50BN&IDER CALUMET PUBIISHING C^^ GIFT OF uM^^Z^f^J^ oy^P^ Powdered Vegetable Drugs BY ALBERT SCHNEIDER, M. D., PH.D. Professor of Botany and Pharmacognosy, Northwestern University School of Pharmacy, Chicago. Published by CALUMET PUBUSHING COMPANY, 315 Home Building, Pittsburgh, Pa. 1902 Copyright, 1902, by Albert Schneider All rights reserved. J" ERRATA. Page 255, 5 lines from bottom, "Pernumbuco" should be Pernambuco. Page 257, last line, toiiteepice — Totite epice. Page 260, 4 line top, langum — longum. Page 261, middle of page, Populii — Popiilus. Page 311, Urticeae — Urticaceae. Page 317, rophides — raphides. Fig. 129* {R.ubus villosus), instead of Fig. 129 now in positiorb 340719 GENERAL INDEX TO PART I. (In Part II. topics are arranged in alpliabetical order, hence no index is required.) Achromatopsy, 14. Acid taste, 28, 32. Acrid, 12. Adulteration, 57. accidental, 58. criminal, 60. detection of, 67. material used, 63. unintentional. 58. Air chambers, 76. Alcoholic drinks, 18. Anise, 21. Anodynes, 19. Aromatic odors, 22. taste, 12. Artemisia, 106. Bacteria, 40. Bark, 8c. mner, 81. outer, 81. Bast, 81. Beetle, carrion, 19. Bitter taste, 28, 32. Botany, pharmaceutical, li. Buzzards, 19. Carbolic acid, 20. Carbon bisulphide, 47. Carrion beetle, 19. Catarrh, 18. Chloroform, 48. Chlorphenol, 19. Clay, 66. Clearing fluid, 71. CoUenchyma, 85. Coloring substances, 67. Color of powders, 55, 104. Calor reactions, 72. Colors, modifications of, 14, 15. naming of, 14. natural scale, 13. prismatic. 13. standards of, 13. Common names, 105. Cork, 83. Crystals, 82. Daltonism, 14. Diamond dyes, 13. Dirt, 66. Drawings, 15. Drugs, modification of, 38. powdering of, 49, 51, 53. selection of, 49. tasteless, 36. Ducts, 81. Dyes, 13. Endosperm, 80. Epidermis, 7^. Equipment, 70. Exine, 77. Fineness of powders, 52, 70. Flowers, 77. Fruits, 79. Fungi, 42. Garbling, 49. Garlic, 18. Glands, 81. Gonidia, 45. Gum camphor, 47. Hair cells, 74. Histology, II, 73. Hyena, 19. Hypoderm, 76. Imago. 45._ Identification, 87. Insects, 65. Larvae, 45. Laticiferous ducts, 84. Lead, 57. Leaves, "j},. Lenticels, 8r. Lichens, 44. Light, 13. Ligin reaction, 72. Lime, 66. Meals, 65. Medullary rays. 82. Methods, 70. Microns, 103. Mixing, powders, 52. Names, common. 105. Nebenzellen, "^T), 75- Neighboring cells, Ti, 75. •Odor, alliaceous, 25. anise, 22. ant, 25. _ aromatic, 22. bean, 22. bitter almond, 24. bland, 24. briny, 24. camphor, 24. cannabis, 25. caraway, 24. chamomile, 23. chicory, 24. cinnamon, 22. clove, 23. disagreeable, 25. fenugreek, 23. flower, 22,. fragrant, 23. garlic, 25. hay, 24. indifferent, 24. intensity of, 18. jalapa, 25. mint, 23. mouse, 25. musk, 24. nutmeg, 23. pungent, 18. quality of, 17, 18. rancid, 25. seaweed, 24. smoky, 25. soil, 24. spicy, 22. standards of, 17, 21. sumbul, 24. sulphurous, 25. tannin, 25. taraxacum, 26. lea, 24. valerian, 26. veg. powders, 22. wintergreen, 24. Odorless drugs, 26, 27. Olfactory apparatus, 17. Onions, 18. Ozcena, 18. Palisade tissue, 76. Pappus, 78. Parasites, 39. animal, 45. vegetable, 40. Parenchyma, 83. Pebbles, 67. Perfumes, 19. ' Pericarp, 80. Petals, 78. Petiole, "/•]. Pharmacopoeia, 103. Phloroglucin, 72. Pith, 85. Pistil, 78. Pollen, -JT. Powdering drugs, 49, 50, 51, 53. Powders, vegetable, 54. characteristics, 54. color of, II, 55, 104. examination of, 70, 103. fineness, 52, 53, 70. keys to, 87, 95. preservation of, 54. study of, 87. Prang, 14. Prismatic colors, 13. Ptyalin, 34. Pungency, 31, 32. Pungent odors, 18. Quince, 20. Quinine, 29, 32. Reactions, color, "^2. Rhizomes, 82. Roots, 82. Saffron, 13. Salty taste, 28, 32. Sand, 66. Sapid substances, 29. Sclerenchyma, 76, 78. Seeds, 79. Sensations, tactile, 16. Sepals, 78. Skunk, 19. Sifting, 50. Sophistication, 57. Spicy odor, 22. Spongy tissue, ^(i. Stamens, ^^. Standards of odor, 21. Starches, 65. Stems, 85. Stomata, 75. Stone cells, ^(i, 78. Strychnin, 19. Substitution, 61, 62. Sunlight, 13. Sweet taste, 28, 32. Tactile sensations, 16. Taste, 28. acid, 28, 32. acrid, 32. agreeable, 31. aromatic, 12, 29. bitter, 28, 32. cooling, 32. gritty, 2,Z- gummy, n. mixed, 35. mucilaginous, 32. of drugs, 34. puckery, 2,2. pungent, 32. refreshing, 32. salty, 28, 31. simple, 34. standards, 28. sticky, 33. sweet, 28, 31. Tasteless drugs, 36. Testa, 79. Tobacco, 18. Touch, 16. Trichomes, 74. Vascular tissue, T], 84. Vegetable powders, 70. Vultures, 19. Wine tasters, 18. Woods, 85. PREFACE. This work is primarily intended as a text-book for the use of students in colleges of pharmacy. It will also be found very useful by the practicing pharmacist in determining the identity and purity of the vegetable powders, including spices, which come under his direct supervision. The work is timely, owing to the fact that the critical macro^ scopic and microscopic examination of powdered vegetable drugs is being rapidly introduced in our leading colleges of pharmacy. Such a study is highly important because vegetable powders will undoubtedly soon receive official recognition in the United States Pharmacopoeia. Furthermore, the practicing pharmacist has as much or more to do with powdered vegetable drugs than with crude vegetable drugs, and it is certainly his prime duty to be competent to pass judgment upon them as to purity and iden- tity. This can be done only by a careful microscopical examina- tion of the powders, combined with the use of micro-chemical reagents and chemical tests. There are several very important German and French works on powdered vegetable drugs, but none in the English language, and it is hoped that with all its faults and imperfections this pres- ent work may meet the demands of the progressive movements in pharmacy and pharmaceutical education. The drawings are all on the same uniform scale, made by the aid of an Abbe camera lucida. An effort has been made to figure the more important histological elements, leaving out those which would be of no special diagnostic value. It must not be supposed, however, that any attempt has been made to indicate in the figures the relative abundance of the various elements. The scale of measurements in microns is to be used with all the figures and is only approximately correct ; considerable allowance must be made for natural variation in size as well as form of cells and cell contents. Albert Schneider. Chicago, i\Iarch, 1902. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Preface 3 Introduction 1 1 PART I. General Considerations. CHAPTER I. General Suggestions on the Examination of Vegetable Powders. I. Light and Standards of Color 13 II. Tactile Sensations 16 III. Odor and Odor Standards 17 IV. Taste and Standards of Taste 28 CHAPTER II. Causes Modifying the Characteristics of Powdered Vegetable Drugs. I. Normal Variations 38 II. Parasites 39 1. Vegetable Parasites 40 a. Bacteria 40 b. Hyphal Fungi 42 c. Lichens 44 2. Animal Parasites 45 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. CHAPTER III. Powdering of Vegetable Drugs. I. Selection of Crude Drugs for Powdering 49 II. Preparing for Powdering 49 III. Powdering 50 IV. Sifting 50 V. Fineness of Powders 52 VI. Preservation of Powders 54 CHAPTER IV. Adulteration or Sophistication of Vegetable Drugs. I. Adulteration as to Intent. 58 1. Unintentional or Accidental Adulteration 58 2. Intentional or Criminal Adulteration 60 II. Manner of Adulteration 61 1. Partial Substitution 61 2. Complete Substitution 62 III. Substances Employed in Sophistication 63 1. Organic Substances 63 a. Closely Related Species and Varieties ... 63 b. Remote Species and Varieties 63 c. Refuse and Winnowings 64 d. Exhausted Drugs 64 e. Inferior Drugs 64 /. Starches and Meals 65 g. Insects and Insect Remnants 65 2. Inorganic Substances 66 a. Sand 66 b. Dirt, Clay, Lime 66 c. Coloring Substances 67 IV. The Detection of Adulteration 6y Contents. 7 CHAPTER V. The Microscopical Examination of Powdered Vegetable Drugs. I. Equipment and Methods 70 II. Histology of Plant Organs 73 1. Leaves 73 2. Flowers yy 3. Fruits and Seeds 79 4. Barks 80 5. Stems 85 6. Woods 85 7. Other Plants and Plant Parts 86 CHAPTER VI. Keys to the Identification of Powdered Vegetable Drugs. I. Key based upon Macroscopical Characters 87 II. Key based upon Microscopical Characters 95 PART II. Special Descriptions of Vegetable Powders. 1. Absinthium. 10. Anthemis. 2. Achillea. 11, Apocynum and. 3. Aconite, leaf. 12. Apocynum can. 4. Aconite, root. 13. Areca, nut. 5. Althaea. 14. Arnica, fl. 6. Amygdala. 15, Arnica, plant. 7. Amylum. 16. Asarum. 8. Angustura. 17. Asclepias, 9. Anisum. 18. Aspidium. 8 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. 19. Aspidosperma. 20. Aurantium am. 21. Belladonna, leaf. 22. Belladonna, root. 23. Berberis. 24. Bryonia. 25. Buchu. 26. Cafifea. 2^. Calamus. 28. Calendula. 29. Calumba. 30. Canella. 31. Cannabis Indica. 32. Capsicum. 33. Carbo animalis. 34. Carbo ligni. 35. Cardamom. 36. Carthamus. 37. Carum. 38. Car}'ophyllus. 39. Cascarilla. 40. Castanea. 41. Caulophyllum. 42. Cetraria. 43. Chamselirium. 44. Chelidonium. 45. Chenopodium. 46. Chimaphila. 47. Chirata. 48. Cichorium. 49. Cimicifuga. 50. Cinchona. 51. Cinnamon, cassia. 52. Cinnamon, Ceylon. 53. Cinnamon, Saigon. 54. Cocculus. 55. Colchicum, corm. 56. Colchicum, seed. 57. Coca. 58. Colocynth. 59. Conium, fruit. 60. Convallaria. 61. Coriander. 62. Cornus. 63. Coto. 64. Crocus. 65. Cubeba. 66. Curcuma. 67. Cusso. 68. Cypripedium. 69. Delphinium. 70. Dextrin. 71. Digitalis. 'J2. Dulcamara. 73. Ergot. 74. Eriodictyon. 75. Eucalyptus. 76. Euonymus. yy. Eupatorium. 78. Fceniculum. 79. Foenum Grsecum. 80. Frangula. 81. Galla, aleppo. 82. Galla, Chinese. 83. Gaultheria. 84. Gelsemium. 85. Gentian. 86. Geranium. 87. Glycyrrhiza. 121, ]\Iatico. 88. Gossypium. 122. Matricaria. 89. Granatum, root bark. 123. Menispermum. 90. Granatum, stem bark. 124. Mentha pip. 91. Grindelia. 125. Mentha vir. 92. Guaiacum, wood. 126. Methysticum, 93. Guarana. 127. Mezerium. 94. Hsematoxylon. 128. Myrica, bark. 95. Hamamelis. 129. Myristica. 96. Hedeoma. 130. Nux vomica. 97. Helleborus. 131. Paracoto. 98. Humulus. 132. Pareira. 99. Hydrangea. 133. Physostigma. 100. Hydrastis. 134. Phytolacca, fruit. loi. Hyoscyamus, leaves. 135. Phytolacca, root. 102. Hyoscyamus, seeds. 136. Pilocarpus. 103. Ignatia. 137. Pimenta. 104. Illicium. 138. Piper, black. 105. Inula. 139. Piper, Avhite. 106. Ipecac. 140. Podophyllum. 107. Iris flor. 141. Populus. 108. Iris vers. 142. Prinos. 109. Jalapa. 143. Prunus Serotina. no. Juglans. 144. Pulsatilla. III. Kamala. 145. Pyrethrum, fl. 112. Krameria, Peruvian. 146. Pyrethrum, root. 113. Krameria, Savanilla. 147. Quassia. 114. Lappa. 148. Quercus. 115. Leptandra. 149. Ouillaia. 116. Linum. 150. Rhamnus Pursh. 117. Lobelia. 151. Rheum. 118, Lupulin. 152. Rhus glabra, bark 119. Lycopodium. 153. Rhus glabra, fruit. 120. Mace, 154. Rosa gallica. 10 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. 155. Rubus. 156. Rumex. 157. Sabadilla. 158. Sabina. 159. Salix. 160. Sambucus, fl. 161. Sanguinaria. 162. Santonica. 163. Sarsaparilla. 164. Sassafras, bark. 165. Scilla. 166. Scoparius. 167. Scopola, root. 168. Scutellaria. 169. Senega. 170. Senna. 171. Serpentaria. 172. Sinapis alba. 173. Sinapis nigra. 174. Spigelia. 175. Staphisagria. 176. Stillingia. 177. Stramonium, leaf. 178. Stramonium, seeds. 179. Strophanthus. 180. Sumbul. 181. Tabacum. 182. Taraxacum 183. Thea. 184. Theobroma. 185. Turnera, leaf. 186. Ulmus. 187. Uva ursi. 188. Valerian. 189. Vanilla. 190. Veratrum vir. 191. Viburnum op. 192. Viburnum prun. 193. Wintera. 194. Xanthoxylum. 195. Zingiber. General Considerations. ii PART I. General Considerations* In establishing a comparatively new branch of science or study, it is necessary to enter into the consideration of details which become unnecessary and unimportant when the subject is more fully understood. This applies to the study of powdered vegetable drugs, and in Part I we shall treat of such details re- lating to the study of vegetable powders as are essential to a better comprehension of the subject. Leading authorities in the study of vegetable powders have encountered considerable difficulty in determining the color of the individual powders. The grosser, more marked histological char- acters of the majority of vegetable drugs, have been quite ac- curately described by various investigators, but there is much uncertainty and confusion regarding some, and these require more careful investigation as to botanical origin, supplemented, of course, by a careful histological study. Pharmaceutical botany, as it applies to histology in particu- lar, has not as yet become sufficiently developed and specialized. In the histological study of vegetable drugs the chief attention is to be given to cell-forms and cell-contents, as these are of prime importance in the identification and critical comparison of vege- table drugs, as will be more fully explained at the close of Part I. Considerable difficulty was encountered in determining the color of powdered vegetable drugs. No other characteristic is more variable. The colors given apply to powders quite recently prepared from good specimens of crude drugs. The student must, however, constantly keep in mind the possible deviations 12 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. from the color given, dependent upon differences in fineness, qual- ity of drug used, possible substitution and adulteration, age of powder and exposure to light and moisture. It will be noted that such terms as "aromatic taste," "pun- gently aromatic," and similar terms combining taste and odor, have been omitted, as they are confusing and inaccurate. The term "acrid" is dropped because it is syonymous with pungent, and various authors have used it in a very loose and confusing sense. Examination of Vegetable Powders. 13 CHAPTER L General Suggestions on the Examination of Vegetable Powders. I. Light and Standards of Color. The subject of the color of powdered drugs, as well as of other substances, is still confused for several reasons. First, be- cause there are no reliable standards of color, and second, because of the variable naming of colors. The artificial color standards used by teachers of the primary grades, artists, cloth manufac- turers, furniture and house painters, etc., are very far from relia- ble. No matter from what material the color is made, or how carefully it is prepared, it is subject to variation in intensity and quality. The most durable colors used by artisans at the present time lose their factory gloss or tint in a very short time. Some of the colors used by ancient mural painters and by Orientals of the present time are more durable, but far from unchangeable. It is practically impossible to print color scales which are uniform throughout and which will not fade. It has been suggested that certain substances having well recognized and comparatively per- manent colors be used as standards of comparison, as the choco- late brown of chocolate, the cinnamon brown of cassia cinnamon, the saffron yellow of a standard solution of Spanish saffron, etc. I have found solutions of the so-called Diamond dyes compara- tively permanent, more so than the aniline dyes as ordinarily em- ployed by biologists. Even these substances are subject to error in preparation and are not sufficiently permanent to serve as relia- ble standards. It would be possible to prepare a natural scale of colors by projecting the prismatic colors of direct sunlight upon 14 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. a uniform screen. It would be necessary to use prisms of imi- form size and made of a uniform quality of glass. Any desired tint or shade could be produced by interposing various shades and tints of milk glass and smoked glass of standard thickness. Even such a standard of colors is subject to some variation, leav- ing out of consideration personal differences in visualizing power and the power to discriminate between differences in color. Those with defective eye-sight will have difficulty in recognizing many tints and shades. Those who have inherited color blindness (achromatopsy, Daltonism) fail to recognize certain colors entireh'. Perhaps the greatest obstacle to the recognition and com- parison of colors is the confused naming of colors, or rather the use of terms which can only be understood by those who are familiar with the colors referred to. For instance such names as purple, royal purple, scarlet, indigo, violet, crimson, magenta, ecru, mauve, cerise, heliotrope, lavender, marine blue, terra cotta, Pompeian red, canary red, Chinese yellow, etc., are wholly devoid of meaning to the uninitiated. All the possible colors are simply the recognizable tints and shades of the primary colors red, yellow and blue, and the recognizable admixtures of these primary col- ors. It would, therefore, be possible to select such color names as would indicate the shade or tint of any primary color or admix- ture of primary colors in such a manner as to be comprehended by any one, and enable him to reproduce the color if desirable. Such a system of color nomenclature has been proposed by Prang. Prang worked upon this scheme for nearly half a centur\% and it is doubtless the most complete system of its kind. It is extens- ively used for teaching colors in schools, by artists and by manu- facturers of colored fabrics of all kinds. Prang's color scale is made from artificially prepared colors printed upon paper, and is, therefore, not a reliable standard. There are a multitude of conditions which modify the colors of the plates. Variations in the mixing of the colors, differences in EXAMIXATION OF VEGETABLE PoWDERS. 1$ the quality and thickness of the paper used, differences in the force of the press, etc. Even should the thousands of copies come quite uniform from the press, the colors will subsequently fade, and the rate of fading will depend largely upon the amount of handling and exposure to light. In spite of all these objections the colors are fairly reliable as standards of comparison. Prang's color nomenclature is simple, and can readily be understood and applied by any one. It may be applied in giving the colors of the powdered vegetable drugs. It must also be borne in mind that form and texture greatly modify the color. This is true of drugs as well as other sub- stances. The same color on a rough and a smooth surface will present a markedly different tone; the rough surface producing a shade effect, hence the color will appear darker. In the case of powdered drugs it will be noticed that fineness greatly modifies the color, the finer powders producing tint effects as a rule. In some instances a difference in fineness may even modify the qual- ity of the color entirely (licorice root). Other conditions modify- ing the color and form of drugs will be mentioned in Chapter II. We need scarcely urge the necessity of good illumination in the inspection of powders. The powder should be carefully com- pared with the description given in the text-book. In nearly every instance the student will find some slight deviations of the color and consistency observed and that given in the book. The author has endeavored to give the characteristics of the type or representative specimens. The specimen studied may vary con- siderably from the type description. An effort should, therefore, be made to account for the differences, whether they are differ- ences of color, odor, consistency or taste. Whenever possible, the student should make careful draw- ings of the microscopic structure of powder. The value of this cannot be overestimated. In order to make a correct drawing the student is compelled to study the powder carefully ; further- l6 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. more, the act of making the drawing, as well as the drawing itself, will impress the structural characters more firmly upon the mind. II. Tactile Sensations. Touch, as it applies to the examination of drugs, is a tactile sensation appreciated by the hand and fingers, the tongue and mouth, rarely also the larynx. The touch of fingers and hands conveys to the mind conceptions of coarseness or fineness, fatty, oily or unctuous condition, crispness, of moisture, dryness, muci- laginous condition, tendency to lumpiness, etc. In many in- stances the sense of touch is merely an aid to the sense of sight — that is, touch verifies or assists the visual judgment as to the above properties. The tactile sense of the fingers may be greatly increased in delicacy by education and practice and by proper care. The most sensitive parts of the fingers are the tips ; this sensitiveness is greatly enhanced by cleanliness of hands and nails. The nails should be carefully and evenly trimmed, but never very short, as that reduces sensitiveness. The clean, trimmed, free portion of the nail duplicates or magnifies the tactile sense by pressing upon the opposing delicate dermis when the finger is brought in contact with an object. Cold reduces sensitiveness very rapidly; wash- ing in warm water restores the normal activity promptly. An intelligent use of the tactile sense of fingers, combined with the sense of sight, will aid the student in forming some esti- mate of the identity of the powder. It must also be remembered that moisture greatly modifies the character of powders. For instance, a powder which appears quite crisp when dry may become somewhat soft in moist weather, indicating the presence of some bast or perhaps elongated paren- chyma cells (many barks). Tactile sensations usually designated as tastes and odors will be explained later. We would advise students to depend largely Examination of Vegetable Powders. 17 upon the tactile sense of the hand and fingers, though Hps, tongue and mouth are more sensitive. Frequent and promiscuous tasting and chewing of drugs is pernicious for several reasons. III. Odor and Odor Standards. The sense of smell is as yet imperfectly understood. Consid- erable theoretical discussion has been entered into lately as re- gards the chemistr}- of odor sensations. The olfactory apparatus is undoubtedly the least reliable of all the sense organs. There is no standard of odors, nor do we have any means of measuring odors. A number of individuals may smell the same odor, but they have no means of comparing either the quality or the quan- tity of the odor. This being the case, it naturally follows that there is no reliable odor nomenclature. Odors are variously clas- sified as agreeable or pleasant, indifferent, strong, faint, fragrant aromatic, heavy, acid, pungent, sweet, etc., words which are vari- able in meaning and application. An odor is said to be strong or faint according to individual judgment. An odor may be "overpowering" to one person, while another will pronounce it moderately strong, or give it no special attention. An odoriferous substance must be in a gaseous state and must stimulate the special nerves of smell. The odoriferous gas or vapor must enter the anterior nares in a large and continuous cur- rent. If the nostrils are held shut, though the passages are filled with the gas, no odor can be detected. Filling the nostrils with liquids holding odoriferous gases in solution will not act upon the olfactory nerves. It is also interesting to note that odors entering the nostrils by way of the posterior nares cannot be smelled. The olfactory nerves become fatigued very quickly, as is evi- denced by the readiness with which one becomes "accustomed" to an odor. Tenants of ill-ventilated rooms, in which the stench is often overpowering, do not detect any bad odor. Those ad- i8 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. dieted to the use of tobacco are blissfully unconscious of the strong odor which not only permeates the entire clothing, but also the entire system and the atmosphere about them. Con- sumers of alcoholic drinks are not aware of their alcoholic breath. Those who habitually eat onions and garlic are not conscious of the sulphurous odor which is so annoying to others. Those af- fected with ozoena or bad breath, due to nasal catarrh, a disor- dered stomach or bad teeth, do not detect the odor. The condition of the olfactory organs greatly modifies the appreciation of odors. If the nasal passages are more or less occluded through catarrhal inflammations, pathological growths as polypoids, etc., the sense of smell may be very much reduced or practically zero. Those affected with chronic nasal catarrh have a weak and otherwise abnormal sense of smell. The sense of smell in difTerent persons differs, not only by inheritance, but also by education. Savage races and many of the higher herbi- vora and carnivora have an exceedingly acute sense of smell for certain odors, while for other odors this sense is quite dull. Civ- ilized man is capable of detecting the largest number of different odors. He is also capable of educating this sense to a very high degree, as in "wine-tasters," who are capable of detecting differ- ences in aroma which wholly escape the uneducated and inexpe- rienced. In order that the sense of smell may be fairly delicate, the nasal passages should be quite roomy, the Schneiderian mem- brane entirely free from inflammation and other abnormal con- ditions. The membrane should be quite moist with the natural secretion of the mucus cells, rather than comparatively dry. The nasal passages are also well supplied with nerve endings of com- mon sensation, which will explain why many tactile sensations are mistaken for odors, as, for example, the so-called pungent odors. In contradistinction to the other senses, electrical, thermal and mechanical stimuli do not cause sensations of odor. The intensity of the odor is directly proportional to the con- Examination of Vegetable Powders. 19 ceiitration and volume of the odoriferous gas and the rate with which it passes through the nostrils. The olfactory apparatus is extremely sensitive when in a perfectly normal state. Accord- ing to some authorities, the odor of mercaptan is still quite mark- ed when diluted 300,000,000 times, and becomes inappreciable only when diluted 500,000,000 times. The odor of chlorphenol is still noticeable when diluted 1,000,000,000 times. Certain drugs and chemicals will modif}- the sense of smell. Anodynes and so- porifics will reduce it in activity, while strychnin and some other substances will increase its activity. As regards the estimates of the quality of odors, there is even more uncertainty than there is concerning the quantity. In a general way odors are designated as agreeable or pleasant, indif- ferent and disagreeable ; but it becomes evident that such a classi- fication is very unsatisfactory, owing to personal differences. If we go back to some of the lower organisms, we will find that cer- tain odors are agreeable because they emanate from desirable sub- stances. The carrion beetle undoubtedly finds the odor of decay- ing animal matter agreeable. Certain insects are attracted to flowers having the odor of carrion. In fact all substances, though they may give rise to the most disagreeable odors, according to man's judgment, are eagerly sought after by a host of lower or- ganisms. Even such highly organized animals as buzzards, vul- tures and hyenas are attracted to decaying animal matter. Many insects are, however, attracted by pleasant odors, as is indicated by the odors of entomophilous flowers. All of the higher animals rec- ognize the odor of the skunk as disagreeable, and this serves as a means of self-defense. In civilized man the judgment of the quality of odors is greatly influenced by temperament and education ; those who fancy the odor of musk are said to be cruel and lacking in culture ; those who fancy the simple perfumes, as violet and rose, are said to be cultured and refined ; those in favor of mixed odors are said to lack stabilitv of character. Even though there may be 20 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. little or no truth to these statements, the fact remains that the liking for odors varies greatly. There are some remarkable in- stances of differences of judgment to be noted. One scholar of much experience maintained that the odor of hydrogen sulphide was agreeable. Most physicians find the odor of carbolic acid pleasant, while many others find it decidedly disagreeable. Some pharmacists maintain that dried taraxacum roots are odorless, while others note a very decided disagreeable odor. The farmer, on entering the crowded habitations of a large city, will note dis- agreeable odors which escape the notice of the inhabitants en- tirely. On the other hand, the city dweller, on visiting the farm, will note the disagreeable odors about stables and cattle-pens which the farmer ignores or speaks of as being rather agreeable. Every farmer enjoys the "fresh smell of the soil," which is a faint, musty odor of decaying organic particles associated with the cool vapors arising from the damp, upturned earth. In man the utility of odors is no longer of prime importance. In some instances, however, they no doubt still serve such a pur- pose. For instance, we are attracted by the odors of most ripen- ing fruits, as apples, oranges and berries ; while we find the odor of poisonous plants, as stramonium, belladonna, tobacco, Indian hemp, etc., decidedly disagreeable. There are, however, some fruits which have pleasant odors which are nevertheless inedi- ble to man, as, for instance, the quince (raw). There are certain suggestions which the student will find useful in testing the odors of vegetable drugs. It is always ad- visable to leave the examination of drugs with marked odors until the last, as the strong odors will not only be confusing in testing weaker odors, but will dull and fatigue the sense of smell very quickly. Furthermore, if the fingers and hand are brought in contact with a very odoriferous substance, it is no easy matter to remove it preparatory to examining another drug. For instance, if garlic is rubbed on the hand, repeated washings will not re- move the odor; in fact, it will often be appreciable for several Examination of Vegetable Powders. 21 days. The odor of star anise (illicium) is also very persistent. All medical students know how difficult it is to remove the dis- secting-room odor from hands ; repeated washings with soap and hot water and dusting with charcoal is necessary. As soon as a drug has been tested for its odor and taste it should be set aside. The odor should be removed from hands by washing in warm water and then wiping them perfectly dry with a clean towel. To develop the odor, place a goodly pinch of the powder in the palm of one hand and rub it with the thumb and finger tips of the other hand, closing the palm as much as possible. The rubbing should be done briskly and with considerable force. Now bring the hand near the nose and open the palm somewhat. The warmth and moisture of the hand causes the odoriferous sub- stance to rise and enter the nostrils. The odor is accentuated by sniffing — that is, by a series of sharp and rapid inhalations, caus- ing the air charged with the odor to enter the nostrils in larger volumes. The hands and fingers should not be wet, as excessive moisture absorbs much of the odoriferous gas and thus reduces the intensity of the odor. If one powder has been rubbed in one palm, the second should be placed in the other palm; this will tend to reduce the mixing and confusing of odors in instances where hurried examination of several powders is necessary and when no opportunity presents itself for removing the first odor from palm and fingers. Since there are neither qualitative nor quantitative odor standards, it is difficult to make comparisons, and the information gained from the comparisons is unreliable. Many of the vegeta- ble drugs, however, have very decided odors, so that it is possible to identify them by this characteristic alone. If we make a com- parison of the diflferent drugs we find that those having odors may be grouped according to a similarity of odors as compared with certain types. This grouping would be an easy matter if the odors were simple, but, unfortunately, they are not ; most odor- 22 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. iferous drugs have a mixed odor. For instance, chenopodinm has a rather faint camphoraceous odor, but in addition it has a very disagreeable odor. Spearmint has a fragrant odor in addi- tion to the aromatic minty odor. Roman pellitory has a faintly aromatic odor in addition to a disagreeable odor resembling that of taraxacum. The odor of calamus is spicy and camphoraceous, etc. Since there is no odor standard, there is also no satisfactory odor nomenclature. Authors speak of sour odor, sweet odor and pungent odor, terms which are wholly meaningless and inappli- cable. The so-called sour odor is an odor which we have learned to associate with sour taste ; the sweet odor is so called because of an odor associated with a sweet taste. Some speak of fragrant odors as sweet, which is simply a misuse of the term sweet. As already indicated, pungent odors are tactile sensations. The following is a classification of the odors to be detected in the more common vegetable drugs. Certain drugs are chosen as types or provisional standards, because they possess the odors in a marked and comparatively pure degree. Odors of Vegetable Powders. A. AGREEABLE ODORS. /. Aromatic or Spicy. 1. Anise Type (spicy and fragrant) — Anise fennel, star anise, sassafras bark. 2. Chocolate or Cacao Bean Type (faintly aromatic) — Cacao beans, butter and hulls, quarana (faint), coffee (very faint). 3. Cinnamon Type (very spicy or aromatic, related to clove type) — Cinnamons, canella, cinnamo- dendron, cascarilla, coto-bark, paracoto, win- tera. Examination of Vegetable Powders. 23 4. Clove Type (very aromatic) — Cloves, asarum, ginger, pimenta, cubeb, calamus, pepper (not marked), cardamom, coriander, carum, myr- ica leaves. 5. Fcenugreek Type (faintly aromatic, somewhat fragrant, characteristic) — Foenugreek, iris vers., elm bark. 6. ]\Iint Type (very aromatic) — Peppermint, spear- mint (aromatic and fragrant), horsemint, pennyroyal, buchti. 7. Nutmeg Type (very aromatic) — Nutmeg, mace, cola nut (faint). //. Fragrant, Frequently Designated as Szveet. 1. Honey Type (faintly fragrant, related to flower type) — Honey, manna, myrrh, benzoin, stor- ax, quaiacum (very faint). 2. Fruit or Apple Type (very fragrant, related to flower type) — Figs, apples, raisins, prunes, purging cassia, many so-called berries as strawberry, raspberry, etc. 3. Lemon Peel Type (fragrant and aromatic) — Bit- ter orange peel, sweet orange peeel, citron peel, lemon peel, melissa when fresh. 4. Matricaria or Chamomille Type (fragrant, related to tea type, characteristic) — Matricaria, chamomille, brayera, anthemis, matico, laven- dula, achillea. 5. Orange Blossom, Rose or Flower Type (very frag- rant, related to honey type) — Orange blos- soms, apple blossoms, rose, iris flor. (faint), hsematoxylon (very faint), sambucus flow- ers, senna, Scutellaria, marrubium, vanilla, spigelia, castanea, carthamus, benzoin (Siam), storax (faint). 24 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. 6. Wintergreen Type (very fragrant, related to flower type) — Gaultheria, birch, marrubium. 7. Tea or Hay Type (somewhat fragrant, character- istic) — Tea, hamameHs, eupatorium, laven- dula, matico, senna, brayera, eriodictyon, ery- throxylon, matico, pilocarpus and other leaves, pyrethrum flowers, Pulsatilla, uva ursi. 8. Chicory Type (fragrant and somewhat aromatic) — Roasted chicory, phytolacca fruit. B. indifferent odors. 1. Bitter Almond Type (aromatic, somewhat pleas- ant) — Bitter almond, wild cherry bark, apple seeds, quince seeds and other seeds containing hydrocyanic acid. 2. Caraway Type (aromatic, pleasant to many) — Caraway, coriander, fennel. 3. Camphor Type (characteristic, usually considered disagreeable, terebinthine odor) — Calamus, chenopodium, camphor, grindelia, eucalyptus, juniperus, rosemary, sabina, salvia, santonica, serpentaria, tanacetum, thuja. 4. Bean Type (bland, not pleasant) — Castor beans and croton beans when fresh, calabar beans, beans. 5. Seaweed Type (briny odor, not agreeable) — Char- acteristic of all seaweeds, as Irish moss. 6. Soil Type (faintly musty odor) — Very marked in sarsaparilla, noticeable in nearly all roots, rhizomes, tubers and most barks, especially when moist. 7. Sumbul Type (musk-like, heavy, disagreeable to many) — Sumbul, santalum album (faint). Examination of Vegetable Powders. 25 8. Jalapa Type (smoky, due to smoke in drying) — Jalapa and other drugs dried over a flame and over open fireplaces, as Russian rhubarb. 9. Tannin Type (a faint odor resembHng the jalapa type, noticeable in substances rich in tannin) Podophyllum, rheum, rumex, rhatany, galla, lappa, chirata, hydrastis, frasera. DISAGREEABLE ODORS. 1. Cannabis Indica Type (variously designated as heavy, nauseous, stupefying and suffocating; increased by moisture) — Absinthium, apocy- num, asclepias, aspidium (when old), bella- donna leaves, calendula, chelidonium, cimici- fuga when moist, cypripedium, digitalis leaves, dulcamara, ergot (when old), gelsem- ium, hellebore, hyoscyamus, Indian hemp, American hemp, ipecac, lactucarium, lobelia, opium, sabadilla, scoparius, senega (when old), stillingia, stramonium leaves and seeds, strophantus, tobacco. 2. Rancid odor (due to the decomposition of fats and oils) — Castor beans and croton beans (when old), cocculus Indicus, delphinium, staphis- agria, ergot and senega (when old). 3. Garlic or Alliaceous Type (sulphurous odor) — Asafoetida, garlic, onions, galbanum, mus- tard (when moist). 4. Conium Type (mouse odor) — Conium when moist- ened with potassium hydrate or other alkaline solution. 5. Melissa Type (ant odor) — Dried melissa, when briskly crushed. 26 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. 6. Valerian Type (very characteristic, develops with age) — Valerian, viburnum prunifolium, lupu- lin, humulus. 7. Taraxacum Type (cow odor, characteristic) — Ca- lumba, Phytolacca root, taraxacum, pyreth- rum root, inula, althaea, aconite, sympethum, bryonia. The following- is an alphabetical list of drugs which are prac- tically odorless. Few substances are entirely odorless, but in the drugs enumerated the odors are not sufficiently marked to be di- agnostic, especially since we have no means of comparing or measuring them. It will also be noted that there are many more drugs which are practically odorless than those which are taste- less, due to the fact that taste-sensations are more readily detected and compared. Odorless or nearly Odorless Drugs. 1. Areca (odor faintly fra- grant). 2. Aconite root (faintly horseradish-like when fresh or moistened). 3. Aspidosperma (faintly aromatic). 4. Belladonna root. 5. Berberis. 6. Br3^onia (resembling tar- axacum). 7. Calumba (resembling tar- axacum). 8. Carbo animalis. 9. Carbo vegetabilis. 10. Caulophyllum. 11. Cetraria. 12. Chamaelirium. 13. Chimaphila. 14. Chirata. 15. Cichorium (not roasted). 16. Cinchona (faintly aro- matic). 17. Colchicum (seed and corm). 18. Colocynth. 19. Canvallaria. Cornus. Dextrin. Frangula. Geranium. Glycyrrhiza (faint pecu- liar odor). 20. 21. 22. 23- 24. Examination of Vegetable Powders. 27 25. Gossypium. 26. Granatum bark. 27. Hydrangea (resembling taraxacum, 28. Hyoscyamus seeds. 29. Ignatia beans. 30. Kamala. 31. Leptandra. 32. Linum. 33. Lycopodium. 34. JMagnolia. 35. Menispermiim. 36. Mezerion. 37. Nux vomica. 38. Pareira. 39. Physostigma (bean-like). 40. Phytolacca root (like tar- axacum). 41. Populus. 42. Prinos. 43. Quassia. (causes sneez- 44. Quercus. 45. Ouillaia ing:)- Rhamnus purshiana, Rhus glabra fruit. Rhus toxicodendron 49. Rubus. 50. Salix. Sanguinaria. Santalum rubrum. Sarsaparilla (soil marked). 54. Sassafras pith. 55. Scilla. 56. Sinapis (when dry aceous when moist) . Triticum repens. Veratrum viride. Viburnum opulus. Xanthoxvlum. 46. 47. 48. 51- 52. 53- odor. alli- 57- 58. 59- 60. Upon careful consideration the student will find that many odors are very difficult of classification. The separation into aro- matic and fragrant will depend largely upon judgment ; likewise the separation into agreeable, indifferent and disagreeable. The taraxacum type is not recognized by several authors — that is, the drugs under that type are given as odorless, which certainly is not the case, as a careful test will prove. It must, however, be remembered that there are a great variety of factors which will modify the odor of drugs, as has already been indicated, and as will be explained more fully in subsequent chapters. It should be remembered that the odor of the whole drug may differ qualitatively as well as quantitatively from that of the 28 PowDiiRED Vegetable Drugs. crushed, bruised or powdered drug. The whole drug may have a very decided characteristic odor, which is very much masked or obscured, due to other odors Hberated by the crushing process. For example, well-dried, uncrushed or only slightly bruised me- lissa has a fragrant, lemon-like odor; when thoroughly crushed, the fragrancy is almost entirely obscured by a very decided disa- greeable ant odor. Uncrushed Mentha viridis has a very fra- grant odor, resembling that of the leaves of garden sweet Mary ; upon crushing there is developed an odor resembling catmint. Crude sabina has the terbinthine odor characteristic of conifers ; upon thoroughly crushing there is liberated a peculiar and very disagreeable odor. The same is true of worm seed (santonica) and some other drugs. In consideration of these facts it is ad- visable to test the odor of the drug before it is crushed or pow- dered as well as afterward. The odor of powdered drugs weak- ens very rapidly. The great surface area exposed permits the volatile odoriferous substances to escape very quickly. Even quite fresh powders of drugs which have well marked odors have only a faint or barely appreciable odor. In the case of coarse and medium powders the odor may readily be accentuated by crushing a pinch of the powder in the palm of the hand or in a small mortar, as already indicated. Since the olfactory apparatus is easily fatigued, it is not ad- visable to test the odor of many drugs in rapid succession. Thor- oughly testing from four to eight drugs in the course of one hour will be sufficient. The intervals should be long enough to enable the olfactory nerves to recover entirely from each stimulus. IV. Taste and Standards of Taste. A substance to be tasted must be'in solution and must come in contact with the gustatory nerve endings. We are capable of recognizing four basic and distinctive tastes, namely — sweet, acid, salt and bitter. The nerve endings which give rise to these dif- Examination of Vegetable Powders. 29 fereiit tastes differ structurally and occupy different positions in tongue and oral cavity. Bitter substances produce the most marked effect when placed on the base of the tongue ; acids when placed at the lateral edges of the tongue. Any part of the tongue will, however, appreciate any sapid substance. The intensity of the taste is proportional to the strength of the solution and to the gustatory surface acted upon. The sensation requires some time to develop and endures as long as any of the sapid substance re- mains. Various stimuli will cause sensations of taste, as electrical currents and contact stimuli. Temperature greatly modifies this sense. \>ry hot or very cold substances cannot be tasted ; a tem- perature of about 40 degrees C. is the most favorable. Pungent substances, as pepper, alcohol, etc., greatly obscure any gustatory sensations which may be present at the time. The gustatory nerves are not quickly fatigued, nor is their sensitiveness readily impaired or obscured. It is difficult to cover one taste by another, as is well known by those who are in search for vehicles or menstrua for disguising the taste of disagreeable medicines. Quinine is persistently bitter, no matter what is added to it. Salt is appreciated as long and as often as it may be applied to the tongue. Applying salt and sugar at the same time, both tastes are recognized. A very decided taste may, however, en- tirely obscure another faint taste. There are a number of marked and distinctive sensations usually recognized and designated as tastes which are purely tac- tile sensations and are not due to the stimulation of the gustatory nerves. The most important of these are the so-called pungent, hot or burning tastes of the spices ; the astringent taste of tannin- bearing drugs. Some authors also speak of mucilaginous, gritty, sandy and cooling tastes. All of these are merely tactile sensa- tions of the tongue and mouth. Pepper, cinnamon, allspice, al- cohol, garlic, onions, horseradish are tasteless as far as the pun- gency is concerned. Aromatic taste is also a misnomer. Bv this term is meant an 30 Pow'DKRED Vegetable Drugs. odor associated with a taste or tactile sensation. For instance, in eating an apple we appreciate a sweet taste, an acid taste and an odor. In the case of cinnamon there is a pungent tactile sensa- tion, a sweetish taste and an aromatic odor. In the case of wine and many other alcoholic drinks there is a pungent tactile sensa- tion, a sweet taste, an acid taste and an odor. It is evident, there- fore, that aromatic tastes may be divided into true aromatic, hav- ing a true taste combined with an odor; pseudo-aromatic, hav- ing a tactile sensation usually recognized as a taste, combined with an odor ; and mixed aromatic, having a tactile sensation and a taste combined with an odor. It is generally understood that the odors associated with aromatic tastes are pleasant. Such terms as aroma, flavor and bouquet are employed in speaking of the aromatic tastes of wines and other drinks, soups, perfumes, etc. Many of the finer aromas of wines, brandy, whisky and other substances are little understood ; they are doubtless due to subtle fermentative and chemical changes. . As already indicated, tastes do not develop promptly. In the case of some drugs considerable time elapses before the sen- sation is well developed. In a few instances the student will con- clude that the drug is tasteless, but after a time a taste or tactile sensation will develop, which becomes more and more pro- nounced, as, for example, the pungency of croton seed. This is doubtless due to the slow solubility of the sapid or pungent sub- stance. In some drugs the taste is obscured by a benumbing eflfect, as in aconite. In testing the taste of drugs it is advised not to use more material than is necessary. This precaution against large doses and swallowing will serve as a safeguard against annoying or even dangerous if not fatal symptoms from an overdose of very powerful drugs, as aconite, hyoscyamus, belladonna, strophantus and others. The promiscuous tasting and swallowing of drug particles, though they are comparatively harmless, will often de- velop annoying dyspeptic symptoms. It should also be remem- Examination of Vegetable Powders, 31 bered that some individuals are very sensative to the effects of certain drugs. Minute doses of nutmeg, mace and aconite have been known to produce alarming nervous symptoms. If the drug is comparatively harmless, there should be no hesitancy about tasting a larger quantity if necessary to develop a decided sensation. The student will find that one grain is an average dose of the powerful drugs, as aconite, belladonna, digi- talic, hyoscyamus, nux vomica, tobacco, strophantus and others ; if this is kept in mind, there need be no danger of an overdose, es- pecially if little or none of it is swallowed. As soon as the taste is fully developed the mouth should be well rinsed with pure water in order to remove powder particles and the taste preparatory to testing the next. Some taste sensa- tions (bitter), tactile sensations (pungency) and benumbing ef- fects are quite persistent and not easily removed ; but several rinsings with lukewarm water will usually be sufficient. While tasting a powder the student should also note concomi- tant effects, as coloration of saliva, frothiness of saliva, benumb- ing effects upon tongue and pharynx, mucilaginous condition, grittiness, etc. The student should make the most use possible of tongue, teeth and lips when occasion demands it. The following classification of true tastes, so-called aromatic tastes and tactile sensations which are generally or occasionally designated as taste sensations will serve as a review of the subject. Tastes of Vegetable Drugs. A. PURE TASTE SENSATIONS. I. Pleasant or agreeable. 1. Sweet (pleasant in all degreees of concentration) — Sugar. 2. Salty, Saline (agreeable in weak solutions; disa- greeable in strong solutions) — Salt. 32 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. 3. Acid, Acidulous, Sour (agreeable in weak solu- tions; disagreeable in strong solutions) — Vinegar. II. Disagreeable. I. Bitter (disagreeable in all degrees of solution) — Quinine. B. AROMATIC TASTE SENSATIONS (ASSOCIATIONS OF TRUE TASTES AND TACTILE SENSATIONS WITH PLEASANT ODORS). I. True Aromatic Sensations (a true taste sensation, usually acid or sweet, associated with an agreeable odor) — Many fruits, candies. II. Pseudo-Aromatic Sensations (tactile sensation associated w^ith an agreeable odor) — Cloves. III. Mixed Aromatic Sensations (true taste sensations and tactile sensations associated with agreeable odors) — Some fruits, cinnamon. C. TACTILE SENSATIONS DESIGNATED AS TASTE SENSATIONS. I. Pungent, Acrid, Hot, Sharp, Biting, Burning (quite gen- erally designated as taste sensations ; found with many drugs and all of the spices) — Pepper. 11. Astringent, "Puckery" (usually designated as tastes, and found in many drugs, usually due to tannin ; often as- sociated with a bitter or acrid taste) — Alum, green per- simmons. III. Mucilaginous (quite generally designated as a taste sen- sation) — Slippery elm bark. IV. Cooling, Refreshing (more generally spoken of as "sen- sations" ; often associated with acid tastes and pun- gently aromatic drugs, as the mints) — Cool aerated water. Examination of Vegetable Powders. 33 V. Sticky, Gummy (quite generally designated as "feels") — Due to the presence of gums, resins and wax. VI. Sandy, Gritty (generally designated as feels) — Due to the presence of sand particles, stone cells (the rind of the pear) and other minute hard particles. Some taste sensations are not primarily due to sapid sub- stances occurring in the drug. For example, the slightly sweet taste of drugs and other substances rich in starch is due to the action of ptyalin (the ferment of saliva), which has the power of converting starch into sugar. As with odor, it is not advisable to taste many drugs in rapid succession; not that the gustatory nerves are easily fatigued, but because one taste sensation should be entirely removed before the second drug is tasted. The so- called pungent tastes are especially difficult to get rid of, as, for instance, those of croton seeds, sabadilla and mezerium. Some sapid substances require time to enter into solution ; hence in hasty work two or three drugs might be tested as to taste before the sensation of the first drug has had time to develop. With some persons reflex dyspeptic symptoms develop after tasting five or six drugs in comparatively rapid succession. More or less painful irritation of lips, mouth and tongue may also follow from the repeated tasting of drugs. The following is a grouping of the more common vegetable drugs according to taste. The student must keep clearly in mind that the taste of drugs varies quantitatively and qualitatively with the change in the chemical constituency of the sapid substances. In rhis classification astringency and pungency are treated as taste sensations, though, as already stated, they are tactile sensa- tions. Odors should be kept distinct from tastes ; hence aromatic tastes is a misnomer which should be avoided. Mucilaginous state, grittiness, cooling sensations, etc., must be considered as pure tactile sensations. Many of the mixed tastes cannot be def- initely described. 34 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. The following is a tabulation of the simple tastes (inclusive of astringency and pungency) and mixed tastes as they occur in the more common dried vegetable drugs : I. Simple tastes. 1. Sweet. 2. Saline. 3. Acid. 4. Bitter. 5. Astringent. 6. Pungent. 11. Mixed Tastes. 1. Sweet-acid. 2. Sweet-bitter. 3. Sweet-acid-pungent. 4. Sweet-bitter-pungent. 5. Sweet-pungent-astringent. 6. Sweet-bitter-astringent. 7. Sweet-bitter-astringent-pungent. 8. Sweet-pungent. 9. Saline-bitter. 10. Bitter-pungent. 1 1 . Bitter-astringent. 12. Bitter-pungent-astringent. 13. Pungent-astringent. Drugs with Simple Tastes. I. Sweet'^' — Althsea, cassia fistula (pulp), cereal coffee, dex- trin, taraxacum (very faint), triticum repens, starches. II. Saline — Chondrus crispus. A pure saline taste is rare. Even in chondrus the saline taste is associated with a bitter taste. Many leaves and flowers have a more or less decided saline taste. *Substances rich in starch have a sweetish taste, due to the action of ptyalin, which converts starch into sugar. Examination of Vegetable Powders. ,55 III. Acid — Rhus glabra, vanilla. IV. Bitter — Absinthium, angustura, anthemis, apocynum, as- pidosperma, aurantium flor. (slightly pungent), ber- beris, bryonia, carthamus (saliva yellow), cetraria (?), chamaelirium, chirata, cichorium, cocculus, colo- cynth, conium, crocus (saliva yellow), digitalis, ery- throxylon, gelsemium, hyrastis, ignatia, lactuca, laven- dula, lupulin, matricaria, marrubium (also saline), menispernum, nux vomica, pareira, populus, quassia, rhamnus purshiana, scoparius, staphisagria, stramoni- um leaves and seeds, strophantus, sumbul, thuja, val- erian. V. Astringent — Areca, castanea, galla, gaultheria, geranium krameria, santalum rubrum. VI. Pungent — Cantharides (animal drug), capsicum, carda- mom, caryophyllus, coriander, coto bark (somewhat bitter), croton seeds, cubeba, hedeoma, lobelia, mace, mentha, methysticum, mezerion, myrica, pimenta, piper, sinapis, zingiber. Drugs with Mixed Tastes. I. Sweet- Acid — Vanilla (?). II. Sweet-Bitter — Amygdala, dulcamara, frasera, frangula, gentian, lappa, Scutellaria, spigelia, taraxacum ( ?) . III. Sweet-Acid-Pungent — Illicium. IV. Sweet-Bitter-Pungent — Belladonna root, caulophyllum, colchicum corm, convallaria, cypripedium, euonymus, juniper berries, hellebore, podophyllum. V. Sweet-Bitter-Astringent — Cichorium (roasted), rosa centifolia. VI. Sweet-Bitter-Pungent-Astringent — Aspidium. VII. Sweet-Pungent — Aconite, anisum, carum, cinnamon, foeniculum, glycyrrhiza, hydrangea, jalapa, phytolacca fruit and root, senega. 36 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. VIII. Sweet-Pungent-Astringent — Cinnamon (Saigon), sassa- fras bark. IX. Saline-Bitter — Marrubium and some other leaves and flowers. X. Bitter-Pungent — Arnica, asarum, asclepias, aurantium flowers and peel, belladonna leaves, brayera, calamus, canella, cascarilla, chenopodium, colchicum seed, coto bark, curcuma, delphinium, eucalyptus, grindelia, hyo- scyamus leaves and seeds, iris flor., juglans, leptandra, matico, pilocarpus, piscidia, pyrethrum flowers and V root, rosemary, sabadilla, sanguinaria, santonica, scilla, serpentaria, stillingia, tobacco, tanacetum, veratrum viride, xanthoxylum. XI. Bitter-Pungent-Astringent — Eucalyptus, myrica, myris- tica, tanacetum. XII. Bitter-Astringent — Caffea, chimaphila, cinchona, cornus, eupatorium, granatum bark, guarana, humulus, me- lissa, prinos, prunus virg., quercus, rheum, rubus, rumex, salix, thea, theobroma, viburnum op. and prun. XIII. Pungent-Astringent — Gossypium, quillaia, rhus toxico- dendron. The following drugs are practically tasteless when thor- oughly dried : 1. Carbo animalis (entirely tasteless). 2. Carbo ligni (entirely tasteless). 3. Cetraria (slightly bitter). 4. Cydonium (sweetish and very mucilaginous). 5. Erythroxylon (somewhat pungent and benumb- ing). 6. Guaiacum (somewhat pungent). 7. Kamala (entirely tasteless). 8. Linum (bitterish and mucilaginous). Examination of Vegetable Powders, .37 9. Lycopodium (entirely tasteless). 10. Physostigma (entirely tasteless). 11. Santalum rub. (entirely tasteless). 12. Sassafras pith (mucilaginous). 13. Taraxacum (practically tasteless when old). 38 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. CHAPTER 11. Causes Modifying^ the Characteristics of Vegetable Powders. The student, as well as the practicnig pharmacist, will soon learn that the different drug samples which come under his ob- servation vary greatly as to the gross characteristics. In many instances the deviations from the normal or type specimen are so great that the identity of the drug is not readily recognized. It is, therefore, of prime importance to be cognizant of the possi- ble variations in the gross characters which a drug may undergo before it comes into the hands of the student or pharmacist. It is necessary to enter into a consideration of those factors or in- flueilces which are capable of modifying vegetable drugs, as time and manner of collecting, curing, packing, shipping and storing; the influences of climatic conditions, of cultiyation, the presence of parasites, etc. If these factors are kept in mind, the student will have little difficulty in determining whether or not a given drug is of fair quality. It must also be kept in mind that a familiarity with the normal drug is necessary in order to appreciate the deviations from the normal. A thorough knowledge of the normal histology of a drug is necessary to recognize the presence of attacking hyphal fungi, adulterants of powdered drugs, etc. Naturally the factors which modify the characteristics of crude vegetable drugs also modify the powders made therefrom. I. Normal Varl\tions. By normal variation is meant such differences in the charac- teristics of different samples or specimens of the same vegetable Characteristics of Powdered Vegetable Drugs. 39 drug as are the result of normal, necessary or unavoidable influ- ences due to time, place and environment. X'ariations in size and form of crude drugs are not noticeable in the powdered state, and if the quality is unaltered there is no reason why small, broken and otherwise altered crude drugs should not be used in the powdered form. There is, also, considerable variation in the color of different specimens. Younger parts are likely to assume a darker color and to shrink more upon drying. There are unavoidable varia- tions in the manner of curing, packing and storing which will cause slight differences in the color and other characteristics of the drug. It would be an endless task to enumerate all of the possible normal variations in form, size, color, odor and taste. We can only call the student's attention to their existence, and urge upon him the necessity of a careful study of the drug in or- der that he may distinguish these slight normal variations from those of a more serious nature to be mentioned later. The student must also keep in mind the manner in which the drug is prepared for the market. Some roots and rhizomes, as sarsaparilla, curcuma, jalapa, are exposed to high temperatures, which converts some of the starch into paste and causes the drug to become glossy, brittle and darker in color. The smoky odor of jalapa is due to the fact that the tubers are dried over an open fire. Some rhizomes, roots and barks are partially or wholly peeled. All of these differences in crude drugs modify more or less the appearance of the powder, and this should be kept in mind in examining powders macroscopically as well as microscopically. II. Parasites. One of the troubles of the practicing pharmacist is caused by the various vegetable and animal pests which infest vegetable drugs. Some of these parasites attack the plants before the drug is collected, but the majority of them work their destructive in- 40 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. fluences after the drug has been dried. Their presence greatly modifies the appearance and value of drugs; it is, therefore, of great importance to be able to recognize the parasites or the ef- fects they produce. Suggestions on the methods employed to de- stroy them or to prevent their occurrence will be valuable. Strictly speaking, "parasites" is a misnomer, since the pests referred to attack dead tissues, and are, hence, saprophytic in their habits instead of parasitic; but since they are quite universally designated as parasites we shall retain that term in its older, though inaccurate application. I. the vegetable parasites. The vegetable parasites which are found in and upon the various vegetable drugs belong to the lower forms of plant life as bacteria, hyhpal fungi and lichens. Some are present before the drug is collected, as the lichens, less rarely also the hyphal fungi. All external plant parts or tissues are exposed to the pres- ence of a multitude of lower organisms, both plant and animal, and many of these are normally present. For instance, a close microscopical examination of the outer layers of barks, the epi- dermis of flowers, leaves, roots and rhizomes will reveal the pres- ence of bacteria, insect remnants, low forms of alg?e, besides other foreign substances which are carried to the plants by air and water currents, and are, therefore, normally and unavoidably present and not an indication of a poor quality or an adulteration of the drug. a. Bacteria. Bacteria are practically omnipresent. Owing to their mi- nuteness they are transported from place to place by the slight- est air currents. They are circulated in the soil by the currents caused by rains and the evaporation of moisture. They cling to all exposed plant parts. In spite of their omnipresence they prob- Characteristics of Powdered Vegetable Drugs. 41 ably do not develop in or upon dry drugs in sufficient numbers to produce any material change. Bacteria are normally present in large numbers in some vege- table substances, as the seeds of Abrus precatorius, the leaves of Drosera and NepeniJuis and the root tubercles of leguminous plants. They are abnormally present in many drugs. For in- stance, gum opium is mixed with bacteria of the air, from the often dirty hands and instruments of the collectors. It is true many if not all, of these bacteria are harmless or are dead, but some may still be viable and harmful (pathogenic), hence caution is advised in tasting some drugs. Some drug-yielding plants are grown in typhoid and malarial districts, and the imperfectly cleaned roots and rhizomes may thus serve as disseminators of disease. Though this may happen only very rarely, yet it is worthy of consideration, especially in handling and examining comparatively fresh drugs. Barks collected in the vicinity of thickly populated areas are apt to bear some disease germs. In conclusion, we would call attention to the fact that some very important fermentative changes which take place in drugs during the various stages of curing are, in all probability, induced by bacteria. German investigators have shown that the flavor of tobacco is dependent upon the species of bacterium which causes the fermentative changes during the "sweating process." Fu- ture investigations may go to prove that the deterioration of stored drugs is due to the presence of bacteria which initiate the destructive chemical changes of alkaloids and other active con- stituents. Bacteria frequently cause disease and decay of fresh vege- table substances, as, for instance, pear blight, apple blight, carna- tion blight, rotting of fleshy fruits, of tubers, bulbs and fleshy roots ; but since only few drugs are used in the fresh state, these destructive bacteria concern the pharmacist but little. 42 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. b. HypJial Fungi. Hyphal fungi are higher in the scale of evokition than bac- teria, and are designated hyphal because, no matter how highly organized they may be, they consist of a more or less densely interwoven network of usually branching elongated (filamentous) cells known as hyphse. There are a great many species, differing widely as to gross characteristics. The student is supposed to be familiar with their general morphology and physiology. A few drugs are derived from this group of plants, of which by far the most important are Clavipes pupurca (ergot) and Ustilago Alaydis (corn smut). Ergot is a fungus which attacks the undeveloped ovaries of rye, wheat and other cereals, causing an abnormal growth of the ovary. Corn smut attacks the devel- oping ovaries of Indian corn. Polyporus fouieiitarius (Zunder, Feuerschwamm) was formerly employed for checking hemor- rhage. Impregnated with a solution of salpeter it is still exten- sively employed in certain localities for lighting fires, aided by flint and steel. Lycoperdoii giganteiun (Surgeon's fungus) is still a popular remed}^ in certain countries for checking hem- orrhage. In looking over a collection of leaves and herbs there will be some leaves and herbaceous stems with circumscribed areas of a dark or brown color, indicating the presence of a blight fungus which attacked the plant before the drug was collected. A care- ful inspection of the unpeeled tree barks may reveal the presence of black spots about the size of a pin-head ; these are the apo- thecia of spot fungi, or perhaps lichens, to be mentioned later. Since these spot fungi do not occur upon root barks their absence or presence is of some diagnostic value. Since parasitic fungi are so widely distributed, one may expect to find them normally present in many drugs. The drug, however, decreases in value with the increase in the areas infected. The fungi destroy the active constituents of the drug by decomposing them chemically Characteristics of Powdkred Vegetable Drugs. 43 This applies especially to leaves and herbs ; fung-i rarely infest the living tree barks in sufficient numbers to modify their medic- inal value. Drugs which are slowly or incompletely dried, or which are stored in damp rooms or containers, are almost invariably at- tacked by hyphal fungi as well as bacteria. The hyphal fungi be- long to a group commonly known as moulds. They grow very rapidly ; a day often being sufficient to spread through a large collection, the hyphae growing over the surface, into crevices and intercellular spaces, into broken cells, along the path of vascular tissue, finally spreading through the entire supply. In the case of leaves the hyphse gain entrance into the spongy tissue and palisade tissue by way of stomata and broken epidermis. In the actively growing stage the hyphee are white, presenting a wooly appear- ance. This whitish growth can readily be seen as it spreads over the drugs. There is also the very marked and characteristic mouldy or musty odor. If left to itself the fungus finally ceases growing, due to lack of nourishment. The white color due to the presence of the living hyphse then disappears and the attacked portions of the drug gradually assume a darker coloration. Drugs thus attacked are worthless because of the destruction of most of the active constituents. Leaves and herbs are especially liable to be attacked by moulds ; to a somewhat lesser degree, also, larger roots and rhizomes. Not only are crude drugs attacked by these fungi, but powdered drugs, also extracts, tinctures and especially syrups. The spores of the moulds are to be found every- where, and are carried about by air currents ; hence it would be impossible to exclude or destroy the spores. It is, therefore, nec- essary to prevent their germination, and, very fortunately, this can be done quite readily in the case of vegetable drugs, whether crude or powdered. The greatest foes to the development of fungi, moulds and bacteria in particular, are dryness cold and sun- light. Therefore, carefully drying all vegetable drugs and stor- ing them in dry containers in a dry, cool and well-ventilated store- 44 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. room, will prevent the development of fungi, though the spores may be present. It is, however, not advisable to keep drugs ex- posed to sunlight, as that hastens the destructive changes of the active consituents. Microscopically, the presence of a fungus, whether spot fun- gus or mould, is readily detected by the presence of the character- istic hyphae, which are not readily mistaken for anything else. c. Lichens. Lichens are a very interesting group of plants, resulting from the symbiotic association of a fungus and an alga. They, therefore, present the histological characteristics of hyphal fungi and some of the usually single-celled lower algae. These plants never develop upon the drug itself. When present it may be known that they developed upon the drug-yield- ing plant before the drug was collected. They are found upon the exterior surface of some unpeeled tree barks. Lichens never develop under ground, hence they are not found upon root barks or other subterranean plant organs. Their presence is, therefore, diagnostic of stem barks, though it must not be supposed that they are found on all stem barks. They appear most commonly as circumscribed patches, varying in size and color (crustose lichens). The predominating colors being ash gray, with per- haps a greenish tinge, some are reddish yellow or orange. The apothecia may resemble those of spot fungi or they may be linear (Graphis). Sometimes remnants of foliose lichens (Parmelia, Physcia) are present ; more rarely also remnants of fruticose forms (Usnea). The cinchona barks are especially rich in lich- ens, presenting a mottled appearance, due to the presence of the crustose thalli, through which the apothecia are distributed. Some of the smaller more rudimentary lichens closely resemble some of the spot fungi. The presence of lichens is not indicative of a poor quality of the drug. If present in considerable numbers there is no doubt Characteristics of Powdered Vegetable Drugs. 45 that a portion of the active constituents of the drug are destroyed, due to the hfe activities of the Hchens. Since lichens are less parasitic (saprophytic) in their mode of living than fungi, they do not abstract such large quantities of assimilation products of the host plant. The host plant serves principally as a physical sup- port rather than a source of food, though there is little doubt that some food is supplied to the lichen by the host plant in addition to the assimilation products prepared and supplied by the symbiotic algae (gonidia). In any case, lichens occur only sparingly upon a comparatively few stem barks and need cause no concern to the pharmacist as regards the value of drugs. They are principally of botanical interest, and, as already indicated, they are of some diagnostic value. 2. ANIMAL parasites. The most destructive pests to vegetable drugs are certain animals which feed upon the drugs in containers and store-rooms. Some drugs are more readily attacked than others. Those rich in starch, sugar and inulin are especially liable to attack, no mat- ter how poisonous they may be, as strophantus, belladonna root and aconite root. These parasites belong principally to the insecta and arach- nida. Of the insecta the most common is Sitodrepa paiiicea. This is a small beetle about one-fourth inch in length, of a dark brown color. The insect passes its entire existence among the drugs. The larva hatched from the egg is a light colored grub, which feeds very voraciously upon the drug for several weeks, then pupates (resting stage), and finally develops into the sex- ually mature insect (imago), which also feeds upon the drug and lays the eggs from which a new generation springs. As indi- cated, the larva is most destructive. Sometimes almost the entire drug is destroyed, leaving only a thin outer shell, which crumbles to pieces under the lightest touch. There are a number of other insect parasites which may be 46 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. found among drugs. Lasiodcniia scrricornc resembles Sitodrcpa in form and habits. Ftiiius hrunncns is somewhat larger with long antennae ; it is similar in habits, but seems to show some preference for leaves and leafy herbs and powders. Other com- paratively rare insect parasites, which occasionall}' attack drugs, are Bostric/nis dactilliperda and AntJircnus scrop/iulariaccae, which are more common upon furs and skins; Anfhrciiiis variiis generally attacks dried animal substances, particularly furs. Tcn- ebrio ohscurns, Calandra oryza, Tinea pcnionella (the ordinary cloth moth), and a number of other insects may on occasion be found feeding upon drugs. Of the arachnida there are certain mites which occasionally attack drugs, especially powdered drugs, and such substances as sugar, starch, flour and bran. These animals are very small and closely related to the familiar cheese mites, sugar mites, meal mites, itch mites, etc. As a rule, they are nearly colorless, and this, combined with their minuteness, makes it dufficult to detect them in the early stages of infection. They occur less frequently than insects and cause serious trouble in only isolated instances. It does not matter so much what the parasite is. The point of real interest is that drugs, both crude and powdered, may be attacked by various animal parasites ; that these parasites are often very destructive and constitute a nuisance sometimes not readily combated. If one keeps in mind that some drugs are more readily attacked than others, it will simplify the matter of watching the stock on hand for incipient evidences of the presence of parasites. If mature insects are present it indicates that the drug is infested. Looking over the infected roots and rhizomes one may readily observe small circular openings which the larva make in eating their way in or out of the drug. By means of the powerful jaws the insect converts the drug into a powder, some of which may be found at the bottom of the container or scattered through it. The grub literally destroys the entire interior of the drug, leaving only a thin outer shell which serves as a protection Characteristics of Powdered Vegetable Drugs. 47 to the insect or larva. The minute round holes of ingress and egress are unmistakable evidence of the presence of the parasites. The following drugs are most liable to be attacked by animal parasites: Aconite root, angelicum, apocynum, asclepias, bella- donna root, calamus, colchicum corm, ergot, ginger, inula, iris, jalapa, pellitory, rheum, taraxacum, squill, most of the leaves and herbs. These drugs, whether in the crude state or powdered form, should be inspected frequently ; if the parasites are present, as evidenced by the presence of the insects themselves, their larvae or the powder-like particles of the drug, the retainer should be emptied, the larvae, insects and attacked specimens should be re- moved, drugs and retainer thoroughly cleaned, dried and then re- placed. These watchful measures are usually all that is required, but to make sure that all of the parasites are rendered inactive the drug should be exposed to some insecticide which does not destroy or modify the active constituents of the drug nor poison it. Bisulphide of carbon is perhaps the most efifective insecticide. It kills the larvae and mature insects, but does not destroy the eggs ; hence several inspections are necessary after the insecticide has been used, as the eggs may be present from which new larvae develop. The bisulphide of carbon may be used as follows : Place the cleaned drug loosely in the container or in a roomy, dry, clean box with tight cover or lid. Pour some of the bisulphide of carbon in a flat vessel and place it in the box containing the drug, close the box and leave the drug exposed to the vapor of the in- secticide for several hours or more, the time of exposure depend- ing upon the quantity of the drug. Pieces of gum camphor placed with the drug are said to drive away insects ; it does, however, not kill them. Boxes and con- tainers in which insect parasites have existed should be thor- oughly washed and scalded in boiling water to kill the eggs that may be present and then thoroughly dried before the drugs are replaced. 48 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Powdered drugs may be treated like crude drugs. Larvae and insects may, however, be more readily removed by sifting; the eggs will, of course, pass through the sieve with the powder; hence repeated inspection and perhaps repeated sifting may be necessary. The mature insects of powdered drugs usually work their way to the sides of the glass bottles and other transparent containers where they can be readily detected. The larvae remain in the interior of the powder. Chloroform and ether may be used like bisulphide of carbon, or it may be sprinkled over the drug directly and the container closed. These insecticides must, however, not be used too fre- quently or too profusely, as they undoubtedly destroy some of the active constituents. In the majority of cases it is best to discard infested drugs, especially powders, as it is not possible to remove the insects com- pletely without much care and trouble. Powdering of Vegetable Drugs. 49 CHAPTER III. Powdering; Vegetable Drugs. Since most crude vegetable drugs must be reduced to a pow- der for the purpose of the ready extraction of active constiuents, the student of pharmacy and the practicing pharmacist should be competent to pass judgment upon the quality of simple vegetable powders. /. Selection of Drugs for Powdering. — Vegetable drugs to be powdered should be of good quality, well garbled and free from dirt, dust, lime, sand and other undesirable substances. The quality of the drug is of special importance, because it would be very difficult, if not wholly impossible, to distinguish a good quality of powder from a powder prepared from an inferior or worthless drug. Both would present the same histological char- acteristics, though there may be more or less marked dififerences in color, odor, taste, weight and consistency. It would be a very simple matter for the unscrupulous to powder winnowings, ref- use, drugs of poor grade, and place them- upon the market as the genuine article. Even the exhausted powders might be mixed with the fresh powder without fear of detection, unless subjected to a careful chemical and microscopical examination. We shall again recur to this subject under the head of adulterations. 2. Preparing Drugs for Pozvdering. — Before crude vegeta- ble drugs are powdered they are again dried to remove hygro- scopic moisture; this is for the purpose of rendering the process of powdering easier, as the tenaciousness of vegetable tissues in- creases with the amount of moisture present. It should also be kept in mind that low temperatures increase the brittleness of 50 POVVDERLD VEGETABLE DrUGS. • vegetable tissues. It might, therefore, prove advantageous to powder the drugs during very cold weather or in an artificially reduced temperature. Since uniformity of the strength of the percolate depends largely upon the uniformity in the fineness of the powder, it is evident that conditions for powdering crude drugs should be uni- form, especially as to temperature and dryness. Drying should be done at a constant moderate temperature (40 degrees C.) in order to reduce the loss of active constituents. Gas ovens with thermo-regulators are most suitable. J. Powdering.'^' — For purposes of reducing vegetable drugs various drug mills are used, in some instances a mortar and pestle are sufficient. Whatever the apparatus employed, it should have the desired operative efifectiveness, irrespective of size and work- ing capacity. The larger, more carefully constructed mills, how- ever, yield the most uniform powders. It is practically impossible to prepare a uniform powder by means of pestle and mortar, al- though this apparatus is highly recommended by some authorities. It is a tedious process, and the more delicate tissues are reduced to a fine powder long before the more fibrous portions begin to be broken up ; in fact, it is practically impossible to reduce bast, tracheids, vessels and similar tissues to anything like a fine pow- der. Some authorities suggest that this difficulty may be over- come by separating powders thus prepared into three grades as to fineness, and in percolating to place the finest powder at the bottom of the percolator. This suggestion is, however, not prac- ticable, as will become self-evident upon careful consideration. 4. Sifting. — The fineness is determined and measured by passing the powders through a sieve with meshes of known di- mensions. These meshes should be uniform and square and their dimensions should indicate the size of the opening, irrespective of *For description of appartus and methods for powdering, sifting, etc., of vegetable drugs, consult a standard American work on the Practice of Pharmacy. Powdering of Vegetable Drugs. 51 the diameter of the wire, silk, hair or other substance employed in sieve construction. Here, again, it is found that the larger machine-operated sieves are more satisfactory than the smaller hand-sieves. Sifting should be done carefully. It is necessary to clean the sieves frequently, as very fine particles cling to the wire, silk or hair, especially at the angles, thus allowing only par- ticles to pass through which are considerably smaller than the free mesh. The fineness of powders is indicated by the diameter of the meshes given in the metric system or English system, representing a definite number of meshes to the centimeter or to the inch. The homogeneity and fineness of the powder is greatly modi- fied by the force with which the sieve is operated. Sifting lightly allows only the finer particles to pass through ; upon shaking the sieve with greater force coarser particles pass through also. Sieves should be kept closed so as to prevent loss of powder and also to prevent inhalation of poisonous and irritating drugs.* 5. Uniform Pozvdcring. — All parts of the drug should be reduced to the same degree of fineness. Typical starch-bearing parenchyma is reduced to the desired degree of fineness before the more tenacious tissues, as bast, tracheids, vessels, etc., begin to be finely crushed. As the less resisting tissues become re- duced sufficiently they should be removed by sifting, and the re- maining fibrous tissues should be reduced until all will pass through the sieve. With some drugs it is possible to separate the parenchymatous, medcinally active tissues from the fibrous and comparatively inactive tissues, as with ipecac. Some phar- macopoeias recommend that this be done. It is, however, a pro- cess not readily put into practice, and. hence is not generally carried out, even with the few drugs where such a process would be possible. *In powdering as well as sifting irritating and poisonous drugs,' eyes, nose and mouth should be protected by means of a cloth or sponge. 52 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. 6. Mixing of Pozvdcrs. — After grinding and sifting, the powder should be thoroughly mixed, in order that the compara- tively active and inactive particles may be distributed uniformly; otherwise one portion of the powder might be more active than another portion. Upon standing for some time and during ship- ment the heavier particles become more or less separated from the lighter particles. It is, therefore, advisable to thoroughly mix the powder again just before a portion or all of it is to be used. 7. Fineness of Powders. — The fineness of the powder will depend upon its intended use. Theoretically it may be stated that the finer the powder the quicker and more complete the extraction of active constituents, no matter whether intended for internal use, for alcoholic extraction or for equeous extraction. The ac- tive constituents occur in the cell-lumen and in the cell-walls ; the individual cell should, therefore, be broken that the extractive substance, whether it be the saliva, gastric juice, alcohol or water, may permeate the cell-wall and occupy the cell-lumen and take up (by solution and asmosis) the medicinal principles. Theoret- ically, therefore, all cells, whether long, tabular or isodiametric, should be separated from each other and each cell should be broken in two. This would imply that the various drugs should be reduced to very fine powders. Such a condition exists prac- tically in so-called meals, as flour, almond meal, insect powder and most powders intended for internal use. Upon making a microscopic examination of powders designated as No. 80 and No. 100, it will be found that cell groups still remain. It must also be kept in mind that the cells of different drugs vary consid- erably in size. Drugs from aquatic plants, semi-aquatic plants and plants growing in marshy soil have larger cells than drugs from plants growing in dry soil ; hence the powders of the former drugs need not be so finely reduced as those of the latter. While vegetable powders cannot be too fine from a theoret- ical standpoint, it is found that for practical purposes of extrac- tion (percolation) the finest powders are not available. The Powdering of Vegetable Drugs. 53 small particles pack together so closely as to check or prevent per- colation. The fineness of powders must not only be adapted to the methods and agents employed in percolation, but also to the extractive it is desired to obtain. Powders intended for internal use cannot be too fine. As regards the fineness of powders for the preparation of infusions, extracts and tinctures, it may be stated that for alcoholic extrac- tion the fineness must be greater than for aqueous extraction, since alcohol does not penetrate and permeate cell-walls so readily as does water. Aqueous extracts contain more of the inert con- stituents, but certain cell-contents are soluble in alcohol only, as resin, fats and some volatile oil. Some drugs cannot readily be reduced to a fine powder di- rectly, as, for instance, seeds rich in oil ; as nutmeg, croton beans, castor beans, almonds, cardamom and other aromatic seeds. The oil is first removed and the powdering done subsequently, or some inert substance is added, as sand, sugar, starch, or dry, woody substance, which serves as a comminuting menstruum. Orange peel, lemon peel, slippery elm, mezerion, etc., are first chopped into small bits, dried and then powdered in the usual way. In the United States the size of the meshes of the sieves or the fineness of the powders is indicated in the English system. Very fine powders, exceeding 100 meshes to the linear inch, are usually designated as dusted powders or meals, and are intended for internal use or other special use; as insect powders. Nos. 80-100 are also largely intended for internal use, but may also be employed for alcoholic percolation. Nos. 50 and 60 are more generally better suited for percolation. For aqueous extraction coarser powders are suitable, as Nos. 20-40. For decoctions, broken drugs or even entire drugs, as leaves, leaflets and some herbs, may be employed. In Europe the number of meshes are given in the metric sys- tem. In Germany, for instance, 5 to 15 meshes to the centimeter indicate coarse powders ; 20 to 25 meshes, medium ; and 30 to 50 54 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. meshes, fine powders. Sieves for fine powders are usually made of silk thread, horse hair for medium powder and wire for coarse powders. For very fine meals bolting cloth is used in sifting. Powders containing acid are* not sifted through metal sieves, as the wire would be corroded. The fineness of the material used should harmonize more or less with the fineness of the powder. The hygroscopic moisture of the powder and that of the sieve threads interferes very materially with uniform sifting ; hence the necessity of keeping powder and sieve dry and cleaning the sieve repeatedly. Frequent cleaning is especially required when sift- ing oily powders. 8. Presen'ation of Pozvders. — As already indicated, pow- dered drugs deteriorate much more rapidly than crude drugs ; it is, therefore, urged not to powder drugs until required for use, and never to powder more than can be used within a compara- tively short period. Some powders deteriorate more rapidly than other, just as some crude drugs deteriorate more rapidly than others. It is much to be regretted that some uniform and ef- ficient method of powdering, packing, shipping and storing is not enforced. Each package or bottle of the vegetable powder should have upon it a statement of the age of the drug from which the powder was made, date of powdering and when it should be renewed. Some effective method of compensating for loss of active constituents should also be recommended. After grinding the powder should again be carefully and thoroughly dried at a moderate temperature and immediately placed in perfectly dry, well-stoppered bottles or other suitable containers. p. The Characteristics of Vegetable Poivders. — Since vege- table powders are readily subject to deterioration and adulteration, it is quite important that the pharmacist should be able to recog- nize the characteristics of pure powders. While the odor and taste are the same in quality as that of the crude drug, it should be kept in mind that these properties are less marked quantitatively. Powdering of Vegetable Drugs. 55 The odor in particular dissipates very rapidly. Attention should be given to fineness, consistency and weight. If powders of oily drugs are dry and mealy it indicates that the oil was removed previous to powdering. If the powder is. deficient in weight it indicates that winnowings or a poor grade of drug were used. The color of the powder is, of course, uniform and harmon- izes more or less with the predominating color of the crude drug, but it must be remembered that the color varies greatly. For in- stance, exposure to light deadens the color quite rapidly, the ten- dency being toward grayish shades and tints. Exposure to mois- ture and the presence of vegetable parasites produces darker shades. The fineness of the powders, also, greatly modifies the color, increased fineness producing tint effects. In some instances the quality of the color is even changed ; for instance, powdered licorice of medium fineness is yellow, while the licorice meal is much lighter, with a decided lemon color. Roasting produces dark to nearly black colorations. Powders made from plant parts rich in oil and fat, as cloves, almonds, larkspur, stavesacre, etc., darken rapidly, and become rancid, due to the decomposition of the fats into fatty acids and glycerine. Powdered vegetable drugs may be grouped according to the following colors : I. Very Light. Mostly seeds and roots. 1. White, as starches and cereal flour. 2. Very light, tinged with yellow, red or some dark substance ; as althaea, orris root, colocynth, etc. II. Yellow. Alostly roots and rhizomes. A few flowers and barks. 1. Pale yellow and straw yellow. 2. Orange yellow and lemon. 3. Brownish yellow and yellowish brown. III. Green. Mostly leaves and herbs. 1. Grayish green. 2. Brownish green. 56 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. IV. Gray. Mostly roots. 1. Ash gray. 2. Brownish gray and dark gray. V. Brown. Mostly barks. 1. Reddish brown. 2. Dark brown. VI. Very dark. A few barks, as juglans. Roasted drugs. 1. \'ery dark, tinged with red or yellow. 2. Black, as charcoal. Some of the vegetable drugs give color reactions with certain chemicals (strong solution of potassium hydrate and sulphuric acid), which are more or less useful in determining the identity and purity of the powder. Since the gross characters of powdered vegetable drugs are variable and otherwise unreliable, the pharmacist must look to other and more reliable characters. The histological elements of drugs are not materially changed, no matter what the changes in color, odor, taste and weight may be. A careful microscopical examination is the only reliable means of determining the identity of a powder, but here also difficulties are met with, as shall be in- dicated in the following chapters. The methods of microscopic examination should be uniform for the different powders, and great care is necessary to avoid confusion. The examiner will not be able to obtain reliable re- sults unless he is familiar with the histolog}- of plants and has the ability to recognize different cell- forms in w^hatever position they may be found. For microscopic examination the most suitable fineness is No. 40 to 60 for low powders and about No. 80 for high power work. Very fine powders, as No. 100 and finer, are rarely desirable for microscopic work. For more detailed direc- tions regarding the microscopical examination of powders and crude drugs see Chapter V. Adulteration of Vegetable Drugs. 57 CHAPTER IV. Adulteration or Sophistication of Vegetable Drugs* Since adulterated crude drugs are as likely, or even more likely, to be powdered than pure drugs, substitution, adulteration and sophistication must be treated in a general way. We cannot enter into a discussion of the various motives which lead to the practice of sophistication in pharmacy ; suffice it to know that crude as well as powdered vegetable drugs are frequently placed upon the market variously adulterated. In some instances adul- teration is the rule rather than the exception, as in the case of powdered elm bark and some spices. In recognition of such facts it becomes highly important that the practicing pharmacist should have the training requisite to the detection of such fraudulent work. Naturally, those who market adulterated drugs take great care to conceal the fraud, and in this the misplaced ability of the unscrupulous is pitted against the intelligence of the trained pharmacist, whose duty it is to detect and expose such crooked work. The uneducated and inadequately qualified pharmacist is wholly defenseless against the criminal practices of the unprin- cipled collector, dealer and jobber, and he should accordingly be excluded from the profession. Some drugs lend themselves more readily to sophistication than others. Powdered vegetable drugs are more readily and more generally adulterated than crude drugs. In some instances the fraud is quite readily detected, while in other instances great skill and careful investigation are necessary to detect the decep- tion. 58 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. It is evident that with the progress in pharmaceutical educa- tion adulteration decreases and the methods become altered in accordance with such progress. Crude methods of common prac- tice in the past are supplanted by more scientific modern methods. With these introductory statements we shall now enter into a brief consideration of the more common forms of adulteration, the more common substances employed, and outline the more suitable methods of detecting them. I. Adulterations as to Intent. Not by any means all of the drug adulterations are premedi- tated and many may never become known ; that is, an adulteration does not always imply criminal intent. As will be seen, ignorance plays a very important part in unintentional sophistication, and this indicates very clearly the necessity of employing technical skill in securing pure medicinal substances for the relief and cure of disease. I. Uniiifcntional or Accidental Adulteration. This form of adulteration is by no means uncommon, and is due to ignorance and carelessness. In some instances it is wholly free from blame, but in other instances the ignorance is so marked and the carelessness so evident as to deserve as much condemna- tion as intentional deception. The following are the principal causes of this form of sophistication : I. Ignorance on the part of collectors who gather the wrong plant or mix the genuine drug with worthless material. This par- ticular form of sophistication is not very common, as collectors, na- tives and others, usually select the right drug instinctively. Such errors are generally made by new and inexperienced collectors, but these soon learn to avoid such mistakes ; furthermore, they are quite generally properly instructed by the experienced collec- tors. Adulteration of Vegetable Drugs. 59 A much more fruitful source of sophistication is carelessness on the part of collectors. Roots and rhizomes are hurriedly and carelessly gathered, an excessive amout of soil is left clinging to them, along with undesirable plant parts, and the roots, leaves, branches, etc., of smaller foreign plants. This applies particu- larly to the roots and rhizomes collected in America, which are, as a rule, also carelessly dried. Again, collectors are not adequately instructed as to how and when to collect. Drugs collected out of season or carelessly dried are more or less worthless. To avoid this, collectors should be more definitely instructed by competent authorities. 2. Ignorance on the part of botanists who fail to distinguish between related species and varieties. Drugs from two wholly distinct species or varieties, one of which is more or less worth- less, are supposed to be identical, and are placed (ipon the market variously intermixed. Again, in a nvmiber of instances the bo- tanical origin of the drug-yielding plant is wholly unknown, as with sarsaparilla, coto bark and some cinnamons. This form of sophistication was more common in the past. The leading au- thorities are often uncertain regarding the exact influence of cli- matic conditions, cultivation, etc., as already indicated ; and this is often responsible for an inferior quality of the drug. 3. Ignorance on the part of the practicing pharmacist. As indicated in the introduction, if the pharmacist does not have an adequate pharmaceutical training he is wholly at the mercy of unscrupulous jobbers, who will sell him their worthless material, reserving the genuine wares for the intelligent pharmacists who cannot be duped so readily. The ignorant pharmacist will fre- quently purchase a cheap drug, especially powdered drugs and spices, under the impression that he is getting a first-class article at a bargain. The ignorant pharmacist is also liable to use and sell material which has become worthless through age, exposure to moisture, contamination with bacteria, hyphal fungi and other parasites. 6o Powdered Vegetable Drugs. 4. Exaggeration and untrustworthy work of analytical chemists who claim to have discovered medicinal substances which do not exist at all, or only in small quantities. This is usually the case when some new remedy is vaunted. This form of sophisti- cation is unintentional in so far as inherent human enthusiasm naturally leads to more or less exaggeration. It has little effect with the intelligent pharmacists and physicians, as they will not recommend or use a drug until it has been thoroughly tested by competent and unbiased chemists and physiologists. 2. Intentional or Criminal Adulteration. This form of adulteration is due to an utter lack of con- science. Foreign substances are added to the salable drugs with a view to deriving a pecuniary profit above that which comes from dealing in the genuine article. Every housewife knows that powdered spices, as pepper, cinnamon, allspice and cloves are subject to adulteration. This is of such common occurrence that it is advisable to purchase the whole spice and grind it at home. The pharmacist should apply this suggestion to vegetable drugs, in so far as that is possible. The following are the common methods and sources of criminal adulteration : 1. Intentional adulteration by collectors. The prime motive may spring from a scarcity of the drug; an effort is, therefore, made to bring the quantitative supply to the normal by adding worthless material or inferior grades. Again, the quantitative supply may not be deficient, but inordinate greed on the part of the collector leads to the addition of some adulterant for the pur- pose of increasing the bulk. 2. Intentional adulteration by dealers and jobbers, (a) Dealers may purchase inferior grades of collectors and sell them as first-class articles to ignorant retailers or pharmacists. This is very common practice, (b) Foreign material is added to the drug and sold at a price below that of the honest dealers ; or (c) Adulteration of Vegetable Drugs. 6i The dealer may maintain the price while furnishing additional bulk to be sold over and above the amount that can be sold by honest competitors. 3. Intentional adulteration by practicing pharmacists. This is of comparatively rare occurrence, as the pharmacist soon learns that such practice injures his trade. The alert and competent members of the medical profession, who have the direct interest of the sick at heart, make such criminal practice almost impossible. 4. Intentional fraudulent testimony by scientists (botanists and chemists), who claim to have discovered some new useful drug. This, likewise, is of rare occurrence, as the fraud is promptly exposed by honest authorities. Of these criminal practices it is the middleman, dealer or jobber who is most likely to prove the guilty party. The collec- tor is closely supervised by the dealer, who will generally insist upon a genuine article, but will attempt to palm oft" inferior or worthless material on the retailer. It is, therefore, largely the in- telligent practicing pharmacist who must assume the responsi- bility of purifying the drug trade. II. Manner of Adulteration. The adulterants added to vegetable drugs vary greatly as to kind and quantity. In some instances the foreign substance is added in comparatively small quantities, so as to prevent ready de- tection ; in other instances large quantities are added, and again there may be complete substitution. We may, therefore, recog- nize partial substitution and complete substitution. I. Partial Substitution. This form of sophistication is most commonly practiced, the intention being to retain the apparently normal identity of the drug. The sophisticant must, therefore, not be added in large quantities, otherwise the fraud is too readily detected. The 62 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. amount added will depend somewhat upon the judgment and in> telligence of the sophisticator. If he fears the detective powers of the qualified pharmicist he will refrain from his crooked work entirely, or will add only small quantities (one to five per cent., or somewhat more). In other instances he will not hesitate to add as much as fifty per cent., or even more. It is generally quite difficult to estimate the amount of the sophisticant added. In the case of crude drugs it would be necessary to go through the entire collection and carefully winnow out the foreign sub- stance or substances. This is a tedious task, but the results are quite accurate. In the case of powdered drugs the matter be- comes much more difficult, as has already been indicated, and as will be more fully explained in Chapter \\ 2. Complete Snbsitutiou. This form of sophistication is not commonly practiced with vegetable drugs, though it is not at all unusual in other depart- ments of pharmacy. It is recorded that nutmegs have been made of wood ; a reckless form of adulteration, said to have been ex- tensively practiced in Connecticut, and which gave the State the sobriquet "Nutmeg State." Imitation cofifee beans have been made of pressed clay, cloves of roasted and pressed starch. A mixture of tartar emetic and some inert vegetable powder has been substituted for powdered ipecac, etc. But such crude sub- stitution is not commonly practiced. It is more usual to substi- tute a closely related plant or plant part for the drug itself, whether in the crude or powdered state. For instance, the west- ern senega is substituted for the southern variety ; one variety of cinchona for another, etc. In some instances total substitution may be due to a mistake, a misunderstanding or to ignorance. For example, safflower has been sold for safifron under the ignor- ant belief that it was the true Spanish drug. Adulteration of Vegetable Drugs. 63 III. Substances Employed in Sophistication. The material more usually employed in the adulteration of vegetable drugs may be divided into two groups ; that added to crude drugs and powdered drugs and that which may be added to powders only. The material employed does not necessarily give anv indication whether or not the sophistication was accidental or intentional, though in many instances it does give such evi- dence. For instance, if willow leaves and poplar leaves are found with tea we may safely conclude that the sophistication was crim- inal, as even the most ignorant collector can distinguish between tea leaves and willow leaves. If starch or flour is found in a powder normally free from starch we may again safely conclude that the sophistication was criminal. The presence of the first year leaves of digitalis among the second year leaves may be wholly unintentional. I. Organic Substances. 1. Closely Related Plants and their Varieties. — This is the more usual material employed, as in many instances the physio- logical action, the gross characters and histological characters are closely similar. In some instances, however, the gross characters may be similar while the histological characters are different, and vice versa. For example, we find that Apocynuni cannabinnm and A. androsaemifolium, Surinam quassia and Jamaica quassia, resemble each other as to gross appearances, but the histological characters are quite different. A. aiidrosaeinifoliuni is distin- guished from the other species by the presence of stone-cells. The Surinam quassia differs from the other in the form of the medul- lary rays and the presence of stone-cells in the bark. 2. Remote Plants and their Varieties. — Not infrequently plants and plant parts having no close botanic relationship to the drug-yielding plant, are used as sophisticants, whether for crude drugs or powders. Sawdust is added to powdered vegetable 64 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. drugs to increase the bulk. Remote plants and plant organs may be substituted for the drug itself because of a similarity in physio- logical action. Such adulterations are, as a rule, quite readily detected. J. Refuse and IVinnowings. — These are usually powdered and added to the pure article or sold separately. The refuse and winnowings of spices, pepper in particular, are quite generally used as indicated. This will explain why it is possible for some dealers to sell ground spices and other vegetable powders at a price much below that of the market value of the genuine crude drug itself. The fraud is not by any means easily detected, be- cause the histological characters of the refuse and winnowings are the same or similar to those of the pure article. Giving care- ful attention to weight, color, odor and taste will generally dis- close the fraud, especially when combined with a thorough micro- scopical examination. 4. Exhausted Drugs. — Exhausted drugs, whether crude or powdered, are not infrequently redried and again placed upon the market, generally after being mixed with the pure article. This applies, for instance, to tea, ground coffee, expressed cloves and other powdered drugs and spices, and other medicinal substances. In some hotels and tea-houses where tea is used in large quantities the exhausted leaves are collected, dried and rolled with good tea and placed upon the market. Coffee grounds are collected, dried and mixed with good ground coffee. Exhausted powders are taken from the percolators, dried and mixed with pure powders. 5. Inferior Drugs. — Drugs having become more or less worthless through infection with vegetable and animal parasites, through age, exposure to moisture and sunlight, etc., are sold as genuine or mixed with the genuine. Drugs more or less worth- less because collected out of season, improperly cultivated, care- lessly dried, etc., are also placed upon the market. Such drugs are generally sold in the powdered state, as that renders detection more difficult. In the case of crude inferior drugs careful atten- Adulteration of Vegetable Drugs. 65 tion should be given to color, odor and taste, as compared with the pure drug. A careful chemical test may prove useful, as al- kaloids and other active constituents are greatly reduced in such drugs. 6. Sfarclics and Meals. — These substances are added to powdered drugs only. Starch and flower have ever been exten- sively employed in drug adulteration. They are cheap, plentiful everywhere, easily obtained and perfectly harmless. The mod- ern sophisticant must, however, be very cautious in their use, as the cheaper and more common starches and meals have character- istic granules and are, therefore, readily detected and identified microscopically. If starch is added to a drug which is normally free from starch, the fraud is detected at once. Various cereal meals are generally employed, as wheat flour, corn meal, oat meal, etc. Occasionally the flour or starch is partially roasted. This renders it less conspicuous because of its whiteness and partially dextrinizes the starch granules, thus rendering their detection more difficult. Meals free from starch are occasionally employed in the adulteration of vegetable powders, especially almond meal. Some powdered drugs are so commonly adulterated that dealers boldly assert that a pure article does not exist ; this ap- plies, for instance, to powdered elm bark, which is quite univer- sally adulterated with starch and flour. Kamala is quite gener- ally adulterated with colored starch and sand. Such substances as powdered pepper, cayenne pepper and mustard are quite fre- quently adulterated with considerable quantities of flour. 7. Insects and Insect Remnants. — These are never added intentionally. They are quite frequently accidentally present in some drugs, as leaves, flowers and barks. The insects cling to or are retained by the various plant parts, where they die and are collected with the drug. Aphidce (plant lice) are very plentifully found with the strobiles of hunuilus. In all such mstances the organisms are dead and need cause no concern, as they are rarely, if ever, present in sufficient numbers to injure the value of the 66 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. drug. They are mentioned here because students are apt to find occasional insects and insect remnants in the microscopical ex- amination of drugs. The presence of living insects and other animals is evidence that the drug is attacked by a destructive para- site and should be promptly attended to. 2. Inorganic Substances. 1. Sand. — This substance is added to powdered drugs, and it is surprising to find how extensively it is used. It must, how- ever, be kept in mind that a small amount of sand is normally present in many drugs. Air currents carry dust and sand par- ticles to all exposed parts of plants ; it accumulates in crevices of barks and other irregularities of plant surfaces ; it is readily re- tained by waxy and resinous excretions of leaves, flowers and fruits ; it is retained by trichomes, etc. Soil, which is simply a mixture of sand particles and decayed organic matter, clings to all subterranean plant organs. From these considerations it becomes evident that some sand will be found upon many crude drugs and mixed with the po\yders made from them, as there is no means of removing it entirely, even with the most careful washing and winnowing. We would naturally expect to find more normal sand with the powders of roots, rhizomes and tubers ; less with barks, and still less with most herbs, flowers and fruits. It should be wanting in powders of peeled barks, of woods, of peeled roots, rhizomes, tubers and seeds. I have found kamala and lupulin adulterated with considerable quantities of fine sand. 2. Dirt, Clay, Lime. — Not infrequently collectors leave enough dirt attached to subterranean plant organs as to amount to adulteration, as, for instance, Mexican sarsaparilla and many of the roots and rhizomes collected in the United States. Clay is sometimes added to powders (goa powder). Lime is not inten- tionally added, but it will be found in powders made from limed crude drugs, as iris, ginger and nutmeg. Adulteration of Vegetable Drugs. 67 J. Pebbles, Lead, etc. — Such substances are not commonly employed, and are nearly always added to crude drugs. Pebbles are often added to coffee beans. Shot, pebbles, lead foil, etc., have been found in the interior of lumps of gum opium. Stones have been found in the interior of bundles of sarsaparilla and other bundled crude drugs, but this is of rare occurrence. 4. Coloring Substances. — The desire to place an attractive article upon the market has led to the pernicious habit of coloring certain drugs. We have already referred to the habit of liming, which does serve some useful purpose besides giving a white color. In certain parts of China tea is quite generally colored with indigo and Prussian blue. Coffee beans are similarly col- ored. Adulterants are often colored before adding them to the drug in order to simulate the normal color. In some countries the little cubes of different kinds of medicinal woods are variously colored. The habit of coloring drugs for the purpose of simulating a better grade of the article should be looked upon as criminal adul- teration, even if the coloring substance is perfectly harmless. IV. The Detection of Adulterations. The ability to detect adulterations of vegetable drugs will depend upon the skill and training of the pharmacist. The stu- dent must acquire the ability to recognize all of the gross charac- ters and the histological characters of each drug. It will thus be possible for him to recognize the absence or presence of foreign substances without the least difficulty. The practicing pharmacist should never take the purity of an article for granted, but should satisfy himself to that effect per- sonally. Every drug as soon as received should be inspected carefully to determine whether or not it is the drug intended, as some mistake may have been made in packing, labeling and shipping, though that is of rare occurrence. The drug should 68 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. then be carefuly examined to determine its purity and quality, and in order to do this the pharmacist must be thoroughly familiar with the characters of the normal drug. We have elsewhere re- ferred to the methods of examining drugs and need not refer to them again. If the drug does not possess the qualities of a first- class article it should be returned to the shipper at once, with a suitable condemnation. In the case of powdered drugs the matter becomes more dif- ficult. The intelligent use of a good compound microscope is ab- solutely necessary. The student must have a thorough knowl- edge of vegetable histology. He must have the ability to recog- nize the normal tissue elements in order that he may recognize the presence of foreign elements. The recognition of the adul- terant is of prime importance ; its identity is of little significance in most instances. In many cases it will be found very difficult, if not impossible, to determine the identity of the sophisticant. The quantitative determination of the sophisticant is also quite difficult. Approximate determinations may be made by examin- ing a number of slides and estimating ocularly the comparative amount of adulterant and drug. In some instances the adulterant is detected with great difficulty, as, for instance, in the case of ex- hausted powders, winnowings, etc., as already indicated. Starches and meals are, as a rule, readily detected, with the exception of rice starch. Rice starch consists of small granules, irregular in form, and might readily be overlooked for the smaller granules normal to the powder, unless added in large quantities. Sand is quite readily detected. It produces a very character- istic gritty sensation under the cover-glass and to the teeth when the drug is tested for its taste. The beaker test is very simple and reliable. Mix a known quantity of the powder in a beaker of water ; the powder will float while the sand will settle to the bottom ; decant the water with the powder repeatedly, and finally measure and weigh the sand and compare with the quantity of powder used. Adulteration of Vegetable Drugs. 69 Nothing- further need be said about the detection of inorganic adulterants. In the following chapter are given some sugges- tions on the microscopic examination of vegetable drugs, which also have application to the examiation of adulterated material. /O Powdered Vegetable Drugs CHAPTER V. The Microscopical Examination of Powdered Veg:etable Drugs. I. Equipment and Methods. As already indicated, the identification of vegetable drugs and their adulterants will depend largely upon the intelligent use of a good compound microscope and the necessary accessories and reagents. It is further evident that the study of the histology of crude drugs is a necessary preparation to the study of these drugs in the powdered state. In the powders the cells and cell' contents appear variously intermingled and broken. This frag- mentary occurrence of tissue elements renders their identification more difficult as compared with the study of these elements as they appear in carefully prepared sections of crude drugs. Nothing shall be said of the methods of micro-technique per- taining to the histologic study of crude drugs, as that belongs to the course in vegetable histology. A few suggestions on the microscopic examination of powdered vegetable drugs will be found useful. As already indicated, the fineness of the powders varies greatly. For examination under a compound microscope Nos. 60 to 100 are most suitable. No. 80 is, perhaps, the fineness best suited in the great majority of cases. A No. 100 is generally too fine and a No. 60 is somewhat coarse. Very coarse powders must be further reduced by means of a pestle and mortar. For low power examinations powders from 40 to 60 fineness are very suitable. For microscopic examination a pinch of the powder is mount- ed in some clearing fluid. Heat may be employed to remove air Examination of Powdered Vegetable Drugs. 71 bubbles and to increase the translucency. The student is at first greatly confused by the optical picture which presents itself. Cell- fragments and cell-contents are variously intermingled with vari- ous cell-groups, but this confusion vanishes with experience and with the knowledge of the histologic structure of plants. With the exception of very fine meals, it will be found that cells occur in groups, the number of cells in each group depending upon the fineness of the powder and the size of the cells. Bast cells, trich- omes, tracheids, wood cells, ducts and other elongated elements appear in longitudinal view. Tabular elements, as epidermal cells, appear in surface view. The more delicate elements, as meristem cells, leaf parenchyma, pith cells, ordinary isodiametric parenchyma, are usually pretty well broken. Sclerenchyma cells are rarely broken and belong to the strikingly characteristic elements noticeable in powders ; the same may be said of the short thick bast cells found in cinchona, cinnamon and some other drugs. Hair cells, epidermal cells and pollen grains are quite diagnostic. Glandular structures are of little significance in the examination of powders, as they are usually too much broken. Cell-contents are very important, especially the starches and the crystals of cal- cium oxalate. Starch granules usually appear entire, likewise the crystals of calcium oxalate, excepting the large prismatic crystals, as they occur in scilla and a few other drugs, which are more or less broken in the powdering. It is rarely desirable or necessary to use many micro-chem- ical reagents in the study of vegetable powders. An intelligent use of a few suitable clearing fluids* and a solution of chloriodide of zinc is about all that will be required. To hasten the clearing up process and to remove air bubbles from the tissues heat should be applied, but the student must bear in mind the changes that heat produces in cell-contents, as starch granules, fats, inulin col- oring substances and some other contents. Fortunately, the crys- *A mixture of equal parts of glycerin and water will be found tnast useful. 72 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. tals of calcium oxalate remain unaltered. A concentrated solu- tion of potassium hydrate and sulphuric acid may prove useful as some drugs give characteristic color reactions with these re- agents. Fehling's solution may be found useful in developing the sugar reaction. It is not advised that the student should at- tempt micro-chemical tests for vegetable alkaloids and glucocides, as they are difificult, unreliable and not yet carefully worked out. The following is a tabulation of the color reactions of the different vegetable elements with chloriodide of zinc. A drop of the reagent is to be added to the section or pinch of powder and examined immediately in order that all of the color changes may be noted. I. Cell-walls. 1. Cork. — No reaction. 2. Epidermis, not suberized or lignified. — Reaction as for parenchyma. 3. Parenchyma. — A gradual change from reddish brown to deep violet. Reaction may require several hours to develop fully. Reaction due to cellulose. 4. Bast. — As for parenchyma. Reaction more rapid. 5. Collenchyma. — As for bast. 6. Sieve tissue or phloem. — As for bast. Reaction more rapid. 7. Lignified cells* (tracheids, vessels or ducts, wood cells, some bast, sclerenchyma and other ligni- fied elements). — Reddish brown reaction, which gradually deepens. Reaction due to lignin. *The best lignin reaction is obtained by adding a drop of 2 per cent! alcoholic solution of phloroglucin, followed by a drop of hydrochloric acid. A bright red reaction develops rapidly in all lignified elements. Examination of Powdered Vegetable Drugs. 73 II. Cell-contents. I. Starch. — As for parenchyma. The reaction is, however, so rapid that the reddish brown col- oration is rarely noticeable. Protoplasm and proteids. — Reddish brown. Tannin globules. — Reddish brown. Laticiferous fluid. — Wine red. Amylodextrin granules.-^Reddish brown. Crystals. — No reaction. Oils and fats. — No reaction. Resin and waxes. — No reaction. ]\Iucilage and gums. — No reaction. Sugar and inulin. — No reaction. II. Histology of Plant Organs. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 The following suggestions are to be considered carefully, as a rather full knowledge of those tissue elements and cell-contents which are most likely to retain their individuality after powder- ing, or which will prove diagnostic, will simplify the work of studying and identifying vegetable powders. I . leaves. Under this head are included leaves, leaflets, herbs, and flowering tops in which leaves predominate. The predominating color of leaves when powdered is green, due to the presence of chrorophyll. In some instances the color merges into brown or yellowish-brown, as in pilocarpus. I. Epidermal Elements. — By far the most important di- agnostic elements of the leaf are the epidermal, inclusive of tri- chomes, stomata and Nehenzellen^\ The epidermal elements being the more resisting parts of the leaf are not so readily re- duced in powdering and appear in cell-aggregates of tabular form *The English equivalent is neighboring cells. 74 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. presenting mostly a vertical view ; rarely one may also find frag- ments showing the epidermal cells in profile view. Trichomes usually appear more or less broken. 2. Upper Epidermis. — Carefully note the general form of the cells as determined from an examination of transverse and tangential (surface) sections. Make careful measurements of normal or typical cells, remembering that epidermal cells over vascular tissues are considerably elongated. The outer walls of the cells or cuticle should be examined in transverse view to note thickness and special modifications, resinous or waxy deposits, etc., also in vertical view to note presence or absence of warty, linear or other cuticular markings, which may prove diagnostic. The vertical walls may be straight and distinct, somewhat variable in thickness. More rarely porous and nodular as in buchu. In many leaves the vertical walls are wavy instead of straight. The comparison of straight and wavy vertical walls is occasion- ally diagnostic. As a rule, epidermal cells have few important or diagnostic contents. Occasionally crystals of calcium oxalate are found ; also a few chlorophyll granules. They may contain resin (pilocarpus), inulin and hesperidin (buchu), also a small amount of starch, tannin and coloring matter. In brief, note carefully form and size of the cells ; thickness of cuticle, cuticular mark- ings ; and occasional possible diagnostic cell-contents. J, Trichomes or Hair-cells. — Trichomes or hair-cells are very important and diagnostic. These, more than any other ele- ments, are the means of identification, especially the non-glandular hairs. The glandular hairs are, as a rule, small and delicate, and their identity is destroyed and lost in the powdering. The non- glandular hairs are divided into single celled, many celled, stellate or aggregate and branching. Study them carefully as to length, diameter, form (curved, inclined, erect), thickness of walls and cuticular markings, rarely also color and contents (Cannabis In- dica). Length is very variable in different plants — for example, single-celled trichomes vaiy from mere wart-like outward pro- Examination of Powdered \'egetable Drugs. 75 jections of the outer walls of epidermal cells, as in coca leaves and anise fruit, to the long (i to 3 inches) fibres of the cotton seed. The many-celled trichomes also differ in length, but vary more diagnostically in width. Occasionally the number of trichomes is more or less diagnostic (Alexandria and India senna). Ag- gregate and branching hairs are very striking in appearance and hence diagnostic. Each hair-cell, which is simply a modified epidermal cell, is surrounded by epidermal cells (neighboring cells) which gener- ally differ somewhat from other or normal epidermal cells. As a rule, they are somewhat elongated in a radial direction from the hair-cells. The number and form of these neighboring cells may be diagnostic. In the case of glanular hairs, the size and number of end cells or secreting cells may be diagnostic. Under this group must also be included those structures more specifically designated as glands (kamala, lupulin, Grindelia rohusta), and emergencies, 4. S tomato. — The stomata themselves are of no practical diagnostic significance. In the case of typically dorsiventral leaves they are wanting in the upper epidermis. In the more or less isolateral leaves there are stomata on both surfaces. In some in- stances it is possible to distinguish between upper and lower epi- dermis by the number of stomata. The size and form of the guard-cells is quite uniform in the different species of plants. In leaves having an excessively thickened cuticle, as eucalyptus, ficus and others, the guard-cells are not readily observed. Rarely do these cells have any diagnostic or characteristic contents ; gener- ally they contain chlorophyll and occasionally some resin. 5. Neighboring Cells. — While the stomata themselves pre- sent little that is sig-nificant in the identification of drugs, the neighboring cells (Nehcn.-:eUcn) present some very striking diag- nostic features, and they should, therefore, be studied with great care. The number to each stoma varies from two to five or six. In India senna, for example, there are, as a rule, two cells, one 76 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. much larger than the other. The cells may contain resin, crystals and other substances not found in the guard-cells or normal epi- dermal cells. The cuticular markings may be ditiferent. The form of the outer wall may be different. In coca leaves they do not have the wart-like projections so characteristic of the normal epidermal cells. There are other characteristics not referred to here, and the student is urged to study these elements very care- fully, as the histological characters give promise of great diag- nostic value. 6. Air Chamber. — The air chambers of the stomata are of no significance. As a rule, the cells bounding the space contain crystals of calcium oxalate, usually of the aggregate form. 7. Hypodcrm. — Usually a hypoderm is wanting, and, when present, is rarely of importance in powders. As a rule, the cells are colorless, empty and well broken in the powdering. In ficus and other plants a few of the cells contain cystoliths. In buchu the cell-walls are mucilaginous. They may contain crystals. The cells of the lower hypoderm are usually smaller than those of the upper. Again, the lower hypoderm may be entirely want- ing, as in buchu. 8. Palisade Tissue. — This tissue is rarely of any significance in powders, as the cell-walls are delicate and well broken. They all resemble each other in containing an abundance of chlorophyll. They vary considerably in length and in transverse diameter. p. Spongy Tissue. — The cells of this tissue are also delicate and readily crushed. They vary in form and size. Frequently they contain chlorophyll and aggregate and prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate. They may contain coloring matter, resin and wax. 10. Stonc-CcUs. — Typical or well-defined sclerenchyma cells in the leaf parenchyma are rare, but very characteristic when present, as, for example, the large branching stone-cells of tea and hamamelis. There are other mechanical elements associated with the leaf blade, but none are of any apparent diagnostic value, Examination of Powdered Vegetable Drugs. tj especially in powders, as, for example, the mechanical pillars in eriodictyon and the lateral lines or ridges of coca. 11. Vascular Tissue. — This is abundant in all leaves, but presents no diagnostic features. It consists of ducts (porous reticulate, spiral and annular), bast and tracheids. 12. Glands. — Though common and often containing im- portant constituents (eucalyptus, buchu, pilocarpus, etc.), they are of very little value in the identification of powdered vegetable drugs. They vary in size, number, position and abundance ; con- sistency and color of contents. The contents may prove of diag- nostic value. ij. Petiole or Leaf Stalk. — The petiole rarely presents any characteristic elements. It is, histologically, similar to the stem or branches, but, as a rule, less distinctively defined. The paren- chyma cells usually contain some starch, resin, crystals, coloring matter and other contents common to stems of the same plant. Stone-cells or sclerenchyma-like tracheids may prove diagnostic. There may be cork tissue present. The vascular tissue is similar to that of the leaf blade. 14. Loiuer Epidermis. — Compare carefully with upper epi- dermis. When stomata are wanting, it indicates the upper epi- dermis. 2. flowers. Flowers, or parts of flowers, reduced to powder, are quite readily recognized or identified, since, in addition to certain char- acteristic histological elements there is, as a rule, a distinctive color, the predominating colors being brown, yellow or yellowish, blue and red. I. Staniinate Elements. — The vegetative tissue of stamens is not characteristic or diagnostic and need not be described more fully. The important elements are the pollen grains. Carefully note form, size and external markings (exine). They may varv^ greatly in size, but the difference in form is usually more 78 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. diagnostic. They may be triangular, spherical or oval. Note carefully the markings of the exine. The predominating color (exinc) is a yellowish brown. The pollen grains of different flowers from the same family or order usually reseml)lc each other quite closely. Pollen grains may cling to any part of the flower, and are even found with pistillate flowers (Cannabis IncUca, bray- era). The number of pollen grains is rarely diagnostic. If con- siderable pollen is found with what are supposed to be pistillate flowers, as Indian hemp, brayera and crocus, it may indicate adul- teration. 2. Pistillate Elements. — These are not characteristic or di- agnostic. The cells are usually parenchymatous, small and thin- walled. J. Petals. — Note the epidermal elements and compare with those of the leaf. Stomata are few and epidermal cells less char- acteristic. Trichomes are less common, but, where present, very diagnostic. The epidermal cells may contain diagnostic coloring matter. Parenchyma and vascular tissue usually deficient and not important. 4. Sepals. — The tissue elements and cell-contents of sepals are in all respects similar to those of the leaf. 5. Pappus. — These structures are present in many flowers (Compositas) and quite important, though closely similar in dif- ferent species. 6. Stone-cells or Sclerenchyma. — These elements are often found. They may be derived from the torus (receptacle), or, in the case of highly matured flowers, from the seeds, and are quite important and diagnostic. To sum up briefly, the important diagnostic elements of flow- ers are pollen grains, trichomatic structures, cell-contents and oc- casionally stone-cells. Vascular elements are not very abundant nor specially characteristic. Parenchymatous tissue is quite typi- cal and quite free from starch and other storage substances. Resin and other secondary products may be present. The student should keep in mind whether a part or the entire flower is used. Examination of Powdered Vegetable Drugs. 79 3. FRUITS and seeds. Fruits and seeds are placed in one group, because any at- tempt to consider them separately would result in great confusion. Furthermore, the terms fruit and seed are very loosely applied ; in one instance the term seed is applied to a fruit (fennel, cara- way, coriander, etc.), in another instance the term fruit or seed is applied, not to the whole organ, but to a part, as in peeled colo- cynth, decorticated pepper, etc. Histologically it would be prac- tically impossible in many instances to distinguish between peri- carp and seed or seeds. J. Epidermal Elements. — Those of the pericarp are, in many instances, similar to those of leaf or stem, and such a com- parison should be kept in mind. Trichomes are usually non- glandular and diagnositic. In the case of seeds the epidermal cells undergo remarkable and varied modifications. They may be trichomatic, filamentous, as in strophantus, nux vomica, cotton seed ; gelatinized and palisade-like, as in cydonia ; sclerenchyma- tous, as in almond seeds, besides other peculiar modifications. Owing to the predominance of endosperm tissue epidermal ele- ments are sparingly distributed through the powder, and for this reason a very careful study is necessary to find the sparingly pres- ent, but perhaps very diagnostic elements. 2. Stone-Cells. — These are often abundantly present. In form they vary from typical to elongated bast-like, as in pericarp of Cassia fistula and the seeds of caffea. In color they vary from deep reddish-brown to nearly colorless. Usually they occur in groups, sometimes singly (almond, pepo), and in some in- stances they are very sparingly present. The thickness and por- osity of cell-walls is quite variable and should be considered. In some instances the cell-wall of one side of the cell is thinner than that of the others. 5. Special Tissues of Testa. — Most of these special tissues have a purely mechanical function. Some are sclerenchymatous 8o Powdered Vegetable Drugs. (cydonia) ; some carry prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate (bean). Other tissues consist of thin-walled cells and are much broken in the powders. The cells may vary in form ; they may be tabidar, elongated, cubical or hour-glass form. They are rare- ly diagnostic. 4. Endosperm Tissue. — This is essentially parenchymatous and constitutes the predominating tissue of seeds. The cells vary primarily in thickness of the walls ; also in porosity and the nat- ure of localized thickenings. As to form, they are mostly typical of parenchyma; they may be rectangular, elongated. While the variation in size may be considerable, it will be found that this difference proves to be only of occasional diagnostic value. The peripheral cells are, as a rule, smaller than the more internal ones. The cell-contents should be studied with great care. Note especially the absence or presence of starch. Be careful not to confuse proteid granules with starch granules (almond, croton and castor beans). Look for resin-bearing cells. Oils and fats are generally present. Occasionally crystals may be found. Vas- cular tissue is quite deficient in seeds and rarely, if ever, diag- nostic. Oil cells and resin bearing cells may occur in endosperm, in pericarp and other seed and fruit parts. These are, as a rule, very diagnostic, and should be studied carefully as to number, size, form and color of contents. 5. Parcncliyiua of Pericarp. — This is very typical. Com- pare with parenchyma of roots and rhizomes. Usually the cells are quite free of stored food substances. They may contain resin. Resin glands are common in the pericarp of many fruits, as in the umbelliferse. They may be large, thin- walled and loosely united, as in fleshy fruits. 4. BARKS. The medicinal barks present many striking and diagnostic histological characteristics, principally due to the relationship and Examination of Powdered Vegetable Drugs. 8i variation in the two predominating tissues associated with the cork tissue (outer bark) and bark parenchyma, namely, bast and sclerenchyma. There are also some striking cell-contents. The predominating color of the powdered bark is reddish-brown. Some are very light, as ulmus and quillaia. A few are very dark, as juglans. There is no reliable means of distinguishing between root barks and stem barks, either macroscopically or microscopically, especially when the outer bark has been removed, as is often the case. 1. Outer Bark Parenchyma. — This tissue usually consists of typical cork cells and it displaces the epidermis. The cells may be diagnostic in form and size. They may contain proteid gran- ules, tannin granules and reddish-brown coloring matter. Also crystals of calcium oxalate (aggregate and prismatic). This tis- sue is removed in peeled barks, as ulmus, quillaia, cinnamons and others. 2. Lent ic els. — These never present diagnostic characters in powders. The cells are suberized and usually empty. 5. Inner Bark Parenchyma. — This dififers from the outer parenchyma, in that the cells are less typically suberized and are more characteristic as to form and contents. The cells are usually loosely united, oval to somewhat elongated ; walls colorless and of some thickness. Note cell-contents carefully. Starch, which is present in variable quantity, is rarely diagnostic. Crystals (mostly calcium oxalate) are quite important. The acicular, prismatic and aggregate forms predominate. Minute crystals (crypto-crystalline) occur in cinchona and cinnamons. Resin- ous and waxy contents may prove of diagnostic value, also col- oring matter, mucilage, etc. Occasionally the outer cell layers of this tissue become more or less collenchymatous. 4. Ducts and Glands. — These are of no significance in pow- ders. The contents are of some diagnostic value. 5. Bast. — This is very important. Carefully note the length 82 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. and diameter of cells and whether they occur singly or in groups. Note porosity and thickness of cell walls. In some instances (cinchona, cinnamons and others) the bast cells are short and thick, approaching the character of sclerenchyma. Again, the cells may be branching, as in prunus and viburnum. Contents of bast cells are rarely diagnostic. 6. Crystal-bearing Fibers. — These accompany the bast fibers. They consist of rectangular, thin-walled cells united end to end, each cell bearing a prismatic crystal of calcium oxalate. Their function is in all probability mechanical, giving additional support to the bast fibers. These fibers may prove of great diag- nostic value, as in quebracho. 7. Sclerenchyma. — Sclerenchyma cells are even more diag- nostic than bast. They vary in form, size and thickness of walls. They may occur singly or in groups. They are mostly typical — that is, approximately isodiametric, thick-walled and porous. Again, they may be rectangular, elongated or branching. Rarely is the color and lamellation (coto) characteristic. In some in- stances (cinnamon) the walls are not uniformly thickened. Con- tents of sclerenchyma cells are rarely diagnostic. Note number, size and branching of pores. 8. Medullary Rays. — This tissue is very prominent in some barks. Note number of cell rows and size of cells, porosity of walls ; and cell-contents, as starch, resin, crystals. 9. Epidermal Tissue. — This is, of course, wholly wanting in the older barks, having been displaced and pushed ofif by the deeper tissue. The same may be said of the chlorophyll-bearing parenchyma which in the younger branches occurs beneath the epidermis. 5. ROOTS AND RHIZOMES. Roots and rhizomes are closely similar in histological struct- ure. In the powdered state there is no reliable means of distin- guishing between them, either microscopically or macroscopically. Examination of Powdered Vegetable Drugs. 83 The color of the powder is rather variable. The predominating color is light brown, often tinged with ash-gray, but there are ex- ceptions, as the deep reddish-brown of rhatany and the yellow of licorice, hydrastis and curcuma. Some are very light, as Iris Horcntiiia and althaea. 1. Epidermal Elements. — These are usually indistinct or wanting ; when present compare with those of the leaf and stems, which see. Trichomes are quite universally absent. Terminal rootlets are quite generally lost in collecting ; hence, hair-cells are not found. Epidermal cells, when present, do not present any special diagnostic features, they are usually suberized. 2. Cork. — Suberized tissue is quite generally present and displaces the epidermal tissue. As a rule, it presents no strikingly diagnostic features in the form and number of cells, or in cell- contents. The cell-walls are quite uniform in thickness and col- oration. 5. Parenchyma. — This tissue is, as a rule, quite typical and abundant. The cells do not vary greatly in size and thickness of walls. In monocotyledonous roots and rhizomes they are, as a rule, considerably elongated in the long axis of growth. The peripheral cells are tangentially flattened and smaller than the more centrally located cells. The cell-contents are highly important and diagnostic ; above all, the starch granules. It must, however, be kept clearly in mind that the pasty starch of certain drugs, as sarsaparilla, cur- cuma and others, is not a natural product, but artificially produced by heat. Such starch usually occurs in lumps of the dimensions of the cell-lumen (curcuma) ; the individual granules having lost their structural characteristics almost entirely. Unmodified granules should be critically studied and com- pared as to size, form, position and size of hilum, distinctness of lamellation, etc. Are they simple or compound? Are the gran- ules free or do they form aggregates? If compound, do the gran- ules occur in twos, threes or fours ? The careful study of starch 84 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. granules cannot be too strongly emphasized, as it will not only be valuable in the identification of powders, but will also be of ines- timable value in the recognition of starchy or starch-bearing sub- stances which are quite frequently employed in sophistication. Parenchyma cells frequently contain crystals, usually of cal- cium oxalate. These may occur as fine granules (belladonna, stramomium, dulcamara) , prismatic, aggregate and acicular crys- tals. The aggregate and acicular forms vary most in size. They frequently prove of great diagnostic value. Resin and mucilage-bearing cells are often diagnostic. Note the size of the resin-bearing cells and the color of the resin. Cys- toliths are rare (spigelia). Wax-like and other cell-contents may occasionally prove diagnostic. Inulin is very abundant in certain plants instead of starch, and will, therefore, prove very diagnostic in comparison with starch-bearing organs. 4. Vascular Tissue. — The endoderm cells may prove diag- nostic (varieties of sarsaparilla). They should be carefully ex- amined as to the size and form of the cells, thickness and uni- formity of the cell-walls, porosity and color of cell-walls and nature of cell-contents. The ducts will frequently prove diag- nostic. Study them as to size (diameter), form of thickenings (porous, scalariform, reticulate, spiral, annular). The bast and wood elements accompanying the vascular bundles vary in quan- tity. Sieve tissue, conducting cells, and meristematic tissues are rarely diagnostic. The parenchyma of the vascular bundle is, in most respects, similar to other parenchyma. Tracheids may prove diagnostic. Study them carefully as to size, number and form of pores, etc. In some instances the abundance of tracheids and wood elements will prove diagnostic. Note carefully the medul- lary rays and cell-contents, as starch, resin and crystals. 5. Laticifcrous Ducts. — These occur in a number of vegeta- ble drugs, and will be of considerable diagnostic value to the care- ful observer. Examination of Powdered Vegetable Drugs. 85 6. Pith. — This is usually deficient and of little diagnostic value. The cells are usually thin-walled, typically parenchyma- tous and pretty well broken in powders. Note porosity of walls and absence or presence of crystals and resin. 6. stems. There are only comparatively few medicinal stems. They are mostly quite woody, and some, as coniferous stems, have the leaves included. 1. Epidermal Elements. — Usually present, and should be carefully compared with those of leaves. As a rule, they are less abundant and less characteristic. 2. Hxpoderm. — Usually of no significance (see Leaf). 5. Chlorophyll-hearing Parenchyma. — This may be present, but is rarely diagnostic. 4. Collenchyma. — When quite abundant and typically de- veloped, it will prove quite diagnostic, but it is only the transverse view of long cells which will present the characteristic appear- ance of these elements. 5. Bast. — See "Roots and Rhizomes." 6. Parenchyma. — Cell-contents less abundant and usually less characteristic or diagnostic (see Roots and Rhizomes). 7. Woody Tissue. — This is usually very abundant and di- agnostic. Note length, diameter and porosity of elements. Note medullary rays and cell-contents. 8. Sclerenchyma. — Not generally present (see Barks). p. Pith. — Usually present, but not specially diagnostic. Note cell aggregations (rosettes) and cell-contents, as resin, mucilage, crystals and starch. 10. Vascular Elements. — See "Roots and Rhizomes." 7. WOODS. There are only a few employed, and are quite characteristic in color, as the straw-yellow quassia, olive-green guaiac, red san- 86 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. dalwood, purplish hasmatoxylon and reddish-brown sassafras. 1. Wood Cells. — Note diameter, thickness of walls and con- tents, as starch, resin and crystals. 2. Ducts. — Note presence or absence, diameter, porosity and other markings. Often diagnostic. J. Medullary Rays. — Important and often diagnostic. Note number of cell-rows, porosity and cell-contents. 8. OTHER PLANTS AND PLANT PARTS. Under this head are included ergot and corn smut (fungi) ; dextrin (modified starch) ; kamala (trichomes and glands) ; ly- copodium (spores of club-moss) ; Iceland moss (lichen) ; Irish moss (marine alga) ; starches, cereal flour, resin, waxes, gums, etc., etc. These must be studied with great care as to minute de- tails of structure. Key to Study and Identification. Sj CHAPTER VL Keys to the Study and Identification of Powdered Vegetable Drugs. The keys are supplementary to each other, though each may also be used independently as it is complete in itself. They have been prepared with considerable care and simplified as much as possible. Since, as has been repeatedly stated, the recognition of the identity of a vegetable powder is primarily dependent upon a careful microscopical examination, it becomes evident that the key based upon gross characteristics is of secondary value. It is merely an aid to the use of the second key. To illustrate : A powder has the consistency, color, odor and taste of coto bark. It will be only after a careful microscopical examination that its ab- solute identity and purity is established. I. Key Based Upon Gross Characteristics. This key will prove a help to the study of powders by those who do not have a compound microscope to aid them. It will be noted that the major divisions are based upon color, and for that reason is, in many instances, defective or confusing, because of the variation in colors, as has been explained elsewhere. Pow- ders fade quite rapidly, even if well kept in the dark. It should also be borne in mind that the odors and tastes cited refer to crude drugs. Powdering does, of course, not have any effect upon the quality of the odor, but quantitatively, the odors in particular, lessen very rapidly. To a somewhat lesser degree this applies, also, to tastes. The following suggestions may prove useful. If 88 Powdered Vecetable Drugs. the odor is abnormally weak it may be safely concluded that the powder is old, or that it has, perhaps, been adulterated with some odorless substance. If the taste is abnormally weak the addition of some tasteless adulterant may be suspected. In comparatively rare instances adulterations may be indicated by qualitative differ- ences in odor as well as taste. These suggestions will prove of value only to those who have the ability to recognize the normal odors and tastes of crude drugs and recently powdered drugs. VERY LIGHT TO WHITE: Odorless. Sweetish. Pure white, crisp. Amylum. Brownish, very mobile. Dextrine. Mucilaginous, brownish Scilla. Very bitter. Somewhat pungent ; grayish. Colchicuin. Not pungent ; yellowish. Colocynth. Pungent, astringent (sneezing). Quillaia. Odor. Faintly fragrant. Sweetish, mucilaginous. Althara. Bitterish, somewhat pungent. Iris a or. Fernugreek odor, very mucilaginous. Uhnus. Almond odor, sweetish, bitterish. Amygdala. YELLOW OR DISTINCTLY YELLOWISH. Odorless or odor faint and not characteristic. Tasteless ; very mobile. Lycopodium. With taste. Bitter. Saliva colored yellow. Sweetish. Frangnla. Not sweetish. Berber is. Saliva not colored. Sweetish. Gentian > Not sweetish. Dull yellow. Calumha Brown yellow. Pareira Lemon yellow. Hydrastis. Straw yellow. Quassia. Key to Study and Identification. 89 Astringent. Pale yellow. Granatum. Yellowish brown. Rumex. Pungent. (Odor when moist.) Sinapis alb. With odor. Fragrant; narcotic. Calendula. Hop odor. Bitter. Lupulin. Aromatic. Bitter. Somewhat pungent. Pale yellow. Pyrethruni Hor. Deep orange yellow. Curcuma. Astringent. Rheum. Not bitter; very pungent. Zingiber. Very sweet. Odor faint. Glycyrrhiza.'^ RED OR DISTINCTLY REDDISH. Odorless. ! Tasteless. Small wood fibres present. Santalum rub. No fibrous tissue. Sandy. Kamala. With taste. Very pungent. Sanguinaria. Very astringent. Geranium. With odor. Hop odor. Bitter. Lupulin. Characteristic odor, recalling iodoform. Crocus. Faintly aromatic. Bitter; astringent. Guarana. Very astringent. Krameria.' Slightly sweetish and astringent. Saliva red. Haematoxylon. VERY DARK TO BLACK. Odorless. Tasteless Dull black. Vegetable charcoal. Lustrous black. Animal charcoal. Bitter, pungent (faintly aromatic). Juglans. With odor. Aromatic. Odor of each drug very characteristic. Very pungent. Clove odor (dark brown). Caryophyllus. 90 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. NoC pungent. Bitterish, astringent. Sweetish. Not sweetish. GRAY TO DARK GRAY, WITH BROWNISH TINT. Odorless or odor faint. Pungent and bitter (faint heavy odor). Sweetish (faint heavy odor). Quite pungent. Quite bitter. Pungency faint. Soil odor. No soil odor. Not sweetish. Very astringent. Pungent. Astringent, saliva foamy. Sweetish. Benumbing effect. Bitter. Extremely bitter ; granular. Moderately bitter, fibrous. With odor. Peculiar odor, sweetish pungent. Aromatic, pungent. Mottled dark gray. Light gray GREEN OR GREENISH. Deep olive green. Not olive green. Odor heavv, narcotic, nauseous. Bitter or bitterish. Somewhat pungent. D^ep green. Brownish pale green. Not pungent. Bright green. Pale green. Brownish green. Pungent. Roasted cichorium. Roasted caffca. Ipecac. Ciinicifuga. Colchicum. Cypripcdium. Sarsaparilla. Belladonna. Vcratnon viride. Gal la. Quillaia. Hydrangea. Aconite. Nux vomica. Mcnispcnnum. Ergot. (black) Piper, (white) Piper. Guaiacum. Belladonna. Hyoscyamus. Digitalis. Stramonium. Cannabis Ind. Lobelia. Key to Study and Identification. 91 Odor pleasant, fragrant. Bitter or bitterish. Astringent. Saline. Achillea. Not saline. Odor peculiar, faint. Caffea. Odor tea-like. Brownish green. Very astringent. Hamamclis. Slightly astringent. Eupatorium. Dark green. Thea. Pungent. Greenish brown. Arnica. Green. Matico. Sweetish. Scutellaria. Somewhat mucilaginous. Senna. Pungent, sweetish (numbness). Aconite. Astringent. Castanea. Odor camphoraceous, terebinthine. Mint-like, peculiar. Buchu. Aromatic, not mint-like. Eucalyptus. Odor peculiar, ant-like. Melissa. Nearly odorless, slightly pungent and benumbing. Coca. LIGHT BROWN. Odorless. Tasteless ; very mobile. Lycopodiiim. With taste, not very mobile. Bitter. Extremely bitter. Very light color. Colocynth. Pale straw yellow. Quassia. Moderately bitter. Fibrous. Yellowish. Populus. Grayish. Chamaclirium. Not fibrous. Bryonia. Bitter pungent. Sweetish. Taste faint. Mealish. grayish. Belladonna. Not mealy, yellowish. Convallaria. 92 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Bitter taste marked. Very light brown. Grayish. Yellowish tinge. Not sweetish. Very mucilaginous. Not mucilaginous. Very pungent. Very bitter. Very light color. Brownish. Fibrous. Not fibrous. Pungent. Extremely pungent, fibrous. Moderately pungent. Benumbing effect. No benumbing effect. Bitter astringent, fibrous. Reddish tinge. Not reddish Brownish. Very astringent. Moderately astringent. Grayish. Pungent astringent. With odor. Aromatic, spicy. Pungent. Bitter. Very light color. Not very light, odor terebinthine. Odor faint. Odor marked. Light straw yellow Not bitter. Very spicy. Not very spicy. Peculiar hop odor, bitter. Light brown. Dirty yellowish brown. Euonymus. Podophyllum. Caulophyllum. Scilla. Xanthoxylum. Asclepias. Leptandra. Colchicum. Mezerion. Aconite. Phytolacca. Salix. Quercus. Granatum. Rtibus. Gossypium. Calamus. Inula. Asarum. Canella. Zingiber. Pyrethrutn. Htimulus. Lupulin. Key to Study and Identification. 93 Nauseous, heavy or disagreeable odor. Bitter. Sweetish, mucilaginous. Not sweetish or mucilaginous. Grayish. Not grayish. Very bitter. Moderately bitter. Bitter pungent. Sweetish. Not sweetish. Pungent. Sweetish. Not sweetish. Bitter sweet. Fragrant, pleasant. Bitterish. Mucilaginous. Sweetish. Not sticky. Sticky, resinous. Bitter pungent. Sticky, resinous. Not sticky. Odor peculiar, characteristic. Smoky; sweetish, pungent. Strong odor ; bitter, mucilaginous. Soil odor, faint. Disagreeable odor; bitterish. Sweetish. Not sweetish. BROWN TO REDDISH BROWN. Odorless or odor faint. Bitter. Very bitter. Brown. Reddish brown. Yellow brown. Moderately bitter. Saliva yellow. Sweetish. Not Sweetish. Lappa. Apocynum. Strophantus. Gelsemium. Cypripedium. Hyoscyatnus. Senega. Lobelia. Dulcamara. Sainbucus. Eriodictyon. Spigelia. Grindelia. Aurantium. Jalapa. Fenugreek. Sarsaparilla.i. Taraxacum. Cichorium. Chirata. (red) Cinchona. (yellow) Cinchona. Frangula. Rhamnus Pursh. 94 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Saliva not yellow Light vcllowish brown. Cinnamon brown Bitter astringent. Sweetish. Not sweetish. Very astringent. Moderately astringent. Astringent. Somewhat fragrant, reddish brown. Not fragrant, dull brown. Sweetish ; mobile. Very pungent. Reddish brown. With odor. Brown. Aromatic, spicy. Pungent. Sweetish. Bitterish. Astringent. Not astringent. Not bitter. Not sweetish. Bitterish. Odor faint. Delicate nutmeg odor. Nutmeg odor. Not bitter. Dark color. Bitter pungent. Bitter, very astringent. Fragrant. Bitter astringent. Odor marked. Odor faint. Bitter pungent. Tea-like odor. Odor recalling gaultheria. Bitter; odor faint. Heavy or disagreeable odor. Valerian odor. Bitter. Bitter astringent. Pareira. Aspidospcrma. Chiiiiaphila. Rhus glabra. Coniiis. Arcca. Geranium. Dextrine. Sanguiitaria. Sinapis. Sassafras. Goto. Paracoto. Ginnamons. Pilocarpus. Mace. Myristica. Garyophyllus. Gas car ilia. Rumcx. Theobroma. Guarana. Gusso. Arnica H. Gentian. Valerian. Viburnum prun. Key to Study and Identification. 95 Heavy, nauseous. Very bitter. Pale brown. Strophantus. Brown. Scoparius. Bitter pungent. Stillingia. Peculiar odor, very pungent. Capsicum. Characteristic odors. Anise odor, very marked. Yellowish brown. Anise. Reddish brown. Illicium. Fenugreek odor. Iris vers. Mouse odor with alkalies. Conium. Smoky odor, not marked. Very astringent. Kramer ia. Not astringent. Jalapa. Garlic odor when moist. Sinapis nig. Wild cherry bark odor. Almond odor. Prunus serot. II. — Key Based Upon Histological Characteristics. The histological characters given apply to the pure powders only, hence caution must be observed where adulteration is sus- pected. The keys will be found especially useful as a guide to the critical examination of vegetable powders. Each student should identify from fifteen to twenty unknowns by the use of these keys alone. To do so it will be absolutely necessary to study the gross as well as the microscopic characteristics thoroughly. At the completion of such work the student will be surprised to find how firmly the characteristics studied have impressed themselves upon his mind. I.IGXIFIED ELEMENTS (VESSELS, TRACHEIDS, SCLERENCHYMA, ETC.) PRESENT. Epidermal elements {trichovies, stomata, ete.) present. With pollen grains. Trichomes wanting. Pollen grains spherical. GrindcUa robusta. Pollen grains not spherical. Triangular, mostly imperfect. Caryophyllus. Oval, quite large. Chirata. 96 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Trichomes present. Single celled. Pollen oval. Scoparius. Pollen spherical. Stone cells present. Pyrctliru)n. Stone cells wanting. Bray era. Many-celled. Pollen oval. Scutellaria. Pollen spherical. Yellow coloring matter present. Calendula. Yellow coloring matter wanting. Pappus present. Numerous yellow glands. Eupatorium. Without yellow glands. Arnica flor. Pappus wanting. Achillea. Pollen wanting. Trichomes wanting or few. Stone cells present. Stomata present. Guard cells indistinct, cuticle thick. Eucalyptus. Guard cells distinct. Sabina. Stomata wanting or few. Areca. Stone cells wanting. Stomata few or wanting. Epidermal cells vertically elongated. Fenugreek. Epidermal cells normal, tabular. Hypoderm colorless. Sinapis alba.- Hypoderm reddish brown. Sinapis nigra. Stomata present. Vertical epidermal walls wavy. Cuticle thick. Chimaphila. Cuticle thin. Lactuca. Vertical epidermal walls not wavy. Epidermal cells with inulin. Buchu. Epidermal cells without inulin. Lower epidermal cells papillar. Coca. Lower epidermal cells not papillar. Uva ursi. Trichomes present. Aggregate (stellate) trichomes. Glandular hairs present. Castanea. Glandular hairs wanting. Hamamelis. Key to Study and Identification. 97 Single celled trichomes. Sclerenchyma present. Few, large, branching. Thea. Sclerenchyma normal, hair cells few. Stomata numerous. Pilocarpus. Stomata few, oil present. . Pimcnta.. Sclerenchyma wanting. Stomata present. Trichomes wavy. long, slender. Eriodictyon. Trichomes not wavy. Hair cells with cystoliths. Cannabis Ind. Hair cells without cystoliths. Yellow glands present. Hurnulus. Yellow glands wanting. Trichomes medium, few. Nebenzellen, usually two. Senna Ind. Nebenzellen, usually 4 to 5. Senna Alex. Trichomes large. Stomata large. Aconite. Stomata medium. Lobelia. Stomata few or wanting. Trichomes few, tracheids numerous. Dulcamara. Trichomes numerous. Long, slender. Endosperm cells thick-walled. Nux vomica. Endosperm cells thin-walled. Strophantus. Short. Thick-walled parenchyma. Anise. Thin-walled parenchyma, Chinese Galla. Many celled trichomes. Stone cells present. Trichomes bright red. Rhus glabra. Trichomes not red. Reddish-brown cell contents. Cacao. No brown cell contents. Turnera. Stone cells wanting. Vertical epidermal walls straight. Matico. Vertical epidermal walls wavy. Wood elements plentiful. Arnica. Wood elements normal, epidermal cells plentiful. 98 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Amorphous calcium oxalate. Linear cuticular marking. Belladonna. Without linear markings. Hyoscyamus. No amorphous calcium oxalate. Trichomes compp.ratively numerous, medium. Digitalis. Trichomes few, large. Stramonium. Trichomes very numerous, long, slender. Marrubium. Epidermal elements wanting. Sclerenchyma. Bast present. With acicular crystals (raphides.) Compound starch "ranules. Sarsaparilla. Simple starch. Large brown bast cells. Chamaelirium. Bast medium. Hydrangea. True raphides wanting. Large short bast cells. Starch quite plentiful. Sclerenchyma cells comparatively small. Spaigon and Cassiu Cinnamon. Slerenchyma cells larger. Ceylon Cinnamon. Starch sparingly present. Bast lined with prismatic crystals. Quebracho. Bast not lined with crystals. Mucilage cells present. Sassafras. Mucilage cells wanting. Bcrberis bark. Bast medium in thickness and length. Scalariform ducts ; large compound starch granules. Methysticum. Ducts wanting. Sclerenchyma unevenly thick. Cascarilla. Sclerenchyma or bast branching. Bast plentiful. Viburnum op. Bast cells few. Viburnum prun. Sclerenchyma typical. Crystal bearing fibers numerous. Sclerenchj^ma cells in groups. Collenchymatous parenchyma. Rhamnus pursli. No collenchymatous tissue. Large wax cells. Xanthoxylum. No wax cells. Myrica bark. Key to Study and Identification. 99 Sclerenchyma cells mostly single. Bast plentiful. Populus. Bast sparing. Large simple granules. Menispermum. No starch. Punka (bark). iast wanting (or sparingly present.) Starch plentiful. Pasty. Epidermal elements present. Guarnna. Epidermal elements wanting. Curcuma. Simple granules. Aggregate crystals present, large. Rumex. Aggregate crystals wanting. Starch granules very large. Calumba. Starch granules medium. Menispermum. Compound granules. Sclerenchyma in groups. Asclepias tub. Sclerenchyma sparingly present. Raphides present. Veratrum. Raphides wanting. Parenchyma large. Aconite. Parenchyma medium. Pareira (root). Starch sparingly present or wanting. Sclerenchyma and bast branching. Prunus. Sclerenchyma not branching. Inulin present. Pyrethrum. Inulin wanting. Parenchyma large, thin-walled. ' Crystals present. Aleppo Galla. Crystals wanting. Colocynth. Parenchyma medium in size. Walls thin. Sclerenchyma deep red. Phytolacca. Sclerenchyma not red. Piper. Walls not thin. Sclerenchyma elongated. Yellow resin. Goto (bark). No yellow resin. Caffea. Sclerenchyma not elongated. Sclerenchyma single celled. Amygdala. Sclerenchyma in groups. 100 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Crystals present. Yellowish wax present. Simple starch. Compound starch. Wax wanting. Crystals wanting. Sclerenchyma cells unevenly thick. Sclerenchyma cells uniform. Sclerenchyma wanting. Bast present. Starch plentiful. Acicular crystals. Small aggregate starch, spiral ducts. Canella. Rhus glab. Cornus. Hyoscyamus. Cubeba. Cypripedium. Large, simple granules, no spiral ducts. F 'hytolacca (root). Acicular crystals wanting. Large reticulate ducts. Numerous prismatic crystals. Glycyrrhiza. Numerous aggregate crystals. Stillingia. No large reticulate ducts. Starch simple. Large porous ducts. Rubus (bark). Ducts medium. Porous. Euonymus. Reticulate. A Ithaea. Yellow tracheids. Hydrastis. Starch compound. Bast plentiful, typical. Gossypium. Numerous porous tracheids. Kramcria. Starch sparingly present. Bast cells very large (thick, short). Cinchona. Bast cells medium. Large porous ducts. Parenchyma cells wanting. Quassia. Parenchyma present. Gclscmium. Large ducts wanting. No crystal-bearing fibres. Mczereon. With crystal-bearing fibres, bast plentiful. Numerous aggregate crystals. Sali.v. Aggregate crystals few. Piscidia. Key to Study and Identi?icatjon. lOI Sclerenchyma and bast wanting. No starch. Inulin present. Ducts large. Reticulate. Taraxacttm. Porous. C ichor ium. Ducts medium, reticulate. Cell-walls uneven, wavy. Inula. Cell-walls not wavy. Lappa. Inulin wanting. Ducts or tracheids numerous. Parenchyma cells large, ducts reticulate. Red cell contents. Iris vers. No red cell-contents. Gentian. Parenchyma medium. Cystolitlis. Spigelia. Oily cell-contents. Senega. Ducts or tracheids few. Numerous prismatic crystals. Citrus vulg. No crystals, oil globules. Capsicum. Starch present. Simple. With crystals. Acicular. Very large. Iris Aor. Small (raphides). Convallaria. Aggregate, quite large. Geranium. Crystals wanting. Starch pasty. Curcuma. Starch not pasty. Parenchyma cell-walls thick, oil. Colchium (seed). Parenchyma cell-walls not thick. Ducts reticulate. Starch granules large. Yellow resin. Ginger. No yellow resin. Sumbul. Starch granules medium to small. Parenchyma spongy. Calamus^ Parenchyma not spongy, red color. Sanguinaria. lOZ PowoERED Vegetable Drugs Tracheids or porous ducts. Large porous ducts. Ducts or tracheids medium. Parenchyma porous. Not porous. Red contents. No red contents. Compound. With crystals. Amorphous powder. Aggregate large. Raphides No crystals. Ducts very large, reticulate. Ducts or tracheids medium, some spiral ducts Starch plentiful, not aggregate. Resin cells. No resin cells. Starch mostly compound Starch mostly simple. Starch granules small, aggregate. Spiral ducts, with crystals. No spiral ducts. LIGNIFIED ELEMENTS WANTING OR VERY SPARINGLY PRESENT Starch present. Not dextrinized. Dextrinized. No starch present. With trichomes (aggregate). No trichomes. Small, cylindrical, irregular elements. Elements not cylindrical. Yellow pear-shaped glands. Yellowish, spheroidal or triangular spores. Apocynum can. Serpentaria. Leptandra. Cimicifuga. Belladonna-. Rheum. Ipecac. Bryonia alb. Asarum. Colchicum (corm). Valerian. Podophyllum. Caulophyllum. Amylum.* Dextrinum. Kamala.'t Ergot. Lupulin. Lycopodium. *Under "amylum" is included the various commercial starches and the cereal meals and various commercial products rich in starch, as macaroni, sphagetti, sago, etc. tQuite generally adulterated with starch and sand. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 103 PART II. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. It is hoped that the student will keep the following introduc- tory suggestions in mind, as they will aid very materially in the effective application, in drug examination, of the special descrip- tions given. The vegetable powders described are arranged in alphabetical order for convenience of study and cross reference. Those marked U. S. are official in the Pharmacopoeia of 1900, which will be issued soon. Those marked (U. S., 1890) were official in the Pharmacopoeia of 1890, but are to be excluded from the issue of 1900. Upon comparing the Pharmacopoeia of 1890 with the next issue, it will be found that forty-four drugs of vegetable origin (not counting preparations) are excluded, while only four new ones are admitted, namely, branches of Cactus grandiHorus, seeds of Cola acuminata, fruit of Sahal serrulata, and roots of Scopola carnioUca. The drawings are made according to a uniform scale with the exception of those marked * which are on a larger scale and which must be measured according to the scale with Fig. 102. The scale of measurement given with figures i, 51 and 102 is in microns (micron =1-1000 of one mm.), and is to be used in measuring the histological elements figured and comparing them with those of the powder under examination. The student should use an eye-piece micrometer in making such comparisons. Due allowance must be made for possible natural variation in the size of histological elements. An attempt has been made to make the drawings of those cells, cell-contents, etc., which are of average or representative size. 104 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. It will be noticed that the stratification and lamellation of sclerenchyma cells and similar structures has been almost en- tirely omitted, as this is quite uniform and would add but little to the value of the illustrations, while, on the other hand, it would entail much additional labor in making the drawings, and would detract from the distinctness of outline. Colored cell-walls, as cork-cells, colored cell-contents as resin, red coloring, matter, etc., are indicated by shading (dots or lines). The color of sclerenchy- ma, tracheids, bast and ducts is not indicated, as it is not suf- ficiently variable to be specially diagnostic, excepting in a few examples. In such cases the distinctive color is mentioned in the histological description. The histological elements figured and described are those which are most characteristic in the powder. No attempt has, however, been made to indicate the relative abundance or diag- nostic importance of the various elements figured. That is, in a measure, indicated in the histological description. Attention is again called to the possible variation in the color of powdered vegetable drugs. The colors given refer to the re- cently prepared powders of the fineness indicated. The following is a tabulation of the more common causes modifying the colors of pure powders. Adulteration, etc., as factors modifying colors, have already been explained : 1. Increased fineness (using the fineness cited as the standard of comparison) produces tint effects and increased homogeneity or uniformity of color. 2. Increased coarseness produces a mottled effect and less- ened uniformity of color. The color tends toward shade effects and toward the color of the predominating tissue of the crude drug. 3. Moisture causes powders to assume a darker coloration. 4. Exposure to sunlight and dry air causes the powders to fade rapidly, producing gray effects. 5. Oily powders, as clove and mace, darken rapidly. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 105 6. Light brown powders are subject to considerable varia- tion in color, as Nux vomica, aconite, colocynth, zingiber, bella- donna, etc. 7. The reddish brown powders of barks, of cocoa, areca nut, quarana, and rhatany, do not change color very much. 8. Powders of leaves and flowers fade quite rapidly. The following is the plan of special description of each pow- der: Official name of drug, common name of drug, indication whether official or not, fineness of powder for fluid extract and tincture and for other special purposes, a few English, German and French common names,* the part of the plant employed, with scientific name of drug yielding plant and natural order, color of powder, odor, taste, histological characteristics, and finally, possi- ble or probable adulterants. U ABSINTHIUM. Absinthium. (U. S., 1890.) Fl. ex. 30. Tinct. 30. Wormwood, E., Wermuth, Alsei, G., Absinthe commune, Grande absinthe, aluine, Fr. The leafy tops of Ahsintliium vidgarc, Lam., Compositae. Grayish green. Faintly aromatic, disagreeable and narcotic when briskly rubbed. Very bitter, somewhat salty. Epidermal cells of leaves with wavy vertical walls ; stomata above and below ; T-shaped trichomes with three to four basal cells ; rather large, thin-walled bladdery glandular trichomes ; a *It would be practically impossible to give all of the general and local common names applied to a drug or the plant from which the drug is derived. It is also well to remember that while common names are frequently a useful guide to the identity of a drug they may be a source of serious mistakes because the same common name is often applied to two or more widely different substances. io6 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. few pollen grains characteristic of the order. Histology closely similar to that of Achillea. Related species and species of Artemisia are used as a substi- tute or adulterant. Fig. I. ACHILLEA. a. Upper and lower epidermis. b. Epidermis of petiole and stems. c. Pollen grains. d. Trichomes. e. Bast of vascular bundles. f. g. Tracheids and ducts of vascular bundles. h. Prismatic crystal bearing fibres. i. Side view of epidermal tissues. y. Prismatic crystals and starch. SrEciAL Description of Vegetable Powders. 107 2. (Fig. J.) ACHILLEA. Yarrow, Milfoil. Fl. ex. 30. Schafgarbe, Schafgrippe, G. Alillefeuille, Herbe aux charpentiers, Fr. The flowering parts of Achillea Millefolium L., Compositae. Grayish green. Aromatically fragrant, resembling chamomille. Bitter, astringent, somewhat saline. Epidermal cells (upper and lower) of leaves tabular with wavy vertical walls. Hair cells simple with one to six basal cells and long apical cell ; walls moderately thick, smooth. A few blad- dery glandular hairs. Stomata on upper and lower epidermis. Two or three rows of palisade cells. Spongy tissue of spheroidal cells. Parenchyma, bast, tracheids, spiral ducts. Fibres with pris- matic crystals of calcium oxalate, from stems, petioles and veins. Pollen grains characteristic of the order. On account of its cheapness and wide distribution this drug is rarely adulterated. The following species indigenous to Europe are sometimes employed: A. ptarmica, L., A. aceratum, L., A. nohilis, L., A. moschata, L., A. atrata, L., A. Nana, L. 3. (Fig. 2.) ACONITUM. Aconite. Leaves. Fl. ex. 30. Tinct. 40. Monkshood, Wolfsbane, E. Eisenhut, Sturmhut, G. Coque- luchon, Fr. The leaves of Aconitum NapeUus L., Ranunculaceae. Rather dull green. Nearly odorless, faintly fragrant. Bitter, pungent, producing a benumbing effect. Epidermal cells (upper and lower) tabular with wavy ver- tical walls ; stomata on lower surface only ; upper cells larger and vertical walls less wavy ; trichomes simple, single celled with warty markings. Few comparatively thin walled, nearly color- less, very porous, stone cells. Pollen grains oval. Occasionally adulterated with the leaves of related plants. io8 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Fig. 2. ACONITUM. Leaf. a. Lower epidermis. b. Trichomes. c. Pollen grains. d. Parenchyma cells of stem. e. Sclerenchyma cells. /. Upper epidermis. 4. (Fi^.30 ACONITUM. Aconite. U.S. Roots. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct. 60. Names and origin as for 3. Light brown. Odor faint, recalling Taraxacum; recalling horse-radish when moist. Sweetish, pungent, producing a benumbing effect. Parenchyma cells large, thick walled, with compound starch Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 109 granules ; sclerenchyma cells, few, nearly colorless, walls rather thin, porous ; porous ducts. The powder turns yellow with potas- sium hydrate solution and a deep red with concentrated sulphuric acid. Adulterations with related species (A. Fischeri, Fig. 4) oc- casionally roots of Aniwracia (horse radish) and Imperatoria Ostruthutm (European Masterwort). Suspect the use of ex- hausted powders and defective roots. Fig. 3. ACONITUM. Root 0. Parenchyma cells with starch. b. Sclerenchyma cells. c. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. d. Ducts. e. Starch granules. no Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Fig. 4.* ACONITUM FISCHERI. a. Sclerenchyma cells, nearly colorless. b. Sclerenchyma cells, nearly colorless. c. Sclerenchyma cell from cork layer, deep reddish brown. d. Parenchyma cells bearing starch, transverse view. e. Parenchyma cells, longitudinal view. Starch granules mostly sim- ple, rarely two and three compound. Large number of aggregate granules, many of which become separated in powdering showing the pentangular simple granules. /. Ducts. The distinguishing histological characteristics between A. Napellus and A. Fischeri are: In A. Fischen the cell-walls are as a whole thinner, particularly of the parenchyma cells. Sclerenchyma cells are fewer. Starch granules mostly simple with many aggregate granules and poly- gonal simple granules. It would be difficult to detect admixtures of the two roots in pow- dered form. *For figures marked * use micrometer scale found with figure 102. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. Ill Fig. 5. ALTHAEA. a. Parenchyma with mucilage cells, starch and aggregate crystals. b. Bast cells. c. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. d. Starch granules and crystals. e. Tracheids. f. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. 5. (Fig, 5.) ALTHAEA. Althea, Marshmallow. U.S. Finely cut. Fine powder. Althee, Eibisch, G. Giiimauve, Fr. The peeled roots of Althaea officinalis L., Malvaceae. Very light, nearly white, yellowish tinge. Faintly fragrant ; recalling taraxacum. Sweetish, mucilaginous. Typical parenchyma cells and mucilage cells, aggregate 112 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. crystals of calcium oxalate and simple starch granules ; elongated bast cells ; and porous ducts. The bast bells are quite diagnostic, The mucilage bearing cells are larger than the normal paren- chyma cells. Hili and stratification of the starch granules indis- tinct. Among possible adulterations suspect flour and other starchy cereal meals. Old and limed material mav be used. Fig. 6. AMYGDALA. a. Sclerenchymatous epidermal cells. b. Edosperni cells with proteid granules and oil globules. c. Sclerenchyma cells of testa. d. Spiral duct. e. Cells from inner coat of testa, lateral view. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 113 6. (Fi^. 6.) AMYGDALA. Almond. Paste ; fine powder or meal. Mandeln, G. Amandes, Fr. The seeds of Amygdala coiiuniuiis, L. Rosaceae. Very light brown, nearly cream color. Faintly aromatic ; almond odor when moist. Bitter almond — Bitter, somewhat pungent. Sweet almond — Bland, sweetish, somewhat pungent. Large, reddish brown sclerenchymatous epidermal cells ; en- dosperm cells with proteid granules and oil globules, but no starch; deep reddish brown typical sclerenchyma cells; vascular tissue very sparingly present. The reddish brown sclerenchyma cells are quite thickwalled, very porous and occur singly. The large sclerenchymatous epidermal cells are mostly broken. Con- centrated sulphuric acid colors the powder a rose red. May be adulterated with flour and starch. 7. (Fig. 7.) AMYLUM. Starch. U.S. Fine dry crepitant meal. Starke, G. Amidon, Fr. Obtained from starch bearing organs of widely dififerent plants. The starch obtained from the seeds of Zea Mays, L. Gramineae, is official. The following are the move important commercial starches, including corn starch. All purified starches are similar as to gross characters ; white, odorless and tasteless. The sweetish taste is due to the action of ptyalin which converts starch into sugar. White, odorless. Sweetish. A. Corn starch, E., Maisstarke, G., Fecule de mais, Fr. The starch obtained from the seeds of Zea Mays, L. Gramin- eae. Granules of medium size ; polygonal, due to mutual pressure ; radiate centric hilum ; stratification not noticeable ; a few com- 114 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. 7y®0^o e 03 or ogO G^ O s< Fig. 7. AMYLUM. a. Potato starch. h. Maranta starch. c. Pea and bean starch. d. Cassava starch. e. Corn starch. /. Dextrinized corn starch. g. Wheat starch. h. Rice starch. pound granules ; some granules rounded or spheroidal ; compara- tively uniform in size. (Fig. J, e.') B. Rice starch, E., Reisstarke, G. Farina de riz, Fr. The starch obtained from the seeds of Oryza sativa, Gram- ineae. In form and other characters much like corn starch but much smaller ; it is the smallest of the commercial starches ; granules Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 115 quite uniform ; manv aggregated ; a few compound granules. (Fig. 7, h.) C. Potato starch, E. Kartoffelstarke, G. Fecule de pomme de terre, Fr. From the tubers of Solamim tuberosum, L., Solanaceae. Granules small to large ; irregularly oval or pearshaped ; hilum not very conspicuous, excentric, nearer the narrowed end; stratification distinct. (Fig. 7, a.) D. Maranta or Arrow-root starch, E. Marantastarke, G. Salep des Indes occindentalis, Fr. From the rhizomes of Maranta ariindinacea, L., Maranta- ceae. Granules resemble those of potato starch in general appear- ance, smaller, more uniform in size and hilum at larger end in- stead of the narrower end. (Fig. 7, h.) E. Canna starch, Toulema starch, E. Cannastarke, G. Am- idon de canne, Fecule de Tolomane, Fr. From the rhizomes of Canna edulis Ker., Marantacere. In form and size not unlike potato starch, more variable in outline; hilum mostly near the narrower end. F. Brazilian arrow-root, tapioca or Cassava starch, E. Cas- savastarke, G. Amidon de Cassava, Fr. From the roots of Manihot utilissinia Pohl, Euphorbiaceae. Granules of about the size of corn starch ; single granules spheroidal ; hilum quite distinct, somewhat radiate, centric ; many granules compound in twos and threes, mostly separated, showing facets. (Fig. 7, d.) G. Sago, E. Sago, Palmenstarke, G. Sagou, Fr. From the pith of various palms — Metroxylon Sagu, Rott- boell, M. Rumphil, Mart., Sagiis farinifera, Lam., Arenga sach- arifera, Lab., Palmae. Granules somewhat larger than those of Cassava; irregular in outline; mostly compound as in Cassava, hilum excentric; stratification quite distinct. 1 16 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. H. Wheat starch, E. Weizenstarke, G. Amidon de ble., Fr. From the seeds of Tritiaini vnlgare, Villars, Gramhiese. Granules simple, spheroidal ; lenticular to more or less oval, variable in size ; largest comparatively large ; hilum very promi- nent, radiate; centric; stratification not very distinct. (Fig. 7,5-) I. Rye starch, E. Roggenstarke, G. From Sccale ccreale, L., Gramineae. Much like wheat starch. Besides the above there are a number of other starches which are found upon the market occasionally as oat starch, pea and bean starch, (Fig. y, c.) and starches from other leguminous seeds, yam starch (from the subterranean organs of various species of Dioscorea), musa or banana starch (from the fruits of Mtisa paradisiaca, L.), batata starch (from the tubers of Batatas edulis, Chois), curcuma starch or East Indian Arrow-root (from the tuberous roots of Curcnina Icncorrhiza, Roxb., C. angitsti- folia, Roxb.), and others. Dextrin is starch which has been modified by heat and dilute nitric acid. Dilute acid or heat alone converts starch into dextrin but applying both is more satisfactory. Any of the starches may be used but naturally the one which is cheapest and most readily obtainable is taken. In the United States corn starch is used. In dextrinized starch the granules become larger in size, more irregular in form, less distinct in outline, while hilum and stratifi- cation appear quite distinct. The general structural characteris- tics are, however, still sufficiently marked to reveal the origin of the starch through a careful microscopical examination. (Fig. 7, f-) Upon examining the commercial products made from starch or meals very rich in starch, as pearl sago, tapioca, macaroni, spaghetti, etc., it will be found that some or most of the starch is dextrinized, due to the heat employed in the manufacture. Special Description' of Vegetable Powders. 117 One starch is frequently adulterated with other starches or one starch is substituted for another. This is, however, not a serious matter, as the various starches are closely similar in phys- iological and chemical properties. As already stated (see Adulter- ations), starches and flour are much used in the adulteration of powdered drugs. To obtain starch, the wheat or grain or other seed is soaked in warm water until softened, then ground under water and wash- ed upon suitable sieves. The starch is washed out of the broken cells, collected by subsidence, drained and then dried in spe- cially constructed drying chambers. Starch bearing rhizomes, roots and tubers are ground or rasped, macerated and further ground under water and the starch separated as above. 8. ANGUSTURA. Angustura. Bark. Fl. ex. 60. Angusturarinde, G. Angusture, Fr. The bark of Galipca Cusparia, St. Hil., Rutacese. Yellow brown. Somewhat aromatic ; musty. Bitter, pungent. Rather small, thin walled bark parenchyma with small starch granules and aggregate and prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate ; numerous typical stone cells ; no bast cells. Larger parenchyma cells with golden yellow resin and a few with acicular crystals of calcium oxalate (raphides). Formerly the bark of Strychnos Niix vomica (false An- gustura bark) w^as mistaken for Angustura bark. 9. (Fig. 8.) ANISUM. Anise. U.S. Bruised. Meal. Anis, G. Anis, Anis vert, Fr. The seeds of Anistiin vulgare, Moench, Umbelli ferae. Fine powder a dull yellowish brown. Ii8 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Fragrantly aromatic. Anise odor. Sweet, pungent. Numerous short single celled trichomes ; endosperm tissue with proteid granules and oil globules ; a reddish brown tissue enclosing the oil glands. Vascular tissue sparingly present. Said to be adulterated with fruits of Coninm maculatum. Also adulterated with various inert vegetable substances, fennel and star anise. Fig. 8. ANISUM. a. Endosperm cells with proteid granules and oil globules. b. Trichomes. c. Thin-walled parenchyma of testa. d. Epidermal cells of pericap with trichomes. e. Reddish brown cells of pericarp. f. Parenchyma, longtitudinal view. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 119 JO. AN THEMIS. Anthemis. U.S. Entire or bruised. Chamomille flowers, Roman or English chamomille, E. Romische Kamille, G. Camomille romaine, Fr. The flower heads of Anthemis nohilis, L., Compositae. Chamomille odor, somewhat camphoraceous. Quite bitter. Epidermal tissue with stomata. Single celled rather thick walled trichomes and some glandular trichomes. Pollen grains typical of the order Compositae. Adulterated with flowers of Anthemis arvensis, Manila Co- tula, Matricaria Chamomilla, Achillea Ptarinica and Pyrethrum Parthenium. n. (Fi^. 9.) APOCYNUM. Apocynum. U.S. Fl. ex. 60. Canadian hemp, E. Canadische Hanfwurzel, G. Chanvre du Canada, Fr. The roots of Apocynum cannahinum, L., Apocynaceae. Light grayish brown. Faint soil odor (musty), narcotic. Very bitter. Parenchyma cells medium size with simple starch granules; large and small porous ducts ; cork tissue sparingly present. A few sclerenchyma cells are present, like those of A. Androsaemi- folium. Candian hemp and dog's bane are variously substituted for each other. Not generally adulterated. 120 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Fig. 9.* APOCYNUM CANNABINUM. a. Parenchyma bearing starch. Granules similar to those of A. An- drosaemifolum. b. Resin bearing cell, resin colorless and crystalline. These resin bearing cells are quite large, the one figured is one of medium size. . c. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. d. Deep reddish brown cork cells. e. Porous duct. f. Wood elements. Special Description of ^^EGETABLE Powders. 121 Fig. 10.* APOCYNUM ANDROSAEMIFOLIUM. a. Parenchyma cells bearing starch. Starch granules simple, very rarely two compound, oval, hilum and stratification wanting or very in- distinct. b. Granular substance (resin), nearly colorless. , c. Sclerenchyma, very typical. Pores distinct, branching; color yellow. d. Deep reddish brown cork cells. e. Fragment of porous duct. f. Wood elements. ' J2. (Fig, JO.) APOCYNUM ANDROSAEMIFOLIUM. Dog:'s Bane. Fl. ex. 60. Dog's Bane, E. The roots of Apocymim androsaemifoUum, E., Apocynacese. Light brown. Odor and taste as for preceding species. 122 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Histology like that of the preceding species excepting that numerous typical yellowish sclerenchyma cells are present. Com- pare also the resin bearing cells. Fig. n. ARECA NUT. Endosperm cells with fat. Cells with large aleuron granules. Crystalloids, prismatic, enclosed in proteid matter. Radially elongated reddish brown epidermal cells. J 3. (Fig. no ARECA. Arcca nut. Fl. ex. 60. Fine meal. Charcoal, powdered. Betel nut, E. Betelnuss, Arekanuss, G. Noix d'arec, Fr. The seeds of Areca Catechu, L., Palmae. Bright reddish brown. Nearly odorless. Characteristic when fresh. Astringent. Endosperm cells with very thick porous walls containing fat Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 123 and proteid granules ; radially elongated conical reddish brown epidermal cells. Large aleuron granules with well developed cr}stalloids. Fig. J2. ARNICA. Flowers. a. Trichomes. h. Pollen grains. c. Pappus. d. Glandular trichomes. e. Epidermal cells. /. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. J4 (Fi^.I2.) ARNICA. Arnica. U.S. Flowers. Fl. ex. 30. Tinct. 20. Wohlverleih, Fallkraut, Arnika, G. Arnique, Arnica, Fr. The flower heads of Arnica montana, L. Compositae. Light brown. Fragrant, recalling gaultheria. 124 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Bitter, somewhat pungent. Pollen grains typical of the order Compositae ; simple, many celled trichomes ; many celled glandular trichomes ; numerous pappus remnants ; epidermal cells with wavy vertical walls. Adulterated with flowers of various Compositae as Calendula, Anthernis, Inula, Scnecio. Fig. J3. ARNICA. Entire plant. Epidermal cells of leaf. Trichomes. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. Parenchyma, transverse view. Pollen grain. Trichome and epidermal tissue of root. Parenchyma of root. Porous ducts. Spiral ducts. Parenchyma. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 125 J5. (Fig. 13.) ARNICA. Arnica. (U.S., 1890.) Roots, Rhizomes and some Leaves. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct. 40. Origin and names as for the preceding. The roots and rhizomes are prescribed but the basal branches and leaves are generally included. Very dark brownish gray. Very faintly aromatic or fragrant, recalling odor of hay. Bitter, pungent. Trichomes, pollen grains and epidermal cells as for the flower but more sparingly present. In addition, the parenchymatous and vascular tissue of roots, leaf stalks and stems ; parenchyma- tous cells typical, free from any characteristic contents ; ducts and tracheids porous ; some spiral vessels. Epidermal cells of leaf with wavy vertical walls. Adulterated with roots and rhizomes, of other species and rhizomes of strawberry. 16. (Fig. 14.) ASARUM. Wild Ginger. Fl. ex. 60. Syrup, coarse powder. Canada snakeroot, E. Hazelwurzel, G. Asaret, Fr. The rhizomes and roots of Asarum canadense, L., Aristol- ochiaccae. Light grayish brown. Aromatic, recalling ginger ; camphoraceous. Very pungent, somewhat bitter. Parenchyma of rather loosely united thick walled cells with compound starch granules and larger resin bearing cells ; some cork tissue ; tracheids ; reticulate and spiral ducts. Outer paren- chyma cells more or less collenchymatous. Powder turns a deep red with concentrated sulphuric acid. In 1897 Bicknell found that A. canadense represented two species, A. canadense and A. reflexiim. Histologically the two 126 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. species resemble each other closely. A. reilexnm is apparently more deficient in resin and starch, parenchyma cells have thinner walls. Vascular tissue more deficient. Reaction with sulphuric acid less marked. Fig. 14. ASARUM. Parenchyma with starch. Reticulate duct. Spiral duct. Porous ducts. Cork tissue. Resin cell. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 127 Fig. 15. ASCLEPIAS TUBEROSA. a. Sclerenchyma cells. c. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. d. Prismatic and aggregate crystals. e. Parenchyma with starch and crystals. f. Starch granules. g. Reticulate ducts. J7. (Fig. 15.) ASCLEPIAS. Asclepias. (U. S., 1890.) Fl. ex, 60. Pleurisy root, E. KnoUige Schwalbenwurzel, G. Racine d'as- clepiade tubereuse, Fr. The roots of Asclepias tnhcrosa, L., Asclepiadaceae. Very light yellowish brown. Nearly odorless ; nauseating when moist. Somewhat pungent and bitter. I2S Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Numerous typical yellow, porous sclerenchyma cells ; paren- chyma cells rather thin walled containing compound starch gran- ules and prismatic and aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate ; large and smaller reticulate and porous ducts. Roots of related species may be substituted. Fig. 16.* ASPIDIUM. a. Intercellular resin gland. b. Resin of golden yellow color. c. Intercelluar space. d. Starch bearing parenchyma cells. J 8. (Fig. J 6.) ASPIDIUM. Aspidium. U. S. Fl. ex. 6o. Male fern, Male shield fern, E. Wurmfarn, Waldfarn, Johan- neswurzel, G. Fougere male, Fr. The rhizomes and stipes of Dryopteris Filix-mas, Schott, and D. marginale, Gray, Filices. Light greenish brown. Old material brown. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 129 Nearly odorless, recalling taraxacum. Old material has a heavy, nauseating, rancid odor. Very astringent, sweetish, slightly bitter and pungent. Large loosely united parenchyma cells with large simple starch granules; numerous large intercellular spaces with lemon colored resin; vascular tissue typical of the fern group, rather large scalariform ducts ; some cork tissue. Adulterated with rhizomes of other ferns. Fig. 17. ASPIDOSPERMA. Very large bast cell, all lined with crystal bearing cells. Sclerenchyma cells. Parenchyma with phloem group. Parenchyma. Sclerenchymatous tracheids. Prismatic crystals. Small celled parenchyma. Crystal bearing parenchyma and stone cell. 130 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. «' J 9. (Fig. 17,) ASPIDOSPERMA. Aspidosperma. (U.S., 1590.) Fl. ex. 6o. Quebracho. E., G., Fr. The bark of Aspidosperma Quebracho, Schlecht., Apocyna- ceae. Rather light cinnamon brown.* Faintly aromatic, nearly odorless. ' Very bitter. Very large sclerenchymatous bast cells lined with paren- chyma cells bearing prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate ; larger and smaller typical sclerenchyma and sclerenchymatous tracheids ; bark parenchyma cells rather small, thin walled with groups of phloem cells ; prismatic crystals very numerous. Powder turns deep reddish brown with potassium hydrate solution. Adulterated with barks of related species. 20. (Fig. J 8.) AURANTIUM AMARUM. Bitter Orange Peel. U.S. Fl. ex. 40. Tinct. 30. Pomeranze, G. Orange amere, Fr. The rind of the fruit of Citrus Aurantiinii var. amara, L., Aurantaceae. Very light yellowish brown. Fragrantly aromatic. Pungent, bitter. Outer parenchyma of smaller thick walled closely united cells ; inner parenchyma cells very loosely united leaving large intercellular spaces ; numerous rather large prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate ; epidermal cells small, with small yellow pig- ment granules, oil and prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate. Oil glands destroyed in powdering. Vascular tissue deficient. Histologically similar to peel of sweet orange, lemon and lime. *"Cinnamon brown" refers to the color of Cassia cinnamon. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 131 4k ^ c^^ Fig. 18. AURANTIUM AMARUM. a, b. Outer parenchyma with crystals. c. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. d. Inner spongy parenchyma. e. Epidermis, vertical view. /. Crystal bearing fibres. 2J. (Fi?. J9.) BELLADONNA. Belladonna. U.S. Leaves. Fl. ex. 60 Tinct. 60. Names and origin as for 22. Leaves and younger terminal branches included. Green. Somewhat fragrant; nauseous when moist. Somewhat bitter and pungent. Stomata above and below, vertical walls wavy; simple many celled trichomes, also glandular trichomes ; leaf and petiole paren- chyma cells with crystal sand and aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. 132 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Mixed with the leaves of digitalis, hyoscyamus, verbascum, stramonium, Solanuin nigrum and Scopola carniolica. Fig. J 9. BELLADONNA. Leaf. j a. Epidermal cells. b. Trichomes. c. Leaf parenchyma cells with crystals. d. Parenchyma. e. Tracheids and spiral duct. f. Glandular trichome. g. Bast cells. 22. (Fig. 20.) BELLADONNA. Belladonna. U.S. Roots. Fl. ex, 6o. Tinct. 6o. Deadly nightshade, Dwale, E. Belladonna, Tollkraut, Wolf- skirsche, Tollkirsche, G. Belladone, Morelle furieuse, Fr. The roots of Atropa Belladonna, L., Solanaceae. Light brownish gray. Nearly odorless ; soil odor. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 133 Sweetish, somewhat bitter and pungent. Rather large celled parenchyma with compound starch gran- ules ; cells with crystal sand ; rather large porous ducts ; few tracheids ; some cork tissue. Adulterated with old roots (excessive amount of woody tis- sue), roots collected in the spring (quite free from starch), roots of allied species and of Mcdicago sativa. Scopola roots are sub- stituted for belladonna. (See Scopola roots.) Fig. 20. BELLADONNA. Root. a. Parenchyma with starch and crystal sand. 6. Duct, end view. c. Porous ducts. d. Starch granules. e. Cork cells. /. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. 134 Powdered Vegetable Drugs Fig. 21. BERBERIS. a. Sclerenchymatous bast cells. b. Sclerenchyma. c. Parenchyma. d. Prismatic crystals. e. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. /. Outer cork cells. 23. (Fi^. 2J.) BERBERIS. Bafberry. Fl. ex. 60. Sauerdorn, Bereberitzen, Saurach, G. Berberide, Epine-vinette, Vinettier, Fr. The root bark of Berheris canadensis (vulgaris), L. Berber- idaceae. Brownish lemon yellow. Odorless. Bitter; colors saliva yellow. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 135 Sclerenchymatous bast cells and typical sclerenchyma ; nu- merous bark parenchyma cells with prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate. Suberized cells of the outer bark. Fig. 22. BRYONIA ALBA. Parenchyma with starch. Reticulate ducts. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. Parenchyma. Porous duct. CoUenchymatous tissue. Duct, transverse view. Starch granules. 24. (Fig. 22.) BRYONIA. Bryonia, Bryony. (U. S., 1890.) Fl. ex. 60. Tinct. 40. Zaunriibe, Gichtrube, G. Bryone blanche, Coulevree, Fr. The roots of Bryonia alba, L., Cucurbitaceae. 136 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Very light brown. Slight odor, recalling taraxacum. Very bitter. Rather large thin walled paranchyma cells with compound starch granules ; some collenchymatous parenchyma ; large porous and reticulate ducts ; tracheids ; small amount of corky tissue. Rarely adulterated. Related species may be substituted. Fig. 23. BUCHU. Short. a. Lower epidermis. b. Upper epidermis. c. Lower epidermis, lateral view. d. Upper epidermis, lateral view. ^, i f. Parenchyma. g- Tracheids. h. Spongy tissue cells. i. Bast cells. y. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. k. Trichome. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 137 25. (Fig, 23.) BUCHU. Buchu leaves. U.S. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct. 60. Buccoblatter, Buckublatter, G. Feuilles de bucco (booko, biichu), Fr. The leaves of Barosina crenulata, Hooker, B. serratifolia, Willd., Riitaceae. Pale green. Aromatic, mint-like. Bitterish, pungent. Epidermal cells with vertical walls straight, containing inulin ; stomata on lower surface only ; cuticle with warty eleva- tions ; trichomes very few, simple, single celled, short ; no crys- tals. The histology of long buchu and false long buchu practically identical with that of short buchu. The cuticular markings are, however, less prominent. 26. (Fig. 24.) CAFFEA. Coffee. Roasted ; in coarse powder. Kaffee, G. Cafe, Fr. The seeds of Caffea arabica, L., Rubiaceae. Very dark brown. Unroasted, very pale green. Very aromatic. Coffee odor. Somewhat bitter and astringent. Seed coat consists of a very thin walled parenchyma and bast like sclerenchyma cells ; endosperm tissue consists of thick- walled porous cells bearing proteid granules and fat. Ground roasted coffee adulterated with a great variety of substances, among others roasted and ground chicory, beet roots, carrot roots and cereals. 138 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Fig. 24. CAFFEA. 0. Sclerenchyma cells of testa. b. Endosperm cells with fat and minute starch granules. c, d e. Outer tissue cells. 27. (Fi^. 25.) CALAMUS. Calamus. U.S. Fl. ex. 6o. Tinct. 6o. Sweet flag, E. Kalmuswurzel, G. Acore vrai, Acore odorant, Fr. The peeled and tinpeeled rhizomes of Acorns Calamus, L., Araceae. The unpeeled article takes the preference. Unpeeled, light brown. Peeled, very light brown. Aromatic and camphoraceous. Bitter, pungent. Parenchymatous tissue with large intercellular spaces, cells thin walled containing very small, simple starch granules ; a num- ber of larger cells containing a brownish resin ; vascular tissue of porous, reticulate, spiral and annular ducts; some cork tissue; Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 139 parenchyma immediately below the cork tissue of closely united cells. Not frequently adulterated. Fig. 25. CALAMUS. a. Parenchyma with minute starch granules. b. Oil and resin bearing cells. c. Spiral duct. d. Outer Parenchyma and epidermis. e. Parenchyma from near periphery. /. Parenchyma as a. g. Reticulate ducts. 28. (Fi^.26.) CALENDULA. Calendula. U.S. Fl. ex. 30. Tinct. 20. Marigold, E. Ringelblume, Todenblume, G. Souci, Fleurs de tous le mois, Fr. The ray flowers of Calendula officinalis, L., Compositae. Bright, brownish yellow. Fragrant ; narcotic. Slightly bitter and saline. 140 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Many-celled trichomas ; pollen grains characteristic of the order ; epidermal cells of petals with yellow coloring matter. Fig. 26. CALENDULA. a. Epidermal cells of petal with yellow coloring bodies. b. Pollen grains. c. Trichomes. d. Parenchyma. e. Ducts. 29. (Fig. 27.) CALUMBA. Calumba. U.S. Fl. ex. 20. Tinct. 20. Columbo, E. Kolombowurzel, G. Colombe, Fr. The roots of Jateorrhiza palmata, Miers, Menispermaceae. Pale brownish yellow. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 141 Slight odor, recalling taraxacum. Bitter, mucilaginous. Large-celled thin walled parenchyma with large simple starch granules having very distinct radiate hili; very large reticulate ducts; a few thin walled porous sclerenchyma cells and some corky tissue. Adulterated with roots of Bryonia alba and Frasera Walteri. Fig. 27. CALUMBA. o. Parenchyma with starch granules. h. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. c, d. Sclerenchyma cells. e. Reticulate ducts. /. Cork cells, lateral view. 142 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Fig. 28. CANELLA. a. Sclerenchyma cells, walls unequally thickened. b. Typical sclerenchyma. c. Parenchyma. d. Resin bearing cells. e. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. f. Parenchyma with starch granules and crystals. g. Aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. h. Parenchyma. ». Starch granules. 30. (Fig. 28.) CANELLA. Canella Bark. Fl. ex. 6o. White wood, White cinnamon, E. Weisser Zimmt, Weisser Canel, G. Canelle bl^inche, Fr. The bark of Canella alba, Murray, Canellaceae. Very pale brownish yellow. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 143 Aromatic, recalling cinnamon. Pungent, somewhat bitter. Isodiametric sclerenchyma cells with unequally thickened walls ; bark parenchyma with numerous aggregate crystals of cal- cium oxalate and large cells filled with a bright yellow resin ; some rather small spherical simple starch granules. Fig. 29. CANNABIS INDICA. a. Lower epidermis of leaves. b. Upper epidermis of leaves. c. Trichomes with cystoliths. e. Spiral ducts. f. Parenchyma with minute aggregate crystals. g. Phloem tissue. 144 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. 3U (Fig. 29.) CANNABIS INDICA. Indian Hemp. U. S. Fl. ex. 20. Tinct. 40. Hemp, E. Hanf, G. Chanvre, Fr. The female (pistillate) flowering tops of Cannabis sativa, L., Urticaceae. Dull greenish brown. Very narcotic, heavy. Slightly pungent. Lower epidermal cells with wavy vertical walls ; vertical walls of lower epidermis and of stem straight ; single celled short simple trichomes containing cystoliths ; numerous, very small aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate ; vascular tissue sparingly present. American hemp is medicinally inert. 32. (Fig. 30.) CAPSICUM. Capsicum. U.S. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct. 30. Cayenne, African or Pod Pepper, E. Spanischer Pfeffer, Schlot- enpfeffer, G. Capcique, Piment des jardins, Piment rouge, Poivre de Cayenne, Fr, The fruit of Capsicum fastigiatum, Blume, Solanaceae. Bright yellowish red. Faint odor, characteristic. Exceedingly pungent. Epidermal cells of seed large with very thick porous wavy walls ; epidermal cells of pericarp with moderately thick porous wavy yellow walls ; endosperm cells containing proteid granules and oil globules, walls porous. The powder is adulterated with a variety of substances as fruit of allied species, red lead oxide, saw dust, bran, mustard, flour, starch, etc. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 145 Fig. 30. CAPSICUM. a. Epidermis of seed. b. Endosperm cells with proteid granules and oil globules. c. Peripheral endosperm. d. Epidermal cells of pericarp. c. Isolated epidermal cells. 33. CARBO ANIMALIS. Animal Charcoal. U. S. Coarse powder. Fine meal. Boneblack, Ivory black, E. Thierkohle, Knochenkohle, Bein- schwarz, G. Charbon animal, Noir d'os, Fr. The partially oxidized bones of animals. Lustrous black. Odorless. Tasteless. 146 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Microscopically there is no distinctly recognizable structure. It may readily be distinguished from wood charcoal by the ab- sence of remnants of wood fibres and calcium oxalate crystals. The fragments of the finely powdered charcoal are short, con- ciioidal and not elongated splintery. 34. CARBO LIGNI. Charcoal. U. S. Coarse and fine powder. Wood charcoal, E. Holzkohle, Priiparirte Kohle, G. Charbon vegetale, Fr. Made from partially oxidized soft wood (willow and other plants). Dull black. Odorless. Tastless. Brown wood fibre remnants are quite abundant, intermingled with the black coarser more oxidized cell groups. Crystals of calcium are also to be found. Numerous splintery fragments. 35. CARDAMOM. Cardamom. U.S. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct. 30. Malabar cardamom, E. Cardamom, Kleine Kardamomen, G. Cardamomes, Fr. The fruit of Elcttaria rcpcns, BailL, Scitaminaceae. Light brown. Aromatic, spicy, somewhat comphoraceous. Pungent, cooling sensation. Epidermal cells of pericarp of polygonal cells ; parenchyma cells of pericarp thin walled containing prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate ; endosperm cells containing oil, minute starch granules and proteid granules. Ceylon Cardamom is distinguished from the Malabar Carda- Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 147 mom bv the presence in the former of thick walled, conical, simple trichomes. Adulterated with various varieties, green coffee, orange and lemon seeds. 36. CARTHAMUS. Saff lower. Entire. African, False, American, or Dyer's Saffron, E. Saflor, G. Car- thame, Fr. The florets (removed from receptacle or torus) of Carthamus tinctorhis, L. Compositse. Deep red. Fragrant ; faint odor of cured tobacco. Somewhat bitter ; saliva yellow. Epidermal cells with red coloring matter soluble in water. Pollen grains quite large, exine with rather blunt conical projec- tions and three very distinct pores. Much employed as an adulteration of and substitute for Crocus sativus. Z7, CARUM. Caraway. U.S. Entire ; bruised. Kiimmel, G. Carvi, Cumin des pres, Fr. The fruit of Cantm Carvi, L., Umbelliferae. Greenish brown. Aromatic, recalling coriander. Pungent ; bitterish, sweetish. Parenchyma of pericarp of thin walled more or less collapsed yellowish cells. Endosperm cells contain fat and proteid gran- ules ; cell walls of endosperm cells are of uniform medium thick- ness, cells isodiametric, closely united. Vascular tissue very sparingly present. No trichomes or sclerenchyma. Yellowish resin particles or lumps. 148 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Fig. 31. CARYOPHYLLUS. a. Parenchyma cells with oil and granules. b. Bast cells. c. Inner spongy Parenchyma. d. Oil gland. e. Epidermal tissue, lateral view. /. Crystal bearing parenchyma. g. Pollen grains. i. Epidermal cells, vertical view. y. Aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. 38. (Fig.Zi,) CARYOPHYLLUS. Cloves. U.S. Ground, rather cotirse. Gewiirznelken, Nagelein, G. Girofle, Gerofle, Clous aromatiques, Fr. The unexpanded flowers of Eugenia caryophyllata, Thun- berg, Myrtaceae. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 149 Deep dark reddish brown. Very aromatic ; clove odor. \'ery pungent, benumbing. Pollen grains triangular mostly immature; very few, rather short, thick walled bast cells ; outer parenchyma of closely united cells containing aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate; cuticle enormously thickened ; inner parenchyma spongy. Numerous large glands containing oil and resin. No starch present but the parenchyma cells contain oil and small granules of tannin. A con- centrated solution of potassium causes the precipitation of acicular and radiately aggregate crystals (eugenol reaction). Quite frequently adulterated ; with clove stalks, mother cloves (clove fruit), exhausted cloves, roasted flour, etc. Fig. 32. CASCARILLA. 150 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. a. Parenchyma cells, longitudinal view, with crystals and starch. Two bast cells enclosed. b. Parenchyma with starch and resin. c. Bast cell. c. Outer sclerenchyma, vertical view. /. Prismatic and aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. g. Parenchyma. /;. Outer sclerenchyma, lateral view. 39. (Fig. 32.) CASCARILLA. Cascarida Bark. (U. S.. 1890.) FI. ex. 6o. Tiiict. 6o. Sweetwood bark, E. Kaskarillrinde, G. Cascarille, Chacrille, Ecorce eleutherienne, Fr. The bark of Croton Eluteria, Bennett, Euphorbiaccae. Somewhat dull cinnamon brown. Aromatic, recalling cinnamon ; somewhat musk-like when burnt. Bitter, pungent. Outer sclerenchymatous tissue with cells of unequally thick- ened walls ; rather short, thick walled bast cells ; bark parenchyma with prismatic and aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate, small oval simple starch granules and fat. Adulterated with bark of allied species. 40. (Fig. 33.) CASTANEA. Chestnut. (U.S., 1890.) Fl. ex. 30. Kastanienblatter, G. Fueflles de chataigener, Fuilles de mar- ronier, Fr. The leaves of Castanca vcsca, Gaert., Cupuliferce. Bright green. Faintly fragrant. Astringent. Vertical walls of epidermal cells somewhat wavy ; stomata Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 151 on lower surface only ; stellate trichomes and some glandular trichomes ; leaf parenchyma with aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. Adulterated with other chestnut leaves and oak leaves. Fig. 33. CASTANEA. Leaf. a. Lower epidermis. b. Upper epidermis. c. Stellate trichomes. d. Glandular trichome. e. Aggregate crystals. /. Spiral ducts. g. Bast fibres. h. Parenchyma. 152 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Fig. 34. CAULOPHYLLUM. a. Parenchyma with starch granules. fe- Parenchyma, longitudinal view. c. Cork cells. d. Large and smaller porous ducts. Ai. (Fi^,34.) CAULOPHYLLUM. Blue Cohosh. (U.S.,J890.; Fl. ex. 60. Pappoose-root, Squaw-root, Blueberry-root, E. The rhizomes and roots of CaulophyUum thalictroides, Mich., Berberidaceae. Rather Hght brown. Nearly odorless. Sweetish, bitter, pungent. Rather large thin walled parenchymma with small simple spherical starch granules ; some cork tissue ; large and smaller porous ducts ; and tracheids. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 153 42. CERTRARIA. Ccrtraria. (U. S., 1890.) Entire. Iceland moss, Lungwort, E. Islandisches Moos, Islandische Flechte, Lungenmoos, G. Lichen (Mousse) d'Islande, Fr. The entire plant, Cetraria islandica, Ach., Lichens. Brownish when dry ; bluish green when moist. Practically odorless ; faintly musty. Slightly bitter and mucilaginous. The fungal portion consists of a peudo-parenchyma and hyphal network. The algse (gonidia) are single celled, spherical, green. Apothecia and spores are rare. x\dulterated with various impurities as pine leaves, mosses and grass leaves. Fig. 35. CHAMAELIRIUM. 154 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. a. Reddish brown bast cells. h. Sclercnchyma. c. Parenchyma with starch and rophides d. Tracheids. e. Cells with reddish brown contents. 43. (Fig. 35.) CHAMAELIRIUM. Starwort. Fl. ex. 30. Blazing star, Devil's bit, False unicorn-root, E. The rhizomes of C/ianiacliriimi lutcuui, Gray, Melanthaceae. Brownish gray. Nearly odorless. Bitter. Large sclerenchymatous bast cells ; smaller tracheid-like sclercnchyma cells ; isodiametric, rather thin walled sclercn- chyma cells ; tracheids ; parenchyma with small simple spherical starch granules and raphides of calcium oxalate ; outer paren- chyma with reddish brown contents. 44. CHELIDONIUM. Chelidonium. (U. S., 1890.) Fl. ex. 40. Celandine, Tetterwort, E. Schollkraut, G. Chelidone, Herbe a I'hirondelle, Fr. The herb of Chelidonium ma jus, L., Papaveraceae. Dark greenish brown. Fragrant when dry, recalling gaultheria ; narcotic, heavy, when fresh or moist. Somewhat pungent, bitterish. Vertical walls of upper and lower epidermis wavy ; stomata on lower surface only; simple, long, many-celled, smooth and thin walled trichomes above and below. Glancium lutcum (horn poppy) and G. coniiculatum may be substituted for chelidonium. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 155 45. CHENOPODIUM. Chenopodium. (U. S,, 1890.) Fl. ex. 60. American wormseed, E. Amerikanischer Wnrmsamen, G. An- serine vermifuge^ Fr. The fruit of Chenopodhiiii amhrosioides, L., Chenopodiaceae. Light brown. Very disagreeably and narcotically terebinthine. Quite pungent and somewhat bitter. Vertical walls of epidermal cells wavy ; simple trichomes with usually four basal cells, elongated curved end cell ; glandular trichomes ; numerous leaf parenchyma cells with crystal sand. Epidermal tissue of pericarp much like that of leaf but no trichomes ; spongy parenchyma. Deep bright reddish brown tis- sue of testa. Very thin walled endosperm tissue filled with pro- teid granules and fat. Adulterated with fruit of allied species. 46. (Fig. 36.) CHIMAPHILA. Chimaphila. U.S. Fl. ex. 30. Pipsissewa, Prince's pine, Wintergreen, E. Dolbenbliithiges Harnkraut, Wintergriin, G. Herbe de pyrole ombellee, Fr. The leaves of Chimaphila umhcUata, Nutt., Ericaceae. Grayish, greenish brown. Nearly odorless. Astringent, sweetish, bitterish. Vertical walls of lower epidermis wavy and nodular, cuticle much thickened ; stomata on lower surface only ; leaf parenchyma with aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate ; no trichomes. Some compound starch granules. Histology similar to that of Gaul- theria. 156 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Fig. 36. CHIMAPHILA. a. Lower epidermis. b. Upper epidermis. c. Upper epidermis, lateral view. d. Parenchyma with starch. e. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. f. Leaf parenchyma cells with crystals. g. Starch granules. //. Tracheids. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. i 57 Fig. 37. CHIRATA. a, b. Epidermal tissue. c. Pollen grains. d. Tracheids. e. f. Parenchyma. 47. (Fi?. 37.) CHIRATA. Chirata. U.S. Fl. ex. 30. Tinct. 40. Chiretta, E. Ostindischer Enzian, Chiretta, G. Chirette, Fr. The herb of Swertia Chirata, Hamilton, Gentianaceae. Dark grayish brown. Odorless. Extremely bitter. Leaves with stomata on lower surface only ; vertical walls of epidermal cells straight; no trichomes; numerous tracheids and 158 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. wood fibres. Some merlium sized, spheroidal to eliptical, nearly smooth, yellowish brown pollen grains. Histological elements of leaves, and flowers rather indistinct. Fig. 38. CICHORIUM. Parench3'ma with inulin. Parenchyma, longitudinal view, with inulin. Laticiferous ducts. Cork tissue. Parenchj-ma. Tracheids. 48. (Fi^. 38.) CICHORIUM. Chicory. Succory. Roasted, coarsely powdered. Cichorie, G. Chicoree sauvage, Fr. The roots of CicJwrium Intybus, L., Compositae. Roasted — verv dark brown. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 159 Unroasted — Light brown. Roasted — Aromatic, characteristic. Unroasted — Nearly odorless, recalling taraxacum. Roasted — Sweetish, bitterish, astringent. Unroasted — Bitter. Parenchyma with inulin ; tracheids ; cork tissue ; lacticiferons ducts. Woody tissue more abundant in the wild growing chicory. Roots of the cultivated plant fleshy ; the parenchyma predomi- nating. Used as an adulterant of coffee or added intentionally to modify the flavor. Fig. 39. aMIC[FUGA. a. Parenchyma cells with starch. h. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. c. Cork tissue. d. Tracheids. i6o Powdered Vegetable Drugs. 49. (Fig. 39.) CIMICIFUGA. Cimicifuga. U.S. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct. 60. Black snakeroot, Black cohosh, E. Schwarze Schlangenwurzel, G. Racine d'actee a grappes, Fr. The rhizomes and roots of Cimicifiiga raccnwsa, Elliott, Ranunculaceae. Ash gray. Nearly odorless when dry ; heavy, narcotic when moist. Sweetish, bitter, pungent. Parenchyma cells rather large containing minute spherical starch granules ; some cork tissue and tracheids. Rarely adulterated. 50. (Fig. 40.) CINCHONA. Cinchona. U.S. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct. 60. Peruvian bark, Jesuit's bark, E. Chinarinde, G. Quinquina, Fr. The bark of several species of Cinchona, Rubiaceae. Red cinchona — Bright reddish yellow. Yellow cinchona — Yellowish brown. Faintly aromatic ; musty. Very bitter, astringent. Large scierenchymatous bast cells ; few sclerench} ma cells ; bark parenchyma with simple starch granules and a few cells with crystal sand. Histologically red and yellow cinchona are practically iden- tical. With potassium hydrate red cinchona forms a deep blood red coloration, while yellow cinchona forms a yellowish brown coloration. Various bark adulterations may be suspected. There are numerous varieties of cinchona and a number of so-called "false cinchonas," Special Description of Vegetable Powders. i6i Fig. 40. QNCHONA. Red. a. Large sclerenchymatous bast cells. b. Sclerenchyma cells. c. Bark parenchj'ma. d. Cells with crystal sand. e. Medullary ray. 5J. (Fig.4J.) CINNAMOMUM. Cassia cinnamon. (U.S., J890.) Coarse powder, as a spice. Chinese cinnamon, E. Chinesischer Zimmt, Zimmtkassia, G. Casse, Cannelle de Chine, Fr. The bark of several unknown species or varieties of Cinna- momum, Lauracese. Cinnamon brown (reddish brown). Fragrant, aromatic, very characteristic. \ Sweet, pungent, somewhat astringent. ^ ' ' 1 62 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Rather short, thick walled bast cells ; sclerenchyma with cell walls unequally thickened ; parenchyma cells with compound starch granules ; cells with numerous small prismatic crystals ; large resin bearing cells ; cells of outer bark suberized and with reddish brown contents. Cassia cinnamon in particular is likely to be adulterated with inferior cassia barks, clove bark, flour, inert vegetable substances. Fig. 41. CINNAMON. Cassia. a. Sclerenchyma. b. Bast. c. Resin cell. d. Parenchyma cells with starch. e. Crystal bearing cell. f. Outer cork cells. g. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. h. Cells with reddish brown contents. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 163 Fig. 42. CINNAMON. Ceylon. a. Sclerenchyma cells with unequally thickened walls. b. Bast cells. c. Parenchyma cells with starch. d. Typical thick-walled parenchyma. c. Parenchyma, longitudinal view, with starch and crystals. /. Resin and oil cell. g. Outer cork cells, sparingly present. 52.(Fig.42.) CINNAMOMUM. Ceylon cinnamon. (U.S., J890.) Coarse powder, as a spice. Brauner canel, Zeylonzimmt, G. Cannelle de Ceylon, Fr. (See Cassia cinnamon). Rather light cinnamon brown. Delicately fragrant and aromatic. Sweet, pungent, slightly astringent. 1 64 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Histology much like that of Cassia Cinnamon ; bast cells cells of the outer cork wanting; starch less abundant. It is pos- more slender and somewhat longer; sclerenchyma cells larger; sible to distinguish this from the other two by the larger scleren- chyma cells and absence of outer cork and epidermal tissues. Adulterations as for Cassia cinnamon. Fig. 43. CINNAMON. Saigon. a. Sclerenchyma. ^ b, c. Bast. d. Epidermis, lateral view. e. Epidermis, vertical view. /. Parenchyma, longitudinal view with crystal bearing cell (g) resin cell (h) and starch. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 165 53. (Fig. 43.) CINNAMOMUM. Saigon cinnamon. U.S. Coarse powder. Tinct. 40. Zimmt, G. Canelle, Fr. The bark of Cinnamomum, Lauraceae. Rather dark cinnamon brown. Fragrant, very aromatic. Sweet, very pungant, astringent. Histology much hke that of Cassia ; bast cells somewhat larger. Starch and sclerenchyma cells much as in Cassia cinna- mon. Numerous small epidermal cells with thickened walls. Resin cells and crystals as in the other cinnamons. Adulterations as for Cassia cinnamon. 54. (Fig. 44.) COCA. Coca. U.S. Fl. ex. 50. Cocablatter, G. Feuilles de coca. Fr. The leaves of Erythroxylon Coca, Lam., Linese. Brownish green to bright green. Somewhat fragrant, tea-like. Astringent, slightly bitter and benumbing. Vertical walls of epidermal cells straight ; stomata on lower surface only ; outer walls of lower epidermal cells papillar except- ing those of the neighboring cells of the stomata ; prismatic crys- tals of calcium oxalate ; no trichomes. The above description refers to the powder of Bolivian coca. The Peruvian (Truxillo) coca and Brazilian coca are closely similar histologically; the papillar projections of the lower epi- dermal cells of the Brazilian variety are very marked to nearly globose. i66 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Fig. 44. COCA. a. Upper epidermis. b. Lower epidermis. c. Upper epidermis, lateral view. d. Lower epidermis, lateral view. e. Parenchyma. /. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. g. Prismatic crystals of calcium axalate. 55. COCCULUS. Fishberry. Kokkelskomer, Fischkorner, G. Coque du Levant, Fr. The fruits of Anamirta paniciilata, Colebrooke, Menisper- maceae. Brown. Heavy, narcotic ; becoming very fishy and rancid with age. Verv bitter. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 167 Flattened epidermal cells ; parenchyma cells with brown con- tents. Numerous sclerenchymatous, thick walled, porous wood fibres. Endosperm cells thin walled, filled with proteid granules and oil. Acicular and prismatic cryctals and crystal aggregates. a. b. c. d. e. f. 56, Fig. 45. COLCHICUM. Corm. Parenchyma with starch. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. Thick-walled, porous parenchyma. Spiral ducts. Starch granules. Phloem tissue. (Fig. 45.) COLCHICUM. Colchicum. U.S. Corm. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct. 30. Meadow-saffron, E. Wiesensafran, Herbstzeitlose, G. Col- chique, Safran batard, Fr. 1 68 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. The corms of Colchiciim autumnale, L., Liliaceae. Light grayish brown. Odorless. Sweetish, bitter, pungent. Parenchyma cells large and thin walled with large compound starch granules having very distant stellate hili ; spiral ducts and some thick walled porous parenchymatous tissues. Vascular tis- sue sparingly present. Powder colors reddish yellow with con- centrated sulphuric acid. Fig. 46. COLCHICUM. Seed. 0. Endosperm cells with protcid granules and oil globules. h. Endosperm, longitudinal view. c. Brown epidermal cells. d. Hypodermal cells. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 169 57. (Fig. 46.) COLCHICUM. Colchkum. U.S. Seeds. Fl. ex. 30. Tinct. 30. Names and origin as for corm. Brown. Odorless. Bitter, somewhat pungent. Endosperm cells rather large, walls very thick and porous containg proteid granules and oil globules ; epidermal tissue of reddish brown cells. Brown outer tissue cells. Fig. 47. COLOCYNTH. Epidermal cells. Sclerenchyma cells. Parenchyma. Parenchyma. Parenchyma. Spiral ducts. Epidermis of seed. Small celled sclerenchyma. ■With seeds. 170 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. 58. (Fig. 47.) COLOCYNTHIS. Colocynth. U.S. Fl. ex. 30. Tinct., coarse powder. Bitter apple, E. Koloquinten, G. Coloquinte, Fr. The fruit (peeled and freed from seeds) of CitriiUus Colo- cynthis, Schrader, Cucurbitaceae. \^ery light yellowish brown. Odorless. Extremely bitter. Parenchyma cells very large, thin walled ; typical scleren- chyma cells ; no characteristic cell contents ; vascular tissue spar- ingly present. Parenchyma cells all broken and collapsed. Powders made from fruits carefully peeled and freed from seeds should show only a very small amount of epidermal tissue and yellow sclerenchymatous cells. 59. (Fig. 48.) CONIUM. Conium. U.S. Fl. ex. 30. Tinct. 30. Hemlock, poison or spotted hemlock, E. Schierling, Gefleckter Schierling, G. Grand cique, Cique officinale, Fr. The fruit of Conium maculatum, L., Umbelliferse. Yellowish brown. Nearly odorless ; strong mouse odor when moistened with strongly alkaline solutions. Somewhat bitter. Endosperm cells with proteid granules and oil globules ; bast cells from fruit stalk and parenchymatous tissue from pericarp ; no trichomes or sclerenchyma. Said to be adulterated with anise fruit (see Anise) and other Umbelliferous fruits. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 171 Fig. 48. CONIUM. Seed. 0. Endosperm cells with oil and proteid granules. h. Bast fibres. c. Parenchyma. d. Endosperm tissue, lateral view. e. Parenchyma of pericarp. f. g. Parenchyma. 60. (Fig. 49.) CONVALLARIA. Convallaria. U.S. Fl. ex. 60. Lily of the Valley, E. Maiblumen, Maiglocklein, G. Muguet, Fr. The rhizomes and roots of Convallaria majalis, L., Liliaceae. Dull brown. Somewhat fragrant. Sweetish, bitter, pungent. Parenchyma cells medium size, many of the nuclei still vis- 172 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. ible ; acicular crystals present ; tracheids ; spiral ducts ; some cork tissue. Epidermal cells (of rhizomes and leaf) elongated with nuclei still visible.. ]\Iay be adulterated with Polygonattinu multifloriim (Euro- pean Solomon's seal) and Smilacina racemosa (false Solomon's seal). Fig. 49. CONVALLARIA. a, b. Parenchyma with raphides and showing nuclei. c. Cork tissue. d. Tracheids. e. Spiral ducts. 61. CORIANDER. Coriander. U.S. Fl. ex. 30. Koriander, G. Coriandre, Fr. The fruit of Coriandnini sativum, L., Umbelliferae. Light brown. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 173 Peculiarly aromatic ; recalling carum. Pungent. Some yellowish thin walled parenchyma ; numerous groups of thick walled, porous, elongated bast-like cells. Endosperm of rather small cells ; walls medium in thickness, filled with oil and proteid granules. No sclerenchyma. Adulterated with stem and leaf fragments. Fig. 50. CORNUS. a. Sclerenchyma, some with granular contents. b. Parenchyma, with crystals. c. d. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. e. Prismatic and aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. 62. (Fi^. 50. CORNUS. Comos. Fl. ex. 60. Dogwood bark, E. Grossbliithige Kornelrinde, Hornbaumrinde, G. Ecorce de carnouiller a grandes fleurs, Fr. 174 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. The root bark of Coriius florida, L., Cornace?e. Bright pinkish brown. Odorless. « Bitter, astringent. Rather large porous and thick walled sclerenchyma alternat- ing with smaller, less porous sclerenchyma containing a granular substance ; parenchyma with prismatic and aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. lU^^^AsL Fig. 51. GOTO. a. Large, long sclerenchyma cells. b. Large rectangular sclerenchyma cells. c. Sclerenchyma cells with granular contents. d. Medium sized sclerenchyma cells. e. Thin walled sclerenchyma. f. g. Elongated sclerenchyma. /;. Sclerenchyma with lamellar markings. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 175 1. Dark reddish brown granular oily bodies. j. Yellow resin. k. Parenchyma. /. Starch granules. 63. (Fi^. 5t.) GOTO. Goto Bark. Fl. ex. 60. Para bark, E. Cotorinde, G. Ecorce cle Goto, Fr. The bark of some botanically unknown South American tree, perhaps belonging to the Lauraceae or Anacardiaceae. Rather deep cinnamon brown. Aromatic, recalling cinnamon ; camphoraceous. \'ery pungent, somewhat bitter. Very large elongated sclerenchyma cells ; smaller, isodiamet- ric sclerenchyma cells ; cell walls of all sclerenchyma cells greatly thickened and porous, some of them containing a granular sub- stance ; parenchyma cells containing more or less spherical, gran- ular reddish brown, oily bodies ; numerous larger cells containing yellow resin ; some starch granules, mostly simple. Goto bark is less common than paracoto and the latter is quite generally substituted for coto. Various other barks are al- so substituted for coto. (See Paracoto). 64. (Fig. 52 ) CROGUS. Saffron. (U. S., 1890.) Entire. Spanish saffron, E. Safran, Spanischer Safran, G. Safran, Fr. The stigmas and upper parts of the styles of Crocus sativus, L., Iridaceae. Deep red. Should not be oily. Aromatic ; recalling the odor of iodoform. Bitter, somewhat pungent ; saliva a bright orange yellow. Gells elongated, thin-walled, filled with red coloring matter. Large, very thin-walled bladdery stigmatic trichomes. Pollen 176 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. grains few, very large, spherical ; exine thick, colorless ; contents reddish, granular. Adulterated with basal portions of styles, dyed floral parts, as stamens and petals. Safflower {Carthannis tinctorius) is fre- quently an adulterant of or substitute for crocus. Also adul- terated with chalk, gypsum, colored emery, oil, glycerine, etc. Fig. 52.* CROCUS. a. Pollen grains. b. Tissue of style, cells with red coloring matter. c. Trichoma of stigma. 65, (Fig. 53.) CUBEBA. Cubcb. U.S. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct. 30. Kubeben, G. Cubebe, Poivre a queue, Fr. The unripe fruit of Cubeba officinalis, Miquel, Piperaceae. Deep dark brown; somewhat oily, granular. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 177 Fig. 53. CUBEBA. a. Sclerenchyma. b. Endosperm, with oil globules and proteid granules. c. Cells of pericarp. d. Parenchyma of stalk. e. Epidermal cells, vertical view. f. Tracheids. Characteristically aromatic ; somewhat camphoraceous. Pungent, quite bitter. Thick-walled, very porous sclerenchyma cells ; some scler- enchymatous tracheids ; endosperm cells with minute simple spher- ical starch granules ; larger, somewhat elongated cells, containing oil. Powder deteriorates rapidly. Adulterated with cubeb stems (indicated by the presence of small parenchyma cells and abund- 178 Powdered Vegetable Drugs ance of vascular tissue and tracheids) ; black pepper and other fruits of the Piperaceae ; Rhamnus Cathartica fruit, Juniper com- munis fruit, allspice; powdered nut shells, etc. Fig. 54. CURCUMA. a. Parenchyma with pasty starch. ' b. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. c. Masses of pasty starch. d. Ducts. e. Parenchyma. 66. (Fig. 54.) CURCUMA. Tormeric. Moderately fine. Kurkuma, Gelbwurzel, G. Curcuma, Souchet des Indes, Fr. The rhizomes of Curcuma longa, L., Scitamineae. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 179 Bright orange yellow. Faintly aromatic, recalling ginger. Pungent, somewhat bitter. Parenchyma cells filled with pasty starch. The entire pow- der colored yellow. Some scalariform and spiral ducts. Pa- renchyma cells rather thin-walled. Pastiness of starch due to heat employed in preparing crude drug. ■a. b. c. d. e. f. g- h. i. Fig. 55. CUSSO. Lower epidermis. Upper epidermis. Trichomes. Glandular trichome. Parenchyma. Tracheids. Spongy tissue cells of leaf. Spiral ducts. Pollen grains. i8o Powdered Vegetable Drugs. 67, (Fig. 55.) CUSSO. Koosso. U.S. Fl. ex. 40. Brayera, Kiisso, E. Koso, Kussro, Cusso, G. Kousso, Fr. The female (pistillate) flowering tops of Hagcnia abyssiiiica, Gmelin, Rosaceae. Rather light brown. Fragrant, recalling chamomile ; somewhat heavy. Bitter, pungent. Epidermal cells with straight and wavy vertical walls ; simple, somewhat twisted, single celled, trichomas; spherical pollen grains with three pores each ; many celled glandular trichomes ; typical spongy tissue ; bast ; tracheids and spiral ducts ; numerous small aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. Numerous pollen grains and parts of anthers filled with pol- len indicates adulteration with male flowers. 68. (Fig. 56,) CYPRIPEDIUM. Cypripcdium. U. S. Fl. ex. 60. Ladies' slipper, American valerian, E. Gelbfrauenschuh, G. Valeriane americane, Cypripede jaune, Fr. The rhizomes and roots of Cypripcdium puhcsccns, Wild., and C. parviflorinn, Salisbury, Orchidaceae. Light grayish brown (like aconite). Odor disagreeable, heavy, recalling valerian. Sweetish, bitter, pungent. Parenchyma cells large, thick- walled, porous ; raphides ; some small, simple spherical starch granules ; scalariform tra- cheids ; porous tracheids ; some cork tissue. Adulterated with Hydrastis canadensis, Polygala Senega and roots and rhizomes of other plants. Compare the two official species. Spfxial Description of Vegetable Powders. i8i ■"^^ Fig. 56. CYPRIPEDIUM PUBESCENS. a. c, d. Parenchyma cells and raphides. b. Cork cells. c. Parenchyma with starch granules. f. Tracheids. 69. DELPHINIUM. Larkspur. Seed. Fl. ex. 40. Lark's claw, Knight's spur, E. Rittersporn, Lerchenklaue, Horn- kummel, G. Pied d'alouette, Fr, The seeds of Delphinium consolida, L., Ranunculaceae. Very dark ; somewhat oily. Disagreeable nauseous heavy odor; rancid when old. Bitter, pungent. Outer cells of seed coat quite large ; black, indistinct col- lapsed, thin-walled parenchyma. Endosperm cells large, thick- walled very porous and somewhat collenchymatous, filled with granular proteid matter and fat. i82 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. 70. (Fig. 7,/-.) DEXTRINUM. Dextrin. A dry fine powder. British gum, E. Dextrin, G. Dextrin, Fr. Derived from starches. (See starch). Rather Hght brown, quite mobile. Nearly white, yellowish brown tinge, less mobile (white dextrin). Odorless. Sweetish. Outline of granules indistinct, quite irregular, hili and strati- fication quite distinct. The histological characteristics are still sufficiently marked to determine the kind of starch employed. (See Fig. 7, /;. In the United States corn starch is employed. White dex- trin consists largely of unmodified starch granules ; no high tem- perature is employed in its preparation. 71. (Fig 57.) DIGITALIS. Digitalis. U.S. Fl. ex. 6o. Tinct. 6o. Foxglove, E. Fingerhut, G. Digitale pourpree, Grand digitale, Fr. The leaves (second years' growth) of Digitalis purpurea, L., Scrophulariaceae. Dull green. Faintly fragrant when dry ; heavy, nauseous, when moist. Bitter. Vertical walls of upper and lower epidermis wavy, those of the lower more so than the upper; stomata on lower surface only; simple, many celled, rather large trichomes with minute warty outer markings ; some glandular trichomes with two secreting cells ; no crystal bearing cells. Adulterated with leaves of first year's growth ; leaves of Verbascuiu Thapsus, (large, branched trichomes) ; Conyza sqiiar- Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 183 rosa; Symphytum officinale; Inula Helenium; and common Com- frey. The histology of first and second year leaves require furth- er careful comparative study. Fig. 57. DIGITALIS. a. Upper epidermis. b. Parenchyma. c. Lower epidermis. d. Trichomes. e. Glandular trichomes. /. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. 72. (Fi?.58.) DULCAMARA. Dulcamara. (U. S., 1890.) Fl. ex. 60. Bittersweet, woody nightshade, E. Bittersiissstengel, G. Tiges de douce-amere (de morelle grimpante), Fr. 1 84 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Fig. 58. DULCAMARA. a. Epidermis. b. Epidermis, lateral view. c. Tracheids or wood fibres and porous ducts. d. Parenchyma, witli crypto-crystals. e. Medullary ray. f. Parenchyma, longitudinal view, with crystals. g. Cork. h. Typical bast. . i. Trichome. The young branches of Solanum Dulcamara, L., Solanaceae. Light yellowish brown. Faintly heavy, recalling tobacco. Bitter, afterwards sweet which is very persistent. Typical parenchyma ; tracheids ; porous ducts ; some cork tissue; a few small pointed simple trichomes; porous medullary Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 185 ray cells. Many of the parenchyma cells filled with crypto-crys- talline calcium oxalate. A few typical bast cells distributed through outer parenchyma. Epidermal cells polygonal ; stomata few. Said to be adulterated with stems of Humuhis Lupiilus, and Lonicera Periciynioium. 73. ERGOTA. Ergot. U.S. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct., coarse powder. Spurred rye, blasted rye, E. Mutterkorn, Hungerkorn, Korn- mutter, Zapfenkorn, G. Ergot de seigle, Ble cornu, Fr. The mycelium of Clavipcs purpurea, Tuslane, Fungi, dis- placing the seeds of Secale cercale, L., Gramineae. Dark ash gray tinged with purple. Somewhat musty ; heavy, rancid, herring brine odor when old. Somewhat sweetish and pungent; nearly tasteless. Consists of a much intertwined hyphal tissue. The outer layers of a small-celled pseudo-parenchyma with dark cell-walls. Small fragments of hyphae only, no elongated elements visible. Fat present; no starch or other formed substances or cell-con- tents. Deteriorates rapidly. 74. (Fig. 59.) ERIODICTYON. Mountain Balm. U.S. Fl. ex. 30. Consumptives' weed, Bear's weed, E. The leaves of Eriodictyon glutinosum, Bentham, Hydro- phyllacese. Light brownish green. Somewhat aromatically fragrant; recalling tea or hay. Sweetish, bitterish, sticky (resin). Upper epidermal cells comparatively large, thick-walled with linear cuticular markings, vertical walls straight. Lower 1 86 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. toidermal cells similar in form, but much smaller, and not readily seen because of the numerous trichomes. Numerous simple, single-celled, thickwalled, elongated wavy trichomes. Some sessile glandular trichomes. Aggregate crystals of cal- cium oxalate. Mixed with Eriodictyon tonicntosum which has short tri- chomes. Fig. 59. ERIODICTYON. a. Trichomes. b. Upper epidermis. c. Lower epidermis. d. Glandular trichomes. e. Upper epidermis, lateral view. /. Parenchyma with crystals, longitudinal view. g. Parenchyma. h. Crystals. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 187 Fig. 60. EUCALYPTUS. a, b. Epidermal tissues. c. Sclerenchyma cells. d. Parenchyma with crystals. e. Prismatic and aggregate crystals. /. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. g. Crystal bearing fibre. i. Tracheid. l88 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. 75. (Fig. 60.) EUCALYPTUS. Eucalyptus. Leaves. U.S. Fl. ex. 40. Tinct. 30. Eukalyptusblatter, G. Feuilles d'eucalyptiis, Fr. The older (sickle-shaped) leaves of Eucalyptus globulus. Lab., Myrtacese. Bright green. Aromatic, camphoraceous. Pungent, bitter, somewhat astringent. Epidermal cells (upper and lower) polygonal, rather thick- walled ; stomata on both surfaces but guard cells not visible be- cause of the enormously thickened cuticle. Some sclerenchyma cells and sclerenchymatous fibres from petiole. Prismatic and aggregate crystals quite numerous. Adulterated with leaves of allied plants. The leaves from the young plant are dorsiventral, stomata on lower surface only and guard cells visible because the cuticle is much thinner. 76. (Fig. 61.) EUONYMUS. Euonymus. U.S. Fl. ex. 60. Extract 30. Wahoo, Spindle tree, Burning bush, E. Spillbaumrinde, Spin- delbaum, Pfaflfenbliithen, G. Ecorce de fusain (de bonnet de pretre), Fr. The root bark of Euoiiynnis atropnrpureiis, Jacquin, Celas- trineae. Light brown. Nearly odorless. Sweetish, bitter, pungent. Rather thinwalled medium sized parenchyma with simple spherical starch granules and aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. Ducts and tracheids from the wood; cork tissue. The stem bark (Fig. 62.) can be distinguished readily by absence of starch ; presence of typical bast fibres, and numerous larger crystals of calcium oxalate. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 1 89 Fig. 61. EUONYMUS. Root Bark. a. Parenchyma with starch granules and aggregate crystals of cal- cium oxalate. b, c. Cork tissue, top view and lateral view. d. Cork. e. Ducts and tracheids. /. Parenchyma with starch, longitudinal view. g. Starch and crystals. IQO Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Fig. 62.* EUONYMUS. Stem Bark. a. Parenchyma with large aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. b. Typical thick-walled porous bast. c. Cork. d. Phloem bast shown in transverse section (e). f. Crystal. 77. (Fi?. 63.) EUPATORIUM. Eopatorium. U.S. Fl. ex. 30. Thoroughwort, Boneset, Indian sage, E. Durchwachsdost, Durchwachener Wasserdost, G. Herbe d'eupatoire perfoliee, Herbe a fievre, Herbe parfaite, Fr, The flowering tops and leaves of Enpatorinm perfoliatum, L., Compositse. Rather pale yellowish green. Somewhat fragrant, hay-like. Quite bitter, slightly astringent. Vertical walls of upper and lower leaf epidermis thin, wavy. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 191 Stomata on lower surface only. Many celled, rather thick-walled, simple trichomes ; bladdery glandular trichomes with single large resin bearing end cell. Pappus fragments and pollen grains. Fig. 63. Lower epidermis. Upper epidermis. Pappus. Trichomes. Glandular trichomes. Pollen grains. EUPATORIUM. U.S. 78. (Fig. 64.) FOENICULUM. Fennel. Entire; bruised or fine meal. Fennel-fruit, Fennel-seed, E. Fenchel, G. Fenouil, Fr. The fruit of Focnicuhim capillaccum, Gilibert, Umbelliferae. Dull yellowish brown. 192 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Aromatic, anise odor. Sweetish, pungent. Outer tissue of pericarp of colorless reticulate cells; middle parenchyma of large brown cells. Reticulate tracheids. Endo- sperm cells colorless, medium size, rather thickwalled porous^ filled with fat and granular proteid matter. No trichomes. Compare histology of German or Saxon, sweet or Roman, and wild or bitter varieties. Compare with anise. Fig. 64/ FOENICULUM. a. Endosperm cells bearing a few oil globules and crenate proteid granules. b. Parenchyma cells of pericarp. Walls peculiarly pitted, not shown in drawing. c. Deep reddish brown cells forming oil glands of pericarp. d. Thin-walled cells. e. Reticulate tissue. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 193 Fig. 65. FENUGREEK. a. Epidermis, lateral view. ' b. Epidermis, vertical view. c. Hypoderm. d. Parenchyma. c. Endosperm, outer. /. Parenchyma. g. Outer tissue. i, j. Parenchyma. 79. (Fig. 65.) FOEUM GRAECUM. Fenugreek. Moderately fine. Bockshornsamen, G. Fenugrec, Senegrain, Fr. The seeds of TrigoucIIa Focinim graccum, L., Leguminosge. Very pale yellowish brown. Very strong characteristic odor. Bitter, mucilaginous. 194 Powdered Vegetable Drugs Epidermis of vertically elongated cells with granular co'n- tents ; semilunar hypodermal cells with outer convex walls much thicker, of yellowish color; some thinwalled parenchyma con- taining granular particles, followed by an inner dermal layer. Endosperm cells, rather thin-walled, filled with proteid granules and oil globules. Fig. 66. FRANGULA. a. Parenchyma with reddish brown contents. b. Crystal bearing fibres. c. Outer cork. d. Parenchyma with crystals. e. Parenchyma. /. Parenchyma. ^. Bast. Special Description of Vegetable Powders, 195 80. (Fi?. 66.) FRANGULA. Frangula. U.S. Fl. ex. 30. Alder, Buckthorn, E. Faulbaumrinde, G. Ecorce de Bour- daine, Bourgene, Fr. The bark of Rhaiimus Frangiila, L., Rhamnacese. Yellow brown. Nearly odorless. Sweetish, bitter, somewhat mucilaginous ; saliva yellow. Outer bark cells filled with deep reddish brown coloring matter. Inner bark cells without coloring matter, with a few small starch granules, some with aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. Typical thickwalled bast cells and prismatic crystal bearing fibres. Adulterated with barks of allied species. 81. (Fi?. 67.) GALLA. Nutgall. U. S. Fl. ex. 40. Tinct. 40. Aleppo galls. Galls, E. Gallen, Gallappel, G. Galle de chene, Noix de galle, Fr. Warty (sub-globular) excresences upon Qucrcus lusitanica, Webb, Cupuliferae, caused by the punctures, eggs and larvae of Cyiiips Gallae tinctoriae, Insecta. Ash grey. Inodorous. Very astringent. Large celled, thin-walled parenchyma and some rather thick- walled parenchyma. Compound starch granules. Yellowish porous sclerenchyma with walls of medium thickness. Some parenchyma cells contain aggregate and prismatic crystals and oval or bean-shaped dark brown tannin bodies. 196 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. O f Fig. 67. GALLA. Aleppo. a. Sclerenchyma. b. Parenchyma with starch and tannin bodies. c. Parenchyma. d. Parenchyma with crystals, r. Tannin bodies. /. Starch granules. ^i:. Spiral duct. 82. (Fig, 68.) GALLA. Chinese Galls. Fl. ex. 40. Tinct. 40. Chinese galls, Japanese galls, E. Chinesische Gallapfel, Japan- esische Gallapfel, G. Galls produced upon the leaves and leaf stalks of Rhus seiui- alata, Murray, by Aphis chinensis, Insecta. ' Brownish ash gray. Odorless. Very astringent. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 197 Numerous mostly single-celled trichomes, rather thick- walled, pointed ends recurved. Thin-walled parenchyma with a few rather small simple starch granules. Greenish yellow resm masses. The two galls are markedly different histologically. Com- pare with other varieties. The Japanese and Chinese galls are closely similar histologically. Fig. 68. GALLA. Chinese. a. Trichomes. b. Epidermis. c. Yellow resin bodies. d. Parenchyma. c. Spiral ducts. f. Parenchyma, with starch. 198 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. 83. GAULTHERIA. Gaulthcria. Fl. ex. 40. Wintergreen, Teaberry, Partridgeberry, Boxberry, Chicken- berry, E. Canadischer Thee, Bergthee, G. I'^euilles de gaul- therie, The dii Canada, The de terre-neuve, Fr. The leaves of Gaulthcria procumhens, L., Ericaceae. Greenish yellow brown. Very pleasantly fragrant. Slightly bitter, very astringent. Histology closely similar to that of chimaphila (see Chima- phila), excepting that each stoma is surrounded by two neigli- boring cells instead of four to five, and that crystals of calcium oxalate are few or practically wanting in the leaf parenchyma. 84. (Fi?. 69.) GELSEMIUM. Gelsemiom. U.S. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct., 60. Yellow jessamine or jasmine, E. Gelsemie, Giftjasmine, G. Jas- min sauvage, Fr. The rhizomes and roots of Gclsciiniiiii scinpcri'ircns, Aiton, Logoniaceae. Very pale brown. Somewhat narcotic, heavy. Very bitter. Considerable cork tissue. Parenchyma cells rather small, with small spherical simple starch granules and prismatic crys- tals of calcium oxalate. Numerous tracheids and large porou.s ducts. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. IQQ Fig. 69. GELSEMIUM. a. Parenchyma with starch. b. Epidermal tissue. c. Parenchyma. d. Tracheids and medullary ray. c. f. Tracheids. g. Porous duct. //. Parenchyma. 85. (Fig. 70.) GENTIANA. Gentian. U. S. Fl. ex. 30. Tinct. comp. 40. Enzianwurzel, Bitterwurzel, Rother Enzian, Gelber Enzian, G. Racine de gentiane (de gentiane jaune), Fr. The roots of Gentiana lutea, L., Gentianaceae. Dull yellow brown. 200 ['(jwDKRED Vegetable Drugs. Very faintly fragrant. Very bitter, sweetish. Beneath the brownish outer corky tissue is a layer of thick- walled collenchymatous tissue followed by the large celled, loose- ly united, collapsed empty parenchyma. INIostly typically retic- ulate and some porous yellowish ducts. Adulterated with roots of allied species. Said to be care- lessly adulterated with aconite roots, belladonna roots, white hel- lebore and orris root. Fig. 70. GENTIAN. a. Parenchyma. b. Collenchymatous tissue. c. Reticulate ducts. d. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. r. Tracheids. Special Description" of A''r:f;ET.\r.T.F Powders. 201 Fig. 7U GERANIUM. Parenchyma with starch and crystals. Aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. Thick-walled porous parenchyma. Cork. Starch granules. Ducts and tracheids. Gera mum. U.S. 36. (Fig. 7J.) GERANIUM. Fl. ex. 30. Cranesbill, E. Fleckstorchschnabel, G. Racine de geranium macule, Bec-de-grue tachete, Pied-de-corneille, Fr. The rhizomes of Geranium maculatiim, L., Geraniaccce. Rather dull grayish brown. Odorless. A'ery astringent. 202 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Some cork tissue ; large loosely united typical parenchyma cells with rather large, simple, oval and somewhat irregular starch granules, hili' and stratification indistinct. Some parenchyma cells bearing large aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. Some thick-walled porous, somewhat elongated cells. Reticulate and porous ducts. Adulterated with roots of Pofciitilla Toniicntilla and Poly- f^oniuui Bistorta. vA> U^UfM^ Fig. 72. GLYCYRRHIZA. a. Parenchyma. b. Parenchyma with crystals and starch. c. Bast. d. Crystal bearing fibres. e. Crystals. /. Ducts and tracheids. g. Cork tissue. Special Description of \"egetable Powders. 203 87. (Fig. 72,) GLYCYRRHIZA. Glycyrrhiza. U.S. Fl. ex. 30. ^leal. Liquorice, Licorice, Spanish liquorice, E. Spanisches Siissholz, G. Reglisse, Bois de reglisse, Bois douce, Racine douce, Fr. The roots and rhizomes (underground stems) of Glycyrrhiza glabra, L., Leguminosae. Bright, pale yellow. Nearly odorless, somewhat heavy. \'er\- sweet, slightly pungent and somewhat mucilaginous. Parenchyma cells medium sized, typical, rather thin-walled and loosely united ; filled with simple, small oval starch granules. Typical bast plentiful accompanied by numerous crystal bearing fibres. Numerous parenchyma cells with prismatic crystals. Porous and reticulate ducts. The unpeeled licorice shows cork tissue. There is no recognizable histological difference between the Spanish and Russian varieties. Cork tissue is of course wanting in the peeled article. 88. (Fig. 73.) GOSSYPIUM ROOT BARK. Cotton root bark. U. S. • Fl. ex. 30. Baumwollrinde, Baumwoll-Wurzelrinde, G. Ecorce de la ra- cine de cotonnier, Fr. The root bark of Gossypiiiiii Jicrbaccnm, L., Malvaceae. Light brown. Odorless. Slightly pungent, astringent and mucilaginous. Some large celled cork. Thin-walled inner parenchyma with simple and compound starch granules and aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. Numerous long slender bast cells. Some tissue with reddish brown coloring matter. Porous tracheids and ducts. 204 Powdered Vegrtarle Drugs. Fig. 73. GOSSYPIUM. a. Bast. b. Cells with reddish brown contents. c. Parenchyma. (/. Cork, lateral view. c. Cork, vertical view. /. Tracheids and ducts. g. Aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. h. Starch granules. 89. (Fig. 74.) GRANATUM. Pomegranate. U. S. Root bark. Fl. ex. 6o. Coarse powder. Bark of pomegranate, E. Granatrinde, G. Grenadier, Ecorce de balaustier, Fr. The root bark of Puiiica Granatiiin, L., Lvthrariacese. The stem bark is also used. Very light yellowish brown. Odorless. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 205 Bitter, astringent. Outer cork tissue; middle parenchyma small celled, collen- chymatous ; inner parenchyma small celled bearing numer- ous aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate arranged in rows ; some prismatic crystals. A few rather large, thick-walled, porous, more or less branching, colorless sclerenchyma cells. No bast. Histology of stem bark identical with that of root bark. Adulterated with bark of Bu.rus sempervirens and Ber- hcris -c'til Claris. Fig. 74. GRANATUM. Root Bark. a. Parenchyma. b. Parenchyma and sclerenchyma. f, (i. Parenchyma, longitudinal view, with crystals. e. Parenchyma. /. Medullary ray. g. Outer bark. //. Parenchyma. 206 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. 90. GRANATUM. Pomegranate. Stem bark. Names and origin as for root bark. Very light brown. Odor and taste as for root bark. His- tology identical with that of root bark. The presence of spores (of fungi and lichens) and hyphal remnants would indicate the stem bark, as spot fungi and lichens do not grow on the root bark. Fig. 75. GRINDELIA ROBUST A. Epidermis. Trichomes. Glandular trichomes. Epidermis, lateral view. Pollen grains. Parenchyma cells with crystals. Epidermis, lateral view. Parenchyma. Parenchyma with aggregate crystals. Tracheids. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 207 91. (Fi^. 75.) GRINDELIA. Grindelia. U.S. Fl. ex. 30. Grindelie, G. Grindelie, Fr. The leaves and flowering tops of Gnndclia rohusta, Nutt., and G. sqiiarrosa, Dunal, Composite. Pale yellowish browni. Somewhat fragrant, camphoraceous. Bitter, somewhat pungent; very sticky (resin). X'ertical walls of upper and lower epidermal cells somewhat wavy ; stomata on both surfaces. Rigid, many celled simple tri- chomes and some depressed sessile, many celled glandular tri- chomes. Prismatic and aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. Some pollen grains typical of the order compositse. \'arious related plants substituted for the above. Compare the two official species. The above description refers to the G. robitsta. 92. GUAIACUM. Goaiacum Wood. (U. S. 1890.) Fl. ex. 60. Rasped. Guajakholz, Pockholz, Franzosenholz, G. Bois de gaiac, Fr. The wood of Guaiacuiii officinale, L., Zygophyllacese. Olive green. Faintly aromatic. Nearly tasteless, faintly pungent. Medullary rays of a single layer of cells, about six cells high. The predominating tissue consists of very thick walled wood fibres through which are scattered large resin ducts with olive green, sometimes brown, resin. No starch ; prismatic crys- tals are sparingly present. While the wood is rarely if ever adulterated the resin obtain- ed therefrom is frequently adulterated. 208 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Fig. 76. GUARANA. a. Parenchyma with pasty starch. b. Sclerenchyma cells. c. Masses of pasty starch. d. Small sclerenchyma cells. 93. (Fig. 76.) GUARANA. Goarana. U.S. Fl. ex. 6o. Guarana, G. and Fr. The crushed, partially roasted and agglutinated seeds of PanUinia sorbilis, Martins, Sapindaceae. Rather bright reddish brown. Faintly aromatic, recalling chocolate. Quite bitter, astringent. Medium sized to rather large typical, brown or brownish pa- renchyma cells filled with pasty starch. Some rather small, brown Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 209 sclerenchyma cells. Numerous lumps of pasty starch of the di- mensions of the cell lumen. Said to be adulterated with starch (cassava starch) and oc- casionally with cocoa seeds. 94, HAEMATOXYLON. Logwood. U.S. Fl. ex. 30. Rasped. Blauholz, Blutholz, Campechenholz, G. Bois de Campeche, Bois d'Inde, Bois de sang, Fr. The wood of Hacmatoxylon cainpechianum, L., Leguminosae. Very dark purplish. Faintly aromatic or fragrant. Faintlv sweetish, astringent, colors saliva pinkish red. Predominating tissue of deep brown, thick-walled wood fibres. Medullary rays mostly of one, also of two and three lay- ers of cells, ten to fifteen and more cells high. Large resin ducts with deep reddish brown resin. Some small thin-walled cells bearing prismatic crystals of calcivmi oxalate. No starch. Compare the histology of the different varieties, — Cam- peachy, Honduras, St. Domingo and Jamaica logwoods. 95. (Fig. 77.) HAMAMELIS. Hamamclis. U.S. Fl. ex. 30. Witch-hazel, E. Hamamelis, Zauberhazel, G. Hamamelis, Fr. The leaves of Hainanielis virginica, L., Hamamelacese. Dull green. Fragrant, hay-like. Quite astringent, somewhat bitter. Stomata on lower surface only, vertical wall wavy. Lower epidermal cells somewhat smaller than upper. Large aggregate trichomes of six to eight thick-walled cells. Scattered through the leaf parenchyma are found a few peculiar branching scler- enchyma cells like those of tea. Prismatic crystals plentiful. Pal- isade cells and spongy tissue cells resin bearing. 210 PovvDiiRL-D Vegetable Drugs. Fig. 77. HAMAMELIS. a. Lower epidermis. b. Upper epidermis. c. Sclerenchyma cell from leaf blade. c. Stellate trichome. d. Parenchyma with crystals. e. Parenchyma. /. Crystal bearing fibres. g. Prismatic crystals. Ii. Epidermis of leaf, upper. 96. HEDEOMA. Hedeoma. Entire in infusions. U.S. Pennyroyal, E. Amerikanischer Polei, G. Pouliot americain, Fr. The leaves and tops of Hedeoma pulegioides, Pers., Labiatae. Brownish green. Mint-like, aromatic. Pungent, bitterish, somewhat cooling. Special Description of Vegetable Powders, 211 Leaves with stomata above and below, vertical walls of epi- dermal cells thin, wavy. Simple trichomes mostly two celled, rather thick-walled, somewhat curved. Grandular trichomes typical of the mints (see Mentha). Stem tissue (epidermal, col- lenchyma, vascular, parenchyma) more or less abundantly present. 97. HELLEBORUS. Hellebore. Fl. ex. 60. Black hellebore, Christmas rose, E. Schwarze Xieswurzel, Weih- nachtswurzel, Winterrcse, G. Ellibore noir, Fr. The rhizomes and roots of HcUchorus niger, L., Ranuncu- lacese. Rather light brown. Somewhat disagreeable, rancid, recalling senega. Sweetish, quite bitter, pungent. Outer dark cork cells followed by a layer of dark olive green- ish cells. Parenchyma medium sized, typical, containing fat and small simple spherical starch granules. Numerous reticulate ducts and tracheids of small diameter. Hcllcbonis z'iridis is histologically similar to the above. 98. (Fi^. 78.) HUMULUS. Hops. U.S. Fl. ex. 30. Tinct. 20. Hopfen, G. Houblon, Fr. The fruit scales (strobiles) of Huinulus Lupuhis, L., Urti- cacese. Light yellowish brown. Peculiar, aromatic ; valerian-like with age. Bitter, somewhat astringent. Vertical w^alls of the epidermal cells of strobile scales wavy; upper epidermal cells larger than lower ; stomata on lower sur- face only. Scale parenchyma typically spongy, bearing small ag- gregate crystals of calcium oxalate. Single celled, simple tri- chomes. Large bright, yellow glands (lupulin). Insect (aphidae) remnants are usuallv also found. 212 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Fig. 78. HUMULUS. a. Gland (lupulin). b. Epidermal cells. c. Epidermal tissue with stomata. d. Trichomes. e. Parenchyma with crystals. /. Aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. g. Spongy tissue cells with crystals. 99. (Fi^. 79.) HYDRANGEA. Hydrangea. Fl. ex. 6o. Hortensie, G. The roots of Hydrangea arhorcscens, L., Saxifragaceae. Pale brownish gray. Nearly odorless ; recalling taraxacum. Slightly sweetish and pimgent. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 2lj Some cork tissue. Parenchyma cells medium sized typical to rather small and elongated, some with bundles of longer and shorter acicular crystals (raphides) of calcium oxalate. Numer- ous porous tracheids ; some bast and sclerenchymatous tracheids. Fig 79. HYDRANGEA. Parenchyma with raphides. Parenchyma with larger raphides. Cork tissue. Tracheids. e, f. Acicular crystals. g. Bast. h. Sclerenchymatous tracheids. JOO. (Fig. 80.) HYDRASTIS. Hydrastis. U.S. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct. 60. Golden-seal, Yellow-root, Yellow puccoon. Orange-root, Indian dye, Indian tumeric, E. Canadische Gelbwurzel, G. Racine orange, Sceau d'or, Fr. 214 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. The rhizomes and roots of Hydrastis canadensis, L., Ranunculaceae. Bright Lemon yellow. Soil odor, peculiar. Very bitter. Outer rather dark cork tissue. Typical rather thin-walled pa- renchyma ; outer parenchyma somewhat collenchymatous ; small simple, spherical starch granules. Porous, not large, ducts and tracheids. Some parenchyma cells and most of the ducts con- tain a bright vellow resin. Fig, 80. HYDRASTIS. b. Parenchyma with starch. c. Cork. d. Tracheids. c. Parenchyma. f. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 215 Said to be adulterated with curcuma, serpentaria, cypripe- dium and several other roots. Fig. 81. HYOSCYAMUS. Leaf. a, b. Epidermal tissues and trichomes. c, d. Parenchyma. e. Spongy tissue cells. f. Prismatic crystals. lOJ. (Fig, SI.) HYOSCYAMUS. Hyoscyamus, U.S. Leaves. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct. 60. Henbane, E. Bilsenkraut, G. Jusquiame noir, Fr. The leaves of the second year's growth of Hyoscyamns ni- ger, Solanacege. 2l6 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Dull g^rayish green. Narcotic, heavy, especially when moist. Bitterish, somewhat pungent. Leaf epidermis with stomata above and below ; vertical walls thin, wavy. Large, simple, many celled, thin-walled, more or less collapsed trichomes. Typical spongy tissue. Prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate quite numerous. Adulterated with leaves of allied species, and leaves of stra- monium, digitalis, belladonna and verbascum. Fig. 82. HYOSCYAMUS. Seed. a. Sclerenchyma cells of seed coat. b. Sclerenchyma, vertical view. c. Outer endosperm tissue. d. Endosperm. e. Endosperm tissue with proteid granules and oil. /. Parenchyma. Special Description' of Vegetable Powders. 217 J02. (Fig. 82.) HYOSCYAMUS. Hyoscyamus. U.S. Seeds. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct. 40. Names and origin as for loi. Ash gray. Odorless. Bitter, somewhat pungent. The outer layer of seed coat consists of large, irregularly rounded, brownish, thick-walled sclerenchyma cells, the outer wall being thin, pores not noticeable, filled with a granular pro- teid substance. Endosperm cells not very thick-walled nor por- ous, filled with granular proteid matter and fat. t^Mi Fig. 83*. IGNATIA. a. Epidermal cells, vertical view. b. Endosperm. c. Endosperm. 2i8 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. J03. (Fig. 83.) IGNATIA. Ignatia. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct. 60. Bean of St. Ignatius, E. Ignazbohne, G. Feve de Saint-Ig- nace, Feve igasurique, Fr. nace, Feve igasurique, Fr. The seeds of Strychiios Igiiatia, Lind., Logoniaccae. Very light brown. Nearly odorless, smoky odor. Very bitter, mucilaginous. Histology much like that of Xux vomica buttons. Trichomes usually wanting, when present not expanded at base. Epiderm- al cells small, with granular contents. Endosperm tissus, thick- walled, cells filled with granular proteid matter. 104. CFig. 84.) ILLICIUM. Illicium. (U. S., 1890.) Fine powder. Star anise, Chinese anise, E. Sternanis, G. Badiane, Anise etoile, Fr. The fruit of Illiciuiu I'erum, Hooker, Magnoliacese. Reddish brown. Fragrantly aromatic, like anise. Quite acid, sweet, pungent. Epidermal cells of pericarp polygonal, w^ith stomata. Brown tissue ; parenchyma with oil globules ; numerous elongated, thick- walled sclerenchyma cells. Endosperm cells thin-walled, with fat and proteid granules. Adulterated with fruits of Illicium rcUgiosuui, known as Japanise star anise. The powder is of a lighter color. The sclerenchyma fibres of the endocarp are smaller, walls thinner. Boiled in dilute potassium hydrate solution the powder of Jap- anise star anise turns yellowish brown while the powder of true anise turns a deep blood red. Illiciitin floridanum differs histo- logically ; compare epidermal sclerenchyma. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 219 Fig, 84*. ILLICIUM. a. Two stone cells forming testa of seeds. b. End view of a. c. Elongated sclerenchyma. d. Sclerenchyma. e. Oil bearing endosperm cells. /. Deep reddish brown cells of pericarp. JOS. (Fig. 85.) INULA. Elecampane. (U. S., J 890.) Rather coarse powder. Alantwtirzel, Helenenwurzal, (i. Racine d'annee, Annee com- mune (officinale), Fr. The roots of Inula Hclcniimi, Merat, Compositse. Light brown. Camphoraceous, terebinthine, recalHng calamus. Bitter, pungent. Some cork tissue. Outer parenchyma of typical, thin-walled. 220 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. collapsed cells bearing inulin. Rather large or medium sized por- ous and reticulate ducts. Inner parenchyma of smaller, elongated cells. Resin ducts not noticeable in powder. No starch. Allied plants are Liiila sqiiarrosa, Piilicaria dysentcrica and Carlina acauUs. Fig. 85. INULA. a, b. Parenchyma with inulin. c. Parenchyma free from inuHn. d. Reticulate ducts. c. Cork. J06. (Fig. 86.) IPECACUANHA. Ipecacuanha. U.S. Fl. ex. 8o. Very fine powder. Ipecac, E. Brechwurzel, Ruhrwurzel, G. Ipecacuanha, Racine bresilienne, Fr. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 221 Fig. 86. IPECAC. a. Parenchyma with raphides. b. Cork. c. Tracheids. d. Phloem parenchj'ma. e. Starch granules. /. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. The roots of Cep/iaclis Ipccaciiaiilia. A. Richard, Rubiaceae. Brownish ash gray. Heavy, nauseous, recaiUng Indian hemp. Bitterish, somewhat pungent. Thinwalled cork tissue. Parenchyma medium sized, typi- cal ; cells filled with compound starch granules, some with acicu- lar crystals (raphides) of calcium oxalate. Porous tracheids. IvFay be adulterated with starches, flour, almond meal; also 222 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. with roots of related species. The Carthagena ipecac differs from the above (Rio ipecac) in that the simple starch granules are larger; the end opening of the tracheids is oval in form in- stead of circular, differences which are, however, not readily detected in the powders. Other false ipecacs are mostly quite different histologically ; compare especially ducts, tracheids, crvstals and starches. Fig. 87. a. Large crystals. b. Parenchyma with starch. c. Parenchyma, longitudinal view d. Broken crystals. e. Reticulate ducts. /. Starch granules. IRIS FLORENTINA. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 223 107. (Fi^. 87.) IRIS FLORENTINA. Florentine Orris. Tinct., coarse powder. Fine powder. Orris root, white flag, E. Veilchenwurzel, G. Iris de Florence, Fr. The peeled rhizomes of Iris florcntina, L., Iridaceae. Very light, brownish, almost cream color. Fragrant, recalling violets. Bitterish, pungent. Parenchyma cells large, thickwalled, loosely united, filled with rather large, simple, oval, irregularly pearshaped starch granules, narrowed end mostly truncate, hili and stratification indistinct. Some parenchyma cells with large, long, rod-shaped prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate. Typically reticulate ducts. No cork tissue. Adulterated with Iris pallida, I. germanica, I. pseudacorus, and /. foetidissima. The former two are preferred in Germany and Austria. Histologically they resemble Florentine orris. 108. (Fig. 88.) IRIS. Iris. U. S., J 890. Fl. ex. 60. Blue flag, water flag, E. Amerikanischer Schwertel, Verschie- denfarbige Schwertlilie, G. Rhizome d'iris varie, flambe variee, Glaieul bleu, Fr. The rhizomes of Iris versicolor, L., Iridaceae. Rather light brown. Odor of fenugreek. Sweetish, astringent, somewhat pungent. Epidermis of suberized cells. Hypodermal cell thickwalled. Parenchyma cells somewhat elongated. Many of the hypoder- mal and parenchyma cells filled with a deep brown resin. Mostly porous ducts; some reticulate and spiral. Iris virginica and /. verna are related plants and have simi- lar properties. 224 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Fig. 88. IRIS VERSICOLAR. a. Parenchyma, resin cell. b. g. Hypodermal cells. ' c. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. d. Reddish brown cork cells. c. Reticulate duct. /. Porous duct. g. Hypodermal cells. J09. (Fig. 89.) JALAPA. Jalap. U.S. El. ex. 6o. Jalapenwurzel, G. Jalap, Fr. The tuberotis roots of Ipoinoca Parga. Hayne, Convolvi". lacese. Light grayish brown. Smoky odor dtte to method of drying tubers. Sweetish, pungent. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 225 Fig. 89. JALAPA. a. Parenchyma with starch. ■ ' ' '" b. Milk fluid bearing cells, forming the laticiferous ducts. c. Cork, lateral view. d. Outer crystal bearing parenchyma. c. Starch bearing parenchyma. /. Large porous ducts. g. Starch granules. /;. Aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. i. Outer cork tissue with reddish coloring matter. Considerable cork tissue present. Outer parenchyma small, with many rather small aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. Inner parenchyma cells quite large, thinwalled, otherwise typi- cal ; filled with simple and compound starch granules, compound granules mostly in twos and threes, rarely fours; hili quite dis- tinct. Laticiferous ducts consist of large rectangular cells united end to end with the transverse walls still distinct. Ducts few, 226 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. porous, some quite large, some small. Some of the starch may be pasty. Adulterated with roots of related species, immature jalapa, exhausted roots, flour and starch. a. Parenchyma cells with coloring matter and crystals. b. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. c. Bast fibres. 4. Cork, profile view. ■e. Aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. no. (Fig. 90.) JUGLANS. Butternut-bark. (U. S., 1890.) Fl. ex. 6o. Ex. 30. Butternussrinde, Graue Wallnussrinde, G. Ecorce de noyer gris, Fr. The inner bark of the roots of JugJans cincrca, L., Juglan- dacese. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 227 Very dark brown. Somewhat aromatic. Bitter, pungent. More or less of the outer bark is usually present, which con- sists of suberized cells bearing granular dark brown coloring matter. Inner bark perenchyma of rather small, loosely united cells, many of which contain a deep brown resin or aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. Typical long, thickwalled, fineb' porous bast fibres are plentifully present. The bark of Juglaiis rcgia (English walnut) and /. nigra (black walnut) is similarly used, but perhaps not often as an adulterant of the above. Fig. 91*. KAMALA. a. Deep reddish brown glandular trichomes. /'. Aggregate simple trichomes. c. Gland decolorized with a weak solution of potassium hydrate. 228 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. in. (Fig.9J.) KAMALA. Kamala. (U. S., J890.) Naturally a rather coarse powder. Kamala, E., G., Fr. Red, with brown. Odorless. Tasteless; sandy, g^ritty. Kamala consists of glandular and aggregate trichomas. The glandular predominate; they are deep red, multicellular. The aggregate trichomes consist of single celled, rather thick- walled, more or less bent, light brownish hairs. Indistinct epidermal remnants are present also, and some sand is normally present. Quite generally adulterated; usually with a fine sand and colored starch (a maranta-like starch). A pure article is difficult to obtain. Adulteration very easily detected microscopically be- cause the kamala elements are very characteristic. 112. (Fig. 92.) KRAMERIA. Peruvian Rhatany. U.S. Fl. ex. 30. Tinct. 40. Payta rhatany, E. Peruanische (Payta) Ratanhia, G. Ratanhia, Fr.' The roots of Kramcria triandra, Ruiz et Pavon, Polygalaceos. Bright red brown. Somewhat musty odor. Very astringent, saliva red. Outer bark of thinwalled cork bearing reddish brown color- ing matter; some of the cells empty. Inner bark parenchyma cells with simple and compound starch granules, reddish brown coloring matter and small variable prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate, not unlike those of cinnamon. Porous ducts and tracheids. Typical, rather short, mostly isolated bast cells with walls rather thick. Adulterated with roots of related species. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 229 Fig. 92. KRAMERIA. Peruvian. a. Bast. b. Crystal bearing cells. c. Outer cork, lateral viev/. d. Parenchyma with starch. c. Cells with red coloring matter. /. Crystals and starch granules. g. Tracheids and porous ducts. 113. (Fig. 93.) KRAMERIA. Savanilla Rhatany. U.S. Fl. ex. 30. Tinct. 40. Purple rhatany, E. Savanilla (Neugranada) Ratanhia, G. The roots of Krameria Ixina, L., Polygalacese. Odor and taste as for Pertivian rhatany. Color of powder a deeper red. The general histological characteristics much like those of the Peruvian rhatany. Parenchyma cells larger; cork and par- 230 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. enchyma richer in the bright reddish brown coloring matter; starch is wanting; the bast cells are longer, larger and walls somewhat thicker. Porous ducts are larger. Adulterations as for Peruvian rhatanv. Fig. 93. KRAMERIA. Savanilla. a. Bast. b. Cells with red coloring matter. c. Outer cork, lateral view. d. Parenchyma with resin. e. Porous ducts and tracheids. /. Crystal bearing cells. n4. (Fig. 94.) LAPPA. Burdock. U.S. Fl. ex. 6o. Klettenwurzel, G. Bardane, Glouteron, Fr. The roots of Arctium Lappa, L., Compositse. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 231 Light grayish brown. Somewhat heavy, nauseous. Sweetish, bitter, mucilaginous. Outer cork tissue of brown cells. Parenchyma cells thin- walled, rather loosely united, somewhat elongated, with inulin. Large and smaller porous and recticulate ducts. A few resin ducts. Starch and crystals wanting. Ducts and tracheids should be sparingly present; if abund- ant it indicates that the inert older roots are used. Fig. 94. LAPPA. a, b. Parenchj-ma with inulin. c. Cork. d. Large porous duct. e. Smaller porous duct. 232 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Fig. 95» LEPTANDRA. a. b. Parenchj'ma with resin and coloring matter. b. Parenchyma with starch. c. Parenchyma. d. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. c. Spiral duct. /. Phloem tissue. g. Tracheids. h. Epidermal cells of rootlets. 115. (Fig. 95.) LEPTANDRA. Leptandra. U.S. Fl. ex. 60. Culver's root, Culver's physic, black-root, E. Leptandra Wur- zel, G. Racine de leptandra (de veronique, de Virginie), Fr. The rhizome and roots of Veronica virginica, L., Scroplui- lariaceae. Grav-brown. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 233 Odorless. Bitter, feebly pungent. Some cork tissue from the rhizome. Epidermal cells of rootlets, with outer walls dark and greatly thickened. Root parenchyma cells rectangular, elongated, with some very small simple spherical starch granules and smoky brown resin. Num- erous tracheids, some spiral ducts. Larger, more typical paren- chyma, with small spherical starch granules, of rhizome. 116. LINUM. Flaxseed. U.S. Flaxseed cake (cake meal). Flaxseed meal. Linseed, E. Leinsamen, Flachssamen, G. Semence (Graine) de lin, Fr. The seeds of Liiinm usitatissimwn, L., Linaceac. Light brown to brown. Linseed oil odor; rancid odor when old. Bland, oily, bitterish, somewhat mucilaginous. Epidermal cells prismatic, with mucilage. A layer of elon- gated sclerenchyma fibres. A layer of small rectangular, deep brown cells. Endosperm cells thin-walled, filled with proteid granules and fat. No starch in ripe seeds. In the unripe seeds the perisperm parenchyma cells contain simple spherical starch granules mingled with the oil globules. The meal may be adulterated with flour, cornmeal, starches and ground cake meal. n7. (Fig. 96.) LOBELIA. Lobelia. U.S. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct. 40. Indian tobacco, E. Lobelienkraut, G. Herbe de lobelie enflee, Fr. The leaves and flowering tops of Lobelia inflata, L., Lobeli- acese. Grayish green. 234 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Frao;rant ; heavy, narcotic, recalling tobacco. Pungent. Vertical walls of upper epidermal cells of the leaf linear, thick, very porous ; cuticle linearly marked. Lower epidermal tissue with stomata, vertical walls thin, wavy. Large, single celled, simple, rather thinwalled, conical trichomes, upper por- tion narrowed, with slight cuticular markings. Prismatic crys- tals of calcium oxalate. Fig. 96. LOBELIA. a. Epidermal tissue, lower. b. Upper epidermis. c. Trichomes. d. Epidei-mis, lateral view. e. Bast fibre. /. Crystal bearing cells. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 235 118. (Fig. 78, a.) LUPULINUM. Lopulin. U.S. Aloderately fine powder. Lupulin, Hopfenmehl, G. Lupiiline, Lupulite, Fr. The glands from tlie strobiles of Huniuhis Lupuhis, L., Urticaceas. Dull reddish brown. Hop odor, recalling valerian. Bitter. The powder consists of the bright golden yellow, somewhat pearshaped, many celled glandular structures, one of which is shown in profile view in Fig. 78, a. Lupulin should contain only a small amount of sand, vege- table tissue and insect (aphidse) remnants. It is frequently adul- terated with sand. It deteriorates rapidly. Old material changes to an orange yellow and the odor becomes heavier, almost cheese- like. n9. (Fi?. 97.) LYCOPODIUM. Lycopodiom. U.S. Fine powder. Vegetable sulphur, E. Barlappsamen, Streupulver, Hexenmehl, Blitzpulver, G. Lycopode, Saufre vegetale, Fr. The spores of Lycopodinm clai'atnm, L., Lycopodiacese. Very bright pale yellow. Very mobile. Odorless. Tasteless. The powder consists almost wholly of the individual spores showing the facets of union with two other spores. Rarely two and three still united. Outer spore membrane finely reticulate. Adulterated with spores of related species, talc, gyp- sum, starch, flour, dextrin, pollen grains of conifers, sulphur, turmeric. 236 Powdered Vegetable Drugs, Fig 97.* LYCOPODIUM. J20. (Fig. 98.) MACIS. Mace. (U. S., J890.) Moderately fine. Muskatbliithe, INIacis, G. Macis, Fleur de muscade, Fr. The arillode of the seeds of Myristica fragra)is, L., jNIyris- ticaceae. Light yellowish brown ; oily. Delicate nutmeg odor. Pungent, somewhat bitter. Epidermal cells elongated with diagonal end walls, cuticle very thick. In transverse view epidermal cells appear somewhat tangentially flattened. Parenchyma cells rather small and thin- walled, closely united and filled with fat and granules of amylo- Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 237 dextrin, no starch. Distributed through the parenchyma are much larger resin bearing cells. Vascular tissue very deficient (reticulate ducts). Adulterated with wild or false mace, which dififers in that the epidermal cells in transverse view appear rectangular, somewhat elongated vertically, never tangentially flattened. Amylodextrin granules larger, more rectangular. With concentrated sulfuric acid or potassium hydrate solution false mace turns deep red, true mace yellowish. (Fig. 99.) Fig. 98.* MACE. True. a. Transverse view of epidermis, parenchyma and resin cells (c). b. Longitudinal profile view of epidermal cells. d. Vertical view of epidermal cells. e. Amylodextrin granules. 238 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Fig. 99.* MACE. False. a. Transverse view of epidermal cells, parenchyma and resin cell. b. Longitudinal view of epidermis, parenchyma and resin cells. d. Vertical view of epidermal cells. c. Amylodextrin granules. J2J. (pig. JOO.) MATICO. (U.S., 1890.) Fl. ex. 30. Matico, E. G. Fr. The leaves of Piper angustifoUuuu L., Piperacese. Brownish green. Faintly aromatic, recalling- chamomille. Somewhat ptmgent and bitterish. Epidermal cells above and below polygonal ; upper much larger, vertical walls thicker. Stomata on lower surface only. Simple, three to five celled, thick-walled trichomes, somewhat widened at the transverse sept?e. A hypoderm of a single layer Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 239 of tangentially flattened cells. Resin glands in the leaf parenchma. Adulterated with leaves of related species and leaves of oth- er plants which all differ considerably histologically. Compare trichomes. Fig. 100. MATICO. a. Lower epidermis. b. Trichomes. c. Leaf gland with resin, lateral view. d. Resin gland. c. L'Pper epidermis. /. L'pper epidermis, lateral view. g. Hypoderm. 122. MATRICARIA. German Chamomile. U. S. Fl. ex. 30. Kaniillenblumen, G. Flenrs de camomille commune (d'AlIe- magne), Fr. The flowering heads of Matricaria ChamomiUa, L., Com- posit?e. 240 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Greenish. Fragrant, chamomille odor. Bitter. Pollen grains with prominent conical projections of exine; three distinct pores. Adulterated with flowers of Authcmis arz'cnsis, Mantta co- tula and other related plants. Compare with Roman chamomille. Fig. JOI. MENISPERMUM. a. Bast. b. Sclerenchyma cells. c. Large porous duct. d. Tracheids and medullary rays. c. Outer tissue with sclerenchyma cells (b). f. Parenchyma (pith) with starch. g. Thickwalled porous cells. h. Cork. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 241 J23. (Fig. lOJ.) MENISPERMUM. Menispermum. (U.S., 1890.) FI. ex. 60. Canadian moon seed, yellow parilla, E. Canadisches Mondkorn, G. IMenisperme du Canada, Fr. The rhizomes and rootlets of Alenispcrinum caiiadense, L., Menispermaceas. Ash gray. Faint soil odor; nearly odorless. Bitter. Outer layer of subersized tissue. Rather small-celled polyg- onal hypodermal tissue through which are scattered a few scler- enchyma cells. Typical bast tissue ; tracheids and very large porous ducts with medullary rays. Large celled pith with some simple starch granules resembling those of corn. Some thick- walled very coarse parenchyma. J24. (Fig. 102.) MENTHA PIPERITA. Peppermint. U. S. Pfefferminze, G. Mentha poivree, Fr. The leafy tops of Moitlia piperita, L., Labiatze. Green. Aromatic, somewhat fragrant. Mint odor. Pungent; very cooling. Leaves with stomata above and. below, few above ; vertical walls thin, wavy. Large, long, rather thick-walled, three to sev- en celled simple trichomes with short linear to warty cuticular thickenings. Large bladdery glandular trichomes with six to eight secreting cells. Small secreting trichomes with a single terminal secreting cell. Besides this there is present stem tissue, as epidermis, collenchyma, parenchyma, tracheids and ducts. Adulterated with leaves of several varieties of M. piperita and with spearmint. 242 Powdered Vegetable Drugs Scale .n Ml Fig. 102.* MENTHA PIPERITA. a. Upper epidermal cells. b. Lower epidermis. c. Trichomes, simple, showing cuticular markings (a medium sized trichome). d. Gland, top view. c. Small glandular trichome. 125. MENTHA VIRIDIS. Spearmint. U. S. Coarse powder. Griine Minze, Romische Minze, G. ]\Ienthe vert, ^lentha ro- maine, Baume vert, Fr. The leafy tops of McntJia viridis, L., Labiatse. Green. Very fragrantly aromatic. Pungent, less cooling than M. piperita. Vertical walls of upper and lower epidermal cells of leaves Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 243 wavy. Upper epidermal cells somewhat larger with only com- paratively few stomata. Simple trichomes rather thick-walled but fewer and shorter than in peppermint ; cuticular markings less prominent and less decidedly linear, more warty. Glandular trichomes are similar to those of peppermint. According to several authorities the glandular trichomes of peppermint are distinguished at once by the menthol crystals, a characteristic which does not seem to be marked. //. Fig. 103. METHYSTICUM. Bast cell. vScIerenchyma. Parenchyma with crystals. Parenchyma with starch. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. Reticulate ducts. Tracheids. Starch granules. Scalariform duct. 244 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. 126. (Fig. J03.) METHYSTICUM. Methysticum. Fl. ex. ^o. Ava, ava Kava, Kava Kava. The roots of Piper Methysticum, Foerster, Piperaceae. Light brown to very Hght brown. Somewhat fragrant. Pungent, bitter, somewhat astringent. Parenchyma cells typical, medium sized, filled with rather large compound starch granules, having distinct hili. Scalari- form, reticulate and porous ducts. Brownish sclerenchymatous, porous, bast fibres; nearly colorless bast fibres. Sclerenchy- matous, very porous tracheids. Typical brownish, thickwalled porous sclerenchyma fibres. Epidermal cells polygonal, walls porous, containing crystalline substances. Elongated parenchy- matous cells with deep brown resinous matter. J27. (Fig. 104.) MEZEREUM. Mezereon. U. S. Fl. ex. 30. Seidelbastrinde, Kellerhalsrinde, G. Ecorce de mezereon, de garou, de laureole, de thymele, Fr. The bark of Daphne Mezercum, L., Thymelacese. Very light brownish gray. Odorless. Very pungent, developes very gradually. Brown to nearly colorless cork tissue and very numerous very slender, greatly elongated, thinwalled, bast fibres. Paren- chyma cells large, thinwalled, collapsed, empty. Some smaller, thicker outer bark parenchyma with chlorophyll remnants and resinous matter. The bark of several other species is used. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 245 Fig. J 04. MEZERIUM a. Bast. b. Cork, vertical view. c. Parenchyma. d. Cork, lateral view. e. Parenchyma. J28. (Fi^. 105.) MYRICA. Wax-Myrtle. Fl ex. 60. Very fine powder. (Wachsbaiim, Wachsgagel, G. Arbre a suif, Fr.) The bark of Myrica ccrifera, L., Myricacese. Rather dull cinnamon brown. F'aintjy aromatic, not agreeable. Bitter, slightly pungent and astringent. Bark parenchyma of brown cells bearing some simple, spherical starch granules. Thickwalled porous bast fibres ac- 246 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. companied by crystal-bearing fibres. Sclcrenchyma cells, vari- able in size; some not very greatly thickened, porous. Fig, 105. MYRICA. Bark. a. Larger sclcrenchyma. b. Bast. c. Crystal bearing fibres. d. Smaller sclcrenchyma. e. Starch granules. /. Elongated sclcrenchyma. g. bark parenchyma. /;. Prismatic crystals and starch grannies. J29. (Fig. 106.) MYRISTICA. Nutmeg. U. S. Coarse powder as a spice. Mnskatniiss, G. Muscade, Noix de muscade, Fr. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 247 The seeds (arillus removed) of Myristica fragrans, Houtt., Myristicaceae. Rather dull reddish brown ; fatty, oily. Very aromatic; nutmeg odor. Pungent, bitterish and somewhat astringent. Endosperm cells quite large, thin-walled, of two kinds caus- ing the marbled appearance of the interior of the seed. The colorless endosperm cells filled with compound starch, large proteid granules with distinct crystalloids, and fat ; the fat causing Fig. 106.* MYRISTICA. a. Parenchyma (endosperm) with starch and crystals. b. Reddish brown parenchyma. c. Small celled outer tissue with granular contents. d. Starch and crystals. 248 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. the granules and proteid bodies to be indistinct. The reddish brown endosperm cells have very irregular walls and are empty or contain resin and volatile oil. The starch granules occur in twos, threes, fours, fives and even higher aggregates. The outer tissue consists of small, brown, tangentially flattened cells filled with reddish brown coloring matter. Adulterated (only rarely) with wild or false nutmeg (My- risfica fatua). Fig. J07. NUX VOMICA. a. Trichomes. b. Trichomatic fragments. c. d. Endosperm tissue. e. Outer endosperm, lateral view. /. Hypodernal tissue. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 249 J 30. (Fig, J07.) NUX VOMICA. Nux Vomica. U. S. V Fl. ex. 40. Tinct. 60. Poison-nut, Quaker buttons, E. Krahenaugen, Brechnuss, G. Noix vomiques, Fr. The seeds of Strychnos Nux vojiiica, L., Logoniacese. Light grayish brown. Odorless. Extremely and persistently bitter. The outer covering consists wholly of elongated, thick- walled, colorless trichomes, with widened, porous base. The wall is unevenly thickened, ridges extending nearly straight to long spirally from base to near apex. Most of these trichomes are broken in the powdering. Endosperm cells very thickwalled, colorless, filled with oil globules and granular proteid matter. Beneath the trichomatic layer is a tissue of flattened cells. Compare histology of Ignatia and Nitx vomica. Both give color reactions with alkalies and acids. J3I. (Fig. 108.) PARACOTO. Paracoto. Fl. ex. 60. Falso coto, E. Para-Coto, G. Ecorce de paracoto, Fr. Origin, as for coto, unknown. Deap cinnamon brown. Aromatic, recalling cinnamon ; camphoraceous. Very pungent, bitterish. Histology nearly identical with that of coto bark. Brown granular oily bodies are wanting. With concentrated or 40 per cent nitric acid paracoto powder turns yellowish, which gradually changes into a dirty yellowish olive green, while coto turns a deep red. Paracoto is quite generally substituted for coto. Compare also with Winter's bark. 250 iT* Fig. 108. PARACOTO. a, b, c, d, e. Sclerenchyma cells. f. Parenchyma. g. Parenchyma with resin cells {h). h. Resin masses. i. Outer cork cells. ;'. Starch. J32. fFig. J09.) PAREIRA. Pareria. U. S. Fl. ex. 30. Grieswurzel, G. Racine de butiia, Fr. The roots of Chondodcndron tomcntosum, Rtiiz et Pavon, Menispermacege Light yellowish brown. Nearly odorless; somewhat musty. Bitter. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 251 Parenchyma cells medium sized to rather smaH, with com- pound starch; granules in twos and threes, rarely fours. Outer tissue filled with coloring matter. Typical, medium sized, por- ous sclerenchyma cells; bast fibres; porous tracheids and large porous ducts. Adulterated with roots of various more or less closely re- lated plants and stems of the offtcial plant. 53 Fig. J09. PAREIRA. a. Sclerenchyma. b. Bast. c. Cells with coloring matter. d. Parenchyma with starch. e. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. /. Large porous duct. g. Tracheids. /:. Starch granules. 252 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Fig. no.* PHYSOSTIGMA. a. Epidermal palisade cells. b. Endosperm cells with starch granules (c). d. Hypodermal cells with red coloring matter. J33. (Fig. no.) PHYSOSTIGMA. Physostigma. U.S. Fl. ex. 30. Tinct. 40. Calabar bean, ordeal bean, E. Calabarbobnen, Gottesurtheil- bohnen, G. Feve d'epreuve du calabar, Fr. The seeds of Physostigma veiicnosiim, Balfour, Legumin- osse. Light brown; oily. Odorless ; bean odor. Almost tasteless. Outer brown hard layer consists of very long, slender, thick- Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 253 walled, brownish, palisade cells, with brown granular contents. Irregular, thickwalled, somewhat porous, entirely colorless cells filled with bright red coloring matter. Endosperm cells very thinwalled, large, loosely united, filled with starch, fat and color- less granular matter. The starch granules resemble those of the bean, but are much larger, hili and stratification very distinct; only a few granules in each cell. Adulterated with seeds of Physosfig)]ia cyUndrospcrimun, palm oil seeds and seeds of Muciiua. Fig. ni. PHYTOLACCA. Fruit. a. Epidermis of pericarp. b. Cells of pericarp. c. Parenchyma of pericarp with small granules. d. Radially elongated epidermal cells of seed. e. f. Endosperm cells. 2 54 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. J34. (Fig. in.) PHYTOLACCA. Phytolacca-Berry. U.S. Fl. ex. 20. Pokeberry, E. Amcrikanische Kcrmesbeere, G. Raisin d' Amerique, Fr. The fruit of Phytolacca dccaudra, L., Phytolaccacece. Very dark; particles adhering, sticky. Odor pecuHar ; recalHng roasted, chicory. Sweetish, somewhat pungent. Epidermal cells of pericarp brown, polygonal, walls thin, transversely very finely porous; showing nuclei and proteid mat- ter. Below this a layer of brownish cells with thin, delicately wavy vertical walls. Pericarp parenchyma of very thinwalled polygonal cells entirely filled with small spherical to prismatic granules. Outer layer of seed coat of deep reddish brown verti- cally elongated thick-walled, porous, sclerenchyma cells. Endo- sperm cells rather small, containing oil globules and small spherical granules. J35. (Fig. 112.) PHYTOLACCA. Phytolacca Root. U.S. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct. 50. Pokeroot, E. Kermesbeerenwurzel, G. Racine de phytolaque, Fr. Origin as for 134. Pale brown. Faint odor ; recalling taraxicum. Sweetish, pungent. Brownish cork tissue; collenchymatous parenchyma. Pa- renchyma large celled, mostly tangentially flattened, walls col- lapsed and cells variable in size and thickness of walls. Tracheids and large porous to nearly scalariform ducts. Some simple and compound (in twos, the two granules not evenly united) starch granules. Some parenchyma cells filled with short acicular crys- tals of calcium oxalate. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 255 Fig. 112. PHYTOLACCA. Root. a. Parenchyma with crystal bearing cell. b. Outer parenchyma. c. Parenchyma. d. Parenchyma with starch. c. Cork, lateral view. /. Porous duct and tracheids. g. Collenchyma. Ii. Starch and crystals. J36. (Fig. n3.) PILOCARPUS. Pilocarpus. U.S. Fl. ex. 30. Pernambtico jaborandi, jaborandi, E. Jaborandi, G., Fr. The leaflets of Pilocarpus Jaborandi, Holmes, ( Pernumbuco iaborandi) and P. Sclhaiius, Eng., (Rio jaborandi), Rutacese. Light yellowish brown ; lemon tinge. Slightly aromatic and fragrant. Somewhat bitter and pungent. 256 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Epidermal cells polygonal, rather thick-walled, cuticle thick with linear markings. Stomata on lower surface only, surround- ed by three to five arched neighboring cells. Simple single celled, slender trichomes. Leaf parenchyma with aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. Some sclerenchyma cells and sclerchymatous tracheids. Adulterated with leaflets of related species. Pilocarpus Sel- loamis; epidermal cells a third smaller. P. pciiiiatifoliiis (Para- Fig. n3. PILOCARPUS. a. Lower epidermis. b. Trichomes. c. Upper epidermis, lateral view. d. Aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. e. Upper epidermis. f. Tracheids. g. Sclerenchyma. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 257 guy jaborandi), and P. spicatus (Aracati jaborandi), with nu- merous brown resin bearing leaf parenchyma cells and small granules and resin in epidermal cells. P. trachylophus Ceara jaborandi) with curved sickle shaped trichomes. P. rni- cropJiyllus with resin bearing neighboring cells. Fig. JH. PIMENTA. a. Sclerenchyma. b. Trichomes. c. Parenchyma with starch and resin. d. Parenchyma. c. Gland, sclerenchyma and crystal bearing cell. /. Endosperm cells with starch and resin. g. Epidermal cells. J37. (Fi?. 114.) PIMENTA. Pimenta. U.S. Coarse powder, as a spice. Allspice, E. Nelkenpfeffer, Neugewurz. Englisches Gewiirz, G. Piment de la Jamaique, Tonteepice, Fr. 258 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. The fruit, nearly ripened, of Pimenta oMcinalis, Lindley, Myrtacese. Dull reddish brown, somewhat oily. Aromatic ; recalling cloves. Very pungent. Epidermis of pericarp of small cells ; some short, simple, single celled, more or less bent and twisted, thickwalled trichomes. Parenchyma cells with small, simple, spherical and compound starch granules, rather small aggregate crystals of calcium oxa- late and resin bearing cells. Large resin reservoirs. Larger and smaller thickwalled, very finely porous sclerenchyma cells. Endo- sperm cells with starch and resin. Adulterated with various vegetable substances. 138. (Fig. US.) PIPER. Black Pepper. U.S. Fl. ex. 60. Coarse powder, as a spice. Schwarzer Pfefifer, G. Poivre noir, Fr. The unripe fruit of Piper nigrum, L., Piperaceae. Dark gray to mottled gray. Aromatic ; pepper odor. Extremely pungent. Small epidermal cells (of pericarp) with dark coloring mat- ter; below this radially elongated, reddish brown, rather small, thick-walled porous, sclerenchyma cells. Reddish brown peri- carp parenchyma. One layer of seed coat of small, porous scler- enchvma cells with outer walls very thin ; small celled pigment layer. Endosperm cells large, prismatic, very thin-walled and entirely filled with uniform, small, polygonal simple starch gran- ules ; some cells filled with resin. Adulterated with flour, starches, mustard, husks, capsicum, flaxseed fruit of allied species. (See white pepper.) Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 259 Fig. US. PIPER. Black. a. Sclerenchynia with unequally thickened walls. b. Tissue with starch and resin. c. Epidermal cells. d. Typical sclerenchyma. c. Parenchyma. 139. PIPER. White Pepper. Coarse powder as a spice. Weisser Pfeffer, G. Orig-in as for black pepper. The ripe fruits deprived of epi- carp and mesocarp are used. Ash gray. Aromatic; pepper odor. \'ery pungent ; less pungent than black pepper. Histology as for black pepper, excepting that the epidermis, 260 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. outer sclerenchyma cells and most of the pericarp parenchyma cells are wanting. Adulterations as for black pepper. Long pepper (Piper langitm) has no resin bearing cells in endosperm and cells are smaller. The majority of adulterants differ very markedly histo- logically and are readily detected microscopically. Nut shells are also very extensively used as an adulterant of pepper. Further, winnowings and refuse, stems, date, olive and other seeds. Fig. n6. PODOPHYLLUM. a. Parenchyma with starch and crystals. b. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. c. Starch, simple, compound and aggregate. d. Aggregate crystals, of calcium o.xalate. c. Cork. /. Reticulate ducts and trachcids. g. Spiral duct. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 261 140. (Fig. n6.) PODOPHYLLUM. May Apple. U.S. Fl. ex. 60. ■Mandrake root, E. Fitssblattwurzel, G. Rhizome de podophyl- lum, Fr. The rhizomes and rootlets of Podophyllum pelfatum L., Ber- beridaceas. Light grayish brown. Nearly odorless. Sweetish, very bitter, somewhat pungent. Some brown cork tissue, Parenchyma cells thick-walled, loosely united, filled with compound (mostly twos and threes) starch granules and aggregates of granules. Some cells with quite large aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. Reticulate, porous and a few spiral ducts. Ht. (Fig. 117.) POPULU. Populos. FI. ex. 60. White poplar bark, Silver poplar bark, E. Zitterpappalrinde, G. The bark of Populus troncUoidcs, Mich., Salicacese. Bright pale yellow. Nearly odorless. Bitter. Some parenchyma and cork cells. Sclerenchyma cells with thick, finely porous walls and irregular sclerenchymatous fibres. Rather thickwalled, porous bast fibres and crystal-bearing fibres. Many layered medullary rays. 262 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Fig. n7. POPULUS. a. Sclerenchyma. b. Bast. c. Crystal bearing fibre. d. Bast and medullary ray {Ji) (tang. view). e. Parenchyma. f. Sclerenchymatous bast. g. Parenchyma. 142. (Fi^. 118.) PRINOS. Black Alder. Fl. ex. 6o. Winterberry, feverbush, E. Prinos, G., Fr. The bark of Prinos verticillatns, L., Aquifoliacese. Light brown, greenish tinge. Nearly odorless. Bitter, somewhat astringent and pungent. Outer bark of small, colorless, thickwalled, flattened cells. ATiddle bark of loosely united spherical parenchyma cells. Inner Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 263 bark of elongated cells, with some small compound starch gran- ules. Numerous typical, thickwalled porous sclerenchyma cells and elongated sclerenchyma cells. Fig. US.* PRINOS. a. Outer bark cells. b. :\Iiddle bark cells. c. Spheroidal sclerenchyma cells. d. Elongated sclerenchyma cells. e. Inner bark cells with small compound starch granules. 143. (Fi^. 119.) PRUNES SEROTINA.* Wild-cherry Bark. U. S. Fl. ex. 20. Inf. 40. W'ildekirschenrinde, G. Ecorce de cerisier, Fr. The bark of Pruniis scrotina, Ehrhart, Rosacese. ■*The Pharmacopceial name Primus virginiana is wrong, as that is the name of the choke-cherry as explained. 264 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Bright reddish brown. Somewhat aromatic, recalling bitter almonds. Bitter and astringent. Numerous typical thickwalled, porous sclerenchyma cells. Bast fibres comparatively few; some branching, irregular, scler- enchymatous. Aggregate and prismatic crystals of calcium oxatate abundant in bark parenchyma cells. The bark of choke cherry (Primus virginiana, Miller) differs 0^0 Fig. n9. PRUNUS SEROTINA. a. Sclerenchyma. b. Bast. c. Branching bast. d. Parenchyma with crystals. e. Prismatic crystals. /. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 265 from the above in the absence of sclerenchyma cells ; bast fibres, normal and branching, are very abundant; aggregate crystals very numerous and some quite large; prismatic crystals are want- ing; middle bark parenchyma cells small and loosely united. Fig. J20*. PRUNUS VIRGINIAN A. (Choke Cherry.) a. Bast. b. Parenchyma cells. c. Aggregate crystals. 144. PULSATILLA. Pulsatilla. (U. S., J890.) Fl. ex. 30, Pasque flower, E. Kiichenschelle, G. Pulsatille, Coquelourde, Fr. The flowering herb of Anemone pratensis, L. Ranunculacese. Greenish. 266 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Fragrant; hay odor. Somewhat pungent. Vertical wall of lower epidermal cells wavy, of upper epi- dermis only slightly so. Stomata above and below. Some of the leaf parenchyma cells filled with cryptocrystalline calcium oxalate. Long (500 microns) single celled, thick-walled, simple trichomes and some single celled. Indian club-shaped, thinwallcd glandular trichomes. Some sclerenchymatous cells. Fig. J2I. PYRETHRUM. a. Epidermal cells. b. Epidermis, lateral view. c. Trichomes. d. Sclerenchyma. e. Pollen grains /. Parenchyma with crystals. g. Tracheids. Flowers, Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 267 145. (Fig. 121.) PYRETHRUM. Flowers. As insect powder, very fine. Persian pellitory, Persian insect powder, E. Persisches Insek- tenpulver, G. The flowers of PyrctJinun roscuiii and P. carneuni, Com- posite. Pale yellowish brown. Fragrant. Bitter, pungent. Epidermal cells with wavy vertical walls and outer walls projecting convexly. Pollen grains with conical projections and three distinct pores. Typical sclerenchyma cells and tracheids. Prismatic and small aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. T- shaped trichomes, with several basal cells, which are usually de- stroyed, and one long tapering horizontal cell. Dalmatian insect powder made from the flowers of P. ciner- ariacfolium is histologically closely similar to the above. Both are frequently adulterated with flowers of related plants; also with chamomille, calendula, curcuma, saw-dust, ground mustard, flour, etc. J46. {Fig. 122.) PYRETHRUM. Pellitory. U. S. Tinct. 40. Roman pellitory, E. Romische Bertramwurzel, G. Pyrethre, Salivaire, Fr. The roots of Anacyclus Pyretliriiin, D. C., Compositse. Pale brown. Aromatic; recalling taraxacum. Extremely and persistently pungent. Some brown cork tissue. Rather large parenchyma cells, most of which contain inulin. Typical and somewhat elongated sclerenchyma cells. Lumps of yellow resin from the resin bearing ducts. Reticulate and some spiral ducts of medium diameter. Inner parenchyma cells elongated. No starch. 268 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Fig. 122. PYRETHRUM. Root. a. Parenchyma with resin. b. Sclerenchyma. c. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. d. Reticulate duct. e. Spiral duct. f. Cork. g. Resin mass. h. Resin mass. J47. (Fi^. 123.) QUASSIA. Quassia. U. S. FI. ex. 6o. Tinct. 40. Bitter a.sh, Quassia wood,, Bitter wood, E. Quassienholz, Flie- genholz, G. Quassie, Bois amere, Fr. The wood of Picracna cxcelsa, Lindlev, Simarubaceae. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 269 \'ery pale yellowish l)rown; pale straw yellow. Odorless. Intensely bitter. Great bulk of tissue consists of typical wood fibres. Short prismatic crystal-bearing fibres. Medullary rays from one to four layers of cells, with simple spherical starch granules. Very large, finely porous ducts. Adulterated with wood and bark of allied species. Surinam h. Fig. 123. QUASSIA. Wood fibres and medullary ray, tang. view. Wood fibres and med. ray, radial view. /. Crystal bearing cells. Large porous duct. Med. ray with starch. Crystals and starch granules. Wood fibres. 270 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. quassia (Quassia amara) differs from the above in that the me(killary rays consists of one layer of cells and furthermore sclerencliyma cells from the hark are present. J48. QUERCUS ALBA. White Oak. U. S. Fl. ex. 30. Oak bark, E. Eichenrinde, G. Ecorce de chene, Fr. The inner bark oiQuercus alba, L., Cupuli ferae. Pale reddish brown. Nearly odorless. Very astringent and bitter. Numerous typical, medium sized, thickwalled sclerencliyma cells. Typical, rather large, thickwalled bast fibres, profusely lined with prismatic crystal-bearing fibres ; aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate also abundant. Parenchyma cells rather thin- walled, and of a pale brownish rosy hue; some with brown resin. The bark of various related species is often substituted for the above. U9. (Fi^. J24.) QUILLAJA. Quillaja-bark. U. S. Fl. ex. 30. Soap-bark, E. Seifenrinde, G. Ecorce de quillaya. Fr. The inner bark of Qiiillaja Saponaria, Fr., RosacCcX. Very pale ash gray. Odorless; irritating, producing sneezing. Very pungent, astringent; saliva foamy. Numerous, rather large, thickwalled, porous bast cells; many of them irregular, nodular, bent and branching; some short and sclerenchymatous. Remnants of the outer brown cork tissue may be found. Inner bark parenchyma cells entirely colorless, elongated ; most cells with single large elongated prisms of calcium oxalate. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 271 Fig. 124. QUILL A JA. a. Bast. b. Crj'stals. c. Parenchyma with crystals. d. Branching bast cells. e. Sclerenchyma. /. Outer bark. ^. Parenchyma. 150. (Fig. 125.) RHAMNUS PURSHIANA. Cascara Sagrada. Fl. ex. 40. Sacred bark, Bearberrv bark, E. Amerikanische Faulbatimrinde, G. The bark of Rhaiiinus Purshiana, D. C, Rhamnacese. Yellow brown. Nearly odorless. Bitter; saliva vellow. 272 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Numerous porous, mostly thickwalled sclerenchyma cells. Rather slender, but thickwalled and porous bast fibres, accom- panied by numerous prismatic crystal-bearing fibres. Brown cells of the outer bark. Inner bark parenchyma, with small, simple, spherical starch granules and aggregate crystals of cal- cium oxalate. Adulterated with the bark of related species (see Frangula). Fig. J25. RHAMNUS PURSHIANA. Sclerenchyma. Bast. Parenchyma with starch. Crystal bearing fibres. Parenchyma and medullary ray. Medullary ray, tangential view. Outer cork. Parenchyma with aggregate crystals. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 273 Fig. 126. RHEUM. a. Crystals of calcium oxalate. b. Parenchyma with starch, resin and crystals. c. Resin. d. Reticulate ducts. c. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. g. Starch. 151. (Fig. 126.) RHEUM. Rhubarb. U.S. Fl. ex. 30. Fine powder. Rhabarber, G. Rhubarbe, Fr. The peeled older roots of Rhciun officinale, Bail., Polygo- naceae. Brownish yellow. Aromatic; not pleasant. \>ry astringent and bitter. Parenchyma cells rather large and thinwalled, looselv uni- 274 Powdered Vegetable Drugs ted, with compound starch granules (mostly twos and threes) and yellowish brown resin; besides very numerous large aggre- gate crystals of calcium oxalate. Reticulate ducts. Adulterated with roots of related species and varieties which resemble the official very closely histologically. R. rhapon- tiatni (European rhubarb) and several other kinds are richer in starch, but otherwise similar. Also adulterated with ciuxuma, flour, starches, etc. Fig. 127. RHUS GLABRA BARK. a. Bark parenchyma with compound starch, crystals and yellowish brown resin. b. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. c. Sclerenchyma cells. d. Cork, vertical and lateral views. e. Resin. /. Wood fibres, porous. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 275 J52. (Fig. J27.) RHUS GLABRA. Sumach Bark. Fl. ex. 30. Sumach bark, E. Suniachrinde, G. Sumac, Fr. The bark of Rhus glabra, L., Anacardiacese. Light brown. Nearly odorless. Bitter, astringent. Brown cork tissue; most cells with reddish brown coloring matter. Bark parenchyma rich in compound starch granules; some cells with reddish brown resin; aggregate crystals of cal- cium oxalate. Wood fibres; sclerenchyma cells. J53. (Fig. 128.) RHUS GLABRA. Sumach. U. S. Fl. ex. 30. Sumach. E., G. Sumac, Fr. The fruit of Rlnis glabra, L., Anacardiace?e. • Rather dark reddish brown. Odorless. Acid taste. Epidermis of pericarp consists of thin-walled polygonal cells with red brown contents. Numerous bright red club shaped tri- chomes, some of a single row of cells, other many rows ; also simple, slender, pointed, single-celled, colorless, thick-walled tri- chomes. Outer layer of seed coat of vertically elongated, thick- walled, irregular, colorless cells. Sclerenchymatous, porous cells. Endosperm cells thin-walled, polygonal with granular contents. 276 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Fig. 128. RHUS GLABRA FRUIT. a. b. Deep red many celled trichomes. c. Colorless trichomes. d. Outer layer of seed coat, lateral view. c. Thickwalled porous cells of testa. /. Colorless crystal bearing layer of testa. g. Endosperm cells. //. Parenchyma of pericarp. i. Epidermal cells of pericarp. 154. ROSA GALLICA. Red Rose. U. S. Fl. ex. 30. EssigTose, Sammtrose, Ziickerrose, G. Rose rouge, Rose de Provins, Fr. The petals of Rosa gallica, L., Rosacese. Light purplish red. Fragrant ; rose odor. \"ery astringent, acidulous, bitterish. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 277 Upper epidermal cells vertically elongated, conical, with granules of purple coloring matter. In vertical view these cells appear thick-walled polygonal, indistinct in coarse powder, cuti- cle smooth. Lower epidermal cells larger, not elongated, verti- cal walls somewhat wavy, irregular ; cuticle finely wavy, short linear striate; no coloring matter. Parenchyma cells rounded, empty. Spiral ducts. Adulterated with the petals of various red roses or petals of the white or pink roses colored with red dye as fuchsin. m m Fig. J29, RUBUS VILLOSUS. a. Bast fibres, s-Dme starch and a few sclerenchymatous fibres. b. Parenchyma with starch. c. Cork. d. Ducts and tracheids. 278 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. 155. (Fig. J29.) RUBUS. Blackberry. U. S. Fl. ex. 60. Brombcerrinde, G. Ecorce de rouce noir, Fr. The root bark with some of the wood of Rnbtis I'iliosiis, Aiton, R. canadensis, L., and R. trivialis, Michaux, Rosacea. \"ery Hght brown. Odorless. Very astringent, bitter. Outer layer of brown cork. Inner bark parenchyma of thin- walled, closely united cells bearing simple spherical starch gran- ules. Bast fibres with walls of medium thickness, porous, con- taining some starch ; outer walls of bast appear .shreddy. A few- short sclerenchymatous tracheids accompany bast fibres. Nu- merous tracheids and porous ducts from wood remnants of roots. Compare the histology of the three official roots. May be adulterated with roots and rhizomes of other plants. \56. (Fig. J30.) RUMEX. Rumex. (U. S., 1590.) Fl. ex. 30. Yellow Dock, E. Grindwurzel, Mengelwurzel, G. Racine pa- tience frisee, Fr. The roots of Riiuicx crispus, L., and other species, Polygon- acege. Brown. Somewhat aromatic ; nearly odorless. \^ery bitter and astringent. Thin-walled brown cork tissue. Parenchyma cells large, thinwalled, loosely united, filled with granular matter and simple, eliptical, oval and egg shaped starch granules. Rather large ag- gregate crystals of calcium oxalate abundant. Yellow brown sclerenchyma cells, somewhat variable in thickness of walls and in form. Bast, tracheids and reticulate ducts. Related species of dock (Rumex) are substituted for the above. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 279 Fig. 130. RUMEX. a. Parenchyma with starch granules and crystals. b. Sclerenchyma cells. c. Ducts and tracheids. d. Bast. e. Starch granules and crystals. /. Cork cells. J57. {¥iiilax offjcinalis, Kunth, and of other unknown known species of Smilax, Smilacese. Light grayish brown. Soil odor; musty. Bitterish, somewhat pungent and mucilaginous. The following is the histology of Honduras sarsaparilla: Epidermal cells polygonal, brown, some of the cells developed into single-celled, usually short, thinwalled trichomes. Below the epidermis three to four layers of thick-walled, porous bast cells. Parenchyma cells elongated, cylindrical, filled with com- pound starch granules ; some cells with raphides of calcium ox- alate. Endoderm cells of uniform thickness, elongated, a very light brown color, porous. Woody tissue consists of tracheids and very large scalariform ducts. The histological differences of the different sarsaparillas, as seen in carefully prepared sections, is quite marked, but these differences are not so evident in the powders. Compare histol- ogy of the more important commercial varieties. 286 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Fig. 135. SARSAPARILLA. Honduras. a. Parenchyma cells, longitudinal view, filled with starch, also show- ing raphides. b. Raphides. c. Epidermis, lateral view. d. Hypodermal bast or woody tissue. c. Epidermal cells, vertical view. /■'. Endoderm cells, longitudinal view. g. Scalariform duct. /;. Tracheids. J64. (Fig. J36.) SASSAFRAS. Sassafras. U. S. Fl. ex. 60. Sassafrasrinde, G. Ecorce cle sassafra.s, Fr. The root bark (peeled) of Sassafras oflicijialis, Nees, Lauraceae. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 287 Bright reddish brown. Very fragrantly aromatic; recalHng star anise. Sweetish, pungent, bitter, astringent. Some of the outer cork cells with bright red brownish con- tents. Inner bark parenchyma cells thinwalled, containing rather small compound starch granules, with very distinct hili, and many of them fat and oil. Thickwalled, comparatively short, porous bast cells. Sclerenchyma cells varying in size, form and thickness of walls. Fig. J36. SASSAFRAS. a. Inner bark parenchyma cells with starch and oily contents, trans verse view. b. Bast fibres. c. Thickwalled sclerenchyma cells. d. Parenchyma cells, longitudinal view. c. Outer cork cells with bright rod contents. /. Thinwalled sclerenchyma cells. 288 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. i65. SCILLA. Squill. U. S. Fl. ex. 20. Tinct. 30. Squills, E. Meerzwiebel, G. Scille, Squille, Fr. The bulbs of Urginca Scilla, Steinheil, Liliaceae. Very pale yellowish brown. Odorless. Very mucilaginous, bitter, pungent. Very large, thinwalled, colorless parenchyma cells filled with mucilage, and many of them contain acicular crystals (raphides) of calcium oxalate. These crystals vary from short and fine, like those of ipecac, to very large, like those of Iris flor. The greatly elongated cells with the large crystals are visible to the naked eye, appearing as glistening specks in a longitudinal section. 166. (Fi^. J37.) SCOPARIUS. Scoparius. U. S. Fl. ex. 20. Broom, Irish broom, E. Besenginster, Pfriemenkraut. G. Genet a balais, Fr. The tops of Sarotlioiiinus scoparius, Koch, Leguminosge. Brown. Heavy, disagreeable, characteristic; when moist. Very bitter. Polygonal epidermal cells ; neighboring cells of stomata small. Yellowish, simple, single-celled, thickwalled trichomes, with a few small warty markings on cuticle; basal ends broken ofif diagonally. Some bast and crystal-bearing fibres. Numer- ous small spiral ducts with delicate spiral thickenings; some annular and reticulate ducts and tracheids. Oval brownish pol- len grains resembling a foot-ball in form. Some parenchy- matous tissue and rectangular (in longitudinal view) hypodermal tissue. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 289 Fig. J37. SCOPARIUS. a. Epidermal tissue with stom?ta. b. Trichomes c. Pollen grains. '/. Bast fibres. e. Hypodermal tissue. /. Spiral ducts. g. Annular duct. h. Prismatic crystal bearing fibre. J67. (Fi^. 138.) SCOPOLA. Scopolia. U.S. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct. 60. The rhizomes of Scopola (Scopolia) carnioUca, Solanacege. Light grayish brown. Nearly odorless. Sweetish, bitterish, somewhat pungent. 290 Powdered Vegetable Drugs Histologically scopola is closely similar to belladonna root. Ducts of scopola are more typically reticulate and starch granules are somewhat smaller but otherwise closely similar. There is a layer of distinct, rather thickwalled brown, polygonal epidermal cells ; no cork. Parenchyma cells large, loosely united ; some with reddish brown resin and many with crystal sand. Some starch granules, polygonal and some in aggregates of five to seven. Compare with belladonna. May be adulterated with Sco- pola japonica, S. Iiirida and roots of other plants. Fig. J38.* SCOPOLA. a. Parenchyma with starch and cryptocrystals (b). c. Parenchyma cells, transverse view. d. Reticulate ducts. e. Epidermal cell. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 291 Fig. J39. SCUTELLARIA. a. Lower epidermis. /;. Upper epidermis. c. Pollengrains. 1 d. Trichomes. e. Glands, top view. /. Spongy tissue of leaves. g. Spiral ducts. h. Parenchyma. i. Small gland and epidermal cells, profile view. /. Parenchyma. J68. (Fi^. 139.) SCUTELLARIA. Skullcap. U. S. Fl. ex. 30. Hoodwort, Madweed, E. Helmkraut, Schildkraut, G. Scutel- laire, Fr. The leafy parts of Scutellaria lateriflora, L., Labiatse. 2g: Powdered Vegetable Drugs. DeqD, somewhat olive green. Fragrant ; somewhat heavy. Sweetish and somewhat bitter. Vertical walls of epidermal cells wavy ; delicate wavy cutic- ular markings ; stomata on lower surface only. Simple many cell- ed trichomes with warty cuticular markings. Large many celled grandular trichomes and smaller glands with two secreting cells. Some oval pollen grains. Fig. 140. SENEGA. a. Parenchyma with fat. b. c. Collenchymatous tissue. c. Cork. d. CoUenchyma and phloem group, longitudinal view. /. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. g. Tracheids. h. Porous duct. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 293 J69. (Fig. J40.) SENEGA. Senega. U. S. FI. ex. 30. Senega, snakeroot, E. Senegawurzel, G. Polygale de Virginie, Fr. The roots of Polygala Senega, L., Polygalacese. Light yellowish brown. Peculiar, heavy, somewhat rancid odor. Sweetish, pungent. Parenchyma cells elongated ; many of them collenchy- matous ; phloem groups distributed through parenchyma. No cell contents excepting fat. Outer yellowish cork. Numerous tracheids and porous ducts. Compare with the western varieties with which the above is frequently adulterated. Other adulterants may also be suspected. 170. (Fig. 141.) SENNA. Senna. U. S. Fl. ex. 30. Alexandria senna, E. Sennesblatter, Sennesblatter, G. Feuilles de sene, Fr. The leaflets of Cassia acutifolia, Delile, Leguminosse. Light yellowish green. Somewhat fragrant. Slightly bitter ; mucilaginous. Epidermal cells polygonal, cuticle quite thick with cuticular markings. Stomata on both surfaces. Simple, single celled, thick-walled trichomes with distinct cuticular markings. Crys- tals present. Adulterated with leaflets of various related species and leaves of other plants. India senna (U. S. 1890) is histological- ly closely similar to the above. Trichomes longer and more nu- merous ; as a rule each stoma is enclosed by two neighboring cells of unequal size which is much less commonly the case in Alexandria senna. 294 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Fig. J4J. ALEXANDRIA SENNA. a. Lower epidermis. b. Upper epidermis. c. d. Epidermis, lateral view. e. Trichomes. /. Crystal bearing fibres from vascular tissue. g. Crystals. h. Bast. J7J. (Fig. 142.) SERPENTARIA. Serpcntaria. U. S. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct. 40. Mrginia snakeroot, Serpentary root, E. Virginische Schlangen- wurzel, G. Serpentaire de Virginie, Fr. The rhizomes and roots of Aristolochia Serpcntaria, L., Aris- tolochiaceae. Grayish brown. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 295 \>ry strong odor of turpentine. \'ery pungent, bitterish. Some brown cork cells. Parenchyma cells more or less col- lenchymatous, filled with compound starch granules. Pith or central parenchyma cells thickwalled, porous. Numerous rather short tracheids ; porous to reticulate ducts with greater portion of transverse septse still present. Adulterated with Spigelia mar Handle a, Hydrastis canaden- sis, Aristolochia Serpcntaria var hastata, Cypripedium puheseens, C. parviHorum, Palemonium reptans and Panax quinquifolium. Fig. H2. SERPENT ARIA. a, b. Parenchyma cells with starch. c. Pith or central parenchyma. d. Tracheids. c. Porous duct. /. Cork cells. 296 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Fig. J43. SINAPIS ALBA. a. Epidermal cells with mucilage, vertical view. . " b. Collenchymatous hypoderm. c. Proteid and oil bearing parenchyma. d. Mechanical cells, profile view. c. Mechanical cells, vertical view. /. Endosperm cells, entirely filled with fat and proteid matter. J72. (Fig. 163.) SINAPIS ALBA. White Mustard. U. S. Moderately fine. Yellow mustard, E. Weisser Senf, G. Moutarde blanche, Fr. The seeds of Sinapis alba, L., Crucifer3e. Light yellowish brown. Nearly odorless ; disagreeable, somewhat alliaceous odor when moist. Very pungent. Epidermal cells large, polygonal, vertical walls very thin. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 297 containing mucilage. Hypoderm of large collenchymatous cells. A layer of cells rich in proteid matter. A layer of peculiar mechanical cup shaped palisade cells with lower portions of walls very thick, upper part thin. Endosperm cells polygonal, very thinwalled, completely filled with fat and proteid matter. For adulterations see black mustard. J73. SINAPIS NIGRA. Black Mustard. U. S. Moderately fine. Schwarzer Senf, G. Moutarde noir (grise), Fr. The seeds of Siuapis nigra, L., Cruciferse. Reddish brown. Odor and taste as for white mustard. Histology closely similar to that of white mustard. The mechanical cells (Fig. 143, d. e.), are however a bright reddish brown while they are colorless in white mustard. Collenchyma cells are also wanting. Ground mustard is very frequently adulterated with flour, starch, curcuma, a small amount of capsicum ; also with seeds of other species of Sinapis and Brassica. 174. (Ffjj. J44.) SPIGELIA. Spigelia. U. S. Fl. ex. 60. Pinkroot, E. Marylandische Spigelie, G. Spigelie du Mary- land, Fr. The rhizomes and roots of Spigelia marilandica, L., Loganiacege. Light brown. Somewhat fragrantly aromatic. Sweetish, bitter. Some brown suberized cells. Parenchyma cells elongated, some collenchymatous, the outer cells bearing cystoliths ; others contain resinous brown coloring matter. Some large, finely por- 298 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. ous bast-like sclerenchyma cells. Numerous tracheids and a few porous ducts. Carelessly adulterated with roots of other plants ; sometimes intentionally with roots of Phlox Carolina. Fig. J44. SPIGELIA. a. Outer parenchyma, two cells with cystoliths. b. Sclerenchyma cells. c. Parenchyma cells, longitudinal view. d. Cork tissue. c. Tracheids. 175. (Fig. 145.) STAPHISAGRIA. Staphisagria. U.S. Fl. ex. 6o. Stavesacre, E. Stephanskorner, Lausekorner, G. Staphisaigre, Fr. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 299 The seeds of Delphinium StapJiisagria, L., Ranunculaceae. Very dark. Heavy, nauseous, rancid. Very bitter, pungent. Enormous epidermal cells, vertically elongated, thick-walled, brown, with warty to filamentous cuticular thickenings. Groups of longer cells alternate with groups of shorter cells causing the pitted appearance of the seed. Below the epidermis a thin-wall- ed parenchyma. Endosperm cells polygonal, walls moderately thick, not very porous, filled with granular proteid matter and fat. Fig. 145.* STAPHISAGRIA. a. Epidermal cell, vertical view. h. Two epidermal cells, lateral view. c. Endosperm cells. d. Hypodermal parenchyma. 300 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Fig. 146. STILLINGIA. a. Parenchyma with starch, crystals and some brown resin. b. Cork with reddish brown coloring matter. c. Bast fibres. » d. Reticulate duct. c. Porous parenchyma, longitudinal view. f. Tracheids. g. Starch and aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. J76. (Fi^. J46.) STILLINGIA. Stillingia. U. S. Fl. ex. 30. Queen's delight, Silver leaf, E. Stillingie, G., Fr. The roots of Stilliiigia sylvatica, L., Euphorbiaceae. Rather pale reddish brown. Somewhat heavy, musty. Bitter, pungent. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 301 Cork tissue with reddish brown coloring matter. Parenchy- ma cells filled with simple and compound irregular starch gran- ules with quite distinct slit-like hili. Some parenchyma cells, usually smaller, with aggregate crystals of calcium oxa- late. Some typical bast fibres ; tracheids and reticulate ducts. Medullary ray cells filled with starch. Fig. 147. STRAMONIUM LEAVES. a. Upper epidermis. b. Lower epidermis. c. Trichomes. e. Parenchyma cells of petiole. d. f, g. Epidermis, palisade cells and spongy tissue cells. h. Glandular trichomes. i. Crystals. 302 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. J77. (Fig. J47.) STRAMONIUM. Stramonium Leaves. U.S. Fl. ex. 30. Thornapple, E. Stechapfel, G. Stramoine, Fr. The leaves of Datura Stramonium, L., Solanaces. Bright green. Heavy, nauseous. Bitter. Vertical walls of epidermal cells wavy, those of lower epi- dermis more markedly so. Stomata above and below. Simple, three to six celled, rather large and thinwalled trichomes with warty cuticular markings. Glandular trichomes. Long palis- ade cells, spongy tissue cells with aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. Prismatic crystals are found in leaf stalk and vascular bundles. Compare with leaves of belladonna and hyoscyamus. 178. STRAMONIUM. Stramonium Seeds. Fl. ex. 30. Tinct. 40. Names and origin as for 177. Very dark brown. Heavy, nauseous ; rancid when old. Bitter. Epidermal cells quite large, somewhat rectangular in form, brownish in color , walls greatly thickened with numerous branching pores; outer walls wavy, producing warts and ridges as seen in lateral views. Endosperm cells polygonal, thickwalled, but not distinctly porous, bearing crenate aleuron grains and fat. Concentrated sulfuric acid colors the powder deep red. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 303 Fig. 148. STROPHANTUS. a. Epidermis, vertical view. b. Epidermis and trichome, radial view. c. Trichomes. d. Epidermis, transverse view. e. Endosperm tissue, showing oil and crystals. f. Outer tissue with granular proteid matter and starch. J79. (Fig. 148.) STROPHANTUS. Strophantus. U. S. Fl. ex. 30. Tinct. 30. Strophantiissamen, G. The seeds (awns removed) of Strophantus hispidtts, D. C, Apocynacese. Pale brown, somewhat oily. Heavy, disagreeable. Very bitter. Epidermal cells brown, elongated, outer and inner walls 304 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. thin, vertical walls thick, of which the longitudinal ones are cylindrically thickened, as seen in transverse section. Simple, single-celled, thin-walled, brown trichomes. Endosperm cells thin-walled, polygonal, bearing oil, proteid granules, aggregate crystals and some compound starch. Strophantus Komhi and other species and varieties of stro- phantus require further study. Fig. J49. SUMBUL. a. Parenchyma with starch and resin. b. Cork. c. Tissue below the cork, bearing reddish brown coloring matter^ d. Ducts. e. Resin masses. /. Very thinwalled, collapsed parenchyma. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 305 J80. (Fig. J49.) SUMBUL. Sumbul Root. U. S. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct. 30. Sumbuhvurzel, Moschuswurzel, G. Racine de sumbul, Fr. The roots of Ferula Siiiiibul, Hooker jr., Umbelliferse. Light brown, resinous. Musk odor. Bitter, resinous (sticky). Rather abundant brown cork tissue. Very spongy paren- chyma of thin-walled, loosely united cells bearing abundant, irregular masses of brownish resin. Below the cork a tissue of elongated brownish cells filled with brown coloring matter. Rather large brown ducts, varying in form from porous to reticu- late and scalariform. Compare with the histology of the Russian and Indian varieties, and also with the roots of Dorema Amoniacum (false sumbul of India). 181. (Fig. 150.) TABACUM. Tobacco. (U. S., J890.) Fine powder, as snuff and insecticide, Tabak, G. Tabac, Fr. The leaves of Nicotiana Tahaciim, L., Solanacese. Dark brown. Heavy, characteristic; variable as to variety and manner of curing and preparing. Pungent. Stomata above and below ; vertical walls, wavy and some- what porous. Many-celled simple trichomes, thinwalled; most of them terminating in from one to many rather small secreting cells. No palisade tissue. Leaf parenchyma, with rather large cells filled with crystal sand of calcium oxalate. Numerous cultivated varieties. Extensively adulterated with a great variety of leaves from other plants, as those of cabbage, beet, chestnut, rose, cherry, peach, etc. 3o6 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Fig. 150. TABACUM. a. Upper epidermis. ;' b. Non-glandular trichomes. c. Glandular trichomes. d. Cells with crystals. e. Parenchyma (collenchymatous) from midrib. /. Leaf parenchyma with chlorophyll. J82. (Fig. 15 J.) TARAXACUM. U.S. Fl. ex. 30 Dandelion, E. Lowenzahn, Pfaffenrohrchen, G. Dent de lion, Fr. The roots of Taraxacum officinale, Weber, Compositse. Light brown. Very peculiar disagreeable odor. Sweetish, somewhat bitter. Some brownish cork. Medium sized parenchyma bearing Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 307 inulin. Laticiferoiis ducts. Typically reticulate ducts. No starch. No tracheids or bast fibres. Too plentiful to be extensively adulterated. ^S" ^xx Fig. J5I. TARAXACUM. a. Parenchyma with inulin. b. Cork. c. Reticulate ducts. d. Laticiferous ducts. 183. {Fig. 152.) THEA. Tea. Rolled leaves. Tea-dust. Thee, G. The, Fr. The leaves (younger and older) of Thea Chineiisis. Sims, Ternstroemiaceae. Very dark green. Fragrant; tea-odor. Astringent, bitterish. 3o8 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Stomata on lower surface only, very numerous, nearly or- bicular. Vertical walls of epidermal cells thick, somewhat wavy, with nodular thickenings. Simple, single-celled, thick-walled trichomes. A few large branching stone-cells from leaf blade. Small aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. Leaf parenchyma cells thickwalled, with chlorophyll and aggregate crystals. Adulterated with various leaves, as willow leaves, poplar leaves, etc. Exhausted leaves are dried, rerolled and mixed with jrood tea. a. Upper epidermis. b. Lower epidermis. c. Sclerenchyma cells. d. Trichomes. e. Leaf parenchyma. /. Crystals. Fig. 152. THEA. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 309 Fig. J53. THEOBROMA. a. Epidermal cells of seed. b. Endosperm cells with fat and starch, longitudinal view. c. Trichomes. d. Mechanical cells of hull. e. Endosperm cells. /. Parenchyma. g. Sclerenchyma, top view. J84. (Fig. 153.) THEOBROMA. Cacao. Paste, fine powder. Cocoa, E. Kakoa, G. Cacoa, Feves du Mexique, Fr, The seeds of Theobroma Cacao, L., Sterculiacese. Deep reddish brown ; chocolate brown. Mildly fragrantly aromatic. Bitter and astrinsrent. 310 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Epidermal cells of seed small, polygonal, filled with deep brown coloring matter. A few multicellular deep brown tri- chomes. Thinwalled, collapsed parenchyma; sclerenchyma layer. Endosperm cells thin-walled, polygonal, filled with fat and some compound starch. Hull remnants showing mechani- cal tissue of rather thickwalled, mostly elongated, porous cells. Spiral duct remnants and some crystals. Cocoa and chocolate are variously adulterated with ground hulls, starch, rice, flour, butter, lard, and other substances. Fig. 154. TURNERA. a. Upper epidermis. b. Lower epidermis. c. Epidermis, lateral view. d. Trichomes. c. Resin bearing tissue of leaf and petiole. /. Crystal bearing parenchyma. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 311 185. (Fig. 154.) Tornera. Damiana. Fl. ex. 30. The leaves of Tiinicra aphrodisiaca, Ward, and several other species of Turncm, Tunieraceae. Green; soon turning brown. SHghtly aromatic. Somewhat pungent. Stomata on lower surface only. Vertical walls of epidermal cells somewhat wavy, thin; cuticle thick with linear markings. Simple, single-celled, somewhat bent and coiling thickwalled trichomes with cuticular markings. Abundant tissue with deep reddish brown resin. Numerous aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate. Compare with T. diffusa, T. microphylla, and Aplopappus discoidca (false damiana). 186. (Fig. J55.) ULMUS. Slippery Elm. U. S. Moderately fine to quite fine. Elm bark, E. Ulmenrinde, Riisterrinde, G. Orme fauve, Orme Champetre, Fr. The inner bark of Ulmns fulva, Michx., Urticese. Very light brown. Odor of fenugreek. Very mucilaginous; tasteless. Bits of the outer bark are usually present, therefore brown cells may be found, no sclerenchyma. Inner bark parenchyma cells comparatively small, thinwalled, rather closely united; porous, elongated sieve tube like elements, and medullary ray tissue plenti- ful. Numerous very characteristic prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate; they occur in twos, each crystal having a hilum-like dot in the middle. Enormous mucilage cells. Starch deficient. Numerous bast fibres with thick walls. Very frequently adulterated with flour. Compare with U. campcstris and U. Americana. 312 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. ^:i% Fig. 155.* ULMUS. a. Inner bark parenchyma. b. Medium sized mucilage cell. c. Characteristic crystals of calcium oxalate. d. Bast fibres. e. Porous, tracheid-like elements. JS7. (Fig. J56.) UVA URSI. Uva Ursi. U. S. Fl. ex. 30. Bearberry leaves, E. Barentraiibenblatter, G. Busserole, Rai- sin cl'ours, Fr. The leaves of Arctostaphylos Uva ursi, Sprengel, Ericaceae. Greenish brown. Somewhat fragrant. Very astringent, bitter. Epidermal cells polygonal, upper larger than lower ; large orbicular stomata on lower surface only. Cuticle thick, yellow- ish. Leaf parenchyma cells with oil globules. Prismatic crys- tals of calcium oxalate. Thickwalled parenchymatous tissue. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 313 Adulterated with leaves of cowberry, red whortleberry, sand myrtle, box, trailing arbutus, and chimaphila. Fig. 156. UVA URSI. a. Upper epidermis. b. Lower epidermis. e. Parenchyma of leaf blade. d. Palisade tissue cells with oil globules and chlorophyll grains. e. Parenchyma from leaf blade. /. Crystals. g. Parenchyma with crystals. 188. (Fig. J57.) VALERIAN. Valerian. U.S. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct. 60. Baldrianwurzel, G. Valeriane, Fr. The rhizomes and roots of Valeriana officinalis, L., Valer- ianaceae. 314 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Rather light brown. Disagreeable, characteristic valerian odor. Bitter. Some brown cork tissue. Parenchyma cells thickwalled, more or less irregular in form, tangentially flattened, and filled with compound (mostly twos) starch granules. Porous ducts and tracheids and some spiral ducts. Adulterated with other roots and rhizomes. Compare Ger- man and English valerian. Fig. 157. VALERIAN. a. Parenchyma with starch, transverse view. b. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. c. Cork. d. Tracheids. e. Spiral duct. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 315 Fig. 158. VANILLA. a. Epidermal cells, vertical view, showing crystals of vanillin. b. Hypodermal cells. c. Epidermis, transverse view. (/. Parenchyma cells with crystals of calcium oxalate, long. view, r. Crystals of calcium oxalate. f. Tracheids. J89. (Fi^. t58.) VANILLA. Vanilla. U. S. Bruised. Powdered. V'anille, G., Fr. The unripe fruit of Vanilla planifolia, Andrews, Orchidacese. Brown. \'ery fragrant, characteristic vanilla odor. Bitter. 3i6 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Epidermis of polygonal cells with porous walls, filled with granular substance, and each cell contains a prismatic crystal of vanillin. Hypoderm of elongated somewhat collenchymatous cells. Parenchyma cells thinwalled collapsed, containing brown coloring matter, oil, and some cells long acicular crystals of calcium oxalate. Numerous tracheids. (Numerous black min- ute seeds.) Fig. 159. VERATRUM VIRIDE. a. Parenchyma cells with starch. b. Raphides. c. Epidermal cells. d. Sclerenchyma cells of endoderm, transverse view. c. Ducts and tracheids. /. Spiral duct. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 317 J90. {Fig. J59.) VERATRUM VIRIDE. Veratrum. U. S. Fl. ex. 60. Tinct. 60. American or green veratrum, American hellebore, Indian poke, E. ■ Gruner Germer, G. Veratre vert, Fr. The rhizomes and rootlets of Vcratnim viride, Aiton, Melan- thaceee. Light brownish gray. Odorless ; somewhat disagreeable when moist. Very pungent, bitter. Epidermal cells brownish, rather thickwalled. Parenchyma cells medium in size, filled with compound starch granules; some rophides. Selerenchyma cells with unequally thickened walls of endoderm sheath of rhizome. Tracheids; reticulate and spiral ducts. Compare with Veratum album. \9t. (Fig. J60.) VIBURNUM OPULUS. Cramp Bark. U.S. Fl. ex. 60. Cranberry tree, E. Wasserholder, G. Obier, Fr. The bark of Viburnum opulus, L., Caprifoliacese. Pale brown. Odorless. Bitter, astringent. Outer bark of small-celled, thickwalled cork; middle bark of small cells bearing reddish brown coloring matter. Numer- ous bast fibres and crystal bearing fibres. Some isolated larger, irregular, bent, twisted and branching bast cells. Numerous inner bark parenchyma cells with prismatic crystals. Some larger parenchyma cells with larger crystals. 3i8 PowDiiRED Vegetable Drugs. Fig. 160. VIBURNUM OPULUS. (J. Normal bast fibres. b. Inner baric parenchyma with crystals. c. Branching bast cells. d. Short bast cells. c. Parenchyma with larger crystals. /. Loose parenchyma of spheroidal cells. g, h. Outer parenchyma. /. Outer cork. 192. (Fi^. \6\.) VIBURNUM PRUNIFOLIUM. Black Haw. U. S. Fl. ex. 60. Sweet vibtirnum, E. Amerikanische Schnceballcnl)anmrincle, G. The bark of Vibuniiini pninifoliimi, L., Caprifoliace?e. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 319 Light reddish grown. Aromatic, valerian-Hke odor. Bitter, somewhat astringent. Outer rather large-celled cork. Outer portion of middle bark of tangentially flattened cells bearing some starch. Inner parenchyma bearing numerous aggregate and prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate. Numerous yellowish, thickwalled, porous sclerenchyma cells, some of which are branching. No bast, but some wood fibres from the wood are to be found. Fig. i6U VIBURNUM PRUNIFOLIUM. a. Sclerenchyma. b. Outer bark parenchyma, vertical view. c. Inner, smaller celled, parenchyma with crystals. d. Cork. I e. Wood fibres. /. Crystals. 320 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. 193. (Fig. 162.) WINTERA. Wintcr^s Bark. Fl. ex. 6o. Winter's Zimmt, G, Ecorce de Winter, Fr. The bark of Drimys Winteri, Foerster, Magnoliaceae. Cinnamon brown. Aromatic, camphoraceous. Very pungent, somewhat bitter. Outer bark cells filled with reddish brown coloring matter^ Inner bark perenchyma mostly empty; numerous larger cells filled with a bright yellow resin. Sclerenchyma cells much as in coto and paracoto, pores large, some filled with brown granu- lar matter. Confused with and substituted for coto and paracoto. Fig. 162. WINTERA. a, b, c, d, e. Sclerenchyma cells. /, h, j. Parenchyma cells with resin. g. Outer bark cells with reddish brown coloring matter (0- Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 321 Fig. 163. XANTHOXYLUM. a. Parenchyma with crystals and granular contents. b. Parenchj-ma and resin cells (c). d. Sclerenchyma. c. Bast. f. Collenchymatons tissue. g. Outer bark. (J94. Fig. J43.) XANTHOXYLUM. Prickly Ash. U. S. Fl. ex. 30. Toothache tree, Angelica tree, Suterberry, E. Zahnwehrinde, G. ClavaHer, Frene epineux, Fr. The bark of Xanthoxylnm fraxineum, Willd., Rutace?e. Light brown. Odorless. Very pungent, bitterish. : 322 Powdered Vegetable Drugs. Outer bark of cork with brown cell-contents. CoUenchy- matous middle bark. Inner bark of parenchyma, of mostly elon- gated cells, short crystal bearing cells and groups of phloem tissue ; large yellow resin bearing cells. Both prismatic and ag- gregate crystals of calcium oxalate abundant. Yellow scleren- chyma cells and some bent, twisted and somewhat branching bast cells. Ma}'- be adulterated with bark of other species, angustura and false ang-ustura. Fig. 164. ZINGIBER. a. Parenchyma with starch and one cell with resin, transverse view. b. Parenchyma, longitudinal view. c. Cork, vertical view. d. Tracheids. e. Ducts. Special Description of Vegetable Powders. 323 195. (Fig. J64.) ZINGIBER. Ginger. U. S. Fl. ex. 30. Tinct. 40. As a spice. Ingwer, G. Gingembre, Fr. The rhizomes of zingiber officinale, Roscoe, Scitamineae. Peeled — Light yellowish brown. Unpeeled — Darker. Aromatic; ginger odor. Very pungent. Polygonal, brownish cork tissue of the unpeeled or only par- tially peeled article. Parenchyma cells large, loosely united, filled with large, simple oval to elliptical starch granules; some cells with resin varying in color from bright lemon yellow to bright reddish brown. Some tracheids and rather large reticulate to nearly spiral ducts. Adulterated with starch, flour, chalk, capsicum, mustard, exhausted ginger, etc. THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW I AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS ' WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO SI.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE. ^<^t' ^- m:^ APP 7 mA APk;^! 1944 Ja3]'5CBV j'JN 1 3 mi a LD2]-95m-7,'37 340719 S«4 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY