.. . -10-41 GIFT 127 LIBRARY OF ARCHITECTURE AND ALLIED ARTS Gift of A.M. EDL International Library of Technology 303 A SERIES OF TEXTBOOKS FOR PERSONS ENGAGED IN ENGINEER- ING PROFESSIONS, TRADES, AND VOCATIONAL OCCUPATIONS OR FOR THOSE WHO DESIRE INFORMATION CONCERN- ING THEM. FULLY ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT SCRANTON INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY 1922 History of Architecture and Ornament: Copyright, 1909, by INTERNATIONAL TEXT- BOOK COMPANY. Entered at Stationers' Hall, London. All rights reserved Printed in U. S. \. PRESS OP INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY SCRANTON, PA. 303 83708 v lecture fi Urban Planning NA 500 - i;i/ I J t J -? PREFACE The volumes of the International Library of Technology are made up of Instruction Papers, or Sections, comprising the various courses of instruction for students of the International Correspondence Schools. 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INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY CONTENTS HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT Section Page Origin of Architecture 50 1 Egyptian Architecture 50 4 Asiatic Architecture 50 30 Greek Architecture 50 40 Roman Architecture 50 80 Early Christian Architecture 50 118 Medieval Architecture 50 129 Byzantine Architecture 50 130 Rise of the Saracens 50 158 Romanesque Architecture 50 161 Italian Romanesque 50 184 Central Italian Romanesque 50 188 Northern Italian Romanesque 50 193 Southern Italian Romanesque 50 195 French Romanesque 50 200 German Romanesque 50 213 The Crusades 50 227 Gothic Architecture 50 232 English Gothic 50 237 French Gothic 51 1 Dutch and Belgian Gothic 51 44 German Gothic 51 57 Italian Gothic 51 66 Spanish Gothic 51 83 Secular Architecture 51 95 Moslem Architecture 51 142 Renaissance Architecture 51 173 Italian Renaissance . , 51 189 vi CONTENTS HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT Continued Section Page Florentine Renaissance 51 189 Roman Renaissance 51 198 Venetian Renaissance 51 216 French Renaissance 51 236 German Renaissance 51 276 Belgian and Dutch Renaissance 51 285 Spanish Renaissance 51 291 English Renaissance 51 296 Classic Revival 51 321 Recent Architecture in Europe 51 336 Gothic Revival 51 342 American Architecture . 51 345 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT (PART 1) INTRODUCTION ORIGIN OF ARCHITECTURE 1 . The history of architecture antedates the written history of all mankind; but we are able to study the charac- teristics of certain ancient buildings from ruins that still exist, or from their restorations by modern students. From these can be formed a general idea of the habits and cus- toms of races of people long disappeared from the earth. The history of architecture is a history of the manners, customs, and temperaments of the people, as the buildings of each particular period reflect the social conditions that existed at the time they were erected. Primarily, archi- tecture had its origin in the attempt of man to provide against the inclemency of the weather. At that time there were only three general classes of human beings: the hunter, the shepherd, and the agriculturist. The pursuits of the first two classes tended to nomadic life, and therefore no permanent residences of these classes are found, the cave and the tent having been sufficient for their purposes. The agriculturist, however, settled where he tilled his land and gathered his crops, and it was he that planted the seed of a community that grew in proportion to the climate of the country, fertility of the soil, etc. I L L 3032 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 LOCAL INFLUENCES 2. Six specific influences affect each historic style of architecture. First, the geographical influence, which determines the mode of living, and the means of communication and transportation. Second, the geological influence, which determines the quality of the buildings, as the presence or the absence of building stone, clay, or wood will determine whether the buildings shall be of stone, brick, or timber. Third, the climatic influence, which determines the character of the buildings themselves, the size of their windows, and the projection and inclination of the roofs. As, for instance, in tropical countries, under the glaring sun, it is desirable to have small windows and dark, cool interiors, with projecting cornices that will shade the sides of the building from the vertical rays of the midday sun; whereas, in cold countries the roof must be steep to shed the rain and snow, and the windows large to admit the sunshine. Fourth, the religious influence, which will affect the habits and customs of the people. Fifth, the political influence, as the system of government will reflect the manners and temperaments of the influential portion of the nation. Sixth, the historical influence, worked by the traditions and achievements of previous generations. 3. Under all of these six influences, each historic style has been further characterized by one of two systems of construction. The elements of these two systems are the lintel and the arch. Where all the openings of the wall of a building are covered by a straight beam, or lintel, the system is said to be trabeated; and where the openings are covered by any form of arch, the system is called arched. Strictly speaking, all the buildings classified under ancient architecture were based on the principle of the lintel, and all buildings under modern architecture, are built on the prin- ciple of the arch, or a combination of the arch and the lintel. 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 3 CHARACTERISTICS OF STYLiK 4. Each architectural style and period presents certain characteristics that have grown out of the foregoing influ- ences by which it may be recognized and classified. Plans, walls, roofs, columns, openings, and ornament all vary to suit different conditions of civilization, but in the better periods they adhere to certain principles that cause these periods to assume architectural importance in the general history. The dates given are approximately the periods when the most important examples were erected. 5. Ornament. The term ornament is applied to the enrichment, or embellishment, of any object. Ornament should be studied only in its relation to the architectural purpose of the object that it adorns. Ornament should be governed by certain principles and fixed laws, as fitness is essential to all good ornament. By fitness is meant its suitability (1) for the purpose for w r hich the object is to serve, (2) for the position the object is to occupy, (3) for the material of which the object is constructed, and (4) for the materials of which the ornament is composed. Natural forms, when reduced to the four preceding prin- ciples, are said to be conventionalized, and it should be observed that the best periods of art are those in which the ornament has been most successfully conventionalized. Ornament may be flat (simply on the surface), incised (cut below the surface), or in relief (raised above the surf ace )._ 6. Ornament can be divided into three classes: constructive, where it forms a part of the object itself, as a column in a building; representative, where it represents some natural formr or purely decorative, where it exists simply to please the eye. In the better periods of art, ornament ever has been symbolic of some geographical, political, or religious idea. Thus, in different decorative schemes, we find the rising sun emblematic of the East, a geographical symbol; the crescent emblematic of the Turkish nation, a political symbol; and the cross emblematic of Christianity, a religious symbol. ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE (4000 B. C. TO 200 B. C.) INFLUENCES 7. Geographical. In Fig. 1 is shown a map of Egypt and the surrounding region that gives an idea of the geo- graphical character of this remarkable country. Along the bank of the river Nile stretches a narrow strip of fertile land, beyond which lies a sandy desert. This narrow strip constituted the entire country of Ancient Egypt. It had easy access to the Mediterranean Sea, to the Red Sea, and through the latter to the Arabian Sea. This geographical position assisted Egypt largely in the days of her greatness, as her products were easily exported, and those of foreign nations easily imported, through these natural highways, while the Nile formed the means of communication through- out the length of the home country. Through its peculiarity of annually overflowing its banks, and inundating the entire land, the Nile rendered Egypt more fertile and productive than any of the neighboring countries. Therefore, the civili- zation of the old world started on the banks of the Nile, and today we find the remains of ancient tombs and temples stretched from the city of Alexandria to the island of Philae. 8. Geological. While there were large quarries of limestone in northern Egypt, the central portion abounded in sandstone, and the southern section in granite. To this abundance of lasting building material we are indebted for the preservation of the great monuments of Egypt today. Clay was used to make bricks, but they were simply baked in the sun and entered into the construction of dwellings and buildings of minor importance. A suitable wood was not to be found, the palm and acacia trees being the only ones of importance that grew in this country. 161-1 L T 100, 303 ISO Pie. 1 T.I 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 5 9. Climatic. In Egypt there are but two seasons: spring and summer. Frost and snow are unknown, and rain and fog are very rare. This delightful climate made architec- tural construction very simple, for, while precautions against heat were ever necessary, inclement weather was never considered. 10. Religious. The Egyptian religion and its cere- monies were mysterious and complicated, and the expression of this feeling of mystery is one of the distinguishing characteristics of Egyptian architecture. The religion was practically polytheistic, although in theory they recognized but one god. They personified the phenomena of nature, attributing special functions to the sun, moon, etc., and to all animal creation. Hence, we find Egyptian gods repre- sented in the forms of birds and beasts, with emblems of the sun and the moon worn as insignia of their particular power. The Egyptians believed in a highly refined future state, and took more care in the preparation of their tombs than they did of theii dwellings. The dwelling house was looked on merely as a temporary lodging, the tomb being their per- manent abode, and to this belief is due the existence of such monuments as the pyramids, which were erected as tombs for the emperors. 11. Political and Historical. Ancient Egypt pos- sessed a vast population, and under the strongest of despotic governments, a multitude of her people were compelled to work on the public monuments for little or no pay, Captives and foreigners were enslaved and put on this work, thus establishing a condition of society that was immensely favor- able to the construction of large and important works. The historical influences are hard to trace but pictorial decorations give us a general knowledge of the characteristic details back to about 4000 B. C. Greek and Roman authors and certain books of the Bible also give us some information. 12. Egyptian architecture is of little importance to the modern designer, but it is of vast importance to the student, as a starting point in the thread of history. 6 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 CH ARACTERIS TICS 13. Primitive Egyptian structures were probably com- posed of bundles of reeds bound together and placed verti- cally in the ground to form supports. Across the top were laid other bundles similarly bound, thus forming a skeleton framework that was afterwards filled in with clay. The doors and windows were probably framed of reeds in the humbler dwellings, and of palm trunks in the more pretentious resi- dences. In any case, these dwellings were very perishable, and little remains at the present day in the way of informa- tion concerning them. On the other hand, the public structures of the Egyptians were built with a predominating idea of durability. Immense stone columns, carved to represent conventionalized reeds or painted to suggest their vegetable prototypes, and massive tapering walls, with a hollow, projecting cornice, and incised decorations, suggestive at once of previous clay construction, were the chief characteristics of the later buildings. Great extravagance of material marks all Egyptian archi- tecture. Stone was quarried and transported in great blocks to the sites of the temples and tombs. Some tombs were cut into the solid rock of the mountain side, while the bodies of powerful rulers were placed within the pyramids, but the preparation of their final resting places was in all cases accompanied by great extravagances of material and labor. All the architecture partakes more or less of a religious character, as the Egyptian thought little of his earthly exist- ence and devoted his life to preparation for the eternity to come. Hence his great care for the permanency of his tomb and the preservation of his body that he might be ready and presentable at the great day of resurrection. Material was so abundant (see Art. 8) and labor so cheap (see Art. 11) that economy of either was utterly unneces- sary. Massiveness, grandeur, and the expression of a deep and somber mystery (see Art. 10) were the ideals of the Egyptian architect and these he readily attained under the geological and political conditions that existed. 8 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 EXAMPLES 14. The existing structures from which the characteristics of Egyptian architecture are to be studied consist almost exclusively of tombs and temples. The pyramids differ in detail from all other structures, but may be generally classed with tombs. The Great Sphinx, although unique as a monument, is only one of the many temples that abound in this mysterious country. 15. Pyramids. The pyramids form a distinct class by themselves, and present no points in common with any other Egyptian structures. They are of gigantic proportions and were considered by the Greek historians as the first of the seven wonders of the world. The most important pyramids, Fig. 2, are situated on the banks of the lower Nile near Gizeh. Of these, the largest is the Great Pyramid of Cheops, which is shown in Fig. 3. This pyramid was constructed of blocks of limestone, some of whose dimensions are so great that it is a mystery at the present day how they could have been quarried and transported with the primitive tools and machinery in use 3,000 years before the Christian era. The pyramid is about 800 feet square at the base and 450 feet high. 16. Other Tombs. Besides the pyramids, which were royal tombs, there were smaller tombs for private indi- viduals. The earlier tombs consisted of three parts: (1) the outer chamber, in which were placed food offerings for the deceased, wherein the walls were decorated with festal scenes; (2) the secret chambers, containing statues of the deceased and his family; and (3) the sarcophagus chamber at the bottom of a deep well, in which the sarcophagus, or stone coffin, was laid. In Upper Egypt occur the rock-cut tombs. These are of little architectural value in themselves, but in some cases present architectural details that may have served as "proto- types to later 'details. The roofs of the tombs of Beni- Hassan, in Upper Egypt, were supported on columns that t&y $ ' 4-/ - . ?J>> i.. ;,,^ i . v . , -^ ' vj. jvl'jVi!'' J$fJ if." 1 '' b i 21?^^ f%5R^.i 10 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 presented eight to sixteen sides, as shown in Fig. 4. These were slightly fluted, and were crowned with a projecting cornice that indicated a derivation from wooden origin. 17. Temples. Next to the pyramids in massive grandeur stands the Great Sphinx at Gizeh. This is a statue of the Egyptian god Harmachis and is carved out of solid rock, making a figure 146 feet long, 65 feet high, and 34 feet across the shoulders. The body, which has the form of a crouching lion, is now entirely buried in drifted sand, but the human head, measuring 28 feet from chin to top, and the broad, massive shoulders, are still visible, as shown in Fig. 5. Between the forefeet of the body is excavated a temple in which the god was FIG. 4 FIG. 5 worshipped, and if built at the same time as the sphinx, this temple is the oldest architectural monument on record, as the sphinx antedates the pyramids several centuries. r>o ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 11 18. The most important architectural monuments of Egypt were its temples, and the general scheme of arrange- ment was the same in all cases. The Egyptian temple consisted of a small sanctuary, or sckos, that was reached through a large columnar hall known as the hall of assembly, or hypostylc hall, the latter term meaning roofed over on columns. In front of the hypostyle hall was a large open court, which was surrounded by high and massive walls and was entered between two tower-like front walls, called bvlons. Flanking the entrance there were sometimes two obelisks each quarried in one great piece of stone, usually bearing hieroglyphical inscriptions. In fact every plain surface in the Egyptian Temples was covered with hiero- glyphical ornament of some sort, either in- cised below the face of the stone or painted in horizontal lines as a written inscription or in a large pictorial subject representing some historical event. Each of these parts was varied slightly in different structures, some having two courts in front of the hypostyle hall, known as the outer and the inner court, and in many of the temples the sekos was surrounded by a number of smaller apart- ments. On the outside of the temple, the entrance was approached through a long avenue often a mile or more in extent lined on each side with colossal sphinxes, and occasionally ending in a large monumental gateway advanced before the main entrance to the temple, as shown in Fig. 6. This gateway is called zpropylon, and it stood alone before FIG. 6 12 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 the main entrance like a silent sentinel. The example shown is from the temple of Rameses III, at Karnak, and by com- paring it with the surrounding trees, a fair idea of the magnitude of these great architectural details may be obtained. The faces of the propylon were always decorated with elaborate hieroglyphic devices. Hieroglyphs, meaning FIG. 7 sacred writings, consist of a series of pictures, or diagrams, illustrating sequent events. Beyond the propylon stand the two great pylons that form the outer front wall of the temple, and the entrance between these two 'masses is similar in detail to the gateway advanced in front. A better idea of this arrangement can be obtained from Fig. 7, which shows a portion of the avenue, the entrance, 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 13 and pylons of the temple of Edfou, in Upper Egypt. In this case the propylon is omitted, but its form is duplicated as an entrance, and at the end of the long avenue of sphinxes stand two great obelisks one on each side of the entrance. The walls of the pylons themselves are decorated with hieroglyphs, the design at the bottom representing a group of prisoners about to be executed by the king. 19. On the inside of the temple, these pylons were sculp- tured in much the same manner, although the lower part of them was largely covered by a roofed passageway around the edges of the court. Fig. 8 shows the appearance of these pylons on the inside, and a portion of the columns support- ing the roof on the right side of the court. This example is taken from a temple on the island of Philas in the upper Nile. The pylons were massive structures, and contained, in their interiors, a number of secret rooms accessible only to the priests and members of the royal family. An entrance to the interior of one of the pylons is shown on the left. The general treatment around the door and 14 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 over it is precisely the same, but on a smaller scale, as the main entrance to the temple and the general character of the propylon illustrated in Fig. 6. A better idea of the massiveness of these pylons may be obtained from Fig. 9, which is an illustration of the temple of Edfou, showing the taper of the walls from the ground upwards, a characteristic of all Egyptian architecture. This illustration is taken from above the side walls of the temple, FIG. 9 so that the columns at the entrance of the hypostyle hall at the rear of the court may be seen. 20. In Fig. 10 is shown the plan of the Ramesseum, a temple built by, and named after, Rameses, who was king of Egypt about 1500 B. C. Here the sanctuary is shown at a, surrounded by a number of smaller apartments that were used by the priests and members of the royal family, both as places for their mysterious devotions and as royal residences, the king and his immediate relatives being con- sidered earthly representatives of the gods. The sanctuary contained the shrine, and was entered through either of two portals, one from the hypostyle hall b, and the other 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT communicating with one of the sacred apartments. The roof of the hypostyle hall b was supported by two sets of columns, FIG. 10 the central ones being longer than those on each side, in order to provide a clearstory for the admission of light and air. This is more clearly shown in Fig. 11, which was photo- graphed from a model of the great hypostyle hall at Karnak. FIG. 11 At a is shown the double row of tall columns, which are con- nected longitudinally by the stone lintels b, in order to receive 16 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 the edges of the stone slabs c, which form the roof over the nave, or central portion, of the temple. On each side of the columns a are the shorter columns d, which are con- nected transversely by the lintels e, and the inside row, longitudinally by the lintel /, to support the roof slabs g in the same manner as over the nave. An open space h is thus left to admit light to the interior of the hall and to form a clearstory similar to the same detail in the cathedrals erected in Europe many centuries later. 21. This system of supporting the roof is based on the first of the two principles of construction previously referred to, namely, the lintel. The spacing of the supports being governed entirely by the length of lintel the builders were able to quarry, the columns are exceedingly close together, and this is the case not only in Egyptian structures, but in all architectural edifices in which "the lintel system of con- struction" prevails. For this reason, large apartments were never entirely roofed over, but were open to the sky, either wholly or in part, as shown at c, Fig. 10, where the shaded portions indicate the covering roof. The space shown at c is the inner court of the temple, from which the hypostyle hall must be entered. On each side of this inner court is a double row of columns support- ing a roof extending from the side walls, while at the back is a single row of columns and a row of square piers that carry a portion of the roof extending over from the hypo- style hall. Another row of square piers carries the roof over the front end of this inner court, which, with the other partial coverings, surrounds the court with a narrow, projecting roof on all four sides. 22. The effect of this treatment, which was imposing in itself, was enhanced by colossal statues carved on the faces of the square piers. Three flights of stone steps led to the level of the hypostyle hall, the floor of which was considerably above the level of the inner court. Flanking the steps of the inner court c, and against the square piers that support the roof were colossal carved-stone images of 17 1 L T 303 3 18 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 Egyptian deities. It is a striking characteristic of Egyptian architecture and sculpture that everything shall be on a colossal scale. This characteristic is carried out in the pyramids, the sphinx, and in the colossal statues of Memnon, Fig. 12, on the north bank of the Nile at Thebes. These figures inspire one with awe simply by their magnitude, and as adjuncts to the complex ceremonies of the Egyptian religious rites must certainly have impressed the people with the insignificance of mere man. The entrance court d was a comparatively plain enclosure, with columns on each side and a single flight of steps leading up to the floor of the inner court. This court was entered through a narrow portal flanked on each side by the massive pylons e. 23. Obelisks. The obelisks in front of a temple as at Edfou, Fig. 7, are characteristic of Egyptian art. The ex- ample in Fig. 13 is one of a pair of obelisks known as "Cleopatra's needles," and is shown as it stood in the city of Alexandria, for nearly 2,000 years, with its companion, before the entrance of the temple at Heliopolis. It is 67 feet high, and 7 feet 7 inches square at the base. It was removed to Alexandria by the Roman emperor Augustus just before the beginning of the Christian era. In 1878 this obelisk was transported to New York, where it now stands on a mound in Central Park. FIG. 13 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 19 ANALYTICAL STUDY 24. Egyptian temples were planned entirely for interior effect. The dimly lighted hypostyle hall was a forest of columns, producing a deep feeling of grandeur and mystery. The temples were not always symmetrical, and being erected at irregular intervals, they expressed the ideas of different generations quite as much as do the cathedrals that were erected centuries later. See Fig. 10. WALLS 25. The buildings were surrounded by walls of tremen- dous thickness that were usually built of granite. The faces of the walls sloped inwards, and the tops were surmounted by a massive concave cornice over a rolled molding, as shown at the top of the propylon in Fig. 6. ROOFS 26. The roofs consisted of massive flat stones, supported on lintels between the columns, as shown in Fig. 11. COLUMN'S 27. The columns were thick and massive, their height sel- dom being more than six times their thickness. Five general designs were used, all derived from some conventionalized form of the lotus, papyrus, or palm. The earliest columns were square or polygonal, as in the tombs of Beni-Hassan, Fig. 4. Subsequently, they became round, tapered toward the top, and spread out into an enormous bell-shaped capital that supported the roof. They were carved and painted to represent the full blossom of the papyrus or palm, as shown in Fig. 14 (a) and (r), or to represent the lotus blossom, as at (b). The edge of the shaft at the bottom was sometimes 20 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 rounded off and decorated with a pointed ornament repre- senting the large leaves around the sprouting lotus, above FIG. 10 which the top of the column would be contracted to form a conventional lotus bud under a square block, as shown in Fig. 15 (a). Occasionally, as at Karnak, Fig. 11, the entire column was decorated in color with hieroglyphs, as shown in Fig. 15 (b) . The corners of the four- and eight-sided columns were sometimes rounded off, while the plain sides were reeded, thus giving the appearance of a bunch of stems, which were ostensibly held in place by a num- ber of bands, as shown in Fig. 15 (a). 28. Another form of column had the upper portion designed to represent a naos, or cell, similar to the sanctuary, with a miniature entrance and pylon on each side, under which were carved heads of Hathor or Isis, two prominent deities in Egyptian mythology. These columns are known as Hathor-headed or Isis-headed, as the case may be, and are as shown in Fig. 16, which illustrates a portion of the temple of Hathor at Dendarah. Fig. 17 shows a restoration of one of these columns, from which the details may be more clearly understood. >'.. FIG. 17 noil 161 I I. T 101. ,W 50 FIG r> ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 21 In the architecture of Egypt, there were no established rules of proportion. The height and projection of the capital bear no fixed relation to the length or diameter of the column, as do these details in later architectural styles, and the construction being almost entirely of stone, the columns were placed very close together, so as to receive the lintels and slabs that formed the roof. OPENINGS 29. The openings were uniform, in general style, and resembled the propylon in general treatment. Windows were rare, as the clearstory (see Fig. 11) admitted sufficient light for the mysterious rites that were performed in the temples. MOLDINGS 30. Small decorative details called moldings are used to separate architectural members in a building. They con- sist of plane or cylindrical surfaces run in bands vertically or horizontally. In Egyptian architecture, there are few moldings, but each is thoroughly characteristic of the style. The principal ones are the large concave member crowning the walls of the temples and pylons, Figs. 6 and 7, and the smaller roll, or band, separating this crown- ing member from the lower wall. ORNAMENT 31. Egyptian ornament was symbolic and an important factor in the architectural style. It was represented in all three classes, based on few types, and in many cases is so conventionalized that the type cannot be determined. It is of importance that the student should thoroughly understand the difference between style, class, and type. The term stylo is used to indicate the period or nationality of the ornament or architecture, as the Egyptian style; the term class is applied when it is desired to indicate a subdivision 22 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 of some style, as the constructive class of Egyptian orna- ment; and the term type is used to refer to the natural form from which the ornament is derived. 32. Types. The types derived from the vegetable king- dom were the lotus, papyrus, and palm. The most con- spicuous type in Egyptian art is the lotus, a plant growing on the banks of the Nile and somewhat resembling the pond lily, but differing from it in coloring. It stands high out of the water, as shown in Fig. 18, with petals of a rich purple and a heart of deep orange. The lotus was a sacred flower, and as an offering to the gods was conspicuous in the highest forms of worship. FIG. IS In each architectural style, some one particular vegetable type seems to stand out conspicuously in the decorations. In Egypt, the lotus was used in a multitude of different forms in almost every decorative scheme throughout its history. In fact it is difficult to conceive a characteristically Egyptian design that does not introduce some suggestion derived from this flower. The devotion of the Egyptians to this particular emblem amounts almost to worship. It was painted on their walls, mummy cases, and coffins; it was carved in their monuments, temples, and tombs; it was wrought in precious metals and worn as jewelry; it was woven in their linen garments, and in fact it was everywhere. 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 23 The papyrus plant, shown in Fig. 19, was also used largely in Egyptian art; it was associated with the Nile, on whose banks it grew, but not to such an extent as the lotus. It was the first material used to manufacture paper, which derives its name from this plant. Feathers presented another type frequently met with in ornament, and these, with some birds, particularly the vulture or buzzard; the asp, a small, venomous serpent; and the beetle, were about all the types borrowed from the animal kingdom. 33. winged j)isk. The o r n a m e n t known as the winged disk, Fig. 20, con- sists of a solar disk, supported on each side by an asp, the royal symbol of Upper and Lower Egypt. The wide out- stretching vulture's wings symbolize the untiring activity of the sun in its beneficence; hence, a divine protecting FIG. 20 power. It is sometimes varied to include the figure of a goddess or the body of a vulture, in place of the disk, and the wings are occasionally curved upwards. 24 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 34. The Scarabeeus. The scarabeeus, Fig. 21, con- sisted of a beetle holding a sun disk between its front feet and a small ball between its hind feet. It was identified with the rising sun, and was emblematic of creation and resurrection, or new birth. Its exact significance is somewhat complicated, as are in fact all Egyptian emblems; but, owing to the habits of the beetle, slowly developing from a grub through various stages to a full-grown insect, it is emblematic of progress and evolution. FIG. 21 35. Wall Decorations. The wall decorations usually consisted of hieroglyphic representations of some historical event. In private tombs, the life of the occupant was represented, and in temples, the life of the gods or the history of the nation was depicted. Each representation was not only a detail of the wall decoration, but a hieroglyphic record of a fact. Sometimes it was carved in the surface of the walls, and sometimes merely painted; and, occasionally, it was both carved and painted. It was always most conventional, and certain details, such as the lotus and papyrus, were represented in the strictest geometrical arrangement, usually showing the bud, blossom, and fruit in regular order, typifying the development of the entire plant. In Fig. 22 observe the straight, stiff stem and trumpet-shaped blossom, the sharp-pointed petals of the calyx, and the geometrical arrangement of the entire plant, with all its distinguishing characteristics empha- sized to produce the simplest and severest conventionalism. Egyptian carved ornament of this character is nearly always in low relief, and is sometimes merely incised or outlined in the surface of the wall, as shown in Fig. 23. FIG. 22 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT On work executed in a later period, the background is some- times cut away, leaving the carved ornament in full relief, as shown in Fig. 24. In Figs. 25 and 27 are shown several characteristic wall decorations, wherein the lotus, papyrus, and other types are introduced in great variety, showing the changes that can be worked on a few ideas. These were introduced in the decorative schemes of the tombs and temples, and give a fair idea of the general wall treatment. FIG. 23 FIG. 24 The scroll borders at (a) and (b] , Fig. 25, represent con- ventionalized waves of the Nile, and were frequently used in a multitude of forms as borders, or frames, to wall panels filled in with surface ornament. The border shown at (/) is taken from a narrow frieze in one of the tombs. The lotus is here used in two forms, with a geometrical arrangement above and below. Another border generally used in a vertical position is shown at (g}. Here, the lotus blossom is introduced in the central strip, which is flanked on each side by a series of disks. At (c] , (d), (i?), and (h] are shown forms of surface deco- ration that were used within the panels surrounded by the 26 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 27 preceding and many other designs of borders. No type is traceable in (c) or U),but in (. Rosette Forms. The rosette forms shown in Fig. 20 are some of the many observed in Egyptian orna- ment. At (a] is shown a simple circle with an inner circle, and the space between them is divided by straight lines into eight equal parts. The transition from this form to the form shown at (b} con- sists merely of a notching of the edge of the outer circle where the lines intersect the circumference; (c) is the same as (b) , except that the divi- ding lines are arranged in pairs, thus making each seg- ment independent and by itself. From (c) to () class, and (c) type? 3. What influences must be taken into consideration in studying an architectural style? Describe the effect of each. 4. For what modern application is the Egyptian style suitable? 5. Make a design in color for a wall diaper in the Egyptian style, using the types herein described, or other ones similar to them, but not a copy of the illustrations. The design should be not less than (i in. X (> in., and should be made on a sheet of white drawing paper ! in. X 12 in. The design need not be entirely colored, but a section of it should be completed to show the scheme and coloring. 6. Make a design in color for a column in the Egyptian style, but do not copy it directly from any illustration; or, make a drawing of a propylon similar to Fig. 6, but complete it with all details restored and colored and hieroglyphics incised, as shown in Fig. 23. The design is to be 10 inches high on a sheet 9 in. X 12 in. 30 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE (2000 B. C.) INFLUENCES 39. Geographical. The map, Fig. 29, shows a portion of Western Asia including the valley between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The land watered by these rivers was very fertile, and the country between them, known as the plain of Mesopotamia, was irrigated by canals extending from Babylon to the city of Nineveh. Civilization in this country started at the mouth of these rivers, where they emptied into the Persian Gulf, and spread toward their sources, just as Egyptian civilization formed along the Nile. In Western Asia, however, civilization spread toward the north, while in Egypt it spread toward the south. 40. Geological. This entire section, with the exception of Assyria, possessed no stone and grew very little vegeta- tion of the character suitable for building materials. The soil was alluvial and readily baked into bricks, which formed the principal building material. Sun-baked bricks were used for the body of the walls, while tile, or kiln-burned bricks, were occasionally used as a facing. In Assyria, however, some stone was used, and the inside and outside facings of the walls were finished with either alabaster or limestone slabs, on which were carved allegorical figures in low relief. These carvings and the inscriptions on the stones are of vast importance historically, as they convey much information con- cerning the character of the buildings of the period, although the buildings themselves have long since crumbled away. 41. Climatic. In Chaldea, the country was swampy and unhealthy, and the entire region was infested with 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 31 venomous insects, so that in the cities it was necessary to construct all buildings on platforms so as to prevent insects and reptiles from crawling into them. During the rainy sea- son, too, there were heavy floods near the rivers, rendering it further necessary to raise the communities above the annual inundations. In Persia, however, there was a high plain, and there this elevated construction was not required. 42. Religion*. The people of this section were extremely superstitious. They worshiped the sun, the moon, and the powers of nature fire, \vind, thunder, etc. Temples and images of gods were not common among them, as their sacrifices to the sun and other celestial bodies were made in the open air. The entrances to their palaces were guarded by ferocious-looking stone bulls with human heads, Fig. 30, that represented some genius or beneficent power emanating from their ideas of deity. 43. Political and Historical. The sculptures and carved inscriptions give a very clear idea of the character of the people and customs of the period. The inscriptions were formed in a peculiar kind of wedge-shaped characters, called cuneiform, and records were made by pressing small wedge-shaped devices into the soft clay before baking it into bricks. Instead of paper, small tiles and tablets were used for recording facts, and so much in this form and character was written that large libraries were formed, the books of which consisted of burnt tiles. 44. The history of this section can be determined only by the translation of the cuneiform characters, which, up to FIG. 30 32 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 the present time, has only been imperfectly carried out. The earliest king mentioned in the cuneiform inscription reigned 4500 B. C., and the kingdom established extended north, along the valley of the Tigris. About 1700 B. C., however, Assyria asserted her power over the rest of the empire and became a ruling influence in Western Asia. An Assyrian king named Sargon defeated the Egyptians and the Philistines, who were allied with them, and occupied Egypt. This may have introduced Egyptian influences into their architecture. About 672 B. C., the Egyptians conquered the Assyrians and shook off their yoke. Nineveh was destroyed in 609 B. C., and the Assyrian kingdom was divided. Baby- lon became the leading city until taken by the Persians in 539 B. C. The country remained under the rule of the Persians until 333 B. C., when it was taken by the Greeks under Alexander the Great. Thereafter its history is merged with that of Greece. EXAMPLES 45. The only buildings of which a vestige is left at the present day to enlighten us to the art of Western Asia, are the palaces. The civilization of the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers was next in antiquity to that of Egypt, but was far inferior to that country in art and architecture. The subjects of the two kingdoms Chaldea and Assyria that ruled this valley differed widely in character and culture, but the lack of good building material and the flatness of the country imposed on both nations similar restrictions of con- ception, form, and material. Not a tomb nor a temple of these ancient nations stands today to enlighten us on the details of their system of construction, but the remains of their palaces, especially those of Assyria, show a scale of magnificence that is simply astounding, though these palaces were erected of brick, the poor quality of which prevented the builders from carrying their structures to any great height. Elevation above the level plain of the valley was attained by first erecting immense terraces, or mounds, which were 50 33 faced with stone slabs or hard-burned bricks, and on these mounds building's of moderate height were constructed. The absence of stone suitable for columns, and the difficulty of procuring beams of long span, made broad halls or large, covered rooms practically impossible, although, unlike the Egyptians, they used the arch to span the principal openings, and it formed an important element in their style. The plans (6) FIR. 31 of these palaces, therefore, consisted of a series of long corridors and small cells. The interior walls were wain- scoted to a height of 8 or 9 feet with alabaster slabs richly carved in low relief to represent hunting scenes, battles, tribute to the kings, and glorification of the gods, as shown in Fig. 31. Plastered walls were painted in brilliant colors, and every art known to these people was employed to make their palaces a maze of richness and architectural splendor. 1 L T 3034 34 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 46. The system of construction was simple. The clay walls, faced with alabaster slabs, enameled tile, or hard-burned bricks, were roofed over with cedar beams, and the roofs were paved with tiles to form terraces or roof gardens. These are referred to in ancient writings as the "Hanging Gardens of Babylon." Light was admitted through small windows close to the ceiling, and usually certain rooms in the interior of the palace were entirely windowless. Even at the present day the inhabitants of these districts take refuge from the torrid heat of the summer midday in window- less apartments, lighted only by lamps. Above the wainscots that line the courts and corridors were wide friezes of enameled brick, richly ornamented with various symbolic forms, used as decorative motives. Of these the most frequent were the "sacred tree," Fig. 32, the winged bull, Fig. 30, and other mythological monsters, together with palmettes or fan- shaped floral designs, and the lotus blossom. The latter, which were used largely around the archivolts over the arched entrance gates, were probably derived from Egypt. The most characteristic details, how- ever, were the winged bulls. Though of tremendous pro- portion, every part was minutely wrought, even to the details of the head-dress, the hair, the feathers of the wings, and the anatomy, as shown in Fig. 30. The worst feature of the Assyrian constructions was their perishable character. With columns and roofs of wood, covered with several feet of earth to keep out the heat, and walls of simple clay the ravages of time caused their identities to become buried in their own materials. FIG. 32 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 35 ANALYTICAL, STUDY PLANS , 47. Assyrian palaces were planned with open central courts and long, narrow rooms and halls. They were raised on platforms, or terraces, from 30 to 50 feet in height. Egyptian temples were planned solely for interior effect, while Assyrian palaces were designed for both interior and exterior effect. WALLS 48. The walls of the Assyrian palaces were constructed of brick and were faced with stone slabs, whereas the walls of the Egyptian temples were of solid granite. In Assyria, the brick walls alone remain, the columns, which were of wood, having long since perished. In Persia, the walls, which were thin, have crumbled away, but the massive blocks that flanked the openings, the immense stone columns, and the marble stairways still remain. ROOFS 49. The roofs consisted of wooden beams supported on wooden columns, and clay walls tiled over on the outside. The more important rooms were arched over, or vaulted, with brick; whereas, in Egypt, the roofs were invariably of stone slabs supported on stone lintels. COLUMNS 50. In the earlier periods, the columns were made of wood, but in the later periods some of them were built of stone. The most ancient cities, being in Chaldea and Assyria, where there was no stone, possessed buildings only of wood and brick or tile. However, when the Persians returned from Egypt, they built at Persepolis, where limestone abounded, 36 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 columns of stone to support the roofs of their palaces, tombs, and temples. The capitals of these columns were characteristic, and consisted of the double horse, double bull, double unicqrn, double griffin, etc., under which a scroll device was sometimes introduced as shown in Fig. 33 (c). The capitals (a) and (b) are placed abruptly on top the shafts without any intervening moldings or prep- aration, but in (c] the top of the column has been varied to present a transectional condition from the round reeded shaft to the animal from above. The beams of the roof rested on the heads of the animals in one direction, as shown at (c), and on their backs and between their heads when running in the opposite direction, as shown at (b) and (c), while different animal forms were used for the capitals in different cases, and some were supported on scrolls while others were not, the bases were almost universally of the type shown in (a) and (b}. The scrolls shown at (c) are interesting owing to the later appearance of a similar device in Greek capitals; some of the Assyrian sculptures show the scroll device in a horizontal posi- tion across the top of the column, but no examples of that form exist in the structures of which sufficient material remains to study from. 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 37 OPENINGS 51. The temples were lighted by means of a clearstory similar to that in the Egyptian temples, but the palaces depended more on their doorways to let in a flood of light, where necessary, and consequently they made these openings of enormous size. MOLDINGS 52. As in Egypt, the architects of Western Asia made little use of formal moldings. Plain sinkings were used in the bases and capitals of the columns, with an occasional projecting rib or incised groove. ORNAMENT 53. The ornament of Assyria was probably borrowed from Egypt, as there are many points of resemblance in the two styles. The sculpture of the Assyrians seems to have been a development of that of the Egyptians, but descended rather than advanced in scale of perfection. Egyptian sculpture degenerated toward the end of the 4th century B. C., as it expressed an unnatural swelling of the limbs that was at first only lightly indicated but gradu- ally became almost exagger- a t e d t he conventional having been abandoned for an imperfect attempt at the natural. In Assyrian sculpture, the attempt was carried still further, and, while the general arrangement of a subject and the pose of a single figure were still conventional, an attempt was made to express the muscles of the limbs and the rotundity of the flesh to an extent that destroyed the con- ventionalism of the whole. In all art, this is a symptom of decline. Nature should be idealized, not copied. Assyrian ornament is not based altogether on the same types as the Egyptian, but is represented in the same way. 38 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 In both styles, the ornaments appear in relief, as well as painted, in the nature of hieroglyphic diagrams. With the exception of the pineapple, and the adaptation of the Egyptian lotus, which is shown in Fig. 34, Assyrian ornament does not seem to be based on any natural type. 54. The religion of the Assyrians differed widely from that of the Egyptians, and, although their combinations of FIG. 35 forms somewhat resemble certain of the Egyptian deities, the style in which they sculptured them was below the standard of art and practice in Egypt. In Fig. 35 is shown an example of this work representing the winged deity Asshur, in which may be seen the excessive effort to represent the rotundity of muscular developments just mentioned. The attempt to represent the muscular characteristics of this 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 39 figure is exceedingly inartistic, and, although the attempt to present an appearance of power and strength is well carried out, it is done with much less delicacy and refinement than would be expected if the work were an example of Egyptian art. The vulture head and wings are undoubtedly borrowed from Egypt, and the pose of the body and limbs is strongly suggestive of Egyptian ideas. The position of the hands seems to be repeated in nearly every example of Assyrian ornament where the figure represents a deity, and is similar to certain Egyptian productions of the kind, except that the limbs are clumsy and the molding possesses much less refinement. This is characteristic of all Assyrian sculpture. Brutal strength seems to have been of more importance in many cases than graceful proportions. The details of every part, however, were finely wrought and no item of the orna- mental scheme seemed to have been considered of lesser importance than another. As said before, the pineapple seems to be the only new vegetable type introduced into their decorative schemes. It is apparent as the fruit on the sacred tree, Fig. 32, and is also seen in the right hand of the deity Asshur in Fig. 35. Its particular significance is not known, and although it may have played as important a part in the Assyrian devotion as the lotus did in the Egyptian, it was not developed in the designs of other countries as were the devices based on the lotus blossom. The Assyrian style finds no place in modern architectural applications. 40 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 5C GREEK ARCHITECTURE (500 B. C. TO 150 B. C.) INFLUENCES 55. Geographical. The map of Greece shown in Fig. 36 presents a small country projecting into the Medi- terranean Sea, which washes its shores on three sides. There are numerous islands scattered about its coast, and many natural harbors that the natives found convenient for the development of trade and commerce. The country itself was active on account of the population concentrated along its seacoast, but the mountainous character of the interior prevented any overland means of communication until Greece came into the possession of the Romans. 56. Geological. The principal geological product of Greece was white marble, to which we owe much for the magnificent development of our artistic taste. White marble is the best material known for monumental buildings, and was found in great abundance in certain localities. In other parts of Greece, buildings were constructed of bricks. These were occasionally coated with a cement composed of marble dust and lime and would take as high a polish as the marble itself. 57. Climatic. The climate of Greece varied from extreme tropical heat in summer to the severest cold in winter; therefore, her architects had to provide against the inclemency of these seasons. The civilization of the country was unique, situated as it was between the rigorous sur- roundings of Northern Europe and the passive conditions of the Orient, or Southern Asia, and the Greeks therefore worked out their architectural problems with the energy of the one and the deliberation of the other that was sure to attain the highest degree of perfection. H 1 ' 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 41 58. Religious. The Greek religion was not a direct worship of idols, but of the phenomena of nature, of which the gods were personifications. Owing to the isolation of the different communities, each had its own festivals and ceremonies. The priests, generally speaking, were of little importance, and served for a brief period only. Both men and women officiated at the altars, and the temples them- selves contrast with the Egyptian temple, particularly in the fact that a single, small, well-illumined cella in the center replaces the dark, mysterious halls of the superstitious Egyptians. 59. Political and Historical. The Greeks, owing to their geographical surroundings, were naturally colonists, and migrated to the coast of Asia and across the Mediter- ranean. This emigration was established by the Greek government as early as 700 B. C., both to reduce the crowded population and to encourage trade. The colonies were there- fore frequently occupied by a people much more enterprising and energetic than those of the mother country. For this reason we find some of the most important buildings in Asia Minor and on the islands. It is not remarkable, either, to find in these Asiatic edifices an influence of Orientalism. The people themselves, as a whole, were fond of national games and religious festivals, and thus became united in reverence for their government and their gods. They loved music, drama, and games in physical culture, and liberally patronized the fine arts. They lived an outdoor, open-air life, and public ceremonies and courts of justice were frequently conducted in the public squares. 60. The early Greeks, called Pelasgi, were a warlike race and contributed much to their descendants in the islands. They were conquered by a neighboring tribe, who in turn were defeated by some tribes from the north, called Dorians. The Dorians afterwards established themselves at Sparta. Later, the Persians overcame the Greeks in Asia Minor and made them subjects of the Persian Empire. These Greek subjects revolted, however, and war between Persia and 42 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 Greece resulted in victory for the Greeks at the battle of Marathon, in 490 B. C. Ten years later a second Persian invasion under Xerxes ended in the naval victory of Salamis, in 480 B. C. The great national exultation caused by these two victories over the Persians is largely responsible for the fact that most of the important temples were built within the 50 years following this period. Under Pericles, from 444 to 429 B. C., Athens reached the zenith of her prosperity in artistic development. The rapid growth of Athens excited the jealousy of the neighboring city of Sparta, and brought on another war, known as the Peloponnesian war, which lasted from 431 to 404 B. C. At the close of this war, Greece was weakened internally and the ascendency of Athens was destroyed forever. Greece became a Roman Province in 146 B. C. 61. The few architec- tural monuments now stand- ing, from which we can judge of the art and skill of the early Pelasgi, consist of massive walls, built of huge pieces of roughly hewn FIG. 37 stone laid up together with- out mortar, as shown in Fig. 37. The immense proportions of these stone blocks suggest that the method of their quarrying was derived from Egypt, while the shape of the openings in the walls, produced by corbeling each succes- sive block slightly beyond the next one below, was prob- ably derived from some of the structures observed in Asia. The Greek historians looked on such achievements in con- struction as something beyond the power of ordinary men, and declared these walls to have been built by the Cyclops, a mythical tribe of giants; and to work of this character the Greek legends ascribe the name of Cyclopean masonry. This system is somewhat more clearly shown in their tombs, the 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 43 most important of which is the Treasury of Atreus, Fig. 38, built at Mycenae. The entrance a opens into a circular chamber, the side walls of which are corbeled over to make a pointed dome. These tombs were called treasuries, because it was customary to deposit in the vaulted chambers valuable chalices of gold, silver, or bronze, together with coins, pot- tery, etc. These tombs, or treasuries, are of architectural importance, however, only so far as they illustrate the system of construction, and thereby preserve the thread from a simpler system that preceded to an advanced sys- tem that followed. It should be noted that though the walls of this structure form a pointed dome, the beds of the stones of which it is built are horizontal and do not radiate from the centers from which the arcs of the sides are struck. It will be seen later that this is not a true vault in the sense that vaults were con- structed by later people and therefore does not contradict the fact that Greek architecture is a purely trabeated style and never took advantage of the mechanical principle of the arch. 62. The period which followed the Persian wars, known as the Hellenic Period, included all the principal temples and other monuments erected between the years 480 B. C. and FIG. 38 44 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 146 A. D., when Greece became a Roman province. The first fifty years of this period, known as the age of Pericles, was one of the most intellectual eras in the history of the world. The architecture of the Egyptians, Assyrians, and Persians exercised very little influence on the art of the Western nations, while the influence of the Periclean period of Grecian art, pervades all subsequent architectural history. CHARACTERISTICS 63. Greek cities were usually built on or near a fortified hill called the acropolis, or "upper city," and on this acropolis are usually found the principal temples and treasuries. The arrangement of the buildings on the acropolis at Athens is shown in Fig. 39. Other Greek cities of importance were Olympia, Sparta, and Delhi, in Greece proper; Paestum, in Southern Italy; Agrigentum, in Sicily; and Ephesus and Halicarnassus in Asia Minor. 64. Greek architecture reached its full development in temples, and though we can still study the remains of theaters, circuses, market places, and tombs, it is in the Grecian temple that we find the perfection of detail that has made Greek art immortal. The earliest temples consisted of a naos, or single cell, only, and were astylar, that is, without columns, except sometimes on the front, where a pronaos, or porch, was produced by con- tinuing the side walls beyond the front wall of the naos, and placing the columns in antis; that is, between the two pil- asters forming the ends of the projecting walls, as shown in Fig. 40 (a). This figure illustrates the plan of the temple, showing the naos, or sanctuary, at a; the pronaos, or advanced porch, at b; and the two columns, in antis, between them at d. 65. The arrangement of all later Greek temples was extremely simple. A platform a, Fig. 40 (/), surrounds the building on which the columns stand. The pronaos, or porch, b, is immediately in front of the entrance to the naos, 46 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 (d) (f) (o) FIG. 40 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 47 or cell, d. At c is the opisthodomus, or treasury chamber, where the gold and silver chalices, urns, torches, and braziers, employed in various ceremonies, were stored when not in use, and at c is the rear porch, or posticum. 66. On the exterior of the temples, variety was attained by arranging the columns in one of seven distinct systems: 1. Distyle (two columns) in antis, as in Fig. 40 (a). 2. Distyle in antis at both ends, as in Fig. 40 (b] . 3. Prostyle tetrastyle, that is, four columns with front portico, as in Fig. 40 (c} . 4. Amphi prostyle tetrastyle, four columns and porticos, at each end, as in Fig. 40 (d}. 5. Peripteral hexastyle, surrounded by columns, six on each end, as in Fig. 40 (e). 6. Peripteral octastyle, surrounded by columns, eight on each end, as in Fig. 40 (/). 7. Dipteral hexastyle, or octastyle, surrounded by two rows of columns, with six or eight at each end, as in Fig. 40 Or). Circular and octagonal temples also existed, but these are rare and can be considered as exceptions to the general rule. 67. All of these temples were erected in one of three systems of architectural design, each consisting of a substructure, a column, a beam or lintel, and a superstructure. These four details are varied somewhat in different struc- tures, but were arranged in three systems, the details of which remained almost constant in all structures where each was followed. These systems are called ai-cliitectural orders, and are classified as the Doric order, the Ionic order, and the Corinthian order, being named after the section of the coun- try where each system is supposed to have originated. In Fig. 41 are shown these three orders according to the Greek standard, the Doric being shown at (a), the Ionic at (), and the Corinthian at (c}. The relative proportions of the height of the column to its diameter, can be judged in each order, as the columns in Fig. 41 are all of the same thick- ness at the base. (a) 550 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 49 EXAMPLES 68. The Parthenon. The Parthenon was a temple dedi- cated to Athena Parthenos (Athena the Virgin). Ictinus and Ualliciates were the architects, and Phidias the superintending sculptor. The plan of this temple, Fig. 40 (/), shows it to be peripteral octastyle, with seventeen columns on the sides. It stood on a stylobate of three steps, the top step being 102 ft. X 228 ft. a proportion of about 4 to 9. Each step is FIG. 42 1 ft. 8 in. high X 2 ft. 4 in. wide, and intermediate steps of half these dimensions are provided at the entrances. The Doric was the order especially loved by the Greeks, and as used in the Parthenon is as complete and as perfect an architectural feature as has ever been known. Fig. 42 shows the condition of the structure as it stands today in ruins on the Acropolis at Athens, while in Fig. 43 is shown a view of the Parthenon, made from a restored model of the temple, in the Metropolitan Museum, New York. This model shows the building as completed by the architects in the year 438 B. C. I L T 303 S 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 69. Owing to the ruined condition of this celebrated structure, there have been several theories advanced as to how the interior was lighted. The architectural historian Ferguson maintains that this was effected by means of a clearstory, as shown in the sectional view, Fig. 44 (a), while Botticher, another historian, advanced the theory of a central opening along the ridge, as shown at (/>). Both agree upon an upper tier of interior columns, although this construction was never used on the exterior of any Greek temple. ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 53 Within the temple was a marvelous statue of Athena sculptured by Phidias. This statue was 40 feet in height and was composed of gold and ivory. It represented Athena in full armor, with helmet, spear, and shield, in her character as defender of the nation. The face, hands, and feet were of ivory, but the drapery and the armor were of solid gold with precious stones inserted. 7O. The Kreclitheum. The principal Greek structure in the Ionic order was the Erechtheum, and consisted of a FIG. 4f> triple temple, as shown in the plan, Fig. 40 (//), which exhibits the peculiarities of its outline. It combined three temples, that of the Greek god Erechtheus at a, and those of 54 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 the goddesses Pandrosus and Athena Polias at b and c, respect- ively. The design was intentionally unsymmetrical, not only in plan but in elevation, as shown in Fig. 45 as the three temples were on different levels and was varied as widely in detail as circumstances would permit. The porch of the temple of Athena Polias on the north side was on the lowest level and contained six columns, four in front, as shown in Fig. 46. The temple of Erechtheus on the east side contained six columns in its porch, but they were all arranged across the front, with no extra ones at the sides. o o o o ooooooooo if FIG. 47 In the temple of Pandrosus, the roof is not supported on columns at all, but on the heads of sculptured female figures called caryatids. A front elevation of this last temple is shown in Fig. 47, and a detail of one of the caryatids, in Fig. 48. As will be observed, the Grecian architect exerted every effort in his power to prevent this building from presenting the appearance of a single temple dedicated to only one god. 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 71. The caryatid figures, Fig. 48, in the porch of the Erectheum are unique, as there is only this one example of their use for such a purpose. The entablature they support is Ionic in detail, but the height of the figures is much less than the corresponding column would be. The figures are heavily proportioned to fulfil the demand for an appearance of strength, and the draperies are exquisitely modeled, as are all details of Greek sculpture. Q O O O O O O FIG. FIG. 49 72. The doorway of the temple of Athena Polias, of which the cornice only is visible in Fig. 46, is shown more in detail in Fig. 49. It is of interest because there are so few examples existing where the details of the openings can be studied. This door is a trifle more than twice as high as it 56 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 is wide, and the sides taper slightly so that the top is only about fifteen-sixteenths the width of the bottom. This diminution was undoubtedly given in order to obviate any appearance of weakness. The conventional honeysuckle ornament adorns the cyma and an egg-and-dart ornament is carved on the ovolo under the soffit of the corona (see Art. 91). The projection of the cornice is about equal to its height, and the soffit at each end is supported by a scroll form of bracket, called a console. The windows, as shown in Fig. 45, possess the same relative proportion as the doorway. 73. Temple of Nike Apteros. Another Ionic structure that was demolished and its stones built into the Acropolis walls, is the little temple of Nike Apteros, or Wingless Victory, Fig. 50. This little edifice was rescued by architectural students, how- ever, and rebuilt in its original position on the right of the Propylaea stairs, as shown at d, Fig. 51. Fig. 50 shows the front elevation of the temple of Wingless Victory as it existed after the restoration. The frieze is observed to be carved with various human figures, a condition that is unusual in the Grecian-Ionic buildings. 74. The Propyleea. Another important Doric structure is the Propylaea, or principal gateway to the Acropolis, which is shown in Fig. 51; The Acropolis of Athens was a forti- fied hill surrounded by a wall in which were nine gateways. The Propylaea a consisted of a Doric hexaprostyle portico, the central columns of which were separated more than the others in order to form a wider passageway for the religious processions. Beyond this is a vestibule divided into three FIG. 50 57 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 FIG. 52 parts by two rows of Ionic columns, each row of which forms the front of a small tristyle, or three -columned temple in antis, to the right and left of the vestibule, as shown at b and c. Beyond the Propylaea, the summit of the hill was leveled off to form a plateau, and prominent on the south side at e stood the celebrated Parthenon. A colossal statue of Athena /, stood directly in front of the center of the Propylsea, and to the left of this monument and northeast of the Par- thenon stood the Erech- theum, the triple Ionic temple, as shown at g. Smaller temples to minor deities and statues of heroes and gods were numerous along the walls of the Acropolis, and the entire plateau was laid out to make a most impressive architectural composi- tion, worthy of the gods to whom incense was burned on the numerous altars. See also Fig. 39. 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 59 75. Chora#Ic Monument of Liysicrates. There is only one perfect example of the Corinthian order found in Greece at the present day, and this is the little structure known as the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, which is shown in Fig. 52. This structure stands on a square pedestal built to receive it, and is surmounted by a bronze tripod; but these details form no part of the order itself. The stylobate in this example is circular in plan, and the columns are arranged around and against a cylinder; but these and the superstruc- ture will be considered as though they were entirely detached, as in the previous examples. The shaft of the column is grooved by twenty-four flutes separated by fillets, as in the Ionic order, but is longer in proportion to its diameter. It also has a molded base similar to the Ionic, but this is spread more on account of the smaller sectional area of the column. The capital is taller than that of either of the other orders, and is carved in representation of foliage arranged around a bell-shaped core. The entablature is similar to that division of the Ionic order, but is much richer in mold- ings and carvings. The foliage of the capital and the ornament supporting the bronze tripod above is based upon the acanthus a plant growing freely in Mediterranean countries, that strongly resembles our modern thistle. The acanthus is another of those vegetable types that like the lotus became almost emblematic in itself of a particular architectural style. The Greeks used it in their decorative schemes and carried it around the bell of the capital of their Corinthian columns, thus introducing a new architectural detail the foliated capital. The Egyptians carved and painted their capitals in conventional representation of the lotus blossom and papyrus plant, as has been shown in Fig. 14, but the Greeks went a step further, and, adopting the bell shape for the core of the capital, they embellished it with delicately arranged foliage from the acanthus plant. The Corinthian order, however, was never used by the Greeks in their temple architecture. It was used in small buildings only, and of these but few examples exist. 60 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 76. Tower of the Winds. Another structure at Athens, the Tower of the Winds, Fig. 53, possesses a foliated capital, on its columns, but the columns have no base. The build- ing was octagonal in plan, and on each side was carved a figure emblematic of the wind from that particular direction. The building contained a clock operated by water-power and it was in reality more a building of public utility than FIG. 53 an architectural monument, to be classed with the great temples of Greece. On two sides it presented projecting porches, whose roofs were closed on the outer ends with pediments supported on baseless columns. The whole trend of these Corinthian designs is directly against the architectural traditions of Greece. Neither of them is a temple, and neither of them presents a single architectural detail that can be found in the temple orders. 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 61 77. Tombs. The tombs in Greece proper are of no great account architecturally, but in the Greek colonies there are several of great importance. The colossal Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, Fig. 54, erected to Mausolus, King of Caria, was an immense Ionic structure, 140 feet high and FIG. 54 115 feet square at the base. The richness of its sculpture and the beauty of its proportions made it an object of great admiration among the Greeks, by whom it was classed as one of the seven wonders of the world. 78. Theaters. Greek theaters were interesting struc- tures, but were entirely different from the same class of building at the present day. They were cut out of the rock on a side hill, and arranged in the form of a semicircle, with seats in rows parallel with the circumference, as shown in 62 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 Fig. 55. The stage was built across the center, back of which the scene was set, and the whole enclosure was covered with an awning, called the velarium, arranged to protect the spectators from the sun. The velarium was stretched from FIG. 55 the top of a row of columns, which were the only architec- tural feature visible from the outside of the building. 79. To the Greeks we owe the greater part of the beau- tiful and delicate details of columnar architecture. To them we are indebted for the most refined methods of obviating the defects of optical illusion. The apparent depression in the cornice across the front of the temples, caused by the mass of material and apparent weight in the center of the pediment, was obviated by curving the cornice so that the center was highest. The steps were curved in the same upward way. The architrave and frieze of the Parthenon sloped about 1 part in 80 toward the center; and so it was in all the minute details of construction. The Greeks not only avoided structural weakness in design, but invented methods to overcome even the slightest appearance of such weakness. 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 63 ANALYTICAL STUDY PLANS 80. Greek temples were almost invariably rectangular in plan and symmetrical in design. The exceptions being the Erechtheum, Fig. 45, and the Propylaea, Fig. 51, which were irregular; the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, Fig. 52, which was round; the Tower of the Winds, which was octagonal, and a few others. Contrasted with the Egyptian temples, the columns of the Greek temples are found to be entirely on the exterior and uniform in style and design in each temple. WALLS 81. The walls were built of solid stone cut with mathe- matical exactness. No mortar was used, the joints being so placed as to remain tight through the force of gravitation. The finish was obtained by rubbing the surface of the finished wall with fine sand. ROOFS 82. The roofs of the Greek temples were usually of tile laid on timber beams and extending only over a portion of the building, so as to form a central light well, as in Fig. 44 (/;), or a clearstory, as in Fig. 44 (a). However, since all of these timber beams have rotted away during the intervening centuries, much controversy exists on this point owing to lack of satisfactory evidence. COLUMNS 83. The temples being only one story high, the column and its entablature constituted the entire height of the building. These temples were in one of the three orders, except in the Propylaea, where the Ionic order was introduced in an otherwise Doric composition. In the Erechtheum, the 64 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 caryatids were used on the porch, but as this was an excep- tional structure, the caryatids can be considered as an element of this exception. 84. The height of the Grecian Doric column is from four to six times its diameter, and it stands, without any intermediate base, immediately on the stylobate, or sub- structure, a, shown in Fig. 41 (). The column is divided into two parts, the shaft and the capital, the shaft being the straight portion shown at b, while the capital is the cushion- shaped block c interposed between the shaft and the entabla- ture, or superstructure, to receive the superimposed weight and concentrate it at the top of the column. The diameter of the shaft is less at the top than at the bottom, the diminu- tion being effected, not in a straight line from the bottom to the top, but in a curved line that renders the face of the column slightly convex or barrel-shaped. This curved profile is called the entasis of the column, and its purpose is to overcome an optical illusion, which causes long, straight lines to appear hollow or concave. This curvature of out- line was maintained not only in the columns, but also throughout entire buildings, and as a consequence, in Greek compositions, there is not a straight line in the entire structure. The shaft is grooved by from sixteen to twenty flutes that meet on the surface and form ridges or arrises, as shown at x. 85. The entablature is subdivided into three parts: the architrave, or lintel, d; the frieze e; and the cornice, or crown- ing member, /. The frieze is broken by the triglyphs g and the metopes h. The triglyphs derive their name from the grooves, or channels, cut in their faces, two being cut in the middle and half a channel being cut on each side, making in all three channels, or "glyphs," which is the meaning of the term triglyph. The cornice consists of the finish along the edge of the slabs, or tiles, that form the roof covering. It formed a gutter that discharged the rainwater through numerous curved gargoyles, or spouts, as shown at /, Fig. 41 (a). 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 65 86. To the Greeks we are indebted for the invention of a new architectural form, the pediment. This exists at the ends of the temples, and is formed by the triangle under the roof slopes, Fig. 46. The upper molding of the cornice was carried across the ends of the building from each side on a line with the roof slope, while the lower member was carried straight across the ends of the building. The triangle then forms a pediment, while the surface enclosed by the moldings is called the tympanum. This surface was fre- quently decorated with sculptured figures as in the Parthenon, Fig. 42, but equally often was left perfectly plain. The soffit, or under side, of the lower member of the cornice was ornamented with a number of projecting slabs, called mutules, representative of the ends of the rafters in the sloping roof. These slabs were placed regularly around all four sides of the building, being centered over each triglyph and metope. 87. In the Ionic order, shown in Fig. 41 (b] , the column is more slender than in the Doric, being about eight or nine times its diameter in height. Instead of being divided into two parts, the Ionic column consists of three subdivisions, the base a, which forms an individual substructure under each column, the shaft, or column proper, b, and the capital c, while the stylobate, on which the column stands, is prac- tically the same as the Doric order. The shaft is grooved by twenty-four flutes that are separated by narrow fillets e. The capital c is the distinguishing characteristic of the Ionic order. Its volutes, or spirals, suggest that its design may have been influenced by Assyrian ideas [see Fig. 33 (r)]. The architrave /, unlike that detail in the Doric order, is composed of three bands, each of which projects slightly beyond the one below. The frieze g in this order is a plain band unbroken by triglyphs or other details. The cornice // is somewhat similar to the Doric in its proportions, but differs materially in its details, and the tympanum under the pediment is not ornamented with sculpture in any of the Ionic temples, the remains of which are now in existence. I L T 3036 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 88. In the Corinthian order, Fig. 41 (c), the shaft of the column is grooved by twenty-four flutes separated by I fillets, as in the Ionic order, but the column is longer in propor- tion to its diameter. It also has a molded base that is similar to the Ionic, but this is spread more on account of the smaller sectional area of the column. The capital is taller than that of either of the other orders, and is carved in representation of foliage arranged around a bell-shaped core, Fig. 56. The entablature is similar to that division of the Ionic order, but is much richer in moldings and carved figures. wmnnnnii FIG. 56 OPENINGS 89. All openings in Greek structures were square-headed. The lintel alone was used to span distances between supports, as the style of architecture is a trabeated one. The openings were necessarily narrow, owing to the difficulty in obtaining stone lintels of any considerable length. The sides of the openings occasionally tapered toward the top, and they were usually relieved by an architrave at the sides and a cornice, or entablature, supported on consoles, across the top. MOLDINGS 90. Moldings are used in architectural design to subdivide wall surfaces into smaller areas that may be treated sepa- rately. The Greeks were the first to classify their moldings systematically, and to use the combination of a few simple 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 67 JOOOOOO forms to secure the most artistic effect. The original out- lines of their moldings were probably drawn freehand, but in all cases they approximate closely to the curves of the conic sections. When they were carved or enriched, the form of decoration usually corresponded in outline to the curve of the molding itself. Thus, we find the ovolo, Fig. 57 (g), - ^ ^ enriched with the "egg-and- dart" ornament, the ovolo itself having derived its name from its egg shape. 91. Eight distinct mold- ings are found in Greek archi- tecture, each of which is used for a particular purpose or in a distinct position. All of these moldings are used in the Ionic order, but only two of them were generally used with the Doric: the fillet (a) and the echinus (/). 1. The fillet, Fig. 57 (a), is a narrow band used to separate the members when several moldings are used in succession. 2. The bead (b] is similar to the fillet in purpose, but is round in section and fre- quently carved into a spindle- ana-disk ornament as shown. 3. The cavetto is a small hollow, being almost univer- sally used under a fillet and at the top of a plain, vertical surface, as shown at (c] . When a hollow similar to the cavetto is used above a fillet, as at the bottom of a shaft of a column, it is called an apophygc, or easement. 68 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 4. The scotia (d) is a deep, hollow molding used almost exclusively in the bases of columns or other details entirely below the eye. The two last moldings constitute all of the hollow, or concave, moldings, and in Greek architecture they were never carved or decorated in relief. 5. The cyma recta () and (d), or the human figure, as at (c). Variations were practiced to suit the con- ditions of each case, as in Fig. 59 (e) , where the outlines of the ornament show it to have been carved on a cyma-reversa molding. In Fig. 64 are shown four examples, introducing individual ornaments in alternation; that is, two forms repeated alternately in contrast to repetition, where one form is repeated continuously, as in Fig. 59 (c) and (e). The scroll shown in Fig. 59 (.?) is taken from the top of the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates and presents the characteristic principles of Greek scroll ornament. There is a main central wavy line or stem here, from which the scrolls branch off alternately from opposite sides. 74 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50' The forms in Fig. 65 are known as stella, and were used largely on tops of tomb monuments. The forms at (a), (), (<:), and (d) were used on corners, and the forms (e), (/), and (g) as central ornaments. Although these examples fa; (c) were all originally executed in stone, the graceful form of the brush-stroke is evident in all of them except (d). The same may be said of the Greek lily, Fig. 62 (c), which may have been derived from the lotus form (a) and (b}. The antliemion ornament, Fig. 63, consists of the honey- suckle form enclosed in an elliptical outline. This was much used to decorate the antefixae along the eaves, and also for the stellae on the tops of monuments and at the points of pediments. In Fig. 66 are shown examples of Greek ornament found on painted vases. At (a) is shown the honeysuckle orna- ment alternated with a simple form of the Greek lily; at (b), the anthemion designed to form a border, or stripe; at (c) and (d), rosette forms, which may have been borrowed from Egypt, as may also the wave design shown at (g). The fret forms at (. Political and Historical. Constantine's system of government was an expansion of the despotic methods of the Caesars of Rome (see Roman Architecture, Historical Influences, History of Architecture and Ornament^ Part 1), and the removal of the capital from Rome to Byzantium enabled him to control the valuable commercial advantages of the latter city. At his death, however, rival emperors claimed the throne and disputes arose in the Church through parties siding with the different claimants, until finally, in 395 A. D., the empire was divided into two parts. One division, comprising Italy and the western provinces of Gaul and Spain, was then known as the Western, or Latin, Empire, 132 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 under Emperor Honorius, and the other, which included the Greek and Oriental civilizations of Hellas, Macedonia, Thrace, and Asia Minor (see map of Greece, History of Architecture and Ornament, Part 1) was known as the Eastern, or Byzantine, Empire, under Emperor Arcadius, a brother of Honorius. 7. Byzantium was originally a Greek colony, and it retained traces of Greek influence in its art. Byzantine archi- tecture developed into a distinct style after the removal of the capital from Rome to the banks of the Bosporus, and this style included not only buildings in Byzantium itself, but also those erected in cities under the influence of the Eastern Empire and the eastern branch of the Church. During the reign of Justinian, about the middle of the 6th century, the Eastern and Western Empires were reunited under one emperor for a short period, and during this reunion Byzantine influences spread into Italy and Sicily and per- manently marked buildings erected during that period. The city of Ravenna (see Fig. 25) grew in importance owing to the fact that the emperor resided there in preference to Rome, and it was afterwards created a See, or town in which the bishop of the Church resided. The creation of a See was a matter of vast importance in the development of a town. Churches were built wherever a congregation or parish required one, but where a cathedral was erected the town became a See and the seat of the bishop's jurisdiction. The building of the cathedral not only brought a multitude of craftsmen to the town, but it gave the community impor- tance politically, ecclesiastically, and commercially. After the Western Empire was claimed by the Goths, in 476 A. D., Ravenna remained the residence of the Gothic kings and rivaled Rome in importance. From 539 to 572 A. D., Ravenna was the residence of the governors appointed by the Byzan- tine emperors, and the Byzantine style flourished there until Constantinople was taken by the Turks in 1453. Venice in Northern Italy, Monreale in Sicily, and other cities in Greece and Russia were especially influenced by the Byzantine style. 50 ARCPIITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 133 CHARACTERISTICS 8. The chief characteristic of the Byzantine style centers in the ne\v principle of design arising from the development of the dome as a system of roofing over the areas of the plan. This point should be clearly understood, as it was the dome in the East that led to the development of the Byzantine style, and the vault in the West that gave rise to the Romanesque and Gothic styles. The change developed was from the original Roman forms, but was gradual and progressive, and in the course of two centuries Byzantine architecture existed as a style by itself. Generally speaking, a Byzantine building consisted of a brick construction no more architectural in its details than the concrete constructions of the Romans. The walls were sheathed with rich marbles or bricks, and the domes were decorated with brilliantly colored glass mosaics against a golden ground. The heart of the wall was occasionally built of concrete, as in the Roman method, and the bricks used simply as a surface treatment. The bricks, however, were not laid in regular courses as in the Roman and modern methods, but were set in geometrical patterns to form a fret- work, chevron, herring-bone, or other design that added variety to the appearance. The dome, however, is the characteristic detail of the style. At Rome, domes had been constructed only over circular and polygonal buildings, but in Byzantine work are found square apartments that are successfully domed by bringing the angles together to form a pendeiitive. 9. In Fig. 2 is shown a diagram of the Byzantine system of construction, abed being the rectangular plan that is to be covered by a circular dome. Four heavy masonry piers a e, bf,cg, and dh are constructed at the four angles of the plan, the spaces between them being spanned by four arches, as ckf, f I g, etc. Thus far the construction does not differ widely from that practiced by the Roman architects; but in order to dome the enclosed area, the angles were also arched 134 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 over until, at the crowns of the first arches, the plan became circular, as at k I m n. The inside of the spherical triangles thus formed at enk, f k I, etc. are called pcndentives, and are p as characteristic of the Byzan- f ,'-' ^ tine style as is the dome itself. /' \ Over this circular opening k I m n, the dome op q was constructed, resting directly on the pendentives in the earliest structures, but in the more advanced buildings raised on a cylindrical superstructure, as n o. FIG. 2 10. Domes and semidomes covered all spaces, and were built of light, porous stones, such as pumice. Some domes were constructed of terra cotta or light pottery, thus charac- terizing the architecture by the introduction of brick and other clay compositions. The bricks were large and flat and were laid up in a system derived not from Rome but from Asia. Small domes were grouped around the larger ones, giving a picturesque effect, and no attempt was made to disguise these forms externally. One can readily see from the exterior of a building exactly what the interior arrangement presents (see Figs. 3 and 5). Here, then, is a contrast to the Roman system, although the style was based on a similar principle. The columns and entablatures could be stripped from the Roman buildings without injuring their construction, but if the Byzantine buildings were stripped of their decorative features, exterior vaults, and domes, the construction itself would be destroyed. The classic orders were dispensed with. New capitals developed that still bore some relation to Roman prototypes, but were Oriental in character (see Fig. 11). 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 135 11. The procedure for the erection of a building was a most simple one. The plan being determined on, the first consideration was to collect the marble shafts that were to support the interior walls and galleries. It was absolutely necessary that the quarries from which these shafts were to be obtained be thoroughly understood before the foundations were commenced, for on the length that these columns could be quarried depended the height of the building. The details of the columns therefore became one of the first consider- ations, and when that was settled, the body of the structure could be proceeded with. The shell representing the outer and inner faces of the wall of the building was built of narrow bricks carefully laid in mortar, and when thoroughly dry this shell was filled in with concrete and sheathed with marble. The great piers that were to support the penden- tives under the domes were next constructed; then the domes were turned over the tops and their soffits overlaid with mosaic. The problem was essentially one of roofing. The plan was laid to suit the purposes involved. A fireproof roof of stone must then be constructed to render the building permanent. This heavy roof had to be supported and demanded strong columns and heavy piers for that purpose. Decoration formed no part of this fundamental architectural problem. These essentials had to be met before any con- sideration of ornament could be entered into. When form of plan, columns, and roof were determined, however, the question of decorative detail asserted itself. The support- ing columns could be made ornate by sculptured capitals and polished shafts. The flat side walls could be encrusted with costly and elaborate marbles, and the hollow soffits of the domes could be overlaid with mosaic. 136 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 EXAMPLES 12. Byzantine architectural examples consist mostly of churches and baptisteries. A few of the former follow the basilican style, but the majority are based on the circular and polygonal plans of the Roman and early Christian tombs. 13. Church of Hagia Sophia. The great church of Hagia Sophia, Fig. 3, built by Emperor Justinian in 532 A. D., is the earliest monument purely Byzantine in style and one of the really great buildings of the world. A peculiarity of this monument and its style is the fact that it presents so perfect an example of an original style with so little transition toward that style. The emperor declared that he would erect a church, "That should be the grandest monument ever built by man," and the governors of even the most distant provinces of the empire were ordered to ransack all the ancient Roman buildings for sculptures, precious marbles, and works of art, to be used in this edifice. Eight columns of pure white marble were brought from Palmyra, and eight more of deep- green marble were stripped from the temple of Diana, at Ephesus, and shiploads of costly relics were brought from all sections of the empire to become a part of this great structure. 14. The plan and construction of this edifice is no less remarkable than the scale and treatment of its interior decoration (Figs. 4 and 5), and it stands to Byzantine archi- tecture as the Parthenon stood to the Greek and the Pan- theon to the Roman. Unfortunately, this church is now converted into a Mohammedan mosque, and the severity of the Moslem religion required that its beautiful interior decorations should be covered from sight by repeated appli- cations of whitewash over which Arabic inscriptions were inscribed. The plan of the church of Hagia Sophia, as shown in Fig. 4, was an adaptation of the Basilica of Maxentius ( see Fig. 80, History of Architecture and Ornament, Part 1 ) , and KA6IA SOPHIA CONSTANTINOPLE. 1 i I i , -ill I i i i Gauer/es orer ' I i i ill I i i i OROUND PLAN A? Ga//enes FIG. 4 138 140 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 consists of a central square 107 feet on each side, at the corners of which are four massive piers 25 feet in thickness. These piers are connected above by semicircular arches supporting a dome 107 feet in diameter, as shown in the interior view, Fig. 5. It will be well to compare the con- struction here illustrated with the diagram shown in Fig. 2. East and west of this dome are great apses crowned with semidomes, out of which are further extensions also domed over. An oval-shaped nave 250 ft. X 107 ft. is thus estab- lished, around which aisles 50 feet wide are constructed, thus approximately reducing the total structure to a square. The square central space is crowned 179 feet above the floor with a dome that in itself is over 47 feet in height, being less than half a sphere. The semidomes over the semi- circular extensions to the nave are constructed so that their crown strikes the base of the main dome and acts as a brace or buttress against it, as shown in Fig. 4 (a). 15. Church of St. Vitale. As has already been mentioned, the city of Ravenna was greatly influenced by the Byzantine style, and here is located the church of St. Vitale, the plan and section of which is shown in Fig. 6 and the interior in Fig. 7. The character of the Byzantine interior treatment can be better studied here, as no infidel hand has whitewashed it over. Rich mosaics and rare marbles cover every available wall space from the tile mosaic floor to the soffit of the hemispherical dome. The interior is lighted through eight mullioned windows that pierce the drum of the dome. The drum is supported on eight arches; each of which is closed on the outside by a semidome upheld by two columns. The capitals of these columns are marvelous products of the carvers' skill. [See Fig. 12 ().] This edifice was modeled after the temple of Minerva Medica, at Rome, and is octagonal in plan, the inner octagon being 50 feet in diameter and the outer one 110 feet. 16. Church of St. Mark. In Fig. 8 is shown the church of St. Mark, at Venice. This structure was erected at the end of the llth century, and shows remarkable 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 141 (ft) FIG. 6 144 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 Byzantine characteristics that were undoubtedly brought to Venice through geographical influences, as this city was one of the connecting links in the commerce between Byzantium and Western Europe. The plan of St. Mark's, shown in Fig. 9 (b), presents a Greek cross with four equal arms, over one of which and over the intersection are turned domes 32 feet in diameter, whereas a smaller dome exists over three of the arms. The plan also shows that the great piers supporting the central domes are pierced by archways in both directions, sub- dividing them into four smaller piers on the ground plan. On the western arm of the crucial plan, an arcade forms a vestibule around three sides, making this portion of the plan nearly square. In the section shown in Fig. 9 (a) a low masonry dome over the center and side arms may be seen, together with the false and greatly elevated wooden domes erected to serve as the roof and at the same time give exterior effect. These wooden domes are of later date than the original construction. The interior of St. Mark's, Fig. 10, is richly veneered with colored marble and mosaic. The latter is used almost exclusively in the upper parts of the walls and the interior of the domes. This mosaic presents illustrations depicting scenes from the lives of the saints, portraits of the martyrs, and scriptural subjects, all set off against an elaborate back- ground of gold. The interior of St. Marks appears richer than St. Sophia, but this is due to the fact that all the elabo- rate mosaics and decorations of the latter were destroyed or painted over when the Mohammedans secured possession of the city. 17. Other Byzantine Structures. In Greece there are many small but beautifully executed buildings in the Byzantine style, and the cathedrals of Moscow, Keif, and Novgorod, in Russia, are developments along these same lines. LI ILL JU 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 147 j STUDY PLANS 18. The characteristic Byzantine plan presents a square central space covered with a dome supported on pendentives, as in Figs. 2, 4, 9, and 10, and the purely structural character of the pendentives is clearly shown in Fig. 38. On each of the four sides of the central space arms extend, thus forming a Greek cross. The whole is enclosed by walls supporting the galleries, thus making the plan nearly square. Com- pared with the early Christian basilica, it is found that the Byzantine church tends toward a condensed plan and effect- ive interior height, the crowning feature being the central dome, around which smaller domes, or semidomes, are grouped. The early Christian basilicas presented a long and narrow plan, by which an effective perspective of interior columns was obtained, together with a dominating influence of horizontal lines. WALLS 19. The walls consisted of an exterior and interior shell filled in with concrete. The interior shell was elaborately decorated with marble and mosaic, and occasionally a deco- rative effect was attained by laying the brick of the enclo- sing shells in chevron, herring bone, and other ornamental patterns. ROOFS 20. The main portions of the buildings were covered by a series of domes, usually appearing externally in their actual form. Sometimes, the domes were built of pottery or terra cotta, this light material causing little thrust against the walls. The early domes were lower than a hemisphere, Fig. 6, but later they were raised on a drum, which was pierced with a series of windows, Fig. 7. 148 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 COLUMNS 21. As in the early Christian structures, the Byzantine columns were first taken from ancient buildings. The supply in the East, however, was limited, and it soon became exhausted. Thus, the necessity of designing new columns presented itself more quickly than it did in the West. The shafts were of rich marbles turned from a single piece and polished to bring out the veinings. The capitals originally in design show the influence of the Roman orders in many cases, Fig. 11. OPENINGS 22. Semicircular window heads are general throughout the Byzantine style, but segmental arches and horseshoe openings are occasionally seen. The windows are small and grouped, rather than scattered. The extensive application of mosaic for decorative effects on the broad wall spaces, dome soffits, and pendentives, fulfil the place occupied by stained glass in the Gothic style. Large windows were not practical in the Byzantine churches. The climate, too, had much influence on this, as it was warm and sunny, necessitating numerous small openings that would tend to keep out the heat and at the same time give the necessary light. Delicate carving and stained-glass effects were therefore impractical, as there was not sufficient light to set off the former nor sufficient window space to display the latter. _____ MOLDINGS 23. The moldings were unimportant and were used simply to separate spaces of elaborate mosaic work with- out any attempt to develop pleasing forms of contour, or outline. The few moldings that were used were based on classic models, but the classic moldings were not fol- lowed \vith any degree of fidelity. There was no set system of moldings as in the classic or later Gothic styles. 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 149 ORNAMENT 24. In the East, around the city of Byzantium, architec- ture was influenced by the art of Assyria and Persia. In fact, its entire character became tinged with an Oriental spirit, and this spirit in the course of three or four centuries did much to develop a new and entirely different style of art and architecture, known as Byzantine. The scheme of ornamentation was most elaborate. The richest marbles that could be procured were used for the lower portions of the walls, and the natural veinings were arranged so as to form geometrical patterns. Glass mosaic, and symbolic figures representing groups of saints and signs of the Evangelists were inlaid against a golden ground. The small amount of carving used was in low relief, and the effect was frequently produced by sinking portions of sur- faces. The acanthus leaf was cut in sharp relief, with the holes between the lobes deeply drilled. The style of the acanthus carving was more Greek than Roman. One of the strongest characteristics of Byzantine orna- ment, compared with classic ornament, is that the design seems to be cut into the surface instead of being applied to it, the surface always remaining flat and the pattern so cut as not to break its outline. There is a characteristic Grecian influence pervading all Byzantine ornamentation, which would naturally be the case, as Byzantium was originally a Greek city. 25. The capital shown in Fig. 11 (a) is from one of the columns in the first tier of arches in the church of Hagia Sophia, at Constantinople. The scrolls in the upper part of this column undoubtedly have their origin in the Ionic order, and, though the entire capital is decorated with the conventionalized acanthus leaf, it is widely different from any Roman model. Here the block of the capital is sound and heavy, and at its bottom is a foliated ring that seems to bind it together, while the carved leafwork grows out of the top of the column and enters materially into the construction of the capital itself. &mmwm 9 m ff U wMrmwvfflm/maff Fio. ll 150 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 151 In another Byzantine capital, shown in (b] , the place usually occupied by the abacus is filled by a heavy semi- pyramidal form on which the ornament seems to be applied as a surface decoration more than a component part of the construction. In (r), a capital from St. Mark's Church, at Venice, the volutes at the top of the column, the shape of the capital as it swells out to the abacus, and the general character of the details suggests the Roman Corinthian order. In (d) is shown another example of Byzantine capital, from Italy, that is even more freed from Roman influence than that of the previous example. The long, elliptical curves formed by the leaves, the sharp-pointed lobes, and the deep indentations are all indicative of its Byzantine origin. 2(>. The running ornament is illustrated in Fig. 11 () is shown an example of wall decoration from the same edifice. The effect is very rich, and the arrangement of the rectangles and smaller circles shows a knowledge of surface division that is well carried into effect. The color- ing is Byzantine, and worthy of careful study. Though brilliant, it is never glaring; the hues are selected to harmo- nize and to produce a soft bloom effect at a distance. 158 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 RISE OF THE SARACENS (622 A. D. TO 755 A. D.) 36. It will now be necessary to turn aside for a moment to consider a remarkable period in history when an Oriental nation invaded Europe and established its customs and religion where another race and another faith had pre- viously existed for several centuries. Mohammed, a rich merchant much respected in Arabia, was the founder of this new religion. When about 40 years of age he announced that he had been chosen by God to reform the faith and practices of the Arabian nation. He acknowledged both the Jewish and Christian beliefs as sent from God, but claimed that he had received later and more complete inspirations from divine sources, for the benefit of his own people. Thus, he gave his countrymen a religion that united the scattered Arab tribes into one homogeneous nation. His native town of Mecca, however, soon denounced him as an imposter, and he and his followers were obliged to flee for safety on July 15, 622 A. D. This flight, termed "Hegira," is the beginning of the Mohammedan era from which all their dates are reckoned. Mohammed took refuge at Medina, where he made a number of converts. With increase of followers the relig- ious reformer became a red-handed soldier, and at the end of 10 years, conversion to Mohammedanism had been forced on the whole Arabian peninsula. As the Arabs were about to force this belief on other nations, Mohammed died, in 632 A. D. His successors, however, endeavored to carry out the campaign, and began a long series of wars and invasions, until Mohammedanism was spread over a large part of Asia, Africa, and Southern Europe. 37. The Arabs, or Saracens, as they were called, met with comparatively little resistance in Oriental districts, as 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 159 those countries were a part of the Roman Empire in which Christianity and Roman law had taken little hold. Thus, the great Eastern Empire was shorn of all its possessions, and in the far East, all the lands from Persia to India were added to the Moslem Empire. In the West, however, the Saracens met with stout resist- ance. Constantinople was besieged for 8 years without result; and 40 years later a similar siege met with failure. In Northern Africa, too, there was great resistance, but finally the wh~le Northern Coast was subdued, and in 710 A. D. the Ivfohammedans crossed from Africa into Spain and established themselves at Gibraltar. They then over- ran the whole peninsula and established a kingdom that lasted 700 years. They crossed the Pyrenees and entered Southern France with the intention of adding that country, and pos- sibly all Europe to their empire, but in this they were unsuc- cessful. In 732 A. D., near Tours, France, the invaders were met by a powerful Christian army under Charles Martel, and here a fierce battle raged for 7 days. The Saracens \vere hopelessly defeated, and the progress of Mohammedan arms in Europe was forever checked. Had this not been accom- plished the entire history of the world might have been changed. To Charles Martel then we owe the preservation of Europe for the Christian kingdoms and to the descend- ants of Charles Martel we largely owe the permanent estab- lishment of the Church universal. This great Saracenic Empire, extending from India to Spain, was for a short time under the rule of a single emperor, or caliph. 38. The influence of this Saracenic invasion was in reality beneficial. During the dark, feudal ages, when all Europe was sunk in the grossest ignorance, the Oriental Saracens were actively engaged in the cultivation of science and art. The libraries and schools at Cordova, in Spain, and at Bagdad, in Persia, gave to Europe all that was original, during the middle ages, of medicine, mathematics, and physics. 160 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 These people also developed an architecture of their own that is rich in ornament and decorative effect. This will not be considered, however, until the development of the medieval styles is finished. REVIEW EXERCISES 1. What was comprised in the Byzantine Empire? 2. What religious influences affected the Byzantine style? 3. W T hen did the Byzantine Empire come into existence? 4. What are the leading characteristics of the Byzantine style r 5. Of what character of buildings do the Byzantine examples consist? 6. (a) What is the principal structure in the Byzantine style? () When was it built? 7. In what way did the Byzantine system of building walls differ from the Roman system? 8. What influences affected the development of Byzantine ornament? 9. Make a drawing in pen and ink of a Byzantine capital. 10. Make a drawing in color of Byzantine running ornament. Drawings should be large enough to show details clearly and must be executed on sheets of white paper 9 inches by 12 inches. 11. (a) Who were the Saracens? (6) In what way did they affect the history of Europe? (c) During what period did they exercise the greatest influence? 8r>0 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 161 ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE (800 A. D. TO 1200 A. D.) INFLUENCES 39. Geographical. While the Byzantine art was set- tling itself into a fixed style in Eastern Europe the Roman- esque was developing in the West. As the different countries of Europe began to assume character under indi- vidual rulers, the architecture that developed in those countries possessed peculiarities that were purely geograph- ical in character. The Romanesque architecture of Italy was greatly influenced by Byzantine art, and in many cases (as at Venice and Ravenna) it is difficult to distinguish between the Romanesque and the Byzantine. Spain and France being far to the west, however, the style was influ- enced less by Oriental art, and in England, which is sepa- rated entirely from the mainland, it developed quickly into an entirely new style founded on the old architecture of the Romans but developed without any foreign influence. 40. Geological. Although Romanesque architecture pervaded all of Western Europe from the fall of Rome to the end of the 12th century, one of the strongest character- istics of the style in general is the use of materials that marked its individuality in each particular country. 41. Climatic. The style of building that would be suitable in sunny Spain would be utterly unsuitable in the foggy climate of England, and, therefore, owing to the immense territory throughout which this style developed, a considerable variation of detail is found, due to climatic conditions. 42. Religious. Were it not for the civilizing and educating influence of the Church, Romanesque architecture I L T 30312 162 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 would not have possessed the unity of feeling necessary for the establishment of one style throughout Europe. The differences in climate, materials, and geographical positions would naturally have produced a variety of styles if there had not pervaded throughout the entire country one general religious motive that prescribed certain details of manners and customs uniform throughout the Christian world. The erection of a church was often the foundation of a city. Monasteries grew to great power until they practically con- trolled the local civil governments. Science, literature, art, and general intellectuality were not considered to be of any importance to any except the religious orders until after the middle of the 12th century. Students in the monasteries became designers of great cathedrals, and the relation of the monastic institutions to architecture was consequently of great importance. In fact, architecture was practiced almost entirely by the clergy, and was regarded as a sacred science. The monastic orders thus founded and fostered many arts, the products of which are associated with the names of those orders at the present day. The Dominican order was founded in the South of Italy by Saint Benedict, and in its monasteries throughout Europe were taught architecture, painting, mosaic, and all branches of art work. This order of monks controlled all the old monasteries in England, such as Canterbury, Fig. 69, and Westminster Abbey, Fig. 73. 43. The Romans, when they wished to erect great monuments of public utility, could send to the spot, no matter how remote, an army of soldiers, and by their tyran- nical system of government compel the inhabitants of the locality to desist from all other employments and work for the emperor of Rome. Thus by a multitude of hands they achieved those prodigious results that today stand monu- ments to their enterprise and their despotism. Had the builders of the middle ages desired to pursue this course, they could not have found the army of workmen. In a country without stone, without money to buy it, without beasts of burden to transport it if they could buy it, even 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 163 without roads over which to travel, these people could not possibly attempt to follow the course of their Roman neighbors. For the following: reasons, therefore, the religious orders were the first that could by themselves undertake important building: 1. Because they could gather together at one place a number of men (monks) united by a single paramount thought, subject to discipline, freed from military service, and possessors, in the name of the Church, of the land on which they lived. 2. Because the religious orders acquired property and improved it under a regular administration; because they joined in amicable intercourse with neighboring establish- ments; because they plowed the uncultivated lands, laid out roads, and with the fruits and tolls of their industries bought quarries and woodlands, built workshops, and offered to the peasants guarantees that could be depended on. Thus the church lands were rapidly populated and improved, while those of the laity and nobility were continually devastated by war. 3. Because the religious orders were able to form with their monasteries, schools of craftsmen, subject to regular apprenticeship, clothed, fed, maintained, and worked under the same directing influence schools that preserved tradi- tions and recorded improvements. 4. Because the churchmen alone, at that time, extended an influence to a distance by founding remote establishments subject to the mother abbey. Hence, to the activity of religious orders the art of con- struction owes its rise from barbarism in the llth century. 44. Political and Historical. About the year 800 A. D., the Roman Empire in Western Europe passed entirely from the hands of the descendants of the original Romans by the election of Charlemagne, a Prankish king, as emperor. Charlemagne encouraged the establishment of the monastic communities and thus encouraged building. He restored the 164 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 arts, improved civilization, and did much for the general progress of Western Europe. However, a popular superstition did much to retard the progress of this period. It was generally accepted as a fact that the end of the world would come in the year 1000, and few buildings were erected as the task seemed to be useless. When the dreaded year arrived and passed, however, the superstition was broken, and building activity sprang up everywhere. All the great nations of Europe had by this time come into existence. France, Germany, and Spain were becoming individually powerful. Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and England were distinct kingdoms, and, under individual influences, were developing individual styles. Civilization progressed rapidly and independently in each local section. 45. Feudalism. Before studying the development of medieval architecture it will be necessary to consider the peculiar system of government that existed throughout Europe during the middle ages. This system was called feudalism, and developed from the peculiar relation that existed in the Teutonic tribes between the men and their chiefs. When these tribes overthrew the Roman Empire, 476 A. D., every free Teuton that had served his chief in the conquest received as his share of the spoils a tract of land that became his personal property, or freehold. The chief, of course, retained a very large domain for himself and it became customary for him to grant portions of this domain to certain of his favorites and followers on condition that they would serve him in time of war. These grants of land were different from the freeholds, and were called fiefs. The person that received them did not own the land, but held it by feudal tenure so long as the conditions imposed on him by his chief were fulfilled. The chief, or king, could recall the land at any time he wanted and give it to another if he chose. The person holding the land under feudal tenure was called a vassal. Just as chiefs or kings made feudal grants to their favorites, so some of the smaller Teutonic landowners granted portions 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 165 of their land and retained vassals of their own. Bishops and abbots granted extensive tracts to various knights, who thus became vassals of the Church. By the llth century, all Europe was governed by a system of feudal tenure, and very little land was held in freehold. The great nobles that originally inherited freeholds were glad to return them to the king and receive them back as fiefs, thereby becoming vassals of the king and receiving from him many rich gifts that were in his power to bestow. Thus, all property became a connected system of fiefs, and, from the king down to the poorest freeman, land was held in feudal tenure, and every individual was a vassal to some one a little higher up. Kings themselves became vassals of other kings in the cases of the lands lying beyond the boundaries of their kingdoms. Thus, William the Conqueror, when he became king of England, was, as duke of Normandy, a vassal of the king of France. 46. So far only landholders have been considered, and these were the forefathers of subsequent nobles; the great mass of the people, however, were not freeholders at all, but serfs. Serfs were not slaves they could not be bought and sold but they were bound to the land and belonged to it, so that when it changed hands from one owner to another, they were bound to change with it. Each fief consisted of two distinct details: the castle, usually located on a hill, where the proprietor, or noble, lived with his family and his soldiers, and the village, or cite, which was inhabited by the tillers of the soil. Many of these were free-born men that rented land or served for wages, while others were serfs that were the born servants of the owner of the soil. Feudalism tended to prevent the growth of the nations. A kingdom consisted of a cluster of principalities under a common head the king or emperor but that head lacked power, as no one of the nobles, should he choose to dis- obey the king, could be forced to fulfil his feudal duties except by means of war. Consequently, the kings were at war with one or more of their vassals nearly all the time. 166 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 47. Chivalry. One important product of feudalism was chivalry, which grew into a tremendous establishment and for several centuries exercised a marked influence on the habits, manners, thoughts, and sentiments of men of all nations in Western Europe. Chivalry was at the zenith of its influence at the time of the crusades, which will be discussed later, and it ceased to exist when feudal society became extinct. Chivalry had its origin in two characteristic instincts of the Gothic races: first, the great honor paid to the profession of arms, and, second, the delicate gallantry of the Teutons to the female sex. In the llth century, it was customary for all sons of the various vassals of a lord to attend a court, or school, in his castle, where, with the members of the lord's own family, they were trained in military exercises and feudal etiquette. Boys from 7 to 14 years of age were termed Pages, and the duties of these pages were to attend the ladies of the mansion in their walks, rides, and hunting trips. The page was taught obedience and courtesy, and was instructed in music, chess, religion, and the use of light weapons. Being thus constantly surrounded by noble knights and ladies, the boy's earliest impressions were of gallantry, honor, and bravery. At the age of 14 the boy became a squire, whose duty it was to serve some knight and learn the profession of arms under his tuition, to look after the arraying of his master's armor, and to attend him in time of war. At the age of 21, after an imposing ceremony, during which he took a vow to champion the Church and the clergy, and to be a protector of ladies and a redresser of the wrongs of widows and orphans, the squire became a knight. The attainment of knighthood was the ambition of every youth, and to this end his entire education was arranged. Reading and writing were useless accomplishments at this period. Chivalry had much to do with establishing the customs and habits of the people until the decline of feudalism, and its influ- ence extends even to the present day. From the knight of the middle ages developed the gentleman of today. In antiquity men were trained to be heroes; the l&n&gentleman was unknown. 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 167 48. The Dark Ages. During a part of this feudal period, it is strange to note, civilization declined almost to barbarism. Up to the fall of the Roman Empire, the Romans enjoyed a high state of civilization and culture, and great libraries of books existed in Rome and Alexandria. These books were written in Latin, which was the language of the Roman Empire at that time, but for the succeeding three centuries the barbarous Teutons that had conquered Rome refused to take on themselves any culture, and learned only sufficient Latin to enable them to govern and trade in their Roman possessions. The Latin spoken by the Teutonic invader was a sort of broken Latin, which was called Roman, while the classic Latin was still written by the scholars, most of whom were the clergy. Different parts of the country produced different dialects of this Roman language, and so there gradually developed the Italian, French, and Spanish languages. Latin had ceased to be a living language, and the treasure of knowledge in Latin books was apparently forever locked up from the people. Those who might have had a desire to study were left destitute, as all books were in classic Latin, which could not be understood by them, while in the Roman language, which they did understand, no books were written. There being no books, there was no necessity of being able to read or write, and it was rare for any one but a churchman to be able to sign his name. Latin was still taught in the monasteries and was reserved for religious education, but the people in general had no opportunities to learn it. Even the Latin books became scarce, thus involving even the clergy to a certain extent in the general ignorance. Only two kinds of writing material were then known: parchment, and paper made from the papyrus plant. After the Saracens invaded and conquered Northern Africa, papy- rus was unobtainable, and new parchment was too costly to be spared for book purposes. This caused the monks to erase many old manuscripts from the parchments and to write new ones on the same pages. In this way, many of the works of ancient authors were lost in order to supply 168 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 material on which a religious sentiment or the legend of a saint might be written. The few sparks of ancient learning that survived during these centuries were preserved only through the Church. The monks were taught to read and write, and they spent much of their time in illuminating missals and executing wonderful work with the stylus and brush, so that through the monasteries a slight knowledge of the conditions of this period has been preserved to the present day. That this barbarism and inactivity was due to the lack of books will be evinced later on, and with the invention of printing came the awakening, advancement, and real progress of the world. The illuminated manuscripts of the Middle Ages are wonderful works of art and skill. They are mostly written in Latin; the body of the text being executed letter by letter with the stylus, and the initials, borders, chapter head- ings, etc. rendered in gold and color with the stylus and brush, Fig. 16 (a) . Many of these manuscripts were the work of a lifetime in the monasteries, and no amount of trouble seemed excessive to the devoted monks that had conse- crated their life's work to the propagation of their religion. Illumination did not originate in the monasteries, however, as the art was derived from Greece, and was never lost in Europe until after the invention of printing. None of the early Greek and Roman manuscripts have been preserved, but there are many designs in the Byzantine manuscripts that are evidently copied after them. Illumination was also practiced by the Arabs, Persians, and other Oriental nations, and many beautiful pages from the Koran exist, that were executed from the 14th to the 18th century. 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 169 CHARACTERISTICS 49. The term Romanesque can be said to apply to all architectural constructions in Western Europe that were based on Roman art and theory, and carried out in a rough and primitive way according to the means and material of each individual community. In general character, Roman- esque architecture is simple, sober, and dignified; but it is picturesque through the introduction and grouping of towers and the projection of various wings and transepts. A new constructive principle now appears the principle of equilib- rium, or balance, in contrast to the principle of stability, as practiced by the Romans. Where the Roman architect had to withstand the thrust of an arch, he planted an immense quantity of masonry strong enough to withstand it by dead weight; whereas, if a Romanesque architect wished to with- stand the thrust of an arch, he arranged for it to receive the thrust of another arch in an opposite direction, thus counter- acting the force. A new material also was now used dressed, or cut, stone laid together in the body of the w r all with beds of mortar. Heretofore, walls had been of concrete and were only veneered, or surfaced, with stone, but now stone was built in as part of the wall, and by this new r employment of the material, architecture became a system of construction, and development of this construction henceforth marked the development of a new architectural style. Here, too, is found the column used as a direct support of the building. In Roman architecture, the columns were applied on the faces of concrete piers or supported only an entablature over a porch. The Romanesque architect, however, used columns to support the arches, taking up the thrusts by counter- thrusts from other arches. 50. The principle of balanced thrusts is illustrated in Fig. 17. In (a) is shown a section through the roof and two side walls of a building. The weight of the roofing material presses downwards on the rafters in the direction 170 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 5d (*) FIG. 17 (f) 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 171 of the arrow a. This pressure tends to depress the rafters and to overturn the side walls in the direction b. If, instead of rafters, a masonry arch is turned between the walls as in (b), the effect will be the same. The load in the direction a will be split Jand transmitted against the walls in the direc- tion c, and unless they are strong and heavy enough to withstand this thrust, they will turn over in the direction b. Two upright timbers supporting two rafters, as in (c), would immediately fall outwards if a load were imposed at a; but this could be obviated by placing props against these timbers and driving stakes into the ground at the foot of the props, as in (d) . The thrust would then take the direction cde. Now, applying this principle to the condition existing in the stone arch in (b} , there will result a structure similar to that shown in (e) , where half arches on each side prop up the main walls under the arch. The development of this principle as completed in (/) presents the complete principle of buttresses and flying buttresses in medieval architecture. The flying buttresses are the semiarches that prop up the main arch, and the simple buttresses, like stakes in the ground, carry the load to the earth. This principle is illustrated in the cathedrals shown in Figs. 66 and 67. 51. Romanesque architecture was distinctively ecclesi- astical. Civilization and culture emanated from the Church, and the requirements and discipline of the religious orders gave form to the builders' art. The basilican style of building, which had so well served the purposes of the Church in the earlier centuries, suited the new conditions only so far as its plan was concerned. Corinthian columns, marble incrustations, and splendid mosaics were not to be obtained in the forest lands of Northern and Western Europe, and the priests and monks endeavored to erect, with unskilled labor, churches of stone and as far as possible of a fireproof construction in which the general arrange- ment of the basilica plan should be maintained. The struggle with this problem underlies the entire system of 172 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 Romanesque design, while the solution of the problem characterizes the development of the Gothic style. 52. However rich and powerful the monks might be, compared with the feudal lords and barons, they could not hope to build as the Romans did. They endeavored to erect solid and durable structures, but practiced the closest economy, owing to the scarcity of materials and men. To follow the Roman method of making their structures a mass of rubble between two faces of ashlar or brick, demanded more laborers than they had at their disposal. To build of enormous blocks of hewn stone, carefully cut and set, as the Greeks did, required means of transportation far beyond their facilities. So they pursued a middle course. For the principal points of support, they used cut stone as a casing and filled in with rubble, and for other walls, a thin facing of ashlar enclosing a concrete filling made of pebbles and mortar. The Roman buildings, by reason of the absolute stability of the different points of support and the perfect concretion, or solidifying, of all the upper parts, presented immovable masses, as if they had been cut out of a single block. The Romanesque builders soon realized that their buildings presented no such stable conditions. The piers, which were formed only with a veneering of solid stone and put together with a poor quality of mortar, and the walls, which were unbonded throughout their height, suffered from unequal settlement, causing ruptures, and, consequently, serious accidents. These errors were not repeated, however, and the endeavor to avoid them resulted in a new development. 53. Romanesque Vaulting. In order to comprehend the development of architecture from this period to the end of the Gothic period, the system and development of vaulting should be clearly understood. Toward the beginning of the llth century the Roman- esque architects attempted to vault their structures. They had inherited a knowledge of the value of the Roman vault, but were unable to use it owing to the lack of sufficiently 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 173 powerful walls in the structures they had built. The Roman vault will sustain itself only when its supports are solid and immovable; for it is formed of a homogeneous crust of concrete, which, lacking elasticity, breaks to pieces if small crevices appear in its curve. Unable to furnish sufficiently stable walls to support vaults as the Romans did, the medieval builders invented new methods of holding them firmly. The earliest of these attempts ended in failure, but from the very beginning, a new system of building is apparent, founded on the principle of elasticity, in contrast to the principle of stability, or rigidity, practiced by the Romans. The typical Roman vault, Fig. 18 (a), is built of rough-stone concrete, and though sometimes strengthened by FIG. 18 arches of brick, these arches are buried in the concrete and thereby become a part of the homogeneous mass. In con- trast to this method, the Romanesque builders constructed their vaults of hewn stone laid in mortar, following the form of the Roman cradle vault shown at (a). 54. The medieval craftsmen at this time knew nothing of the laws of statics, and the thrust exercised by the arch on the side walls being something entirely new to them, they neglected to provide sufficient means to withstand it. Consequently, at the end of the llth century, many churches 174 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 and halls that had been built and vaulted for a period of only 50 years fell in ruins from the collapse of their walls, due to the thrust of their vaults. These accidents, though unfor- tunate, bore good fruit; they were a lesson to the builders, and showed that other means had to be provided to accom- plish the desired end. These same builders knew that a groined vault, such as is shown in Fig. 18 (b) , exercised its pressure and thrust only at the four supports, and, recog- nizing the advantage of the groined vault, they tried to replace the cradle vault with it and thereby bring all the weight on piers, which they hoped to be able to render stable. But new difficulties immediately arose. The Roman groined vault can be built only over a square space, and it was necessary to invent a combination of groined vaults adapted to an oblong space. 55. The building of a Roman groined vault requires four semicircular centers, or templets, one for each end of the intersecting vaults, and also two diago- nal centers, the curve of which is not a semicircle, like the other four, but an ellipse, as shown in Fig. 19, in which the two front ends of the vaults are removed to show the line of intersection, or groin, and the elliptical profile for the center eoe. The Romanesque builders did not comprehend the curve of the ellipse, and, having described a semicircle in order to cut out timber centers of the four arches generating the vault, they described a second semicircle on the diagonal as a diameter in order to cut out the two diagonal centers. Thus, the crown o, Fig. 20, where these two vaults inter- sected, was on a higher level than the crowns a and b in the 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 175 FIG. 20 generating arches, and the vault, instead of being the result of the intersection of two semicylinders, was a nameless compound of curved surfaces, slightly resembling a dome. On this principle is based the whole system of vaulting during the middle , ages. This principle is important on account of the fact that, though they were trying to use the Roman vault, they modified it to such an extent that it became a different device entirely, and the builders of the middle ages were thus suddenly emancipated from all the bad influences of the Roman style, and left free to develop a new style from the raw material they had at hand, in the same manner that the Byzantine build- ers developed an original style, by careful study of the structural principles of the dome. 56. Having modi- fied the Roman vault in this way, the next problem was to apply it to oblong plans, for the builders had already realized the danger of applying cradle vaults to wide spans. The Roman groined vault, applied to oblong spans with a wide intersection, required the arch over the narrow span to be stilted, as shown at e f, Fig. 21, and the lines of the groins a b FIG. 21 176 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 and c d were not straight, but formed the compound curves ab and c d. This was a still more complicated problem for the Romanesque builders, but they solved it in the same manner as before, by cutting the centers, both for the ends and for the intersections of their vaults, in the form of a semicircle. But with this simple solution another difficulty arose. The lines of inter- section, or groins, in the Romanesque vault were forced by circumstances to be straight in plan, as they were built over semicircular centers; but this produced such a warped surface in the vault covering itself that the groins were projecting at the springing point and indented at the crown. Fig. 22 shows an exaggerated form of the Romanesque groined vault with the arch e fg over the end r s of the oblong space rsut, and the arch h ij over the side ^ u. The intersecting curves mno and pn over the diagonals ru and s t are semicircles, but the groins inside the vault do not produce a continuous angle on which a bead can be worked, as is the case when the arches are two intersecting cylinders of the same diameter. A section through the corner on the line a b, would produce an exterior angle, as shown at v, with the bead worked on the corner, but in following the groin up into the vault, the angle becomes more and more obtuse until it reverses itself and at cd becomes an interior FIG. 22 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 177 angle, as shown at ?f. This was very unsightly, and the builders immediately set to work to improve on it. 57. It was at this time that the pointed arch made its appearance, and there is little doubt that its invention or adoption was the direct outcome of the difficulties in groined work just cited. In Fig. 2.'> is shown a pointed groined vault with the groins built on semicircular centers cdc that are higher at their middle points o than the crowns of the pointed arches a and b. The crown of the vault is therefore curved in the same manner, though not so much as the crown of the vault shown in Fig. 21; but the groins in the pointed vault are per- fectly straight through- out their length and can be worked o r beaded as desired. As said before, the method of building these arches was not that of the Romans a solid con- crete mass with brick arches embedded in Fir ''3 the concrete to give it strength while it was setting but, on the contrary, the late Romanesque vault was composed of small panels, or slabs, laid on the ribs, or groins, for support. At each end of the vault a pointed arch was formed, and at the inter- section, or groin, a semicircular arch was turned, as shown in Fig. 23; on these arches boards were laid, and the masonwork of the vault was then built over the boards, the arches remaining in place and thereby forming a sort of permanent center. 58. Fig. 24 illustrates the constructive system of the late Romanesque or early Gothic church, the transition from one style to the other being so gradual that an exact line of 1 L T 30313 178 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 distinction cannot be drawn. The walls a of the nave are supported on the columns b, and the roof over the nave is vaulted in the Gothic system just explained. The groins, or ribs, of these nave vaults rest on the piers c, which are directly over the columns b, and the thrust of the nave vaults is carried by the flying buttresses d across the aisle vaults e to the solid buttresses /, the lower portion of which also receives the thrusts from the aisle vaults at g, thus illustra- FIG. 24 ting the two great principles of Gothic construction: concen- tration of load on isolated supports, and balanced thrusts. The former of these principles was made possible by the use of the groined vault instead of the barrel vault, as the former required supports only where the groins rested and the structural details of the church became simply a stone roof, supported on masonry stilts and filled in between with thin screen walls, as shown in Fig. 24. 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 179 59. The second of these Gothic principles of construc- tion is in direct opposition to the Roman system of vaulting, where the thrust of the vault was resisted entirely by the inertia of a mass of masonry piled against it in the abut- ments. In late Romanesque and Gothic architecture the thrusts of one vault were counteracted or balanced by the thrusts of adjacent vaults and the accumulated strains then transmitted by means of props, or flying buttresses, to heavy fixed buttresses located at convenient points. This system of construction reached its greatest development in French cathedrals during the XIII and XIV centuries. ANALYTICAL, STUDY PLANS 60. Charlemagne adopted the plan of the Roman basilica as a model for his new churches, and, with the assistance of artists and skilled workmen to carry out his ideas, erected them in the Roman style. Transepts were added to the basilica until the church become crucial in form, and a chancel for the clergy was screened off and prolonged on the east end. Generally speaking, the transepts were the same width as the nave, and the nave was twice the width of the aisles. The choir was raised on a series of steps, under which was usually established a crypt, to receive the dead bodies of prominent persons. Many of the older churches had cloisters in connection with them. These consisted of a vaulted passageway extending around a court or leading from the chapter house to the church. The cloisters were designed with great care and possessed decorative details of great beauty. The introduction of the tower, or spire, where the transept crossed the nave, added greatly to the beauty of some of these structures, and gave importance to this part of the plan which was termed the crossing. Although many adjuncts were introduced into the Romanesque plans, they still retained in the majority of examples the funda- mental arrangement of the Roman basilican. 180 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 WALLS 61. While the Roman system influenced all construction work in Europe, it had materially declined in character before the fall of the Empire, and technical skill being particularly scarce during the early Romanesque period, the masonry was carried out with extreme crudeness. ROOFS 62. In the llth century, vaulting was introduced over the side aisles for the purpose of fireproofing. But the nave was still covered with a roof of wood. The earliest examples of vaulting appear as plain intersecting barrel vaults without any rib moldings, as in Fig. 18 (b) , but simple ribs were introduced about 1100 A. D., and afterward molded ribs appeared. Thus the Roman style of vaulting existed throughout Europe until the beginning of the 12th century, when a framework of groined ribs was used to support vaulted sur- faces of thinner stone, usually termed in-filling. By the latter method the vault was designed according to the profile of the rib, instead of designing the rib to conform to the profile line of the intersection of the vaults. In the Roman- esque method, the vault surfaces were governed entirely by the form of the rib set for their intersections, whereas in the Roman method the form of the vault surfaces was deter- mined first and the groins were left to come out in their own geometrical form. The Romanesque architects worked out problems the fixed data for which were the profiles of the intersecting ribs; the Roman architects let these ribs take care of themselves. The inability of the Romanesque architect to lay out an ellipse of the proper height and span lead to various sys- tems in different parts of the country. In Germany and France, vaulting ribs were usually portions of circular curves, which gave the intersecting vaults a domical aspect. In England, the ridges of the vaults were maintained on the 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 181 same level, and a difference in height between the diagonal rib as a semicircle and that of the profile of the intersecting vaults was taken by stilting the latter. In cases where a large compartment and a small one intersected, the line of intersection of the two vaults presented a very unsatisfactory and wavy contour. In some Romanesque churches, as at Worms in Germany, Notre Dame at Paris, and Canterbury in England, the difficulty of spanning oblong compartments was overcome by uniting two under one vault. In this manner each pair of side compartments was made to corre- spond in width with the main compartment in which they were vaulted, as shown in Fig. 54 (), where the main bays are formed to include two smaller bays at the end of the aisle including the windows. In other cases, the inter- mediate support was carried up and split into three ribs, thus dividing the vaulting into six triangles in the plan, as shown in Fig. 56 (c) , where ab and cd are the ribs of the main vault and cf is the transverse rib between the aisle vaults. The plan therefore shows six triangles with ae, cc, cb, etc. as their bases, and their vertices at the point where a b and cd intersect. Such vaulting was known as sexpartite vaulting, and the weight of the vaults was supported on alternate piers. From this time forward, the principle of rib design dom- inates the style of the vault, and becomes more and more complex, characterizing the several periods of the Gothic style. It will be observed hereafter that the difficulty of accommodating different heights of arches in the intersections of diagonal ribs was entirely overcome by the introduction of the pointed arch. COLUMNS 63. Flutings, both vertical and spiral, and naturalistic carvings on the shaft are characteristic of the Romanesque period. At first there was undoubtedly a strong influence exerted by the Ionic and Corinthian capitals, but the characteristic Romanesque style developed itself later. 182 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 OPENINGS 64. One of the strongest characteristics of the Roman- esque style is found in the door and window openings. The jamb around the door was formed in receding planes, or orders, as they were termed, in each of which was inserted a small circular column. The arch over these columns was built in concentric circles [see Fig. 49 (c)\. Circular win- dows over the principal doorways were also common at this time and the principal doorway generally entered one of the transepts. MOLDINGS 65. Generally speaking, Romanesque moldings con- sisted of the ornamentation of the projecting stone courses, with chamfers, rounds, and rough-carved ornamentation. At first these were hewn out with the stone ax, but after- wards they were more finely cut with the chisel. On bases of columns, a form of the old classic base was used over a square plinth, with carved leaves to fill up the projecting triangles at the corners, or with the lower torus molding overhanging the plinth. ORNAMENT 66. All decorative design was derived from vegetable and animal elements, and was very rudely carved and very conventionally treated. Fresco is more frequently found on the walls than mosaic, owing to the lack of skilful artists, and the designs in stained-glass windows show the influence of the Byzantine character. These are the general characteristics of Romanesque architecture throughout Europe. Individual characteristics will be discussed under the separate countries. Romanesque architecture does not present that brilliancy of decorative effect that characterizes the Byzantine. As has been explained heretofore, marble columns and elaborate mosaics were unattainable by the Romanesque workers, while the wealth of Byzantium rendered such luxuries a 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 183 characteristic of the Byzantine style. The Romanesque builder therefore decorated his walls with carving and fresco work which he could execute himself, while the Byzantine imported talent from Italy, Greece, and the Orient. KKVIKW EXERCISES 1. When and in what countries did Romanesque architecture flourish? 2. In what way did religion affect the architecture of the Roman- esque period? 3. In what way did the Romanesque system of building differ from the Roman system? 4. Why was there but little building before the llth century? 5. (a) What system of government existed throughout Europe during the Middle Ages? (b) Describe it briefly. (5. Of what did chivalry consist? 7. What were the Dark Ages? 8. To what does the term Romanesque architecture apply? 9. What is the essential difference between the Roman system and the Romanesque system of vaulting? 10. Give the general characteristics of Romanesque: (a) plans, (b) openings, (c) roofs. 184 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 ITALIAN ROMANESQUE INFLUENCES 67. Geographical. In Italy there were different influ- ences at work that materially affected the architecture in different sections. The central portion, as shown on the map, Fig. 25, including Rome, extends from Florence and Pisa on the north to Naples on the south. Pisa and Naples were maritime cities and commanded a large Mediterranean trade, while Florence was inland, on the road to the north, and commanded the passage of the Arno River. This cen- tral section being nearest Rome, its architecture was greatly influenced by the classic monuments. Northern Italy, extending from Florence to the Alps and Tyrolean Mountains, contained the city of Milan, which always enjoyed a prosperous trade owing to its proximity to the Alpine passes and its position in the center of the state of Lombardy, of which it was the capital. On the east coast are the cities of Ravenna and Venice, both of which had extensive trade with Byzantium, as has heretofore been pointed out. The Romanesque of Northern Italy was therefore influenced by the architecture of both Northern Europe and the Orient. Southern Italy, including Sicily, being situated practically in the center of the Mediterranean Sea, had for years been under the influence of both Northern Africa and Greece. Sicily had belonged to each of these countries before it became a part of Italy. The architecture of Southern Italy therefore shows the influence of these foreign countries. 68. Geological. Building materials abounded in great variety in Central Italy. Near Rome, brick, volcanic stones, and travertin were used, the latter being imported from 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 185 Tivoli. Marble was imported from Pharos, Carrara, and other Greek islands. In Northern Italy, brick was the principal building material obtainable. In Southern Italy, the mountains afforded an abundance of limestone. Medieval Map of ITALY FIG. 25 69. Climatic. In Central Italy, the climate is warm and agreeable, but in Northern Italy it varies from extreme cold to excessive heat, similar to the climate of Central Europe. Milan is near enough to the mountains to experi- ence very cold winters, while its summers are almost tropical. Southern Italy enjoys a tropical climate. Palm, 186 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 lemon, and orange groves flourish the year round, and on the southern coast the climate renders many Oriental customs characteristic. 70. Religions, Political, and Historical. In Italy are found the first great influences of the Church in the administration of the government. The popes at Rome had thus far only small, landed estates of their own, but their relations with the kings, of the newly established countries gave rise to numerous disputes. Therefore, the history of the papacy is closely interwoven with the development of civilization from this time on. Until the overthrow of the Western Empire, this part of the world was practically in a chaotic condition. The Church alone was able to preserve organization of society, and therefore became a great moral power. By the middle of the 8th century, the Lombards had established a powerful kingdom in Northern Italy and began to encroach on the possessions of Rome in Central Italy. Pope Stephen II then asked Pepin, who was king of the Franks (a Christianized Gothic nation that inhabited nearly all the country now known as France and Germany), to help defend Rome against the Lombards. Pepin responded to the pope's request by defeating the Lombards, winning from them the territory of Ravenna and other lands, which he immediately turned over to the pope. Stephen II accepted this in the name of St. Peter, and thus was established the temporal power of the Church. 71. On the death of Pepin, his empire was inherited by his son Charles, one of the greatest men of the middle ages, and known in history as Charlemagne, a French combination meaning Charles the Great. Charlemagne invaded Italy in 773 A. D. and the Lombards were again defeated. He then united Lombardy to the kingdom of the Franks and confirmed the gifts of his father, Pepin, to the pope. At the end of the 8th century, Charlemagne entered Rome and was crowned emperor of the West by the pope. Charlemagne fell heir to the kingdom of the Franks, and at the age of 60 he was OO^ o z a!^-- f 18.1 188 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 monarch of an empire practically as large as that of ancient Rome (see Fig. 26). Charlemagne was succeeded by his son Louis, a weak monarch, under whom the empire rapidly fell apart. Dis- putes arose, and Louis turned the reins of government over to his three sons, Lewis, Lothar, and Charles. These rulers quarreled among themselves, until finally, in 843 A. D., the empire was divided among them, and the history of France, Germany, and Italy as separate states began (see Fig. 26). During all this confusion, the pope at Rome endeavored to exercise his authority in political matters, and thus insti- tuted a struggle between the kings and the popes that lasted many bitter years. In the meantime, Southern Italy had come under the influence of the Saracens, who had landed in Sicily in 827 A. D. and gradually overran the whole island. For a century, the Saracens held full power, but they finally quarreled among themselves and lost the island to France. CENTRAL ITALIAN ROMANESQUE CHARACTERISTICS 72. In Central Italy, the general type of the basilica was maintained, owing to the proximity of Roman models. New ideas of any form were few, and no tendency toward a new style seemed apparent. EXAMPLES 73. Cathedral at Pisa. The cathedral at Pisa, Fig. 27, is a characteristic building of this period. Small, external, superimposed arcades produce a fine effect, as does also the treatment of the walls with blind, or false, arcades, in red and white marble. The interior columns support a flat ceil- ing, suggesting the basilican church. FIG. 28 190 FIG. 29 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 193 74. Leaning Tower at Pisa. The leaning tower, Fig. 28, located at Pisa, is also characteristic of the Central Italian style of Romanesque, particularly in the arrangement of its superimposed arcades. 75. Baptistery at Pisa. The baptistery at Pisa, Fig. 29, is built of marble, and on the first story is sur- rounded by half columns connected by an encircling arcade. There are many later additions that give this structure a Gothic character, so that above the first story it should not be classed in the Romanesque style. 76. Cloisters of St. Paul's. The cloisters of St. Paul's Church at Rome, Fig. 30, are of more than ordinary interest. They are vaulted over square bays and arcaded in groups of four or five openings. The columns are wonderful exhibits of the craftsman's skill, being designed as twisted shafts and inlaid with glass mosaics in beautiful and intricate patterns. NORTHERN ITALIAN ROMANESQUE CHARACTERISTICS 77. In Northern Italy, the arcades that decorate the exteriors are restricted to the gables and minor details, instead of being carried through several stories as in Central Italy. The facades are wide and unbroken by any details to mark the nave and the aisles characteristically. The main entrance is sometimes protected by a porch whose columns rest on carved lions, and over this porch a circular window lights the nave. Stone and brick being the principal mate- rials, the exteriors are less elegant than the marble facades of Central Italy. The carved details show scenes taken from the hunt and other pastimes characteristic of the northern invaders, and the grotesque element is prominent, being a decided digression from classic influences. The churches are mostly of the basilican type and are generally vaulted and roofed. The aisles are frequently I L T 30314 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 195 two stories in height, omitting the clearstory in the nave. Chapels are built along the side aisles, the walls that sep- arate them serving as interior buttresses. The campaniles, or bell towers, which were not attached to the buildings, but set at a distance or connected by cloisters, are also characteristic of the style in this section of the country. EXAMPLE 78. Church of San Mlchclc. The church of San Michele, at Pavia, Fig. 31, shows the characteristic Northern Italy facade with the colonnade along the gable. The facade is simple and constructed of irregular-sided stone laid with wide joints. Carved ornament frames the portals, which are deep and splay outwards from the door- way to the face of the walls. Over each portal a figure is carved, and horizontal bands of ornament are arranged in the courses of the lower part of the front. The plan is vaulted in square bays, and slightly projecting buttresses mark the width of the nave on the fagade. There are no projecting side buttresses on the exterior, but buttresses to receive the vault thrusts exist on the interior, and form dividing lines between the chapels. SOUTHERN ITALIAN ROMANESQUE 79. The influence of Oriental art both Byzantine and Mohammedan is observable in all the South Italy con- structions. The cathedral of Monreale, near Palermo, Fig. 32, is a characteristic example. The plan is typically basilican, but the columns of the nave support Byzantine capitals. Rich-colored mosaics adorn the walls and are surrounded by arabesques of Mohammedan origin. The columns of the cloisters, shown in Fig. 33, are richly worked in mosaics and carved relief, the designs varying in alter- nate groups, with an indiscriminate intermixture of Byzan- tine and Mohammedan detail. This is also evident in the interlaced borders around the door shown in Fig. 34. FIG. 33 FIG. 34 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 199 ANALYTICAL, STUDY 80. The plans in the Italian Romanesque style were mostly on the basilican order, with the choir raised to per- mit a crypt below. Circular examples exist, as baptistries. The walls were pierced by open arcades in a single course of arches in the north of Italy, but by a series of several galleries in the central part. Projecting porches resting on carved lions mark the entrances in Northern Italy, while circular windows light the nave. The openings were small, particularly in the central and southern portions, where the light is 'strong and the heat excessive. Blind arches of colored materials were designed in the walls, to overcome the absence of window details. The roofs were either vaulted or timbered, as in the basilicas of Rome, and where the timber work was exposed, great decorative detail was applied. The columns were built up as square piers with half shafts attached, especially in the north, where vaulting was more generally practiced, and the buttresses existed almost entirely on the interior of the buildings as separating partitions for the numerous side chapels. The ornament consisted of crude, grotesque designs repre- senting men and animals, varying in subjects from hunting scenes in the northern examples to apostolic processions and symbols in Central Italy. Southern ornament is charac- terized by decorative bronze doors, as at Monreale, Fig. 34, and geometrical mosaics and carved running ornament of Mohammedan and Byzantine origin. Colored-glass windows formed no characteristic part of Italian Romanesque, owing to the smallness of the openings. Northern and Southern Italy were strongly opposed to each other in decorative subjects, owing to the different geographical influences. Southern Italy, being nearer to the Byzantine and Moham- medan countries, absorbed decorative ideas from these neighbors, while Northern Italy, being close to the hunting tribes of the mountains, introduced the hunt as a theme for their decorations. 200 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 FRENCH ROMANESQUE INFLUENCES 81. Geographical. France lies between Rome and Northwest Europe, and during the greatest days of the FIG. 35 Romnn Empire, it was by way of Provence and the river Rhone that civilization spread to the north (see Fig. 35). 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 201 82. Geological. Stone is abundant throughout France, and consequently most of the structures in that country are built of this material. The soft, fine stone of Caen was not only used throughout Normandy, but was shipped across the English Channel in later years and influenced the architecture in England. In Auvergne, a volcanic material found in the mountains was used in some constructions, giving a soft- colored bloom to the buildings. 83. Climatic. The climate of France varies from a tropical condition on the Mediterranean to a cold and foggy atmosphere on the English Channel. It is warm on the west coast, owing to the fact that the Gulf Stream closely approaches the shore. 84. Religious. Christianity, when it spread through France, took a firm hold in the Rhone Valley. In this district, the Cistercian monks enacted severe rules as to the character of church buildings that materially affected the local style. 85. Political and Historical. Up to the end of the 10th century, the greater part of France had been held by independent lords and nobles. In 927 A. D., Hugh Capet, one of these lords, elected himself king, united the provinces into a feudal monarchy, and selected Paris as his capital. This was the beginning of France. As the king could exercise little authority beyond his capital, lawlessness was rife throughout the country, and architecture made little or no progress until a more settled state of affairs set in. During the weak reigns of the descendants of Charlemagne, Northern France was invaded by the Northmen, a tribe from Northern Europe under their leader Rollo, who settled and gave name to Normandy. In 1066, the Normans, under William, a descendant of Rollo, crossed the Channel and conquered England. William ruled as king of England and retained Normandy as a province a circumstance that subsequently gave rise to frequent wars between England and France. 202 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 CHARACTERISTICS 86. In Southern France is found an adaptation of Roman features without any servile copying of individual forms. Vast interiors enclosed by massive walls seem to have had their origin in the Roman therma, or baths, rather than in the basilican plan; and the Byzantine system of construction, without its elaborate decorative effect, can be seen in Gascony. In the north, the style shows the first steps in the coming change to the Gothic system of construction. The interiors were very impressive, great loftiness of the naves being a strong characteristic, and the vaults were ponderous, being supported on massive piers. In the valley of the river Loire, vaulting made rapid progress in constructive ingenuity, but the system practiced in the north differed from that in the south. In the south, the nave was covered by barrel vaults, after the Roman fashion, but the thrust was resisted by half vaults two stories in height extending over the aisles. In the north, groined vaults were built over a square compart- ment, in the nave, executed in sexpartite vaulting, the ribs or groins of which were constructed independently of heavy stone and the infilling inserted afterwards. 87. As there are peculiarities traceable to the local con- ditions in both Northern and Southern France, the country must be considered in two sections, the river Loire con- veniently forming the dividing line. Along the Rhone Valley, which had been originally settled by the Romans, is found the strongest classic influences, as at Nimes and Aries. Southern France can be divided into five provinces: Aquitania, Auvergne, Provence, Anjou, and Burgundy (Gas- cony and Languedoc were originally included with these). In Northern France are Paris and its environs (Champagne, Flanders, etc.) and the provinces of Normandy and Brittany. In Aquitania are found two systems of construction, one with round, arched, tunnel vaults, of Roman origin, and the 204 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 other with spheroidal domes supported on pointed arches, indicating Byzantine influences. The churches of St. Croix and Notre Dame, Figs. 39 and 40, are of the former, while the church of St. Front, at Perigueux, Fig. 36, is of the latter class. St. Front was the prototype of domed churches in France. Auvergne being a volcanic district, the principal local characteristics are due to the use of various colored lavas as building material. Provence has today many examples of the llth- and 12th- century architecture, showing classic influences in the vaulting. Anjou examples are rich in decorative treatment. Burgundy was a province rich in monastic buildings, which exercised much influence over the architecture of other ecclesiastical structures. In Normandy, many fine buildings were erected, owing to the power and prosperity of the Norman dukes. The examples are of the basilican plan, with vaulted roofs, which show the gradual development toward the pointed arch. EXAMPLES 88. Church of St. Front. The church of St. Front, at Perigueux, Fig. 36, presents one of the most important examples of the Romanesque period in Southern France. It was the work of the Romanesque builders, but owing to the trade that Southern France carried on with the Orient, and the taste acquired by returning pilgrims from the Holy Land, a strong Byzantine inflii ^^ was brought to bear on the construction, and it pres^i'*-" a domical design. The plan, Fig. 37 (), was undoubtedly patterned after St. Mark's Church, at Venice, but the domes over the arms and crossing are all of one size and are surmounted with lanterns as shown in Fig. 36. Unlike St. Mark's, however, the interior, Fig. 38, is extremely plain. No Oriental marbles embellish the walls here, nor do elaborate mosaics incrust 50 ARCHITECTURE AXI) ORNAMENT 205 FIG 38 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 207 the dome soffits; but simple and imposing construction gives scale to the interior and an expression of grandeur equal to that attained by its more elaborate prototype. Fig. 38 shows clearly the great rectangular piers, pierced in two directions with passages and supporting the pendentives above, which are crowned with the great hemispherical dome. Compare Fig. 38 with Fig. 37 (a), Fig. 10, and Fig. 2. 89. Cliurcli of St. Croix. Not far from Perigueux, on the western coast of France, is the city of Bordeaux, in which is located the church of St. Croix, Fig. 39. This edifice was originally founded in about the 7th century, but it was rebuilt in the 10th century and has been restored several times since. The fagade is characteristically Roman- esque with its blind arcades and recessed portals, and elaborate sculptured figures fill numerous niches. Most of this sculpture has fallen into decay, however, and the only 208 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 recognizable details are the signs of the zodiac, under the arch of the central gable, and a statue of a knight slaying a dragon, in a niche over the side portal. Superposed columns supporting arches are used here, but there is no suggestion of an imitation of classic design. There are sill courses marking the stories, but no entablatures are placed 1 over the columns. Columns are clustered in groups of two or three or more not according to any classic rules, but to suit the conditions arising in each case. 90. Cliurcli of Notre Dame le Grande. In Fig. 40 is shown the church of Notre Dame le Grande, at Poitiers. This is one of the most characteristic Romanesque edifices of Central France, and was built in the 12th century, when FIG. 41 210 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 external sculpture and internal mural decoration were the prevailing means of attaining architectural expression. The western fagade of this structure is richly sculptured ABBAYE AUX HOMMES CHURCH OF THE APOSTLES CATHEDRAL X' *~>X-'' ^' X ' V' ' ^< ' v x' i*~*jf'''1'V'''' JX \ kf ' V'*!i ''' \i'' x ^\'/' v ^i''' x ^ i /' \ I'C/"*^'' v with surface ornament, as well as with statues of saints, kings, bishops, and other symbolic effigies. Though not Ihe largest, this church is probably the most interesting one 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 211 in the province, as it surpasses every other structure in the richness of its decoration. The central window was origi- nally circular, but in the 15th century it was cut down to give more area for stained glass. 91. Ablmye Aux Homines. The Abbaye aux Hom- ines, Fig. 41, at Caen, was commenced in 1066 by William the Conqueror. The plan originally had an eastern apse, but this was altered to the semicircular chevet termination so char- acteristic of the French style [see Fig. 42 (a)]. The chevet consists of a continuation of the aisles ajound the east end of the nave, so as to form an ambulatory or passageway for the religious processions that were introduced into the church ritual about this time. ANALYTICAL, STUDY PLANS 92. The plans in the south were broad and open with internal buttresses, between which chapels were arranged, while in the north they were more like the basilica, with external buttresses to receive the thrust of the roof vaults. WALLS 93. The walls were massive constructions of rubble with a facing of fine ashlar. The doorways were elaborate, but the rest of the fagade was left in the simplest possible form. Imposing western entrances are characteristic of this style. The buttresses have only very slight projection, and flying buttresses were introduced in the last half of the 12th century. The towers were mostly square with pyram- idal roofs. ROOFS 94. In the south, the roofs consisted of a barrel vault over the nave with half vaults over the aisles, which, being two stories in height, would not admit the introduction of a 212 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 clearstory. In the north, an increased clearstory was characteristic, owing to the use of intersecting vaults in the nave and grouped windows in the spandrels. The groin ribs of the nave vaults were maintained by buttressed arches under the aisle roofs, which received their thrusts. COLUMNS 95. In the naves, square piers with half-round columns attached to their faces supported the groin ribs; or columns, with capitals suggestive of Corinthian style, received the groin ribs rather clumsily on the abacus. OPENINGS 96. In the south, the openings were narrow, with wide splay of the jambs, and the clearstory was usually omitted. In the north the openings were grouped in series of three and five narrow windows, to fill the spandrel of the vaults in the clearstories. Portals were extremely ornate. MOLDINGS 97. Moldings in the south are neat and refined, due to classic influence, but in the north, they are crude devices cut with an ax on the structural details. Corbel tables supported by either grotesque heads or plain blocks form the cornices along the main walls. ORNAMENT 98. Painted glass did not enter into the designs in Southern France, as the windows were small and narrow and thus did not favor its display; but its use was gradually developed for the large openings in the northern buildings. The northern buildings presented much decorative diaper treatment in the spandrels of the arches that probably arose from an attempt to imitate in carving the color patterns of draperies that originally occupied the same positions. 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 213 GERMAN ROMANESQUE INFLUENCES 99. Geographical. During the days of the Roman Empire, cities had been established on the banks of the Rhine and to the south of it, and, when Christianity spread over Europe, these parts were affected first, while, in the north and east, paganism still flourished (see Fig. 43). 100. Geological. Stone was abundant along the Rhine, but in the northern plains there was none. Consequently, the character of the buildings in these two districts varied accordingly. 101. Climatic. Germany is subject to extremes of climate. In winter there is much snow for four months, and in summer the weather is decidedly warm, though not excessively hot. 102. Religions. Charlemagne being a strong sup- porter of Christianity, forced his religion on the Saxons. The conversion of the barbaric tribes made the ceremony of baptism one of great importance. 103. Political and Historical. After the death of Charlemagne (814 A. D.) the portion of his empire that fell to Lewis (see Fig. 26) became one of the three great sub- divisions. The chief power in the country gradually became vested in the great dukes and lords, just as had been the condition in France. In 911 A. D., the last descendant of Charlemagne died, and as there was no satisfactory heir to the throne, five of the great dukes got together and elected Conrad, Duke of Franconia, as their king. Thus Germany began as an elective kingdom. On the death of Conrad, a Saxon duke named Henry was elected king, and he was 214 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 the first of five Saxon kings under whose reigns Germany was to become the greatest power in Europe. Otho, suc- cessor of Henry, extended the boundary of the German Empire southwards to include Lombardy. After the sub- division of Charlemagne's dominion the Roman Empire ceased to exist, but with the establishment of the temporal power of the church, it was desired that the church should extend its influence and power over as wide a domain as FIG. 43 possible. Otho being an ardent churchman, as well as an ambitious sovereign, acquiesced in this idea, and in 962 A. D. he was crowned at Rome as emperor of the Holy Roman Empire of the West. Thus, a portion of the divided empire of Charlemagne became united. From this time on each German emperor received three coronations as king of Germany, as king of Italy, and as emperor of the West. 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 215 CHARACTERISTICS 104. The general style of German Romanesque archi- tecture is similar to that of Northern Italy, and though the Rhine districts present the best examples, there are fewer local characteristics than are found in France. Numerous circular and octagonal turrets with arcaded galleries under the eaves characterize the style. The church plans show no western entrances, but present apses instead, Fig. 42 (b) and (<:). The doorways are richly ornamented, and the capitals of the columns are bold in execution and unique in design. Vaulting appears about 50 years later than in France, and was first adopted in the provinces along the Rhine. The round-arched style, similar to that of Lom- bardy, lasted in Germany until about 1268 A. D. EXAMPLES 105. Church of the Apostles. The church of the Apostles, at Cologne, Fig. 44, is only one of several in that city that presents the leading characteristics of the German Romanesque style. The eastern end is carried out in three apses that open from three sides of the nave and are crowned by a low, octagonal tower, Fig. 42 (b}. The exterior is richly treated, and presents arcaded subdivisions crowned by a characteristic arcade of small arches under the eaves of the roof. The existence of these small arcades under the eaves of the structures in Germany and Lombardy is interesting, inasmuch as they are based on a structural condition. The buildings not being vaulted in these countries, there was no thrust on the upper walls; conse- quently, a light form of construction was permissible here for the purpose of supporting the beams of the roof. The walls had simply to support the superimposed load of the roof and roof trusses and did not have to withstand a horizontal thrust from vaults. There were therefore no flying buttresses over the aisles although fixed buttresses were necessary to support the aisle vaults. Fro. 44 FIG. 46 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 219 106. Cathedral at Worms. The Worms Cathedral, Fig. 45 (also those of Speyer, Mentz, and Treves), is a char- acteristic structure of this period. On each side of the east- ern and the western apse stand circular towers, while a low, octagonal tower marks the intersection of the nave and the transept. The walls are pierced with semicircular-headed windows that are flanked by small pilaster buttresses, and the entrance doors are at the sides, as is characteristic of many of the German churches [see the plans, Fig. 42 (b) and (<:)]. The interior of Worms Cathedral, Fig. 46, shows the char- acteristic German Romanesque arrangement. Semicircular ribs laid up in small cut arch stones extend diagonally from one corner of a bay to another, while the transverse ribs in slightly pointed arches separate the bays from one another. The nave wall is supported by rectangular piers, on every other one of which a semicylindrical shaft rises to the clear- story to receive the vault ribs. Two arches of the aisle vaults are included under each bay of the nave vaults. 107. Cathedral at Speyer. The Speyer Cathedral, Fig. 47, presents square towers where those of the Worms Cathedral are round, while a light arcade under the eaves of the roof indicates the absence of vaulting, as in the Italian Romanesque. 108. Cathedral at Bonn. The cathedral at Bonn, Fig. 48, introduces an octagonal tower of two stories with a tall spire over the intersection of the nave, but otherwise it presents practically the same features as the cathedral at Speyer. 109. All of these great churches are noteworthy for their picturesque grouping of external details and the successful combination of large and small turrets in one composition. The characteristic use of arcades in the exterior walls and the open arcades under the eaves render these German examples unique among the Romanesque structures in other countries, although the system of design was undoubtedly derived from the churches of Northern Italy. 220 221 FIG. 48 222 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 ANALYTICAL STUDY PLANS 110. In the German Romanesque style, the naves and aisles were vaulted over square bays, one bay of the nave receiving two from the aisles, as the latter were usually half the width of the nave. The choir ended in an apse, and was always raised over a crypt, as in Lombardy. Transepts were introduced at the west end as well as at the east, detracting somewhat from the cruciform plan, but they were nearly always crowned with low, octagonal towers. Numer- ous square or cylindrical towers added to the exterior effect. These towers are generally constructed in successive stories and finished under four gables and a steep, pyramidal roof, the hip rafters rising from the ridge of the gables, as in Fig. 48, and sometimes from the valleys between them as well, as in Fig. 47. WALLS 111. The walls present open arcades under the eaves and string courses, or cornices consisting of horizontal arcades, resting on corbels. There is always a clearstory and occasionally a triforium, or open space, between the clearstory and aisle vaults. ROOFS 112. Along the Rhine, barrel vaults covered the nave, and half vaults extended from the walls over the aisles to the base of the nave vault. Where the spans were excessive, timber trusses were used. Characteristic gabled and pyrami- dal roofs covered the towers, as heretofore described. COLUMNS 113. Square piers with half columns attached were used in the nave, and in many churches a characteristic arrange- ment consisted of alternate piers and columns. The capitals are boldly executed and designed with care and intelligence. 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 223 OPENINGS 114. The openings are usually single, but occasionally they are subdivided by mullions, as in Fig. 49 (a), which (a) FIG. 49 shows an example from the Laach Abbey Church. The doors are placed at the sides and rarely at the ends. 224 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 MOLDINGS 115. The moldings are of little importance and form no characteristic part of the style. The bases of the columns, however, show a divergence from the classic proportions, and suggest ideas that develop in a later style. ORNAMENT 116. The flat, plain surfaces on the interior walls were sometimes frescoed in colored designs that expressed the ideas set forth in the early Christian and Byzantine decora- tions. In the northern part of Germany, colored bricks and tiles were used, but being unsuitable for rich decoration there is an absence of sculptured foliage. The arches of the portals, when of stone, were richly carved, as may be seen in Fig. 49 (c) , which is an example from the Worms Cathedral, as are also the capital and base shown in (b} . The introduction of a leaf form on the corners of the plinth, to fill the triangular space caused by the moldings at the base, is characteristic of this period. Fig. 50 (/). 117. In Fig. 50 (c) is shown a 13th-century capital from Southern Germany, the treatment of the foliage on which is extremely simple and thoroughly pleasing. It is lighter than either the French or Italian examples shown at (a) and (' ^' i / \ v Y ft\** iirn^- FIG. 56 I / }^""/i 'v>-^. -,. '-^j C\ x / VvVx x '/ - **-/*> \ i ^^ x ^-X ^ ^ ^*^ ^ ^ 1** "^ ^ ^S ^ I themselves. The vaults were quadripartite, as the ribs divided them into four parts as shown in plan in Fig. 56 (b) 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 243 and in perspective in Fig. 54 (/>) Later in the 13th cen- tury, extra ribs were introduced into the vaults between the transverse and diagonal ribs as at eg, ag, c/t, a/i, etc., Fig. 56 (c). These ribs increased the strength of the vaulting by reducing the area of the surfaces to be "filled in," and ridge ribs ef and j k, Fig. 56 (c) , were then introduced to take up the thrust of these intermediates, as shown in Fig. 54 (c). Owing 1 to the increase in number of ribs they became lighter in section and were richly molded with carved bosses, or buttons, at their points of inter- section. 145. Decorated Vaulting (I4tli Century). A fur- ther elaboration of the system of vault ribs marked the de- velopment of vault- ing in the 14th cen- tury, until the surface of the vaults pre- sented a very com- plicated appearance, although the con- struction was still very simple. A new set of ribs, lying entirely in the vault soffit and not springing from the piers, now makes its appearance, and short, little ribs extend from the intermediates to the ridge ribs, as at hj, hk, and eg, Fig. 56 (/). This is called licrne vaulting, and presents the appearance shown in Fig. 54 (d). This progressive elaboration of the vaulting ribs increased until the spaces between the ribs became so small that each could be spanned by a single stone, giving to the system the name of rib-aucl-paiiel A-aultiiig; while, owing to the FIG. 57 FIG. 58 244 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 245 form of the plan, the designs are frequently termed -stellar vaulting (see Fig. 57). Stellar and lierne vaulting com- bined is shown in Fig. 54 (e) and in plan in Fig. 56 (.a^r*fe^^ ^.r rar ^PJ?^ ', oc '.^B^*ST_?' ^;-5T ; -'K^i^$i ? ^fer-'i l-l J=LLTLl -t Til h |-JL ! j I | J-14-IM NTH M I I-H L.-U-J I, *M 50 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 279 some of the windows very elaborate, but at the same time detracted from their simple beauty, as in (/) The curvi- linear tracery shown in (/') was frequently carried to greater extremes, as shown in (/) , making the window appear broader and introducing an even number of panels in the lower half, subject to decorative effects in stained glass. 166. In the Perpendicular period, the tendency to divide the window into two portions the upper half geometrical in construction, and the lower half narrow in the panels : : .. nnmnl FIG. 82 became more emphasized by dividing the lower half into two series of panels, as shown in Fig. 8r(a), and carrying the details of the upper portion out in a similar series of panels interspersed with intersecting split bars. Occasionally, where there was an even number of panels, these bars split at the center and continued to the window head in a simple curve with vertical subdivisions between, as in (a), or, particularly where there was an odd number of panels, they were carried I L T 1015 280 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 straight to the window head, as in (b], and the side lights only framed under a curved rib. The advancement in the system of vaulting, depressing the arches of vault surfaces, required that the window heads should be crowned by a flattened arch in order to correspond with the vault surfaces on the inside. Thus, in Fig. 81 (c ) there is an extension of the principle shown in (b) a wider window and a depressed vault. In (d) is shown a window where the tracery has degenerated into a series of vertical panels, and in ((?), a window similar in design to that in (d), but with longer panels and more tracery in the head. Fig. 82 shows one end of St. George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, in which the perpendicular treatment of the entire end of the building includes a series of panels of window tracery. 167. Circular windows were introduced at the ends of the naves in the late Norman and Early English periods. The window shown in Fig. 81 (/) is strongly characteristic of Norman, and shows the application of the tooth ornament. In (g) is shown a window from Lincoln Cathedral that was designed about the same period as that shown in (/), and, though still retaining Norman details, it indicates a leaning toward the Early English principles. The Decorated period, however, comes out strongly in its circular windows with foliated openings, as in (h). In some cases, there is a wheel construction as at (z). These circular windows are usually termed rose windows. 168. Doorways. The Norman doorway was at first a simple arched opening with quoined stones on each side, as shown in Fig. 83 (a), but later it was recessed and elab- orately ornamented on the jambs, as may be seen in IfHey Church, Fig. 68, and in Fig. 83 (b). The simpler form of doorway in the Early English period is shown in (c). This doorway is simply a square head with shoulders, but with the development of the period appears the pointed arch characteristic of the style, the recessed jambs with moldings and columns, and the decorative treatment shown in (d). 282 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 50 During the Decorated period, simpler doors presented fewer moldings, but had elaborate decorative effects on the moldings, as shown in (e). The dripstone over the door head frequently rested on two carved heads, usually those of the king and the bishop or of two prominent ecclesiastical officers. The tops of the openings during this period were sometimes foliated as in (/), the capitals of the columns and the jambs were carved with leaf ornaments, and occasionally a series of crockets was worked over the dripstone. Perpendicular doorways were frequently square openings within which a pointed arch was struck. Over all a square lintel and a drip were executed, and the spandrels were filled with tracery, as in (g). The jambs were decorated with a series of columns, and the general contour formed a simple splay. MOLDINGS 169. In the earliest Norman construction, the moldings simply consisted of a series of projected courses of stone, as shown in Fig. 84 (a). The corners of alternating courses were sometimes chamfered off and a roll carved on the course between, but with the introduction of the pointed arch it became the pointed roll, or boltel, as in (b). The Early English moldings consisted of bold, round boltels with deep-cut hollows, producing strong effects of light and shade. They were carved on the same projecting courses as in the Norman, as shown in Fig. 84 (c), but pre- sented a greater variety in appearance. In the Decorative period, the moldings, as shown in (d), were not cut so deeply, though they were based on the same details as in the preceding style. In the Perpendicular period, instead of being cut on the projected courses of the masonry work, the surfaces on which they were cut seem to have been reduced simply to plain surfaces, and the lines of the moldings sunk beneath it, as shown in ( Jz O J-i V) l ' :" rfr t t t t t t t ^ . .mtttttii (w >** ^ CH.OIR M NAVS 8 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 frequently concealed under the roof slopes of the aisles. (See Fig. 64, History of Architecture and Ornament, Part 2.) By this system, the nave walls were carried on a series of small columns, and the thrusts of the roof vault were taken up by a series of flying buttresses. The building thus con- sisted of a vault and upper nave walls carried on a series of columns and props (Fig. 3), and the enclosing walls along the aisles became mere screens between the structural details. As a result of this ingenious system of building, the screen walls could be pierced by vast windows, which, with their flood of colored light through the painted glass, added greatly to the impressiveness of the interior. EXAMPLES 7. Notre Dame Cathedral. Notre Dame at Paris, Fig. 1 (erected 1163 to 1214), is one of the oldest French cathedrals and presents a plan, Fig. 2 (a), typical of the French Gothic style, although the structure has been sub- jected to many alterations and additions. It has a wide central nave with double aisles and small transepts that do not project beyond the sides, as in the English examples. The view down the nave, Fig. 3, is most impressive. The massive piers supporting the nave walls are crowned with Corinthian capitals, showing the influence of the geo- graphical position of France. From each of these capitals springs a cluster of three attached columns, which spread into the ribs of the vault above. This treatment adds to the lofty appearance of the nave, but was improved on in later examples by having the attached columns spring from the ground line and extend as an unbroken rib to the crown of the vault, as at Amiens, Fig. 12, while other attached columns support the aisle arches and vaults. It should be borne in mind that, as broad as this plan, Fig. 2 (a), appears, the nave only is carried up to the full height and roofed, as shown in Figs. 4 and 5 (a), and that the dead-weight of this nave wall and the crowning vault 110 feet above the pavement is carried on the nave columns a, FIG. 3 NOTRE DAMS CATHEDRA!,. EXTERIOR ELEVATir OFAI-SI.EWAI.I, f> CLERESTORY U (&) FIG. 5 ftloft ELEVATION or NA.VC WALL 12 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 Fig. 2 (a), while the tremendous outward thrust is taken up by flying buttresses to the fixed buttresses. The weight of these flying buttresses in themselves is an important factor in retaining the thrust of the roof vaults against the bases on which they lean. It should therefore always be remembered that a flying buttress is a prop. Notre Dame presents the first Gothic vault of monumental proportions and the first practical demonstration of the possibilities of Gothic construction. A continuation of the double aisles around the eastern end of the plan, forms a chevet, which is a characteristic detail of French cathedral plans. The chevet consists of the passage- way around the end of the church and usually includes the apse. The west front of Notre Dame, Fig. 1, is one of the grandest elevations in France. A high, pierced screen masks the gable at the end of the nave between the two towers, and the horizontal band of sculptured figures, together with the open screen of interlaced arches, produces strong horizontal elements in the design, an effect that was avoided in later examples. Here, however, the bold projection of the buttresses and the freedom of the towers preserve the pre- dominance of vertical lines. The towers stand practically free for nearly half their height, which lends much to their impressiveness. They are magnificent in themselves, being simply and finely proportioned and possessing openings of great magnitude. Entrance is effected through three portals at the end of the nave and aisles. These portals have recessed arches, as in the Romanesque entrances, the central portal being six arches in depth, and the soffits of the arches being filled with elaborate carvings and statuary, as shown in Fig. 6 (a). The main lines of this design are repeated in the more elaborate designs that follow it. However, notwithstanding its simplicity, this edifice still remains unsurpassed in noble dignity and harmonious proportions. 8. Bourges Cathedral. Bourges Cathedral, which was commenced in 1190, resembles Notre Dame somewhat in 14 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 plan, but differs from it in having no transepts. It is very short in comparison to its width, but with its nave 117 feet in height and unbroken by transepts, it presents one of the most imposing interiors of the period, Fig. 7. The city of Bourges is only a few miles south of Paris, but there is a material change in the climatic conditions, and this change is strongly reflected in the manners of the people and the architecture. Here, the old Roman ideas were well rooted, and the Gothic style never entirely overthrew them. Pointed and round arches are freely intermingled, apparently with little discrimination, but usually with characteristically Gothic supports and mullions. The west front of this structure, Fig. 6 (), presents five portals, each opening on a separate aisle. The portals are deeply recessed and are carried out slightly beyond the but- tresses, instead of simply piercing the walls between the buttresses, as in Notre Dame. 9. Chartres Cathedral. Chartres Cathedral, Fig. 8, was built between the years 1194 and 1260, and is noted for its sculptures, its spires, and its painted glass. While there is not so much painted glass in this structure as in the cathedral at Bourges or at Rheims, it is particularly brilliant and rich in color effect. The sculpture of the west front of the Chartres Cathedral forms one of the most important collections of Gothic statues in Europe. The transept porches are also richly carved, and present examples unex- celled in any other structure. Over the main portals is a magnificent rose window, which fills the entire tympanum of the nave vault within. This window is beautifully designed in Early Gothic plate tracery, and dates from the early part of the 13th century. Although at first, the north tower at Chartres seems to be more interesting than its mate, closer study reveals detail in the south tower that characterizes it at once as one of the most interesting in the country. The octagonal spire springs gracefully from the top of the square tower, and the method of joining the two forms is most ingenious. It is I LT 30321 18 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 accomplished through the employment of eight gables, which serve as finishes at the top of the tovver buttresses, and at the same time cover the junction of the octagonal spire with the square tower. In simplicity of style and purity of line, the south tower is one of the noblest examples of the Early Gothic style. The north tower is more ornate, but the upper stages are weak and there is a lack of continuity between the lower part and the portion above the screen-wall arcade. Towers were planned to flank the transepts, but they were never carried above the nave walls. The plan of Chartres, Fig. 2 (c), shows a double row of aisles around the choir, but only a single row each side of the nave west of the transepts. The flying buttresses that support the nave vault are in three tiers, one above the other, as can be seen in Fig. 8, the lower two being connected with radiating arms, like the spokes of a wheel, as shown in Fig. 9 (a). This arrangement enabled the builders to make the lower arch very light, as the weight of the one above it would keep it in place. 10. Reims Cathedral. Reims Cathedral, Fig. 10, built between 1212 and 1241, presents a western front similar in outline to, but more elaborate than, Notre Dame. The facade is strongly marked by vertical lines and is unusually high in proportion to its width. The openings are tall and narrow, and the gables introduced over the portals are acutely pointed, all of which tends to give the fagade a lofty aspect that is very imposing. There is one horizontal fea- ture in the upper part, consisting of a gallery of niches con- taining statues. This, however, is broken around the towers so that the vertical feeling is not interrupted. The rose window over the central portal is a very beautiful example of tracery work, but its insertion under a pointed arch seems to be badly conceived, as the two forms do not harmonize. The triangular spandrels above the arch are filled with curious carved figures that are varied in size to suit the space, while the canopied niches each side of the portals contain figures of the Madonna and the Apostles. The FIG. 10 20 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 portals at Reims are similar to those at Amiens, Fig. 11, except that they are shallower and contain glass windows in the tympanum instead of carvings. The change is not an improvement, as the glass does not show to good effect on the exterior; neither does the interior require extra illumina- tion at this point, while carving would look well. The number and size of the flying buttresses at Reims, with their elaborately carved crockets and canopies, as shown in Fig. 9 (6), are not excelled in any part of France. The general tendency, however, is toward an overelabora- tion, or redundancy, of ornament. The detail is beautifully and wonderfully executed, but there is too much of it. 11. Amiens Cathedral. The plan of the cathedral at Amiens, Fig. 2 (), is generally considered as typical of the French style. It has been neither altered nor rearranged since the erection of the structure in 1288, and consequently does not present that mixture of period details which char- acterizes the English plans. The plan consists of a broad nave between aisles of half its width, and the aisles extend around the choir at the east end, where chapels between the buttresses form a chevet. The transept is constructed with aisles similar to the nave, but does not duplicate the nave in treatment, as was done at Reims and Chartres. This elabo- ration of the transept and the introduction of chapels between the buttresses developed from the previous style, but the elaboration of the fronts as they appear in Northern France is far beyond anything attempted in the designs of the Romanesque period. 12. The Amiens, Reims, and Notre Dame cathedrals are all different, yet they present many points of similarity in detail. The facade of Amiens, Fig. 11, consists of two towers in front of the aisles and a screen wall between them, enclosing the nave. The lower portion is occupied by three portals, the central one opening into the nave and the other two opening into the aisles. Immediately above these portals are two bands of arches extending across the entire fagade. The upper band consists of a series of niches FIG. 11 22 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 containing statues, and the two occupy a portion of the trifcrium on the interior. Above the arcades, the wall is p'ierced by an elaborate rose window that corresponds in position with the clearstory of the nave. At this point the two towers disengage themselves from the front wall and take form as separate details, although the screen wall is still carried up between them, and is crowned with two series of arcades that cover the end of the nave vault. This treatment of the fagade is characteristic of the French style, and variations of it are to be found in Notre Dame and Reims. The proportions of Notre Dame Cathedral are better, owing to the superior designing of the towers and their relations to the rest of the building. The nave of Notre Dame is not so lofty as that of Amiens, as it was built a half century earlier. Therefore, the rose window at the end of the nave lies immediately over the central portal, with only one intervening band of statuary. However, this permits the arcade above the rose window to be much more developed in Notre Dame, where it extends across the entire fagade and forms a prominent detail of the front, entirely covering the end of the nave. The west facades, and especially the portals, are the glory of the French style. There are no entrances in England that can compare with the portals of Notre Dame, Amiens, Bourges, Chartres, or Reims. Peterborough and Lincoln have distinctive portal treatment, but in neither case approach the dignity of the French examples. 13. Elaborate decoration is characteristic of Gothic style in all countries. The designers never seemed to weary of an elaboration of details, and even when the execution is crude and unskilled, there is a sincerity about it that always makes it interesting. The sculpture of the portals presents figures in great profusion, but without any feeling of over- elaboration or redundancy. There is always, throughout the fac.ades, a judicious arrangement of highly decorative and plain surfaces, so that a neutral balance prevails throughout the design. 24 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 14. The nave of the cathedral at Amiens, shown in Fig. 12, presents one of the most imposing interiors in Europe. The dimensions are unusual, and the feeling of vastness is expressed without overstraining any one detail. This nave is 470 feet long and 144 feet wide, and the vault- ing over it is 140 feet above the pavement. The walls of the interior are plain and present a marked contrast in this respect to the elaborate sculpture on the exterior. The capitals are simple, and the columns consist merely of four semidetached shafts, grouped around a circular pier. A band of simple carving extends along the top of the nave wall, marking the beginning of the triforium, while the clear- story and triforium themselves present very little decora- tion. The vault ribs are simply molded and as few as possible in number, unlike the vaults of England, and the vertical lines, beginning at the base of the columns, sweep unbroken into the crown of the nave vault with a simplicity that adds greatly to the impressiveness of the interior. 15. Abbey Cliurcli of St. Ouen. The Abbey Church of St. Ouen, at Rouen, the plan of which is shown in Fig. 2 (/), is one of the most interesting structures in France. This abbey is the most ancient in Normandy, having been founded in the year 533; but the present church was not begun until 1318. It has been burned and rebuilt twice, so that there is little left of the original structure except in the northern apse of the transept. The rest of the edifice was erected between 1318 and 1345, and is probably the latest pure Gothic work of importance in France. St. Ouen exemplifies absolute perfection of lightness and grace. The disposition of ribs and buttresses represents the most admirable arrangement of balanced thrusts. Its Gothic framework is merely a skeleton. The tracery is flamboy- ant, but flamboyant restrained within reasonable limits, and although the church is most beautiful from every aspect, it has the appearance of being almost overdelicate for so large a building. The tower, Fig. 13, at the intersection of the transept and nave suggests English influences, as .this FIG. 14 28 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 arrangement was characteristic of the English cathedrals. The western fagade, Fig. 14, is of much later date than the rest of the structure. 16. Abbeys and Monasteries. There were many abbeys and monasteries founded throughout France. Prob- ably one of the most interesting is that of Mount St. Michel, Fig. 15, on the coast of Brittany. It is built on a lonely rock that rises abruptly from the sea, but at a point where the tides rise and fall to such an extent that a part of the time it is surrounded by a vast expanse of wet sand and the rest of the time with pounding waves of the ocean. Originally founded as an abbey, it afterwards became a fortress, as it was close to the coast, and in the numerous wars in which Normandy was involved, it was dragged into conflict. The early history of the abbey is lost, but it was founded, according to tradition, in the first decade of the 8th century, although no traces remain of any constructions earlier than the llth century. However, during the dark ages, it pre- served the thread of history and kept alive the ancient arts and sciences. The town of Mount St. Michel is surrounded oy a military wall that is protected by towers and turrets. Within this wall lines of ramparts wind about the hill toward the monastery at the top. These ramparts are fortified in every way known to medieval warfare. At the top of the hill, the real entrance to the monastery is reached after climbing a long flight of stone steps. The entrance is flanked by two great towers, with ominous machicolations between them, as shown in Fig 16. 17. The Abbey Church is at the top of the rock. The interior presents a picturesque combination of columns and arches, of both Norman and Gothic design, almost over- whelming in massiveness. From the center of the magnifi- cent Norman nave, its massive details can be compared with the delicate traceries of the Gothic choir, Fig. 17; but even more interesting than this is the contrast between the crypt FIG. 16 Fio. 17 I L T 30322 32 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 under the church and the cloisters of the so-called "Gothic marvel" on the other side of the mount. The fact that the monastery was built on a mount rising from the sea prevented the planning of the structures from being carried out strictly on the Benedictine system. The difficulties over- come in the construction of the building on the north side have given it the name "Gothic marvel." The structure is situated at the top of a rugged cliff 160 feet above the level of the sea, which cuts it off from the mainland. All the granite used was quarried on the mainland coast by the monks and then transported across the intervening water. The building is in three stories, the lowest containing the almonry, or place for the distribution of alms; the intermedi- ate story, the refectory and chapter room, Fig. 18, for the Knights of St. Michel; and the third, the dormitory and cloisters. The chapter room was finished about 1220 and contains four vaulted aisles of unequal width supported on three rows of columns, two of which rest on the piers of the almonry, while the third row rests on the rock itself. The columns and their capitals, together with the ribs of the vaulting, are deserving of special study. The capitals, though similar in general appearance, are widely different in detail, and each vault rib descends independently to the circu- lar abacus. The simplicity of the ribs and the arrangement of the joints are typical of Early French Gothic construction. 18. Above the chapter room, as just stated, are the cloisters, Fig. 19. These were finished in 1228, and are considered to be the most delicate and graceful of Gothic structures. They are built around an open court, similar to the Moorish Court of the Alhambra [see Fig. 80 (a)], and it would appear, in spite of the isolation of the spot, that some Moorish influence had been at work when they were designed. Toward the central court, the cloisters are supported by a double row of pointed arches resting on slim granite pillars having an exquisitely groined, narrow vault behind the rows. The capitals are of the plain bell form with circular abacuses, which are common in English Gothic examples but rare in 34 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 French Gothic. The piers of one arcade alternate with the point of the next, and allow the introduction of a graceful scroll from the capital of each alternate pier. The spandrels are elaborately worked in foliated ornament that is beauti- fully executed and still in a fine state of preservation, and the whole is surrounded by a cornice composed mainly of flowers carved in soft limestone, of which material the arches and other carvings are also composed. The remainder of the construction is of granite. ANALYTICAL STUDY PLANS 19. There seems to have been a wide difference in ideas between the English and the French Gothic architects. The plans of the English cathedrals were long and narrow, the length being about six times the width, and the vaults over the naves were low. Cloisters were a characteristic detail, owing to the fact that many English cathedrals were erected on the foundations of, or through the influence of, the monas- teries. The cloisters connected with the separate buildings, and the transepts were bold and conspicuous, projecting so far from the main structure as to form a distinctly crucial plan. In France, however, the plans are short and wide, being about four times as long as the width. The naves are very high. The cloisters are rarely found in any example, except in the extreme south, and the transepts are slight in pro- jection, except in a few instances, as in Rouen Cathedral, Fig. 2 (e), while in some cases they are omitted entirely. Side chapels within the church are numerous and are often introduced between each pair of buttresses, as the adoration of individual saints was popular in France and the saying of special masses was more in vogue than in England. In fact, side chapels are seldom met in England, owing to the monastic foundation of the English churches. The east end of the French church is round, as a rule, forming the chevet, Fig. 2, or processional aisle, while the 51 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 35 English structure was square across the end. Double aisles, as at Notre Dame, Amiens, Bourges, Reims, and Chartres, are common in the French plan, while only two churches in all England possessed this characteristic. Two towers emphasize the western elevation of the French cathedrals, and only a small pinnacle emphasizes the intersection of the transepts and the nave except in the church of St. Ouen, Fig. 13; whereas, in the English cathedral, the tall central tower at the intersection of the transept was the most promi- nent feature of the structure. Occasionally, in England, prominence was given to a single western tower, as in some western churches, or to double towers, as at West- minster; and in some parts of Normandy, central spires are common. WALJ.S 20. The early English buttresses were flat projections. Later, they were much more pronounced and diminished in depth as they arose, the offsets occurring at two or three intervals of the height, the top being crowned with a pin- nacle, and the sides being ornamented with niches and later with panels. In France, the buttresses appear in the Romanesque period about as in England, although they are sometimes semi- circular in plan. Later they became very deep, but they do not appear prominently on the exterior of the church, owing to the facts that chapels were built between them and that the walls of the church were built at the outside of the but- tresses instead of at the inside [see Fig. 2 (a), ($), and (), was, however, an FIG. 20 emblem of repentance and atonement. According to tradi- tion, these birds sometimes killed their half-grown young, and then, repenting their deed, tried to restore life. This 40 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 they did by tearing open their own breasts and feeding their own life's blood to the dead offspring. 26. The capitals of the columns and piers show a derivation from the Corinthian order. Crocket capitals and the stiff -leaf foliage under a square abacus are also to be found. The molded bell capitals without any foliage what- ever are rare, except in Normandy, where English influences were felt. In England, however, the classic type of capitals is rarely found. The earliest carved capitals introduced the characteristic stiff-leaf foliage, and throughout all periods the bell form with the liberal projection is used under certain conditions. The abacus of the columns is seldom square, but is frequently octagonal or polygonal and usually round. In the Early French capitals, the foliage springs directly from the tops of the shaft, as shown in Fig. 21 (a), and spreads out so as to support the octagonal abacus; later, however, the foliage was carved on the surface of a bell- shaped core, as shown in (b). The structural relation between the foliage and the core being entirely ignored, the character of the foliage itself finally degenerated into forms similar to that shown in (c], where there is neither reason nor symbolism in the design. The capital shown in (a) is a conventional arrangement of foliage made to crown a supporting member. In (b) there is a naturalistic rendering of a vine growing around the top of a supporting member, playing a decorative but not a structural part. In (c) there is a grotesque foliation planted against the top of a supporting member. This plays neither a decorative nor a structural part, and it actually destroys the governing lines of the support. These three capitals are, respectively, examples of the Early French, Rayonnant, and Flamboyant periods. 27. The running ornament presents the same character- istic during the three periods, as shown in Fig. 21 (d), ( (^)> and (z) are shown three bosses as they were carved at the intersection of the vault ribs. FIG. 22 28. The stairway shown in Fig. 22 is from the cathedral at Rouen. The tracery work of the balustrade is elaborate in design and refined in execution. The designs of the first three runs are different, and the entire composition is as light and dainty as can be found anywhere in France. 51 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 43 The decorative sculpture in the English style, however, was not carried out nearly so extensively as in the French style, although the walls of Lichfield Cathedral and Westminster Abbey are rich in this respect. The "dog-tooth" is very common in the ornament of the early style, but the carved work varies considerably in successive periods, being con- ventional in the Early English period and decidedly natural- istic in the Decorated. The Perpendicular period returns again to conventionalism. Stained glass is found in both countries, although the best that existed in the French cathedrals was practically destroyed during the revolution. 29. Color Decoration. In England, color was applied to wall surfaces and to sculpture. The roofs and screens of the Perpendicular period show elaborate combinations, and these characterize the details of the French style also. In both cases are found hangings imitated in painted wall decorations, as well as representations of niches, canopies, and other architectural details. In Fig. 89 (^.,,^,.A ^. ^.-^-T^~,-T ........... ..f./".':- JLONOITUDINAL SECTION, J.ONGITUDWAL SECTION. (ft) FIG. 35 72 51 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 73 Renaissance period, and will be discussed later on. The campanile, or bell tower, adjoining the west front, Fig. 37, is built of red and white marble in four stories, each ot which is somewhat higher than the one below, thus pro- ducing a feeling of lightness that is augmented by the increased area of the openings in the upper part. The west fagade was not completed until the 19th century, but was designed to harmonize with the rest of the building. FIG. 36 Nothing could show more clearly the vast difference between the characteristics of Gothic architecture of North- ern and Western Europe and that of Italy than the fagades of the cathedrals. The flying buttresses and elaborately ornamented doorways of France, the wide transepts and long naves of England, and the richly traceried and lacelike spires of Germany are all absent from these Italian compo- sitions, with their symmetrical arrangement of parts and numerous horizontal lines. 66. Siena Cathedral. Siena Cathedral, whose plan is shown in Fig. 34 (c), is another example of wide spacing FIG. 37 FIG 88 76 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 of the arcades in the nave; but, here, this is not so extreme as at Florence. A remarkable dome is constructed over an irregular hexagon at the crossing, but not in the center of the nave as in other examples. The walls are heavy and only slightly buttressed, and the windows are small and high above the floor. Its western fagade, Fig. 38, is elabo- rately ornamented with tracery and statuary, but is far different from the fagades of Western Europe. This struc- ture is built of black and white marble laid in strips to form geometrical patterns, and is pierced by three great portals of equal size and by a rose window. No continuous per- pendicular lines occur in this fagade, but numerous horizontal elements prevail. The pinnacles on each side of the central gable are not centered over vertical elements in the first story, but over piers that rest on a horizontal string-course across the front. The portal heads are semicircular, instead of pointed, and are included under low gables embellished with crockets. 67. The wide spacing of the nave arcades gives a feeling of largeness and openness that does not exist in edifices in which the columns are more numerous. The interior of St. Croce, Fig. 39, exemplifies this, and at the same time demonstrates the fact that the appearance of great width detracts from the feeling of depth in the nave. In Southern Italy the plans were based on the Roman basilica type, but the naves have timber roofs of elaborate design, showing Oriental influences. The pointed arch was frequently used, as in the cloisters of the cathedral at Palermo, Fig. 40. These arches, however, were not molded as in Northern and Western Europe, but were elaborated with mosaic and tile. One of the strongest characteristics of these southern churches was the lavish display of mosaic decoration, in which portraits of biblical characters were executed in a crude, archaic style, and surrounded with borders of arabesque designs in gold and color. The lower walls were sheathed with white marble, with bases and borders of green and purple porphyry. 78 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 ANALYTICAL, STUDY PLANS 68. The influence of Roman antecedents is clearly shown in the plans of the Italian Gothic style. Here an endeavor is made to create a great central court in the churches, as at Florence and Siena Cathedrals, Fig. 34 (b) and (c). The nave bays are usually set out in square compartments, while the aisles are in oblong compartments, thus reversing the practice of Northern Gothic. Externally, a dome is found introduced, as at Siena and Florence, a detail that never appears in Northern Europe. WALLS 69. The use of small windows set high above the floor leaves vast wall spaces unbroken by buttresses, as these walls were heavy enough to withstand the thrust of the roof members without such assistance. Their omission, how- ever, destroys the tendency to vertical lines in the fagades, and a lack of shadow effect results. There is no attempt to emphasize the construction in the decorative treatment of the walls, the fagades being treated independently of the roofs and other structural details behind them. Variety in light and shade was attempted by facings of marble in hori- zontal bands of two colors, in contrast to the Northern Gothic, which attained a light-and-shade effect through the introduction of buttresses and other vertical elements. On the interior of the cathedrals, the triforium was usually omitted, as at Milan and Florence, Figs. 33 and 35. The clearstory then became little more than a spandrel of the nave vault pierced by a small, and usually circular, window. The arrangement of these arcades, with their widely spaced supports, gave the interior the appearance of a large hall, as in Fig. 39, rather than of a long nave, as in the Northern Gothic. I L T 30325 80 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 ROOFS 70. The structural details of the roof form no part of the design scheme. The roofs are usually low, as the climate does not require a steep pitch, and they are therefore hardly visible from the streets. The end gables, when they exist, are somewhat masked behind high screen walls richly ornamented with tracery or encrusted with marble mosaic. COLUMNS 71. The nave piers of the churches are singularly clumsy and inelegant. Square piers composed of four pilasters set back to back are frequently used, as are also heavy round piers with Corinthian capitals and classic bases, recalling Roman influences. These were widely spaced so that the long perspective effect characteristic of the naves in Northern Europe was never attained. OPENINGS 72. The windows are rarely pointed as in the northern cathedrals, because the formation of the vault did not require it. Semicircular heads are more prominent, and some open- ings are simply closed over with a lintel. When the pointed arch was used, it was frequently designed with a deep-molded keystone, a method borrowed from the semicircular arch of the Romans, but having no real significance in the Gothic style, as with the pointed arch a keystone is not required. MOLDINGS 73. Roman models were used for the moldings, but with less variety, as colored marbles gave the necessary horizon- tal elements where required and vertical elements were not in much demand. Molded elements were always subor- dinate to surface decoration. 81 FIG. 41 82 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 ORNAMENT 74. During this period, the art of the fresco painter was greatly developed and led to the perfection attained in wall decoration during the succeeding period. Many build- ings were erected devoid of all manner of wall treat- ment, and depended entirely on fresco details for decorative effect. In carved work, the traditions of ancient Rome prevented such extremes of grotesque as characterized Western Europe; but in the execution, more attention was usually given to accessories than to the general design. On the altars, tombs, and pulpits, carving and mosaic work were lavished unstintingly, as shown in Fig. 41 (a), and further ornamental work was attained in the colored marble veneers of the fagades and the marble mosaic of the pavements. Traceried screens [Fig. 41 (b) to (/)] were a prominent characteristic of the palaces and other secular buildings (Art. 91). This tracery is particularly characteristic of the Venetian Gothic, and though based on no such structural conditions as the tracery work in England, it is delightful in its intricacy of detail. The fagades of the palaces of Venice being limited to straight water fronts would necessarily be tame and uninteresting were it not for this local system of design that introduces strong contrasts of light and shadow to relieve the rectangular elevations. Land was too scarce to permit of strong breaks in the fagades or the grouping of the masses of a building into principal and subordinate parts. The climatic conditions were not favorable to large openings to relieve the broad frontages, and the narrowness of the canals demanded a treatment that invited close inspec- tion. The elevations were therefore designed to consist of recesses and balconies behind rich traceried screens con- sisting of the pointed arch between columns, as in Fig. 41 (6) and (c), or of intersecting semicircular arches extending over alternate columns, as in (d). The tracery work some- times consisted of pointed arches, between which the super- imposed wall was pierced with quatrefoils, as at (e) and (/). 51 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 83 SPANISH GOTHIC (12.30 A. I), to 1450 A. D.) INFLUENCES 75. Geographical. Spain, Fig. 42, is a peninsula in the southwestern part of Europe. Mountain ranges divide the country into several sections that were peopled by rival races and were almost constantly at war. Andalusia, until FIG. 42 the close of the 15th century, was held by the Moors, who were Mohammedans. Their kingdom was surrounded by a wall of mountains and contained a wondrously fertile plain, the finest in the entire country. Andalusia originally 84 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 included all of Spain south of the Duero and Ebro Rivers and the Guadarrama Mountains. After the capture of Toledo by the Christians, at the end of the llth century, the Moors were confined to the extreme southern part of the country. 76. Geological. Stone was generally employed in Spain, although granite and marble were also used. The Moors used rubble work with brick bonding, and remarkable effects were obtained. 77. Climatic. The climate of Spain varies materially, according to the elevation. Burgos, in the north, is 3,000 feet above the sea and is exceedingly cold at times, while a portion of the south, particularly along the Mediterranean Coast, is tropical. 78. Religious. Constant warfare with the Moham- medan Moors effected a feeling of unity between the Chris- tians of Spain, and thus gave the Church great power. The cause of the wars was the hatred toward the Moorish race, as well as the opposition to the Mohammedan religion. It was fortunate for society that the Church had such influ- ence in that barbarous age, for at that time the priest and the monk together established the outward order and the inward life of the world. In fact, they often had greater authority than a chief or a king. The cathedral and the monastery were centers of power for good. There the ignorant were taught, the helpless protected, the poor shel- tered, and the starving fed. The monasteries also served as the hotels of the day, and hospitality to travelers was a chief duty. The Church, too, knew no distinction of rank or class. A slave might become a priest, a priest a bishop, a bishop a pope. Especially was this influence of the Church of value when there was no uniform law to supreme civil authority, and when invasions and civil wars were constantly filling the world with violence, bloodshed, and desolation. 79. Political and Historical. When the Romans left Spain, the Vandals of the African Coast took possession, after which the country was invaded by the Moors of North Africa, 51 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 85 and for 800 years their influence was continuous. Their con- structions, which still remain at Cordova and Granada, express the richness of their architecture in an exuberance of intricate detail in which the rich color effect is remarkable. In History of Architecture and Ornament, Part 2, Arts. 36 to 38, mention has been made of the rise of the Mohammedan tribes and their invasion of Western Europe. The Moors were a branch of these Mohammedan tribes, and although they invaded Southwestern Europe as far as Tours in France, they were driven out by Charles Martel and' confined to the Spanish peninsula. The beginning of the llth century found the old Moham- medan Dominions in Northern Spain divided into the Chris- tian states of Castile, Leon, Navarre, Aragon, and Portugal, and all these states were united in the endeavor to drive the Mohammedans into Andalusia. The kingdoms of Navarre, established in A. D. 873, Castile 1026, Aragon 1035, Leon 1037, etc., soon united under the banners of Castile and Aragon, while Andalusia was still held by the Moors. After the capture of Toledo (the Moorish capital), in 1084, and the battle of Tolosa, in 1212, the Mohammedan influence grad- ually declined. Under Ferdinand III, King of Castile and Leon, Seville and Cordova were taken, 1217 to 1252, and Gothic art took root and grew, assisted by the wealth of the conquered Moors. Through the marriage of King Ferdinand, of Aragon, and Queen Isabella, of Castile, all the small king- doms except Andalusia were united in the single kingdom of Spain. Ferdinand and Isabella, both ardent Christians, com- menced a vigorous campaign against the Moors, during which the King and Queen, together with the entire court, moved with the army, thus carrying royal wealth and influence, into the southern provinces. In 1491, when Granada, the last stronghold of the Moors, fell into the hands of the Christians, the entire peninsula of Spain came under the rule of a single sovereign. Joanna, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, married Philip, son of Emperor Maximilian, of Germany, in 1496, thus making Spain a part of the great German empire. 86 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 CHARACTERISTICS 80. In Southern Spain, Gothic art was always more or less under Moorish influence. The early churches of the Spanish conquerors seem to have been executed entirely in Moorish art. This influence is expressed in the introduction of Mohammedan details, such as the horseshoe arch and the pierced tracery of Moorish design. The window openings are entirely filled by intricate fretwork screens, which are rich in detail and elaborate in design. In other places, Gothic buildings are decorated with intricate geometrical surface ornament, in which foliated forms are introduced, thus dis- tinguishing them from the Moorish designs in which no animal or vegetable forms were used. The Gothic style was best developed in the extreme north, where French influences were felt. Leon Cathedral was modeled after Amiens, but exceeds it in the expanse of window openings. Broad surfaces and horizontal lines, derived from Roman influences, characterize Spanish art the same as they did Italian art, but the clear- stories in many of the Spanish cathedrals are characteristic features. The average inhabitant of Spain was indifferent to plastic art, the national artistic talents being limited to music. It mattered little to him whether his church was Gothic or Romanesque, so long as it was dedicated to his favorite saint. Spain developed no architecture of its own. All is borrowed. Byzantine grotesque and Moorish arabesque are inherited from the Goths of the North and the Moors of the South. The magnificence displayed in the cathedral interiors is due to the Oriental spirit that still throbbed in the veins of the country, as the Moors inhabited Southern Spain for 800 years. FIG. 43 88 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 EXAMPLES 81. Burgos Cathedral. Burgos Cathedral was built at the instance of an English bishop and had a French model as its prototype. The former influence may account for the magnificent lantern at the crossing, while the latter may have governed the plan. The plan presents a Latin cross with nave, aisles, and transepts, but owing to additions on all sides, except the west front, the plan has become very irregular and unsymmetrical. The original transepts pro- jected only slightly, and the aisle was carried around the east end, forming a chevet. Beyond the chevet, chapels were arranged that materially affected the exterior design. The interior of this cathedral, Fig. 43, is a view down the transept toward the south end, and shows the massive piers that support the great octagonal lantern over the crossing. The florid ornament, the richly carved canopies containing effigies of the saints, and the intricate traceries are all characteristic of the Spanish Gothic. The effect of the lantern itself is somewhat like a tall dome whose walls, supported on pendentives, are pierced by lancet windows and entirely covered with an intricate arrangement of sculptured arabesques, statues, ribs, and small columns. The ornamentation is as crowded as the leaves of a tree, and though the structure is gigantic in its proportions, it is as delicate as a piece of filigree. 82. Cathedral of St. Gregorio. The entrance to St. Gregorio Cathedral, at Valladolid, shows the effect of Moorish influence on Spanish design. The decorative detail, as in all Spanish examples, is elaborate and minute, the carving being extremely lacelike in its delicacy; but there is no suggestion of structural conditions no architec- tural significance of the ornamental details. The portal shown in Fig. 44 is an example of florid Gothic ornament, rather than of Gothic architecture. Strip the ornament from this edifice and the architectural condition would remain unchanged. Yet, withal, the effect commands admiration FIG. 44 90 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 by its beautiful intricacy and the patient devotion of the sculptor to the glorification of his religious ideas. Here, ostentatious display of details contrasts with the devoted simplicity of the Northern Gothic, but both are the outward expression of the same sentiment from two widely different races of people. 83. Segovia Cathedral. Segovia Cathedral, Fig. 45, although erected in the early part of the 16th century, adopted the wide nave and the semicircular chevet of French origin. The nave demands strong buttresses to withstand the thrust, while the chevet introduces that char- acteristic east end with radiating flying buttresses, as in the French cathedrals. There is more structural detail and less intricate ornamentation on the exterior of the Segovia Cathedral than in many other Spanish examples, and there- fore more Gothic feeling, although the construction dates from the Early Renaissance period. The hemispherical dome over the square tower at the crossing and the dome over the western tower are in no way harmonious with Northern Gothic ideas, but the strongly marked buttresses with pan- eled sides and numerous vertical elements are similar to later Gothic treatment in other parts of Europe. Such is the case with nearly all examples of Spanish Gothic architecture. The style does not possess sufficient origi- nality to be national in development, nor has it borrowed sufficiently from any source to be classed entirely with any foreign development. The Moorish surroundings affected much of the detail in some localities, while in others the cathedrals were built on the sites of ruined Mohammedan mosques. Such was the case with the Cathedral of Seville, which is the largest medieval cathedral in Europe. It bears some resemblance to Milan Cathedral, but its exterior is not pleasing and its skyline is monotonous. Its plan includes a nave and double aisles with side chapels as in other cathe- drals, but its proportions have no precedent in Christian architecture, as it was built to fit the space occupied by the previous mosque. 92 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 ANALYTICAL STUDY PLANS 84. The plans of the Spanish cathedrals are wide in comparison with the length. The choir is usually west of the crossing. The dome over the crossing is similar in treatment to examples found in Southern France. Tra- ceried, open spires surmount the towers at the west end, similar to these details in Germany. WALLS 85. The walls present an inclination toward French ideas, and in late examples, extreme florid ornamentation characterizes their treatment. ROOFS 86. The roofs were vaulted, but vaults were developed in decorative rather than in constructive features. The tra- ceries, bosses, and vault ribs are rich in effect, although the composition and design cannot compare with the English vaulting in interest. COLUMNS 87. The lantern at the crossing emphasized the central piers, as at Burgos, where they are circular in plan and very massive. The columns, in Seville Cathedral, were great piers for supporting the arcades, and the carved cap- itals, in characteristic form, were introduced in pairs. OPENINGS 88. The openings were large and numerous, and the triforium was sometimes glazed, as was also a part of the wall surface of the clearstory. Stained glass was exten- sively used. 51 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 93 MOLDINGS 89. Spanish moldings were based on French ideas with the introduction of local motifs. They are lacking in refine- ment of conception, as are all details of Spanish architec- ture. In a few isolated cases, the moldings are well chosen and well placed, but these are exceptions, and are in no way characteristic of the Spanish style. ORNAMENT 90. In the Spanish churches, the reredos, or screen behind the altar, was richly ornamented, being often as wide as the nave and reaching to the vaulting. It was usually constructed of stone, and was treated with canopies and niches containing figures, elaborate paneling being placed between. The painting was naturalistic, and the gilding was applied so solidly as to give the effect of real metal. Much s'culpture, frequently life-sized figures, was introduced, and stained glass, heavy in style and gaudy in colors, and elaborate grilles in hammered and chiseled iron bars relieved by figures beaten in repousse were also employed. These iron grilles, called rcjas, form one of the most characteristic details of the Spanish style. On the exterior, numerous sculptured figures were intro- duced, and these were intermingled with heraldic devices and running ornament until the panels of the walls were completely filled with decorative treatment. An excellent example of this is shown in the door of Valladolid Cathedral, Fig. 44. A characteristic of Spanish art is the demand for realism, no matter how inappropriate it may be. Simple sculpture is not sufficient, and as a result the statues are colored and frequently dressed in real clothes. As a result of this tend- ency, many of the sculptured figures of Spain look like waxwork, and the skill of the plastic artist is hidden beneath the draperies. 94 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 REVIEW EXERCISES 1. Describe the contrasting characteristics of the French and English cathedral plans and state why the general system of planning is less uniform in France than in England. 2. (a) What characteristics of the cathedral interiors is peculiar to France more than any other country? (b) What contrasting character- istics distinguish the interior effects of French and English cathedrals? 3. (a) Why are flying buttresses more prominent in France than in England? and (b) wall buttresses more prominent in England than in France? 4. What are the contrasting characteristics of French and English cathedral roofs? 5. What are the contrasting characteristics of French and English (a) nave columns? (b) doorways? (c) window tracery? 6. What are the characteristic Gothic structures in the Netherlands? 7. What peculiarity concerning the entrances of German cathedrals are characteristic of that country? 8. What (a) climatic; (b) geological; (c) religions; (d) political influences affected the character of Italian Gothic architecture? 9. (a) What are the characteristics of Italian Gothic architecture? (6) What are the contrasting characteristics of Italian Gothic and other Gothic cathedral plans? 10. In what way does the roofing system affect the Italian Gothic style? 11. (a) What part of Spain was occupied by the Moors up to the end of the XI century? (b) What are the natural boundaries of this section? 12. What foreign influences affected the Spanish Gothic style? 51 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 95 SECULAR ARCHITECTURE INTRODUCTION 91. As cathedrals were the first important structures of the middle ages, during which Gothic construction and ornamentation were developed, the studies thus far have been confined to the development of the Gothic system in these buildings. As a matter of fact, however, every build- ing that was erected in Western Europe throughout the 13th and 14th centuries was in the Gothic style. Among these were the feudal castles, which were first erected as fortresses and afterwards developed into residences, and the great gildhalls and municipal buildings erected by the crafts- men and citizens of the growing municipalities. The archi- tecture of these buildings varied in different localities, just as that of the cathedrals did, but their importance architec- turally is increased by their consideration as monuments of utility designed to suit the demands of different purposes. All cathedrals were erected for one purpose, and all cathe- dral plans presented the same general arrangement. More- over, these plans are the one detail that did not originate in the Gothic or the Romanesque style. The nave, aisles, transepts, and choir are all inheritances from the old Roman basilica. Cathedral building was progressive, but wholly in a structural sense. The problem in all countries was practic- ally the same: To cover with a stone roof a long narrow plan and to do this with the greatest economy of material. The feudal-castle plan, however, was always irregular to conform it to the hill on which it was built; and economy of material was impractical, as the defensive walls must needs be of immense thickness. Planning and construction, therefore, developed along different lines in these secular buildings. I L T 30326 96 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 MILITARY AND DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 92. The castles and residences of the nobles formed an important part of the architecture of the middle ages, and established details and peculiarities of plan that reflected the social conditions of the times and that have been retained in a more or less modified form down to the present day. (See History of Architecture and Ornament, Part 2, Arts. 45 to 47.) Though these castles were pri- marily military posts, they were at the same time the official residences of the lords or barons that governed the fiefs, and while they were built in accordance with the medieval ideas of defense, their planning is expressive of the feudal relation of the vassal to his lord, who exacted the vassal's services and therefore maintained him. 93. In the 12th century, the principal features of the castles consisted of a large outer court, or bailey, containing the stables and storehouses, and an inner court. This court was either partly or entirely surrounded by the various apartments of the castle, Fig. 46, all of which was sur- rounded by a high wall with a parapet and ramparts at the top, while a deep, water-filled moat, or ditch, surrounded the base. The moat was crossed by a drawbridge that could be raised when not in use, and the entrance to the courts was effected through a fortified gateway, which was pro- tected when closed by a huge iron gate, or portcullis that could be raised and lowered in grooves like a window sash [see Fig. 59 ()]. The castle proper surrounding the inner bailey consisted of a number of apartments. The principal one was known as the great hall, which was the main living room of the castle, where all meals were served, where all business was transacted, and where such amusements and pastimes as the age afforded were indulged in. The keep, or donjon, a forti- fied tower several stories in height, was entirely surrounded by a water-filled moat. This tower was the final place of refuge in time of siege and the last point of defense when 51 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 97 98 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 all other towers surrendered. Around the outside of the keep, supported on projecting corbels, was a parapet wall, the floor behind which was pierced between the supporting corbels with openings, through which the besieged could either shoot, or pour boiling oil, molten lead, etc. on the besiegers below. These openings, called machicolations, were a characteristic detail of the towers of every feudal residence. In the earliest days, the castle was heated by means of an immense fire-grate located in the center of the room, the smoke from which passed through openings in the roof, called louvers. In the 13th century, however, fireplaces were erected at the sides or ends of the rooms, and the smoke was carried off by means of chimneys. 94. In the 14th century, the great hall was divided into two apartments, one of which was known as the withdrawing room, where the lord and his family could retire after meals, but the hall was still retained for business and dining pur- poses. Sleeping rooms, when introduced, were often dark, cheerless apartments, and were designated by the term chamber, a word derived from the Latin, meaning a dark vault. With the growth of the royal power, the fortifications became a less prominent feature, as the danger of petty wars between the nobles was decreased. In the 15th cen- tury, the plans of the castles became more regular, generally rectangular in outline, but they still retained the inner bailey, or court, as in Fig. 46 (b] . These details developed differently in different countries, but the general character- istics prevailed throughout. 95. The early castles were usually located on the top of a hill, with the ground sloping away from all sides but one, and on this one side was the principal entrance. On the lower slopes of the hill was the town, or citl, as it was called, where the vassals of the nobleman grew their vines and plied their trades; but they held their various pieces of land subject to the rule and under the tenure or lease of the lord of the castle. Frequently, the cite" itself was surrounded by a fortified wall, and the castle was erected as a stronghold 51 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 99 within. The lord, in his turn, held his estate, or fief, subject to some higher political power, as a duke, or even the king, and his failure to comply with the demands of his superior would usually bring down a war upon his shoulders and necessitate the calling* of all his vassals to the defense of the castle. These petty wars were frequent, and generally resulted either in the partial demolition of the castle or in its entire subjugation and the passing of the fief into the hands of the enemy. In either case, the vassals were compelled to assist in the repair of the damaged castle walls. Each time this rebuild- ing became necessary, some more or less important change would be made in the construction, owing to experience gained with each war. Consequently, the architecture of these castles was rapidly progressive, until the use of gun- powder in warfare rendered the castle system of defense practically useless. None the less, the castle was the earliest form of nobleman's residence, and therefore the prototype of the modern mansion. Long after fortified resi- dences became obsolete, the castellated form was used even for a city residence, and as late as the middle of the 15th century many prominent features of both plan and elevation strongly resembled those of the days of the feudal system. This was in many cases due to the fact that a more modern building was erected over the foundations of the old feudal residence. The plan of the Chateau at Blois, Fig. 46 (b), was necessarily irregular on account of the site on which the castle was erected, and this irregularity was retained when in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries the three wings were successively rebuilt on the foundations of the older edifice. Other castles were not even rebuilt, but were simply remodeled within the old walls, thus retaining many char- acteristic features that advancement in domestic conditions had rendered obsolete. The following examples have been selected as illustrating the characteristics of the Gothic style of residence, but several of them were erected after the Gothic style had been superseded by the Renaissance. 100 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 EXAMPLES CASTL.ES AND CHATEAUX 96. Bodiam Castle. In Fig. 47 (a) is shown Bodiam Castle, in England, with its surrounding moat. The square tower was used more in England than on the Continent. The walls were usually crowned with the indented parapet all around, while the machicolations were generally confined to the towers. The openings in the walls were simply narrow slits through which bolts and arrows could be fired from bow guns and arbalests, but were too small to serve as targets for the besiegers. 97. Chateau Pierrefonds. The Chateau Pierrefonds, in France, Fig. 47 (), presents the typical French form of structure, although the large windows are of a later date. The circular towers at the angles and the machicolations around them and" along the curtain walls may be found in nearly all the chateaux of feudal France. As the middle-age nobleman began to take more interest in domestic architecture and details of planning were intro- duced that tended toward greater domestic comfort, he remodeled his feudal stronghold to suit the new conditions, and the result is seen in the irregular and picturesque Gothic chateau. The architectural development of the fortress chateaux during the Gothic period shows a growing beauty and richness of both form and detail. Luxurious Gothic ornament was lavished on halls and interior courts; also, dormers, pinnacles, and grotesques were numerous on the exterior, and produced the picturesque broken sky line that was characteristic of all Gothic work. There were many of these magnificent structures in France, but the majority of the most important ones have been either destroyed or entirely remodeled. Chateau Pier- refonds probably presents the best of the early examples. The date of the earliest construction at Pierrefonds is lost in obscurity, but there is a record of its having been (ft) FIG. 47 101 102 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 reconstructed, and that it was an unpretentious structure when it came into the hands of the king, about 1185 A. D. Louis of Orleans received it from his brother, Charles VI, and began to remodel it in 1398. Feudalism at that time was still a power in Europe, and Pierrefonds as it stood when finished, in 1406, was a thoroughly medieval fortress, built at the time when Gothic architecture had reached its greatest degree of perfection. 98. The plan included the characteristic inner court, upon which the principal living apartments opened. The exterior walls were plain, and presented few openings. They were of enormous thickness and were protected by eight massive circular towers, which were crowned with conical roofs. The towers and walls were both machicolated and battle- mented, with loopholes between the embrasures of the battlements. The main entrance was protected by a moat and a walled court and was closed by a portcullis. All the walls, except the court, rise from the edge of a steep bluff. The fagades on the quadrangular inner court are less military in appearance. The windows here are larger, and traceries and foliations are prominent in their design, as shown in Fig. 48 (a). Numerous dormer-windows are sur- mounted by crocketed gables and finials, and a traceried balustrade stands above the cornice. These, with grotesque gargoyles, heraldic animals, and richly carved moldings, com- bine to produce a most imposing architectural composition. In front of the main staircase is a bronze equestrian statue of the founder, the Duke of Orleans, and opposite, on the right, is the entrance to the chapel, with an elaborate rose window over the door. The inner court, from which a grand stairway usually leads to the several floors, became characteristic of French chateaux, and later governed much of the domestic architecture throughout France. 99. As the style advanced, the soaring character of the Gothic structures became more marked, and high-pitched roofs with elaborately gabled dormers were introduced. 103 (ft) FIG. 48 104 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 The elevations became more symmetrical and the windows were arranged with more regularity, as shown on the inner court of the Chateau Fontaine Henri, Fig. 48 (). 100. Hoensarzburg Castle. The castle of Hoensarz- burg, in Germany, Fig. 49 (a), shows the elevated position chosen for these edifices in order that they could command an extensive view of the surrounding country and thus guard against a surprise attack. 101. Fortified City of Carcassonne. Among the fortified cities, Carcassonne, in France, Fig. 49 (), presents about the only example now in existence. It has a double line of fortifications composed of fifty towers with curtain walls between, and a dominating citadel within. These fortifications date back to the 5th century, but were fre- quently altered or reconstructed up to the 14th century. After that they were allowed to fall into ruin until the middle of_the 19th century, when they were restored as nearly as possible to their original form by the French government architect. This class of Gothic architecture has been borrowed in modern design for armories and government buildings, forming parts of plans of defense. 102. Chateau at Blols. The most celebrated of these chateaux is the one at Blois, France, not only on account of its historical associations, but also on account of its archi- tectural development. Blois never was of much importance until 1498, when Louis XII, who was born there, became king of France. Blois then became a royal chateau. Louis XII, in the early part of his reign, rebuilt a portion of it, and the wing bearing his name, Fig. 50, presents one of the daintiest compositions in Gothic domestic architecture. This chateau was built around the characteristic inner court, and faced on a large, open, outer court, as it was erected on the lines of an old feudal castle. The fagade on the outer court, Fig. 50, consists of two stories, black and red brick being arranged to form a checker pattern. The windows are trimmed with light stone, which is laid with (6) FIG. 49 105 218-1 LT 101 51 FIG. 51 108 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 characteristic Gothic indifference as to uniformity of size or thickness. Some of these stones extend into the brickwork the length of three bricks, while others are toothed in only one brick length. The effect of this may be more clearly seen in the colored detail of the inner court elevation, Fig. 51. The contrast of color between the red brick and buff stone is here evident, and the detail of the dormers may be more closely studied. The entrance is composed entirely of stone, which flanks it on both sides in richly diapered columns, as in Fig. 52 (a). These columns support the base of a canopied niche, which contains a statue of Louis XII on his charger, as shown in Fig. 52 (b). The background of the niche was painted blue and on it the fleur-de-lis was contrasted in gold. Beneath is the crowned porcupine, the adopted emblem of Louis XII, and the crowned initials of the king and of Anne of Brittany, his queen. To the right of the main entrance is a little sally port for pedestrians, and over this a balcony projects in front of a recessed window. The roof is high and is cov- ered with purple slate, while studied dormer-windows center over the windows below. It will be observed that the only attempt at regularity in the entire elevation is in the arrangement of the windows to form a series of perpendicular lines. The entrance with its sally port at the side and the balcony above are all unsym- metrical, and the extension of the wall to the north is of different material, having been built a long time previous, during the 13th century. 103. The fac.ade on the inner court, Fig. 53, shows a similar arrangement of windows and dormers in the second story and roof, but the first story consists of an arcade supported on piers that are alternately square and round in plan, as shown in Fig. 54 (a). These piers, like the columns that flank the door on the outer court, are richly ornamented with carved diaper work on the round piers and long, carved panels on the square ones, the latter being sug- gestive of the coming Renaissance. At each end at the 110 ILT 30327 112 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 arcade stands a square pavilion, within which a staircase leads to the upper stories. The arcade continues beyond the south pavilion and supports a low second story adjacent to the chapel, as shown in Fig. 54 (l>). The chapel is a dainty structure, with an entrance at the southwest end, over which are carved in the soft stone, shields bearing the fleur-de-lis of the French kin** and the ermine of Anne of Brittany. 104. Private Chateaux. Among the chateaux that were erected by private citizens, that of Jacques Coeur, at Bourges, Fig. 55, is a fine example. The street front pre- sents a central pavilion, in which a large entrance, flanked by a smaller one, is inserted, as at Blois, and over it is a canopied niche to receive a statue. This form of entrance was followed in many of the constructions of this period, many of them being even more elaborate than the one at Blois, as was the case of the entrance to the chateau of the dukes of Lorraine, at Nancy, Fig. 56. On the inner-court side, the house of Jacques Coeur pre- sented a central tower, within which a staircase wound to the upper apartments, as shown in Fig. 57 (a). This tower was octagonal in plan, and at the angles were slightly pro- jecting buttresses that carried the vaulting under the stairs. It will be well to note these buttresses carefully, and also the canopy on the face of the central buttress, as these are details that reappear in a later structure of importance. The difference in the level of the windows on each side of this buttress is caused by the winding stairs, and as the windows on the right are lower, they indicate that the stairs ascend from that side. The floor levels on opposite sides of the stairs are also different, there being three tiers of win- dows on one side and only one on the other. This arrange- ment further indicates the Gothic indifference to symmetry. The central tower containing the stairs was a conspicuous feature of the French chateaux, another one at Bourges, the Chateau de Meillant, Fig. 57 (b], possessing a most elab- orate example, on each side of which the stories continue at the same level. FIG. 56 114 115 (ft) FIG. 58 116 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 105. Among the private chateaux is Chateau de Nacque- ville, shown in Fig. 58 (a). The residence portion of this building has been remodeled, and the old moat in front of the main terrace is now converted into a lily pond. The old entrance to the inner court, with its drawbridge and port- cullis, Fig. 59 (a), still stands, however, and serves as a grim reminder of the good old days "when knights were bold." 106. Cliaumont Chateau. The chateau of Chaumont, Fig. 58 (6), designed by Philipe de 1'Orme, occupies a bluff overlooking the river Loire and is most picturesque when viewed from the valley below. The situation is ideal for an edifice of this character, as its elevated position is most suit- able for this style of architecture. The early history of Chaumont is a varied one, as it frequently changed hands not only among French masters, but among foreigners also. In 1169, it was held by the English. Nothing of importance concerning Chaumont is recorded until the 15th century, when it was destroyed by Louis XI and rebuilt by the duke of Amboise. Chaumont is less fortresslike in appearance than Pierrefonds, but it does not present the horizontal lines and strong classic details that mark later structures. It would therefore appear to have been erected earlier than the chateaux at Chenouceau and Blois, although de 1'Orme was state architect under Henry II. The ground plan of Chaumont is fundamentally that of a medieval fortress. Almost as irregular as the castle of Coucy, Fig. 46 (a), it spreads out fan-shaped, with the entrance at the narrow end and a round tower at each angle, while its broad side overlooks the river. The sides enclose an irregular court, upon which the windows of the principal apartments open, as in Pierrefonds, Fig. 48 (a). There is an overhanging battlemented gallery running entirely around the outer wall of Chaumont, but it is roofed over, making a continuous covered passage. The main roofs are steep and the tower roofs are pointed like a candle extinguisher, thus producing an irregular sky line that strongly assists its Gothic feeling. 118 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 About the middle of the 16th century, Chaumont was pur- chased by Catherine de Medici, who owned it for 9 years. After that it was sold and resold many times, until in the 18th century, it was bought by a Mr. Leray, who turned it TOWE& HATFIEL& HOUSE W FIG. 60 into a tile factory. The fact that this chateau was used for such a purpose saved it from the depredations of the revo- lution, in 1793, when other chateaux were either burned or razed by the revolutionists. Chaumont had so long been a tile factory, that it was not considered a royal possession. 119 FIG. 61 120 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 107. Kenilwortli Castle. Although over a thousand fortified residences were erected in England during the llth century, comparatively few are known at the present day. Some, being a menace to royal power, have been destroyed, while others have been modernized and still serve as resi- dences. Probably the most renowned of these feudal castles is Kenilworth, made immortal by Scott's historical novel of that name. Its plan, Fig. 60 (a), is typical of the English FIG. 62 castle, and in extravagance of apartments and magnificence of furnishings, it was one of the finest castles in England. 108. Warwick Castle. Among the early castles still standing that have been converted into modern residences is Warwick, Fig. 61 (a). This illustration shows the inner court as it exists today, closed at one end by the original structure and flanked on the right by the modernized build- ings that are occupied by the Earl of Warwick. The two large towers are known as Caesar's tower and Guy's 121 FIG. 63 122 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 tower. The former, completed in 1370, is an irregular polygon, 147 feet high, while the latter was named after Guy, the legendary first earl of Warwick. Guy's tower is twelve-sided, 30 feet in diameter at the base, and has walls 10 feet in thickness and 128 feet in height. The cen- tral, or clock, tower, Fig. 61 ($), contains the entrance to the court, as shown. This entrance opens into a long passageway cut through solid rock, and this passageway is guarded at the opposite end by another tower containing a portcullis, as shown in Fig. 59 (). The castle was built on the banks of the river Avon, over which the resident section of the structure stands today, as shown in Fig. 62. 109. Palaces in Germany. Germany did not develop its palaces at such an early period as France, although there were castles and military strongholds scattered all over the country. These, however, were occupied only in time of war, when their owners sought them for safety. During peaceful times, the German barons dwelt in other places, many of them following some simple vocation. 1 10. Venetian Palaces. In Italy, especially in Venice, the residence developed a national style. Gothic architec- ture in Venice was so entirely different from the Gothic of Northern Europe, that in speaking of the style, it is almost invariably qualified by the term Venetian Gothic. Venetian Gothic architecture depends largely for effect upon its window treatment. Arcaded balconies between flanking masses and rectangular panels treated with traceried arches characterize the style. This is illustrated in Fig. 64 and also at (b), (c), (d), and (e)\ Fig. 41. The Ducal Palace, Fig. 63, faces on the Grand Canal and presents a front of two stories in arcades and a tall roof treatment over them. The capitals and arches are richly carved, and characteristic tracery pierces the spandrels. The left side of the building faces St. Mark's Square, opposite St. Mark's Church. 111. The palaces Cavalli and Foscari, Fig. 64 (a) and (t>), respectively, present the same general details 123 FIG. 64 124 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 as the Ducal Palace, except that they are differently arranged. The single narrow structure shown in Fig. 65 is the little palace of Contarini Fasan, generally known as the house of Desdemona. TOWN HALLS 112. The prosperous condition of the individual cities in the Netherlands and in Germany greatly influenced their political architecture. Owing to the form of government that had developed in this part of the country, it was necessary for the cities to protect themselves rather than to depend on the king or any specific power, and through these arrangements for local protection arose many quaint customs and usages. A belfry attached to the town hall was considered a great honor to the locality, and it was a privilege that could be obtained only by charter. The belfry at Bruges, Belgium, Fig. 66, is one of the most picturesque of these towers built at this period. It is 352 feet high, of massive construction, and has a winding stairway leading to its top, where a set of chimes have played a fraction of a tune every quarter hour, without interruption, for the past 300 years. 113. The town halls and gildhalls were especially fine, the one at Bruges, Fig. 67, being elaborately decorated with tracery windows and canopied niches. Within the niches were placed statues of the principal characters in the history of the country. 114. The city hall at Brussels, Fig. 68, is similar in char- acter to the one at Bruges, but it is more elaborate in detail, and its tall central tower terminates in a spire. This struc- ture faces on a large square, on the opposite side of which is the courthouse. At the end to the right is a row of gildhalls that are occupied by the several gilds of craftsmen that have been organized in the low countries for many centuries. 115. The town hall at Louvain, Belgium, Fig. 69, reflects the pride and prosperity of that community. The inn \m urn prtiin iimijtti iiiiinii! mil iii inn . !.,! HfJSJi ' K J I I. T 101 51 Pin. C5 Fir.. (iG Fid. 07 126 FIG. C8 ILT 3032 130 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 same general decorative schemes that were employed in Bruges and Brussels are used here, and under canopied niches local heroes are represented in marble effigies. 116. Of a more simple character is the city hall at Bruns- wick, Germany, Fig. 70. The design of this building is decidedly ecclesiastical, yet it presents the same indifference to regularity and balance that characterizes all Gothic con- structions. In this example, the high-pitched roof over the main structure is closed in between two stone-stepped gables, and beyond it and independent of it is a two-story arcade, the upper part of which is treated as a series of traceried dormer-windows. 117. At Miinster, Germany, the city hall, shown in Fig. 71, consists of only one fagade, the lower portion of which is treated as an arcade, while the upper consists simply of a stone screen against the gable. This building is very pretentious, although not especially pleasing, as it has the appearance of flimsiness and gives the impression that it would be likely to blow over in a high wind; an impression that is further strengthened by the numerous braces that can be seen behind the pinnacles, apparently steadying them in their positions. Gothic architecture, however, never attempted in its best periods to hide its construction; it was a system based on construction, and the gable was usually treated as a gable and no attempt was made to hide it. This town hall at Miinster, therefore, is a digression that indicates a deca- dence in the style. 118. The city hall at Rochelle, France, Fig. 72, par- takes more of the feudal character that is seen in the early chateaux of France. The walls surrounding it enclose a court and are crested with battlements supported on corbels. Corbeled towers guard the angles, and the characteristic doors for pedestrians and mounted visitors give access to the interior. 119. In the secular architecture of the Netherlands, the roofs have steep pitches and are frequently terminated by FIG. 71 134 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 crow-stepped or traceried gables of picturesque outline. Turrets and chimney stacks of an ornamental character, with dormers and pinnacles, combine to give variety to the outline. The walls are more regular in design than in other countries, and as irregularity and independence of relation of one part to another is generally characteristic of the Gothic style, the symmetry and proportion of the Nether- land edifices are contrary to the characteristics of Gothic architecture in other countries. (See Figs. 66, 67, and 68.) Elaborate tracery and paneling characterize the window openings, rows of windows being arranged symmetrically on each side of the center of the building or between prominent end features. (See Figs. 67, 68, 69, 70, and 71.) CITY GATES 120. Many city gates still remain in the towns that were once walled or partly walled for protection. Among the most picturesque gates are those of York, England, as shown in Fig. 73. These gates are battlemented and are protected by small turrets in which are loopholes for the discharge of small projectiles. There is something deeply impressive about these formidable relics of feudal days as they still stand at the entrances of the older cities. At York, as at other places, the city has grown beyond its original limits, and some of the old city gates are now included within the confines of the city proper, as shown in Fig. 74. 121. In Germany, these gates had a more ponderous character, but they presented a very formal appearance; as. that at Cologne. In France, the chateau style of architec- ture was followed, and the gate at Nancy, shown in Fig. 75, is very picturesque. This gate has a corbeled attic between its two towers, in the floor of which are machicolations through which boiling oil or molten lead could be poured on the heads of any unwelcome visitors that tried to force an entrance. The loophole over the center of the doorway Fu.. 75 138 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 is in the form of a double cross, thus combining the decora- tive motif with the necessities of conditions. 122. At Bordeaux, France, the city gate and the city clock tower, as shown in Fig. 76, are combined in a pic- turesque construction that rises high above the surrounding buildings. Here, the single tower is carried above the arch, and then it is split into two towers, between which a bell is hung. It then unites over a low, pointed arch that springs tangent from the towers themselves. MINOR DWELLINGS 123. Some small dwellings were framed with a timber construction, and the open spaces between the structural framework were filled in with brick or sometimes plastered over (see Fig. 77). This was termed open-timber construc- tion, and was essentially Gothic in principle, as heavy timbers supported roofs and floors, while the brickwork was simply an enclosing screen between the supports. In Germany, the roofs of these houses were very high, and frequently contained more stories than the house proper, which it covered. The space under the roof, as in Fig. 78 (a) , was used as a drying room for the household wash. In some cities, the ridge was placed parallel with the street, and numerous dormers were introduced for ventila- tion; while in other places, the ridge was at right angles to the street, and the windows were grouped under the gable. Gables were projected on brackets, and the- woodwork was frequently carved elaborately. [See Fig. 77 ().] 139 FIG. 77 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 141 124. Small brick residences were also numerous, par- ticularly in Germany and the Netherlands. On these the front walls were carried up in a gable, the pitches of which, instead FIG. 79 of being simple, straight lines, were stepped, as shown in Fig. 79. These stepped gables, especially in the Netherlands, are prominent throughout the Gothic and succeeding periods. REVIEW EXERCISES 1. Describe the architectural characteristics of (a) the Early French chateaux, (I)) the English castles. 2. Make a sketch in water color of the elevation of a Venetian palace. The pencil drawing may be made from one of the illustra- tions in the text and then carefully colored from the example of Contarini Fasan. 3. What important structures other than churches and cathedrals characterize the architecture of the middle ages? 4. Make a finished sketch with pencil or pen-and-ink of a fortified city gate of the medieval period and state what national style it represents. 5. What were the characteristics of the minor residences of the middle ages? 142 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 MOSLEM ARCHITECTURE (637 A. D. TO 1492 A. D.) INTRODUCTION 125. Moslem, or Saracenic, architecture is the term applied to the constructions of the nations that were followers of the teachings of Mohammed. Gothic architecture developed from the Romanesque through a natural progress of construction problems. In a similar manner, Romanesque architecture developed from the Roman vaulted style, and Roman architecture in the Western Empire adopted the Greek orders and developed them to suit the requirements of the Roman constructions. Byzantine architecture developed in the Eastern Empire from the Roman domed style, but as Byzantium was origi- nally a Greek colony, the development of the new style shows a strong influence of Greek art. Rome adopted her art from Greece and applied it to her massive construction. Byzantium borrowed construction from Rome and combined it with art borrowed from Greece. Moslem architecture first developed from the Byzantine, but not in the sense that Byzantine or Gothic developed from the Roman. Moslem architecture at first borrowed neither construction nor decoration from the Christian styles to com- bine with details of its own, but copied the style entirely. 126. Moslem architecture and ornament will be con- sidered under its principal nationalities: Indian, Arabian, Persian, Turkish, and Moorish. Each nation influenced the style by its particular characteristics, and for this reason the Moorish architecture in Southern Spain is found to be only slightly related to the Moslem work in Turkey. The ornament and decorative schemes, however, are not sur- passed in ingenuity in any Christian style. f>l ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 143 INFLUENCES 127. Geographical. Important as was the influence of Byzantine art in Europe from the 6th to the llth century, there was no people that it affected more than the great and spreading Arab race that propagated the creed of Moham- med, and, after conquering the finest countries in Asia and Africa, finally obtained a footing even in Europe. In the earlier buildings executed by them in Egypt, Palestine, and Spain, the influence of the Byzantine style is very strongly marked, and the tradition of the Byzantine school affected all the adjacent countries to a greater or less degree. Although the Arabs must have possessed an original art, only a few traces of it remain, and these are in legends wherein grand buildings are spoken of that date back to remote antiquity. It is known that the wandering and stationary tribes dis- tinguished each other by the names "Felt people" and "Clay people," and this would convey the impression that the latter title implied a knowledge of ceramics; but the character of the decoration of the pottery of these early tribes is at present unknown, as is also that of their arms, fabrics, and fixed dwellings. On their contact with the Greeks, East Indians, and Persians, the Arabian people produced a style of ornament that formed an important part in the compromise now called by the name Byzantine. Subsequently, when Byzantine art had reached its zenith, Arabian art, under the influence of Mohammedanism, took the form under which it is now known, and may have shown in some applications a certain Byzantine influence exercised on the Arab practice. It is unreason- able, however, to consider Byzantine art, as is sometimes done, as being originally a formation of the Arab style, as the latter has too much character and unity not to be in itself an original conception. There appears to have been a mutual influence exercised between the Byzantine and Arabian during the earliest periods, as inevitably happens in a contest for supremacy between two neighboring styles. I L T 30329 144 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 128. Geological. As the different countries presented different geological formations, the style was influenced locally by the material at hand. In Turkey, domes were of brick and plastered inside and outside, and in Northern and Central India, they were of stone. Marble and sandstone were also available in the latter country, and a monumental style of design was developed. In Spain, the walls were of brick and were plastered on the inside, as were also the wooden partitions separating the rooms. 129. Climatic. The climate varied somewhat with the different countries, but the development of the style was confined to eastern and southern countries, so that, generally speaking, the climate was excessively hot. This gave rise to a tendency toward small window and door openings. 130. Religious. Moslem architecture was essentially a religious style. Gothic and Byzantine architecture were developed by Christian nations, but the nations were estab- lished before the religion was adopted, and the architecture was developed on structural principles. Moreover, the wars of the Roman Empire that carried the Christian religion into remote parts, were wars for conquest and not for the exten- sion of Christianity. With the Moslems, however, the reverse was the case. It was the religion of Mohammed that united them into a nation, and it was the forcing of this religion on other nations that extended their empire and spread their arts from India to Spain. The Moslem belief is a simple one and is summed up in the quotation from the Koran, "God's will be done." The Moslem is therefore a fatalist, and believing all things to be preordained, he made no great effort toward any great future achievement. He believed the future had been arranged by God before he himself came into the world. The present was everything to him, as it was all he would be sure of, and this often led to the erection of buildings that were far from permanent themselves. They were, however, lavishly decorated in unsubstantial materials, such as wood, lattice, and plaster. 51 ARCHITECTURE AM) ORNAMENT H5 131. Political and Historical. As has already been stated, the Saracens in the 8th century spread themselves over Northern Africa and Southern Spain, and while the rest of the world during the so-called dark ages was plunged into the darkest ignorance, Bagdad in Persia, Cairo in Egypt, and Cordova and Toledo in Spain were centers of brilliant, artistic, and intelligent activity under the Moslem government. The Saracen Empire was ruled by a caliph, Mohammed being the first. After his death, four other caliphs ruled in succession. Then disputes arose and the empire became divided between two caliphs, one ruling at Bagdad, in Persia, and the other at Cordova, in Spain (see History of Architecture and Ornament, Part 2, Arts. 36 to 38). The caliphate of Cordova became divided into the four kingdoms of Seville, Granada, Toledo, and Valentia. These kingdoms were frequently at war with the Christians in Spain, but this did not prevent the Moorish builders from employing Christian workmen on their buildings, and in this manner there was some Gothic influence expressed in their constructions. Each caliph was a spiritual as well as a temporal ruler. He, as successor to Mohammed, was the highest priest of the religion and the chief ruler over all the countries that worshiped according to the Moslem rites. These rites were set forth in a book called the Koran, written by Mohammed by dictation from an angel alleged to have appeared to him in a vision. The religious and civil government thus united had the effect of injecting a religious element into every architec- tural structure. The change and multiplication of capitals, due to the change of dynasties, also gave impetus to much sec- ular, building. The position of women in the Moslem social system exercised great influence in the planning and design- ing, as provision had to be made for the isolation of the harem, or apartment where the women dwelt, and was also responsible for the elaborate lattice of the windows that would not permit one to see into the apartments from the street or from them into the street. 51 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 147 CHARACTERISTICS 132. The temples, or places of religious service, of the Moslems are called mosques, and these with the palaces and tombs constitute the most important architectural struc- tures structures that, as heretofore stated, are of interest almost entirely on account of their lavish and brilliant decorations. The mosques consisted of low, flat-roofed buildings, within which numerous rows of columns sup- ported a series of arcades that gave the interior a mysteri- ous and complex appearance, as shown in Fig. 80 (b). These were roofed over so as to give a dome effect on the exterior. The domes were usually of a bulb shape, rather than hemispherical, and at the angles of the building were erected tall, slender minarets, or signal towers, from the top of which the muezzins, or priests, summoned the faithful to worship. The Koran forbade the Moslems to make any pictorial representations of any living thing in their architecture or decoration, as such representation was considered as idolatry; consequently, their decorative schemes consisted mostly of geometrical constructions representing intricate and ingen- ious fretwork and interlacing of straight and curved lines. There can be but little doubt, however, that this command- ment was interpreted liberally in some districts where the decorative schemes appear to be based upon vegetable forms. The introduction of quotations from the Koran in Arabian characters interwoven with elaborate geometrical ornament, is an innovation original with the Moslems, and friezes and borders of great richness and variety were thereby obtained. (See Fig. 89.) The pointed arch, similar to the Gothic form of Northern Europe, was used extensively in Egypt and the East, while in Spain and other western countries under Moorish domi- nation, the horseshoe arch (Fig. 87) seems to have been more popular. 148 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 EXAMPLES 133. At Cordova, Seville, Toledo, Granada, and several other cities in Andalusia (see Fig. 42) may be found mag- nificent monuments to the art and skill of the Moslems. These structures were all erected prior to their expulsion in 1492 A. D. 134. The Alhambra. The Alhambra was the palace and fortress of the Moorish kings at Granada. The exterior of this structure, Fig. 80 (a), is impressive, but it is undeco- rated, as were other feudal castles. The interior, however, was gorgeous beyond description. The walls were tiled below and elaborately diapered in relief above and brilliantly, but harmoniously, colored in blue, red, and gold. The wainscot of the tiles were in geometrical patterns, introducing greens and browns as well as reds and blues. There was no structure problem solved here, however, as the reliefs are all modeled in plaster, supported on a light framework of latticed wood. 135. The Giralda. The Giralda, or tower of the cathedral at Seville, shown in Fig. 81, is one of the most celebrated towers in the world. It was rebuilt after burning in 1395, and though not so lofty as the original, it is still a most imposing architectural detail. It is built in two different styles, the lower portion being part of the original Moorish prayer tower, while the top con- sists of a crown of Renaissance detail. It is hardly conceiv- able that two such widely differing styles of architecture could be combined in one design and result in as harmonious a composition; yet the Giralda of Seville is as satisfactory a composition as can be found in any country. For two-thirds of its height (about 200 feet) the tower consists of a plain massive structure faced with reddish tiles. Eighty feet above the ground the severity of the tower is relieved by a char- acteristic surface decoration in panels diapered in arabesque ornament. The original design was battlemented at the top, as were all the feudal-castle towers, but in 1568 the rs-i LT 101 s 51 Re,. 81 150 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 Renaissance superstructure was added, of which mention will be made under the subject of Renaissance Architecture (Art. 154). 136. Alcazar at Seville. The alcazar, or palace, at Seville, an interior view of which is shown in Fig. 82, was erected about 1350. This structure is now in a partly dilapidated condition, but enough remains to enable one to judge the magnificence of the original design. 137. Mosque at Cordova. The mosque at Cordova, the plan of which is shown in Fig. 83, was erected in 786. It consists of a parallelogram 422 ft. X 573 ft., and its area is greater than that of any of the cathedrals. This * * OF TH MO5QUE ATCOfcDOVA PIG. 83] structure contains seventeen rows of columns, thirty-two in each row, supporting two sets of horseshoe arches elabo- rately cusped and richly decorated, as shown in Fig. 80 (b). The perspective thus formed by this forest of columns is most impressive and inspiring. 51 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 151 ANAL.YTICAJ, STUDY PLANS 138. The plans of the mosques (see Fig. 83) generally consisted of a rectangle with an open, unroofed space in the center, containing a fountain for ablution as enjoined by the Koran. Around this open space was a series of columns supporting arcades, and on the side toward the sacred city of Mecca (east) extra rows of columns were planned so as to give greater depth of covered space. At the corners, min- arets arose, and these were usually octagonal, though in some instances they were square. Some of the eastern mosques are cruciform in plan, the central portion being left open and the four arms vaulted over. The dwellings were also planned with an interior court, and the principal rooms opened from this place on three sides, as shown in Fig. 84. WALLS 139. The Moslem walls were constructed of brick, stone, or other material, according to what each community provided. They were elaborately ornamented with fine sur- face decoration in tiles, rare stones, or relief plaster. In the interior of the Alhambra, the walls are wainscoted to a height of 4 feet with glazed tiles, above which a rich arabesque decoration is carried out in plaster, as shown in Fig. 85. In Cairo, some of the walls are built of brick in the first story, and of wood and plaster above. ROOFS 140. The ceilings were usually flat, except where a dome was used, and were richly decorated in colors and gild- ing. The dome was a characteristic feature of the mosques and tombs in the eastern section, but is not often seen in Spain. Except where the Byzantine model was closely KlG. >>0 154 51 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 155 followed, the dome is seldom hemispherical, but of a bul- bous shape, and windows were frequently placed in the lower parts. The domes were built over square compart- ments, and the pendentives of the Byzantine style were replaced by a series of projecting corbels, one over another. COLUMNS 141. Many of the early Moslem buildings used old columns taken from Roman or Byzantine ruins. A char- acteristic style soon developed, however, and in the Alham- bra are found examples of original compositions that are at once graceful and pleasing. The capitals are usually square, with a long necking, and the supporting column is tall and slender. (See Figs. 86, 87, and 88.) OPENINGS 142. The Moslem windows were small, owing to the excessive heat. They were nearly always fitted with elab- orate lattices in geometrical patterns and were occasionally glazed with colored glass. The window heads and other openings usually conformed to one of four styles: (1) The pointed arch, which was used with square jambs and unmolded soffit; (2) the ogee arch, which was used mostly in Persia and India; (3) the horseshoe arch, Fig. 87 (b), which is characteristic of both Spain and North Africa; and (4) the foliated arch, Fig. 88, which is typical of the Moors in Spain. These arch forms when used for doorways and arcades, were frequently tied across at the springing point with a wooden beam or an iron rod. MOLDINGS 143. Moldings were of little importance, their place being taken by elaborate bands of surface decoration. Occasionally, however, moldings of the Byzantine model were used around doorways and window openings. Fir.. 89 51 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 159 ORNAMENT 144. The crowning glory of Moslem architecture was the ornament. This was practically limited to inanimate and non-vegetable types, owing to restrictions of the Koran, and presented mostly geometrical patterns of great intricacy and diaper treatments in endless variety. The Moslem designer being thus deprived of the opportunity that enabled the Gothic architect to treat his facade with elabo- rate sculpture, developed in its stead an intricate scheme of color that produces most beautiful results. 145. Classification of the Moslem Ornament. The ornament may be divided into four general classes, as follows: 1. The mnemonic, which consists of quotations from the Koran interwoven with geometrical constructions, as shown in Fig. 89. 2. The superposed, which consists of a diaper pattern in relief laid over a ground pattern of a more or less geo- * metrical character, as in Fig. 90 (a) and (b). 3. The stalactite, which was used primarily in place of pendentives, as in Fig. 86. 4. The geometrical, which consists of interwoven bands and ribbons, as in Fig. 91. 146. Moorish Ornament. In Moorish art, the deco- ration arises naturally from the construction, and the constructive idea is carried out in every detail of the orna- mentation of the surface. In decorative schemes, the general forms were first cared for; these were subdivided by general lines, the interstices of which were then filled with ornament that was again subdivided and enriched for closer inspection. The Moors carried out this principle with the greatest refinement, and the harmony and beauty of all their ornamentation derived their chief success from this observance; their main divisions contrasted and balanced perfectly. The detail never interferes with the general form, and, when seen at a distance, the main lines strike I L T 30330 FIG. 90 51 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 161 the eye and the fine detail disappears; nearer approached, more detail comes into the composition, and, on close inspec- tion, all detail of the surface appears as a grand powdering of ornament. Moorish ornament lacks the charm of symbolism that is so characteristic of Egyptian ornament; but its place is filled by the Arabic inscriptions, which address themselves directly to. the eye by their personal beauty. They not only excite the intellect by the difficulties of deciphering their complex and curious involutions, but also delight the imagination when read by the beauty of the sentiments they express and the music of their composition. Long fantastic letters, interwoven with graceful but intricate geometrical patterns, as shown in Fig. 89, lead the eye to decipher the words, find sentiments that are ever present and associated with all their daily doings, and simple but truthful phrases elabor- ately twisted or intricately woven, of which the one most frequently repeated is the quotation from the Koran: "There is no conqueror but God." 147. Coloring In Moorish Ornament. The coloring of the Moorish ornament was treated as skilfully as was the form. The Moors followed certain fixed principles founded on observations of natural laws. The colors employed on their stucco work were in all cases a combination of the three primaries blue, red, and yellow, the last being rep- resented by gold and the secondary colors purple, green, and orange occurred only in the mosaic dados. These, being nearer the eye, formed a point of repose from the more brilliant coloring above. 148. It may be remarked here that among the Egyp- tians, Greeks, Arabs, and Moors, the primary colors were used exclusively in the earliest period of the arts, and, during the decadence, the secondary colors were used. Thus, in Egypt, the temples of the Pharaonic period were painted entirely in primary colors, while those of the Ptolemaic period used the secondaries. The early Greek temples were decorated in the primary colors, while at Pompeii every 162 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 (a) (c) FIG. 91 (c) 218-1 I. T 101 51 Fie. 92 51 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 163 variety of shade possible appears. In modern Cairo, and in the East generally, green appears frequently side by side with red, where blue would have been used in the earlier times. This is equally true of the works of the middle ages. In the early manuscripts and in stained glass, the primary colors were chiefly used, although other colors were not entirely excluded; while, in later times, every variety of shade and tint is used indiscriminately, with preference for none. 149. In Moorish art, the primary colors were, used in the upper portions of the design and the secondary and ter- tiary colors in the lower portions. This is entirely in accord- ance with natural law, as the primary blue is shown in the sky, the secondary green in the trees and fields, and the ter- tiaries in the earth itself. This color scheme is also observ- able in flowers, where the primary colors are the buds and flowers and the secondaries are the leaves and stalks. 150. System of Moorish Coloring. The system of Moorish coloring might be considered absolutely perfect. All the surfaces were modeled and proportioned according to the color they were to receive, and, in using the colors blue, red, and gold, care was taken to place them in such positions that they should be best seen themselves and add most to the general effect. On molded surfaces, red (the strongest color of the three) was placed in the depths, where it might be softened by shadow, and never on a raised sur- face; blue was placed in the shade, but not deep shade; and gold was placed on all the surfaces exposed to strong light, for it was evident that by this arrangement alone could their true value be obtained. The several colors are either sep- arated by white bands or by the shadow caused by the relief of the ornament itself, and this seems to be an absolute principle required in coloring colors should never be allowed to impinge on one another. (See Fig. 92.) 151. Interlaced Ornament. Moorish interlaced ornament is governed by certain geometrical patterns in its formation, and although the number of these patterns is small the variety of designs produced on them is great. FIG. 93 164 51 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 165 In Fig. 93 (a) is shown an interlaced pattern consisting (1) of vertical and horizontal lines arranged in pairs, the distance between each pair being twice the distance between the lines composing each pair, and (2) of diagonal lines drawn through the pattern at an angle of 45, and spaced a distance apart equal to the vertical and horizontal pairs. The diagonal lines are arranged so that the set of squares formed by their intersection will contain in their centers the intersection of the vertical and horizontal pairs. In Fig. 93 (b) is shown a slight variation of the preceding interlaced pattern. In this example the vertical and hori- zontal lines are drawn singly and the diagonal lines are drawn in pairs, but of slightly different proportion. The amount of Moorish ornament that can be developed from these two figures is unlimited, and the Moors themselves extended even this limit by the variety of coloring in the different parts. Figs. 91 (d) and (e) are based on the system shown in Fig. 93 (a). 152. Moorish Motifs. No matter how much the whole ornamentation of the Moors is disguised, it is all constructed geometrically. Their fondness for geometrical forms is evinced by the great use of mosaics, in which their imagination had full play. However complicated may be their patterns, the mosaics are all extremely simple when the principle of setting them is once understood. They all arise from the intersection of equidistant sets of lines around fixed centers. [See Fig. 89 (a) and ().] 153. Notwithstanding the fact that the Mohammedan was forbidden by the Koran to execute ornament based upon animal or vegetable types, there can be no doubt that some of the characteristic devices found in the Moorish wall decorations were conventionalized forms based upon leaves and flowers. In Fig. 93 (d) , (/), (//), (/), M, and (/) are six forms that constitute the details of the surface decoration shown in Fig. 94, and it can be readily believed that these conventional forms were derived from the plant forms shown in Fig. 93 (c), (), was sometimes used on the exteriors. The human figure was rarely carved in its natural size, but was usually executed much larger. Architects of this period were frequently skilled painters, sculptors, and metal workers. Michelangelo, for instance, designed the dome of St. Peter's Cathedral, at Rome, painted the celebrated ceiling in the Sistine Chapel of the Vatican, and also executed many of the decorative sculptures that adorn the grounds. 21. In studying the Renaissance as it developed in each country, particular note should be made of the different influences that affected the style. With this period a more intimate knowledge is gained of the architects that are responsible for the designs. The influences under which these architects studied and worked affect the results quite as much as the climatic, religious, and political characteristics of the country. In the 17th century, after the Renaissance style had become as servile an imitation of ancient Rome as possible, a reaction for originality set in and a lot of meaningless detail was introduced that caused a rapid decline in the style. Fronts of buildings were built on sinuous curves instead of straight, columns were placed in front of pilasters, and pediments were broken in the middle and sculptured figures placed within. 51 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 189 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE 22. Renaissance architecture in Italy may be divided into three separate styles of design, each partaking of the same general characteristics, but differing from one another according to differences of local influences. FLORENTINE RENAISSANCE INFLUENCES 23. Geographical. Florence consisted of a group of cities made up of a central governing city and a number of smaller cities, over which the chief one held power. 24. Geological. In Tuscany were quarries of granite and marble, and the monumental character of these materials affected the style in this community. 25. Climatic. Florence being located in a bright and sunny country and quite warm during the summer, the win- dows in its buildings had to be made small. 26. Religious. The Church, which was always a powerful factor in Renaissance architecture, was represented in Florence by Savonarola, a Dominican preacher and great reformer. His policy influenced the city materially, and although he was suppressed by the pope, his influence on the minds of the people continued to be felt. 27. Political and Historical. The independent cities of Italy formed leagues during this period and one city ruled over the others. Pisa became subject to Florence in 1406, and the latter city soon became the dominating power in Italy, as well as the leading city in art and literature. In 1494, Charles VIII of France invaded Italy and took posses- sion of Florence. 51 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 191 CHARACTERISTICS 28. Florentine Renaissance palaces are usually built of massive blocks of rustic masonry, which gives them a fine, rugged dignity that characterizes the style. They are built around interior courts, the interior walls resting on columns and thus forming an arcade on four sides of the court, similar to the cloisters in the monasteries (see Fig. 6). There are no columns or pilasters on the exterior, and the fagades in consequence are particularly severe. A massive cornice crowning the walls is the only exterior detail of a classic character, except where columns or pediments are used in the windows. The Florentine school, or system, of Renaissance design is expressive of formidable dignity and structural severity on the exterior, but displays the most delicate appreciation of refinement and luxury in the treatment of the court eleva- tions and the arrangement of the interior plan. Large rooms, high ceilings, 'and broad, unbroken wall surfaces, richly decorated with frescos and arabesque designs, are characteristic in all the Italian schools of Renaissance design, but in Florence particularly this interior treatment is to be seen at its best, on account of the omission of columns and pilasters as the principal feature of interior decoration. 29. There are three types of window: the arched type, in which a column divides the opening vertically and sup- ports the ends of two smaller arches under a main rusticated arch, as in the upper stories of the Riccardi Palace, Fig. 1; the architrave type, where the sections of the openings are molded and a pediment, or cornice, supported on consoles covers the top, as in the lower story of the Riccardi Palace; and the columnar type, where a column, or pilaster, flanks each side of the opening and supports an entablature, or pediment, as in the Pandolfini Palace, Fig. 10. EXAMPLES 30. The architectural examples in the Italian Renais- sance style will be grouped under the names of the architects I L T 30332 FIG. 7 51 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 193 that were responsible for the establishment of each particular style or school of design. As has been stated, many of these architects acquired their training under goldsmiths and painters, and the influences of this training is more or less evident in their works. 31. Brunelleschi. Filippo Brunelleschi, who studied at Rome, built the dome over the cathedral at Florence. (See Fig. 36, History of Architecture and Ornament, Part 3.) This was the first use of the dome as an external feature. Although the dome is a classic detail and Brunelleschi gave much time to the study of the construction of the Pantheon and other buildings at Rome, the result of his work on the Florence Cathedral shows strong Gothic influences. The dome is octagonal in plan, is pointed instead of semicircular, and is supported on eight main ribs and sixteen intermediate ones. 32. St. Spirlto Church. The church St. Spirito was built on the plan of a basilica. The aisles were carried around the transepts and choir, as shown in the plan, Fig. 2 (), and the building itself was covered with a wooden roof. The interior is interesting because it is probably the first in which the columns of the nave were placed under small, individual fragments of an entablature, from which the nave arches sprung (see Fig. 7). This feature became prominent in many later Renaissance interiors in other countries. 33. Riccardi Palace. The Riccardi Palace, Fig. 1, com- pleted in the year 1430, by Michaelozzo, a contemporary of Brunelleschi, was the first residence erected in the Renais- sance style. It is an imposing structure with a rectangular fagade two stories in height, standing over a massive base- ment, and crowned with a classic cornice of almost excessive proportions. The general exterior appearance of these palaces is some- what fortress-like and forbidding, but they were nearly always built around an interior courtyard, which was light 51 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 195 and cheerful and was surrounded by a vaulted colonnade on three and sometimes on four sides. They afforded shady, open-air resting places within the palaces and added much to the comforts of the buildings as residences, besides mate- rially enhancing their architectural effect. 34. Pittl Palace. The Pitti Palace, Fig. 8, by Bru- nelleschi, embodies the same ideas on a much larger scale, but the cornice is too small for so massive a building. Here, the wall surface is broken by heavy rusticated pilasters in two stories, while the windows on the garden wings are small and unobtrusive. The windows on the court, however, are exceedingly wide, occupying, with their flanking columns and pilasters, the full space between the rusticated orders. 35. Leonl Battista Albert! was a deep student of classic literature, a writer, a poet, and a musician. He, with Brunelleschi, literally started the Renaissance style in Italy. He wrote a treatise on architecture that materially influenced the minds of his students and followers and did much to popularize the style. His design of the Ruccellai Palace is the first Renaissance building in which superimposed pilasters were used on the exterior. This structure is lighter in style and more refined in character than the Pitti Palace (Fig. 8) of Brunelleschi, but the crowning cornice is so much smaller in comparison to the front of the building that much of the dignity of the composition is lost. 36. Church of St. Andrea Mantua. St. Andrea Mantua, the plan of which is shown in Fig. 2 (a), is impor- tant as a type from which many Renaissance churches were modeled. It possesses no aisles, but its broad nave is crossed by a transept, and chapels alternating with entrances are grouped along the sides. The nave is covered with a coffe'red ceiling in the form of a barrel vault springing from a classic entablature supported over Corinthian pilasters. The pilasters stand on pedestals and continue into the tran- sept. Over the intersection of the transept and nave rises a magnificent dome on a tall drum, which is pierced with windows to light the interior. FIG. 9 FIG. 10 196 51 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 197 37. Strozzi Palace. The Strozzi Palace, Fig. 9, erected in 1490, may be taken as a typical example of the Florentine style of Renaissance design. The windows of the first story are protected by heavy iron gratings, while the entrance is guarded by a heavy iron gate. This fortress-like arrangement is due to the fact that these palaces were part castle and part residence. During the frequent local wars of this period, it was often necessary for the nobility to retire within their palaces and defend them against the attack of an invading army. The exterior was therefore made very formidable, not only in appearance, but also in fact, while the elevations on the court present an appearance much more in accordance with the idea of domestic life and household comforts. The broad entrance door in the center of the fagade was a carriage entrance, or driveway, into the court, and from this court, under the shade of the surrounding arcade, several doorways gave access to different parts of the palace. The upper stories of the building, though executed in the same style of heavy rustic ashlar, were provided with more liberal arched window openings, which were divided by a central columnar mullion and two smaller arches extending from the mullion to the jamb on each side. 38. Pandolfiiii Palace. The Pandolfini Palace, Fig. 10, designed by Raffael, was built over half a century later than the Riccardi. The rusticated work is here confined to the portal and the quoin stones on the angles. Classic details appear on the exterior of buildings about this time, and in this example take the form of pilasters at the sides and of pediments over the window openings, while a pedestal supports the sill. 39. Court of Vecchio Palace. The court of the Vecchio Palace, Fig. 6, was remodeled in the 16th century, when the Renaissance was approaching its most classic period. The columns surrounding the open central space were elaborately carved and ribbed, while the soffits and side walls were painted in elaborate and brilliant designs. 1 L T 10118 198 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 ROMAN RENAISSANCE INFLUENCES 40. Geographical, Geological, and Climatic. The geographical, geological, and climatic influences of the Roman Renaissance period are the same as those of Central Italy under the heading Italian Romanesque, History of Architecture and Ornament, Part 2. 41. Religious. Charlemagne in 773 A. D. had con- firmed the temporal power of the pope by defending him against the Lombards. The Lombards had been defeated by Pepin, the father of Charlemagne, and their territory, known as Lombardy, had been turned over to Pope Stephen III. In return, Charlemagne was crowned by Pope Leo III as Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. The successors of Charlemagne inherited the title of emperor and they evidently intended to transform the title into real authority; whereas, the later popes insisted on the independence of the papal states, which was finally acknowledged by Emperor Rudolf I of Hapsburg. In 1378, great scandal in the church was caused by a dispute over the election of the pope. Each of two rival candidates claimed to be elected, and one established him- self at Avignon, France, while the other maintained his papal palace at Rome. This period is known in church history as the "Great Schism." The dispute was ended in 1415 by the general recognition of the Roman Pontiff, after which the popes assumed a very important temporal position as Italian princes, and during the 15th century, they greatly extended their possessions in Italy. A great palace was erected for them and was called the Vatican. At the present day, the Vatican is probably the most extensive palace in the world, containing as it does some twenty courts and 11,000 rooms, halls, and apartments. The popes were great patrons of literature and the arts and encouraged the erection of palaces and churches, the decoration of which 51 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 199 was entrusted to such painters as Raffael, Michelangelo, and others. A school was established for artists and arti- sans, who afterwards did much for the spread of the Renaissance both at home and abroad. 42. Political and Historical. As a central govern- ment was recognized at Rome, fortified palaces were not necessary as in Florence. Rome was the center of the old classic traditions, and the remains of such structures as the Colosseum, the Pantheon, and the Fora gave impetus to the revival and at the same time furnished material for building purposes. CHARACTERISTICS 43. As the Renaissance advanced, it was inevitable that the constant study of Roman architecture should lead to a closer imitation of classic details and eventually to an abso- lute copying of antique designs. Toward the close of the 15th century, correctness in the rendering of the ancient Roman forms came to be considered the chief of architec- tural virtues, and the orders became the principal resource of the architect. Externally the orders were freely used in the decoration of doors and windows and of the court arcades of the palaces. Frames around these openings and pediments over them were extremely elaborate, and cornices and mold- ings were profiled with the utmost care, while the balustrade was elaborated into a most intricate and ornate device, but always on strictly classic lines. This period started in Rome with the erection of St. Peter's Church and continued until a complete transformation was effected throughout the city. The facades and courts of the buildings were designed as nearly as possible in the old classic style. The orders were used freely but without excessive elaboration, in conse- quence of which the Roman palaces present an effect of most dignified simplicity. An attempt at unity in design was developed later, when buildings were treated to appear as one story with pilasters extended the entire height of the 200 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 front, including two or three stories, and crowned by an entablature, including an attic story, as shown in Fig. 3. Superimposed orders were rarely used, and arched openings were sparingly introduced, except in tiers of arcades, as shown in Fig. 11, after the style of the Colosseum. EXAMPLES 44. Bramante. The first architect of note in the Roman Renaissance was Bramante, who was born in 1444, the year that Brunelleschi died. He was educated as a painter and was probably a pupil of Alberti. Though born in Florence, Bramante studied at Rome and his first practice was in Milan. 45. Raffael was a nephew of Bramante and was engaged on many buildings in and around Rome. He painted many interiors and executed the designs for the Pandolfini Palace, although it was not erected until 10 years after his death. 46. Bramante had many pupils and followers. Among them was Baldassare Peruzzi, who designed many buildings in Rome. His work was prominent for its finished detail in plan and elevation. He built the Mossimi Palace and the Villa Farnesia. Antonio di Sangallo, another pupil of Bramante, erected the Farnese Palace, Fig, 4, which is considered a master- piece of the Roman Renaissance. 47. Michelangelo, born in Florence, in 1475, was educated as a sculptor and painter. He executed many statues at Florence, and was called to Rome, in 1505, to execute the designs for a mausoleum for Pope Julius II. Later, he executed a bronze statue of the pope, which was erected at Bologna, and in 1508 he returned to Rome and painted the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican, a work that required many years. This decoration repre- sents scenes from the creation surrounded- by elaborate architectural settings, all painted in perspective to appear in relief. Late in life, Michelangelo turned his attention to 202 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 architecture and among other buildings designed by him are the dome of St. Peter's, palaces of the capitol, the mausoleum at Florence, and the Laurentian Library at St. Lorenzo. 48. Vignola. Giacomo Barozzio de Vignola was the author of a work entitled "The Five Orders of Architecture," which has been translated into nearly every language and which, as a universal authority on the Roman orders, did much to familiarize other students with classic details. Up to the time of Vignola, the revival of classic art had succeeded in banishing every Gothic detail from Italian architecture, but the architects had not consented to a servile imitation of classic buildings. They were endeavor- ing to develop a new style as pure and elegant as the classic, but on the whole quite different from it. Vignola and his contemporary, Palladio, after pursuing a long and enthusiastic study of the old classic ruins and details, arrived at the conclusion that the classic style was the only true style and that it could not be copied with too great minute- ness. Consequently, they measured the details and propor- tions of the ancient orders, and reduced architectural design to a problem in mathematics. In Vignola's book on the five orders, not only did he fix the exact proportion of every detail and the profile and arrangement of every molding, but he established rules for the arrangement and proportions of superimposed orders and fixed on the Renaissance those principles which gave it a distinctive character. At the same time, however, he assured its eventual decay, as the human mind cannot be satisfied without progress, and when the main considerations of design are fixed with mathematical precision, designers will create all sorts of frivolous details in the effort to produce originality of effect. According to the rules of Vignola, superimposed columns were to be used in a fixed order from Doric to Composite, colonnades were to be spaced in certain fixed terms of the diameter of the columns, and no details not found in the ancient monuments were to be included in a design. 204 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 49. St. Peter's at Rome. Bramante, the first architect of St. Peter's, proposed to combine, in one design, the great dome over the Pantheon with the vaulting of the Basilica Maxentius (see Figs. 75 and 78, History of Architecture and Ornament, Part 1), and thereby erect a building that should exceed in size, elaboration, and structural complexity, any ecclesiastical edifice ever erected. The foundation for this great church was laid by Pope Julius II, on the 18th day of April, 1506. Bramante died 7 years later, but the building was continued at irregular intervals, under different archi- tects until the year 1546, when Michelangelo was assigned to the work by Pope Paul III. Michelangelo completed the building with the exception of the dome, which was finished after his death in 1564, by Fontana. Michelangelo left a plaster model of the dome, from which it was completed according to his design. This dome is 140 feet in diameter and is poised on the top of a circular colonnade; it rises to a height of 405 feet above the church floor. As left by Michelangelo at the time of his death, St. Peter's was as harmonious a design as existed in the Renaissance style, but in 1606 the nave was lengthened, under orders of Pope Paul V, and the proportions were destroyed, as the dome became hidden on close approach, and the fagade was taste- less and insignificant. (See Ffg. 12.) The magnificent atrium, surrounded by the double colonnade, which was added by Bernini, in 1667, gives dignity to the approach, but does not compensate for the weakness of the design of the main fagade. 50. St. Peter's is the largest church in existence. The central aisle, nearly 600 feet long and 83 feet wide, with its splendid paneled and gilded vault, together with the central space under the majestic dome presents one of the most majestic conceptions of the Renaissance. This interior, as shown in Fig. 13, however, is too gaudily colored for so stately a design. Elaborate carvings, brilliant frescos, and expanses of burnished gold are more suggestive of the interior of a pagan temple than of a Christian basilica, and 206 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 reveal the decline in taste toward the end of this great period, of a style that, borne on a tidal wave of popularity, swept over Europe and exhausted itself in the constant effort to approach a false ideal. At the advent of the Renaissance, the architects were compelled to exercise much ingenuity in order to combine the classic and Gothic forms, but with advanced study, their ingenuity declined and the practice of a servile copying of classic forms resulted. St. Peter's Church is noble in its proportions, majestic in its conception, and gorgeous in its decorations, but at the same time its coloring is gaudy, its design is servile, and its style is inappropriate as a monument to the Chris- tian faith. 51. St. Peter's Cathedral at Rome was the most impor- tant building erected during this period, and many architects were engaged on the work. In 1506, Bramante made the first design, which presented a plan in the form of a Greek cross domed over at the intersection of the arms, similar to the Byzantine plans. In 1513, Sangallo and Raffael were engaged to superintend the work, but a year later Bramante died, and in 1520 Raffael died, and in 1536 Peruzzi, who was appointed to succeed Bramante, also died. Before Raffael's death, a division of opinion had arisen as to the advisability of changing the Greek-cross form to a Latin cross, Raffael favoring the latter [see Fig. 14 (a)]. In 1536, Antonio di Sangallo succeeded as architect, and presented a revised plan with a central dome, many orders, and a lofty campanile, Fig. 14 (d). Sangallo died in 1546, and Michelangelo was appointed architect. He rejected the plans of Sangallo, restored the design to the Greek cross, and simplified the aisles, thus destroying entirely the scheme of Raffael to give scale to the interior. Michelangelo completed the design for the dome and executed a model of it (see Fig. 15). The drum of the dome was finished at the time of his death, in 1564, and the dome itself was carried out in accordance with Michelangelo's model by Giacomo della Porta and Domenico Fontana. PLAN BY RAPHAEL. AD. 1513. 208 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 Vignola was appointed architect after Michelangelo's death, and added the cupolas on each side of the dome. In 1605, Carlo Maderno lengthened the nave to form a Latin cross and erected the present insignificant facade. Finally, in 1624, Bernini erected the colonnade enclosing the plaza. 52. Church, of St. John Iiateran. The church of St. John Lateran, in Rome by Galilei, erected in 1734, Fig. 3, shows on its exterior the application of the orders in excessive proportions, as first practiced by Palladio at Vicenza. The design is a very powerful one, however, com- bining, as it does, a colossal order with two smaller orders in superposed loggias. The composition is marred by the excessive size of the statues which crown it, but, taken all together, this fagade may be considered as one of the masterpieces of the later Renaissance. The portico is 33 feet deep and 196 feet long, and the open loggia above it is one of the finest in Rome. 53. Roman Palaces. The palaces of Rome are classed among the finest in Europe. Their design is not so heavy as those of Florence, nor so delicate as those of Venice, but the architects of the Roman Renaissance period have, by means of a diligent study of the ancient monuments, repro- duced in the palatial residences of their aristocrats the most imposing features of the tombs and temples of their pagan ancestors. Roman palaces were usually of great size and were built around large courts, with arcades of classic model in two or three stories. On the street front, the structures were crowned with a rich cornice proportioned to the height of the building, in the relation of entablature and column. The orders themselves were used but rarely on the exterior, and effect was obtained by careful proportioning of the stories and in the form and distribution of the openings. The first story was given up to suites of sumptuous apartments, elaborate halls, reception rooms, etc., the walls and ceilings of which were decorated with magnificent frescos by the 210 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 greatest painters of the day, and groups of statuary and bas-reliefs were disposed in the courts and vestibules and in the wail niches of the principal rooms of these princely dwellings. 54. Farnese Palace. The finest of the palaces, the Farnese, built by Sangallo in 1530, is shown in Fig. 4. It is an immense building, 260 ft. X 192 ft., whose rectangular plan and simple elevations are given dignity and impres- siveness by the careful proportioning and arrangement of the window openings and by the treatment of their details. The lower story is very plain, consisting merely of a row of square-headed openings in a plain masonry wall surface, which is relieved at the center by an immense carriage entrance to the beautiful court within. The win- dows in the upper stories are flanked each side by three- quarter columns, which support a pediment over each opening, and the whole structure is surmounted by a mag- nificent cornice, designed by Michelangelo, which is worthy of its position on the finest palace in Rome. 55. The interior court of the Farnese Palace, Fig. 11, is a magnificent enclosure over 125 feet square and is sur- rounded on four sides by a deep colonnade, over which the second story of the palace extends. The colonnade is some- what on the style of the Colosseum (see Fig. 83, History of Architecture and Ornament, Part 1), with its half columns supporting an entablature, but the projecting imposts impair the composition in the first story, as they have the appear- ance of cutting into and weakening the columns. Like all the Renaissance palaces, the court elevations of the Farnese are considerably more elaborate than the exterior fronts, but the simple treatment of the entire design places it in the lead as one of the most successful buildings in the Renaissance style. 56. Giraud Palace. The Giraud Palace, Fig. 16, is one of Bramante's later works, in which the orders are introduced in the second and third stories. The basement, however, is plain and severe, somewhat after the style of the Florentine palaces. I I. T 10119 214 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 57. Cancellarla Palace. The Cancellaria Palace, Fig. 17, has the characteristic court surrounded by a colon- nade, but in this case the colonnade is carried out through two stories. The upper story supports an attic in which pilasters face the .walls over the columns below in super- imposed orders according to the rules of Vignola. 58. Palace Caprarola. Vignola's greatest work was undoubtedly the Palace Caprarola, Fig. 18, about 30 miles from Rome. The plan was pentagonal in outline, enclosing a circular court. Each of its five sides was 130 feet long and 90 feet high, while the court was 65 feet in diameter. This pentagonal form of plan was used to give the palace a fortress-like appearance, as all citadels at that time were pentagons. Above the terrace on which it is built, the palace rises in two grand stories of orders, the lower one being arcaded and the upper one including two stories of windows. Vignola also designed many other important buildings in Rome. 59. The Villa Medici. When these palaces were built on the outskirts of the city, or beyond the municipal limits entirely, the courts were sometimes dispensed with, and great care was given to the laying out of a park or garden on one side of the palace, which should afford a pleasing outlook from the principal rooms. In Fig. 19 is shown the garden front of the Villa Medici, erected in 1540 by Lippi. The entrance, with its central arched and flanking trabeated openings and its supporting columns, is a typical detail of the Roman school of the Renaissance, which was much copied in many subsequent buildings erected in other countries. The walls of this facade are tastefully decorated with numerous bas-reliefs of allegorical subjects, and are indented with niches for the reception of statues and busts. The window openings are few and comparatively small, as they face the southwest and the rays of the tropical sun are not desired within. This lack of windows accounts for the surface decoration of the walls proper and the consequent originality of the design. 216 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 VENETIAN RENAISSANCE INFLUENCES 60. Geographical. The importance of Venice was always due to her geographical position being especially advantageous to Oriental trade. This trade brought wealth and consequently architectural development. 61. Geological. Venice is practically built over the water instead of over the land. Its palaces and churches are erected on piles driven in a shallow lagoon, and the means of communication being through canals instead of streets, it presents an entirely different condition from any other community. The structural problem beginning at once with the peculiarity of foundations had an important influence on the design of its edifices. 62. Climatic. The climatic conditions favor an out- door life, as Venice is very warm in summer, though tem- pered by sea breezes; yet it is sufficiently cool in winter to require artificial heating of interiors. The former condition tends to the picturesque treatment of the fagades, as they are reflected in the canals, and the introduction of much color, while the latter renders the roof treatment more con- spicuous in chimneys than is found in other Italian cities. 63. Religions. Venice was more independent of the pope than other cities, and always maintained a strong loyalty to the state. Tolerance of religious forms in Venice is evidenced by the erection of a Greek church during the Renaissance period. 64. Political and Historical. During the 15th cen- tury, Venice conquered the surrounding country and appointed Venetian governors, thus strengthening her republican form of government. Many wealthy families arose to prominence and a great rivalry existed in the erection of handsome palaces along the Grand Canal. These palaces were not (a) 217 218 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 fortresses as in Florence, but were the residences of prom- inent citizens that had acquired greath wealth through Oriental trade and manufactures. In 1453, Constantinople was taken by the Turks and the Oriental trade was undermined. In 1486, the new route from Europe to India was discovered by Diaz and much of the Indian trade was thus diverted to Portugal. As a result of this, Venice was at war with the Turks throughout the 16th century, and eventually all her possessions, except Northern Italy, were taken from her. CHARACTERISTICS 65. The Renaissance movement affected the architecture of Venice very differently from other Italian cities. The Venetians had developed a very beautiful architecture during the Gothic period, and being more isolated from Rome, they were not so much influenced by classic traditions as were the people of nearer cities like Florence. Therefore, instead of adopting the classic forms at once, there was a period of transition, during which the two styles were mingled. The architecture of Venice was of a lighter character than the rustic styles of Florence or the severely classic styles of Rome. Columns and pilasters were used freely, but the windows were arranged in groups instead of being evenly distributed across the fagade. A favorite grouping was one where the openings were arranged in the middle of the front with considerable areas of flanking wall on each side, as in the lowest stories of the buildings shown in Fig. 20. The fagades were comparatively flat, owing to the scarcity of land and the frontage being on the line of the canal, but monotony was avoided by the grouping of the windows, the introduction of projecting balconies, and the subdivision of the stories by cornices and balconies. Late in the period, Venice, like other cities, followed the classic proportions of Vignola very closely and introduced little detail or decoration that did not have a classic model as its prototype. Fio. 21 220 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 EXAMPLES 66. Venetian Architects. The principal architects of the Venetian school were Sansovino and his immediate successors. Sansovino built the staircase in the court of the Ducal Palace, Fig. 23, the Zecca, or Mint, and the church of St. Georgio del Greci. He commenced the library of St. Mark, Fig. 21, but this structure was finished after his death by one of his successors. Sansovino was succeeded by two rivals, Scamozzi and Palladio. The former finished the library of St. Mark and erected numerous churches and palaces. He possessed little originality, however, and Palladio, with his transcendent talent, finally obtained the lead. Palladio was an author as well as an architect. He care- fully measured the Roman antiquities and published draw- ings of them in a book on architecture, which did much to influence other European designers. His designs were mostly erected in brick and stucco, the lower story being rusticated, as in the Florentine examples. 67. Ducal Palace. The great undertaking of this age was the rebuilding of the court of the Ducal Palace, Fig. 22, by Antonio Rizzo, in 1486. The lower story is particularly pleasing. The piers are octagonal prisms, in the faces of which panels are sunk, thus giving lightness to the details without detracting from their strength. The pointed arcade in the second story is not so pleasing, and shows how the lingering traditions still affected independent Venice, when Rome had given herself up entirely to the classic revival. The upper stories are characteristically Renaissance. The broad belts of friezes carved in ornamental sculpture cease to appear as copies of classic forms and readily proclaim themselves as ornamental wall spaces between the stories. The pilasters flanking the windows are not the pilasters of ancient Rome, but a Renaissance development that is ever appropriate to its plan. The giant stairway, Fig. 23, was completed by Sansovino, in 1554. 21 FIG. 22 222 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 68. Library of St. Mark. The library of St. Mark, Fig. 21, commenced by Sansovino in 1536, is undoubtedly the masterpiece of this architect. It consists of an open arcade in the Doric order on the ground floor, above which is an Ionic arcade under an entablature of most exagger- ated proportions. This was necessary in order to permit the frieze .to be pierced with a range of small windows. There seems also to be too great a profusion of sculptured orna- ment, but notwithstanding these defects, there is a grandeur in the range of its twenty-one arches and the boldness of its crowning members that is impressive. This structure is 270 feet long on the plaza facing the Ducal Palace and is 45 feet deep on the end shown in Fig. 21. 69. Vendramini Palace. The Vendramini Palace, Fig. 20 (a), commenced in 1481 by Lombardo, is one of the most beautiful palaces in Venice. It is one of the earliest buildings in Italy where engaged columns are used to divide the fagade. The lines of its composition are vigorous and stately, and its broad arched and mullioned windows, sepa- rated by engaged columns, established a type of large- windowed and vigorously modeled facades that later archi- tecture developed but never surpassed. The treatment of the arched heads of the windows is suggestive of Gothic influence, although the mullions and other columns are derived directly from Roman models. The grouping of the windows toward the center of the building and leaving a flanking wall mass on each side, is a typical Venetian fea- ture, which is also traceable in some of the Gothic designs. 70. Cornaro Palace. The Cornaro, Fig. 20 (6), com- menced in 1532 by Sansovino, is similar to the Vendramini Palace. However, the openings are smaller and the first story is higher, and is built of rusticated stonework some- what after the Florentine style. 71. Pesaro Palace. The Pesaro Palace, Fig. 5 (a), designed by Longhena, in 1650, is a most dignified com- position, although there is no doubt that the fagade is overornamented. It belongs to the later period of the I L T 30334 224 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 Renaissance, when the variety that could be obtained through a close imitation of the classic system of design was nearly exhausted and originality was sought in the application of ornament in new and fantastic shapes. But even allow- ing that the design is not in the best taste, there can be no doubt that it was the residence of a wealthy nobleman, and taken as a whole, it is a singularly picturesque piece of architecture. 72. Palazzo del Consigllo. The Palazzo del Con- siglio, or council hall, at Verona, Fig. 5 (b) , by Fra Giocondo, is a characteristic structure erected about 1500. It consists of an open arcade, over which are walls of plaster and stucco richly decorated in graffito work. 73. Church of St. Maria della Salute. The church of St. Maria della Salute, Fig. 24, commenced by Longhena, in 1532, is beautifully situated on the Grand Canal. The plan of this edifice is octagonal, with chapels extending on each side. The central space is covered by a dome standing '/n a high drum, which is connected with the outer walls by buttresses that extend over the aisles and thus add to the richness of the exterior effect. A smaller dome covers the chancel, and a square tower with a domical roof adds variety and repose to the structure. The ornament is elaborate and presents many of the faults that characterize the latter part of the Renaissance style. Architects became tired of design- ing fagades that consisted simply of architectural orders laid out with mathematical precision. In the endeavor to pro- duce something new, the classic details were subjected to all sorts of indignities. Columns were designed with spiral twistings, capitals were composed with cupids and allegori- cal figures supporting the abacus. Large brackets or con- soles from the cornice of the Corinthian order were intro- duced as buttresses, and smaller ones as keystones, and in the attempt to express original ideas with classic details, all care for the propriety of these details was overlooked. This was termed the Rococo period of the Renaissance and marked the decline in all countries where the style developed. 225 FIG. 24 226 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 ANALYTICAL, STUDY PLANS 74. The plans (see Fig. 2) in the Florentine school were extremely simple, consisting of a number of apartments grouped around an interior court. Stairs were closed between walls and were usually vaulted over. In Rome, the plans were more varied and on a grander scale, and elliptical and circular stairways supported on columns are character- istic. In Venice, the canals required that the plans present a straight front. Stairways well in the central part usually opened on a court. WALLS 75. In Florence, rusticated walls with a dominant pro- jecting cornice were characteristic. No exterior pilasters or columns were used, except as details of window treat- ment. In Rome, pilasters, two or more stories in height, supported a cornice that crowned the walls, and the window openings were treated as simple piercings through the wall curtain. Early in the style, however, the walls were left plain, with rustications at the angles and pilasters or columns in the first story only. In Venice, columns were used freely in each story, with an entablature for each, and little wall space was exposed. The general treatment approached the Roman imperial style as exemplified in the Colosseum. ROOFS 76. Over galleries and passages semicircular vaults were used in Florence, and these were richly decorated. In church work, the dome was introduced over the cross- ing and the nave vault was coffered, as in the Pantheon at Rome. Tiles were used on the exterior and were some- times visible, but usually the pitch was too flat for them to show. In Rome, coffered vaults were used for interior effect, but the exterior roofs were rarely visible. Domes UlJJJUUUblJLPJUlJUULIUl (f\ 228 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 mounted on a high drum and crowned with a lantern became characteristic of all churches of the period. In Venice, a balustrade was carried above the upper cornice and the roof behind it was given only sufficient pitch to shed the rain. COLUMNS 77. In Florentine Renaissance, columns were used only for arcaded passages or for courts, and not as elements of wall treatment, as in the Vecchio Palace, Fig. 6. In Rome, pilasters were used on a gigantic scale across the front of the buildings, and all the details are designed in proportion to these pilasters as an order, and not in proportion to the scale of the building itself, as in St. John Lateran, Fig. 3. In Venice, columns were used in arcades, as in the Colos- seum, and the entablature was broken out over them and then back along the wall space between, as in the Pesaro Palace, Fig. 5 (a). OPENINGS 78. Windows in Florence were small and widely spaced. The early examples usually possessed semicircular heads and were divided by a columnar mullion carrying two minor semicircles with a complete circle between, as shown in Fig. 25 (a), which is from the Strozzi Palace, thus establish- ing a traceried head. Later, after the Roman school, the windows were straight-topped with a cornice as in (b) from the Gondi Palace or they were flanked by columns and sur- mounted with entablatures and pediments, as in (c), from the Pandolfini Palace. In Rome, the openings are either flanked by columns carrying a pediment or entablature for a window head, as in (d) and (/7-Jl'! SEN AT CNS ANDRE H?*- 1 ^S^" ^M'-W ! AE DF: POR PATR N AE IWSi- ^^U^sLIiiffi 229 230 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 MOLDINGS 79. In Florence, the moldings are few and simple. In Rome, the details of the classic style were followed as closely as possible, but on a colossal scale. In Venice, the classic was followed, but the scale was smaller and the details were worked out with more delicacy. ORNAMENT 80. Fresco painting of the walls and ceilings was prac- ticed in all three schools, as was also sculptured ornament in the friezes. The general decoration is usually grouped in masses in the Florentine style, to contrast with large areas of plain wall surface. On the exterior, about all the carved work observable are great armoried shields on the angles of the palaces, as in Fig. 1. In contrast to this, the Venetian style introduces decoration all over the front. Every span- drel has its appropriate sculpture in high relief and thus adds materially to the characteristic of the style. 81. On the interiors, the doorways were treated similarly to the window openings, and they were frequently carved with elaborate arabesques and classic ornament, as shown in Fig. 26. The example shown in (a) was executed in white marble, and consisted of two paneled pilasters for the side trim and an elaborate entablature for the lintel, or cap. The frieze was carved in the Greek honeysuckle and anthemion, and over the corona was turned a semicircular pediment. The example shown in (b) is similar, except that the side trim and lintel consist of moldings only, and the tympanum under the semicircular pediment is of black marble. In (c), which is an example from Genoa, a pedestal is introduced under the pilasters and the pediment is omitted, while at (d), also from Genoa, the capital is introduced below the door head not a pleasing arrangement. 82. All pilaster caps shown in Fig. 27 are based on the Corinthian order, but none of them conform to it exactly. c I FTQ 97 232 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 The inti eduction of foliated heads and human figures is characteristic of the Renaissance and was later carried to extremes in France. The arabesques that were carved in panels on the shafts of the pilasters, instead of the flutings of the classic models, were intricate and symmetrical, and were usually duplicated on opposite sides of a center line, as shown in Figs. 28 and 30. Fluted shafts were also used and the flutings were sometimes filled one-third the way up from the base with carved reeds or rope-like forms. Bosses, as shown in Fig. 29 (a), (b} t and (c} t were intro- duced into ceiling decoration, and elaborate iron grilles, as shown in (d) and (e), were placed in the semicircular door heads. The use of color in the ornamentation of the Italian Ren- naissance was lavish and the designs were most elaborate and excellent in execution. It was an age when artists were the architects and the finest painters and sculptors of the day were employed on the decorations. The subjects adopted were allegorical or religious, and were treated with conventional symmetry, while the rendering, at times, was decidedly naturalistic. In Fig. 30 at (a) is shown a panel from one of the pilasters in the Vatican. It is symmetrically disposed on each side of a vertical center line and made up of subjects borrowed from mythological conceptions, com- bined in a conventional treatment similar to the Pompeian paintings. The central stem consists of an attenuated vase from which tendril-like scrolls branch, while impossible grotesque animals rear themselves on each side. These suggest ideas borrowed from the mythology of the Greeks, as do also the naturally rendered, and conventionally posed, cupids above. In mythology we have the centaur and the sphinx, each symbolic of the intellect of man and the strength of the beast; the griffin with the head and wings of a bird, and the body of a lion; the dragon with the head of a beast, the body of a reptile, and the wings of a bat; and numerous other combinations that establish a precedent for these forms in the Renaissance paintings. 233 FIG. 28 (fir) FIG. 29 234 f FIG. 30 (d) 51 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 235 The forms are shaded to give "roundness" to the parts a treatment antagonistic to the highest ideals of surface decoration but this treatment is found in many Renais- sance decorations and is characteristic of the style. In Fig. 30 (b) is shown another panel where two male figures, naturalistically rendered, support a tablet and super- imposed decorative forms. Analyzing the design one finds the male figures suggestive of Hercules or Atlas, the tablet appears to be modeled after a Roman altar, and the griffins, acanthus scrolls, and Greek vase all appear to be of Pom- peian origin. An unlimited variety of design can thus be invented and when carried out in the varied possibilities of color scheme, the painted ornament of the Renaissance pre- sents a unique and interesting study. Much of it is false, however; moldings, cornices, consoles, and brackets are painted on the walls instead of worked in relief and when viewed from the wrong point are entirely out of perspective. REVIEW EXERCISES 1. What is the meaning of the term Renaissance? 2. Describe briefly the conditions and influences that led to the Renaissance movement. 3. What are the general characteristics of Renaissance architecture? 4. What are the contrasting characteristics of Renaissance and Gothic architecture? 5. (a) Into what three schools, or styles, of design is Italian Renaissance architecture divided? (b) What are the contrasting characteristics of each? (c) Name three important buildings in each style and state by whom they were designed. 6. (a) What was the Rococo period? (b) What was the character of its ornament? 7. Who was (a) Michelangelo? (b) Vignola? 8. (a) What is the Vatican? (b) When was it erected? 9. On a sheet of paper 9 in. X 12 in. make a drawing of an Italian Renaissance doorway (5 ft. wide and 10 ft. high) consisting of two pilasters supporting an entablature, the pilasters to be paneled and carved in Arabesque designs with characteristic capitals as illus- trated. The drawings are to be similar to, but not copies of, Fig. 27 ( a )> (b)> (<')> and (d), and on a scale of 1 inch = 1 foot. 236 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 FRENCH RENAISSANCE (1515 TO 1800) INFLUENCES 83. Geographical. France had by this time assumed the boundaries she was destined "to maintain practically down to the present day. Under Louis XIV and Napoleon, she acquired more territory, but soon lost it, so it need not be taken into consideration. (See also influences under French Romanesque, History of Architecture and Ornament, Part 2.) 84. Geological and Climatic. The geological and climatic influences are the same as those given under French Romanesque, History of Architecture and Ornament, Part 2. 85. Religious. Although there was high feeling in France between the Catholics and the Reformers, the government was in the hands of the former and the Protes- tants had very little direct influence. Moreover, as sufficient churches had been built during the medieval period, there was little necessity for many others, and none of importance were erected until the 18th century. Thus the style had little influence on church architecture. 86. Political and Historical. In 1494, Charles VIII of France invaded Italy; in 1508, Louis XII joined with Florence in an alliance against Venice; and from 1522 to 1542, Francis I was at war with Italy, and although the French were defeated in all these conflicts, they were brought into contact with the superior civilization of Italy and were drawn into the Renaissance movement. When the kings, Charles, Louis, and Francis, returned from their campaigns in Italy, they brought with them Italian artists and workmen, among whom were Leonardo da Vinci, Vignola, and, later on, Bernini. Francis I was an ardent patron of the arts and literature and it is to him 51 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 237 that France owes her picturesque chateaux along the river Loire. He reigned from 1515 to 1547 and was succeeded by his son Henry II. Henry married Catharine de Medici, one of the great Medici family of Italy, and through this marriage and that of one of her later kings, France was under Italian influence for nearly 100 years. Henry was succeeded in 1559 by his son Francis II who died in 1560, and was followed by his brothers Charles IX (1560 to 1574) and Henry III (1574 to 1589), but Catharine dominated the policy of her sons. She was an ardent Catholic and perse- cuted the Huguenots unmercifully. Under Charles IX, in 1572, over 20,000 Huguenots were murdered throughout France on the eve of St. Bartholomew's day. This is known in history as the massacre of St. Bartholomew. Under Henry III, the influence of the Catholic party became so intolerable that the king in an endeavor to free himself from its power, had the Duke de Guise and the Cardinal de Lorraine, leaders of the party, murdered in his private apartments of the chateau de Blois, as a result of which Henry himself was treacherously murdered by a Catholic fanatic in 1589. Henry IV, a Protestant, then came to the throne and promulgated in 1598 the Edict of Nantes, by which the Huguenots were given freedom of worship without persecution. But Henry turned Catholic, married Marie de Medici, another descendent of the famous Italian family, and at his death troubles broke out anew. Louis XIII (1610 to 1643) was but a boy when he ascended the throne, and France was governed by Marie de Medici and the Prime Minister Richelieu, an Italian prelate. Under Louis XIV (1643 to 1715). France became the leading country of Europe and many grand building operations were undertaken. 87. Many fine public monuments were erected by the government; the palaces were enlarged; much pomp and display was introduced into all royal ceremonies, and every- where was evidenced the pride and ambition of the nation. In 1685, the king revoked the Edict of Nantes, and the 238 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 freedom that had been enjoyed by the Huguenots for 87 years was withdrawn. Persecutions immediately began, and as a result thousands of the most industrious and intel- ligent of the citizens of France fled to England and other Protestant countries. Louis XV reigned from 1717 to 1774. He was a dissolute monarch, who wasted the public revenues in all sorts of extravagances that further disgusted the people. With Louis XVI (1774 to 1793), a reaction set in and under the influence of the simple taste of Queen Marie Antoinette, who realized that the impoverished con- dition of the country could not stand the wasteful extrava- gance that had characterized the previous reigns, and the architecture of the period reflects this influence. But the reaction came too late. The revolution broke out and the enraged populace endeavored to exterminate royalty by putting all the nobility to death. Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette were beheaded. During the revolution no building operations were attempted, religion was abolished, and a reign of terror and mob violence ensued. Finally, in 1795, a new form of government was established called the "Directory," under which an army of 200,000 men was put into the field in command of General Napoleon, and the foreign powers that were in sympathy with the martyred king were defeated. But the Directory was not so successful in ruling at home. The royalists were constantly intriguing to regain power and the form of government became unpopular. Finally, in 1799, Napoleon overthrew the Directory and seized the reins of government himself first as consul until 1804, and then as Emperor until 1815. During this period architecture and decorations eliminated every detail that would remind the country of its late royal oppressors. Architects and designers searched classic history to find a style suitable to their new conditions. Roman details were abolished, but the simple lines of the Greek style and the delicate-colored arabesques of the Pompeian villas inspired the artists to new endeavors, and the Empire period of French architecture is characterized by these influences. 51 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 239 CHARACTERISTICS 88. French Renaissance architecture may be divided into three periods: the Early Renaissance, or 16th Cen- tury (1461 to 1589), comprising the reigns from Louis XI, to Henry III; the Classic period, or 17th Century (1589 to 1715) .including the reigns from Henry IV, to Louis XIV; and the Rococo period, or 18th Century (1715 to 1793), under the reigns of Louis XV and Louis XVI. The first period was transitional from the Gothic, but the second was marked by strong classical tendencies. The Rococo period was the decline, when ideas seem to have been exhausted, and meaningless detail, as in Italy, took the place of dignified and suitable ornament. 89. In Italy, the return to classic forms was almost immediate. The principal buildings were the palaces erected in the large cities, for the nobility, wealthy families, and the popes. In France, the principal structures were the chateaux erected as country residences for the king and his court. The narrow streets of Florence, the straight waterways of Venice, and the public squares of Rome, necessitated a severely classical disposition, while the open-country sur- roundings, where the chateaux were erected, demanded the more picturesque treatment that could be attained through the Gothic school. The proximity of Rome rendered the details of Italian Renaissance almost servile in their classic purity, while in France, the detail was used freely and was altered whenever necessary to suit the Gothic construction. The palaces of Italy usually presented only one front, while the chateaux of France were to be seen from four sides, and thus demanded a picturesque grouping from every point of view. The Italian villas are symmetrical, classic designs, according to the rules of the orders; the French chateaux, irregular Gothic castles with a veneer of Renaissance. ILT 30335 240 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 5] EXAMPLES 90. Chateaux. The most interesting monuments of the Early French Renaissance are the chdteaux. These con- stituted the country residences of the kings and their royal relatives. The chateaux are somewhat similar in character to the villas of Italy, but were situated farther away from the cities and were used more as rural retreats than were the Italian villas. A characteristic that distinguishes the French from the Italian Renaissance is that the earliest royal residences were in the form of a feudal castle; and when the invention of gunpowder rendered the castellar system of defense ineffectual, these residences began to assume a less forbidding and a more hospitable appearance. Large mullioned windows flanked by classic pilasters pierced the outer walls, while conical and high-peaked roofs covered the towers and main buildings. Richly ornamented dormer-windows and pilastered chimneys broke the roof slopes, while the buttresses and vaulting of the Gothic sys- tem were still retained. Thus, the honest, straightforward system of castellar construction is found emerging from its crudeness and bedecking itself with the refinements and friv- olities of the approaching Renaissance. Along the river Loire are a number of these chateaux, many of which were erected or altered during the reign of Louis XII, while others were remodeled by his successor, Francis I. The chateaux along the valley of the Loire therefore present most excellent monuments from which to study the French Renaissance throughout its entire development. 91. Chateau de Blois. The largest, and in some respects the most important, of these country residences of royalty is the chateau at Blois, a plan of which is shown in Fig. 31. In this structure, as it exists at the present day, are brought together the expressions characteristic of each successive period of the French Renaissance. The plan of the chateau consists of three wings so dis- posed as to enclose a court of honor in the form of a ,\ Oi>Tbwr PLAN OF CHATEAU Dt BLOI5 ^^ M,AN OF ^ CHATEAU CHAMBORD 241 FIG. 31 242 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 distorted quadrangle, this irregularity being a most con- spicuous and characteristic bequest that was left to the new structure by the old medieval castle on whose lines the present edifice is erected. The northeast side was built by Louis XII toward the end of the 15th century; the northwest side was completed by Francis I in the middle of the 16th century; and the southwest side is the work of Gaston of Orleans in the beginning of the 17th century. 92. Having discussed the characteristics of the wing of Louis XII in History of Architecture and Ornament, Part 3, the wing of Francis I, on the northwest side of the court, Fig. 32, will be considered. This part was erected only 50 years after the wing of Louis XII was completed, but the difference in style is manifest even to the most casual observer. The artists of the 16th century, hurried along by the swift current of those 50 years of wonderful intel- lectual regeneration, seemed to understand even better than their successors that the Romans had not used the orders as elements of construction, as the Greeks did, but as decorative details having no essential relation to the construction what- ever. They seemed to know by instinct that there was no law, moral or artistic, that should prevent them from taking those Roman orders and details and using them in any way they chose, structural or nonstructural, so long as their use suited the purpose to which they were applied. Thus, a study of this period of architecture shows that the French builders accepted not the conventional restrictions of the classic formulas, but their essential spirit as an organized scheme of ornament. 93. The wing of Francis I, as it faces on the court, shows that the lessons in classic architecture given by the great Italian masters, who were entertained at the court like princes, were accepted by the French architects with interest and respect for their historic value, but were not learned by rote nor considered as laws on which all archi- tectural designs must be rigidly carried out. On the ground floor, the windows of this wing are not arranged to coincide with those of the floor above, thus 244 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 introducing at once that old feeling of Gothic contempt for absolute symmetry. The pilasters on each side of the base- ment windows support a string-course that establishes a line of demarcation between the basement order and the more important series of pilasters in the two upper stories. All the pilasters are irregularly spaced so as to have suitable relations with the windows, as the builders understood that the details as used by the Romans were decorative in their character and not structural. Between the two principal stories there is a broad string- course, or entablature, that divides the pilasters into two orders, one superimposed over the other. A great cornice surmounted by an elaborate balustrade crowns the entire wall. The coarse corbels that supported the Gothic parapet are replaced by elegant modillions borrowed from the Corin- thian order, and between them are carved a series of delicate shells in place of the machicolations through which feudal ancestors poured deadly missiles and boiling oil on the unwelcome visitors below. The balustrade above the cornice is a most intricate design, in which the letters F and C are interwoven as initials of Francis and Claude, the king and queen. 94. The great octagonal staircase on this fagade is a unique detail in architectural design and a masterpiece of 16th century architecture. It shows clearly the audacious independence of the French architects of the period, for it is entirely independent of the wall surface from which it pro- trudes, is unsymmetrically placed in the length of the wall, and consists of four great free-standing, Gothic-like buttresses that are crowned with capitals of a composite character. These buttresses, whose axial lines radiate from a common central point, support the continuation of the cornice from the main wall, and this continuation of cornice is the only detail that ties the stair tower to the main building. In the lower part of each buttress is sunk a niche that is beautifully molded and canopied in the most elaborate traceries of Gothic imagination, but executed in the terms 246 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 of the dawning Renaissance. Horizontal moldings divide the buttresses at the floor levels, but with these the horizon- tal elements cease. Every other detail inclines with the stairs as they ascend, and richly carved balconies extend from pier to pier. The balustrades of the balconies are divided into panels and contain the crowned F or the crowned salamander, emblematic of Francis I. Comparing this wing with that of Louis XII, it is difficult to realize that a period of only 50 years could effect this change in style. The new work is fresh, cohesive, and architec- turally grammatical, and seems to possess none of the weaknesses resulting from timidity in the use of a new style, 95. The exterior fagade of the wing, as shown in Fig. 33, is merely a facing on the structure of the loth century, as the whole composition grew out of the necessity of establish- ing communication between the tower of Moulin and the buildings on the southwest end of the court. A series of arches in two stones, separated by piers and engaged col- umns, were carried around the tower, and the circular shafts were carried to the cornice, after the Romanesque manner. At a v later period, these orders were carried for six bays toward the north, with elliptical arches instead of semicir- cular ones, and with pilasters to separate them instead of columns. Still later, six more bays were added, and thus the entire facade was completed. The roof is supported on free-standing columns, poised above the pilasters like an Italian loggia, or balcony, con- necting the top-story apartments. A two-story dormer breaks the continuity of this roof arcade with Gothic inde- pendence of symmetry, being just out of center. In fact, the great charm of this entire facade lies in the disregard of the absolute symmetry and duplication that was being followed in Italy and later was to characterize the French style also. 96. Chftteau Chenonceau. The little chateau of Chenonceau, Fig. 34, is of about the same date as the wing of Francis I at Blois. It was commenced about 1515 on 247 51 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 249 the site of an old mill, after designs made by Pierre Nepveu. The mill foundations being in the river, the chateau extends partly over the water, and its base lines were necessarily somewhat sharp and angular. The chateau itself, however, broke out from these foundations in true Gothic fashion into round towers at the angles, which were roofed over with conical turrets having steep hip roofs between. On the entrance fagade, the roof line was broken by three dormers similar to those on the Francis I wing at Blois, and although these are arranged symmetrically over the windows in the fagade below, and the details of the front are symmetrically disposed about the center, the whole composition is more Gothic in feeling than Renaissance. 97. Chateau Azay-le-Rideau. The chateau of Azay- le-Rideau, Fig. 35, was begun in 1520, five years later than Chenonceau and a few years before the completion of the Francis I wing at Blois. It presents no single feature that can compare with the octagonal staircase at Blois, nor is its situation so romantic as Chenonceau, but in refinement of detail, harmony of arrangement, and simplicity of outline, it is equal to any of the chateaux of Touraine. The plan is L-shaped, each angle of which is enclosed by a tower crowned with the characteristic conical roof. The towers are battle- mented, as is also the curtain wall between them in some places, and even the loopholes between the embrasures proclaim the feudal origin of many of the details of the French Renaissance. Azay-le-Rideau, therefore, is essen- tially Gothic in its general conception, but the wide, carved window openings flanked with pilasters, the fanciful pedi- ments crowning them, and the horizontal bands subdividing the fagade, all point to classic influences and incipient Renaissance. The richest ornamentation is to be found on the dormers, which resemble those at Blois. 98. Chateau Chambord. The chateau of Chambord, Fig. 36, was erected by Francis I, with the intention of making it the most magnificent in France. The location is unromantic at the present time, as the timber has all been 251 FIG. 37 252 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 cut and the chateau left alone on a flat, sandy plain. Being at a considerable distance from any supply of building material, this chateau was a very expensive palace to build. However, time and expense were nothing to a monarch of the temperament of Francis I. The suite of Francis I con- sisted of about 1,800 people, and as it was the whim of the monarch to wander constantly from chateau to chateau, the housing of this tremendous retinue was a problem of no small consideration. Chambord was therefore built for their accommodation, as they could not obtain comfort elsewhere. Chambord had 440 rooms, and enough stables to accom- modate over a thousand horses [see plan, Fig. 31 ()]. Originally, it was situated in the center of a wooded park, the enclosing wall of which was 21 miles in circum- ference. The plan of the chateau was" a rectangle, with a tower at each corner; the donjon in the center of the main fagade is a relic of feudal planning. The angles of the plan are enclosed by immense round towers and the main fagade is broken by two others, so as to include the outer corners of the donjon. The walls are divided into panels by horizontal string-courses and pilasters, which, with the window openings and other details, are arranged with rigid symmetry and regularity. Were it not for the round towers, which are of enormous girth, the walls would pass for commonplace Renaissance, but the roof that crowns the whole structure is of most riotous Gothic, carried out in Renaissance detail. It scarcely seems credible that this was the design of the same architect that created the dainty little chateau of Chenonceau. This roof fairly bristles with a forest of towers, turrets, dormers, and chimneys, all of which are carried out in rather coarse Renaissance detail, as shown in Fig. 37. 99. In the center of the donjon was a double staircase as celebrated for its ingenuity as that at Blois was for its beauty. This staircase consisted of two spiral flights, one coiled within the other, so that persons going up and down stairs would not meet in passing. On the second floor, this 31 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 253 stairway opened at the intersection of two wide corridors, as shown in Fig. 33, and continued its windings up to a lantern above the roof, as shown in Fig. 37, where it ended on a balcony. As shown in Fig. 38, one of the spiral stairways starts from the landing shown, and winds to the left in a continuous flight, while the second stairway starts at the landing on the opposite side of the shaft and winds spirally beneath the first. In the illustration, the two balustrades FIG. 38 that show one over the other flank the two independent stair- ways. The interior double stairway terminates in the lantern shown in the center, Fig. 37, from \vhich access is obtained to the immense roof, which is surrounded by a balustrade. All the carved details are interwoven with the crowned F or crowned salamander of Francis, and occasionally with the crowned H of Henry II, his son, who inherited the chateau after Francis I died and left it unfinished, notwithstanding the fact that 1,800 men had worked on it for 12 years. 256 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 100. Hunting Lodge of Francis I. The hunting lodge of Francis I, Fig. 39, was built in 1527 at Moret, in the forest of Fontainebleau, about 35 miles from Paris. It is characteristic of this period of the Renaissance and shows more than do the chateaux of Touraine the strong influence of the Italian style. The treatment of the facade, with the solid ends and the windows grouped in the center, is dis- tinctly Venetian. The ornament is rich and beautifully executed and shows scenes from the chase and portrait medallions of members of the royal family. 101. Church of St. Etienne du Mont. St. Etienne du Mont, Fig. 40, was one of the few churches built during the reign of Francis I. Ecclesiastical architecture received scant attention during this period, but the edifices of this kind that were erected adhered far more closely to Gothic details than did the secular buildings. In Fig. 40, the main portal, with its four columns and pediment with superimposed attic treatment, is essentially classic, but the rose window in the center, the pointed gable above, the traceries in the open- ings, the flying buttresses at the side, and the irregularities of the sky line, are Gothic in the extreme. 102. Louvre Palace. The most important work of the Francis I period was the rebuilding of the Louvre, in Paris. The old Gothic fortified palace had always been the principal residence of the kings, but it had become so unsuited to the requirements of the age that it was torn down in 1546 and entirely rebuilt in the new style from plans prepared by two architects Serlio, an Italian, and Pierre Lescot, a French- man. The Louvre consists of a quadrangular court 394 feet square surrounded on four sides by galleries, Fig. 31 (c), two of which extend westward until they meet the Palais Tuileriesa^. The east wing, or gallery*?/, of the Louvre is 548 feet long and 90 feet high, and contains the celebrated colonnade, subsequently designed by Perrault. The south side bdf faces the river Seine, and is 2,250 feet long. In the middle of each fagade facing the quadrangular court, there is a pavilion rising above an archway, over each of FIG. 41 257 258 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 which are constructed niches that were afterwards embel- lished with statues. The height is divided into three stories, the divisions of which are emphasized by pilasters in the Corinthian and Composite orders. The orders, however, were not used in great prominence, but the ornament and sculpture were appropriate and refined. 103. Classic Period. The Classic Renaissance included the period immediately following the reign of Francis I up to the end of the 16th century. The charming independence of the Francis I style began to give way about the middle of the 16th century to a more servile copying of antique details. Fagades became flat, and cornices were more conspicuous. Arches were introduced after the Roman style, and the carving became heavier and more aggressive instead of delicate and fanciful, as were the arabesque designs of the earlier period. 104. In the southwest wing of the chateau at Blois, Fig. 41, which was designed by Frangois Mansard for Gaston of Orleans, a brother of Henry IV, the tendency to copy the classic orders literally, and to decorate every opening and angle with some form of classic ornament, regardless of the convenience of plan or the propriety of the detail, is clearly shown. As the architects became more learned, they lost their fearlessness and independence, and instead of simply borrowing ideas from classic models, they appropriated the whole system. The Roman orders of architecture, according to Vignola, were loyally reproduced by Mansard in the southwest wing at Blois, presenting a contrast to the wing of Francis I that is full of historic meaning. Mansard constructed the first story in the Doric order, the second story in the Ionic order, and the third story in the Corinthian order, precisely as the works of Vignola dictated. The window heads, pediments, and arch imposts were all intended to be strictly Roman, and a suggestion that any part of the composition was of French origin would have been considered an insult to the designer. The roof, however, was an invention of the 259 FIG. 42 260 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 architect; existing through necessity, it was designed to slope back, as if hiding behind the aristocratic classic detail. No high roofs existed in the ancient monuments, and it was impossible for the architects of the 17th century to introduce to prominence any detail, no matter how necessary, that had not its origin in classic Rome. 105. Sorbonne Church. The Sorbonne Church, Fig. 42, was one of the most interesting designs of the classic period. The exterior is a simple composition, being treated with superimposed orders under a low pediment in the center. A high dome covers the center of the plan, around which are grouped heavy, square pilasters that serve as buttresses. In this period and the successive ones, the dome is more and more frequently used as an important detail, even sometimes to the subordination of the other parts. 106. Age of Louis XIV. The age of Louis XIV was remarkable for its literary and artistic activity. The archi- tecture was conspicuous by its liberal use of the orders in exterior design, while the interior decoration was showy and capricious, usually to excess. Papier mache' and stucco were freely used in some examples of relief ornamentation far better suited to the decoration of a boudoir than that of a ballroom or a hall of assembly. 107. In 1688, the east wing of the Louvre was completed from the designs of Claude Perrault, the court physician, whose plans were accepted in preference to those of Bernini. The colonnade of the Louvre forms one of the most impos- ing facades in existence, but it is a mere decoration, and possesses no structural relation to the building it forms a part of. It is dignified and stately and well suited to its position on the facade of the finest palace in France, but its existence is structurally unnecessary. (See Fig. 43.) 108. To this period is also due the Hotel des Invalides, or veterans' asylum, Fig. 44, by Jules H. Mansard, a son of Franc.ois Mansard. Here the classic orders may be seen in superposed series with Palladian regularity, while the whole is crowned with a dome, which is a masterpiece of the age. FIG. 44 FIG. 45 264 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 109. Age of Louis XV. Under Louis XV, the Rococo was introduced into France through the effort to inject some originality into the old, stereotyped classic designs. External decoration tended to the greatest extravagance in design and an utter disregard for constructive propriety. Scrolls, shells, palm leaves, and distorted forms were carved on the cornices and friezes almost to the exclusion of straight lines. 110. The Church of St. Sulplce was built in 1755. The interior of this structure, Fig. 46, dates from the 17th century, and though well designed, is in no way a remark- able composition. The fagade, however, designed by Ser- vandoni, is one of the most striking architectural compositions in Paris. It consists of a classic composition in two stories, with a well-proportioned Doric order below and a superposed Ionic order supporting the main corners. Two tall lateral turrets flank the angles and render the design symmetrical and well balanced. 111. "Versailles Palace. The palace at Versailles is an immense edifice that was built by Louis XIII in the latter half of the 17th century. Its erection almost exhausted the resources of the national treasury, and considering the great expenditure the result is far from satisfactory. There is no dominant feature in the composition; neither is there an imposing entrance. The plan lacks the ingenuity usually displayed by the French architects. It consists of a central court and two great wings, one extending to the north and the other to the south. A portion of the northern wing is shown in Fig. 47, from which can be seen the lack of harmony in the details. The tetrastyle portico over the rustic basement is the pavilion of Louis XIV, while the structure to the right of it is the chapel, the interior of which is shown in Fig. 48. 112. Petit Trianon. The Petit Trianon, Fig. 49, erected by Louis XV, in 1766, shows clearly the tendency to adopt fully the Italian Renaissance detail. The treatment here is essentially after the Roman school and shows no influence of the French traditions. 265 FIG. 4fi FIG. 48 51 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 269 ANALYTICAL STUDY PLANS 113. The Gothic castle plans materially influenced the early chateaux, many of which were built on the sites of old medieval structures. A few large residence structures, how- ever, were erected on entirely new sites, and Chambord may be taken as an example of one of them. Chambord was an early attempt at an ideal palace plan. The town houses retained the interior court of the medieval castle, and closed it on the street side with a screen wall. The windows of the principal ground-floor apartments opened on the court and not on the street. In Italy, the central courtyard was the principal feature of the palaces. It was usually sur- rounded by a covered colonnade or an arcade over which the second floor projected. WALLS 114. At first, the wails retained the Gothic gables and stone dormers, but later they gave way to the classic pedi- ment and balustrade. The mansard roof was used over pavilions at the angles. Stone was used chiefly, though in some localities brick was combined with it. The architec- tural orders were sparingly used at first, but later gave way to strong classic treatment. This contrasted with the Italian style, which from the beginning made extensive use of the orders on the plain, straight facades, with their heavy projecting cornices. ROOFS 115. The high, pitched roof of the Gothic style remained to characterize the French Renaissance, while flat, low roofs characterized the Italian style, where, owing to narrow streets, the roof could not be seen. Chimney stacks were i70 51 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 271 hidden in most Italian examples, but at Venice and in early examples at Florence, tile roofs were made visible above the cornice, while in France the fanciful treatment of the chimneys was characteristic of the style. COLUMNS 116. In the early work, pilasters were mere decorative adjuncts to Gothic construction, but later they were paneled and carved with geometrical and foliated ornament; whereas, in Italy, geometrical decoration of the pilasters was unusual, the pilaster there being used for its architectural value as an order, rather than for its decorative effect. In France, an order of pilasters was used to support the window head in the first story, and the pedestal of the superimposed order formed the sill-course in the story above, thus showing the influence of Vignola; whereas, the Italian style carried an order through two stories, after the system of Palladio. OPENINGS 117. The mullions and transoms of the Gothic style remained in the Early Renaissance (see Fig. 33), but later, as the orders were used successively in each story, the hori- zontal lines of their entablatures were used to mark the sill-courses and lintel courses of the windows (see Fig. 42). Symmetry, both in size and in arrangement, was aimed at until toward the end of the period, when there was little original feeling left in the designs. In Fig. 50 are shown three characteristic doorways. At (a) is an example from Chenonceau wherein the classic details are used decora- tively, while the Louis XIV door at (c) and the Louis XVI door at (b) show the severe treatment imposed by close adherence to the Italian style. In the Italian Renaissance, symmetry regulated the openings from the beginning, and in the late examples the position of these openings was determined more by the rules of the classic orders than by convenience of interior arrangement. ILT 30337 272 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 The attic was rare in the Italian style, but a special feature in the French. The heavy cornice, with windows in the frieze, topped the Italian wall, while a balustrade sur- mounted the French wall, and dormer-windows appear above it in the roof slope. MOLDINGS 118. The Early French moldings were a combination of classic and Gothic, but the Gothic details gradually gave way to the full classic profiles. The Italian moldings were full and of great projection, especially in the great over- hanging cornices. The string-courses in the early work were of less projection, in order to preserve the dominance of the cornice. Where orders were used in the stories, the moldings were purely classic and were studied with great care. ORNAMENT 119. In France, where the Gothic period had left many fine examples of carved-wood panels, wood remained in use for decorative work and was richly carved with arabesque designs. In Italy, however, modeled plaster and frescos were used for decorative effect. Later, Raffael used a com- bination of the two, and this style pervaded the later orna- ment of the French Renaissance, when more Italian artists were imported to work on the palaces of Versailles and Fontainebleau. During the reign of Louis XIV, the characteristic tapestry hangings as a wall decoration were superseded by panels of papier mache" and stucco decoration in white and gold. Every detail was ornamented with it, and during the period of Louis XV the rococo details assumed an elaborate and meaningless character that destroyed entirely the decorative value of the ornament. 120. Characteristic ornamental details in the Early French Renaissance were the initials and symbolic devices of the kings interwoven with other ornament in the carved ')., i^isp '///'iSBafc-- l ^ ^frFV W PIG. 51 274 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 work. In Fig. 51 (a) is shown one of the gables from the Francis I wing of the chateau at Blois, in which a royal crown pierced by the letter F forms the sole panel decora- tion. In (b) is illustrated the door head from the chapel of the chateau, with the crowned L and A, for Louis XII and Anne of Brittany, together with two shields, on which appear the fleur-de-lis, emblematic of the king, and the conventional ermine, the device of the queen. The latter is shown more in detail in (c), a chimney breast over a fireplace at Blois, where, on each side of the crowned A, are grouped tufts of ermine fur and also the "cordon," another device of the queen. In (d), on another chimney breast, between the crowned L and A, is a crowned porcupine, the king's personal emblem. The background of this example is made up of dolphins, which were the emblems of the princes of France that were next heirs to the throne. Above, in the frieze, is the cordon of Anne. In (e), a crowned central shield divided through the center contains, on each half, the fleur-de-lis and the ermine, respectively, while in (/), the crowned porcupine and crowned ermine are carved in full relief. 121. These animal emblems and other devices appear throughout the French Renaissance, and in many cases identify the period. The device of Francis I was a sala- mander and was carved in the dormer heads, similar to the F shown in Fig. 51 (a), in the side-wall panels, as shown in Fig. 32. The crowned H was used by Henry II, and was frequently interwoven with a C, for his queen, Catherine de Medici, or a D, or crescent, for his court favorite, Diana of Poitiers. The painted arabesque panels of the French Renaissance were quite as elaborate as those of Italy, many of them having been executed by Italian artists or by French artists trained in the Italian schools. The designs are similar to the Italian school, but give less prominence to the mytho- logical symbols than the designs found in Italy. The panels shown in Fig. 30 (c) and (d) introduce birds and 51 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 275 human figures with insects, festoons, and foliated devices, but without such direct symbolic references to the influences of the old classic mythology. Industrial and symbolic emblems, such as the palette, the pipes of Pan, the cornu- copia, etc., were liberally introduced and all rendered in a brilliant and luminous manner. REVIEW EXERCISES 1. What are the general characteristics of French Renaissance architecture? 2. (a) Into what periods is French Renaissance architecture divided? () What reigns are comprised in each? 3. What contrasting influences characterize the designs of French and Italian residences? 4. What are the principal structures of the Early French Renais- sance period? 5. What are the characteristics of the (a) Early French Renais- sance designs? () the Classic period? (c) Name one building of each period, and state briefly why it is classified in this period. 6. What political influences favored the introduction of Renaissance art into France from Italy? 7. To what succession of historical events does France owe her subjection to strong Italian influences for nearly a century? 8. What was the Edict of Nantes? (b) By whom was it made operative? (c) How long was it in force? (d) By whom and when was it withdrawn? (e) What effect upon the prosperity of the country did its withdrawal have? 9. Describe briefly some of the causes that led up to the French Revolution. 10. (a) What form of government followed the French Revolution? (d) By whom was it overthrown? 11. In what way was the architectural taste of the people affected by the overthrow of the French monarchy? 276 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 GERMAN RENAISSANCE INFLUENCES 122. Geographical. See German Romanesque Influ- ences, History of Architecture and Ornament^ Part 2. 123. Geological. Absence of stone in Northern Ger- many caused designs to be worked out in brick. Molded and cut brickwork therefore strongly characterized the style. 124. Climatic. See German Romanesque Influences, History of Architecture and Ornament, Part 2. 125. Religious. Martin Luther, a priest of peasant origin, objected to certain practices of the Church that were authorized by the pope, and posted on all the church doors in the community his denunciation of the papal approval. For this act he was excommunicated from the Church. Ho and his followers protested against the edict passed in 1820 by the Diet of Spires, and thereafter Luther and his followers were known as Protestants. Luther translated the Bible into high Dutch, and thus caused that language to become the acknowledged German tongue. 126. Political and Historical. Germany consisted of a number o'f small kingdoms, or principalities, each of which was ruled by its own king, thus preventing any national union of all sections, as was the case in France. From the election of Rudolph I of the house of Hapsburg as emperor, down to the reign of Maximilian of the house of Austria, there had been rulers elected from each of several states, but no one principality had controlled the reins of government long enough to unite the people into one homo- geneous nation. With the ascendency of the house of Austria, however, Germany was destined to remain under the same line of rulers, with a short interruption, for nearly 400 years. 51 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 277 The reign of Frederick III of this house was a feeble one, but it saw the invention of printing by Gutenberg, which was destined to play such an important part in the Reformation and Renaissance. Maximilian I, son of Frederick, reunited the several states into a homogeneous empire. By marriage with Mary of Burgundy he acquired Burgundy, to which the Netherlands belonged, and he witnessed the beginning of the Reformation by Martin Luther. Under Charles I, his suc- cessor, Germany passed through one of the most remarkable periods in her history. Charles I was the son of Archduke Philip of Austria, and grandson of Maximilian. His mother was Johanna, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. Through his father he inherited the empire of Germany, while from his mother he received the kingdom of Spain. His vast inheritances, combined with his great ability, made him the most powerful emperor since Charlemagne. In 1516, Charles I succeeded Ferdinand as king of Spain; in 1519 he became emperor of Germany; and in 1520, he was crowned emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, under title of Charles V. Charles V and his successors supported the Catholics, ana waged war against the Protestant princes almost Constantly until 1648, when peace was declared and religious liberty granted. England, Scotland, and Sweden joined in this war on the Protestant side, for the sake of religion, while France entered on the Catholic side, for her own aggrandizement. As a result of the peace, finally signed at Westphalia, in 1648, Germany was utterly ruined, Switzerland and the Netherlands were recognized as independent states, and France had risen to the leading power of Europe. Shortly after this time Louis XIV was pursuing his policy of aggran- dizement, and the influence of France throughout Europe was so great that the German princes allied themselves with France against their Emperor, and all the little courts of the German states adopted the French language and imitated the immorality and prodigality that characterized the French court and was destined to cause its destruction at the hands of an enraged people. I LT 101-23 278 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 CHARACTERISTICS 127. The characteristics of the German Renaissance lie chiefly in the quaintness and grotesqueness of its ornament, being due to the medieval traditions that were inherited from the previous style. The style was introduced from France about the time that France was going to the extreme in classic details. German Renaissance, therefore, is not so refined as the French style and its details are coarse and heavy. It had no artistic transitional period like that of the Francis I period, in France. Germany-, being an empire composed of a number of smaller principalities and kingdoms, does not present in its architecture any one dominating characteristic that unifies the style throughout the country. French ideas and even the French language were so popular throughout Germany at this time that it is not strange that the architectural detail of the Rococo period should be translated to the German constructions, but like all translations it naturally took a strong German accent. The German Rococo copied the scrolls, shells, cupids, and other details of the French style, but made them all heavier and bolder, thereby losing much of the delicacy and frothiness that was the only recommen- dation of this style of ornament. In France, the rococo decorations grew out of the exaggerated and excessive development of the papier mach6 ornament of the Louis XIV style. In Germany, the rococo devices were borrowed directly without question of their origin or purposes. This is due to the fact that the Renaissance was not intro- duced into Germany in the same manner as it was into France. The Italian wars of Louis XII, Charles VIII, and Francis I brought them directly into contact with the highly developed civilization of the northern Italian cities. These monarchs induced several Italian architects to return to France with them and introduce the new art, but it was not until the reign of Francis I that architecture generally showed strong Italian influences in France. 51 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 270 EXAMPLES 128. The rococo ornament of the period of Louis XIV and Louis XV was received into Germany and carried to FIG. 52 even greater excess than in France. Fig. 52 shows a view of one corner of the state drawing room in the Palace Brucksal, at Baden, and indicates to what extremes this 280 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 frivolous detail can be carried when the decorator is unfet- tered by lack of either money or talented artists. 129. The Zwinger galleries, at Dresden, Fig. 53, are elaborately ornamented with carved cartouches, shields, FIG. 53 festoons, and scrolls, interspersed with animal and human forms in great profusion. 130. Renaissance ran well up to the beginning of the 19th century, and at that time it adopted classic forms abso- lutely, without regard to their propriety or convenience. FIG. 54 282 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 STUDY PLANS 131. In German Renaissance, the French method of erecting buildings around an interior court was adopted, and the high, pitched roofs, containing many stories, were continued from the medieval period. WALLS 132. The gable ends, instead of conforming to the pitches of the roof, assumed fantastic and irregular outlines, as shown in Fig. 54. Columns and pilasters were freely used as wall decorations, and in this manner, effects of FIG. 55 great richness were frequently produced. The fagade of the Kaiserhaus, at Hildesheim, is shown in Fig. 55. Here, the pilasters along the front bay window are carved into grotesque male figures supporting a frieze representing 51 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 283 figures from the hunt. Niches, whose tops are supported by Ionic columns, contain statues of the kings and emperors, and the entire lower facade is richly carved in medallions, giving the whole a decidedly ornate, though rather coarse, appearance. Brick and stone were used in combination, and also singly in many instances. ROOFS 133. High, pitched roofs, with their ridges parallel with or at right angles to the street, were as numerous as in the Gothic period, and elaborate stepped and scroll treatment gave the gables great prominence where they faced the street (see Fig. 56). The sloping roof, as in the Gothic period, was characterized by numerous dormers when it was parallel with the street front, as shown in Fig. 57. COLUMNS 134. The orders were adopted purely as decorative details and without regard to their classic traditions. Each story of a building was frequently marked with a horizontal cornice, but the columns or pilasters supporting it were fre- quently supported on projecting corbels instead of on indepen- dent pedestals. The faces of the pilasters, or narrow panels between the windows, were carved in arabesque patterns, and the columns were richly decorated with carved detail. OPENINGS 135. In the early part of the period, the windows were large, mullioned, and crowned with grotesque scroll ornaments, instead of a pediment. Oriole windows were introduced both at the angles of buildings and in their facades, and late in the period severe classic forms were adopted, as in other countries. MOLDINGS 136. The German moldings were heavy and lacked the refinement and purity of detail that characterized the French moldings. 284 51 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 285 BELGIAN AND DUTCH RENAISSANCE INFLUENCES 137. Geographical, Geological, and Climatic. See Dutch and Belgian Gothic Influences, History of Architecture and Ornament, Part 3. 138. Keligious. In 1556, Charles V, emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, abdicated and entered a monastery. The kingdom of Spain he gave to his son Philip II, and the imperial crown to his brother Ferdinand. Philip II con- tinued the persecution of the Protestants begun by his father until the Dutch provinces rose in rebellion. After a struggle of 37 years, Spain was humbled and the Dutch republic was established. The Belgians, being mainly Catholics, adhered to Spain and were opposed to Holland during this struggle. Protestantism being thus established in Holland, church building there was in accord with the congregational idea. On the division of the empire of Charles V at the time of his abdication in 1556, the Netherlands fell to Philip of Spain, and although this resulted in the cruelest persecutions of the Protestants under the Spanish Inquisition, it retained to the Dutch a full share of the commerce that was opened through the discovery of America and the establishment of the Spanish in the West Indies. The Spaniards and the Dutch were so different in character, however, that there were constant clashes on both sides. Philip was determined to crush the progress of the Reforma- tion, which had made a deep impression, and had spread rapidly in the Netherlands. War broke out almost imme- diately after Philip had become king of Spain and the smaller states of Holland united in a federation to support the Prot- estant cause. By the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, the 286 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 Netherlands were recognized as an independent power, while the more southern states, constituting what is now known as Belgium, remained under the dominion of Spain and retained the Catholic faith. 139. Political and Historical. By the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, which closed the Thirty Years War, the Netherlands became an independent state. During the prog- ress of their wars, the Dutch increased in wealth through their activity in trade. They established colonies in the New World and built the finest navy in Europe. The prosperity of the newly recognized state was prodigious and in mari- time affairs it shared with England the supremacy of the world. Their achievements in science, literature, and art gained the admiration of Europe. CHARACTERISTICS The character of the Dutch is clearly shown in their architecture. Their buildings are plain, matter-of-fact struc- tures, more useful than beautiful. Being a frugal and saving people, they did not erect great monuments with their newly acquired wealth. Their churches were barn-like structures, planned for comfort and convenience, but nothing on a large or monumental scale was projected. 140. In Belgium, the designs were wild and eccentric, but picturesque, while Dutch examples are extremely plain. Brickwork was given much prominence, particularly in domestic architecture, and the design of interiors and furni- ture was given close consideration. The fantastic and grotesque extremes of the German rococo influenced the development of the Renaissance in Holland and Belgium, though these countries were extremely slow in accepting the principles of Renaissance art. Long after the beginning of the 16th century, the Flemish architects continued to employ the florid Gothic for both religious and secular structures; and during the time that Holland was a Spanish province there is a strong suggestion of Moorish oddities intermingled with crude German rococo ornament. FIG. 58 I LT 30338 288 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 EXAMPLES 141. Church, du B6guinage. The Church du Be"guin- age, Fig. 58, at Brussels, is a typical example of the Flemish style. The absence of building stone in this locality made brick construction the prevailing practice, and the long, FIG. 59 untapering, Ionic-capped, brick pilasters on the facade of this building show how ignorant the Flemish architects were of the origin and meaning of the forms they were copying. In the second story of the facade, the semidetached com- posite columns are built up of brick, with a studied entasis, but are backed with pilasters that are straight. 51 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 289 142. The treatment of the gables in Fig. 58 shows to what absurd extremes ornamentation can be carried when not properly understood. The low pediment of Greek art was developed by Gothic architects into the peaked gable to suit the climate of Northern Europe; but here is a gable front that does not conform to the outline of the roof behind it and that falsely declares itself to be the end of that roof. The scrolled outline of this gable, as well as the scheme of decoration around the door and windows, owe their exist- ence to the perverted rococo of Germany; while the circular and elliptical windows are inventions of the later Renaissance in neighboring countries. The civic architecture that characterized the Late French Renaissance and led to the erection of many public build- ings and palaces is not found in the Netherlands, as the strong Italian influences for monumental structures were neutralized by the strong feeling for domesticity. There is really no Renaissance architecture here in the true sense cf the term, as the ideas were borrowed not from the classic Roman architecture, but from the French, German, and Spanish interpretations of the classic, and greatly modified by the characteristic desire for simplicity. The domestic architecture \vas the model for the civic building's, and the residences, warehouses, markets, and town halls were simple brick and stone structures with the stepped gables and the liberal windows and with walls but little elaborated with sculptured ornament. 143. Tlic Market at Haarlem, Fig. 59, is character- istic of this class of buildings. The stepped gable so promi- nent in the facade of the dwellings is here enlarged and adapted to a structure of a public character. Alternate courses of stone and brick give variety to the front, while carved cartouches are sparingly introduced into the wall spaces. Scrolls and rococo details borrowed from both France and Germany are adopted as ornament, but with a certain amount of restraint, for excess in anything is con- trary to the Dutch characteristics. 290 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 ANALYTICAL STUDY PLANS 144. The development of domestic architecture during the Gothic period established a general system of planning that was followed during the Renaissance. WALLS 145. Grotesque gables characterize the style through- out. Wild curves, derived from the rococo ornament of France and Germany, where the style was already on the decline, were used in the outlines. ROOFS 146. The roofs continued to be high and steep, with many elaborate dormer-windows and towers. The chimneys stand out boldly and add to the picturesque grouping. OPENINGS 147. Windows were numerous and were crowded closely together. Pilasters with fluted or paneled faces flanked the jambs of windows, while entrance doors were treated with columns and entablatures. MOLDINGS 148. The moldings were coarse and not well propor- tioned to the material in which they were executed. ORNAMENT 149. Various grotesque forms were carved to fill panels or other vacant spaces that could not be otherwise utilized. The motifs were usually of Italian origin, but were worked over and corrupted by the Dutch artists until their original form was lost almost entirely. Much carved ornament was executed in wood. 51 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 291 SPANISH RENAISSANCE INFLUENCES 150. Geographical, Geological, and Climatic. See Spanish Gothic Influences, History of Architecture and Orna- ment, Part 3. 151. Ileligious. The Reformation made no headway whatever in Spain. Charles I, who succeeded to the throne of Ferdinand and Isabella, was appealed to by the pope to help stamp out the heresy started by Luther. As Charles V, he became emperor of the Holy Roman Empire and did all in his power to uphold the Church and the pope. On the abdi- cation of Charles V, Philip II succeeded to the throne of Spain, and endeavored to root out Protestantism both at home and in the Netherlands, by means of the Inquisition. The result of this was the decline of the brilliant career for Spain started under Ferdinand and Isabella and culminating in the empire of Charles V. The Inquisition was an ecclesiastical court established in the 12th century for the suppression of heresy and the punishment of heretics. It was developed in the 13th cen- tury by Pope Innocent III, and its operation extended to France, Spain, Germany, Italy, and other countries. The Spanish Inquisition was put under the control of the king in the 15th century and became noted for the severity of its acts and the number of its victims. Thousands of suspected heretics were burned alive or subjected to the crudest tortures. 152. Political and Historical. The opening years of the 16th century found Spain the leading power in Europe. Under Ferdinand and Isabella the Moors had been conquered in the last decade of the previous century, and Columbus 292 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 had added to the wealth and glory of Spain through the discovery of America. Johanna, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, married Philip I, son of Emperor Maximilian. Spain thus became part of the Hapsburg empire. Charles I, their gon, suc- ceeded Ferdinand in 1516 as King of Spain, and in 1519, under the title of Charles V, he became emperor of the Holy Roman Empire a vaster realm than that of any previous monarch except Charlemagne. The severity of his successor Philip II and the Inquisition alienated many of his subjects, and led to the rise of the Dutch republic, which lost the Netherlands to him forever. Spain was later defeated by England, and provinces were gradually lost, so that she made little or no progress during the Renaissance period when other nations were accomplishing so much. CHARACTERISTICS 153. Spanish Renaissance is rich, florid, and fanciful. The early work is interspersed with details from the Moorish style, while the construction adheres to the Gothic. The details are small and finely executed, little consideration being given to the orders as structural details. Later, the style assumes more classic proportions, and ends in the wild extravagances of the rococo, as it did in other countries. EXAMPLE 154. Hotel de V-Ille. The Hotel de Ville, or City Hall of Seville, Fig. 60, is characteristic of the early period of the Spanish Renaissance. The pilasters in the first story, with their paneled faces and rich arabesque carvings, are not proportioned according to the rules of Vignola, but are designed to suit the existing conditions. In the upper story, the columns are fancifully designed, without a thought of classic precedents, and the carving throughout the fagade is executed independently of any hard-and-fast rules derived from Rome. FIG. 60 294 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 ANALYTICAL STUDY PLANS 155. In churches, wide naves prevail, sometimes with- out aisles. Over the crossing, domes are common, and the transepts are generally small. In residences, the patio, or court is almost universal and resembles the inner courts of Italy. Largeness of scale is characteristic of palaces and churches. WALLS 156. Brick, stone, and granite were freely used. Gables were rarely employed and great wooden cornices were planted on top of the wall surface. In churches, the walls were left plain in stonework on the interior, to be hung with tapestries. ROOFS 157. The roofs were flat, or low in pitch, and the towers were completed with spires of slate or lead. Interior ceil- ings are usually richly coffered in wood. COLUMNS 158. The early columns were light and fanciful in design. Shafts were frequently baluster-shaped and were decorated in low relief (see Fig. 60), a characteristic feature in the bracket capital that appears only in this country. As the style advanced, classic correctness prevailed until super- seded by the rococo. OPENINGS 159. Doorways were emphasized by means of columns, pilasters, or other striking details, and were large in size, owing to the fact that the entrance, or gateway, is a feature 51 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 295 of special importance among the Oriental people, a charac- teristic inherited from the Moors. Windows were protected by elaborate iron grilles, and were surrounded by a border of carved panels, like a frame, or were flanked with simple, carved pilasters. MOLDINGS 160. Gothic and Moorish influences combined to pro- duce moldings of great refinement in the Spanish Renais- sance. Entablatures are carried out and around detached columns and pilasters, giving a variety of outline and shadow effect. ORNAMENT 161. The sculpture of this period varies in merit, but is usually dull and wanting in decorative treatment. Tilework in Southern Spain is excellent. Stained glass was vivid in color and showed Flemish influences. Ornamental iron- work, consisting of railings, grilles, window screens, gates, etc., was greatly developed by the Spaniards. REVIEW EXERCISES 1. Describe briefly the political relations that existed between Germany, Spain, and the Netherlands during the first half of the 16th century. 2. (a) What was the Thirty Years War? () What countries took part in it? (c) What was its result? 3. What was the influence of France on German affairs at the close of the 17th century? 4. \Vhat commercial advantage fell to the Netherlands when the empire of Charles V was divided? 5. (a) What was the Peace of Westphalia? (b) What advantage resulted to the Netherlands through the Peace of Westphalia? 6. What was the Spanish Inquisition? 296 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 ENGLISH RENAISSANCE INFLUENCES 162. Geographical. While England's isolated posi- tion was 'especially advantageous in the development of the Gothic style, which grew up there free from any foreign influences, it was decidedly disadvantageous for the artistic interpretation of the Renaissance style. Gothic architecture and ornament were based on sjerious problems of con- struction and types derived from nature, the former being solved by local intellect, and the latter supplied by the local natural growths. Renaissance architecture and Renaissance ornament were one and the same thing by the time the style had affected England. The construction was Gothic, on which the classic architectural forms were grafted purely for decorative effect. At this period, however, the continent of Europe was disrupted by almost constant war, and travel from England to Italy being a matter of great difficulty, few of her architects studied the Renaissance on Italian soil, but rather pursued their investigations in countries nearer home. Ideas borrowed from the Netherlands, where the style was already corrupted, tended to reduce the English Renaissance to a style more freakish and eccentric than that of any other in Europe. 163. Geological. With the increase of population, wood was becoming scarce, and timber architecture so characteristic of the middle ages gradually disappeared. Portland stone, similar in appearance to the material used in the Renaissance palaces of Venice, influenced the style somewhat, and Holland influences made brick a popular material, particularly in London after the great fire of 1666. The development of a great coal industry cheapened fuel, in 51 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 297 consequence of which nearly every room had its fireplace and numerous chimneys broke the roof line. 164. Climatic. See Climatic Influences under English Gothic, History of Architecture and Ornament, Part 2. 165. lleli^ious. In the early part of the 16th century, a general upheaval in religious matters was felt all over Europe. The supreme power of the pope over all matters of religion, as well as of state, was found to be irksome to the English, and when the Church began to impose on the ignorance of the people for her own aggrandizement, there was a revolt. King Henry VIII of England renounced the pope as the supreme head of the Church and elected himself to that sublime office. The pope then excommunicated the king from the fellowship of the Church and declared him to have forfeited the allegiance of his subjects. Henry then had Parliament pass a law to the effect that any English subject that denied the king's right to the title of head of the Church would be held guilty of high treason and put to death. Henry seized and suppressed all the mon- asteries in England and distributed the lands and money they possessed among his courtiers. The monasteries them- selves fell to ruin or were converted into cathedral churches. Others were demolished and manor houses erected on the estates composed of the forfeited lands. Thus arose in England the desire and taste for comfortable residences, which culminated, in the age of Elizabeth, in the character- istic English mansion. 166. Political and Historical. The reign of Henry VIII in England (1509 to 1547) was contempora- neous with that of Francis I in France. His court included many foreigners whom he had invited to England to further the Renaissance movement. Among these were Holbein, an artist from Basle, Germany; Torrigiano, a Florentine sculptor and architect, who had studied under Michelangelo; John of Padua, another Italian architect; and several others. A number of schools and col- leges were erected at this time with the funds derived from 298 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 the suppressed monasteries, and these with their educational systems contributed largely to the development of the style. Henry VIII was married six times, and three of his chil- dren by three different wives were to ascend the English throne. In 1509, he married Catherine of Aragon, a daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, who was naturally, like himself, an ardent Catholic. He condemned the Reformation under Luther so strongly that he received from Pope Leo X the title of Defender of the Faith. In 1533, however, when he wanted to divorce Catherine and could not get the papal sanction, he repudiated the pope's authority and married Anne Boleyn. For this he was excommunicated by the pope, but immediately in 1534 caused parliament to pass an act declaring him and his successors to be head of the church. He had Anne Boleyn beheaded in 1536, and the day after the execution he married Jane Seymour. Henry died in 1547 and was succeeded by Edward VI, his son by his third wife, Jane Seymour. Edward reigned 6 years and encouraged the Reformation; then his half sister Mary, daughter of Henry's divorced wife, Catherine of Aragon, came to the throne. Mary restored the Catholic faith and to strengthen it she married Philip II of Spain, but when she died in 1588, Elizabeth, daughter of Henry's second wife, Anne Boleyn, ascended the throne. 167. The reign of Elizabeth was the most progressive era in the history of the country. Elizabeth restored Protestant- ism as the state religion, and the Catholic powers of Europe formed many schemes to dethrone her and elect a Catholic in her place. Spain was particularly aggressive in this, and finally attempted an invasion of England by land and sea. A fleet of 129 ships therefore set out with 20,000 men to cooper- ate with a further land force of 34,000 that was to join them from the Netherlands. This expedition was a total failure. The fleet was practically destroyed, the land force discouraged by the outlook, and consequently the power of Spain in the affairs of Europe reduced to nothing. Protestantism gained in strength and the Huguenots in France took courage. 51 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 209 Elizabeth continued the good work of school building and encouraged the erection of great domestic mansions. Work- men and weavers came to England in large numbers from the Netherlands and Germany, and later, numerous Hugue- nots came over from France, thus influencing the style materially with much foreign feeling and detail. After Elizabeth came her uncle, king of Scotland, who ruled in England as James I from 1603 to 1625. Charles I reigned from 1625 to 1649, but he constantly disagreed with the parliament and civil war broke out with the result that the king was beheaded in 1649. England was then governed as a Commonwealth under Cromwell, the leading general in the late war on the parliament side, but the Commonwealth became unpopular and the people clamored for the return of royalty, so Charles II, son of the beheaded monarch, was crowned in 1660 and reigned until 16S5. Charles was too much under the influence of France, and inflamed the people by the extravagances of his court and his leaning to the Catholic faith, and when his successor, James II, came to the throne in 1685 and further favored the Catholic party, parliament invited foreign interference from the Netherlands. The king's daughter, Mary, had been married to William, Prince of Orange, and was a Protestant. William and Mary were invited to take the English throne and in 1685 they landed at Torbay with 15,000 men. James II fled to France, where he died later, a pensioner of the court of Louis XIV. After William and Mary came Anne (1702 to 1714), second daughter of James II. After the rise of Holland and when William of Orange came to the throne of England, architecture was much affected by Dutch details; and later, when George I of Hanover became king, a period of development in domes- tic architecture set in that lasted until the middle of the 18th century. 300 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 CHARACTERISTICS 168. English Renaissance may be divided into three general periods: the Elizabethan, the Anglo-Classic, and the Classic Revival. Some authorities make further sub- divisions, but, generally speaking, the ones just mentioned comprise the only real differences. When the great Renaissance movement was born in Italy, which was then the ecclesiastical center of the world, it was impossible that its influence should not be felt in every Christian country. The force of this influence was checked in England by the break between the English church and the pope. The influence of Italy is shown in the regu- larity and symmetry of the plans and in the attempt to use the orders, but with a very indefinite idea of their pro- portions. Otherwise there was little to associate Elizabethan architecture with the Renaissance of Italy. There is neither the spirit nor the intelligence expressed in the Italian style, but there is a charm and simplicity about it that renders the Elizabethan mansion unique and characteristically English. As the majority of the great families lived in {he country, their homes were enhanced by the simple rural surroundings, gardens, terraces, and exterior adjuncts that contribute to the establishment of the perfect country seat. With the Anglo-Classic period came the days of Italian books, study, and travel. English architects studied in Italy and in France. The distinctive English characteristics of suitability and unpretentiousness gave way to complication of plan and elaboration of exterior in order to display the classic details. Much was planned for show and little for comfort. The Classic Revival period was similar to the Empire period in France, when Greek and Pompeian ideas super- seded the Roman orders and details. Libraries, museums, galleries, banks, etc. were designed, but appeared to be Greek temples and tombs. These incongruities rendered the style short lived, and many designers abandoned the classic and endeavored to institute a revival of the Gothic. 51 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 301 ANALYTICAL STUDY PLANS 169. The Renaissance in England presents practical designs in house planning with consideration for the com- forts and conveniences of the occupants; and from the Elizabethan plan have been derived many details that characterize the homes of the present day. Two types of plan were adopted at this time one, where a long hall connected the kitchen and offices at one end of the building with the living room at the other end, and the other where the plan was quadrangular, with a central court, as in the middle ages. The latter plan was improved by the omission of the buildings on one side, thus converting it into an E shape, as at Hatfield House, Fig. 60, History of Architecture and Ornament, Part 3. Later, the wings were extended on each side and the plan became H-shaped. The principal details of the plan were the great hall inherited from the medieval period which was usuaJly wainscoted in oak nearly to the ceiling; the minstrel gallery, which was located at one end of the hall, above a tall oak screen; the dais, or raised platform, which was enclosed in a bay window whose sill came nearly to the floor; and the great-hall fireplace with elaborately carved coat of arms of the owner. The staircase was also an important detail in all Elizabethan mansions. It was designed with heavy newels, pierced balustrades, and richly carved details. It owed its prominence to the fact that many of the most important rooms were on the second floor and therefore demanded a monumental means of approach. Another characteristic detail of the Elizabethan house was the long gallery, as shown in Fig. 61 (a). This gallery was usually located in an upper story and often extended the full length of the house. The side walls were paneled and the ceilings were richly decorated in plaster ornament. PLAN OF SECOND HjOOfc OFHAkDWICK HALL 100 Ffc. SCALE (a) PLAN OF CASTLE HOWARD YORKSHIRE, ENGLAND. iff TV i |N of A|P A|R r! M U TN !r! (ft) BLENHEIM PALACE WOODSTOCK. ENGLAND I L T 30339 304 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 51 TVAL.T.S 170. The elevations were freely treated, with the classic orders used in a rather grotesque form and interspersed with much intricate ornament of either Flemish or German origin. The tower of the Old Schools at Oxford, Fig. 62, erected about 1612, presents a unique example in which all the five orders are introduced. These columns are superposed one over another, with the Tus- can at the bottom and the composite at the top. The gables, or pediments, consist of scrollwork combina- tions, somewhat after those of Holland, but with much pierced screen work and bal- ustrades. At a later period, the classic pedi- ment was used more intelligently, and over the gate of Caius Col- lege, Fig. 63, erected in the years 1665 to 1674, are found a tetra- style portico used as a decorative wall detail. The chimneys were a characteristic feature, sometimes being elaborately treated with orders and at other times carried up in cut brickwork, thus playing an important part in the sky line of the roof. Where battlements surmounted the walls in the Gothic period, parapets are now found pierced with elaborate fretwork and scrollwork designs, or arranged with balustrades and pilasters or with newels. FIG. 63 51 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 305 ROOFS 171. The roofs were both high in pitch, after the Gothic model, and low and flat, after the classic style. They were covered with either lead or tile, and in some districts, with stone slabs. In nearly every case, the roofs were surrounded by the characteristic pierced balustrades. The gables took fantastic forms, with curved or stepped outlines, as in Holland. COLUMNS 172, The columns are founded on classic orders, but with a great variety of treatment. They frequently tapered toward the base, without entasis, and sometimes they were designed with bulbous swelling, somewhat after the classic balustrades. Pilasters flanking window openings were a prominent detail on the exterior. These were paneled and decorated in strapwork ornament or sometimes fluted as in Italy. . OPENINGS 173. The cheapness of glass rendered large square win- dows an important feature and these were flanked with pilasters so as to emphasize the structural character of the opening, whereas in Italian work the pilaster was used on the exterior simply to subdivide the wall surface. See Fig. 16. Bay windows were a prominent feature, as may be seen from the plans shown in Fig. 61. Large, mullion win- dows with transoms are as characteristic as they were in the Late Gothic period. The doorways were elaborately studied, with the orders carried above them several stories, as in the Old Schools at Oxford, Fig. 62. MOLDINGS 174. The moldings are coarse and crudely carved, but are based on classic models. The characteristic cornice consists of a large cyma supported on a small ogee, over a rather shallow corona. FIG. 218-T L T 101 51 Fin. 64 51 ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT 307 ORNAMENT 175. The characteristic ornament of this period consists of a strapwork design interlaced with scrolls and grotesque patterns, as shown in Fig. 64, which were apparently secured to the ornamented surface by square-headed nails or rivets. This style of decorative treatment was used on pilasters, panels, spandrels, etc., and even pierced through parapets to form a sort of openwork balustrade, as shown in Fig. 65 (a). Grotesque figures were used on newels and as terminals to supports, instead of regularly molded columns and capitals as in (/). Some columns were rusti- cated by the introduction of prismatic forms that were either carved in the shaft or inserted in colored stones, as in (d). Plaster was run in molded panels for ceilings, and considerable richness of design resulted from this treatment. Pyramidal finials were carried on pedestals over screens and bays, as in (b), and molded strapwork filled the spandrels, as in (d). Bay and oriole windows characterized the exterior walls of the residences, as in (c) and (143 Gothic ornament, Dutch and, 51, p56 Influences affecting Renaissance, 51, Blois, Chateau at, 51, pp!04, 240 p!73 Bodiam Castle, 51, plOO Influences affecting Roman Renaissance, Bonn, Cathedral at, 50, p219 51, p!98 Bourses Cathedral. 51, p!2 Influences affecting Romanesque, 50, Bramante, 51, p200 p!61 Brunelleschi, Filippo, 51, p!93 Influences affecting Spanish Gothic, 51, Brussels Cathedral, 51, pSO p83 Burgos Cathedral, 51, p88 Influences affecting Spanish Renaissance, Byzantine architecture, Analytical study of, 51, p291 50, p!47 Influences affecting Venetian Renais- architecture, Characteristics of, 50, p!33 sance, 51, p216 architecture, Examples of, 50, p!36 Italian Gothic, 51, p66 architecture, Influences affecting, 50, Italian Renaissance, 51, p!89 p!30 Italian Romanesque, 50, pi 84 ornament, 50, p!49 Local influences affecting, 50, p2 structures, 50, p!44 Medieval, 50, p!29 Military and domestic, 51, p96 Moslem, 51, p!42 Cancellaria Palace, 51, p214 Northern Italian Romanesque, 50, p!93 Canterbury Cathedral, 50, p261 Origin of, 50, pi Capitol at Washington, 51, p348 Pompeian, 50, pl!6 Caprarola, Palace, 51, p214 Renaissance, 51, p!73 Carcassonne, Fortified city of, 51, p!04 Roman, 50, p80 Castle, Bodiam, 51, plOO Roman Renaissance, 51, p!98 Hoensarzhurg, 51, p!04 Romanesque, 50, p!61 Kenilworth, 51, p!20 Secular, 51, p95 Warwick, 51, pl20 Southern Italian Romanesque, 50, p!95 Castles and chateaux, 51, plOO Spanish Gothic, 51, p83 Cathedral, Amiens, 51, p20 Spanish Renaissance, 51, p291 Antwerp, 51, p52 Venetian Renaissance, 51, p216 at Bonn, 50, p219 Asiatic architecture, 50, p30 at Pisa, 50, p!88 architecture, Analytical study of, 50, p35 at Speyer, 50, p219 architecture. Examples of, 50, p32 at Worms, 50, p219 Assyrian ornament, 50, p37 Bourges, 51, p!2 Azay-le-Rideau, Chateau, 51, p249 Brussels, 51, r-30 Burgos, 51, p88 B Canterbury. 50, p261 Baptisteries, 50, p!25 Chartres, 51, p!4 Baptistery at Pisa, 50, p!93 Cologne, 51, p62 Basilicas, Roman, 50, p95 Ely, 50, p261 Baths, Roman, 50, p96 Florence, 51, p70 Belgian and Dutch Renaissance architec Lichfield, 50, p254 ture, 51, p285 Milan, 51, p70 and Dutch Renaissance architecture, Notre Dame, 51, p8 Analytical study of, 51, p290 Peterborough, 50, p248 and Dutch Renaissance architecture, Ratisbon, 51, p62 Examples of, 51, p286 Reims, 51, p!8 and Dutch Renaissance architecture, Salisbury. 50, p251 Examples of, 51, p288 Segovia. 51, p90 and Dutch Renaissance architecture, Siena, 51, p73 Influences affecting, 51, p285 St. Gregorio, 51. p88 and Dutch Renaissance ornament, 51, St. Paul's, 51, p312 p290 Tournai, 51, pSO IV INDEX Cathedral, Ulm, 51, p62 Wells, 50, p261 Winchester, 50, p254 Central Italian Romanesque architecture, 50, p!88 Italian Romanesque architecture, Charac- teristics of, 50, p!88 Italian Romanesque architecture, Ex- amples of, 50, p!88 Chambord, Chateau, 51, p249 Characteristics of architectural style, 50, p3 Chartres Cathedral, 51, p!4 Chateau at Blois, 51, pp!04, 240 Azay-le-Rideau, 51, p249 Chambord, 51, p249 Chaumont, 51, pl!6 Chenonceau, 51, p246 Pierrefonds, 51, plOO Chateaux, 51, p240 and castles, 51, plOO Private, 51, pl!2 Chaumont chateau, 51, pl!6 Chenonceau, Chateau, 51, p246 Chivalry, 50, p!66 Choragic monument of Lysicrates, 50, p59 Christian architecture, Analytical study of early, 50, p!26 architecture, Characteristics of, 50, p!22 architecture, Early, 50, pi 18 architecture, Influences affecting, 50, pl!8 tombs, 50, p!25 Church du Beguinage, 51, p288 Iffley, 50, p257 Notre Dame le Grande, 50, p208 of San Michele, 50, p!95 of St. Andrea Mantua, 51, p!95 of St. Bride, 51, p317 of St. Croix, 50, p207 of St. Etienne du Mont, 51, p256 of St. Front, 50, p204 of St. Genevieve, or Pantheon, 51, p323 of St. John Lateran, 51, p208 of St. Maria della Salute, 51, p224 of St. Mark, 50, p!40 of St. Martin, 51, p319 of St. Mary le Bow, 51, p31S of St. Sulpice, 51, p264 of St. Vitale, 50, p!40 of the Apostles, 50, p215 Sorbonne, 51, p260 City gate at Munich, 51, p331 gates, 51, p!34 Classic period of French Renaissance, 51, p258 revival, 51, p321 Classic revival, Characteristics of, 51, p321 revival in England, 51, p333 revival in France, 51, p323 revival in Germany, 51, p329 Cloisters of St. Paul, 50, p!93 College, Girard, 51, p351 Cologne Cathedral, 51, p62 Colonial architecture, Early, 51, p345 Colored decorations, 51, p43 Coloring in Moorish ornament, 51, p!61 Column, Grecian Doric, 50, p64 Cordova, Mosque at, 51, p!49 Corinthian order, 50, p66 Cornaro Palace, 51, p222 Crusades, Result of the, 50, p230 The, 50, p227 D Dark Ages, The, 50, p!67 Decorated vaulting, 50, p243 Decoration, Wall, 50, p24 Decorations, Colored, 51, p43 De Ville, Hotel, 51, p292 Domestic architecture, Examples of military and, 51, plOO architecture, Military and, ^51, p96 Doric column, Grecian, 50, p64 Du Beguinage, Church, 51, p288 Ducal Palace, 51, p220 Dutch and Belgian Gothic architecture, 51, p44 and Belgian Gothic architecture, Analyti- cal study of, 51, p56 and Belgian Gothic architecture, Charac- teristics of, 51, p48 and Belgian Gothic architecture, Ex- amples of, 51, p50 and Belgian Gothic architecture, Influ- ences affecting, 51, p44 and Belgian Gothic ornament, 51, p56 Renaissance architecture, Analytical study of Belgian and, 51, p290 Renaissance architecture, Belgian and, 51, p28S Renaissance architecture, Characteristics of Belgian and, 51, p286 Renaissance architecture, Examples of Belgian and, 51, p288 Renaissance architecture, Influences affecting Belgian and, 51, p285 Renaissance ornament, Belgian and, 51, p290 E Early Christian architecture, 50, pi 18 Christian architecture, Analytical study of, 50, p!26 INDEX v Early Christian architecture, Examples of, French Gothic architecture, Characteristics 50, p!24 of, 51, p3 Christian ornament, 50, p!27 Gothic architecture, Examples of, 51, Colonial architecture, 51, p345 j)8 English vaulting, 50, j>242 Gothic architecture, Influences affecting, Republican architecture, 51, p348 51, pi East Indian ornament, 51, p!67 Gothic ornament, 51, p38 Egyptian architectural characteristics, 50, Renaissance architecture, 51, p236 p6 Renaissance architecture, Analytical architectural influences, 50, p4 study of, 51, p269 architecture, 50, p4 Renaissance architecture, Characteristics architecture, Analytical study of, 50, p!9 of, 51, p239 obelisks, 50, p!8 Renaissance architecture, Classic period ornament, 50, p21 of, 51, p258 ornament, Types of, 50, p22 Renaissance architecture, Examples of, pyramids, 50, p8 51, p240 temples, 50, plO Renaissance architecture, Influences af- tombs, 50, p8 feeling, 51, p236 Elizabethan period, 51, p308 Renaissance ornament, 51, p272 Ely Cathedral, 50, p261 Romanesque architecture, 50, p200 English Gothic architecture, 50, p237 Romanesque architecture, Analytical Gothic architecture, Analytical study of, study of, 50, p211 50, p266 Romanesque architecture, Characteristics Gothic architecture, Characteristics of, of, 50, p202 50, p239 Romanesque architecture, Examples of, Gothic architecture, Examples of, 50, 50, p204 p248 Romanesque architecture, Influences af- Gothic architecture, Influences affecting, feeling, 50, p200 50, p237 Gothic ornament, 50, p284 Q Renaissance architecture, 51, p296 Renaissance architeclure, Analylical Gales, City, 51, p!34 study of, 51, p301 German Golhic archilecture, 51, p57 Renaissance architecture, Characlerislics Gothic architecture, Analytical study of, of, 51, p300 51, p64 Renaissance architecture, Influences af- Gothic archilecture, Characleristics of, feeling, 51, p296 51, p60 Renaissance ornament, 51, p307 Gothic archileclure, Examples of, 51, p62 Erechtheum, The, 50, p53 Golhic archileclure, Influences affecting, 51, p57 Gothic ornament, 51, p65 Farnese Palace, 51, p210 Renaissance architecture, 51, p276 Feudalism, 50, p!64 Renaissance architeclure, Analytical Fitzwilliain Museum, 51, p333 sludy of, 51, p282 Florence Cathedral, 51, p70 Renaissance architeclure, Characlerislics Florentine Renaissance archileclure, 51, of, 51, p278 p!89 Renaissance archileclure, Examples of, Renaissance architecture, Characterislics 51, p279 of, 51, p!91 Renaissance archilecture. Influences af- Renaissance architecture, Examples of, feeling, 51, p276 51, p!91 Romanesque archilecture, 50, p213 Renaissance architecture, Influences Romanesque architeclure, Analytical affecting, 51, p!89 study of. 50, p222 Francis I. Hunting lodge of, 51, p256 Romanesque architecture, Characteristics French Gothic architeclure, 51, pi of, 50, p215 Gothic architecture, Analytical study of, Romanesque architecture, Examples of, 51, p34 50, p215 1 L T 30343 VI INDEX German Romanesque architecture, Influ- ences affecting, 50, p213 Romanesque ornament, 50, p224 Giralda, The, 51, p!48 Girard College, 51, p351 Giraud Palace, 51, p210 Glyptothek, The, 51, p331 Gothic architecture, 50, p232 architecture, Characteristics of, 50, p234 architecture, Characteristics of English, 50, p239 architecture, Characteristics of Spanish, 51, p86 architecture, English, 50, p237 architecture, Examples of Spanish, 51, p88 architecture, Influences affecting English, 50, p237 architecture, Influences affecting Spanish, 51, p83 architecture, Spanish, 51, p83 ornament, Italian, 51, p82 revival, 51, p342 Grace churches, Trinity and, 51, p352 Grecian Doric column, 50, p64 Greek architecture, 50, p40 architecture, Analytical study of, 50, p63 architecture, Characteristics of, 50, p44 architecture, Examples of, 50, p49 architecture, Influences affecting, 50, p40 lily, 50, p74 monuments, 50, p42 ornament, 50, p68 ornament, Forms of, 50, p71 theaters, 50, p61 tombs, 50, p61 Haarlem, Market at, 51, p289 Hagia Sophia, Church of, 50, p!36 Hall, St. George's, 51, p334 Halls, Town, 51, p!24 Hoensarzburg Castle, 51, p!04 Honeysuckle orpament, 50, p71 Hotel de Ville, 51, p292 Houses, Roman, 50, pllS Hunting lodge of Francis I, 51, p256 Iffley, Church at, 50, p257 Indian art, Persian compared with, 51, p!72 Ionic order, The, 50, p6S Italian Gothic architecture, 51, p66 Gothic architecture, Analytical study of, 51, p78 Italian Gothic architecture, Characteristics of; 51, p68 Gothic architecture, Examples of, 51, p70 Gothic architecture, Influences affecting, 51, p66 Gothic ornament, 51, p82 Renaissance architecture, 51, p!89 Renaissance architecture, Analytical study of, 51, p226 Renaissance ornament, 51, p230 Romanesque architecture, 50, p!84 Romanesque architecture, Analytical study of, 50, p!99 Romanesque architecture, Central, 50, p!88 Romanesque architecture, Influences af- fecting, 50, p!84 K Kenil worth Castle, 51, pi 20 Leaning Tower of Pisa, 50, p!93 Library of St. Mark, 51, p222 Lichfield Cathedral, 50, p254 Louis XIV, Age of, 51, p260 XV, Age of, 51, p264 Louvre, The, 51, p337 Palace, 51, p256 Lysicrates, Choragic monument of, 50, P 59 Madeline at Paris, The, 51, p327 Market at Haarlem, 51, p289 Medieval architecture, 50, p!29 Michelangelo, 51, p200 Milan Cathedral, 51, p70 Military and domestic architecture, 51, p96 and domestic architecture, Examples of, 51, plOO Minor dwellings, 51, p!38 Monasteries and abbeys, 51, p28 Monument of Lysicrates, 50, p59 Monuments, Greek, 50, p42 Moorish ornament, 51, p!59 ornament, Coloring in, 51, p!61 Moslem architecture, 51, p!42 architecture, Analytical study of, 51, plSl architecture, Characteristics of, 51, p!47 architecture, Examples of, 51, p!48 architecture, Influences affecting, 51, p!43 ornament, 51, p!59 Mosque at Cordova, 51, p!49 INDEX vii Munich, City gate at, 51, p331 Palace, Riccardi, 51, p!93 Museum, Fitzwilliam, 51, p333 Strozzi, 51, p!97 Vendramini, 51, p222 N Versailles, 51, p264 Nike Apteros, Temple of, 50, p56 Palaces in Germany, 51, pi 22 Norman vaulting, 50, p240 Roman, 50, pi 07; 51, p208 Northern Italian Romanesque architecture, Venetian, 51, pi 22 50, p!93 Palazzo del Consiglio, 51, p224 Italian Romanesque architecture, Charac- Pandolfini Palace, 51, p!97 teristics of, 50, p!93 Pantheon at Paris, 51, p323 Notre Dame Cathedral, 51, p8 Papyrus plant, 50, p23 Dame de Grande, Church of, 50, p208 Parliament houses at Vienna, 51, P 332 jj houses at Westminster, 51, p342 Obelisks, Egyptian, 50, p!8 Parthenon, The, 50, ,,49 Orders, Architectural, 50, p47 ' Pe "? d ' Anglo-( lass.c. 51, P 30< Origin of architecture, 50, pi Elizabethan, 51, p308 Ornament, Anthemion, 50, P 74 of I-rench Renaissance, Class.c, 51, ,,2: Arabian, 51, p!66 Perpendicular vaulting, 50, p245 Architectural, 50, p3 Persian com l' ared wlth Arabian art, Assyrian, 50, p37 p171 Belgian and Dutch Renaissance, 51, p290 compared with Indian art, 51, p!72 Byzantine, 50, p!49 ornament, 51, pl/1 Dutch and Belgian Gothic, 51, p56 Pesar , Pala - 5 '' f 2 ' Early Christian, 50, p!27 Peterborough Cathedral, 50, P 248 c . r , a-, (, Petit Trianon, 51, p264 hast Indian, ol, p!67 Egyptian 50 p21 Pierrefonds, Chateau, |S1, plOO English Gothic, 50, P 284 P !" arS T) f vict ry ' R man > 5 ' pl 5 English Renaissance, 51, ,,307 Pisa Baptistery at, .0, p!93 French Gothic, 51, p38 Cathedral at, 50, P 188 French Renaissance, 51, p272 L f a "'" g tOWer at ' 5 ' p193 r- r i sci \e ' Pitti Palace, 51, p!95 German Gothic, 51, p65 ,-. o-n TT,. 1 ompeian architecture, aO, pi 16 German Romanesque, oO, p224 r* i C-A o w>a " decorations, 30, pl!7 Greek, 30, p68 , , . ,, Private chateaux, 51, pl!2 Honeysuckle, sO, p71 ' " ' ' T . ,. ^ .1 c-i OT Propylaea, The, SaO, po6 Italian Gothic, al, p82 ,. ,. . ., ,,,.. Pyramids, ^0, p8 Italian Renaissance, ol, p230 Moorish, 51, p!59 R Moslem, 51, p!59 Persian, 51, pl~l a . ae ' ' p Renaissance, 51, P 186 Ratisbon Cathedral, 51, P 62 Roman 50 pi 14 Recent architecture in Europe, 51, p336 Romanesque, 50, p!82 Reims Cathedral. 51, pl8 Spanish Gothic, 51, P 93 Renaissance architecture, 51, P 173 Spanish Renaissance, 51, p29S architecture, Analytical study of, 51, Turkish, 51, pi 70 p18 architecture. Analytical study of Belgian P and Dutch, 51, p290 Palace, Cancellaria, 51, p214 architecture, Analytical study of English, Caprarola, 51, p214 51, p301 Cornaro, 5,1, p222 architecture, Analytical study of French, Ducal, 51, p220 51, p269 Farnese, 51, p210 architecture. Analytical study of German, Giraud, 51, p210 51, p282 Louvre, 51, p256 architecture. Analytical s-widy of Italian, Pandolfini, 51. p!97 51, p226 Pe?aro. 51, p222 architecture. Analytical study of Spanish, Pitti, 51, p!95 51, p294 Vlll INDEX Renaissance architecture, Characteristics of, 151, P 177 architecture, Characteristics of Belgian and Dutch, 51, p286 architecture, Characteristics of English, 51, p300 architecture, Characteristics of Floren- tine, 51, p!91 architecture, Characteristics of French, 51, P 239 architecture, Characteristics of German, 51, p278 architecture, Characteristics of Roman, 51, P 199 architecture, Characteristics of Spanish, 51, p292 architecture, Characteristics of Venetian, 51, p218 architecture, English, 51, p296 architecture, Examples of, 51, p279 architecture, Examples of Belgian and Dutch, 51, p288 architecture, Examples of Florentine, 51, p!91 architecture, Examples of French, 51, p240 architecture, Examples of Roman, 51, p200 architecture, Examples of Spanish, 51, p292 architecture, Examples of Venetian, 51, p220 architecture, Florentine, 51, p!89 architecture, French, 51, p236 architecture, German, 51, p276 architecture, Influences affecting, 51, p!73 architecture, Influences affecting Belgian and Dutch, 51, p285 architecture, Influences affecting English, 51, p296 architecture, Influences affecting Floren- tine, 51, p!89 architecture, Influences affecting French, 51, p236 architecture, Influences affecting German, 51, p276 architecture, Influences affecting Roman, 51, p!98 architecture, Influences affecting Spanish, 51, p291 architecture, Influences affecting Vene- tian, 51, p216 architecture, Italian, 51, p!89 architecture, Roman, 51, p!98 architecture, Spanish, 51, p291 architecture, Venetian, 51, p216 Renaissance ornament, 51, p!86 ornament, Belgian and Dutch, 51, p290 ornament, English, 51, p307 ornament, French, 51, p272 ornament, Italian, 51, p230 ornament, Spanish, 51, p295 Republican architecture, Early, 51, p348 Result of the Crusades, 50, p230 Riccardi Palace, 51, p!93 Rise of the Saracens, 50, p!58 Roman aqueducts and bridges, 50, plO architecture, 50, p80 architecture, Analytical study of, 50, p!07 architecture, Characteristics of, 50, p86 ' architecture, Examples of, 50, p89 architecture, Influences affecting, 50, p80 basilicas, 50, p95 baths, 50, p97 houses, 50, pi 15 ornament, 50, pi 14 palaces, 50, p!07; 51, p208 pillars of victory, 50, p!05 Renaissance architecture, 51, pl98 Renaissance architecture, Characteristics of, 51, p!99 Renaissance architecture, Examples of, 51, p200 Renaissance architecture, Influences af- fecting, 51, p!98 temples, 50, p89 theaters and amphitheaters, 50, p98 tombs, 50, plOS triumphal arches, 50, p!04 vault, 50, p88 Romanesque architecture, 50, p!61 architecture, Analytical study of, 50, p!79 architecture, Characteristics of, 50, p!69 architecture, Characteristics of Northern Italian, 50, p!93 architecture, Example of Northern Italian, 50, p!95 architecture, French, 50, p200 architecture, German, 50, p213 architecture, Influences affecting, 50, p!61 architecture, Italian, 50, p!84 architecture, Northern Italian, 50, p!93 architecture, Southern Italian, 50, p!95 ornament, 50, p!82 vaulting, 50, p!72 Roofs, Timber, 50, p247 Rosette forms, 50, p27 Royal exchange, The, 51, p334 Ruhmeshalle, The, 51, p329 INDEX IX Salisbury Cathedral, 50, p251 San Michele, Church of, 50, p!95 Saracens, Rise of the, 50, p!58 Scarabreus ornament, 50, p24 Secular architecture, 51, p95 Segovia Cathedral, 51, p90 Seville, Alcazar at, 51, p!49 Siena Cathedral, 51, p73 Somerset House, 51, p318 Sorborme Church, 51, p260 Southern Italian Romanesque architecture, 50, p!95 Spanish Gothic architecture, 51, p83 Gothic architecture, Analytical study of, 51, p92 Gothic architecture, Examples of, 51, I>83 Gothic ornament, 51, p93 Renaissance architecture, 51, p291 Renaissance architecture, Analytical study of, 51, p294 Renaissance architecture, Characteristics of, 51, p292 Renaissance architecture, Examples of, 51, p292 Renaissance architecture, Influences af- fecting, 51, p291 Renaissance ornament, 51, p295 Speyer, Cathedral at, 50, p219 St. Andrea Mantua, Church of, 51, p!95 Bride, Church of, 51, p317 Croix, Church of, 50, p207 Etienne du Mont, Church of, 51, p256 Front, Church of, 50, p204 Genevieve, or Pantheon, Church of, 51, p323 George's Hall, 51, p334 Gregorio, Cathedral of, 51, p88 John Lateran, Church of, 51, p208 Maria della Salute, Church of, 51, p224 Mark, Church of, 50, p!40 Mark, Library of, 51, p222 Martin, Church of. 51, p319 Mary le Bow, Church of, 51, p315 Otien, Abbey Church of, 51, p24 Paul, Cloisters of, 50, p!93 Paul's Cathedral, 51, p312 Peter's at Rome, 51, p204 Spirito Church, 51, p!93 Suljiice, Church of, 51, p264 Vitale, Church of, 50, p!40 Strozzi Palace, 51, p!97 Structures, Byzantine, 50, p!44 T Temple of Nike Apteros, 50, p56 Temples, Egyptian, 50, plO Roman, 50, p89 Theaters and amphitheaters, Roman, 50, i Greek, 50, p61 Three great laws of nature, 50, p69 Timber roofs, 50, p247 ^ombs, Christian, 50, p!25 Egyptian, 50, p8 Greek, 50, p61 Roman, 50, p!05 Tournai Cathedral, 51, pSO Tower of the Winds, 50, p60 Town halls, 51, p!24 Trinity and Grace Churches, 51, p352 Triumphal arches, Roman, 50, p!04 Turkish ornament, 51, p!70 Types of Egyptian ornament, 50, p22 U Ulm Cathedral, 51, p62 University of Virginia, 51, p351 V Vanbrugh, Works of, 51, p317 Vault, Roman, 50, p88 Vaulting, Decorated, 50, p243 Early English, 50, p242 Norman, 50, p240 Perpendicular, 50, p245 Romanesque, 50, pi 72 Vecchio Palace, Court of, 51, p!97 Vendramini Palace, 51, p222 Venetian architects, 51, p220 palaces, 51, p!22 Renaissance architecture, 51, p216 Versailles Palace, 51, p264 Vignola, 51, p202 Villa Medici, The, 51, p214 Virginia, University of, 51, p351 \V Walhalla, The, 51, p329 Wall decorations, 50, p24 decorations, Pompeian, 50, pi 17 paintings, 50, p28 Warwick Castle, 51, p!20 Washington, Capitol at, 51, p348 Wells Cathedral, 50, p261 Westminster Abbey, 50, p265 Parliament Houses at, 51, p342 White House at Washington, 51, p350 Winchester Cathedral, 50, p254 Winged disk ornament, 50, p23 Worms, Cathedral at, 50, p219 Wren, Sir Christopher, 51, p309 IVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY, LOS ANGELES Architecture & Urban Planning Library, 825-2747. This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. RENEWALS I|IOV191989 'D AUPL, MAY 2 4 1990 jvn. REC-D UCLA-AUPL NA 200 H57 1909 L 005 857 190 2 A 001 248131