boiled linseed-oi 1 
 
 enough to prepare it to pass through a paint-mill 
 
 30 
 
 after which temper with oil till it can be applied 
 with a common paint-brush. Make any color to 
 suit. It will last three times as long as lead paint, 
 is superior, and cost not one-fourth as .much. 
 
 Brilliant Whitewash, closely resembling Paint. 
 Many have heard of the brilliant stucco white- 
 wash on the east end of the President's house at 
 Washington. The following is a receipt for :t : 
 
 Take bushel nice unslaked lime, slake it witk 
 boiling water, cover it during the process to keep in 
 the steam. Strain the liquid through a fine sieve 
 r strainer, and add to it a peck of salt, previously 
 well dissolved in warm water, 3 Ibs. ground rice, 
 boiled to a thin paste, and stirred in boiling hot, 
 t Ib. powdered Spanish whiting, and 1 Ib. of clean 
 ;lue, which has been previously dissolved by soak- 
 ng it well, and then hang it over a slow fire, in a 
 small kettle within a large one filled with water. 
 Add 5 galls, of hot water to the mixture, stir it 
 well, and let it stand a few days, covered from the 
 dirt. It should be put on right hot: for this pur- 
 pose, it can be kept in a kettle on a portable furn- 
 ace. It is said that about a pint of this mixture 
 will cover a square yard upon the outside of a 
 aouse, if properly applied. Brushes more or less 
 may be used, according to the neatness of the job 
 required. It answers as well as oil-paint for wood, 
 brick, or stone, and is cheaper. It retains its 
 brilliancy for many years. There is nothing of 
 the kind that will compare with it, either for in- 
 side or outside walls. Coloring-matter may be 
 put in, and made of any shade you like. Spanish- 
 brown stirred in will make red pink, more or leas 
 deep, according to the quantity. A delicate tinge 
 of this is very pretty for inside walls. Finely 
 pulverized common clay, well mixed with Span- 
 ish-brown, makes a reddish stone-color. Yellow 
 ochre stirred in makes yellow-wash ; but crome 
 goes further, and makes a color generally esteemed 
 prettier. In all these cases the darkness of the 
 shades, of course, is determined by the quantity 
 of coloring used. It is difficult to make rules, be- 
 cause tastes are different; it would be best to try 
 experiments on a shingle, and let it dry. Green 
 must not be mixed with lime ; it destroys the 
 color, and the color has an effect on the white- 
 wash which makes it crack and peel. When walls 
 have been badly smoked, and you wish to have 
 them a clean white, it is well to squeeze indigo 
 plentifully through a bag into the water you use, 
 before it is stirred in the whole mixture, or add a 
 little blue stone. If a larger quantity than 5 galls, 
 be wanted, the same proportion should be obr 
 served. 
 
 To render Gunpowder Incombustible and Combust- 
 ible at pleasure. 
 
 It has been recently announced that a plan has 
 been discovered by which gunpowder may be ren- 
 dered non-explosive at pleasure, and afterwards 
 restored to its former condition of combustibility. 
 This remarkable discovery was lately announced 
 to have been made in England, but it seemed so 
 improbable that little attention was paid to it. 
 By experiments made during October of this year 
 (1865), at Jersey City, New Jersey, under the 
 charge of Mr. Handel Cossham, one of the party 
 of English railway capitalists accompanying Sir 
 Morton Peto to this country, the matter has been 
 clearly demonstrated to be possible. At this ex- 
 periment, common gunpowder was first exploded 
 in the ordinary manner. Ground glass was then 
 mixed with it, in proportion of two parts of gun- 
 powder to one of ground glass. This mixture 
 then refused to explode under the stimulation of 
 red-hot pokers, matches, fuses, and lighted paper. 
 It took fire and burned slowly, but it would no4 
 
466 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 explode. After these tests the remains of the 
 game powder were sifted, and the glass cleared 
 from it, when, at the slightest touch of a match, 
 the whole compound went off at a flash. But 
 the most remarkable of the experiments was the 
 
 5 lacing of a four-pound keg of prepared gunpow- 
 er on the top of a small portable furnace, in full 
 process of ignition. Under ordinary circumstan- 
 ces, such an attempt would have produced a terri- 
 ble explosion ; but here in a very few minutes it 
 was seen to be perfectly harmless. The hoops of 
 the keg soon fell apart and the powder dropped 
 in the fire, almost extinguishing it. 
 
 The addition of ground glass has no chemical 
 effect, but it acts mechanically. The glass sepa- 
 rates the grains of powder, and prevents continu- 
 ous combustion. Each grain is consumed by its- 
 self, and does not communicate sufficient force to 
 its neighbor to render the latter dangerous. Mixed 
 in heavier proportions, the gunpowder will scarcely 
 burn ; and by uniting four parts of ground glass 
 with one of gunpowder, the latter is rendered as 
 incombustible as a stone. 
 
 The importance of this discovery can scarcely 
 he estimated. It is one of the greatest safeguards 
 of human life ever discovered. It will render the 
 powder magazine harmless, and prevent those 
 frequent and terrible events resulting in the loss 
 of life, which have sent misery and woe through 
 many communities. This discovery was made by 
 Mr. James Gale, of Plymouth, England, a blind 
 man, who, in happier days, ere vision was denied 
 him, had been extensively engaged in scientific 
 pursuits. 
 
 To prevent and correct Rancidity in Vegetable and 
 Animal Oils. 
 
 A small qunntity of nitric ether ("sweet spirits 
 of nitre " ) mixed with the crude oil, carries off all 
 the disagreeable odor of rancidity, whilst by sub- 
 sequently warming the oil so treated, the spirit- 
 uous ingredient is removed and the oil becomes 
 sweet and limpid. A few drops of nitric ether 
 added to a bottle of oil when first opened serves ag 
 a constant preventive to rancidity. 
 
 Fatty bodies in a globular state may be kept a 
 long time without becoming rancid. This pecu- 
 liar state can be imparted to fatty matters by melt- 
 ing them at 130 Fahr. and adding a small quan- 
 tity of yolk of egg, or bile, or albuminous sub- 
 stances, or best, a solution of alkali, composed of 5 
 to 10 parts for every 100 of oil, at the same tempera- 
 ture. The whole is then agitated for some time to 
 bring the fatty matter into a globular condition. 
 
 A New Hydraulic Cement. 
 
 At a sitting of the Academy of Sciences at 
 Paris, December 4, 1865, it was announced that a 
 very valuable hydraulic cement may be obtained 
 by heating dolomite, commonly known as "mag- 
 nesian limestone," to between 575 and 750 Fahr., 
 or below a dull redness, powdering the calcined 
 mass, and making it into a paste with water. This 
 forms under water a stone of extraordinary hard- 
 ness, which, when once set, is not affected in the 
 slightest degree either by fresh or sea-water. He 
 also found that a mixture of magnesia with pow- 
 dered chalk or marble-dust forms with water a 
 plastic mass, which, by exposure in water for some 
 time, becomes converted into a kind of extremely 
 hard artificial marble. 
 
 Clay for Modelling and Luting. 
 
 The clay is first well dried, and then rendered 
 plastic by admixture with glycerine. It retains 
 its plasticity for months, and is capable of being 
 used over and over again just like wax, with the 
 advantage of always retaining the same consist- 
 
 ence of plasticity, being neither hardened by cold 
 nor softened by heat. 
 
 Another. A cheaper method than the above, 
 available for modelling and luting, is to make a 
 mixture of pipe-clay with a solution of chloride 
 of calcium of the specific gravity of 1-35. This 
 retains its plasticity for more than a year, and 
 makes a capital luting. 
 
 A New Artificial Light, 
 
 Possessing a very high degree of actinic power, 
 has been discovered by M. Sayes, of Paris. It is 
 produced by the combustion of a mixture of 24 
 parts of well-dried and pulverized nitre with 7 
 parts of flour of sulphur and 6 of realgar. This 
 mixture does not cost more than 10 cents per 
 pound, and its light is therefore cheaper than the 
 magnesium, to which it is only very slightly de- 
 ficient in actinic energy. It is not, however, 
 suitable for in-door photography. 
 
 New Waterproofing Material. 
 
 Paraffin is melted with 5 per cent, of linseed-oil 
 and run into cakes for use. When needed it is 
 melted, and the mixture spread with a brush over 
 the cloth, leather, stone, iron, etc. 
 
 The above is also used as a good insulator for 
 electric telegraph wires. 
 
 To imitate Meerschaum. 
 
 Mix 1 part of casein, or curds of milk, with 6 
 parts of calcined magnesia and 1 part of oxide of 
 zinc, and a sufficient quantity of water to form a 
 pasty mass, which is left to solidify, and when dry 
 it is extremely hard, susceptible of receiving a 
 high polish, and is sold as a substitute for meer- 
 schaum. 
 
 To clean Silver or Plated Ware. 
 
 Plunge the article in this solution : Hyposul- 
 phite of soda, 1 Ib. ; sal-ammoniac, 8 oz. ; solution 
 of ammonia, 4 oz. ; cyanide of potassium, 4 oz. 
 Let it remain 4 hour, wash, and rub with buck- 
 skin. The cyanide of potassium is very poisonous. 
 It may be omitted, but then the solution is not so 
 active. No powder is necessary in polishing. 
 Estimate of Farm Seeds for an Acre. 
 
 Wheat, broadcast, li to 2 bushels. 
 
 " drilled, li 
 
 Rye, broadcast, If 
 
 drilled, 14 to 1} " 
 
 Barley, broadcast, 2 to 24 " 
 
 " drilled, 1| to 2 " 
 
 Oats, broadcast, 2 to 3 " 
 
 " drilled, 2 " 
 
 f When sown with grain ") 
 
 Timothy, -| in autumn, to be follow- [ 1 to 2 galls, 
 (ed by clover in spring. J 
 f Sown on grain in "\ 
 j spring in connection I 
 
 RedCloverX with Timothy (without V 14 to 2 galls* 
 I Timothy double 1 
 
 quantity). 
 
 Herbs, or Red Top, . 1 to 14 bushels of 14 Ibs, 
 Kentucky Blue Grass, 1 to li " " 14 " 
 
 Lucerne, drilled, 10 " 
 
 Dutch White Clover, broadcast, .... 8 " 
 
 " drilled 6 " 
 
 Lawn Grass, . . . . 2 to 24 bushels of 15 ** 
 
 Millet, | to 1 bushel. 
 
 Corn, in hills, 1 to 14 gallon* 
 
 SorghUm, or Chinese sugar cane, 2 to 3 quarks. 
 
 Buckwheat, 1 bushel. 
 
 Beets and Mangel- Wurzel, . . 4 to 6 Ibs. 
 
 Carrots, 2 to 3 Ibs. 
 
 Turnips and Ruta Baga, . . . 1 Ib. 
 
 Parsnips, 4 to 6 Ibs. 
 
 Beans, in drills, 24 feet apart, . . 14 bushels. 
 Potatoes, 12 " 
 
RINDERPEST. 
 
 467 
 
 THE CATTLE PLAGUE, OR RINDERPEST.* 
 
 The following comprehensive article on the 
 Cattle Disease has been prepared from the best 
 English authorities on the subject, by a promi- 
 nent physician of Philadelphia. 
 
 The wide-spread interest at present felt in the 
 , serious disorder which is now prevailing in Eng- 
 land and other parts of Europe, under the name 
 of the " Cattle Plague," nnd which it may justly 
 be feared is destined also to afflict the United 
 States, renders it desirable to furnish, in a con- 
 densed and popular form, such information as 
 can be relied on, as the result of the studies of 
 scientific men. 
 
 In 1865, a most valuable treatise "On the Cattle 
 Plague; or, the Contagious Typhus of Horned 
 Cattle, its History, Origin, Description, etc.," was 
 published by H. Bourguignon, Doctor of the 
 Faculty of Paris, etc., etc. From it much of the 
 following account has been condensed. 
 
 DURATION OP THE DISEASE. 
 
 The duration of the cattle plague, when it 
 passes through all its phases, up to the death of 
 the animal, consists of from ten to twelve days. 
 In this time there are usually four stages, each 
 of these averaging three or four days. 
 
 First. A period of incubation, during which 
 the blood and humors of the animal are poisoned 
 by noxious exhalations, and undergo important 
 changes. Second. A febrile stage. Third. A re- 
 vulsion, inducing stupor. Fourth. Characterized 
 by free discharges from all the mucous membranes, 
 as the nostrils, lungs, bowels, etc., ending in ex- 
 Ireme prostration and death. 
 
 This typhus is a virulent, contagious, febrile, 
 End non-recurring disease, to regulate which, it is 
 all-important that every means should be employed 
 to prevent its extension, not only to animals, but 
 ilso to man, especially those who, having a slight 
 sore or abrasion of the skin, come in contact with 
 ihe diseased animals. 
 
 MEASURES TO PREVENT ITS EXTENSION. 
 
 Various measures have been taken in England 
 to prevent the spread of the contagion, among the 
 most prominent of which is "the removal and 
 destruction by burning or burying of all matters 
 capable of reproducing the disease;" hence all 
 articles which have been in contact with a dis- 
 eased animal or any of its discharges, especially 
 its dung, must be regarded as "infectious." Ani- 
 mals diseased had better be at once killed and 
 deeply buried. In order to maintain or restore the 
 health of cattle, there should be furnished abun- 
 dance of pure air, dry, clean, well ventilated sheds, 
 plenty of pure water, clean and dry meadows or 
 pasture, frequent currying and washing of the skin, 
 proper food at proper intervals, protection from 
 inclement weather, the utmost cleanliness in the 
 removal of manure, with its storage at a great 
 distance from the cattle shed. 
 
 SYMPTOMS OP THE DISEASE. 
 
 It is highly important to be able to recognize 
 the "ox typhus fever," that the necessary meas- 
 ures may be taken to prevent contagion, and that 
 the proper treatment may be pursued. 
 
 Symptoms. When the contagious typhus is 
 raging, keep a watchful eye on your cattle. If 
 you notice in their gait, their looks, or about their 
 ears, any unusual signs ; if they seem less eager, 
 less active, less vigilant ; if they leave part of 
 their food when in the stables, or if, when in the 
 fields, they no longer browse with continued alac- 
 rity, be upon your guard. If to these changes 
 of minor importance is added an appetite really 
 less acute, if the rumination is less regular, if the 
 
 animal looks sad and dispirited, if he exhibits an 
 unwonted look of gloom, if his leaden eye seem* 
 fixed and astonished, be assured that this cruel 
 distemper is spreading through his frame. 
 
 By-and-by the animal loses his appetite more 
 and more, rumination is shorter and less frequent. 
 He holds his head down, his ears sink and fall, 
 and he grinds his teeth. Then, as to the cows, 
 their milk, which was already diminished, sud- 
 denly dries up altogether, and the lowness of 
 spirits which had been visible for some days be- 
 fore, passes into stupor. If at this time you touch 
 their horns, their extremities, or their hide in any 
 part, you will find that all these different parts 
 are sometimes warm and sometimes cold. From 
 this day forward you will witness a succession of 
 disorders, such as shiverings at the attachments 
 of the fore and hind legs, loud, panting breathing, 
 with slight cough, scanty and thick urine, with 
 hard and constipated droppings, and finally gen- 
 erally excessive warmth. If the back is now- 
 pressed, it will cause pain, and all the signs of 
 intense fever will be manifest. 
 
 Already these indications have divulged the 
 nature of the malady you have to deal with, but 
 others more significant succeed them, and will 
 remove every doubt. 
 
 The breathing now becomes more hurried and 
 oppressed, and more puffy ; from the eyes, nos- 
 trils, and mouth there issues a discharge which 
 is at first thin and irritating, but soon becomes 
 thick and purulent, and of a fetid 'smell: diarrhoea 
 takes the place of constipation ; the cattle grow 
 leaner, and some will die at this period; if they 
 still hold out, the diarrhoea becomes more fre- 
 quent, more fetid, and sometimes bloody; gases 
 are developed under the skin along the spine, and 
 form wide, flat tumors, which crackle when pressed 
 upon; finally, the mucus which runs from the 
 head becomes still thicker and more fetid; a glu- 
 tinous foam stops up the mouth ; the eyes, filled 
 with humor, sink in the orbits; the bodily warmth 
 decreases; the animal sways his head from right 
 to left, becoming insensible and cold; his head 
 lolls on one side, and he dies, panting from ex- 
 haustion and asphyxia, on the tenth or twelfth 
 day after the disease has been confirmed. 
 
 The carcass exhibits a repulsive appearance; 
 the hide is dry and cracked : it sticks to the 
 bones, which show the form of the skeleton, and 
 the putrid decomposition which had already get in 
 before death, seizes rapidly on all the tissues. 
 
 The course of the disease is not always tho 
 same. Sometimes the animal is agitated at first, 
 and all the functions of life are so disturbed that 
 death comes on in two or three days. At times 
 the lungs are more affected than the other internal 
 organs ; the cough is more intense, and the breath 
 hurried and obstructed. 
 
 TO DISTINGUISH FROM PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 
 
 When once seen, it is impossible to mistake 
 this disease (ox typhus cattle plague) for any 
 other, unless it be the chest complaint, called 
 peri-pneumonia, which is likewise contagious ; but 
 in peri- or pleuro-pneumonia the attack is gener- 
 ally insidious, the eyes preserve their vivacity, 
 and the appetite is not lost until towards the 
 close. In this disorder (pleuro-pneumonia) a 
 short, dry cough shows itself from the outbreak, 
 and persists ; the breathing is frequent and pain- 
 ful ; and the sides of the chest, when struck with 
 the fingers, give out the hard, solid sound of a 
 full barrel (flatness), this percussion being pain- 
 ful. The eyes, nose, and mouth do not discharge 
 those purulent secretions seen in typhus, and the 
 diarrhoea only comes on at the end, being leas 
 
 * In a letter received by the publisher from Hon. J. BIDWKLL, Chairman of the House Committee on Agriculture, dated July 14, 1866, he 
 states that the Committee intend recommending the publication by Congress of an important English discovery for the cure of Rinderpest 
 and other kindred diseases. So soon as the pamphlet is issued, we will insert the information in our next edition of this work. We are re- 
 liably informed, however, that the following are the diseases cured and treatment: Rinderpest, pleuro-pneumonia, mange, ringworm, and 
 grease-heel in barn-yard animal* and horses, and the relief of phthisis and tubercular affections of the lungs in the human patient. A small 
 
468 
 
 KIN-DEEPEST. 
 
 frequent and fetid. In the milch cows the milk 
 decreases, but is not quite suppressed. 
 
 The heat of the horns and lower extremities 
 is retained, and the pneumonia runs its course 
 more regularly, the animal dying about the/oe>-*A 
 week. Thus it will be seen that the two distem- 
 pers widely differ in their symptoms. 
 
 The cattle plague (ox typhus) is by far the 
 most formidable malady which can attack ani- 
 mals. When left to itself, or treated without 
 judgment, it carries off ninety cattle out of a 
 hundred. In prior visitations, and especially in 
 1750, when six millions of horned cattle were 
 swept off in Europe, England lost from three to 
 four hundred thousand, and the number of cattle 
 which have perished in England from June to 
 October, 1865, exceeds sixty thousand. 
 
 PREVENTION AND TREATMENT OF THE CATTLE 
 PLAGUE. 
 
 Every farmer who keeps many cattle should 
 divide them into several classes; thus: First. 
 The sound and healthy that have had no direct 
 or indirect intercourse with tainted cattle, and 
 these must be kept carefully isolated. Second. 
 Cattle which, though unaffected, have been ex- 
 posed in cars, ships, or markets. These are to be 
 made the subject of treatment the moment the 
 first sign of the disease shows itself. Third. Cattle 
 actually smitten with the plague, to be treated 
 according to each stage of the disease. 
 
 The healthy cattle must be removed from the 
 farm, or, if they remain at the rack, must be 
 taken out twice daily for the twofold purpose of 
 taking wholesome exercise and allowing their 
 stalls and sheds to be thoroughly cleaned. Their 
 feeding should also be carefully watched, and the 
 following provisions added to their daily supplies : 
 Pounded oats .... 4 pounds. 
 Pounded juniper berries 1 pound. 
 Powdered gentian . . 1 ounce. 
 Sulphate of iron ... 2 drachms. 
 Carbonate of soda . . 2 drachms. 
 
 Whilst in the fields, the cattle should not be 
 allowed to drink out of ponds or at any stagnant 
 or muddy water. 
 
 Cattle belonging to our second class (having 
 been' exposed to infection) must receive the same 
 strengthening and tonic ration in the morning, 
 and twice every day take the following anti-con- 
 tagious preparation : 
 
 Chlorate of potash . . 2 drachms. 
 Water i pint. 
 
 Dissolve and mix with one gallon sage or 
 hysop tea; to be given when drink is given them. 
 
 The use of this anti-contagions drink is of the 
 highest importance. It should be continued even 
 after the plague has broken out. 
 
 During the absence of those cattle which are 
 undergoing the preventive treatment, let the 
 healthy condition of their stalls and sheds be 
 looked to. 
 
 Be careful to take out the litter every day; 
 wash the floor and cleanse it thoroughly; venti- 
 late the place well ; fumigate it with burnt sul- 
 phur or dried juniper berries, sage and rosemary, 
 salted with saltpetre, and a little arsenic. This 
 will burn readily if placed on a pan of coals. At 
 night, tar, creosote, benzine, petroleum or iodine 
 may be left in the stable, to diffuse their vapors 
 and modify the air. 
 
 As the cattle plague, or ox typhus, when once 
 developed in the ox, cow, or sheep, usually pur- 
 sues its course, the various functions of the body 
 are so changed that they vary during the different 
 stages of the disorder, the fever at first producing 
 excitement, but in the latter stages great ex- 
 
 haustion. Hence it requires a high degree of 
 skill, practical experience, and vigilance. During 
 the disorder the ox undergoes in two weeks all 
 the feverish commotion which a man laboring 
 under typhoid fever would be subject to in a 
 month. 
 
 The phenomena succeed each other with terrific 
 swiftness, leaving barely time for the medicines 
 to act. 
 
 At the outbreak of the disorder, abolish solid 
 feeding. This is easily done, as the animal hag 
 lost his appetite. 3ive him, instead, half a pail- 
 ful of soaked ha^, adding to it a sprinkling of 
 salt; or give water, whitened with bran and flour, 
 with a little vinegar, three or four times daily. 
 When the animal coughs and his breathing ia 
 oppressed, give him warm drinks, such as steamed 
 barley and oats, or a hot mash, and cover him 
 well with blankets, but don't exclude the fresh air" 
 
 The following "hygienic measures" are to be 
 taken against the extension of the plague : 
 
 DISINFECTION. 
 
 The contagious matters are all kinds of cattle 
 of the ox tribe, and also hides, hair, horns, and 
 hoofs of those killed or dead with the plague. 
 
 The intestinal discharges are the principal 
 agents that spread the disorder. 
 
 Hence all articles that have been in contact 
 with a diseased animal or any of its discharges, 
 are capable of carrying the infection for an in- 
 definite time, as racks of wood, or iron cribs, or 
 mangers of wood, iron, or stone; collars, straps, 
 ropes, chains, harness, carts, wagons, or carriages, 
 which they have touched; gutters or drains in 
 which their urine has flowed; all implements for 
 removing manure; the manure heap; the ground 
 on which they have stood; paths and roads on 
 which diseased cattle have walked or been drawn, 
 etc., etc. ; to all and any of which, disinfectants 
 must be applied. 
 
 Burying deeply in dry ground is the quickest, 
 cheapest, and most certain way of disinfecting an 
 animal dead from the plague. 
 
 The droppings, straw, and all other matters 
 contaminated should also be buried, so that they 
 cannot be disturbed for a long time. 
 
 Manure heaps and down-trodden manure of 
 cattle yards, if infected by even a small quantity 
 of the droppings of a diseased animal, should ba 
 removed to a suitable place, and covered with a 
 layer of earth. 
 
 Floors of any shed or stable in which diseased 
 cattle have stood, if not formed of water-tight 
 and impenetrable material, must be assumed to 
 be infected to the depth of six inches. Half rotten 
 wood is an especially favorable carrier of infec- 
 tion. Any lining of a pen where a diseased 
 animal has stood, should be broken out and 
 burned. 
 
 All infected articles, as racks of wood or iron, 
 etc., can be disinfected by exposing them to a 
 heat which will char wood, and all such of iron 
 should then be galvanized. 
 
 Chloride of Lime is among the cheapest and 
 most p >werful of artificial disinfectants, and 
 should oe applied as much as possible in solution. 
 It is not applicable to large quantities of manure, 
 or to matters rich in ammonia, as putrid urine. 
 One pound of chloride of lime to one gallon of 
 water can be distributed by a garden engine, or 
 by a watering-pot, after a thorough scrubbing 
 and scraping of stalls, etc. All brooms and other 
 implements, or persons stepping from a dirty or 
 partially cleaned place to a clean one, may suffice 
 to bring back infection. Workmen must also be 
 careful to wash their own bodies and hair with 
 
 crucible is set in hot ashes, and a piece of stick sulphur of tl 
 ated is sufficient to fumigate thoroughly a large cattle-shed in 
 like, must be repeated four or five times a day, and the disease is soon got under. 
 
 January 28, 1867. We have just received the pamphlet alluded to, and find thii foot-note to contain the essence of the information. 
 Fuvuma, 
 
 f a man's thumb dropped into it. The sulphurous acid' gas thus gener- 
 .venty minutes. The process which, by the way, the cattle are said to 
 
TRICHINA. 
 
 469 
 
 eoap, and to destroy such clothing as is of little 
 value, or have the other disinfected in chloride- 
 of-lime water. 
 
 Despatches received by the Department of State 
 from the United-States consul at Liverpool, under 
 date of March 12, 1866, give the following reme- 
 dies now in use, said to be very effective : 
 
 1 oz. of Peruvian bark, 1 oz. of gentian, 1 oz. 
 of ground ginger, 2 drs. of sulphate of iron, 4 
 table-spoonfuls of molasses, and I glass of brandy 
 or whisky. Duse, once a day. 
 
 The other prescription is: 1 Ib. of onions, 
 email and strong; 1 Ib. of garlic, 1 Ib. of ground 
 ginger, | Ib. of asafoetida; to be covered with 
 water and stirred on the fire till in a milky pulp; 
 then put over the other articles ; add of rice-water 
 3 pints for every 2 of the mixture. Dose for a 
 cow 1 pint a day. 
 
 To keep Milk. 
 
 Among the many methods adopted to preserve 
 milk for a lengthened period, is that of M. Pasteur. 
 He has found that if milk be heated to 212, the 
 boiling-point of water, it will remain sweet for a 
 few days: if heated to 220 (under pressure, of 
 course}, it will remain sweet for several weeks ; but 
 if heated to 250, the milk will keep for any num- 
 ber of years. 
 
 To detect Watered Milk. 
 
 The cheapest and easiest method of adulterating 
 milk is by adding water, and we may readily as- 
 certain the exact extent of adulteration by the 
 following plan. If a glass tube, divided into 100 
 
 Earts, be filled with milk and left standing for 24 
 ours, the cream will rise to the upper part of the 
 tube, and occupy from 11 to 13 divisions, if the 
 milk is genuine. 
 
 To preserve Milk. 
 
 Milk becomes sour by the formation of lactic 
 acid, which is rapidly developed at a temperature 
 of 70 to 90. The best way to preserve milk 
 eweet for domestic purposes, is to add to it every 
 day a few grains of carbonate of soda per pint, to 
 keep the milk alkaline. 
 
 TRICHINAE. 
 
 The following account of this disease has been 
 condensed from a report made in April, 1866, by a 
 commission of scientific and medical men, ap- 
 pointed by the Chicago Academy of Sciences, and 
 may be regarded as thoroughly reliable : 
 
 Trichina is the term applied to a minute ani- 
 mal (parasite) known for some time to have ex- 
 isted in the muscles of man, and which could be 
 bred in the muscles of some other mammals by 
 feeding them with it. More recently it has been 
 discovered to occur naturally in the muscles of 
 swine. It is a minute, slender, and transparent 
 worm, scarcely l-20th of an inch in length. After 
 this animal becomes introduced into the stomach 
 of man. or other animals susceptible to its ravngcs, 
 and which may feed upon flesh infected with it, 
 the worms become freed from their capsules by 
 the action of the digestive fluid, and range freely 
 in the stomach and intestines of the custodian. 
 Their development proceeds rapidly, and procre- 
 ation takes place within 4 or 5 days; each female 
 gives birth to from 60 to 100 young, and dies soon 
 after. The young thread-like worm remains for a 
 short time within the lining mombrane of the in- 
 testines, causing irritation, diarrhoea, and some- 
 times death if present in sufficient numbers. After 
 attaining a proper size and strength, these young 
 trichinae begin to penetrate the walls of the iutes- 
 
 ;ines, and make their way toward their proper 
 lomes, the voluntary muscles. In traversing the 
 muscles they do not seem to penetrate the fibre of 
 ;he muscle, but to wind their way between them. 
 At this time they cause to those afflicted great mus- 
 ular pain and soreness, cramps, and even tetanic 
 symptoms. After about 4 weeks migration they 
 commence to encyst themselves in the muscular 
 ibre, none having ever been found encysted in 
 fat or the other tissues. They perforate the walls 
 of the fibre selected as their abode, pass into it, 
 and fasten themselves in the space so made. The 
 worm then secretes a delicate membranous sac, 
 which finally becomes calcareous by still further 
 secretions. It is only in man, however, that these 
 calcareous cysts have been observed, hog's being 
 usually killed long before time has elapsed for the 
 accumulation of sufficient lime. The young trichina 
 having now reached its torpid stage, it will so re- 
 main during the lifetime of its custodian. It 
 feeds no longer, but goes on slowly in develop- 
 ment until it has reached the condition of puberty, 
 and then awaits its chances of freedom to "com- 
 mence its cycle." They can breed but once in the 
 body of one and the same animal. They have 
 been known to cause partial paralysis of certain 
 muscles by the great number embedded in them. 
 So much now for the history of this animal and 
 its mode of life, and cause of disease. Now to 
 what extent does this parasite exist in this country? 
 An examination of this medical commission 
 made in Chicago, 111., during the spring of 1866, 
 of 1394 hogs, 28 of them, or 1 in 48, were found 
 to contain trichinae, and numbering in each hog 
 from 48 to 18,000 trichinae to a cubic inch. 
 
 HOW TO PREVENT TRICHINAE. 
 
 As no trichina nor germ of trichina has ever 
 been found in vegetable food, the p;irasite must 
 inevitably come through the eating of flesh of 
 some" kind. A strict attention to the feeding of 
 hogs and their confinement in pens where no ani- 
 mal food is accessible, is an infallible preventative 
 against Trichiniasis. As the disease cannot be 
 detected by external appearance, no farmer can 
 tell if the disease exists among his animals, nor 
 should he be blamed if he sells animals found to 
 be affected with trichinae. The use of the micro- 
 scope will effectually tell if the muscles of the hog 
 be free from this parasite. 
 
 HOW TO KILL THE PARASITES. 
 
 To do this it is simply necessary to thoroughly 
 cook the pork, so that every portion of the meat 
 shall have experienced a temperature of at least 
 160 Fahr. This is of the utmost importance; it 
 is owing to eating pork uncooked that has occa- 
 sioned such loss of life among the poorer classes 
 in Germany. Again, by properly salting and 
 smoking the meat for at least 10 days, the trichinae, 
 should they exist, will be certainly killed. Simple 
 desiccation of the meat, if continued for a period 
 of sufficient length, will also kill them ; as for in- 
 stance they will never be found in old hams ; mere 
 pickling, however, does not appear to have any 
 effect upon these worms. When we reflect, then 
 that but 1 hog out of 48 of the 1394 examined 
 was found to contain trichinae at all, and but one 
 in 300 was found to contain them in sufficient 
 number to cause considerable danger, and that 
 even in these cases the worms are rendered inocu- 
 ous by proper smoking, drying, or cooking, we 
 cannot see that the popular panic which now 
 exists should be permitted to continue among in- 
 telligent persons, and thus deprive nine-tenths of 
 our agricultural population of one of their chief 
 articles of food. 
 
470 
 
 IMPLEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 IMPLEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 MOWERS AND REAPERS. 
 
 The Great National Field Trial of Mowers and 
 Reapers held at Auburn, N. Y., in July, 1866, under 
 the patronage of the Legislature and supervision 
 of the New York State Agricultural Society, was 
 the most thorough and extensive ever held in this 
 country. Fifty-nine machines were entered for 
 competition, and over two weeks occupied in sub- 
 jecting the machines to every variety of severe 
 tests. The Legislature of the State appropriated 
 $5000 towards the expenses and premiums. 
 
 The Committee of Judges was composed of 
 practical and scientific agriculturists,* and in- 
 cluded some of the first men of the State. The 
 following synopsis of their report will be found to 
 embody the main results of their investigation, 
 and cannot fail of being of great use to Farmers. 
 Invitations were extended to all the prominent 
 Agricultural Implement Makers of the country. 
 The following points were to be considered and 
 determined by the Committee on trial. 
 
 1. Which is the cheapest machine. 
 
 2. The most simple in its construction. 
 
 3. The most durable. 
 
 4. Which requires the least power. 
 
 5. Which has the least side-draught. 
 
 All of which is to be determined, and the 
 capacity to perform a given amount of work in a 
 workmanlike manner, in a given time, in the most 
 economical way. 
 
 6. Which does the most work in the least time. 
 
 7. Which does the best work. 
 
 8. Which is managed with the most facility. 
 When the Judges have determined the above 
 
 questions, they will proceed to decide which of the 
 machines is best adapted to the use of the farmer, 
 by having the greatest number of merits and the 
 fewest defects. 
 
 No exhibitor shall furnish other machines for 
 trial than those which they habitually furnish 
 from their shops to their customers. 
 
 The following were the class divisions for entry 
 of MOWERS and REAPERS. 
 
 No. 1. Mowing machine for two horses. 
 
 No. 2. Reaping machines, (hand-rakers.) 
 
 No. 2J. Self-rakers. 
 
 No. 3. Combined mowers and reapers, (hand- 
 rakers.) 
 
 No. 4. Combined reapers, with self-raking or 
 dropping attachment. 
 
 No. 5. Combined reapers for use as self-rakers, 
 or hand-rakers, as may be preferred. 
 
 No. 6. One-horse mowers. 
 
 ENTRIES UNDER THE ABOVE, AND RESULT. 
 
 The Society's large gold medal (costing $75 or 
 more) as first premium. For the second premium, 
 a cash prize of $25. 
 
 The mowing and reaping fields were each of 
 one acre in extent, and to be chosen by lot. 
 
 Explanation. Assuming that 40 to represent 
 the best work that can be done; No. 30, as repre- 
 senting the best work that can be done with a 
 hand-scythe , No. 20, as inferior work to any that 
 would be tolerated by a respectable farmer. The 
 
 * For full details of this trial of Implements, we would 
 call attention to the valuable report of John Stanton 
 Gould, Esq., President N. Y. State Agricultural Society, 
 and Chairman Committee of Judges, from whose report 
 this article is condensed. 
 
 gradations of work to be expressed by numbers 
 intermediate to these. Standard speed, one houl 
 per acre. 
 
 ENTRY, AND RESULT. 
 CLASS 1. TWO-HORSE MOWERS. 
 D. M. Osborne & Co., Auburn, New York. Nc 
 1 Mower. 
 
 "Cut uneven and not very close/' Time, 54 
 minutes; quality mark, 33. 
 
 D. M. Osborne & Co. Entry No. 2. One mower, 
 (large,) entered also as No. 27, 37, 48, and 19. 
 
 Lot No. 7, billy; time, 50 minutes; quality, 37. 
 "Worked smoothly and well." 
 
 No. 48, hilly; time, 48 minutes; quality, 32. 
 
 C. C. Bradley & Son, Syracuse. Entry No. 3. 
 One " Hubbard " mower, " well done ; " time, 61 
 min. ; quality, 37. 
 
 E. F. Herrington, Valley Falls, N. Y. No. 4. 
 One Eagle mower. Same as entry No. 29. 
 
 Lot No. 20, stony and weedy; cut close; time, 
 58 minutes; quality, 38. 
 
 J. D. Wilber, Poughkeepsie. No. 5. One Eure- 
 ka mower; cut well against the lay of the clover; 
 not well with it; time, 44 minutes; quality 
 mark, 25. 
 
 J. D. Wilber. No. 6. One Eureka mower, 
 (large;) time, 35 minutes; mark, 20 ; joints hot. 
 
 Peekskill Manufacturing Co. No. 7. One Clip- 
 per mower, (invented by R. Dutton.) Cut uneven, 
 but well laid ; time 43 minutes ; quality, 30. 
 
 Walter A. Wood, Hoosick Falls. No. 8. One 
 mower. Lot bad to cut, stony, clover tall; cut 
 tolerably well; time, 49 minutes; quality mark, 
 29. 
 
 Dow & Fowler, Fowlersville. No. 9. One Yan- 
 kee mower. Cutting uneven, noisy, and bearings 
 hot; time, 46 minutes; quality, 28. 
 
 Adriance, Platt & Co., Poughkeepsie. No. 10. 
 One No. 2 Buckeye mower. Lot much trodden 
 down; time, 55 minutes; cut even and neatly j 
 quality, 40. 
 
 American Agricultural Works, New York. No. 
 11. One Columbian Junior Mower. Lot easy to 
 cut; time, 66 minutes; quality, 37; very noisy. 
 
 Dodge & Stevenson, Manufacturing Co., Au- 
 burn. No. 12. One No. 2 Iron Mower, Ohio and 
 Buckeye Patents combined. (Dodge's Patent. ) 
 Time, 61 minutes; quality, 29; cutting irregular. 
 C. A. Wheeler, Jr., Auburn. No. 13. Ona 
 mower, (A); No. 14. One mower, (B) ; No. 15. 
 One mower, (C); No. 16. One mower (D). 
 
 No. 13, (A,) cut well but not close ; time 44 
 min.; quality, 32. 
 
 No. 14, (B,) cutting irregular; time, 48J min.; 
 quality, 37. 
 
 No. 15, (C,) cutting fair; time, 44 min; quality, 
 36. 
 
 No. 16, (D,) cutting good; time, 44J mil.; qual- 
 ity, 35. 
 
 W. H. Halladay, Auburn. No. 17. One Ameri- 
 can Mower ; cut close ; time, 68 minutes ; quality, 
 33 
 
 Rhode Island Clipper Mower Co., Newport. No, 
 18. One two-horse Harvest Clipper Mower, (in- 
 vented by R. Dutton.) Stubble long; time 55 
 minutes ; quality, 32 ; bearings cool. 
 
 C. R. Brinckerhoff. No. 18i. One mower, cut- 
 ting bad; time, 53; quality, 22. 
 
IMPLEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 471 
 
 CLASS 2. -.REAPERS (HAND-RAKES). 
 
 D. M. Osborne & Co., Auburn, No. 19. One 
 Reaper (hand-rake); "work good, not a fault to 
 be found ; " ten sheaves were bound in 4 min. ; time 
 64 min. ; quality, 40. 
 
 C. Wheeler, jr., Auburn. No. 20. One Reaper 
 (hand-rake). 
 
 CLASS 2. REAPER (SELF-RAKE). 
 C. R. Brinckerhoff, Rochester. No. 21. One 
 Reaper (self- rake). 
 
 C. C. Bradley & Son, Syracuse. No. 22. One 
 Syracuse (self-raking) Reaper, time 48 min.; mark 
 39. 
 
 Walter A. Wood, Hoosick Falls. No. 23. One 
 Reaper, self-raking (chain-rake). No. 24. One 
 Reaper (sweep-rake); same entry as No. 40. 
 
 No. 23. Not cut close; time 47 and 55 min.; 
 quality, 28 and 35. 
 
 No. 24. Field good; tolerably well cut; time 48 
 min. ; quality, 35. 
 
 Stephen Hull, Poughkeepsie. No. 25. One 
 Reaper (self-rake) ; withdrawn. 
 
 N. A. Dederer Greene. No. 26, One Reaper 
 (self-raker) ; did not arrive. 
 
 D. M. Osborne & Co., Auburn. No. 27. One 
 Reaper (self-rake). 
 
 Seymour, Morgan fc Allen. No. 27. One 
 Reaper (self-rake). 
 
 CLASS 3. COMBINED MOWERS AND REAPERS. 
 
 D. M. Osborne & Co., No. 28. One combined 
 Mower and Reaper; time 55 min.; quality, 36. 
 
 E. F. Herrington, Valley Falls, N. Y. No. 29. 
 One Eagle Combined Machine; same as entry No. 
 40, except that it now has a pinion changed; 
 Stubble long, bearings cool; time 62 min. ; quality, 
 35. 
 
 Walter A. Wood, Hoosick Falls. No. 30. One 
 Combined Mower and Reaper (hand-rake) ; field 
 good, stubbles left high ; time 46 min. ; quality, 19. 
 
 Adriance, Platt & Co., Poughkeepsie. No. 31. 
 One No. 1 Buckeye combined. Cutting bad; time 
 51 min. ; quality, 30. Driver unskilful. 
 
 Aultman, Miller & Co., Akron, 0., No. 32. One 
 Buckeye combined. Lot bad to cut, machine 
 noisy and imperfectly geared ; time 51 min.; qual- 
 ity, 38. Bearings cool. 
 
 Dodge & Stevenson Manufacturing Co., Auburn. 
 No. 33. One Combined Machine (Dodge pat.) No. 
 2, wood frame. 
 
 C. Wheeler, jr., Auburn. No. 34. One Combined 
 Machine (hand-rake). G. No. 35, One Combined 
 (hand-rake) H. No. 34 G. time 39 min. ; quality 35. 
 
 No. 35 H. Field stony and bad; cutting even; 
 time 45 min. ; quality, 36. 
 
 CLASS 4. COMBINED (SELF-RAKING). 
 
 D. M. Osborne & Co., Auburn, No. 36. One 
 Combined Machine. Field rough, stubble even; 
 time 46 min. ; quality, 35. 
 
 Walter A. Wood, Hoosick Falls. No. 39. One 
 Combined Machine (self-rake.) No. 40. One 
 Combined Machine (self-rake.). 
 
 Aultman, Miller & Co., Akron, 0. No. 41. One 
 Buckeye combined (self-rake.) Good field, cut- 
 ting good; time 65 min.; quality, 38. All the 
 Buckeyes leave the grass in good condition for 
 drying. 
 
 Williams, Wallace & Co., Syracuse. No. 42. One 
 No. 1 Hubbard Machine (Syracuse self-rake) No. 
 43. One No. 2 Hubbard Machine (Syracuse self- 
 rake). 
 
 No. 43, work good; time 57 min. ; quality, 38; 
 bearings cool ; good mower in all respects. 
 
 Seymour, Morgan & Allen, Brockport. No. 44. 
 One New York Combined Machine (self-rake). 
 Field good, cutting irregular; time 38; quality 35. 
 
 C. Wheeler, jr., Auburn. No. 45. One Combined 
 Machine (self-raking attachment). No. 46. One 
 Combined Machine (dropping attachment.) 
 
 Entry No. 45, I. Cayuga Chief, not closely 
 cut ; time 48 min. ; quality 34 ; journal cool. 
 
 No. 46, Cayuga Chief, J. A bad field to cut; 
 time 37 min.; quality 30; bearings hot. 
 
 W. H. Halladay, Auburn. No. 47. One Marsh's 
 Combined Machine (self-rake). No. 47i, Marsh's 
 Valley Chief. 
 
 No. 47. Field stony ; cut uneven j time 46 min. j 
 quality 28. 
 
 CLASS 5. COMBINED REAPERS, (SELF OR 
 HAND-RAKE). 
 
 D. M. Osborne & Co., Auburn. No. 48. One 
 Combined Machine. No. 49. One Combined. 
 No. 50. One Combined. 
 
 American Agricultural Works, N. Y. No. 51, 
 one Columbian Machine (hand and self-raker). 
 Field bad, cutting very bad; time 57 minutes j 
 quality, 26. 
 
 Dodge & Stevenson Manufacturing Co., Auburn. 
 No. 52, one Dodge's patent combined Machine 
 (self or hand-raker), wood frame, No. 1. No. 53, 
 one Dodge's patent combined Machine (self or 
 hand-rake), iron frame, No. 1. 
 
 No. 52, stubble not well cut, time 56 min. ; qual- 
 ity, 29. No. 53, field good, time 43 min. ; qual- 
 ity, 32. 
 
 The above machines unite the patents of the 
 Buckeye and the Ohio mowers, having the gear- 
 ing of the former and the movable shoe of the 
 latter. Both well approved machines every- 
 where, and have done good work. It is strange 
 that machines combining the best features of both 
 patents should make so poor a record as these 
 have done upon this field. 
 
 C. Wheeler, Jr., No. 54, one combined machine, 
 self or hand-rake, (K.) No. 55, the combined 
 machine as dropper or hand-rake, (L.) 
 
 No. 54, Cayuga Chief, K. Cutting not good j 
 time 54 min. ; quality 30. 
 
 No. 55, Cayuga Chief, L. Field rocky; time 43 
 min.; quality, 30. 
 
 Twelve of the Cayuga Chiefs were entered; all 
 agreeing in general structure though not in 
 minor details, they attracted much attention, but 
 as a whole they did not appear well in the clover 
 lots. 
 
 CLASS 6. ONE-HORSE MOWERS. 
 
 D. M. Osborne & Co., Auburn, No. 56, (one-horse 
 mower.) Field good, well cut; time 64 minutes; 
 quality, 35. 
 
 The work done by the machine of D. M. Osborne 
 & Co., was done with tolerable uniformity, the 
 average mark for quality of work being 34-36. 
 The average time exclusive of the one-horse Ma- 
 chine was 51 minutes. The machines were all re- 
 markable for the steadiness of their motion and 
 freedom from noise. 
 
 R. L. Allen, N. Y. No. 57, one one-horse mower. 
 
 C. Wheeler, jr., Auburn, N. Y., No. 58, one one- 
 horse Mower, F, Cayuga Chief, cutting good; 
 time 30 min. ; quality, 34. 
 
 Pony Clipper (invented by R. Dutton.) 
 
 R. Dutton, Brooklyn, No. 59, one one-horse 
 gleaner mower (invented by R. Dutton.) 
 
 Trial of July 20th. (Same Machines.) 
 Twenty machines made a trial upon lots of very 
 irregular surface, which had not been ploughed for 
 many years; the general surface was level, but 
 broken up with many deep hollows and having a 
 thick growth of sedges and rushes. The prevailing 
 herbage was red top, blue-grass, and fowl meadow ; 
 it was the hardest test for action in rough ground 
 
472 
 
 IMPLEMENTS OF AGRICULTUKE. 
 
 that could be found i the vicinity. The following 
 is the result; the marks for quality of work were 1 
 to 40, the latter number indicating perfect work. 
 
 Quality of work. 
 
 Seymour, Morgan & Allen, No. 44 ... 39 
 The divider of this machine pressed down 
 the grass, some of which was not cut off 
 at the next round. 
 
 Cayuga Chief, D, No. 16 37 
 
 Cayuga Chief, A, No. 13 37 
 
 Dodge, Stevenson & Co., No. 52 (wood) . . 37 
 Dodge, Stevenson & Co., No. 53 (iron) . . 37 
 A spike projecting from the ground was 
 half severed by this machine. 
 
 D. M. Osborne & Co., 37 
 
 C. C. Bradley & Son, No. 3 38 
 
 Williams, Wallace & Co., No. 43 38 
 
 Walter A. Wood, No. 8 40 
 
 E. F. Herrington, No. 4 .... t ... 37 
 Herrington's Eagle was remarkable for its 
 
 easy adaptation of its bar to the steep 
 sides of hollows, in one case mowing with 
 it sloping downward at an angle of 40 
 
 Rhode Island Clipper, No. 18 40 
 
 Adriance, Platt & Co., No. 10 40 
 
 Dow & Fowler, No. 9 31 
 
 Aultman, Miller & Co., No. 32 38 
 
 Wm. H. Halladay, No. 17 37 
 
 Some dry grass caught on the ends of his 
 
 fingers which prevented him from cutting 
 
 clean for about 20 rods. 
 R. L. Allen, Pony Clipper, No. 57 .... 36 
 
 James S. Marsh, No. 47i 38 
 
 J. D. Wilber, No. 6 30 
 
 "Those who had been present at the former 
 great trials, held by the society were astonished 
 at the general perfection which had been attained 
 by the manufacturers of mowing-machines. Every 
 machine, with two exceptions, did good work, 
 which would be acceptable to any farmer, and the 
 appearance of the whole meadow after it had been 
 raked over, was as good as it could be, and vastly 
 better than the average mowing of the best farm- 
 ers in the State, notwithstanding the great diffi- 
 culties which they had to encounter. At previous 
 trials most of the machines would clog more or 
 less, and some of them so frequently that they 
 were of no practical value. At this trial, not a 
 single instance of clogging was observed either in 
 clover or fine grass. 
 
 "At previous trials, very few machines could stop 
 in the grass and start without backing for a fresh 
 start. At the present trial every machine stopped 
 in the grass and started again without backing, 
 without any difficulty, and without leaving any 
 perceptible ridge to mark the place where it 
 occurred. We look upon these facts with pride 
 and pleasure, as showing the great success which 
 has attended the"efforts of our mechanics to meet 
 the requirements of the farmer, and we have good 
 reason to believe that the experiments made at 
 Auburn will lead to still greater advances in the 
 path of progress. 
 
 " Four machines were allowed to work at once, 
 marked stakes being driven down at their entrance ; 
 they cut entirely around the lot, passing through 
 all the different kinds of bottom and of grass, and 
 into all the gullies and hollows. Then four more 
 succeeded them, and so on in groups of four, 
 until all had gone round. Then each machine cut 
 a double swath across the lot. After this the 
 whole number of machines were put in motion at 
 once, until both meadows were cut down. In this 
 way the path of each machine could be traced 
 Without difficulty through its entire length, and 
 
 the work of each, under very different circum- 
 stances, could be accurately compared." 
 
 REAPING TRIALS. 
 
 The wheat field was divided into thirty lots, of 
 one acre each, the bottom generally smooth, 
 tolerably level, and the grain (Mediterranean) 
 stood up very well. 
 
 Walter A. Wood, entry No. 30, with a hand- 
 raker. The gavels were twisted at the bottom 
 from the left-hand corner towards the right. The 
 binders bound ten of these gavels in 5 minutes. 
 Time of cutting 49 minutes. Mark for quality of 
 work, 33. 
 
 D. M. Osborne, No. 27, using a reel and sweep 
 rake. There is a want of a proper divider. The 
 rake draws forwards some of the last cut straw, 
 and in its next sweep this is twisted in raking. 
 The twist is from the left-hand corner towards 
 the right, and in the lower part of the gavel 
 the twist is less than on the top, but what there 
 is, is in the opposite direction. The binders 
 bound ten bundles in 4 minutes. Time of cutting 
 53 minutes. Mark for quality of work, 33. 
 
 Cayuga Chief, J, No. 46, with a. dropping attach- 
 ment. The lower part of the gavel is drawn 
 forward and somewhat twisted as it falls. It 
 requires six men to keep up with the machine, 
 who occasionally fall behind with their work in 
 bad places. The binders bound ten of these 
 sheaves in 5 minutes. Time of cutting, 57 min. 
 Mark for quality of work, 32. 
 
 D. M. Osborne & Co., No. 19, hand-raker. The 
 work is as good as can be done. Not a fault 
 could be found with it in any way. Ten sheaves 
 were bound in 4 minutes, 3 seconds. Time of 
 cutting 64^ minutes. Quality of work, 40. 
 
 Lot No. 5 was cut by Dodge, Stevenson & Co., 
 No. 33, (wood), hand raker. The grain in this 
 lot was lodged in one or two places. One man 
 drove and raked, the sickle being set almost low 
 enough for mowing. The gavels are crossed, the 
 bottom towards the right and the top towards the 
 left. Ten bundles bound in 5 minutes. Time 66J 
 minutes. Quality of work, 30. 
 
 Lot No. 6 was not a good one for reaping. It 
 was cut by Adriance, Platt & Co., No. 31, hand 
 raker. It was cut the wrong way and a good 
 deal of the lodged was left upon the ground. It 
 was thrown off the platform with a fork instead 
 of a rake. The gavels were not very good. Time 
 47 minutes. Quality of work, 31. 
 
 D. M. Osborne & Co., No. 36, with reel and 
 sweep rake. Time 53i minutes. Work, 34. 
 
 Aultman, Miller & Co., with a dropper. The 
 gavels unevenly laid. Ten sheaves bound in 5 
 minutes. Time, 58 minutes. Quality of work, 32. 
 
 D. M. Osborne & Co., No. 37, with the combined 
 rake and reel, or Btirdick self-rake. The gavels 
 were rather better than those made by his sweep 
 rake. Time, 68 minutes. Work, 34. 
 
 W. A. Wood, No. 23, with a chain rake. The 
 gavels were tolerably well laid. Time, 47 minutes. 
 Work, 35. Binders were four minutes in binding 
 ten sheaves. 
 
 D. M. Osborne, No. 48, with a hand rake. The 
 work excellent in all respects. Time, 39 minutes. 
 Work, 40. 
 
 W. A. Wood, No. 40, with a sweep rake. The 
 cutting was very good, but the gavels not as well 
 laid as the chain rake. Time, 52 minutes. Work, 
 35. 
 
 Mr. Osborne and other exhibitors protest against 
 W. A. Wood's chain and sweep rake being admit- 
 ted into the class of combined machines, on the 
 ground that they are never sold or used as such. 
 
IMPLEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 473 
 
 D. M. Osborne & Co., No. 36, with the same 
 that cut No. 11, now working with a sweep rake 
 and a reel. Time, 53 minutes. Work, 34. 
 
 Dodge, Stevenson & Co., No. 53, with iron frame 
 and combined rake and reel, or Marsh's self-rake. 
 He came in collision with a stump and bent the 
 guard finger. The gavels are badly scattered in 
 front of the platform ; the gavel does not all drop 
 at once, but is dragged forward. Time, 53 min- 
 utes. Work, 34. 
 
 W. A. Wood's revolving rake, No. 24. Binders 
 make ten sheaves in 4 minutes, 20 seconds. 
 Gavels very large. Time, 57i minutes. Work, 36. 
 
 Williams, Wallace & Go's Hubbard Machine, 
 No. 42, with Johnson's rake. Gavels laid straight 
 and compact; no scattering; the swath between 
 the gavels very clean. The binders make ten of 
 the sheaves in 4 minutes, 12 seconds. Time, 52i 
 minutes. Work, 39. 
 
 C. Wheeler, Jr., Cayuga Chief, K, No. 54. 
 Half the lot as a hand-raker, and the other half 
 as a self-raker. The gavels were badly twisted 
 and the straw was scattered between the gavels. 
 Time, 56 minutes, 32 seconds. Work, 28. 
 
 Columbian machine, self rake, No. 51. There 
 was some lodged grain in the lot which it cut very 
 well, but the gavels were strangely twisted, and 
 the work as a whole was poor. Time, 57 minutes. 
 Work, 31. 
 
 C. C. Bradley & Son, No. 22, with Johnson's 
 rake. The gavels admirably laid. Time, 48^ 
 minutes. Quality of work, 39. 
 
 C. Wheeler, Jr., Cayuga Chief, G, No. 34. 
 Hand rake. Time, 48 minutes. Quality of work, 31. 
 
 Dodge, Stevenson & Co., No. 12, iron frame. 
 Hand rake. Gavels very well laid. Time, 37 
 minutes. Work, 32. 
 
 Seymour, Morgan & Allen, No. 44, with their 
 sweep rake. Gavels very well laid, and all the 
 work was very well done. Time, 62 minutes. 
 Work, 38. 
 
 C. Wheeler, Jr., Cayuga Chief, L, No. 55. Half 
 the lot as a dropper, and the other half as a hand 
 rake. Time, 59 minutes. Work, 32. 
 
 D. M. Osborne & Co., No. 37, with JBttrdick rake. 
 There was a very bad, rocky place at the end of 
 this lot which he cut over very well with the wind 
 against him. Time, 68 minutes. Work, 34. 
 
 Aultman, Miller <fc Co., Buckeye, senior, No. 41. 
 Self rake. The gavels crossed and dragged. 
 Time, 50 minutes. Work, 30. 
 
 Wm. H. Halladay, No. 47, with Marsh's rake. 
 Machine left-handed. There was some lodged 
 wheat in the lot which he cut very closely, and 
 the gavels were in general very well laid, but 
 occasionally he would make a very bad one ; this 
 want of uniformity reduced his mark. Time, 54 
 minutes. Mark for quality of work, 37. 
 
 C. Wheeler, Jr., Cayuga Chief, H, No. 35. Hand 
 rake. There was a fast rock in his swath 18. 
 inches high. The driver, without any devia- 
 tion from his line, drove over it, dropping the 
 whole height perpendicularly, demonstrating at 
 the same time his own skill as a driver and the 
 great strength of the machine. Although much 
 of the ground was stony, the work was the best 
 done by any of the Cayuga Chiefs. Time, 53 
 minutes. Work, 36. 
 
 E. F. Herrington, No. 29, hand rake. The cut- 
 ting was very fine, but the gavels were not well 
 laid. Time not noted. 
 
 Dodge, Stevenson & Co. Wood frame, No. 52, 
 Marsh's rake. Gavels laid square and handsome, 
 Without scattering. Time, 60 minutes. Work, 37. 
 
 Seymour, Morgan & Allen, No. 27i, self-rake. 
 Time, 51 minutes. Work, 39. 
 18 
 
 The average time of all the machines, in cutting 
 an acre, was 53 minutes. 
 
 The longest time was made by D. M. Osborne. 
 The shortest time made by any hand rake was D. 
 M. Osborne. The shortest made by a self-rake, 
 was by Walter A. Wood. 
 
 The average of the marks for quality of work 
 in reaping, is 34.3. 
 
 RESULT TRIAL IN 22 ACRE LOT, GRAIN 
 BADLY LODGED. 
 
 Quality of work. 
 
 Cayuga Chief, H, entry No. 35 30 
 
 D. M. Osborne, Burdick rake, entry No. 48 . 32 
 D. M. Osborne, sweep rake, entry No. 2 . . 33 
 Seymour & Morgan, entry No. 44 .... 38 
 
 Cayuga Chief, entry No. 54 32 
 
 Dodge, Stevenson & Co., Marsh rake, entry 
 
 No. 52 32 
 
 Williams, Wallace & Co., Johnson rake, entry 
 
 No. 43 36 
 
 Buckeye, jr., dropper, entry No. 32 . . . .30 
 W. A. Wood, hand rake, entry No. 30 . . 32 
 Dodge, Stevenson & Co., Marsh rake, entry 
 
 No. 53 34 
 
 Columbian revolving rake, entry No. 51 . .30 
 Walter A. Wood, sweep rake, entry No. 40 . 34 
 C. C. Bradley & Son, Johnson rake, entry 
 
 No. 22 37 
 
 Walter A. Wood, chain rake, entry No. 23 . 33 
 
 Cayuga Chief, G, entry No. 34 35 
 
 Cayuga Chief, L, entry No. 55 31 
 
 Wm. H. Halladay, entry No. 47 40 
 
 Dodge, Stevenson & Co., entry No. 52 . . 35 
 Eagle combined hand rake, entry No. 29 . .35 
 Brinckerhoff, entry No. 21 31 
 
 RYE LOT. 
 
 Quality of work. 
 
 C. Brinckerhoff, No. 21 31 
 
 C. C. Bradley & Son, No. 22 37 
 
 Seymour, Morgan & Allen, No. 27J ... 40 
 Aultman & Miller, Buckeye, jr., dropper, 
 
 No. 32 35 
 
 Wm. H. Halladay, No. 47 38 
 
 Dodge, Stevenson & Co., No. 53 29 
 
 Cayuga, L, dropper, No. 55 34 
 
 BARLEY LOT. 
 
 On the same day, after the rye was cut, the ma- 
 chines were tried in the barley lot, which was on 
 rolling ground, the barley varying very greatly in 
 the length of the straw, some of it being not more 
 than 18 inches high, while in some parts it was 4 
 feet long. The following table shows the record 
 of the machines : 
 
 m Quality of work. 
 
 Brinckerhoff, No. 21 35 
 
 C, C. Bradley & Son, No. 22 39 
 
 Seymour, Morgan & Allen, No. 27 ... 40 
 
 Aultman & Miller, No. 32 36 
 
 Wm. H. Halladay, No. 47 38 
 
 Valley Chief, No. 47i 36 
 
 Dodge, Stevenson' & Co., No. 53 .... 37 
 Cayuga Chief, L, No. 55 34 
 
 AWARD, CLASS 1. (MOWERS). 
 Three machines seem to claim special considet 
 ation with regard to award of premiums, each 
 having received the mark of 40, indicating perfect 
 work. These machines were Buckeye, entry No. 
 10 ; Rhode Island Clipper, entry No. 18 ; and 
 
474 
 
 IMPLEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Wood's Mower, entry No. 8. Of these, the stubble 
 of the two first were slightly the shortest, but the 
 cutting in other respects was about the same, and 
 was all that could be desired. The Buckeye, how- 
 ever, is the only one which received the perfect 
 number (40) in both fields. We are constrained 
 then by these facts to give the preference to the 
 Buckeye for quality of work, so also as to ease of 
 draft, side-draft, and durability. As to simplicity, 
 the Committee were unable to discover much 
 difference, though they gave to the Buckeye the 
 preference as to portability and general ease 
 of management. In view of these superiorities the 
 Committee awarded the premium of the gold Medal 
 in the first class to Adriance, Platt & Co., for their 
 Buckeye Mower, entry No. 10. 
 
 Class 2. Hand-Rakes. 
 
 But two entries in this class, Osborne & Go's, 
 No. 19, and C. Wheeler, jr., No. 20. D. M. 
 Osborne & Co., entry No. 19, having the most 
 good points, the gold Medal was awarded to 
 them. 
 
 Class 2. Self-Raker. 
 
 Five competitors here. Medal awarded to Sey- 
 mour, Morgan & Allen, New York, entry No. 
 27i. The committee, however, strongly recom- 
 mend C. C. Bradley & Son, entry No. 22. 
 
 Class 3. Combined Mower and Reaper, Hand- 
 Rakes. 
 
 The claims in this class rested between Cayuga 
 Chief, H, entry No. 35, Eagle No. 29, and W. A. 
 Wood, entry No. 30; all of them had special 
 advantages. The medal was awarded, however, to 
 W. A. Wood, entry No. 30. 
 
 Class 4. Combined Reaper with self-raking or 
 
 dropping attachments. 
 
 Ten competitors in this class. Medal awarded 
 to Williams, Wallace & Co., entry 42. 
 
 Class 5. Combined Reaper, Self and Hand- 
 Rakes. 
 As desired. No award. 
 
 Class 6. One-Horse Mower. 
 Award to R. L. Allen, Medal, entry No. 57. 
 
 SECOND PREMIUMS OF $25. 
 
 Class 1. R. J. Clipper, entry No. 18, as com- 
 ing so near to first premium. 
 
 Class 2. C. Wheeler, jr., entry No. 20, G. 
 
 Class 2i. C. C. Bradley & Son, entry No. 2. 
 
 Class 3. E. F. Herrington, entry No. 29. 
 
 Class 4. Seymour, Morgan & Allen. 
 
 Class 5. No second premium. 
 
 Class 6. D. M. Osborne one-horse mower, 
 entry No. 56. 
 
 Class 13. Horse-Rake. First premium to 
 Wanzer & Cromwell, Chicago, 111. Sulky Horse 
 Rake. 
 
 Second premium, A. B. Sprout, Muncy, Pa. 
 Steel-tooth horse rake. 
 
 Special recommendation, H. N. Tracy, Burling- 
 ton, Vt., and P. S. Carver, Honeoye Falls, N. Y., 
 for improvements in Revolving rake, with and 
 without Sulky attachment. 
 
 Class 15. Horse-Power Hay-Fork. 
 
 Six entries. Gold Medal to J. L. Mansfield & 
 Co., Clockville, for Gladding's long-handled self- 
 sustaining; weight, 24 Ibs. Price, $11.00, and 
 capable of pitching 2000 Ibs. of hay in 13 pitches 
 in 3 minutes. 
 
 Second premium to Chapman, Hauley & Co., 
 Utica, N. Y., for Raymond's Hay-Fork; weight, 
 22 Ibs. Price, $20 ; pitches 2720 Ibs. in 13 pitches 
 in 5 minutes; can be used for barley and oats also. 
 
 Special recommendation to A. B. Sprout, Muncy, 
 Pa., for Hay-Fork and Knife. 
 
 After using all Mowers, Reapers, and the like, th 
 journals should be carefully wiped, all dust removed, 
 the machine placed under cover in a level position where 
 no part is subjected to a strain. 
 
INDEX TO MACKENZIE. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Abscess, 142 
 
 in the Horse, 106 
 ACCIDENTS, 143 
 
 Compound, 149 
 Acetate of Ammonia, 176 
 ACIDS, 296, 433 
 
 Acetic, 296 
 
 Carbazotic, 318 
 
 Carbolic, 436 
 
 Carbonic, 433 
 
 Chrysammic, 318 
 
 Hydrochloric, 298 
 
 Muriatic, 298 
 
 Nitric, 298 ^ 
 
 Nitromuriatic, 379 
 
 Poisoning by, 151 
 
 Pyroligneous, 298 
 
 Sulphhydric, 433 
 
 Sulphuric, 298 
 
 Sulphurous, 433 
 Adamas, 438 
 Adhesive Plaster, 175 
 Adulteration in Bread, 98 
 
 Flour, 433 
 
 Spirits, 287 
 
 Wine, 277 
 
 jEolian Harp, to make, 454 
 Age of Cattle, 121 
 
 Dog, 449 
 
 Horse, 104 
 
 AGRICULTURE, 9, 470 
 Ague, 123 
 
 Cake, 129 
 
 Ailanthus Silk Worm, 59 
 Air, Fresh, Importance of, 184 
 
 in Buildings, to cool, 435 
 
 to purify, 163 
 Aix la Chapelle Water, 300 
 ALCOHOL, 283 
 
 to make, 280 
 
 from Potatoes, 283 
 
 from Wood, 283 
 
 Proportions of, in Wine, etc., 284T 
 
 to Deodorize, 304 
 ALE, London, to Brew, 254 
 
 from Sugar and Malt, 256 
 
 on Mr. Cobbett's Plan, 255 
 
 Posset, 200 
 
 Table, 255 
 
 to Brew, in small Families, 254 
 
 to Brew, Burton, Nottingham, Essex, Edin- 
 burgh, 256, 257 
 
 to Fine and Preserve, 258, 259 
 
 to Bottle, 262 
 
 to Ripen, if Flat, when Bottled, 263 
 
 to Manage in the Cellar, 263 
 Alexiterial Water, 293 
 Alkalies, Poisoning by, 152 
 ALLOYS, 368 
 Almonds, Artificial, 291 
 
 Bitter, Oil of, 291 
 
 Milk of, 308 
 
 Almonds, Oil of, 301 
 
 Alum, Cubic, 315 
 
 Alumina, Acetate of, 315 
 
 Aluminum Bronze, 371 
 
 Amalgam, for Electrical Machines, 370 
 
 Amandine, 306 
 
 Ammonia, Acetate, 176 
 
 Molybdate of, 313 
 
 Water of, 176 
 AMPUTATION, 149, 151 
 Anatto, 324 
 
 Anbury, or Wart in the Horse, 106 
 Anchovies, Artificial, 239 
 Aneurism, 141 
 Angina Pectoris, 137 
 ANGLING, 443 
 Animal Food, 247 
 
 Animals, Bites and Stings of, 145,450 
 Animation, Suspended, 151 
 Aniseed Cordial, 285 
 
 Oil of, 290 
 
 Anisette de Bordeaux, 289 
 Annuals, for the Garden, 89 
 Anti-attrition, 347 
 
 Incrustation Powder, 433 
 Antimony, Ores of, 365 
 
 Poisoning by, 152 
 Antiscorbutic Water, 296 
 ANTISEPTICS, 435 
 
 Ants, to Prevent and Destroy, 450 
 Aperient Pills, 160 
 Apiary, 100 
 Apoplexy, 136 
 Appetite, to Improve, 161 
 Apple, Culture of, 68, 75, 76, 77 
 
 Brandy, 283, 289 
 
 Tapioca, 196 
 
 Apricots, to Preserve, 240 
 Aqua Mellis, 295 
 
 Regia, 379 
 
 Aquaria Cement, 354 
 Aquatint, 421 
 Arrack, 282 
 Arrow-root, 196 
 Arsenical Ores, 365 
 Artichokes, 250 
 Artificial Cold, 435 
 
 Liquors, 287 
 
 Oils, 291 
 
 Stone, 439 
 
 Wood, 357 
 
 ARTISTS' COLORS, 331 
 Ascarides, or Seatworm, 160 
 Asparagus, to Cultivate, 81, 82 
 
 Qualities of, 250 
 
 Ragout, 213, 220 
 Assafoetida, Pills of, 161, 
 ASSAYING, 363 
 Asthma, 127 
 Asthmatic People, to Prevent Lamp Smoke from 
 
 Affecting, 185 
 Astringent Injections, 166 
 
 (476) 
 
INDEX. 
 
 477 
 
 Astringent Mixture, 124 
 
 Pills, 166 
 
 Attrition, Anti-, 347 
 Autography, 425 
 
 Babbitt's Metal, 371 
 Bacon, 249 
 Baden Water, 299 
 Balling in Horses, 114 
 Balloons, 222 
 Balsam, Godbold's, 176 
 
 of Honey, 175 
 
 Riga, 291 
 
 Tolu, 175 
 
 Bareges Water, 300 
 Barley, 31, 466 
 BAROMETERS, to Construct, 439 
 
 to Read, 440 
 Basilicon Ointment, 174 
 Bath Metal, 371 
 Bathing, 183 
 Batteries, Electrical, 374 
 Bavarian Beer, 257 
 Bead for Liquors, 288 
 Beans, to Cultivate, 33, 466 
 
 String, 195 
 
 Bee Flowers, to Cultivate, 100 
 BEEF, a la Mode, 205, 231 
 
 to Choose, 248 
 
 and Pork, to Salt, 239 
 
 Braized, 207 
 
 Collops, 211 
 
 Corned, 190 
 
 Dried, 190 
 
 en Daube, 205 
 
 Essence, 178 
 
 Hashed, 207 
 
 Potted, 190 
 
 Qualities o&; 249 
 
 Salt, and Cabbage, 208 
 
 Sanders, 206 
 
 Sportsman's, 449 
 
 Steak, 206, 207 
 
 Tea, 178 
 
 Tongue, 205 
 BEER, Amber, or Two-penny, to Brew, 258 
 
 to Bottle, 263 
 
 Cheap, 257 
 
 Dead, to Enliven, 259 
 
 Flat, to Recover, 259 
 
 from Pea-shells, to Brew, 258 
 
 from Sugar, 256 
 
 Frosted, to Restore, 260 
 
 Foxing, to Cure, etc., 259 
 
 Ginger, 258 
 
 Lager, 257 
 
 Molasses, to make, 258 
 
 Musty, to Restore, 259 
 
 on Mr. Cobbett's Plan, 255 
 
 Poultice, 156 
 
 Required Time for Keeping, 258 
 
 Root, 257 
 
 Sarsaparilla, 257 
 
 Spruce, 257 
 
 Stale 'or Sour, to Restore, 259 
 
 Table, to Brew from Pale Malt, 255 
 
 to Fine, 258, 259 
 
 to Fine and Preserve a Cask of, 25 
 
 to give a Rich Flavor to, 260 
 
 to Prevent becoming Stale and Flat, 259 
 
 White, 257 
 
 to determine Quantity of Alcohol in, 287 
 Bines, Flowen best for, 100 
 
 in Straw Hives, 99 
 
 Italian, 104 
 
 Management of, 98, 102, 104 
 
 to Avoid Injury from, 450 
 
 Bees, to Feed, 101 
 to Hive, 101 
 to Swarm, 100 
 Beet Brandy, 283 
 
 Sugar, 53, 283 
 Bell Metal, 371 
 Belly, Wounds of, 145 
 Benzoin, Tincture of, 176 
 Bergamot, Essence of, 160 
 
 Water, 294 
 
 Bibron's Antidote for Snake-bites, 450 
 Biennials, 89 
 Biles, 141 
 Bilious Fever, 123 
 Birch Oil, 290 
 Bird-lime, 356 
 Birds, Canary, 448 
 
 Useful to Farmers, 5 
 Biscuit, Albert, 227 
 Fancy, 225 
 Naples, 224 
 Savoy, 228 
 Sponge, 202 
 Sugar, 201 
 
 Bismuth Ores, to Assay, 365 
 Bites and Stings of Noxious Animals, 145, 4t 
 Blacking, 349 
 Blackberry Brandy, 236 
 Cordial, 236 
 Culture of, 69 
 Extract, 236 
 Mush, 197 
 Syrup, 236 
 Wine, 236, 269 
 Black Drop, 175 
 Bladder, Inflamed, 132 
 in the Horse, 106 
 Stone in, 132 
 
 Blanc Mange, 228, 229, 288 
 BLEACHING AND SCOURING, 309 
 Bleeding, after Extraction of Teeth, 157 
 Directions for, 153 
 from the Nose, 125 
 from Wounds, 144 
 in the Horse, 114 
 Blight in Fruit Trees, 77 
 
 in Wheat, 29 
 
 Blind, to Write for the, 461 
 Blistering in the Horse, 106 
 Blood, as Food, 249 
 
 Spitting of, 127 
 Vomiting of, 128 
 Blotched Face, 140 
 Blubber as Manure, 26 
 Blue, Prussian, 333, 337 
 
 Saxon or Chemic, 316 
 Thenard's, 333 
 Ultramarine, 332 
 Board Measure, 429 
 Boat, Upsetting of, 180 
 Boerhaave's Rules for Health, 184 
 Bog Spavin, 106 
 Bone, to Stain, 325 
 
 BOILERS, INCRUSTATIONS IN, TO PBEVEHT, 41 
 Boils, 141 
 Bologna Sausage, 190 
 
 Vials, 403 
 Bonbons, 233 
 BOOK-KEEPING, 452 
 Books, Covers, to Marble, 326 
 
 Edges of, to Sprinkle, 327 
 
 to Gild, 377 
 Printed, to Bleach, 310 
 Loots, to Clean, 457 
 
 Water-proef, 348 
 Bots, 106 
 Bottle Stoppers, 434 
 
478 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Bougies, to Pass, 153 
 Bouillien Matelote, 191, 205 
 Bouquet de Caroline, 305 
 
 Essence of, 305 
 
 Esterhazy, 305 
 Bowels, Inflammation of, 129 
 
 in the Horse, 107 
 Boxes, Capacity of, 428 
 Brain, Compression of, 144 
 
 Concussion of, 143 
 
 Inflammation of, 125 
 Bran Bread, 97 
 Brandy, Apple, 289 
 
 Blackberry, 236 
 
 British, 281 
 
 Cherry, 286 
 
 Imitation, 289 
 
 Peach, 289 
 
 Peaches, 232 
 
 to Preserve Fruits in, 240 
 
 from Root Beer, 283 
 Brass, 371 
 
 and Copper, to Tin Rapidly, 433 
 
 Ornaments, to Preserve, 438 
 
 to Polish, 349 
 Brazil Paper, 299 
 Bread, Adulterated, to detect, 98, 433 
 
 of Iceland Moss and Flour, 98 
 
 on Cobbett's Plan, 98 
 
 Qualities of, 250 
 Bread, Scotch, 226 
 
 to make, 90, 97, 98 
 Breasts, Inflamed, 168 
 Breeches Ball, 313 
 Brew, to, Ale in Small Families, 254 
 
 Amber Beer, 258 
 
 Beer and Ale from Pea-Shells, 258 
 
 Brown Stout, 254 
 
 Burton, Edinburgh, Essex, and Nottingham 
 Ale, 256, 257 
 
 Lager, 257 
 
 London Ale, 254 
 
 Molasses Beer, 258 
 
 Porter on the London Plan, 254 
 
 Root Beer, 257 
 
 Spruce Beer, 257 
 
 Table Beer from Pale Malt, 255 
 
 from Sugar and treacle, 255 
 
 White Beer, 257 
 
 Brew-House, to fit up a Small, 252 
 BREWING, 251 
 
 to choose Water for, 252 
 
 to cool Worts in, 253 
 
 Utensils, to preserve, 260 
 Brine, to Utilize, 463 
 Bristles, to Dye, 325 
 Britannia Metal, 372 
 British Gum, 356 
 Broiling, 190 
 Bronze, 371 
 
 Aluminum, 371 
 
 Gun Barrels, to, 349 
 
 Plaster Figures, 348 
 Broth, Chicken, 113 
 
 Jelly, 216 
 
 Liebig's, 216, 461 
 
 Mutton, 193 
 
 Scotch, 193, 217 
 Brown Stout, to Brew, 254 
 Brushes in one piece, 357 
 
 Hair, to Clean, 456 
 -Bubo, 133 
 Buckwheat, 46, 466 
 
 Cakes, 201 
 Budding, 63 
 
 Bugs, to Prevent, etc., 450 
 bulbous Roots, to hasten, 84 
 
 Buns, Common, 201 
 
 Cross, 201 
 
 Burgundy Pitch Plaster, 174 
 Burnett's Antiseptic Fluid, 435 
 Burnishing, to Gild by, 37 
 Burns and Scalds, 153 
 Butter, to Cure, 96 
 
 to Remove Turnip Flavor from, 96 
 
 Drawn, 194 
 
 Dumbarton Mode, 96 
 
 Maitre d'Hotel, 214 
 
 Nuns', 194 
 
 to make, 91 
 
 Buttons, New Material for, 434 
 Butyric Acid, 288 
 
 Ether, 288 
 
 Cabbages, Qualities of, 249 
 
 to Keep Caterpillars from, 83 
 
 to Preserve for Sea- Voyages, 458 
 Cachou Aromatise", 307 
 Cadmium, Yellow, 334 
 
 in Fireworks, 385 
 CAKES, 200 
 
 Albany, 231 
 
 Almond, 225, 227, 228 
 Cheese, 225 
 
 Apple, 202 
 
 Banbury, 201 
 
 Bath, 200 
 
 Black, 224, 230, 231 
 
 Bread, 202 
 
 Cheap Fruit, 202 
 
 Cheese, Bread, 202 
 
 Cheese, Rice, 202 
 
 Cider, 230 
 
 Cocoanut, 222 
 
 Cream, 201 
 
 Cup, 230 
 
 Election, 229 
 
 Federal, 231 
 
 Fine Cheese, 225 
 
 Flannel, 201 
 
 French Loaf, 224 
 
 Fruit, Plain, 202 
 
 Good Plain, 224 
 
 Lemon, 225, 230 
 
 Madison, 224 
 
 Plain Seed, 226 
 
 Plain, 224 
 
 Portugal, 200 
 
 Pound, 226 
 
 Pudding Pound, 224 
 
 Queen, 225 
 
 Ratafia, 224 
 
 Rice, 200 
 
 Rich Plum, 224 
 
 Rich Seed, 224 
 
 Savoy, 200 
 
 Shrewsbury, 200, 228 
 
 Sponge, 224, 230 
 
 Sugar, 230 
 
 Swedes, 227 
 
 Wedding, 229 
 CALICO PRINTING, 322 
 Callan's Battery, 375 
 Calves' Head, to Dress, 231 
 
 Foot Jelley, 229 
 
 to Rear, 91, 92 
 Camphor, 290 
 
 Mixture, 124 
 CANARY BIRDS, 448 
 Cancer, 135 
 
 Cancerous Ulcers, Lotion for, 154 
 Candied Sugar, 232 
 
 to Color, 234 
 
 Lemon Peel, 233 
 
INDEX. 
 
 479 
 
 Candied Oranges, 235 
 
 Orange Peel, 233 
 Candles, Substitute for, 94 
 
 Wax, to make, 458 
 Canker in the Horse, 107-115 
 
 in Trees, 77 
 CANNING FRUIT, 240 
 Cantharides, Poisoning by, 152 
 Canvas, to Waterproof, 347 
 Caoutchouc Varnish, 348 
 Capacity of Boxes, 428 
 Capsicum, to Raise, 82 
 Caraway Cordial, 285 
 
 Oil, 290 
 
 Carbazotic Acid, 318 
 Carbolic Acid, 436 
 Carbonic Acid, 433 
 Carbuncle, 141 
 Carlsbad Water, 299 
 Carpets, to choose, 457 
 
 to Restore, 311 
 
 to Scour, 312 
 Carry's Apparatus, 435 
 Carrots, to Cultivate, 40 
 Cartilages, Displaced, 135 
 CARVING, ART OF, 241 
 Case Hardening, 381 
 Casks, Musty, to Sweeten, 260, 273 
 
 New, to Season, 261 
 
 to close without Bungs, Ac., 261, 262 
 Cassia Oil, to Obtain, 290 
 Castor Oil, 301 
 
 as a Dressing for Leather, 459 
 
 Clyster, 158 
 Cast Steel, 382 
 
 Casts from Fusible Metal, 370 
 Cataplasms, Cold, 154 
 Cataract in the Horse, 108 
 Catarrh, or Cold, 126 
 Caterpillars on Gooseberries, to Remove, 76 
 
 on Shrubs, Plants, etc., 83 
 Catheter, Directions for Passing the, 153 
 Catsup for Sea Stores, 194 
 
 Tomato, to make, 194, 214, 230 
 
 Mushroom, 214 
 Cattle, Age of, 121 
 
 Colds in, 120 
 
 Distemper in, 116 
 
 Frenzy in, 120 
 
 Garget in, 116 
 
 Hoven or Blown in, 121 
 
 Jaundice in, 120 
 
 Lung Fever in, 116 
 
 Paunching in, 121 
 
 Purging Drink for, 120 
 
 Rinderpest in, 467; Red Water in, 116 
 
 Scouring in, 116 
 
 Swelling with Food, 116 
 
 Swimming in the Head in, 121 
 
 Tar-water for, 116 
 
 Treatment of, 116 
 
 Wounds in, 105 
 
 Caustic, Lunar, Poisoning by, 152 
 Cayenne Pepper, to Raise, 82 
 Cautions, Salutary, 178, 180 
 
 to Painters and Glaziers, 164 
 Ceirat Cordial, to make, 285 
 
 Essence, 290 
 Celery, Qualities of, 250 
 CEMENTS, 352 
 Cerate of Spanish Flies, 174 
 
 Turner's, 174 
 
 Chafing Dish, Impromptu, 463 
 Chalk Mixture, 130 
 Chalybeate Draughts, 166 
 
 Pills, 166 
 
 Water, 300 
 
 Chalybeate Wine, 160 
 Champagne, 289 
 Chancres, 133 
 Chapped Hocks, 107 
 Skin, 156, 306 
 Charcoal, Animal, 298 
 
 as a Deodorizer, 436 
 as a Purifier, 178 
 
 Poultice, 155 
 
 to make, 280 
 
 to Protect from the Effects of, 18ft 
 Charlotte Russe, 228 
 Cheese Cakes, 202, 225 
 
 Cheshire, 96 
 
 Cottage, 214 
 
 Damson, 237 
 
 Green Gooseberry, 199 
 
 Hogshead, 190 
 
 Qualities of, 249 
 Chemic Blue, 316 
 CHEMICAL RECEIPTS, 432 
 
 Landscapes, 362 
 Cherries, to Dry, 240 
 Cherry Brandy, 286 
 Chestnuts, to Keep, 87 
 Chest, Dropsy of, 127 
 
 Wounds in the, 145 
 Chicken, Fricassee, with Mushrooms, 209 
 
 Broth, 194 
 
 Pie, 196, 210 
 
 Pox, 138 
 
 Salad, 231, 
 
 Stewed, with Corn, 210 
 Chickens, to Hntch, 93 
 
 to M;inage, 93, 116 
 Chilblains, 156 
 
 Children, Management and Diseases of, 169 
 Chills and Fever, 123 
 Chimneys on Fire, to Extinguish, 460 
 
 Smoky, to Cure, 455 
 
 to Clean, 455 
 China-ware, to Manufacture, 394 
 
 and Glass, to Clean and Pack, 457 
 
 to Clean, 457 
 Chinese Sheet-lead, to make, 381 
 
 Fire, 385 
 Chintz, to Wash, 310 
 Chloride of Lime, 436 
 
 to Destroy Insects, 450 
 Chlorine, 433, 436 
 
 Water, 299 
 Chlorimetry, 309 
 Chlorosis, 166 
 Chocolate, 200 
 
 Cream, 227 
 
 Glace, 227 
 
 Qualities of, 251 
 Choice of Animal Food, 247 
 
 Plants, 69 
 Choking, 153 
 CHOLERA, 162 
 Cholera Morbus, 129 
 Chowder, 192 
 Chrome Green, 338 
 
 to Dye, 318 
 
 Vermilion, 337 
 
 Yellow, 334 
 Cbrysammic Acid, 318 
 Cider, Cheap, from Raisins, 264 
 
 Devonshire, 263 
 
 General Rules for Making, 264 
 
 Scotch, 263 
 
 to make, 263 
 
 to Manage, 264 
 
 from Pears, 264 
 Cinnabar, Humid Assay of, 365 
 Cinnamon, Cordial, to make, 285 
 
480 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Cinnamon, Oil of, to Obtain, 289 
 
 Water, to make, 294 
 Citrate of Magnesia, 175 
 Citron Cordial, to make, 285 
 Clam Soups, 193 
 Clap, 133 
 Claret Punch, 231 
 
 Claret Wine, to Imitate, 289 [Luting, 466 
 
 Clarifying Honey, 240 ; Clay for Modelling and 
 Clay, Burning, Mr. Craig's Method, 24 
 
 Lands, to Underdrain, 49, 50 
 Cleaning Water Casks, 95 
 Climate, Effect of, 78 
 Climbing Shrubs, 88 
 Cloth, Buff-colored, to Clean, 311 
 
 Faded Black, to Revive, 313 
 
 Scarlet, to Clean and Dip, 313 
 
 the Nap on, to Raise, 313 
 
 to Bleach, 310 
 
 to Dry Clean, 313 
 
 to Dye, 317 
 
 to Full, 310 
 
 to render Waterproof, 331, 347 
 
 to Take Out Fruit-stains from, 314 
 
 to Take Spots of Paint from, 314 
 
 to Take Spots of Grease from, 314 
 Clothes Ball, to make, 313 
 
 Incombustible, 437 
 
 on Fire, How to Act, 437 
 
 to Brush, 456 
 
 to Scour, 312 
 
 to take Grease from, 314 
 CLOTHING, 184 
 Clove Cordial, to make, 286 
 Cloves, Oil of, 290 
 Coal-oil, 302, 450, 451 
 
 to Destroy Insects, 450 
 Coal-tar, 318, 435 
 
 Ashes as Manure, 24 
 
 Colors, 318 
 Coats, to Scour, 313 
 Cobalt Ores, to Assay, 365 
 Cocoa, 200 
 Cocoanut-cake, 222 
 
 Pudding, 222 
 Codfish-cakes, 191 
 Coffee, 200, 202 
 
 Qualities of, 251 
 
 Tree, to Engraft, 75 
 Coins, 427 
 
 Easy Mode of Taking Impressions from, 438 
 
 Relative Value of American and Foreign,431 
 Cold Cream, 306 
 
 Artificial, 435 
 
 Drinks, Prevent Effects of, 460 
 
 Suspended Animation from, 151 
 Colds, Gargles fur, 159 
 
 in the Head, 126 
 
 in the Horse, 107 
 Cole Slaw, 195 
 Colic, 130 
 
 Painter's, 131 
 Collar-bone, Fractures of, 146 
 
 Dislocation of, 148 
 Collodion, 409 
 
 Collyria, or Eye-washes, 157 
 Colocynth Pills of, 158 
 Cologne-water, 304 
 COLORS, Chevreul's Method of Graduating, 321 
 
 Coal-tar, 318 
 
 Compound, 310 
 
 to Discharge, 316 
 
 for Confectionery, 338 
 
 Oil, 332 
 
 Composition, Water-proof, 331 
 Composts, 21, 61 
 Compression of the Brain, 144 
 
 Concrete, 352 
 
 Concussion of the Brain, 143 
 Condy's Disinfecting Solution, 436 
 CONFECTIONERY, 232 
 
 Colors for, 338 
 Conservatory, to make, 61 
 Consumption, 127 
 Contusions, 143, 145 
 Convalescents, Soup for, 178 
 Convulsions in Pregnancy, 168 
 
 in Children, 171 
 
 in the Horse, 107, 111 
 COOKERY, 188 
 
 Cook's, Captain, Rules for Seamen 
 Copal Varnish, 341, 343 
 Copper, Assay of, 364 
 
 in Pickles or Tea, 433 
 
 Foils, 373 
 
 Plates, Secure from Corrosion, 422 
 
 Poisoning by, 152 
 
 Test for, 432 
 
 Tubes, 376 
 
 on Iron, 376 
 
 Copy, on Preparing, for the Printer, 452 
 Coral Branches, Artificial, 460 
 CORDIALS OR COMPOUND SPIRITS, 285 
 
 Anise-seed, Caraway, Cedrat, Cinnamon, 
 Strong Cinnamon, Citron, Clove, Cori- 
 ander, Eau de Bigarrade, Gold, Lemon, 
 Lovage, Nectar, Noyau, Orange, Pepper- 
 mint, Ratafia, Dry Ratafia, Whiskey 
 285287 
 
 Cork-screw, Substitute for, 459 
 Corn, Indian, to Cultivate, 29 
 
 Oysters, 219 
 
 to Dry, 88, 219 
 Corn-bread, 232 
 Corned Beef, 190 
 Corns, 156 
 
 in the Horse, 107 
 Cosmetic for Complexion, 465 
 Cosmetics, 306 
 Costiveness, 158, 161, 167 
 Cottage Cheese, 214 
 Cotton, 53 
 Coughs and Colds, 158, 159 
 
 in the Horse, 107 
 Court-plaster, 175, 358 
 Cow Feeder, Directions to the, 91 
 
 Milch, to Choose, 92 
 
 to Keep, 92 
 
 Pox, 138 
 Crabs, to Choose, 248 
 
 to Pot, 190 
 
 Cracked Heels in the Horse, 107 
 Cracks in Stoves, 458 
 Cramp in the Stomach, 161 
 Cramps, 168 
 
 in Bathing, 183 
 Cranberry, Culture of, 69 
 Cream, Coffee, 237 
 
 Ice, 235 
 
 Painter's, 343 
 
 Pistachio, 235 
 
 Qualities of, 249 
 
 Raspberry, 236 
 
 Substitute for, 96 
 Creme de Barbados, Real, 284 
 
 de Noyeau de Martinique, 284 
 
 d'Orange, 285 
 Crocheting, 448 
 Crops, Rotation of, 10, 26, 27 
 Croquets, Chicken, 232 
 Croup, 173 
 
 Crows, to Banish, 40, 90 
 Crullers, to make, 464 
 Crumpets, 201 
 
INDEX. 
 
 481 
 
 Crust, Short, 198 
 
 Cucumbers, to Cultivate, 77, 78, 79 
 
 to Pickle, 239 
 CULINARY ARTS, 188 
 Curacoa, 289 
 Currants, Culture of, 69 
 
 Qualities of, 251 
 Currant Jelly, 215, 235 
 
 Wine, 236, 267 
 Currying Leather, 387 
 Curry, 216 
 
 Indian Sauce, 214 
 
 Maloy's, 116 
 
 Powder, 216 
 
 Salmon, 210 
 Custards, Almond, 222 
 
 Apple, 230 
 
 Baked, 222 
 
 Boiled, 199 
 
 Cold, 199 
 
 Lemon, 222 
 
 Orange, 222 
 
 Rice, 222 
 Cutlets, Lamb, with Peas, 208 
 
 Mutton, 208 
 
 Pork, 208 
 
 Veal, 206, 232 
 Cuts, Treatment of, 144 
 Cuttings, for Plants, 65 
 Cypher, writing in, 459 
 
 Dahlia-paper, 299 
 
 Dairy, to Manage, 91 
 
 Damson Cheese, 237 
 
 Plums, Pickled, 231 
 to Bottle, 239 
 
 Damsons, to Preserve, 240 
 
 Dance of St. Vitus, 137 
 
 Decalcomania, 465 
 
 Decanters, to Clean, 457 
 
 Dentrifice, 308, 460 
 
 DEODORIZATION, 164, 435 
 
 Depilatories, 305 
 
 Devils, Dry, 205 
 
 Diabetes, 132 
 
 in the Horse, 108 
 
 DIALYSIS, 463 
 
 Diamond Cement, 356 
 to Imitate, 373 
 
 Diarrhoea, 130, 162, 171 
 
 Diavolini, 223 
 
 DIET, 247 
 
 Digestion, to Improve, 128, 161 
 
 Diphtheria, 126 
 
 Dippel's Oil, to Obtain, 291 
 
 DISEASES OF CHILDREN, 169 
 
 General Rules for Treating, 122 
 PECULIAR TO FEMALES, 165 
 of Wheat, 29 
 
 DISINFECTANTS, 164, 184, 185, 436 
 
 Disinfection, 185 
 
 DISLOCATIONS, 148 
 
 Distemper, 328, 331 
 
 in Dogs, 115,449 
 
 DISTILLATION, 277 
 
 of Compound Spirits, 285 
 
 of Compound Waters, 292, 294 
 
 of Essential and other Oils, 289 
 
 General Rules for, simple waters, 293 
 
 to Preserve Flowers for, 292 
 
 Distilleries, Fires in, to Extinguish, 280 
 
 Diuretic Balls, 113 
 
 DOGS, Best Breed of, for Shooting Game, 449 
 Distemper in, 115, 449 
 Mange in, 115, 449 
 Purging Ball for, 115 
 to know the Age of, to six years, 449 
 
 4 v. 
 
 DOMESTIC ECONOMY, 90 
 
 Medicines, 173 
 Dough-nuts, 464 
 Doses, Medicinal, 188, 241 
 Dover's Powders, 173 
 Dram-Drinking, to Remedy Effj 
 Draining Land, 49, 50 
 Drawings, Lead Penc 
 
 to Varnish, 3 
 Drawn Butter, 194 
 Dresden China, 39 
 Dresses, Incombust 
 Drier for Paints, 331' 
 Drilling Glass, 439 
 
 Wheat, 28 
 Drop, Black, 175 
 Drops, Chocolate, 234 
 
 Clove, 234 
 
 Coffee, 234 
 
 Confectionery, to make, 234 
 
 Ginger, 234 
 
 Orange-Flower, 234 
 
 Peppermint, 234 
 Dropsy of the Bag, 134 
 Belly, 132 
 Chest, 127 
 Knee, 135 
 Medicines for, 167 
 Drowning, 151, 180, 181, 182 
 
 Assistance in, Danger of, 462 
 Drying Herbs, Roots, etc., 85 
 
 Oils, 340 
 
 Dry-rot, 352, 432, 438 
 Duchess Loaves, 226 
 Duck, Wild, Salmis, 209 
 
 to Choose, 248 
 Duffy's Elixir, 175 
 Dumplings, Apple, 199 
 
 Raspberry, 198 
 Dung Beds, to form, 60 
 Dutch Drops, 292 
 
 Pink, 334 
 DYEING, 315 
 
 of Leather, 390 
 Dysentery, 130 
 Dyspepsia, 128 
 
 Ear, Extraneous Bodies in the, to Extract, lit 
 
 Inflammation of, 125 
 
 Wounds of, 145 
 Eau de Barbade, 284 
 
 de Bouquet, 304 
 
 de Cologne, 304j 
 
 de Javelle, 436 
 
 de Luce, 173 
 
 de Millefleurs, 305 
 
 Divine, 284 
 
 Lustrale, 305 
 
 Sans Pareil, 294 
 
 ECONOMY, RURAL AND DOMESTIC, 90 
 Eels, to Pot, 190 
 Eger Water, 299 
 Eggs, a la Dauphin, 213 
 
 au Gratin, 212 
 
 to Choose, as Food, 249, 457 
 
 to Preserve, 95, 96, 457 
 
 with Wine, 200 
 Egg-Plant, to Cook, 219, 231 
 Elbow, Dislocations of, 149 
 Elderberry Wine, 268 
 
 Paper, 299 
 
 Electric Machines, New, 435 
 Electrical Machine, Alloy for, 370 
 ELECTRO-PLATING, 374 
 Elephant's Milk, 284 
 Elixir, Duffy's, 175 
 Elm Trees, 77 
 
482 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Email de Paris, 465 
 
 Embrocation for Rheumatism and Sprains, 154 
 
 Embroidery, to Clean, 314 
 
 Emissions, Involuntary, 133 
 
 Ems Water, 299 
 
 Enamel for Cooking Utensils, 393, 398 
 
 to Paint in, 393 
 ENAMELLING, 390 
 
 Varnish for, 341 
 Engrave, to, in Aquatinta, 421 
 
 in Mezzotinto, 421 
 
 on Chiar' Oscuro, 422 
 
 on Precious Stones, 423 
 
 on Steel, 420 
 
 on Stone, 423 
 
 on Wood, 422 
 ENGRAVING, 41 9 
 
 from Photographs, 418 
 Engravings, Cleaning and Preservation of, 426 
 
 on Glass, to Transfer, 407, 423 
 Enlargement of Spermatic Vein, 134 
 Tonsil, 126 
 Uvula, 126 
 
 Eolian Harp, to make, 454 
 Epilepsy, 136 
 Erysipelas, 138 
 Essence of Cedrat, 290 
 
 Lavender, 291 
 Neroli, 291 
 Petits Grains, 291 
 Essential Oils, 289 
 ETCHING, 419, 422 
 Ether, to make, 281 
 
 to Purify, 281 
 Evil, the King's, 135 
 Exercise, 185 
 Expectation of Life, 459 
 Expectorant Pills, 159 
 Extracts, Toilet, 304 
 Eye Waters, 157 
 
 Inflammation of the, 125 
 Eyelids, Inflamed, Remedy for, 157 
 Eyes of the Horse, 108, 114 
 Eyesight, to Preserve the, 186 
 
 Fac Similes, 360 
 
 FACTITIOUS LIQUORS, 287 
 
 Failures in Photography, 417 
 
 Fainting, 136 
 
 Fallow, to Conduct a, 15 
 
 Famished Persons, to Restore, 463 
 
 Fans for Cleaning Grain, 18 
 
 Farcy, 108 
 
 FARRIERY, 104 
 
 Fattening Hogs, 92 
 
 Poultry, 92 
 Feathers, to Cleanse, 313 
 
 Dye. 325 
 
 Preserve, 450 
 Feet, to Keep Dry, 186 
 
 Disease of in the Horse, 113 
 Felon, 142, 155, 
 FEMALES, DISEASES OF, 165 
 FERMENTATION, 251, 254, 261, 262 
 Fertilizers, 11 
 FEVER, Bilious, 123 
 
 Hectic, 124 
 
 Intermittent, 123 
 
 Milk, 168 
 
 Puerperal, 168 
 
 Remittent, 123 
 
 Scarlet, 137 
 
 Simple, Inflammatory, 123 
 
 Typhoid, 124 
 
 Typhus, 124 
 Filberts, to Keep, 87 
 Film, or Cataract in the Horse, 108 
 
 Filter, for Corrosive Liquids, 433 
 Fining of Spirits, 285 
 
 Wines, 274 
 Finings, to make and Apply, 274 
 
 of Wines and Spirits, to Force down the, 27* 
 Fires, 
 
 Colored, 384 
 
 in Distilleries, to Extinguish, 280 
 
 in Hay-stacks, to prevent, 459 
 
 to Escape from, 462 
 
 to Extinguish in Chimneys, 460 
 Fireproof Dresses, 437 
 
 Paper, 437 
 
 Wood, 437 
 FIREWORKS, 384 
 FISHING, 443 
 Fish Bones, to Extract, when swallowed, 153 
 
 Culture, 445 
 
 to Cure, 94 
 
 Poisonous, 153 
 
 Qualities of, 249 
 
 to Cook, 191, 206 
 
 to Preserve with Sugar, 239 
 
 to Keep Fresh, 464 
 Fistula, 142 
 Fits in Children, 171 
 Fixed Oils, 301 
 Flannel Cakes, 201 
 Flannels, to Wash, 464 
 Flatulence, 161, 170 
 Flavorings for Imitated Wines, 2S7 
 Flax, to Cultivate, Dress, etc., 42, 43 
 Fleas, to Destroy, 450 
 Fleur d'ltalie, 304 
 Flies, to Remove from Rooms, 96 
 
 Stables, 450 
 Floors, to Stain, 457 
 
 Cement for, 352 
 Florida Water, 304 
 Flounders, to Cook, 191 
 Flour, Chalk in, to Detect, 433 
 
 to Improve, 86, 96 
 
 to Preserve, 96 
 Flower Gardening, 84, 88 
 Flowers, Bulbous, to Accelerate, 67 
 
 Faded, to Restore, 84 
 to Dry, 84 
 
 for Distillation, 292 
 
 to Grow in Winter, 82, 83 
 
 to Preserve, 87 
 Fluor Albus, 166 
 Flux, 130 
 Fluxes, 363 
 Foils, 373 
 Fomentations, 154 
 FOOD, QUALITIES OP, 247, 251 
 
 of Plants, 9 
 Forcemeat, 216 
 
 Foreign Spirits, tc Imitate, 281 
 Foretelling the Weather, 439 
 Forges, Water, 300 
 Fothergill Process, 414 
 Foul Air, Suspended Animation from, 151 
 Foul Rooms, to Ventilate, 164 
 Foundered Feet, 108 
 Fowls, Qualities of, 249 
 
 Choice of, 248 
 
 Treatment of, 93, 116 
 Wild, to Catch, 462 
 FRACTURES, 146 
 Frangipani, Toilet, 307 
 Freckles, 306 
 FKKEZING MIXTURES, 435 
 French Polish, 344 
 
 Rolls, 228 
 Fresco, 331 
 Fresh Water from Salt, 179 
 
INDEX. 
 
 483 
 
 Fricassee, 209 
 
 Friction for Rheumatism, etc., 162, 185 
 
 to lessen, 347, 438 
 Fritters, 199 
 Frogs, to Cook, 232 
 Frostbite, 151 
 
 in Fruit Trees, 75 
 
 in Potatoes, 35 
 Fruit Essences, 288 
 
 to Protect, from Insects, 71,450 
 
 Trees, 67, 69, 70, 75, 76, 77 
 
 Spots, to Remove, 314 
 
 Stains, to Remove, 314, 436 
 Fruits, 85, 86, 87, 88 
 
 to Preserve, 86-88, 240 
 
 without Sugar, 240, 246 
 
 Qualities of, 250, 251 
 
 to Pack, 87 
 Frumenty, 197 
 Frying, 190 
 Fuel, Cheap, 95 
 Fulling Cloths, etc., 310 
 Fumigation, 163, 164, 436 
 Fundament, Falling of, 171 
 Furnace, Sand-heat, to make a, 278 
 Furnaces, Portable, 278 
 Furniture, Oil, 350 
 
 Paste, to make, 349 
 
 to Clean, 455 
 
 Varnished, to Polish, 349 
 Furs, to Preserve, 450 
 Fusel Oil. 283 
 Fusible Metal, 369 
 
 Gallipot Mastic, for Grinding Colors, 345 
 
 Varnish, to make, 345 
 Ganglion, 141 
 
 Gardeners, Practical Directions to, 90 
 GARDENING, 60, 66, 88 
 Gargle for Thrush, 159 
 
 Sore Throat, 159 
 Gas Burners, 430 
 
 Meter, to Read, 430 
 
 to Save, 430 
 Geese, to Choose, 248 
 Gems, Artificial, 403 
 Gems, to Engrave, 423 
 Geneva, English, to make, 282 
 Gentian Water, 296 
 
 Wine, 160 
 Geraniums, 89 
 German Silver, 372 
 Gild by Burnishing, 378 
 
 Edges of Paper, 377 
 
 Glass and Porcelain, to, 376 
 
 Leather, 377 
 
 on Wood, with Oil, 377 
 
 Silk, Satin, Ivory, etc, by Hydrogen Gri 
 Gilding, 376-379 
 
 Electro-, 375 
 
 Fire, 379 
 
 Jewellery, 379 
 
 Solution, 375 
 Gilders, Cautions to, 185 
 
 Varnish for, 346 
 Gin, to Prepare, as in Holland, 282 
 
 to Imitate, 288 
 Ginger Beer, 258 
 
 Nuts, 202 
 
 Pop, 257 
 
 Powders, 433 
 
 Syrup, 176 
 
 to Candy, 233 
 Gingerbread, Plain, 200, 228 
 
 Poundcake, 200. 228 
 
 Short, 228 
 
 Soft, 224 
 
 ,377 
 
 Gingerbread, without Butter, 200 
 Glands, Inflamed, 135 
 Glanders* 115 
 GLASS, 399 
 
 to Anneal, 401 
 
 and Porcelain, to Paint and Stain, 4 06, 408 
 
 to Draw on, 407 
 
 Globes, Liquid Foils for Silvering, 370 
 
 Ground, to Imitate, 439 
 
 in Imitation of Muslin, 423 
 
 " " Precious Stones, 403 
 Powdered, Poisoning by, 152 
 to Break, in any Required Way. 403 
 to Clean, 409 
 to Drill, 439 
 to Etch upon, 422 
 Stoppers, to Loosen, 434 
 to Ornament, in Imitation of Engraving; 
 
 402, 407 
 to Pack, 457 
 
 to Polish and Grind, 402 
 to Silver, 370 
 
 Jars, like China, to make, 458 
 Glaziers, Caution to, 164 
 Glazings for Earthenware, etc., 396, 398 
 Gleet, 133 
 
 Gloves, to Cleanse, 315 
 to Dye, 325 
 
 to Prepare Skin for, 389 
 Glue, 354, 355 
 
 Liquid, 356 
 Marine, 354 
 Goadby's Solution, 435 
 Goat's Flesh, Qualities of, 249 
 
 Skins, 389 
 
 Godbold's Balsam, 176 
 Godfrey's Cordial, 175 
 Goitre, 136 
 
 Gold, Amalgam of, in the Large Way, 379 
 Assay, 367 
 Lace, to Clean, 314 
 Ores and Earths containing, 367 
 Poisoning by, 152 
 Powder, 378 
 Solder, to Prepare, 369 
 Test for, 433 
 
 to Dissolve in Aqua Regia, 379 
 to Separate from Gilt, Copper, and 
 
 380 
 
 Varnish, 351 
 Gonorrhoea, 133 
 
 Goodfellow's, Mrs., Lemon Pudding, 222 
 Goose, Choice of, 242 
 Gooseberries, Culture of, 69, 76 
 Gooseberry Cheese, Green, 199 
 Gout, 134, 162 
 
 Chelsea Pensioner's Remedy for, 111 
 Cordial, to make, 161 
 Lotion, 134 
 
 Portland Powder for, 460 
 Pradier's Cataplasm for, 459 
 Rheumatic, 134 
 Grafting, 63, 65 
 Wax, 459 
 Grain, Damaged, to Correct, 96 
 
 to Preserve from Vermin, 90 
 Reaping before Ripe, 31 
 Grapes, to Cultivate, 73 
 to Keep, 88 
 Sugar from, 233 
 Gravel, 131 
 
 Remedies for the, 131 
 Walks, to make, 60 
 ravy, 215, 230 
 
 Cakes, 194 
 
 Grease, in Horses, 108, 115 
 Spots, 312, 314, 438 
 
484 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Grecian Painting, 339 
 Green, Chrome, 338 
 
 Colors free from Arsenic, 338 
 House, to make, 61 
 Scheele's, 338 
 Schweinfiirth, 338 
 Sickness, 166 
 Grindstones, to make, 458 
 Gripes in the Horse, 108 
 Grip ng in Children, 170 
 Grottoes, to Embellish, 460 
 Gruel, to m;ike, 177 
 Guano, 10, 11 
 
 Guin Benzoin, Oil of, to obtain, 290 
 Elastic, to Dissolve, 339, 354 
 the Yellow, 170 
 Gun Barrels, to Brown, 349 
 Cotton, 356 
 
 as a Filter, 433 
 Cement, 356 
 Explosive, 384 
 
 Link's, 384 
 Soluble, 409 
 Metal, 371 
 Powder, 384 
 
 to render Incombustible at pleasure, 
 
 465 
 
 White, 384 
 
 Gutta-percha, Solution of, 348, 354 
 Solvents for, 339 
 
 Hair Brush, to Clean, 456 
 
 Dyes, 305 
 
 Honey-water for the, 305 
 
 Superfluous, to Remove, 305 
 
 Washes, etc., 305 
 Hams, Qualities of, 248 
 
 to Cure, 91 
 
 to Cook, 207 
 
 to Salt, 239 
 
 Hanging, Suspended Animation from, 151 
 Hangings, Paper, to Restore, 314 
 Hare, Roast, 209 
 Harrowgsite Water, 300 
 Harrows, 16 
 
 Hartshorn Jelly, to make, 235 
 Hash of Beef, 206 
 Hats, to Dye, 324 
 
 Straw, to Clean, 315 
 
 to Preserve, 457 
 Hay Making, 46 
 
 Stacks, to Save from Fire, 459 
 Headache, to Relieve, 125 
 HEALTH, PRESERVATION OF, 183 
 Heartburn, 128, 161 
 Heart, Palpitation of, 127 
 Hearths, to Paint, 331 
 Heat, Excessive, to Guard Against, 136 
 Hectic Fever, 124 
 Hedge-hog, Usefulness of the, 29 
 Hedges, Thorn, 51 
 Heels, Cracked, 107 
 Heliotrope, 89 
 
 Hemorrhage after Pulling Teeth, 157 
 Hemp, to Cultivate, 40, 41 
 
 Process of Grassing, 41 
 Herbs, to Propagate, 76, 83 
 
 to Dry, 85 
 Herpes, 139 
 Herrings, to Cure, 94 
 
 to Choose, 248 
 Hiccup, 128 
 
 in Children, 170 
 Hiera Picra, 158 
 Hip-joint Disease, 135 
 Hives, Cobbett's, 104 
 
 Langstroth's, 104 
 
 Hives, Thorley's, 103 
 Hoarhound, to Candy, 233 
 HockS, Chapped, 107 
 Hodge-Podge, 215, 217 
 Hog Cholera, 117 
 Hogs, to Fatten, 92 
 Hogs, 116, 121 
 Hogshead Cheese, 190 
 Hominy, 98 
 Honey, to Clarify, 240 
 
 to Manage, 102 
 
 Water, 295, 305 
 Hoof-bound, 108 
 Hooping-cough, 172, 173 
 Hops, to Cultivate, etc., 43, 44, 46 
 
 to Choose, 253 
 
 to Keep, 263 
 
 Horn, to Dye Various Colors, 327 
 HORSE, Abscesses in, 106 
 
 Anbury, or Wart in, 106 
 
 Balling with Snow, 114 
 
 Balls for, 106 
 
 Bladder, Inflamed, in, 106 
 
 Bleeding in, 110 
 
 Bleeding, to Stop, in, 114 
 
 Blistering Ointment for, 10ft 
 
 Bog Spavin in, 106 
 
 Bone Spavin in, 106 
 
 Bots in, 106 
 
 Broken Knees in, 107 
 
 Broken Wind in, 107, 111 
 
 Burns or Scalds in, 107 
 
 Canker in, 107 
 
 Cataract in, 108 
 
 Chapped Hocks in, 107 
 
 Cold in, 107 
 
 Convulsions in, 107, 111 
 
 Corns in, 107 
 
 Cough in, 107, 110 
 
 Cracked Heels in, 107 
 
 Curb in, 107 
 
 Diabetes in, 108 
 
 Disease of Feet in, 113 
 
 Diuretic Balls for, 113 
 
 Drink for, 110 
 
 Dysentery, 109 
 
 Eyes of, iOS, 114, 462 
 
 Farcy in, 108 
 
 Fever in, 111 
 
 Foundered Feet in, 108 
 
 Glanders, 115 
 
 Grease, 108, 115 
 
 Green Ointment, 106 
 
 Gripes, 108, 112 
 
 Hoof Bound, 108 
 
 Inflamed Bowels, 106 
 
 Inflamed Lungs, 108, 110, 114 
 
 Jaundice, 111 
 
 Lameness, 114 
 
 Lampas in, 108 
 
 Laxity in, 108 
 
 Lock-Jaw, 115 
 
 Looseness in, 110 
 
 Mallenders, 108 
 
 Mange, 108, 111, 114 
 
 Molten Grease, 109 
 
 Ointment, 105 
 
 Poll Evil, 109 
 
 Pulling at the Halter, 461 
 
 Purging, 108, 110 
 
 Purging Ball, 108, 110 
 
 Quittor, 109 
 
 Ring-Bone, 109 
 
 Rupture, 115 
 
 Sallenders, 109 
 
 Sand-Crack, 109 
 
 Scratched Heels, 114 
 
INDEX. 
 
 485 
 
 Horse, Shoeing in Winter, 114 
 Sitting a, 463 
 Sit-fasts, 109 
 Sores and Bruises, 105 
 Spavin, 106 
 Staggers, 109 
 Staling Profusely, 111 
 Strains, 109, 114, 115 
 Strangles, 109 
 
 (Strangury, 109 
 
 Surfeit, 111 
 
 Teeth, 104 
 
 Tetanus, or Lock-jaw, 115 
 
 Thrush, 109, 1 14 
 
 to Take out of a Stable on Fire, 462 
 
 Unsoundness, 105 
 
 Vives, 109 
 
 Wart, 106 
 
 Wind-galls, 109 
 
 Worms, 106. Ill 
 
 Wounds, 105, 109 
 HORTICULTURE, 60 
 Hot-houses, 67 
 Hot-beds, 60 
 Hortus Siccus, 459 
 Houses on Fire, How to Escape from, 462 
 
 Painting, 327 
 Hoven in Cattle, 121 
 Humus, 9 
 
 Hunger and Thirst, to Restore Famished Per- 
 sons, 463 
 
 Hungary Waters, 295, 304 
 HUSBANDRY, 9 
 
 Implements of, 15, 470 
 Huxham's Tincture of Peruvian Bark, 176 
 Hydraulic Cement, 352, 466 
 Hydrogen, 433 
 Hydrometers, 430 
 Hydrophobia, 145 
 Hysteric Fits, 165, 167 
 
 Ice, to make, 95, 435 
 
 to Extricate Persons from Broken, 181 
 
 from a Powder, to Procure, 95, 435 
 
 Cream, Water-ice, 235, 236, 237 
 
 House, Portable, 94 
 
 for Culinary Purposes, to Produce, 95 
 Icing for Cakes, 200 
 Iceland Moss Bread, 98 
 Impotency, 134 
 Inclosures, to Form, 51 
 In-arching, 62 
 Incombustible Wood, 437 
 
 Dresses, 437 
 
 Incontinence of Urine, 132 
 Indelible Writing, 437 
 
 Indian Shields, to Prepare Varnish for, 351 
 Indigo, for Dyeing, to prepare, 316 
 
 Paper, 299 
 
 Solution of, 316 
 Inflammation of the Bladder, 132 
 
 to Diminish, 154 
 
 Brain, 125 
 
 Ear, 125 
 
 Eye, 125 
 
 Glands, 135 
 
 Intestines, 129 
 
 Kidneys, 131 
 
 Liver, 128 
 
 Stomach, 128 
 
 Throat, 126 
 
 India-rubber, Solvents for, 339 
 Varnish, 343,348 
 Blacking, 349 
 Cement, 354 
 Solutions of, 354 
 Indian-corn, 29, 466 
 
 Indian- corn, Pone, 197 
 Indigestion, 128 
 
 Medicines for, 160, 161 
 Injection, Laxative, 158 
 Instruments, Musical, to Stain, 326 
 INKS and Writing-fluids, 358 
 Ink, Indelible, 358, 359 
 
 Perpetual, for Writing on Tombs, etc., 31 
 
 Powder, 359 
 
 Printers', 360 
 
 Marking, to Take Out, 359 
 
 Horticultural, 361 
 
 for Zinc Labels, 361 
 
 Indian, to make, 36 
 
 Substitute for, 361 
 
 Permanent, for Marking Linen, 359 
 
 Sympathetic, 361 
 
 to Write on Greasy Paper or Parchment, 359 
 
 to Restore Decayed Writings, 359 
 
 to Take Out Writing, 313 
 
 Spots, to Take Out, 314, 434 
 Insects on Plants, etc., 38, 39, 71, 72, 76, 79, 83, 
 84, 90, 449 
 
 to Destroy, 449 
 
 Persian Powder for, 449 
 
 Stings and Bites, 145, 173 
 Intermittent Fever, 123 
 Intestines, Inflammation of, 129 
 Intoxication, 179 
 Iodine, Tincture of, 167 
 Irish Whiskey, to Imitate, 289 
 Iron, Acetate of, 316 
 
 Nitrate of, 316 
 
 Ores, to Assay, 363 
 
 and Steel, to Brown, 349 
 to protect, 351 
 
 Cast, Cement for, 353 
 
 Polished, to Preserve, 438 
 
 to Plate, 380 
 
 Vessels, to Tin, 380 
 
 to Keep from Rust, 464 
 
 Ore, to Reduce into Malleable, 381 
 
 to Shingle and Manufacture, New Way, 381 
 
 to Weld, 381 
 
 Hardening of, 381 
 
 to Convert into Steel, 381 
 
 to Deposit Copper on, 376 
 
 Test for, 433 
 
 Mould, to Remove, 313 
 
 Varnish for, 464 
 Isinglass-jelly, to make, 178 
 Itch, 139, 156 
 Itching, 167 
 Ivory, to Gild, 377 
 
 to Bleach, 350 
 
 Artificial, 358 
 
 to Dye Various Colors, 325 
 
 Mode of Silvering, 434 
 
 Transparent, 350 
 
 Jelly, 171 
 
 Jam, Raspberry, to make, 237 
 
 Strawberry, 237 
 Japan-black, 348 
 Japanning Old Tea Trays, 456 
 Jaundice, 129 
 
 in the Horse, 111 
 Jessamine-water, to Prepare, 294 
 Jelly, Isinglass, 178 
 
 Apple, 236 
 
 Hartshorn, Currant, etc., etc., 235 237 
 
 Calves'-foot, 229, 236 
 
 Gooseberry, 236 
 
 Ivory, 171 
 
 Pineapple, 237 
 
 Punch, 237 
 
 Raspberry, 237 
 
486 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Jelly, Strawberry, 236 
 Jewelry, Metal for Common, 372 
 
 Paste for, 403 
 Jockey-Club, 304 
 Joints, Cartilage in, 135 
 
 Wounds of, 146 
 Jujube Paste, 238 
 Jumbles, 202, 228 
 Juniper, Compound Spirit of, 295 
 
 Kail, Sea, to Cultivate, 82 
 Kalydor, 307 
 
 Kettles, Iron, to Keep from Rust, 464 
 Kew-garden Nosegay, 304 
 Kidneys, Inflammation of, 131 
 
 to Cook, 204, 206 
 Kid-Skins, 389 
 Kircbwasser, 283 
 Kitchener's Pudding, 196 
 King's Evil, 135 
 Knee-joint, Dropsy of, 135 
 Knives and Forks, to Clean, 456 
 Knife handles, Ivory, to Bleach, 350 
 KNITTING, 448 
 KNOTS, TO TIE, 446 
 Krumholz' Oil. to Procure, 291 
 Kustitien's Mebil for Tinning, 372 
 Kyan's Antiseptic Fluid, 435 
 
 Labdanum Plaster, 174, 176 
 Labarraque's Solution, 436 
 Lace, to Wash, 310 
 
 Veils, White, to Clean, 311 
 Black, to Clean, 311 
 
 Point, to Cle;m and Starch, 311 
 
 Gold and Embroidery, to Clean, 314 
 Lackers of Various Tints, to make, 345, 346 
 Lacquer, for Brass, 345 
 LACQUERS, 345 
 Lakes, 335, 336 
 Lager Beer, 257 
 Lamb, Qualities of, 247 
 
 Cutlets, 208 
 
 Kidneys, 204 
 Lampas, 108 
 
 Lamps, to Prevent being Pernicious to Asthmatic 
 persons, 185 
 
 to Prevent Smoking, 458 
 Lampblack, 328 
 
 Land, Arable, Management of, 9 
 Lands, Clay, to Underdrain, 49, 50 
 Landscape, Chemical, 362 
 Lard, 301 
 
 Laudanum, Poisoning by, 152 
 Laughing-gas, 433 
 Lavender, Oil of (Foreign), to obtain, 291 
 
 Spirit, 166, 295 
 
 Water, to Prepare, 176, 296 
 
 for Immediate Use, 296 
 Lawns, to Wash and Starch, 311 
 Lax, 130 
 
 Laxative Solutions, 158, 175 
 Layering, 62 
 Lead Ores, to Assay, 364 
 
 Tests for, 433 
 
 Chinese Sheet, to Prepare, 381 
 
 Chromate of, 334 
 
 Paper, 299 
 
 Pencil Drawings, etc., to Preserve, 350 
 
 Colic, 131 
 
 Poisoning by, 152 
 
 Water, 156 
 
 Tree, to Prepare the, 380 
 Leather, to Gild, 377 
 
 Dressing for, 459 
 
 to Clean, 314 
 
 to Bender Water-proof, 348, 349 
 
 Leather Chairs, to Restore the Blackness of, 350 
 
 Sheep, to Prepare, 387 
 
 Morocco, to Manufacture, 888 
 
 to Convert Old Parchment into, 390 
 
 to Preserve from Mould, 390 
 
 Morocco and Sheep, to Dye, 388, 390 
 
 Russia, to Manufacture, 388 
 
 to Color, 390 
 Leaven, Bread, 97 
 
 Ledoyen's Disinfecting Solution, 164, 436 
 Leeches, Application of, 156 
 Lemonade, Portable, 300 
 Lemon Cordial, to make, 286 
 
 Juice, Preservation of, 457 
 
 Peel, to Candy, 234 
 
 Water, to Prepare, 296 
 Leprosy, Lotion for, 156 
 Leprous Affections, 156 
 Letters, to Disinfect, of the Plague, 164 
 Leuoorrhoea, 166 
 Liard, for Lubricating, 347 
 Lice, to Destroy, 449 
 Liebig's Soup and Broth, 461 
 Life, Expectation of, 459 
 Life-boat, 181 ; Light, Artificial, 466 
 Lightning, to Guard Against, 462 
 Lime as a Manure, 22 
 
 to Burn, Without Kilns, 24 
 
 Juice, to Preserve, 457 
 Line Engraving, 419 
 Linear Measurement, 428 
 Linen, to Render Water-proof, 347 
 
 Cloth for Screens, etc., to Thicken, 347 
 
 to Remove Iron-moulds from, 313 
 
 Mildew on, to Take Out, 314 
 
 Fire- proof, 437 
 
 and Cotton, to Dye, 320 
 Liniment, Compound Soap, 173, 
 
 of Ammonia, 173 
 Linseed Poultice, 154 
 Lip-salve, 174 
 LIQUEURS, to make, 284 
 Liquid Manure, 25 
 
 Paste, with Drying-oil, to make, 347 
 Liquorice, Extract of, to make, 234 
 
 Juice, to make, 235 
 
 Lozenges, 234 
 
 Refined, to Prepare, 235 
 Liquors, Factitious, 287 
 
 Bead for, 288 
 Lisbon Diet-drink, 258 
 LITHOGRAPHY, 423 
 Lithographic Ink, 424 
 
 Pencils, 425 
 Litmus, for Dyeing, 324 
 
 Paper, 299 
 
 Liver, Inflammation of the, 128 
 Lock-jaw, 137 
 Looking-glass Plates, 400 
 Looking-glasses, to Plate, 370, 402 
 to Repair, 370 
 etc., to Clean, 455 
 Lobsters, to Pot, 190, 221 
 
 to Boil, 191 
 
 to Choose, 248 
 Lobster Butter, 221 
 
 Salad, 221 
 
 Looseness, to Check, 130 
 Lovage Cordial, to make, 286 
 Lozenges, Liquorice, 234 
 
 Black Pectoral, 176 
 
 White Pectoral, 176 
 Lubricating Compound, 347, 438 
 Lumbago, 162 
 
 Lung-fever in the Horse, 108 
 Lutes, to make, 355 
 Luting for Grafting, 459; Luting Clay, 466 
 
INDEX. 
 
 487 
 
 Lye, to make, 311 
 
 Macadamized Roads, 454 
 Macaroni. 195, 206 
 
 a 1'Italienne, 220 
 
 au Gratin, 220 
 
 with Cream, 220 
 Macaroons, 224, 228 
 
 English, 202 
 Macassar Oil, 306 
 Mackerel, etc., to Cure, 94 
 Madder, to Cultivate, 45 
 
 Red. 319 
 
 Use of, 46 
 
 Mad-dog, Bite of, 145 
 Madeira Wine, 289 
 Magnesia, Citrate of, 175 
 Mahogany, to Take Stains out of, 315 
 Male Fern, Remedy for Worms, 159 
 Mallenders, 108 
 Malt, 252, 253 
 
 Poultice, 155 
 Manganese Ore, to Assay, 365 
 
 Test for, 433 
 
 Mange, 108, 111, 114, 115, 449 
 Manheim Gold, 373 
 Manure, 10, 18,22-26 
 
 Bone, 25 
 
 for a Garden, 60 
 
 Liquid, 25 
 
 Mineral, 11 
 
 Organic, 11 
 
 Plaster, 25 
 
 Solid, 10 
 
 Spreading of- 19, 20 
 Manuscripts, to Renovate, 359 
 Maple Sugar, 52 
 Maraschino Cordial, 289 
 Marble, to Clean, 314 
 
 Cements for, etc., 355 
 Marine Glue, 354 
 Marking Inks, 359 
 
 to take out, 314 
 
 Proof, 452 
 Marl, 22, 23 
 Marmalade, 232, 235 
 Mastic, 352 
 Matches, 384 
 Matting, Gold, 378 
 Mayonnaise, 210 
 
 Sauce, 215 
 Mead, 258 
 
 Meadows, to Water, 51 
 Mealy-bug, 90 
 Measles, 138 
 MEASURES, 427 
 Measuring-glasses, 188, 241 
 
 of Boards, 429 
 
 of Stonework, 429 
 Meats, to Cook, 188, 190 
 
 to Preserve without Ice, 458 
 
 Salt to Freshen, 463 
 
 Qualities of, 248, 249 
 Medals, to Copy, 375 
 
 to Bronse, 376 
 MEDICINE, 122 
 Medicines, Domestic, 173 
 Medlars, to Preserve, 87 ; Meerschaum 166 
 Melons, irregular Growth of, to Prevent, 79 
 Menses, the, 166, 167, 173 
 MENSURATION, 428 
 Mercurial Ointment, 174 
 
 Ores, 366 
 Mercury, Poisoning by, 152 
 
 to Purify, 439, 440 
 
 Test for, 433 
 
 to Protect Gildera from Effects of, 185 
 
 Meringues, 227 
 METALLURGY, 362 
 Metallic Injection, 370 
 Metals, Voltaic, Protection of, 376 
 
 to Clean all sorts of, 311 
 Mezzotint, 421 
 Mildew, 29 
 
 to Remove, 314, 437 
 
 on Fruit Trees, 77 
 Milk, Qualities of, 249; Watered, to detect, 463 
 
 and Cream, Substitutes for, 96 
 
 to free from Turnip Flavor, 98 
 
 of Roses, 306 
 
 Fever, 168 
 
 Punch, 200 
 
 to Preserve, 458, 469 
 Mince Meat, 221, 
 
 Pies, 198 
 
 MINERAL WATERS, 300 
 Mint. Oil of, 291 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS, 446 
 Mock Turtle, 218, 231, 232 
 Moiree Metallique, 370 
 Molybdate of Ammonia, 318 
 Mont d'Or Water, 300 
 Monthly Sickness, 166 
 Montpellier Yellow, 334 
 Morocco, 388, 390 
 Mordants, 315, 346 
 Mortars, 352, 353 
 Mortification, 153 
 Mosaic Gold, 368, 393 
 
 to make, 393 
 Moss, as Manure, 21, 22, 25 
 
 Land to Improve, 23 
 
 on Trves, to Destroy, 76 
 Moths, to Drive away, 450 
 Mother of Pearl, to Imitate, 352 
 Mouth Wash, 307 
 MUCILAGINOUS OR FIXED OILS, 301 
 Muffins, 201 
 
 Mulberry Tree, to Cultivate, 59 
 Munro's Cough Mixture, 159 
 Muntz Metal, 371 
 Murexide, 318 
 Muriatic Acid, 298 
 
 Mussels and Periwinkles as food, 250 
 Mushrooms, 79, 196 
 
 Catsup, 214 
 Mush, 197 
 Musk Mixture, 124 
 Mustard, to Cultivate, 94 
 Musical Instruments, to Stain, 326 
 Mutton, Qualities of, 248 
 
 Broth, 194 
 
 Cutlets, 207 
 
 Leg of, 206 
 
 Shoulder of, 204 
 
 to Choose, 248 
 . & TAnglaise, 206 
 Myrtle Water, 294 
 
 Napoleon's Pectoral Pills, 159 
 Naples Water, 300 
 Yellow, 334 
 Nature Printing, 425 
 Neat's-foot Oil, 501 
 Nectar, 202 
 Nettle-rash, 139 
 Neuralgia, 137, 162 
 Neutral Spirit, 287 
 Nickel Ore, to Assay, 366 
 Nightmare, 161 
 Nipples, Sore, 168 ' 
 Nitrous Oxide, 433 
 Noodles, 193 
 Nose, bleeding of, 125 
 
488 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Nose, Injuries of, 145 
 Noxious Vapors, 184, 436 
 Noyeau, 286 
 Nutmegs, Oil of, 291 
 Nut Oil, 301 
 
 Oak, to Dye, 326 
 Oaks, to Raise, 52 
 Oats, 32, 466 
 
 Qualities of, 250 
 Oatmeal Gruel, 196 
 
 Odors, Unpleasant, to Remove, 185, 435 
 Oil and Water Colors (see COLORS), 332 
 
 Artificial, of Quince, 288 
 Wine, 288 
 Apple, 278 
 Jargonelle Pear, 288 
 Bitter Almonds, 291 
 Geranium, 291 
 
 Macassar, 306 
 OILS, ESSENTIAL, ETC., 289 
 
 Adulterations of, 292 
 
 Siccitive, 331, 340 
 
 Furniture, to make, 350 
 
 Fixed, 301 
 
 of Sweet Almonds, 301 
 
 Beech-nut, 301 
 
 Brick, 303 
 
 Hazel-nut, 301 
 
 Mace, 301 
 
 Olives, Salad, or Sweet, 301 
 
 Castor, 301 
 
 to Purify, 303 
 Mixture, 129 
 
 Croton, 301 
 
 Rape, 301 
 
 to Purify, 301 
 
 Vegetable, to Purify, 301 
 
 Watchmaker's, 303 
 
 Coal, to Clarify, 302 
 to Test, 451, 
 
 Drying, 331, 340 
 
 Pumpkin, to make, 301 
 
 Animal, and Fat, etc., 301 
 
 Hog's Lard, 302 
 
 to Purify and Bleach, 302 
 
 Spermaceti, to Refine, 302 
 
 Trotter, or Neat's-foot, 302 
 
 Greenland Whale and Seal, to Refine, 302 
 
 to Extract from Stone or Marble, 314 
 
 out of Boards, 438 
 
 Fish, to Purify, and Apply the Refuse to 
 Useful Purposes, 302 
 
 to Prevent becoming Rancid, 303, 466 
 
 for making Hard Soap, to prepare, 302 
 Ointments, 174 
 Olio Broth, to make, 205 
 Omelette, 212 
 
 Souffle", 237 
 
 Onions, to Cultivate, 81 
 Opodeldoc, 173 
 Opium, Poisoning by, 152 
 Optical Glasses, to Polish, 402 
 Oreide, a New Brass, 371 
 OTetf to Assay, 363 
 
 and Earths containing Gold, 367 
 Ormolu, or Mosaic Gold, 368 
 Orange Cordial, to make, 286 
 
 Marmalade, 232 
 
 Flower Water, 294 
 Drops, 234 
 Paste for Hands, 308 
 
 to Candy, 233, 235 
 Orchards, to Manage, 69, 70 
 Orfila's Hair Dye, 305 
 Osborn's Photographic Process, 418 
 Otto of Roses, 464 
 
 Oxygen, 433 
 
 Oxymel of Squills, 177 
 
 Oysters, to Fry, 191 
 
 to Choose, 248 
 
 Corn and, 219 
 
 Pan, 191 
 
 Pickle, 191 
 
 Roast, 191 
 
 Scollop, 191 
 
 Spice, 191 
 
 to Stew, 191 
 
 and Cockles, Qualities of, 249 
 Ozone, Tests for, 299 
 
 Paint, Cheap, for Outside Work, 465 
 Painter's Cream, to make, 343 
 
 Colic, 131 
 PAINTING, 327, 465 
 
 on Glass, etc., 406 
 
 Paintings, to Clean and Restore, 339 
 Paints, 327, 465 
 
 Old, Solvents for, 339 
 
 Flexible, 347 
 
 for Coarse Wood-work, 347 
 Palpitation, 127 
 Palsy, 136 
 Panada, 177, 219 
 Pancakes, 199 
 Paper, to Gild the Edges of, 377 
 
 Fire-proof, 437 
 
 to Remove Spots of Grease from, 314 
 
 Hangings, to Clean, 314 
 
 Water-Proof, 356 
 
 Parchment, 436 
 
 for Draughtsmen, 436 
 
 Tracing, 425 
 Papier-Mache, 350 
 Parchment, Old, to Convert into Leather, 390 
 
 to make, 389 
 
 to Dye, various Colors, 326 
 
 Paper, 436 
 Paregoric, 158 
 Parsley, Qualities of, 250 
 
 Parsnips, Mode of Cultivating in Guernsey, 40, 250 
 Parting. Process of, 367 
 Passy Water, 300 
 Paste, Liquid, to make, 355 
 
 Brioche, 225 
 
 Chinese, to make, 356 
 
 for Artificial Gems, 403 
 
 Ward's, for the Piles, 157 
 
 Furniture, 349 
 
 Orgeat, 237 
 
 Puff, 198, 230 
 
 Raspberry, 237 
 
 Short, 230 
 
 for Tarts, etc., 198 
 Pastils, 307 
 
 PASTRY, ETC., Qualities of, 250 
 Patchouli, Oil of, 291 
 Pate de Guimauve, 238 
 
 de Jujube, 238 
 Pattinson's Process, 368 
 Paunching in Cattle, 116 
 Peach, Culture of, 68, 77 
 
 Brandy, 283, 289 
 Peaches, Brandy, 232 
 Pearlash, to Purify, 402 
 
 Powder for the Face, 337 
 Pearly Lustre, to Produce, 352 
 Pears, Culture of, 68 
 Peas, to Raise, 34, 80 
 
 to Keep from Mice, 80 
 
 to Boil, 195, 220 
 
 to Steam, 220 
 
 Qualities of, 250 
 
 and Bacon, to Cook, 191 
 
INDEX. 
 
 489 
 
 Peat, as Manure, 24 
 
 Peats, 95 
 
 Pectoral Lozenges, 176 
 
 Pelisses, to Scour, 312 
 
 Pencil Drawings and Writings, to Preserve, 250 
 
 Pennyroyal, Oil of, to Obtain, 291 
 
 Peppermint, Spirit, 296 
 
 Water, Simple, to make, 293 
 
 Oil of, to Procure, 291 
 
 Water, to Prepare, 293 
 Pepperpot, 193 
 Perennials, 89 
 PERFUMERY, 303 
 Perry, to make, 264 
 Peruvian Bark, Tincture of, 175 
 PETROLEUM, 451 
 
 Pewter, 369 ; Pharaoh's Serpent's Eggs, 464 
 Pheasants, to Breed, 92 
 
 Roast, 210 
 
 Phial, Bologna, to make, 403 
 Philicomes, 306 
 Philip's Rules for Health, 183 
 Philosophical Instruments, Lacker for, 346 
 Phosphorus, to Preserve, 433 
 
 Poisoning by, 153 
 Photogalvanography, 419 
 Photographs, to Engrave from, 418 
 
 on Porcelain, 415 
 PHOTOGRAPHY, 409 
 
 Failures and Imperfections, 417 
 Photolithography, 417 
 Photozincography, 418 
 Piccalilli, 238 
 PICKLING, 238 
 
 Artificial Anchovies, 239 ' 
 
 Cucumbers, 239 
 
 in Brine, 239 
 
 Mushrooms, 238 
 
 Onions, 238 
 
 Piccalilli, 238 
 
 Salmon, 239 
 
 Samphire, 238 
 
 Sour-krout, 238 
 
 Seed-wheat, 28 
 
 to Detect Copper in, 433 
 
 Walnuts, White, 239 
 Pictures, to Clean, 339 
 
 to Restore, 339 
 
 to Preserve, 339 
 
 Ancient, to Restore the White of, 339 
 
 on Wax, 339 
 Pies, Beefsteak and Oyster, 211 
 
 Chicken, 2ll, 212 
 
 Crust, 198 
 
 Giblet, 210 
 
 Mince, 198 
 
 Oyster, 231 
 
 Perigord, 211 
 
 Pigeon, 210 
 
 Rabbit, 211 
 
 Raised, French, 211 
 
 Raised Ham, 211 
 
 Raised Pork, 211 
 
 Rhubarb, 199 
 
 Rumpsteak, 211 
 Pig, Age of, 121 
 
 Roasted, 206 
 Pigeon, a la Gauthier 209 
 
 to Catch, 462 
 
 Boiled, 210 
 
 Roasted, 210 
 
 Pie, 210 
 
 Pilchards, to Cure, 94 
 Piles, 142, 157, 158, 162, 167 
 
 Ointments for, 142 
 
 Ward's Paste for, 15V 
 
 Electuary for, 158 
 
 Pills, Aperient, 160, 161 
 
 Chalybeate, 166 
 
 Compound Aloetic, 158, 173 
 
 Aloetic and Myrrh, 173 
 
 Assafoetida, 173 
 
 Plummer's, 173 
 
 Compound Colocynth, 158 
 
 Aloetic, 158, 173 
 
 Compound Rhubarb, 158 
 
 Expectorant, 159 
 
 Napoleon's Pectoral, 159 
 
 Anti-hysteric, 173 
 Pimento, Oil of, to Procure, 291 
 Pinchbeck, 371 
 Pineapple Rum, 289 
 
 Jelly, 237 
 
 to Raise, 71, 72 
 Pinery, to Manage a, 71, 72 
 Pink Saucers, 335 
 Pinks, 89 
 
 Pipings, a Mode of Cultivating Plants by Cut- 
 ting, 65 
 Pippins, 75 
 
 Pismires, in Grass, to Prevent, 38 
 PISCICULTURE, 445 
 Pistachio, Cream, 235 
 Pitch Plaster, 174 
 
 Plague, to Disinfect Substances of the, 164 
 Plant, to, Shrubs and Trees, 66, 68 
 Plants, to Accelerate, in Hot-houses, 67 
 
 to Choose, 69 
 
 Insects on, to Destroy, 38, 39, 71, 72. 76. 79, 
 83, 84, 90, 449 
 
 to Preserve from Frosts, 75 
 
 to Preserve from Slugs, 450 
 Plaster, of Spanish Flies, 174 
 
 Compound Burgundy Pitch, 174 
 Labdanum, 174 
 
 Adhesive, 175 
 
 Court, 358 
 
 for Rooms, 352 
 
 of Paris, as manure, 25 
 Plate, to. Looking-glasses, 370 
 
 to Clean, 313, 466 
 
 Plated Copper, from, to Obtain Silver, 379 
 Platina, Mock, to Prepare, 371 
 PLATING, 375 
 
 Electro, 376 
 
 Silver Solder for, 369 
 Pleurisy, 127 
 
 Plumbers, Painters, and Glaziers, Cautions to, 164 
 Plums, Culture of, 62 
 
 Pickled, 231 
 Poisoned Wounds, 145 
 
 Bibron's Antidote for, 450 
 Poisonous Fish, 153 
 POISONS, 151-153 
 
 from Acids, 151 
 
 Alkalies, 152 
 
 Arsenic, 152 
 
 Antimony, 152 
 
 Copper, 152 
 
 Hemlock, 153 
 
 Laudanum, 152 
 
 Lead, 152 
 
 Lunar Caustic, 152 
 
 Mercury, 152 
 
 Nightshade, 153 
 
 Opium, 152 
 
 Phosphorus, 152 
 
 Powdered Glass, 152 
 
 Sal Ammoniac, 152 
 
 Saltpetre, 152 
 
 Salts of Tin, 152 
 
 Salts of Bismuth, Gold, and Zinc, 153 
 
 Spanish Flies, 152 
 
 Spurred Rye, 153 
 
490 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Poisons, Toadstools, 153 
 
 Tobacco, 153 
 Polish, to, Varnish, 352 
 
 French, 344 
 
 Varnished Furniture, 349 
 
 Wood, 349 
 
 Brass Ornaments Inlaid in Wood, 349 
 ?oll Evil, 109 
 
 Polygraph, an Instrument for Writing Two Let- 
 ters at Once, 459 
 Polypus, 135 
 Pomatum, 306 
 Pomade, Divine, 306 
 
 Dupuytren, 305 
 
 a la Rose, 306 
 
 of Bitter Almonds, 306 
 
 Stick, 306 
 Pone, 197, 232 
 Porcelain, to Manufacture, 394 
 
 to Gild, 376 
 
 Enamel for, 391 
 
 New Enamel for, 391 
 
 to Paint on, 406 
 
 Photographs on, 415 
 Pork, Qualities of, 249 
 
 Pies, 211 
 
 to Salt, 239 
 
 Choice of, 242, 248 
 
 Cutlets, 208 
 Port Wine, 289 
 Portable Lemonade, 300 
 Porter, to Brew, London System, 254 
 
 Three Barrels of, 254 
 
 from Sugar and Malt, 255 
 
 to make a Butt of Stout, 260 
 
 to Bottle, 262 
 
 to Ripen, if Flat, when Bottled, 263 
 Portland Cement, 352 
 
 Powder for the Gout, 460 
 Portugal Water, to Prepare, 294 
 Posset, Ale, 200 
 Potatoes, Culture of, 34, 36, 79, 466 
 
 a la Creme, 220 
 
 a la Maitre d'HStel, 219 
 
 and Greens, 195 
 
 Balls, 195 
 
 Bread from, to make, 
 
 Boiled, 195 
 
 Cold, Fried, 195 
 
 Early, to Produce, in Great Quantity, 36 
 
 Escaloped, 195 
 
 Fourteen Ways of Dressing, 195 
 
 Fried in Slices, 195 
 Mashed, 195 
 with Onions, 195 
 Whole, 195 
 
 Frosted, to Use, 36, 196 
 
 to make Starch of, 36 
 
 Irish Method of Cultivating, 36 
 
 Mode of Taking up and Stirring the Crop, 
 36 
 
 Mashed, 195 
 
 Pie, 195 
 
 Qualities of, 250 
 
 Quantity of Seed for, 34 
 
 Roasted, 195 
 
 Snow, 195 
 
 for Sea Provisions, to Keep, 196 
 
 to Boil, Mealy, 195 
 
 to Cultivate, 34 
 
 to Extract Alcohol from, 283 
 
 to Grow Constantly on the Same Piece of 
 Ground, 36 
 
 to Prepare the Ground for, 34 
 
 to Preserve from Frost, 35 
 
 to Preserve, 36 
 
 to Raise, Advantageous Method, 35 
 
 Potatoes, to Remove Frost frcm, 35 
 
 to Steam, 196 
 Potichomania, 458 
 Pot-pie, 196 
 Potted Beef, 190 
 
 Lobster, 190 
 
 Shad, 190 
 POTTERY, 394 
 
 English Stoneware, to Manufacture, 394 
 
 Yellow, or Queensware, 394 
 Poultices, Various, 154 
 Poultry, to fatten, etc., 92. 94 
 Poundcake, Plain, 200 
 
 Gingerbread, 200 
 Powders, Seidletz, 178 
 
 Portland, 460 
 
 Dover, 173 
 
 Alvotic, with Iron, 173 
 
 for Gilding, 378 
 
 Ginger Beer, 433 
 
 Toilet, 306 
 Pox, 133 
 
 Pradier's Cataplasm for Gout, 460 
 Precious Stones, to Imitate, 374, 403 
 
 to Engrave on, 423 
 Pregnancy, Diseases of, 167 
 Prescriptions, Various, 154 
 PRESERVING, 239 
 Pretsch's Process, 419 
 Prince Ruperts' Drops, 403 
 Princes' Metal, 371 
 Printing, Photographic, 413 
 
 Ink, 360 
 
 Nature, 425 
 Prints, to Bleach, 310 
 
 to Wash without Fading, 313 
 
 to make, Resemble Paintings, 347 
 Privies, to Deodorize, 164 
 Proof Marking, 452 
 Provisions, Salt, to Freshen, 463 
 Prussian-Blue, to make, 330, 337 
 Soluble, 337, 380 
 to Dye, 317 
 'to Paint, 33C 
 Psoas Abscess, 142 
 Pudding, Apple, 223, 229 
 
 Baked Apple, 229 
 Indian, 229 
 
 Batter, 198 
 
 Beefsteak and Oyster, 212 
 
 Biddle, 230 
 
 Boiled, 199 
 
 Bread, 198, 223 
 
 Brown-bread, 223 
 
 Carrot, 197 
 
 Cheshire, 197 
 
 Citron, 229 
 
 Cocoanut, 222, 229 
 
 Cottage, 222 
 
 Cream, 229 
 
 Currant, 232 
 
 Custard, 199, 222, 229 
 
 Dutch, 197 
 
 Eve's, 222 
 
 Friend Wilson's Plum, 230 
 
 Hominy, 229 
 
 Indian, 199, 229 
 
 Kidney, 212 
 
 Kitchener's 196 
 
 Lemon, 198, 222, 223 
 
 Goodfellow's, 222 
 
 Meringue, 198, 230 
 
 Newcastle, 198 
 
 Newmarket, 1J3 
 
 Nottingham, 197 
 
 Oldbury, 198 
 
 Orange ; 229 
 
INDEX. 
 
 491 
 
 Pudding, Patterdale, 222 
 
 Plain, 197 
 
 Rice, 197, 229 
 
 Plum, 223 
 
 Potato, 197, 229 
 
 Potato Rice, 197 
 
 Pumpkin, 199 
 
 Queen's, 222 
 
 Quince, 198 
 
 Rice, 197, 229 
 
 Sago, 229, 
 
 Suet, 199 
 
 Sweet Potato, 229 
 
 Swiss, 197 
 
 Tapioca, 223, 232 
 
 Transparent, 197 
 
 Vermicelli, 198 
 
 Wedding Cake, 222 
 
 Wedding, 229 
 
 Windsor, 197 
 
 White Potato, 222 
 
 Yorkshire, 197 
 Puerperal Fever, 168 
 Puff Paste, 198, 230 
 Pullna Water, 299 
 Pulse, the, 122 
 
 Pumps, Temporary, at Sea, 182 
 Punch, 202 
 
 Milk, 200, 202 
 
 Claret, 231 
 
 Fish-House, 458 
 
 Paris a la Nina, 231 
 Purgatives, 158, 175 
 Purification of Water by Charcoal, 178 
 Purple of Cassius, 408 
 Putrid Sore Throat, 126 
 Putty, Old, to Soften, 339 
 Pyrmont Water, 300 
 Pyroligneous Acid, 298 
 PYROTECHNY, 384 
 
 Quass, to make, 298 
 
 Queen's Metal, 368 
 
 Quince, Marmalade, to make, 235 . 
 
 to Keep, 87 
 Quinine Mixture, 124 
 Quittor, 109 
 
 Rabbit Pie, 209 
 
 Rabbits, a la Bourguingnonne, 209 
 Radishes at all seasons, 82 
 Ragout of Aspara,gus, to make, 213 
 
 Mushrooms, to make, 213 
 
 Artichokes, to make, 213 
 
 Calves' Sweet-bread, to make, 214 
 
 with Roots, to make, 214 
 Raisin Spirits, 283 
 Raspberry, to Cultivate, 69 
 
 Brandy, 287 
 
 Cream, to make, 236 
 
 Dumplings, 198 
 
 Jam, to make, 237 
 
 Paste, to make, 237 
 
 Vinegar, 237 
 Ratafia, 284, 285, 286 
 Rattlesnake Bites, 145 
 
 Bibron's Antidote for, 450 
 Razors, to Hone, Strop, etc., 461 
 
 Paste for Sharpening, 461 
 Reading Proof, 453 
 Reapers, 17, 470 
 Reaping Unripe Grain, 31 
 Reboulet's Antiseptic Fluid, 435 
 Red Spider, 83, 90 
 Refrigerant Lotion, 154 
 
 Mixtures, 123 
 Retention of Urine, 132 
 
 Rheumatism, 135 
 
 Medicine for, 177 - 
 
 Pills, etc., for, 162 
 
 Portland Powders for. 40 
 Rhodium, Oil of, 291 
 Rhubarb, to Cultivate, 80 
 
 Pills, 158 
 
 Tincture of, 175 
 Rice Cups, 223 
 
 Diavolini, 223 
 
 Flummery, 223 
 
 Fritters, 223 
 
 Pudding, 197, 229 
 Rickets, 172 
 
 Ridgwood's Disinfectant, 164 
 RIDING, 463 
 Riga Balsam, 291 
 RINDERPEST, 467; Ringbone, 109 
 Ringworm, 139, 156, 172 
 Roach Poison, 450 
 Roads, to make, 454 
 Rockets, 385 
 Rollers, for Land, 16 
 Rolls, French, 228 
 Roman Cement, 352 
 
 Candles, 385 
 
 Roofing, Composition for, 353 
 Rooms, Cement for, 352 
 Root Beer, 257 
 
 Roots, to Preserve and Pack, 70, 85 
 Rosemary, Oil of, 291 
 Rosendale Cement, 352 
 
 Water of, 293 
 Roses, 88 
 
 Butter of 291 
 
 Milk of, 306 
 
 Otto of, 464 
 
 Rot, Dry, 352, 432, 438 
 Rotation of Crops, 26 
 Rouge, 335 
 
 Jeweller's, 397 
 ROWING, THK ART OF, 453 
 Rue, Oil of, 291 
 Rugs, t<> Scour, 312 
 Rum, Jamaica, 281 
 
 to Imitate, 288 
 
 from Molasses, 282 
 
 Shrub, 285 
 
 Ether, 288 
 Ruperts' Drops, 403 
 Ruptures, 140 
 
 in the Hog, 117 
 
 Horse, 115 
 
 RURAL AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY, 90 
 Rusks, 201, 202, 226 
 Russell's Tannin Process, 414 
 Russia Leather, 388 
 Rust, to Prevent, 30, 351, 438 
 
 in Kettles, 464 
 Rutabaga Turnips, 38 
 Rye, 33, 466 
 
 Sachets, Toilet, 307 
 Safety-matches, 3S6 
 Saffron, Bastard, 324 
 Sail-cloth, Water- proof, 347 
 Salads, 220, 221, 231 
 Sallenders, 109 
 Sally Lunn, 202 
 Salmis of Wild Duck, 209 
 Salmon, to Pickle, 239 
 
 Curry, 210 
 Salt, Spirit of, 298 
 Salt Meat, to Freshen, 463 
 Salting of Meats, 239 
 Salutary Cautions, 178-180 
 I Samphire, to Pickle, 238 
 
492 
 
 Sand pot, Portable, 298 
 
 Crack, 109 
 
 Impressions in, to Preserve, 437 
 Sandwiches, 220 
 Sanfoin, 39 
 Barsaparilla, 177 
 
 Beer, 258 
 
 Sarsenets, to Clean, 31C 
 Sassafras, Oil of, 292 
 Satins, to Gild, 377 
 Sauce, Apple, 194 
 
 Be.ihamel, 213 
 
 Boar's Head, 215 
 
 Brown, 194 
 
 Brown Oyster, 214 
 
 Caper, 215 
 
 Cherry, 215 
 
 Common, 194 
 
 Cream, for a Hare, 1 94 
 
 Cream, Bechamel, 214 
 
 Currant-jelly, 215 
 
 Curry, 215 
 
 Damson, 231 
 
 Fish, 194 
 
 for Veal, 213 
 
 Fried Bread, 215 
 
 German Sweet, 214 
 
 Indian Curry, 214 
 
 Italienne, 213 
 
 Kitchener's Superlative, 213 
 
 Mayonnaise, 215 
 
 Miser's, 194 
 
 Nivernoise, 194 
 
 Nonpareil, 194 ' 
 
 Nun's, 213 
 
 Parson's, 194 
 
 Piquante, 213 
 
 Plain Curry, 215 
 
 Poivrade, 214 
 
 Pontiff's, 213 
 
 Poor Man's, 214 
 
 Queen's, 194 
 
 Sailor's, 194 
 
 Sweet, 194 
 
 Wine, 214 
 Sausages, 190 
 Saxon or Chemic Blue, 316 
 
 Artificial, 333 
 
 Sayce's Photographic Process, 416 
 Scald Head, 139, 156, 172 
 Scalds, 153 
 Scale on Plants, 90 
 
 Boiler, 433 
 
 Scalp, Wounds of, 145 
 Scarlet-fever, 137 
 Schnapps, to Imitate, 288 
 Sciatica, 162 
 Scions, to Choose, 65 
 Scirrhus, 135 
 Scorbutic Eruptions, 154 
 SCOURING, 312 
 Sarapple, 191 
 Scrofula, 135 
 Scurvy, 140 
 
 Grass, Spirit of 
 Sea Bathing, Substitute for, 153 
 
 Kail, to Cultivate, 82 
 
 Voyages, 178 
 
 Water, to Render Fit for Washing, 180 
 to Drink, 180 
 
 Weed as Manure, 23 
 Sealing-wax, 357 
 Seamen, 178 
 
 Health of, to Preserve, 180 
 Seatworms, 160 
 Sedative Lotion, 154 
 
 Cataplasm, 154 
 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Seeds, to Sow, 66, 466 
 
 Farm, Estimate, per Acre, 468 
 
 to Preserve, 84 
 
 to Improve All Sorts of, 3t 
 Seed-wheat, to Pickle, 28 
 Seidlitz Powders, to Prepare, 178 
 
 Water, 300 
 Seltzer-water, 300 
 Senna, as a Laxative, 158 
 Serpents, Bites of, 145 
 Shad, to Pot, 190 
 
 to Choose, 248 
 Shampoo Liquor, 305 
 Shawls, Silk, to Dye, 321 
 Sheep, Foot-rot in, 117 
 
 Age of, 121 
 
 Maggots in, 117 
 
 Scab in, 117, 118 
 
 Skins, to Prepare, 387, 389 
 
 to Prevent Cntching Cold after Shearing,117 
 
 Water in the Heads of, to Cure, 118, 119 
 Sheeps' Tongues, 204 
 Shellac, to Bleach, 300 
 Sherry Wine, 289 
 Shield-budding, 63 
 Ships, Health on Board of, to Preserve, 178, 180 
 
 Hints on board, 180 
 
 to Fumigate, 179 
 
 to Render Sinking Impossible, 182 
 Shipwrecks, Preservation in case of, 182 
 Shoes, to Render Water-proof, 348 
 Shot Metal, 369 
 Shower-bath, 183 
 Shrubbery, 88 
 Shrubs, Brandy, to make, 285 
 
 Rum and Currant, 285 
 
 to Plant, 66 
 Sick Rooms, 164 
 Sight, Weak, Remedy for, 157 
 
 Dimness of, 125 
 Silica, Soluble, 434 
 Silk, to Gild, 377 
 
 to Clean, 311 
 
 to Extract Grease-spots from, 312 
 Silks, to Clean, 312 
 
 to Bleach, 310 
 
 to Dye, 317 
 
 to Varnish, 348 
 
 Varnish for, 343 
 SILKWORMS, 53-59 
 
 Ailanthus, 59 
 Silver, Test for, 432 
 
 Imitation of, 372 
 
 Plate, to take Stains out of, 314 
 
 Plate, 379 
 
 Plating, 375 
 
 Solder, 369 
 
 Solutions, 375 
 
 Tree, to Prepare the, 381 
 
 to Clean, 456, 466 
 
 to Recover, from Baths, 375, 417 
 
 Plate, 380 
 Silvering Glass Globes, Liquid Foil for, 370 
 
 Copper Ingots, 379 
 
 Electro, 376 
 
 Glass, 370 
 
 Powders, 379 
 
 Similor, or Manheim Gold, 373 
 Sitfasts, 109 
 
 Size, Isinglass, to make, 355 
 Skin, Eruptions, 156, 171 
 Small-beer, to Brew, 256 
 Small-pox, 139 
 
 Vaccination, 138 
 Smee's Battery, 375 
 Smoky Chimneys, to Cure, 455 
 Smut, 30, 31 
 
INDEX. 
 
 493 
 
 Snail -water, Small, to make, 294 
 Snake-bites, 450 
 
 Bibron's Antidote for, 450 
 Soap-liniment, 173 
 SOAPS, 308 
 
 Soapstone as a lubricator, 438 
 Soda-water, to Prepare, 433 
 Soil for a Garden, 60 
 
 for Window-gardening, 90 
 Soiling, 21 
 
 Soils, Constituents of, 12-14 
 Solid Measurement, 428 
 Solder, 369, 372 
 
 Brass, for Iron, 372 
 
 for Steel Joints, 372 
 
 Gold, 369 
 
 Hard, 369 
 
 Soft, 369 
 
 Silver for Jewellers, 369 
 Soleil, Coup de, 136 
 Soluble Silica, 434 
 Sore Legs, 155 
 
 Nipples, 168 
 
 Throat, 159 
 Sores, Dressing for, 460 
 
 Clay as a Dressing for, 460 
 Sorghum, 29, 466 
 SOUP, Asparagus, 192 
 
 Beef-gravy, 192 
 
 Charitable, 192 
 
 Cheap, 193 
 
 Chicken, 193 
 
 Chicken, without Chicken, 231 
 
 Clam, 193 
 
 Corn, 193 
 
 Dr. Green's Bean, 231 
 
 for Convalescents, 178 
 
 Giblet, 192 
 
 Herring, 193 
 
 Hodge-podge, 215, 217 
 
 Julienne, 217 
 
 Lctuce and Pea, 217 
 
 Liebig's, 216, 461 
 
 Maigre, 192 
 
 Muck-turtle, 218 
 
 Mullaga-tawny, 215 
 
 Noodle, 193 
 
 Nutritious, 193 
 
 Ox-cheek, 219 
 
 Ox-tail, 219 
 
 Oyster, 193 
 
 Pea, 193 
 
 Pepperpot, 193 
 
 Portable, 192 
 
 Rice and Meat, 192 
 
 Scotch Broth, 193 
 
 Spring, 217 
 
 Turtle, 217 
 
 Veal-gravy, 192 
 
 Vegetable. 193 
 
 Vermicelli and Vegetable, 216 
 
 White, 216 
 
 Winter, 215 
 Sour-krout, 238 
 Soy, Tomato, 230 
 Sozodont, 307 
 
 Spanish Flies, Ointment of, 174 
 Spavin, 106 
 
 Spearmint-water, Simple, 294 
 SPECIFIC GRAVITY, 429 
 Spectacles, Use of, 186 
 Specula, for Telescopes, 371 
 Spermaceti, to Refine, 362 
 Spinach, 219, 250 
 Spine, Crooked, 172 
 Spirits, to Distil, from Carrots, 282 
 
 to Dulcify, 280 
 
 Spirits, to Fine, 283 
 
 of Nutmeg, 176 
 
 of Salt, or Marino Acid, 298 
 
 of Wine, to make, 280 
 
 Foreign, to Imitate, 287 
 
 Proof, 283 
 
 Spleen, Enlarged, 129 
 Sponge, to Bleach, 437 
 Sportsman's Beef, 449 
 Sprains, 143, 154 
 
 Spruce-beer, Brown and White, 257 
 Squills, Oxymel of, 177 
 
 Syrup of, 176 
 
 Vinegar of, 177 
 Staggers, 109 
 Staining Wood, etc., 325 
 St. Anthony's Fire, 138 
 Stapleton's Antiseptic Fluid, 435 
 Starch, 457 
 
 from Frosted Potatoes, 37 
 Starvation, Effects of, 463 
 Statues, Ancient, Composition of, 371 
 Steak a la Soyer, 206 
 
 Francaise, 207 
 
 Plain Rump, 207 
 Steel,, 382 
 
 Bessemer Process for, 383 
 
 Goods, to Preserve, 351 
 
 Improved Mode of Hardening, 382 
 
 Tungsten, 372 
 
 to Color Blue, 382 
 
 to Distinguish from Iron, 382 
 
 to Engrave on, 420 
 
 to Gild, 376 
 
 Uchatius, 383 * 
 
 Varnish for, 464 
 Steinbuhl Yellow, 334 
 Stereoscopic Pictures, 411 
 Stereotype Plates, 369 
 Stereotyping, Rapid, 425 
 Stews. 191 
 Still, Hot, to make a, 279 
 
 Large, to make a, 279 
 
 New Worm for, 279 
 
 for Simple Waters, 293 
 Stings and Bites, 145 
 Stockings, Silk, to Clean, 312 
 
 to Dye, 321 
 Stomach, Inflamed, 128 
 
 Cramp in, 128 
 Stomachic Pills, 160 
 Stone in the Bladder, 132 
 
 Artificial, 439 
 Stoneware, 394 
 
 Stonework, Measurement of, 430 
 Stoppers, Chemical, to Prevent Sticking, 434 
 
 to Loosen, 434 
 
 Stoves, Cracks in, to Mend, 353 
 Cement for, 458 
 Strangury, 133 
 
 in the Horse, 109 
 Strangles, 109 
 
 Straw Hats to Clean, 313, 315 
 to Dye, 321 
 
 Importance of, 46, 49 
 Strawberry Water, 294 
 
 Jelly, to make, 236 
 
 Jam, 237 
 
 to Cultivate, 69, 82 
 
 Qualities of the, 248 
 
 to Preserve the, Whole, 240 
 Strictures, 133 
 Stucco, 354 
 St. Vitus' Dance, 137 
 Styes, 158 
 Suffocation, by Noxious Vapors, 151 
 
 by Hanging, 151 
 
494 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Suffocation, Drowning, 151 
 
 by Strangling, 153 
 Sugar, 232, 233, 234 
 
 Brown, to Clarify, 233 
 
 Candy, to make, 233 
 
 Cane, 52 
 
 to Obtain from Beets, 283 
 Birch, 233 
 Grapes, 233 
 Pears, 233 
 Starch, 233 
 
 to make Devices in, 234 
 
 Ornaments in, 234 
 Sulphur in Electrical Machines, 439 
 Sulphuretted Hydrogen, 433 
 Sulphurous Acid, 310, 433 
 Sunflower, the, 83 
 Sunstroke, 136 
 Suppuration, 154 
 Surface Measurement, 428 
 Sweetbreads, 206, 208 
 Swelling, White, 135 
 
 of the Feet, 167 
 Swimming, Art of, 183 
 Swine, Age of, 121 
 
 Cholera in, 117 
 
 to Fatten, 92 
 
 Kidney Worm in, 116 
 
 Measles, etc., in, 116, 117 
 
 Rupture in, 117 
 
 TRICHINAE, 469 ; Sore Throat in, 117 
 Syllabub, Whipped, to make, 234 
 
 Solid, to make, 234 
 Syphilis, 133. 
 Syrup of Ginger, 176 
 
 Poppies, 177 
 
 Squills, 177 
 
 Violets, 177 
 
 Table Beer, 257 
 
 Talmi Gold, 368 
 
 TANNING, AND THE TREATMENT OP LEATHER, 386 
 
 Tape Worm, 160 
 
 Tapioca, 196, 223, 232 
 
 Tar, Oil of, to Procure, 292 
 
 Water, to Prepare, 177 
 Tartar Emetic, Poisoning by, 152 
 Tarts, 198 
 
 Paste for, 198 
 
 Taupenot's Collodio Albumen Process, 415 
 Tea, Beef, to make, 178 
 
 Qualities of, 251 
 
 Trays, to Clean, 456 
 Teeth, Cutting the, 171 
 
 Cements for, 358 
 
 Diseases of the, Remedies for, 157 
 
 Extraction of, to Check Hemorrhage in, 157 
 
 Preservation of, 186 
 
 Remedies for, 157, 187 
 Telegraph, Electric, 451 
 Telescopes, Specula for, 371 
 Tendons, Wounds of, 146 
 Tepid Bath, 183 
 Terrapins, 210 
 Test Papers, 299 
 Testicle, Cancer of, 134 
 Tests, Chemical, 432 
 
 for Gold, Silver, and Copper, 432 
 
 Iron, Lead, Manganese, 433 
 
 Liquors, 299 
 
 Mercury, 433 
 Tetanus, 137 
 
 in the Horse, 115 
 Tetter, 139 
 Thermometers, 442 
 
 Thenard bleu de, 333 
 Thorn-hedges, 51 
 
 Threshing Machines, 17 
 Throat, Wounds in, 145 
 
 Foreign Bodies in. 153 
 
 Gargle for, 126, 159 
 
 Inflammatory, 126, 159 
 
 Putrid, 126, 159 
 
 Strictures in, 126 
 
 Ulcerated, 159 
 Thrush in Children, Remedies for, 159, 171 
 
 Gargles for, 159 
 
 in the Horse, 109, 114 
 Thunder, etc., 462 
 Thyme, Oil of, 292 
 Tic Douloureux, 137 
 Tiffanies, to Wash nnd Stain, 311 
 Tiles, Red Distemper for, 331 
 
 to Preserve, 348 
 Tillage, 14 
 Timber, to Preserve, 352, 438 
 
 to Prevent from Splitting, 438 
 
 to Detect Decay in, 438 
 
 Measure, 429 
 Timothy, 466 
 Tincture of Benzoin, 176 
 
 Catechu. 176 
 
 Ginger, 175 
 
 Guaiacum, 176 
 
 Japonica, to Prepare, 281 
 
 Peruvian Bark, 176 
 
 Rhubarb, 175 
 
 Senna, 175 
 
 of Tolu, 175 
 Tin Ores, to Assay, 364 
 
 to Ornament Surface of, 370 
 
 Tree, to Prepare the, 381 
 Tinning, 376 
 
 Brass and Copper, Rapid, 380, 433 
 
 Kustitien's Metal for, 372 
 Tobacco, 53 
 
 Poisoning by, 153 
 
 Pipes, 396 
 
 Toadstools, Poisoning by, 153 
 Toilet Powders, 306 
 Tomato Catsup, 194, 214, 230 
 
 to Bake, 196 
 
 to Broil, 196 
 
 Soy, 230 
 
 Tombac, to Prepare, 368, 369 
 Tonsils, Swollen, 126 
 Tongues, Sheeps', 204 
 
 Beef and Champagne, 205 
 Tonics, 160, 166 
 Toothache, 187 
 
 Powders and Pastes, 308 
 
 Cements, 358 
 
 Remedies for the, 187 
 Toovely's Photolithographic Process, 417 
 Tortoise Shell, to Weld, 356 
 Tourmaline, Artificial, 434 
 Tracing Paper, 425 
 Trees, to G raft, 64 ; to Force, 68 
 
 to Pack for Exportation, 88 
 
 to Plant, 66, 68 
 
 to Protect from Hares, 76 
 
 to Transplant, 67, 83 
 TRICHINA IN SWINE, 469 
 Tropical Climate, Cautions when in, 119 
 Tubes, Copper, by Electrotype, 376 
 Tumors, 140, 141 
 Tunisian Cement, 354 
 Turkeys, Qualities of, 249 
 
 Choice of, 242 
 
 Dropsy in the Crops of, 119 
 
 Roast, 207 
 Turmeric Paper, 299 
 Turner's Cerate, 174 
 Turnips, to Cultivate, 37, 466 
 
INDEX. 
 
 495 
 
 Turnips, Flavor of, in Butter, 96 
 
 Insects in, 38 
 
 Qualities of, 249 
 
 Ruta-baga, 38 
 
 to Remove Taste from Butter, 96 
 Turnsole, or Litmus Blue, for Dyeing, 324 
 Turpentine, Oil of, 292 
 Turtle, to Dress, 290, 230 
 
 to Dress Calf's Head like, 231 
 Tutania, or Britannia Metal, 372 
 Tutenag, to Prepare, 369 
 Twiggs' Hair Dye, 305 
 Twining's Ice Machine, 435 
 Tying Knot?, 446 
 Tympany, 133 
 Type Metal, 369 
 Typhoid Fever, 124 
 Typhus Fever, 124 
 
 Ulcers, 126, 142, 143, 154, 155 
 
 and Pimples on the Tongue, 154 
 Ultramarine, 332 
 
 Artificial, 333 
 Underdraining, 49 
 
 Unventilated Places, to Explore, 436 
 Urine, Incontinence of, 132, 168 
 
 Difficulty of, 132 
 
 Suppression of, 132 
 Usquebaugh, 285 
 Uvula, Enlarged, 126 
 
 Vaccination, 138 
 VARNISHES, 339, 464 
 
 to Polish, 352 
 Veal, Qualities of, 249 
 
 Breast, Glacee, 204 
 
 Cake, to make, 205 
 
 Cutlet, 206, 232 
 
 Ragout, 205 
 
 Savory, Dish of, to make, 204 
 
 Shoulder, en Galantine, 204 
 
 to Choose, 248 
 Vegetables, to Propagate; 62 
 
 Qualities of, 250 
 
 to make Tender, 459 
 
 to Preserve, 85 
 
 to Protect, 67 
 Veils, to Clean, 311 
 Veins, Enlarged, Spermatic, 134, 168 
 Vellum, to make, 390 
 
 Artificial, 436 
 
 to Stain, Green, 326 
 Veneers, to Print from, 425 
 Venereal Warts, 134 
 Venison Chops, 209 
 
 Pastry, 230 
 
 Scallops, 208 
 Ventilation, 163, 184 
 Verbenas, 89 
 Verbena, Extract of, 304 
 Verditer, 334 
 Vermin, 38, 39, 98 
 Vichy Water, 300 
 Vinegar, lo make, 296 
 
 Adulteration, 296 
 
 Aromatic, 164, 308 
 
 Ice or Glacial, 298 
 
 of Squills, 177 
 
 Quass, to make, 298 
 
 Raspberry, 237 
 
 Strength of, to Determine, 296 
 
 Tarragon, 308 
 
 to Deprive of Color, 298 
 
 to Purify, 296 
 to Strengthen, 297 
 Vins, Culture of, 73, 74, 265 
 Vinous Fermentation, 251 
 
 Violets, Essence of, 304 
 Vives, 109 
 
 Vol-au-Vent, to make, 211 
 Vomiting in Pregnancy, 167 
 in Children, 170 
 
 Waffles, 202, 228, 230 
 Walks, Gravel, to make, 60 
 Wallflower, Essence of, 304 
 Wall Trees, 66, 71 
 Walnuts, to Pickle, 239 
 
 to Keep, 87 
 
 Ward's Paste for Piles, 157 
 Warping of Planks, 438 
 Warts, Common, 157 
 
 . in the Horse, 106 
 
 Venereal, 134 
 
 Watch, Works, Oil for, 303 
 Water, Casks, to Clean, 95 
 
 Distilled, 294 
 
 Fresh, from Sea, to Obtain, 179 
 
 Gruel, 177 
 
 Pipes, to Manage, in Winter, 454 
 
 Sea, to Render Fit for Washing, 189 
 
 Soda, 433 
 
 to Determine if Hard or Soft, 433 
 
 to Keep Pure in Iron Kettles, 464 
 
 to Purify, 437 
 
 Water-bath, Solutions for, 290 
 Watering Gardens, 66 
 
 Meadows, 51 
 
 Wall Trees, 66 
 
 Water-proof Cloth, 347 ; Water-proofing, 466 
 Boots, 348 
 Leather, 349 
 Paper, 356 
 Waters, Simple, Rules for Distilling, 492 
 
 Aerated, 299 
 
 Chalybeate, 300 
 
 Compound Distilled, 294 
 
 Medicinal, 299 
 
 Stills for, 293 
 
 to Purify, 438 
 Wax, Sealing, to make, 357 
 
 Bordering, for Engravers, 420 
 
 Candles, to make, 459 
 
 Painting on, 3S9 
 Weather, to Foretell, 187, 439 
 Weeds, to Destroy, 39 
 
 to Prevent Growth of, 76 
 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, 241, 42T 
 Welding, 381 
 Welsh Rabbit, 463 
 Wheat, to Cultivate, 27, 28, 466 
 
 Diseases of, 29, 30 
 
 to Preserve, 96 
 Whips, 230 
 
 Whiskey, Factitious, 288, 289 
 White Beer, 257 
 
 Metal, 369 
 
 Swelling, 155 
 Whites in Women, 166 
 Whitewash, to, 458, 465 
 
 Resembling Paint, 465 
 Whitlow, Treatment of, 142, 155 
 Wild-Fowls as Food, 249 
 
 en Salmis, 210 
 to Capture, 462 
 Wind Broken, 107 
 
 Galls, 109 
 Window Glass, 400 
 Windows, to Keep up, 457 
 Wine Gardening, 90 
 
 Vaults, to Manage, 275 
 
 Whey, 178, 200 
 WINES, AMERICAN, 265 
 
 American honey, 271 
 
496 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Wines, Port, to make Hough, 276 
 
 and Spirits. Cellar of, to fit up, 275 
 
 Apricot. 270 
 
 Balm, 273 
 
 Blackberry, 269 
 
 Bottling nnd Corking, 266 
 
 Claret, 289 
 
 Cherry, 269 
 
 Currant red, 267 
 Black, 267 
 Dutch, 267 
 White, 267 
 
 Domestic, Management of, 266, 273 
 
 Elderberry, 268 
 
 fining, 274 
 
 Foul, to Restore, 276 
 
 Ginger, 272 
 
 Gooseberry, 266 
 
 and Currant, 267 
 
 Honey, 269 
 
 111 Scent of, 274 
 
 Juniperberry, 269 
 
 Lemon, 269 
 
 Madeira, 289 
 
 Mead, 271 
 
 Mulberry, 268 
 
 other Mixed Berries, 268 
 
 Peach, 270 
 
 Port, to Imitate, 268, 269 
 
 Raspberry, 268 
 
 Red into White, 277 
 
 Rhubarb, 272 
 
 Sherry, 289 
 
 Strawberry, 268 
 
 to Check the Fermentation of, 274 
 
 to Decant, 457 
 
 to Determine Quantity of Alcohol in, 287 
 
 to make Sparkling, 266 
 
 Various Kinds, 271-273, 289 
 
 White, to Convert into Red, 276 
 
 Whortle, or Bilberry, 269 
 Wintergreen, Oil of, 292 
 Woad for Dyeing, to Prepare, 324 
 Wood, to Preserve, 84, 347, 352 
 
 Artificial, 357 
 
 Decoction of, 178 
 
 for Dyeing, to Prepare, 325 
 
 Oil Gilding on, 377 
 
 to Dye Various Coloro, 325 
 
 to Engrave on, 422 
 
 to Render Incombustible, 437 
 
 Wood, to Polish, 349 
 Wool, to Dye, 316 
 
 to Bleach, 310 
 Woollens, Undyed, to Scour, 310 
 
 Fuller's Purifier for, 313 
 
 to Dye, 31 6 
 
 to Full. 310 
 Worms, 131, 132, 158, 159 
 
 in Dogs, 444 
 
 in the Horse, 106 
 
 Medicines for, 159, 160 
 Wormwood, Oil of, to Procure, 292 
 Worthlytype Process, for Photography, 415 
 Worts, to Boil, 254 
 
 to Cool, 254 
 
 to Determine the Strength of. 253 
 
 to Mix the Yeast with the, 254 
 Wounds, 144 
 
 in Trees, 76 
 Writing, Fluids, 356, 360 
 
 for the Blind, 461 
 
 in Cypher, 459 
 
 on Greasy Paper, 359 
 
 to Gild, 377 
 
 to make New look Old, 359 
 
 to Produce Fac Simile of, 360 
 
 to take out, 313 
 Writings, Decayed, to Restore, 359 
 
 to Copy, 360 
 
 Yarn, to Scour, 312 
 Yeast Poultices, 155 
 
 Substitutes for, 261 
 
 to Keep, 262 
 Yellow Fever, 123 
 
 Cadmium, 334 
 
 Chrome, 334 
 
 Gum, in Children, 170 
 
 Montpellier, 334 
 
 Naples, 334 
 
 Steinbuhl, 334 
 
 Zaffre, 408 
 
 Zeiodolite, 353 
 
 Zinc Ores, to Assay, 366 
 
 Black Varnish for, 351 
 Poisoning by, 152 
 Paint, Drying Oil for, 340 
 Dryer for, 340 
 White, 338 
 
APR 28 1948 
 
 LOAN 
 
 UN ,V. OF 
 
 MAT 2 v& 
 
 
 
 .LD21 
 
 _100m-9,'47(A5702sl6)476 
 
CD31ES5DE7 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY