400 N48K \880 ^ ^^^^^^^ 30UTI ^^^Bi ^^^^^^1 HERN REGIONA ^Hf ^^^^^B' ^H L LIBRARY F, W ACILITY K K' yTT THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES >«BWIBiU«H^>tfka^i^ 2 MELBOURNE INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1880. HANDBOOK i NEW ZEALAND By JAMES HECTOR, M.D., C.M.G., F.R.S., DIRECTOR OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. ^^lam i^j^-FS. j^:i>Tio :pl.a.te]S. [SECOND EDITION REVISED.] Sfitllington : LYON & 13LAI1{, I'llINTEllS, LAMBTON QUAY. 1880. ns I J # HANDBOOK NEW ZEALAND By JAMES HECTOE, M.D., C.M.G., F.E.S., DIKECTOR OF THE GEOLOGICAIi SURVEY. WITH nvn^A-iPS j^isriD i^XiJltie [SECOND EDITION REVISED.] SHclIhtgton : LYON ,fe BLAIR, PRINTERS, LAMBTON QUAY. 1880. y^.. PKEFACE. — -i'j^^^)^ — This Handbook was first published in accordance with a resokition of the Eoyal Commissioners appointed by His Excellency the Governor of the Colony to carry out and devise the proper representation of New Zealand at the Sydney Exhibition, and the present revised edition has been prepared by direction of the Hon, the Premier. In its preparation several previous works of a similar nature have been largely draAvn from, among which may be mentioned in particular the Jurors' Eeports and Awards of the New Zealand Exliibition, 1865, (Dunedin, 1866); the admirable and exhaustive " Handbook of New Zealand" pub- lished by Sh Julius Vogel, K.C.M.G,, (London 1875) ; and the OfScial Reports on the New Zealand Court in the Philadelphia Exhibition, 1876, by the writer, (London, 1877). The records of the various Government Departments have been also largely made use of ; and particularly I have to acknowledge the valuable aid afforded me by Mr. W. E. E. Brown, Registrar- General for the Colony, in the Statistical portion of the work. In carrjiing out the details of this publication, I have been ably assisted by Mr. S. Herbert Cos, F.G.S., and by Mr. Bryce Bain ; and to the latter gentleman I am especially indebted for the compilation of the Statistical Diagrams comparing the progress of New Zealand with the other Colonies of the Australasian Group. JAMES HECTOE, Colonial Museum, Executive Commissioner. Wellington, 1st February, 1880. UB SETS ERRATA PAGE 7 — For " Pokako," read " Pokaka." For " Podocarpus dacrydoides," read " Podocarpus dacrydioides." For " Libocedrus doniriana" read " Libocedrus doniana." For " Olea apetala," read " Olea cunning hamii." For " Maire (Eugenia viaire)," read "Maire taiwhaki {Eugenia maire).'" For " Letospermum ericoides," read " Leptospermum ericoidesy For "matapo, or tarrata, black mapau ( Pettospermum tennifolium)" read "Matipo tarata ( Pittosporum tenuifolium)." For " Metro- soideros liicida," read " Metrosideros lucida." For " Nesodaphne taraire," read "Nesodaphne tarairi." For " Towai,^'' read " Tawai." For "Entetia aborescens," read " Entelea aborescens .'' 8 — For " Weinmannia racemosa," read " Fagus manziesii." For " atawhero (Rhabdot- iiamnus solandri),'" read " tawhero (Weinmannia racemosa)." For " Coraria ruscifolia," read " Coriaria ruscifolia." 33 — For " dessicate," read " desiccate." For " irridescent," read " iridescent." 45 — For " Maiintahi, Waiapu, East Cape," read " Manutahi, "Waiapu, East Cape." For " occurring in Stanta Barbara County," read " occurring in Santa Barbara County." 45, 46, 58, 59, 108— For " Faht.," read " Fahr." 48 — For " Diorites," read " Diorite." 52 — For " pozzuolano," read " puzzolana." 68 — For "Persons engaged in the domestic offices or duties of wives, mothers, mistresses of families," read " Persons engaged in domestic offices or duties." 70— For " Ngatipom," read " Ngatiporu." 71 — For " The Earawa," read " The Arawa." 94^For " Griselina littoralis," read " Griselinia littorahs." For " Podocarpus dacry- doides," read " Podocarpus dacrydioides. For " Pyi'imidal," read " pyramidal." 95 — For " monoao," read " manoao." For " PhyJlocladus Alpinus" read " Phyllocladus alpinusy For " Tawhai-rau-nui," read " Tawhairaunui." 96 — For " Order, myrtacte," read " Order, myi-taces." For " Leptospermum erecoides," read " Leptospermum ericoides." 109 — For " diarhcea," read " diarrhoea." CONTENTS. General Description History Government Vegetable and Animal Products Geology Mining and Geology Climate Statistics — Census Eesults, 1878 General Statistics, Industries, Public Institutions Page. 1 2 - 3 4 - 5 6 - 18 19 - 32 33 - 62 53 - 59 60 - 71 72 - 92 APPENDIX, Forest Trees Mineeal Waters Descriptpve List of Diagrams Statistical Diagrams. Map of New Zealand. Geological Map of New Zealand. Meteorological Diagrajis of New Zealand. 93 102 110 INDEX. Page Fuiio Aroii - - - - - 1 Industries - - 67 Administrative - - 5 Lead ores . - 44 Agriculture - 9 Lunatic Asylums - - 74 Animal Life - 14 Land Transfer - - 84 Antimony - 45 Life Assurance (Government) - - 90 Air Pressure - 58 Mountains . - 2 Ages of the People • - - 62 Maoris — First settlement jj Allegiance - 64 Origin . - 3 Building Stones - 48 Population - - 70 Bricks - - - - - 52 Mining - - 33 Born in New Zealand - - 64 Minerals . f ) ,, outside Colony - ,, Manganese ores - - 45 Births, legitimate - 65 Mineral oils - - ij ,, illegitimate - 72 ,. waters (Appendix) - 102 ,, rate ,, Meteorological - - - 53 Blind - 66 Manufactories - - - 67 Banks - 76 ,, . - 80 Counties - 2 Marriage rate - - - 72 Cook, Captain, visited by - 3 Nationalities - - - 60 Crops, average yield - - 11 Oil— Whale - - - 16 Cattle - - - - - 12 ,, Mineral - - - 45 Coal — Hydrous - 33 ,, Shales - - 47 Anhydrous - 34 Occupations of the people - 68 Workings - 35 Plains - - 2 Chrome ore - 43 Phbrmium tenax . - 8 Copper ore ,, Pastoral pursuits - - 14 Cement - 51 Paint ore - - 43 Climate - - - - 53 Pottery - - 62 Census results - 60 Population - - 60 Cities, population of - - 62 Public Works - . - - 85 Conjugal condition - 64 Post Office - - 89 Causes of death - 73 Eaiufall . - 54 Crown lands - 81 Eeligious - - 63 Density of population - - 61 Eevenue . - 75 Dwellings ,, Koads - 87 Deaf and Dumb - 66 Eailways - . Death rate - 72 Situation - - 'i Diseases - 73 Soil , - 10 Debt, public - 75 Sheep - - 12 Diagrams (Appendix) - - 110 Silver . - 36 Electoral - & Statistics . - 60 Education - 66 Sexes . . ,, . - _ - 91 School attendance . - 66 Emigration - 74 Savings Banks - . - 76 Expenditure - 75 Shipping - - 80 Electric telegraph - 88 Tasman, discovery by . - 3 Fisheries - 17 Timber and forest trees - 6 Finance - 75 )» i> (Appendix) - 93 Forest trees (Appendix) - 93 Tanning barks - - 8 Government - 4 Temperature - - - 53 Geology - 19 Thunderstorms - - 59 Gold and Silver - 86 Trade Avith different countries - 77 Graphite - 47 Telegraph . - 88 History - 2 Vegetation - - 6 Horses - - . . - 12 Volunteers *- . - 92 Hospitals - 74 Wool - . - 15 Iron ores - 39 Whaling - - 17 ,, sands - 41 Winds - . - 58 Immigration ... - 74 Zinc ores . - 44 Imports and Exports - - 77 HANDBOOK OF NEW ZEALAND. GENERAL DESCRIPTION. SITUATION AND AREA. North and South Islanch. The Colony of New Zealand consists of two Islands called the North and South Islands, and a small island at the southern extremity called SteAvart Island. There are also several small islets such as the Chatham and Aucldand Isles that are dependents of the colony. The entire group lies hetween 34° and 48° S. lat. and 1GG° and 179° E. long. The two principal islands, with Stewart Island, extend in length 1,100 miles, hut their breadth is extremely Variable, ranging from 4G miles to 250 miles, the average being about 140 miles, but no part is anywhere more distant than 75 miles liom the coast. Total Area. — Separate Areas. Sq. miles Acres. The total area of New Zealand is about - 100,0i or G4,0U0,C00 „ ,, the North Islaud Leiug - 44,U0() ,, 28,(i( 0,0(10 „ „ the South Isluiid behig - 55,000 ,, bC,Ol)(i,OJO ,, Stewart's Islaud being - 1,000 ,, 640,100 It will thus be seen that the total area of New Zealand is somewhat less than Great Britain and Ireland. The North and South Islands are separated by a strait only thirteen miles across at the narrowest part, inesentiug a feature of the greatest importance to the colony from its facilitating inter-communication between the different coasts without the necessity of sailing right round the colony. The North Island was, up to the year 1876, divided into four provinces, viz., Auckland, Taranaki, Hawke's Bay, and Wellington ; Taranaki and Hawkes Bay lie on the west and east coasts respectively, between the two more important provinces of Auckland on the north, ancl Wellington on the south. The South Island was divided into five provinces, viz.. Nelson, Marl- borough, Canterbury, Otago, and Westland (Southland was for a short time an independent province) ; Nelson and Marlborough are in the north, Can- terbury in the centre, Otago iu the south, and Westland to the west of Canterbury. These provinces, however, in 1877 were abolished and divided into 63 Counties — 32 in the North Island, and 31 in the South Island — and Provincial Government ceased to exist. 1 2 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. Names of Counties. The following are the names of these Counties : — In the North hland. — Mougonui, Hokianga, Bay of Islands, Whangarei, Ilobson, Eodncy, Waitemata, Eden, Mannkau, Coromandel, Thames, Piako, Waikato, Waipa, Raglan, Kawliia, Taranaki, Patea, Taurauga, Whakataue, Cook, Wairoa, Hawke's Bay, Wanganui, West Taupo, East Taupo, Ptangi- tikei, Mauawatu, Waipawa, Hutt, Wairarapa West, Wau-arapa East, counties. In the South Island. — Sounds, Marlborough, Kaikoura,Waimea, Colling- wood, Buller, Inangahua, Amuri, Cheviot, Grey, Ashley, Selwyn, Akaroa, Ashhurton, Geraldine, Waimate, Westland, Waitaki, Waikouaiti, Maniatoto, Vincent, Lake, Peninsula, Taieri, Bruce, Clutha, Tuapeka, Southland, Wallace, Fiord, and Stewart Island counties. Mountains and Plains. New Zealand is very mountamous, with extensive plams, lying princi- pally on the eastern side of the mountain range in the South Island, while in the North Island they he on the western side, the interior, or more mountainous parts, being covered with dense forest, while those of the South Island are open for the greater part, and well grassed, and used for pastoral purposes. In the North Island the mountains occupy one-tenth of the surface, and do not exceed from 1,500 to 6,000 feet in height, with the exception of a few volcanic mountains that are very lofty, one of which, Tongariro (6,500 feet) is stni occasionally active. Euapehu (9,100 feet) and Mount Egmont (8,300 feet) are extinct volcanoes that reach above the limit of perpetual snow, and the latter is surrounded by one of the most extensive and fertile districts in New Zealand, The range in the South Island, known as the Southern Alps, is crossed at intervals by low passes ; the greatest height of the main range is from 10,000 feet to 14,000 feet, and it has extensive snow fields and glaciers. HISTORY. First SetUement by Maoris. New Zealand appears to have been first discovered and first peopled by the Maori race, a remnant of which still inhabits parts of the islands. At what time the discovery was made, or from what place the discoverers came, are matters which are lost in the obscurity which envelopes the history of a people without letters. Little more can now be gathered from their traditions than that they were immigrants ; and that when they came there were probably no other inhabitants of the country. Similarity of language indicates a northern origin, probably Malay, and proves that they advanced to New Zealand through various groups of the Pacific islands in which they left remains of the same race, who to this day speak the same or nearly the same tongue. When Cook first visited New Zealand he availed himself of the assistance of a native from Tahiti, whose language proved to be almost identical with that of the New Zealanders, and through the medium of whose interpretation a large amount of infor- mation respecting the country and its inhabitants was obtained which could not have been had without it. HISTORY AND NATIVE RACE. 3 Discovery by Tasman. The first European who made the existence of New Zealand known to the civihzed world, and who gave it the name it bears, was Tasman, the Dutch navigator, who visited it in 1642. Claims to earlier discovery by other European explorers have been raised, but they are unsupported by any sufficient evidence. Tasman did not land on any part of the islands, but having had a boat's crew cut off by the natives in the bay now known as Massacre Bay, he contented himself by sailing along the western coast of the North Island, and quitted its shores without taking possession of the country in the name of the Government he served ; a formality which, according to the law of nations (which regards the occupation by savages as a thing of small account), would have entitled the Dutch to call New Zea- land theirs — at least so far as to exclude other civilized nations from colonizing it, and conferring on themselves the right to do so. From the date of Tasman's flying visit to 17G9, no stranger is known to have visited the islands. In the latter year Captain Cook reached them in the course of the first of those voyages of great enterprise which have made his name illustrious. Visited by Captain Cook. The first of Cook's voyages of discovery began in August, 1708, when he was sent to Tahiti to observe the transit of Venus ; after a run of 80 days from Tahiti, having touched at some other places, he sighted the coast of New Zealand on 0th October, 1709. On the 8tli he landed in Poverty Bay, on the east coast of the North Island. THE NATIVE RACE. Origin and Traditional History. There is nothing on record respecting the origin of the Maori people, but their arrival in New Zealand, according to tradition, is due to an event which, from its physical possibility, and from the concurrent testimony of the various tribes, is probably true in its main facts. The tradition runs, that generations ago a large migration took place from an island in the Pacific Ocean, to which the Maoris give the name of Hawaiiki, quarrels among the natives having driven from it a chief, whose canoe arrived upon the shore of the North Island of New Zealand. Eeturn- iug to his home with a flattering description of the country he had dis- covered, this chief, it is said, set on foot a scheme of emigration, and a fleet of large double canoes started for the new land. The names of most of the canoes are still remembered, and each tribe agrees in its account of the doings of the principal "canoes," that is, of the people wdio came in them after their arrival in New Zealand, and from which the descent of the numerous tribes is specified. Calculations, based on the genealogical sticks kept by the tohungas, or priests, have been made, that about twenty generations have passed since this migration, which would indicate the date to be about the beginning of the 15tli century. The position of Hawaiiki is not known, but there are several islands of a somewhat similar name. Native Population. — North Island. The Northern Island now contains a native population of about 40,000, divided into many tribes, and scattered over 45,150 square miles. The most important tribe is that of the Ngapuhi, which inhabit the northern portion of the North Island, in the province of Auckland. It was among the Ngapuhi that the seeds of Christianity and of civilization were 4 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. first sown, and among tlicm are found the best evidences of the progress which the IVInori can make. Forty years ago the only town in New Zea- land, Kororarcka, Bay of Islands, existed within their territories. Their chiefs, asscmhled in February, 1840, near the " Waitangi," or "Weeping Water" Falls, were the first to sign the treaty by which the Maoris ac- knowledged themselves to be subjects of her JMajesty ; and although under the leadership of an ambitious chief, Hone Heke, a portion of them in 1845 disputed the English supremacy, yet when subdued by English troops and native allies (their own kinsmen) they adhered im] licitly to the i)ledges they gave, and since then not a shadow of doubt has been cast on the fidelity of the " Loyal Ngapuhi." Xatice Poptilntion. — South T.slmnl. The South Island natives number but about 2,000, and they are spread over an immense tract of country, living in groups of a few families on the reserves made for them when the lands were purchased ; for the whole of the South Island has been bought from the native owners by the Govern- ment. Whatever may be the cause, it is a fact that the natives of the South Island are less restless and excitable than their brethren in the North. As a rule the Maoris are middle sized and well formed, the average height of the men being 5ft. Gin. ; the bodies and arms being longer than those of the average Englishman, but the leg-bones being shorter, and the calves largely developed. In bodily powers the Englishman has the advan- tage. As a carrier of heavy burdens the native is the superior, but in exercises of strength and endurance the average Englishman surpasses the averagre Maori. GOVERNMENT. The colony, up to 1876, was divided into nine provinces, each of which had an elective Superintendent, and a Provincial Council, also elective. In each case the election was for four years, but a dissolution of the Provincial Council by the Governor could take place at any time, necessitating a fresh election, both of the Council and of the Superintendent. The Superin- tendent w^as chosen by the electors of the whole province ; the members of the Provincial Council by those of electoral districts. The Provincial form of government was abolished iu 1876, and the country divided into counties and road boards, to which, and to the munici- palities, local administration, formerly executed by the Provincial Govern- ment, is confided. The Seat of Government was at Auckland up to the year 1865, when it was transferred to Wellington, on account of its more central position. Form of Guvernment. Executive power is vested in a Governor appointed by the Queen, but he acts in accordance with the principles of responsible Government, which for practical purposes vests the direction of affairs in the representatives of the people. In cases of direct Imperial interest the Governor would, no doubt, act in accordance with instructions from the Imperial Government. Legis- lative power is vested in the Governor and tw^o chambers, one called the Legislative Council, consisting at present of forty-nine members nominated by the Governor for life, and the other the House of Eepresentalives, elected by the people from time to time, and now consisting of eightv-eight members. Until quite recently, the Lower Chamber was elected for the term of^ five years, but the Triennial Parliaments Act, passed 19th Decem- ber, 1879, enacts that the present House of Eepresentatives shall continue GOVERNMENT. only to the 23fcli February, 1832, and tliat the continuance of every future Hou^e of EjpL-eseutatives shall be limitjJ to a psrioJ of three years. Except la matters of purely Imperial cjucern, the Governor, as a rule, acts on tlie advice of his ministers. He has power to dismiss them and appoint others, but the ultimate control resti with the representatives of the people, who hold the striuLjs of the public purse. Electoral and Adininistrative. Any man of twenty-one years and upwards, who is a born or natural- ized British subject, and who has held for six months a freehold of the clear value of £25, or who has resided for one year in the colony, and in an electoral district during the six months immediately preceding the registra- tion of his vote, is now, according to an Act passed December, 1879, entitled to be registered as an elector and to vote for the election of a mem- ber of the House of Representatives. Also, every male Maori of the same age whose name is enrolled upon a ratepayers' roll, or who has a freehold estate of the clear value of £25. And by another Act passed on the same day, the duty is imposed upon the Registrar of each electoral district, of placing on the electoral roll the names of aU persons who are qualified to vote. Any person qualified to vote for the election of a member of the House of Representatives is also, generally speaking, qualified to be himself elected a member of that House. There are, however, certain special disqualifications for membership, such as grave crime, bankru2)tcy, and paid office (other than what is called political) in the colonial service. Four of the members of the House are Natives, elected under a special law by Natives alone. The Colonial Legislature, which meets once a year, has power generally to make laws for the peace, order, and good government of New Zealand. The Acts passed by it are subject to be disallowed by the Queen, and in a very few cases are required to be reserved for the signification of the pleasure of Her Majesty, but there have not been, in the course of the twenty years since the constitution was granted, more than half a dozen instances of disallow- ance or refusal of assent. The Legislature has also, with a few exceptions, ample power to modify the constitution of the colony. Executive power is administered, as before stated, in accordauce with the usage of responsible government as it exists in the United Kingdom. Legislation concerning the sale and disposal of Crown lands, and the occupation of the gold fields, is exclusively vested in the Colonial Parliament. There are in most towns in the colony municipal bodies, such as mayors and town councils in England, invested with ample powers for sani- tary and other municipal purposes ; and thei^e are in various country dis- tricts elective road boards charged with the construction and repair of roads and bridges, and with other local matters. There are also central and local boards of health appointed under a Public Health Act, and having authority to act vigorously, both in town and in the country, for the prevention and suppression of dangerous infectious diseases. The above short summary of the system of government in New Zea- land suffices to show that the leading characteristics of the British Consti- tution — self-government and localized self-administration — are preserved and, in fact, extended in the New Zealand Constitution ; that there is ample • power to regulate its institutions, and to adapt them from time to time to the growth and progress of the colony, and to its varied requirements ; and that it is the privilege of every colonist to take a personal part to some extent, either as elector or elected, in the conduct of public alfau's, and in the pro- motion of the welfare of the community. NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS. VEGETATION. The indigenous forest of New Zealand is evergreen, and contains a large variety of valuable woods. Amongst the smaller plants the phorminm iena.v, or New Zealand flax, is of especial value, whilst large tracts of country are covered with indigenous grasses of high feeding quality, which support millions of sheep, and have thus been pro- ductive of great wealth to the colony. Many of the more valuable trees ol Europe, America, and Australia have been introduced, and have flourished with a vigour scarcely ever attained in then* natm-al habitats. In many parts of the colony the hoj) grows with unexampled luxuriance ; whilst all the European grasses and other useful plants produce returns equal to those of the most favom'ed locahties at home. Fruit, too, is abundant all over New Zealand. Even in the latitude of Wellington, oranges, lemons, citrons, and loquats are found, whilst peaches, pears, grapes, apricots, figs, melons, and, indeed, all the ordinary fruits of temperate cHmates abound. Eoots and vegetables of all kinds grow abundantly. TIMBER AND FOREST TREES. The general character of the New Zealand woods resembles the growths of Tasmania and the Continent of Australia, most of them being harder, heavier, and more difficult to work than the majority of European and North American timbers. They vary, however, very much among themselves. Many varieties are very durable, and Manuka, Totara, Kauri, Black Birch, Kowhai, and Matai, appear to be the most highly esteemed on the whole. The proportion of forest land to the whole country, as ascertained in 1873, was as under : — North Island— Percentage of Forest Land. Auckland .. .. .. .. .. 7-20 Hawke Bay .. .. .. .. .. 8-19 Taranaki.. .. .. ,. .. .. 65-56 Wellington 42-85 South Island — Nelson , . Marlborough Canterbury Otago Southland 28-86 18-38 2-07 11-84 Fm-ther particulars will be found in the table relatins to the Crown lands of the colony, shown on the statistical map attached to this book. TIMBER AND FOREST TREES. Strength of New Zealand Timbers, The following table gives the results of experiments, extending over a period of some years, made on the strength of the principal timbers of the colony : — Bbsults of Experimknts on New Zealand Timbers. [The dimensious of the specimens experimented on were 1 inch square and 12 inches long.] Greatest No. Native Names in Alphabetical Order. Specific fc2 W^eight carried with It Gravity. ®-3 uniniiiaired |2 ^8 Elasticity. lbs. lbs. lbs. 1 Hinau, or Pokako [Elceocarpus dentatus) •562 3303 94-0 125-0 2 Kahika, supposed white pine ■502 31^28 57-3 77-5 3 Kahikatea, white pine [Podocarpus dacry- doides), •488 30^43 57-9 106-0 4 Kauri [Dammara australis) •623 38^96 97-0 165-5 5 Kawaka [Lihocedrus doniriana) . . •637 39 69 75-0 1-20-0 6 Kohekohe [Dysoxylum spectabUe) •678 42-25 92-0 117-4 7 Kowhai {Sophora tetfaptera var. grandi- flora). •884 55-11 98-0 207-5 8 Maire, black maire [Olea apetala) 1^159 72-29 193-0 314-2 9 Maire (Eugenia maire) •790 49-24 1060 179-7 10 Mako [Aristotelia racemosa) •593 33-62 62-0 122-0 11 Manoao {Dacrydium colensoi) •788 49-1 200-0 230-0 12 Mangi, or mangeo (Tetranthera calicaris) •621 38^70 109-0 137-8 13 Manuka {Letospermuiu ericoidcs) •943 59^00 115-0 239-0 11 Mapau, red mapau, or red birch [My r sine urvillei). •991 61^82 92-0 192-4 15 Matapo, or tarrata, black mapau [Pettos- permum tennifolium). •955 60-14 125-0 243-0 16 Matai [Podocarpus spicata) •787 49-07 1330 197-2 17 Miro [Podocarpus ferruginea) •658 40-79 103-0 190-0 18 Puriri [Vitex litoralis) ■959 59-5 175-0 223-0 19 Eata, or iron wood [Metrosoideros lucida) 1045 65-13 930 196-0 20 Eewarewa (Knightia excelsa) •785 48-92 930 161'0 21 Eimu, red pine (Dacrydiwn cupressinum) •563 36-94 92-8 140-2 22 Taraire {Nesodaphne taraire) •888 55-34 99-6 112-3 23 Tawa {Nesodaphne taica) •761 47-45 142-4 205-5 24 Tawiri-kohu-kohu, or white mapau, .822 51-24 80-0 177-6 25 (Carpodetus 'serratus) Titoki (Alectry on excelsum) •916 57-10 116-0 248-0 26 Totara (Podocarpus totara) •559 35^17 77-0 133-6 27 Towai, red birch (Fagns menziesii) ■626 38-99 73-6 158-2 28 Towai, black birch (Fagux fusca) •780 48-62 108-8 202-5 29 Whawhako (see also Maire) ^Eugenia maire) •637 39-63 75-0 120-0 30 Whau (Eutetia aborescens) •187 11-76 130 32-0 The experiments were conducted in the following manner : — A pressure of 50 lbs. was applied for two minutes (as measured by a sand-glass) and the sample was then released ; 75 lbs. were then applied for the same time, and then 100 lbs., and so on, hicreasing by 25 lbs. each time. Each time the sample was released the point on the deflection scale to which it returned was read, and when it came to be notably under the original reading it was allowed to remain unloaded for two minutes, to see whether it would in time recover itself. Then the pressure was gradually increased, without being removed, until the specimen broke. 8 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. A particular description of 44 of the principal forest Trees will be found in the appendix. The value of the export trade in timber for the decade 18G8-77 amounted to £333,083, increasing from £15,053 in the former year to £50,901 m 1877, rtprusenting £25,GG0 for sawu-timber and £24,602 for logs, palings, shingles, and other timber. BARKS FOR TANNING AND DYEING. A number of the native forest trees and plants furnish good dyes from their bark. The natives were acquainted with most of these, and dyed their flax mats and baskets with them. A black dye can be made from the bark of theli'mo^n f Elceorarpiis dentatus), and by adding a rust of iron an excellent non-corrosive ink is obtained. Brown and red dyes are obtained from the barks of the towai I Wein- 7)iannin 7-acemiisa I, iired dyefrorathatoi the atiiyvhevofHhaltdulliaiii lilts. ^olatiilri }. The native mode of producing this is by first bruising and boiling the bark for a short time, and wlien cokl, the flax to be dyed is taken oiit and steeped thoroughly in red swamp mud, rich in peroxide of iron, then removed and dried in the sun. The towai is a forest tree abundant in many parts of New Zealand. The bark has been successfully used as a tanning agent. The dye obtained from this bark gives a very fast class of shades upon cotton ; it can be sold at the same price as gambler and catechu. The extract is more astringent than that of the hiuau, and needs only to be introduced to be accepted by tanners. TAN BARKS NATIVE TO NEW ZEALAND. Name. Bark of Plivlloclarlas trichomanoidas ,, Elaeocarpiis dentatus ,, Coraria riiscifolia „ Eu^euia maire ,, Weinraannia racemosa ,, Elaeiuarpin hookeriauus ... Woid of F iclisia excorticita Bark of Kuightia excelsa ,, Myrsine ur/illei Native Name. Kiri toa toa Kiri hinau . . Tutu Whawhako Tawhero . . Pokako Kotukutuku Rewarewa. . Mapau . . . . Percentage of Tanin. 23-2 21-8 16-8 16-7 12-7 9-8 5-3 27 1-4 PHORMIUM TEN AX. The New Zealand Hemp. The history of what is termed the flax industry in New Zealand affords a remarkable instance of the difficult}^ experienced in developing the natural resources of a country if the commodities to be disposed of have not a pre- viously established market value. When the colonists fu-st arrived in New Zealand, the valuable qualities of the phormium fibre were well known, as it was in constant use by the natives, and a very considerable trade in the article existed as early as 1828, when the islands were only visited by whalers and Sydney traders, £50,000 worth of the fibre being sold in Sydney alone between 1828 and 1832. At Grimsby, in Lincolnshire, a manufactory was also established in the latter year for the production of articles from the New Zealand fibre, which failed fi-om some unexplained cause, notwithstanding that, the results were not considered at the time unsatisfactory. From 1853 to 1860 the average NEW ZEALAND HEMP. 9 annual value of the fibre exported was nearly £2,500, reaching as high as £5,500 in 1855, but up to this time the only fibre exported was that pre- pared by native labour, no machinery of any kind being employed m pro- ducing the exported article. In 18G0, therefore, when the native disturb- ances affected the Waikato and other interior districts in the North Island, the preparation was confined to the native tribes north of Auckland, so that the average export value was only £150 per annum. Attention was then directed towards the contrivance of machinery with the aid of which the fibre could be profitably extracted by European labour. In 18G1 the increasing demand for white rope, and the limited quantity of manilla, which fibre depends for its production on native manual labour in the Philippine Islands, led to a rise in its value from £21 to £5G per ton, and even to £7G per ton in America during the late civil war. These high prices stimulated the endeavour to introduce phormium fibre to compete with manilla, and several machines were invented for rapidly producing the fibre from the green leaf. With these machines the export trade again increased, so that fi-om 18GG to 1871 the yearly average was valued at £56,000. This sudden revival of the trade led many to embark in it who were unacquainted not only with this new form of manufacture, but unaccustomed to any kind of business that requu'ed special mechanical skill and careful elaboration of the details of management. Commissioners were appointed in 18G9 and 1870 to investigate and report on the manufacture and cultivation of the plant and particular requirements of the market. Eecently the term flax has been changed to hemp, with great advantage to the position which the fibre holds in the brokers' sale rooms ; but the fibre can be prepared so as to mix advantageously with true linum flax in the manufacture of textile fabrics, and the shortness of the ultimate fibre is not an insuperable obstacle even to its being spun into unmixed yarns. It will therefore, in all probability, be necesssry to adopt two names for the fibre to indicate the purpose for which it has been specially prepared, such, for instance, as phormium hemp and phormium flax. Samples of serge sheet- ing, canvas sacking, and other varieties of cloth, from unmixed phormium filu-e, have been manufactured in Scotland and sent out to the c(jl()ny, and also samples of a very superior kind of canvas made from an admixture of phormium with Riga flax. The fibre used in these experimental manufac- tures was prepared by Mr. C. Thome by the use of alkaline solutions, and it is stated tliat such fibre would fiud a ready market iu large quantities at from £G0 fo £90 per ton. Wbether this would be as profitable an applica- tion of the fibre as the production of hemp is, however, not yet established. The total quantity of phormium exported between the years 18G4 and 187G amounted to 26,431 tons, valued at £592,218. The quantity exported iu 1878 amounted to 622, ^ tons, valued at £10,666. AGRICULTURE Allusion has been made to the area of country occupied by mountain ranges iu New Zealand, and the general position tbey occupy with reference to the geography of the country, and it may be further stated that, with the exception of the higher alps every part of the country is more or less adapted for settlement of some kind. A clearer idea of the value of the country, and tlie purposes to which it is applicable, is, however, obtained by the comparison of the rock formations, the decomposition of which produces 10 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK, tlio soils, as shown in the following table ; from a study of which it will be found tliat in the whole of the colony there are about 12.000,000 acres of land fitted for agriculture, wherein the form of surface is suitable, and about 60,000,000 which are biittur adapted for pasturage ; but from these esti- mates allowance must be made for about 20,000,000 acres of surface at present covered by forest. ClasHification of Geological Subsoil. The follo^Adng table gives a classification of the lands accordmg to the geological subsoil : — North Island. South Island. Totals. 1. Fluviatile drifts, one-third agricultu- ral 8,447 6,286 14,783 2. Marine tertiary, two-thirds agricul- tural (rest {)astoral) 1.3,898 4,201 18,099 3. Upper secondary, coal bearing, pas- toral . . 2,390 2,110 4,500 4. Palffiozoic, pastoral 5,437 20,231 25.668 5. Scliistose, pastoral — 15,308 15,308 6. Granite, worthless — 5,978 5,978 7. Volcanic, one-sixth agricultural (rest pastoral) " . . 14,564 1,150 15,714 Square miles . . 44,736 55,261 100,000 Varieties of Soil. It would be beyoud the scope of this description to give in detail the endless varieties of soil which are found in New Zealand, but attention may be drawn to the chief peculiarities. In the north of Auckland, including the lower portion of the Waikato Valley, light volcanic soils prevail, inter- spersed with areas of clay marl, which, in the natm-al state, is cold and uninviting to the agriculturist, but which, under proper drainage and culti- vation, can be brought to a high state of productiveness. The latter are, however, almost universally neglected at the present time by the settlers, who prefer the more easily worked and more rapidly remunerative soils derived from the volcanic rocks. North-western District. In the western district, which extends round to Taranaki and Wanga- nui, the soil is all that can be desii-ed, and is probably one of the richest areas in the southern hemisphere. The sm-face soil is formed by the decom- position of calcareous marls, which underlie the whole country, intermixed with the debris from the lava-streams and tufaceous rocks of the extinct volcanic mountains. The noble character of the forest growth, which gene- rally covers the area, proves the productiveness of its soil, although at the same time it greatly impedes the progress of settlement. No rth-eastern District. In the central district of the North Island, from Taupo towards the Bay of Plenty, the surface soil is derived from rocks of a highly siliceous character, and large areas are covered with httle else than loose friable pumice-stone. Towards the coast, and in some limited areas near the larger valleys, such as the Waikato and the Thames, and also when vol- canic rocks of a less arid description appear at the sui-face, great fertility AGBICULTURE. 11 prevails, and any deficiencies in the character of the soil are amply com- pensated for by the magnificence of the climate of this part of New Zea- land. On the eastern side of the slate range, which extends thi'ough the North Island, the sm-face of the country is generally formed of clay marl and calcareous rocks, the valleys being occupied by shingle deposits derived fi'om the slate and sandstone rocks of the back ranges, with occasional areas of fertile alluvium of considerable extent. It is only the latter por- tions of this district which can be considered as adapted for agricultiu-e, while the remainder afi"ords some of the finest pastoral land to be met with in any part of the colony. South-eastern District. In the South Island the chief agricultural areas are in the vicinity of the sea coast, but there are also small areas in the interior, in the vicinity of the lake districts, where agriculture can be profitably foUowed. The aUuvial soil of the lower part of the Canterbury plains and of Southland are the most remarkable for then- fertility ; but scarcely less important are the low rolling downs formed by the calcareous rocks of the tertiary forma- tion, which skirt the higher mountain masses, and frequently have then quality improved by the disintegration of interspersed basaltic rocks. South-western Side, On the western side of the island the rapid faU of the rivers carries the material derived from the mountain ranges almost to the sea coast, so that comparatively small areas are occupied by good alluvial soil ; but these, favom'ed by the humidity of the climate, possess aremarkable degree of fertility. By the proper selection of soil, and with a system of agriculture modi- fied to suit the great variety of climate which necessarily prevails in a coun- try extending over 12 degrees of temperate latitude, every variety of cereal and root crop may be successfully raised in New Zealand ; and with due care in these respects, New Zealand will not fail to become a great produc- ing and exporting country of all the chief food staples. Progress of Agriculture. The progress made in agriculture has been very rapid, and the number of persons engaged in this pursuit is, as compared with other countries, very large, about one in every five of the adult male population being in this way possessed of a permanent stake in the country. The number of holdings of one acre and upwards of cultivated land (exclusive of gardens attached to residences and Native holdings) enumerated in March, 1878, was 20,519, an increase of 1,769 on the year previous; and in February, 1879, the number of holdings had increased to 21,048. The exports of agricultural and farm produce increased fi-om £262,930 in 1875, to £763,635 m 1879. The pursuit of farming has, at any rate in the South Island, been one of the most steadily prosperous industries of the colony ; and although, in the course of time, the value of first-class land has naturally much increased, it is a question whether such enhancement of price is not more than counterbalanced by the improved and cheaper facilities of access to market now ofiered ; and certainly, when compared with the published accounts of the condition of agricultux-al afifaii-s in 12 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. Britain, the prospect offered by New Zealand farming must present a tempting aspect to those engaged in struggling along in the same pursuit in the old country. On the next page will be found, in tabulated form, an account of land in cultivation, and agricultural produce of the various provincial districts of New Zealand, showing the nature of the holdings, and the character of the cultivation for the past two years, indicatnig the increase or decrease respectively. Average yield of Crops. The average yield of wheat for the year 1878-9 was 22-94 bushels per acre for the whole colony, the average for the last five years being 27"62 bushels per acre. For Otago, the average yield was .. .. 28-18 bushels Canterbury „ ,, .. .. 20-83 Welliugton „ „ .. ..24-47 The average yield of other produce for the same year, 1878-9, for the whole colony, was : — Oats .. .. .. .. .. 30-11 bushels per acre Darley .. .. .. .. .. 24-76 Potatoes . . . . . . . . . . 4-98 tons ,, One of the statistical diagrams at the end of the book (No. XI.) will be found to give a graphic comparison of the wheat jneld of New Zealand and Australian Colonies. AGRICULTURE. IB •(Xeh ui SB qons gs gg ss ss s§ 00 1-1 t-(M CO m ;^?g P.f1 CO S npui) psuSnord 0) V. o oco 1<00 CO Ci c- t>cq CO M noiAsad jou u. C-1 CO CO lO g"i <:£'cr CO I_ 00 o-J Cl ■* CO ^ E 5 «o-* (M'rH t-TjT o"-3<" •HO "^ ■ >-' h K Oi-s t-co X CO -^ CO < rH rH •(SUOJ UI) B^ci5~ in 'I' -? 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(M_ (?i_-)i rH_0_ rHTH •^ COCl_ r-i CT §to c:: of -toi" 00' ih" ■^"lo" t-^CO* CO -t* t^^crT aoiipojj ssojQ incq S3=° CD (»■«< t^(?3 CO CI m (M Ol CO T-H (M CO_ -t T~i CO ■<5< ^ psjEiunsg cc'c t- m CT CO CO 00 CO c^ t- C- rH to ~ oo_c=_ gs rHCO Sg to (M -*m_ COrH CC' CO B?2 ss co_ : j U33J9 JOj t~"co" I-T '-' •^"^ CO(M ic cT c; cf rH y-t O rH TH CO CO t- 5gs 00 1-) mcD~~ a)!33 m t- Cr CO -H* 00~ c, o~ ■(spqsnq lu) §s? gs Cl 1-H in m CDOO m rH 000 OJ iO (=0 -:f^^ gg t- h sonpojj SSOJQ pajEuiqsg CO* CO* !>;"^ fc'^" t-'co" o'-n" r- m" I— 1 cs" m m" ■ , - < 1-1 1— 1 in -^ x- 10 (N t-l CO t> Ot)< ss. 00 -^a^ Ii 01 X 2 co'co _rHCf_ c^^^co o'co sg 00**^ S m m gs CD 00 00 co_5 coc- m •^ -* (M C5 (M^C- '-' ICO ^ o'lo o^(m'" t>in fH (m'co" eo"(N" co'c-^ co'o' I-T ' <: C- rJH coS CO -H c^ rH T-i C1(M HI -sl§- S3 is in 1(5 <»00 Ii as oco ii tHOO coS %% T*0 M Cl in LO CO § o ^ o a=§CJ "^ CO S CO CO cOTtT m"cM o'co" *»l •* si ■* 00 coco XCl CO CTrH :S iH r-T rHrH Tii"m t> rH co' co" S : •ppqssjj ii CO CO in t:i 00 -n <0_in 00 in coco Sim lis cfro" m 00 t— 00 c- cicT 7-t rH 00 00 00 00 1H f-t 0. 00 00 lO e?:ao 00 CO 00 00 c: 00 t- i^ COCO CJJ 00 t— t- 0000 OX 00 CO OCT X X ^ . z z i i2 tH < W D p « W - H - z ■< ij si Is o z M a , m - hshed in New Zealand for httle more than 500 years before the first arrival of Europeans ; but during that period, while the island was being explored in all parts by this intelligent and adventurous native race, the spread of fires, causing the destruction of the primeval forests and rank vegetation, was the means of setting free vast accumulations of loose soil and disintegrated rock that were formerly retained on the mountain slopes. The material thus displaced has accumulated in the river courses, causing them to raise their beds above the adjacent lands, so that they have broken away from their channels in many instances. The race of gigantic Moa bii-ds (Dinornis) had its maximum develop- ment in the New Zealand area, and subsequently became extinct during this period, but their extermination must have commenced at an earlier date than the first human occupation, as their bones are fomid deeply embedded in the gravels and swamps, while the evidences of human occu- pation are confined to the sui-face soil, shelter caves and sand dunes. In a rugged and momitainous country like Ne^v Zealand, it would evidently be impossible, except on a very large scale map, to show the innumerable fringes of river beds, and other small patches of Post-tertiai-y deposits, and accordingly these have been neglected in the Geological maj^ as exhibited, and the indication of the recent deposits have been limited to those places where the structm-al rock of the coimtry is not exposed. These deposits, however, cover a considerable area of country in the Can- terbury plains ; the Mackenzie comitry ; around the mouth of the "Waitaki river, and in the Matam-a, Waimea, and Five Eivers plains in the South Island; and in the Manawatu, Waikato, Thames, and Kaipara districts, and the isthmus between Awanui and North Cape, in the North Island. II.— PLIOCENE. a. Terrace plains, Scinde Island limestone. b. Pumice sands and lignite series. c. Kereru Piotella beds, Motanau, etc. • This formation belongs to a period when New Zealand was the moun- tain range of a greatly extended land area, and when, in the North Island, the volcanic forces had their greatest acti%'ity, attended with the rapid elevation of local areas of fossiliferous deposits that were forming in a.dja- cent seas. In the South Island no marine deposits of importance, belonging to this period, are present, but the great area of land above the shore line intensified the erosive action of the glaciers radiating from the mountain centres, and gave rise to enormous deposits of gravel, such, for mstance, as compose the greater part of the Canterbmy plains, and the Moutere hills in Nelson. The marine pliocene beds are characterised by the great abundance of Piutella zealaiuUco, with Dosinea anus, Stniiholaria fiaacn, Chioue, and a large form of BKccinuw maciiJatuw, with many other forms. The economic importance of this formation is very considerable, from its containing the richest deposits of allm"ial gold that form the support of the mining population. The beds cover a considerable surface area, both in the North and also in the South Island. In the North they form notable beds around the Manukau harbour; they cover a considerable area of coimtry in the district between Alexandra GEOLOGY. 21 and the Upper Thames, and stretch from Lake Taupo towards Opotiki, fringing the coast between that point and Kati Kati. They also occm- as an important deposit at Wanganui, where they are highly fossiliferous, and, stretching back from there to the head waters of the Rangitikei river, flank the Piuahine range, envelope tlie base of Tongariro and fluapehu, and are subsequently traced as far as Lake Taupo, which they reach as a narrow strip on the banks of the Upper Waikato river. They further flank the Ruahine range on the east side, and extend north as far as Moeangiangi, and, be- sides appearing as isolated patches between, form the low hills surromidiug Poverty Bay. Where they flank the Euahine ranges, they have a great thickness, and being there of marine origin are highly fossiliferous ; they have also been involved in extensive structural movements, so that in many places they have been completely overturned. Elsewhere they are nearly horizontal, although the marine beds have been locally raised to an altitude of 300 feet above sea level. La the South Island their principal development is on the West Coast, between Lake Brmmer and Bruce Bay; and in the Canterbury plains, where they fringe the range between Timaru and the Waipara river. They also occur in the Hurunui plains ; around Lake Tripp ; at the outlets of lakes Ohou, Pukaki, and Tekapo, fringing the older carboniferous rocks in the McKenzie country ; fi-om the Wanaka and Hawea lakes as far south as Wakefield ; m the Manuherikia and Maniatoto plains ; between lake Te Anau and the Mararoa river; and in the Southland plains, the greater part of which are composed of these beds. Ill,— UPPER MIOCENE. a. Wanganui series. b. Manawatu Gorge. c. Castle Point. d. Taerua and Eoss. e. Waitotara and Awatere beds. These beds are limited in their extent to the southern and eastern districts of the North Island, and in the South Island occur as patches, in- land from Tnnaru, between Peel Forest and the Waitaki Eiver ; at the mouth of the Waipara; at Eoss; south of Greymouth; and in Nelson, from Lake Eoto-iti to the sea ; but here, as at many other places, these beds are often represented by gravel conglomerates, that, from the absence of fossils, have not been distinguished from the preceding formation. They consist of a series of sandy and argillaceous strata, the distribution of which, and as a rule also the mineral character, indicates that they were related to a closely adjacent shore line, as they often pass, almost suddenly, from coarse conglomerates into narrow strips of fine mud and clay, such as are deposited in the centres of deep channels and inlets. The New Zealand seas have yielded about 450 species of existing shells, of which 120 have been found in this formation, together with 25 forms which are now extinct. They are specially characterised by the occurrence of (htrea imjcns, Murex ortar/oiius, Futius tiilon, Slrutlwlaria cimjidata, C/iiune aasiiiiili}!, and Pec ten (jeininnlatus. 22 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. IV.— LOWER MIOCENE. a. Mangapakelia Valley. h. Taipo, Awamoa, and Pareora beds. This formation, which is distinguished from the foregoing chiefly by its fossils, is a calcareous and argillaceous formation, widely spread over the east and central part of the North Island, and both sides of the South Island, and, when not removed by denudation, can be traced to an altitude of 2,500 feet above the sea. It represents a period of great depression, and the deposits are remarkable for the absence of evidence of volcanic activity in any part of the region, and for the abundance of marine life, about 55 existing mollusca and 110 extinct species having been obtained fi'om this formation, ainongst which Dentaliiiin irreyularis, Pleurotoma awa- nuiaensis, Conns irailli, Turritella gigantea, Buccinum robinsoni, and Cucidlcea aha, are the most notable. The principal areas of development of these beds are up the Wanganui Eiver; between the East Cape and WairuBay ; between Tokomarua and Tolago Bay, and inland from there to Waipaoa ; while on the east coast of Welling- ton they occur as a long strip, reaching nearly to Cape Kidknappers. In the South Island they occur in several localities, as at the Port Hills, Nelson ; between the Awatere Eiver and Cape Campbell ; in the Cheviot HiUs, and reaching south from there to Mount Grey ; between Marsden and Inangahua, followmg the course of the Eiver Grey ; and as a narrow strip between Waimate and Geraldine. They also occur as several small patches which require no special mention. In some places deposits of an inferior quaHty of coal occur in this formation. v.— UPPER EOCENE. a. Mount Brown beds. b. Hutchinson's quarry beds. c. Nummulitic beds. This is a very marked formation of calcareous sandstone, composed of shell fi'agments, with corals and bryozoa, and is a shallow water and littoral deposit. Intense volcanic activity prevailed during this period in both Islands, and the calcareous strata are frequently interbedded with contemporaneous igneous rocks and tufas, and in the North Island are often replaced by wide spread trachyte floes and volcanic breccias. The lower part of this formation passes, at places, into an imperfect nummulitic limestone, or a friable calcareous sandstone, evidently deposited in shallow seas, and forming the lowest member of the proper marine tertiary series. The more noticeable fossils in this formation are StrutJwIaria senex, Pecten hutchinsoni, Pecten hochstetteri, Terebratella suessi, Meoma craivfonU, Bn/ozoa, and numerous corals. The distribution of these beds is limited in area, the principal develop- ment being about the Waiau river, in Southland ; and on the eastern side of the Te Anau Lake ; with a few patches up the East Coast of the South Island, at Oamaru, Geraldine, Mount Somers, and Mount Grey ; while in the North Island they are principally developed from Cape Kidnappers south, and hiland up the Tukituki river ; a small patch of the same beds also occuiiug at Mokau. GEOLOGY. 23 YI.— GRETAGEO-TERTIARY. a. Grey marls. h, Ototara aud Weka Pass Stone. c. Fucoidal greensauds. d. Amiui limestone, chalk marls, and chalk ■v\dth flints, e. Marly greensands. ./'. Island sandstone (Reptilian beds). y. Black grit and coal formation. These constitute the Cretaceo- tertiary group, being stratigraphically associated and containing mauy fossils in common throughout, while at the same time, though none are existing species, many present a strong Tertiary facies, aud m the upper part only a few are decidedly Secondary forms. The distribution of this formation shows that it was not, like formations of later date, deposited in relation to the form of the land as at present obtaining in the New Zealand area, except in the vicmity of some of the oldest and most lofty land masses in the south, which appear to have remained above the water-line from the Lower Cretaceous period. The upper part of this formation is a deep sea deposit, but the lower sub-divisions indicate the close vicinity of land, and are replaced in some areas by true estuarine and fluviatile beds containing coal. The marine fossils include, besides well-marked Greensand forms, such as Ancyloceras, Belemnites, and Rostellaria ; a number that have still a marked affinity to the tertiary faima. Saurian bones occm", of the genera Ple.siusaiirus, Manisaitnis, Leiodon, etc., in this part of the formation, but they have only been found, as yet, over a limited ai"ea on the east side of the South Island. The black grit, which is the lowest marine bed of this group, resembles, in mineral character and the contained fossils, the Car-stone and Calcareous Greensand of England. In the upper part of this formation the valuable building stone, known commercially as the " Oamaru stone," occui's, which is a calcareous sand- stone very easily Avorked, but which hardens when exposed to the weather. The principal coal deposits of New Zealand occm- in the Cretaceo- tertiary formation, but always at the base of the marme beds of the form- ation, in every locality where they occur. The coal bearing beds always rest upon the basement rock of the district, marking a great unconformity and the closing of long persistent land area at this period. Thus the coal is immetUately overlaid by the Grey-marls in the Wai- kato, by the Fucoidal greensands at Wangarei, and by the Island sandstone in Otago and on the west coast of the South Island. The coals immediately beneath the marine beds are everywhere hydrous brown coals, but on the West Coast these rest upon an immense formation of micaceous sandstones, grits, and conglomerates, in which are seams of valuable bituminous coal, and this lower part of the formation is possibly the equivalent in time of the Lower Greensand Group. The same fossil plants are found associated with all these coal deposits, and even those of highest antiquity abound in the fossil remains of dicoty- ledonous and coniferous trees of species closely allied to those represented in the existing flora of the country. In the Malvern hills, where the strata overlying the coal contain abun- dance of Lower Cretaceous fossils, the dicotyledonous leaves are associated •with Alethojiteris, (Jleandridmn f T(eniopteris ), and other forms that are pre- valent in the underlying Jurassic beds. The same association takes place in the sandstones overlying the coal on the West Coast. 24 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. It appears from this that the land surface preceding the great depression during Cretaceo-tcrtiary times, survived to a later date in tlic north than in the south of New Zealand, the beds overlying the coal in the north being generally of younger Cretaceous age. 'J.'his formation has a large distribution from north to south, but coal is only found at its base in a limited number of localities. At Kawa-kawa, and between that point and Wangarei, coal has been found, and again in the Waikato, atKawhia, and Mokau, but on the east side of the North Island coal seams are yet unknown, associated with these beds. In the Soutli Island the whole series of beds occur in disconnected areas from Collingwood to the Grey river, being in every case associated with coal, and at the Abbey rocks thin coal seams also occm", associated with these beds. At Preservation Inlet some divisions of the formation are found, as also at the Nightcaps ; on the Mataura ; at Kaitangata and Green Island ; in every case associated with coal ; while fi'om Shag Point up to the Waitaki river they have a further development. Several other patches occur going northward, and, as a rule, coal seams occm- at their base until reaching the Malvern Hills, but north of this point, as at the Amuri Bluff, they pass down conformably into the next described formation. VII.^LOWER GREENSAND. a. Amm-i group on East Coast. b. Bituminous Coals on West Coast. (?) These beds consist of green and grey incoherent sandstones, with hard concretions, and large masses of silicified wood. This formation, which is confined to a few localities of limited extent, is very rich in fossils of the genera Belemnites and Trigonia, with a few Sam-ian bones and large Chaemeroid fishes. Its typical development is at the Waipara and Amuri Bluff, but equivalent beds are also found on the east coast of the North Island in several localities, and they have a con- siderable development iu the neighbomiiood of East Cape, extending inland as far as Hikurangi. VIII.— JURASSIC. a. Mataura series. b. Putataka series. c. Flag Hill series. These beds, which are the youngest of the Lower Secondary formation in New Zealand, require mention under their several subdivisions, although on the general map no distinction has been made between them. The Mataura Series consists largely of estuarine beds, marine fossils being absent or rare. It consists of dark-coloured marls and fine-grained sandstones, and contains the fossil remains of a number of plants, of which eight species have been recognised. Amongst these are Cawpinptcris, Vijcaditcs, and Ecliinostrohus, which connect these with the plant beds of the next lower formation. Those found at Waikava and Mataura Falls are especially interesting from at least one species being identical with a plant found in the Rajmahal beds of India, which are considered to be of Liassic age ; viz., Macrotceniopteris lata. The same plants are found in GKOLOOY. 25 the Clent Hills plant beds, and from the natural sections, and also from the very characteristic fossils immediately below them, there can be no doubt that they should be referred to the Upper Oolite period. Tlie Patataka Series, which has its typical development at Waikato Heads as marlstones, is represented in southern districts by coarse-grained sandstones, which pass near the base of the formation into conglomerates with bands of indurated shale, enclosing plant remains and irregular coal seams, which have been included in the next group as its upper member. The Putataka beds are of marine origin, and contain Middle Oolite fossils, of wdiich eleven species have been identified. The Flan Hill Series, which is principally developed in the Hokanui range. Southland, is marine, and is characterised by eighteen forms of fossil shells which have been identified ; besides many others which have yet to be examined. The Brachiopoda are interesting, as besides seven forms of Rhi/ndionclla, and three of Terehratnla ; Spiriferiiia rustratiis, of the Lias, is abundant, and also a form of Epilhyris (i.e., a Terebratula of the type 'T. elu/u/ata), which is not hitherto recorded higher than of Permian age. The distribution of these beds, as at present known, is confined to the Hokanui Ilanges, and a block of country on both sides of the Waikawa River, and extending inland to the Mataura Falls, as well as a narrow strip on Catlin's River, in Southland ; a small patch at Amuri Blutf ; another at Kawhia and the Waikato Heads ; and a strip of country running from Raukokore, in the Bay of Plenty, in the dhection of the Waikare j\Ioaua Lake. The minor subdivisions of these beds have as yet only been made in the Hokanui ranges. IX.— LIAS. Catlhis River and Bastion Sei-ies. This formation consists in its upper part of conglomerates and sandy grits, with plant remains too indistinct for identification; and m the lower of marly sandstones in banded layers of different colours, at the base having a concretionary structm-e, which has led to their being termed the " Cannon-ball sandstone," and similar sandstones also occm* in the Otapiri formation. Fossils are plentiful, and divide the strata into distinct horizons, Ammonites being especially common ; fifteen species have been determined, but a large number of others are present which have not yet been identified. The general facies of the fauna is on the whole Liassic, although many Lower Oolite forms occm* ; but the Brachiopoda, of which twenty-one forms have been provisionally distinguished, again present the same abnormal sm-vival of older types, especially in the occurrence of an Aihi/ris-lUie shell belonging to a new sub-genus, Claviyera, which has a great development 'in the next lower formation. Our knowledge of this formation is confined to the Hokanui range and the country between Gore and the sea coast at the mouth of Catlin's river ; but no doiibt, Avhen beds of about this age are examined in detail elsewhere, they will be found to have a much greater development than is at present ascribed to them. 2G NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. X.— TRIAS. a. Otapiri series. b. Wairoa series. c. Oreti series. It has been found necessai-y to include in this formation a thickness of strata which is quite luiusual in other parts of the world, but the close con- nection which exists tln-oughout, founded both on Palaeontological and stratigraphical gromids, and the clearly defined Permian character of the next miderlying formation, renders this classification absolutely necessary. The oiapiri series consists of a group of strata w^hich I place in Upper Trias, or more properly as an equivalent of the Ehaetic formation, and is remarkable for the mixed character of its fossils, which however contain many forms identical with those fi'om the Rhaetic formation of the European Alps. This mixed character is showai by the presence of Bel em nit es otajniiensis, which is near to B. elomjatus of the English Lias, along with Fleurotomaria ornata, and Tancredia iruncata, wiiich are Oolite forms, associated with a pre- ponderance of Triassic and even Permian forms, fom-teen species of which have been determined, amongst W'hich are Nautilus mesodiscus and yautilus guniatites, cephalapoda, found in the Hallstadt or Ehsetic beds of Europe. The remarkable featiu-e of the Otaphi series is the abmidance of Brachiopoda, which are elsewhere so rare in formations of this period, but, as might be expected, they are chiefly peculiar forms — Clavigera, which has seven species, representing the genus Athyris; and a sub-genus of Spiriferina, wdiich I name Bastelligera, with five species, being almost entii'ely confined to this formation. Plant remains also occm*. The Wairoa series has been generally admitted to be Trias since it was first described by Dr. von Hochstetter as characterized by Monotis saliuaria, HaJobia lomelli, etc. Eleven species have noAv been determined, and Brachio- poda are represented by the earliest appearance of Clavigera and Bastelligera and a form allied to Spiriferina, but ha-\ing the dental plates conjoined wdth the rostral septum ( Psiuidea ), but they are very rare. In some districts the Wairoa series is divided into two horizons, jdelding marine fossils, separated by sandstones containing fossil plants, fi-om which forms of Glossopteris, Zamites, and Bhacophyllum have been obtained. The Oreti series, which has been mentioned in the reports as the Lower Wairoa series, has since been shown to be absent in the Wau'oa district, so that it is advisable to give it a distinct name. It includes a great formation of green and grey tufaceous sandstones and breccias, having at its base a remarkable conglomerate of enormous masses of crystalline rocks, in a hard cementing matrix, resembling the character described for the base of the Gondwiuda series in India. Some of the blocks, which are both angular and rounded, are 5 feet in diameter. This conglomerate has a thickness varying fi'om 50 feet to 400 feet, and is never absent from its proper sectional position in any part of the Hokauui District. The strata have been termed " ash-beds" on account of their tufaceous and brecciated character. The fossils are chiefly Permian and Triassic forms, but a Pentacrinus also occurs, which resembles the Jurassic species. Brachiopada are scarce, except one form of true Athyris, of which specimens are very abundant; with two species of Psioidea, and four species of Ehynchonella with smooth external s^?>rfaces, which only occur in collections fi'om these beds in the Kaihiku Ranges. GEOLOGY. 27 These Triassic beds are best kuowu in the Moonlight and Hokanui ranges in Southland, and extending as a narrow strip to the sea coast at Nugget Point. They also occur at the Wairoa Gorge, in Nelson, where they were first discovered by Dr. v. Hochstetter ; but they are also found in the Jollie Eange at the head waters of the Eakaia and Kangitata rivers ; bounding the Haumer Plains and forming the Lo^vi-y Peaks ; and also at the mouth of the Dillon Eiver, and at the gorge of the Ashley where the hmestones are highly fossiliferous. In the North Island they occur in the vicinity of Wellington, and also between Cape Palliser and Palliser Bay; and are found, further north, flank- ing the Western side of the Hakarimata Eange, where the Eaglan track crosses it. The boundaries of these beds, except in Southland and at the Wairoa, may yet require modification, but in those places the beds have been traced with considerable care. XI. PERMIAN. Kaihiku Series. The mineral character of this formation is grey and green sandstone with breccia and heavy conglomerate beds. Marine fossils have only been foimd at 1,000 feet below the great conglomerate that divides it from the Oreti series, the lower 5,000 feet, not having yet been discovered to be fossiliferous. The leading fossils are Permian species, of which a large number have been recognised, and the greater number which have been fomid in South- land, also occm* in Moimt Potts and Nelson, where beds of the same age are present. TrUjonutreta vndulata is a common and characteristic form. Sam-ian remains are associated with these beds at Moimt Potts, Avliich in 1877 I referred to Ichthi/oHuurus, but have since referred to the genus Eosaurns of Marsh. The fm-ther remains obtained of this Saurian, are, however, of such gigantic size as compared with the original types found m Nova Scotia, in which the vertebra were 2^ inches in diameter, that the determination may be doubted. They comprise vertebra, limb bones, and ribs lying parallel ; external to which are horny plates like dermal scuta. The vertebra are cii-cular, biconcave, and deeply excavated, so as to be almost perforated in the centre. The diameter of the centrum must, in some. cases, have been 18 inches, and the length or marginal thiclaiess of the disk, 3 inches, so that the length to the Avidth of the vertebral segments was 1:5. Still having the same propor- tions are other centra, but only 1 inch in length and over 6 inches in diameter. The articular surface of the bone is marked with u-regular vascular channels, radiating from the centre, and the external surface of all the bones also shews this channelled character. No vertebral processes are visible. The ribs, which are strongly cm'ved, are in some cases 3i feet in length and 2;^ inches in diameter. The articular extremity is hatchet- shaped, with a convex surface. The proximal part of the rib looks like a hollow tube, probably owing to the spongy bone having disappeared, leaving the dense surface layer ; but the distal portion of the rib for three-fom-ths of its length was solid throughout. Thirty ribs were coimted in one specimen, but it was not clear if they belonged to one side only. The only limb bone available for examination is like the humerus of Ichthyosaurus, but greatly expanded at the distal extremity, being 11 inches in length and 9 inches across the lower end. It is compressed and concave on the one surface, and convex on the other. 28 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. The supposed scuta can only be seen in section ; they are several inches in length and ^ inch in thickness. Until these remains are in a better coiiditioa for examination, it is impossible to suggest the order to which they have an affinity. Professor Huxley has expressed the opinion that Eosaurus may be a large Lahijrin- thodim. The very feeble limb bones, in proportion to the size of the vertebra, and the presence of dermal plates and hatchet-head ribs, tends to this view rather than to refer these remains to Ichthyosaurus, to which genus they are, on the other hand, clearly related, by the large number of vertebra and closely placed ribs ; but until more distinct characters are found, and especially in the absence of teeth, none of which appear in the collection, it would hardly be justifiable to refer such gigantic vertebra to the amphibeau type. It is worthy of note that from a formation of the same age, near Nugget Point, Otago; and also in the Otapiri series in the Wairoa district, Nelson ; teeth having Lahijrinthodont characters have been obtained. The occurrence of these Sam'ian remains, together \vith the survival of many Permian forms into the Wairoa and even the Otapiri series, and the absence of true Spirifcrs, Prod actus and other usual Palseozoic elements of a Permian fauna would seem to connect the Kaihiku series rather with the Mesozoic than the Palaeozoic formations of New Zealand, At the base of the Kaihiku series are the Glnssopteris beds of Mount Potts, but these were not found in the Hokanui section, although from the thickness of the strata the relative beds must be included in it, while in the Kaihiku, Glossopteris occm's in the lower beds as developed in Popotuna gorge. The distribution of these beds, so far as at present proved by fossils, is confined to the South Island, where they have been recognised in the Hokanui Eanges, exteudmg fi'om there to the coast at Nugget Point ; in Mount Hamilton, and in the Mount Potts district, where they cover a con- siderable area, included between two belts of carboniferous rocks m that district; and they are found again as a small patch in the Wairoa district of Nelson. XII.— LO'WER CARBONIFEROUS AND UPPER DEVONIAN. a. Maitai series. b. Te Auau series. This formation is of considerable importance from the large share it takes in the structm-e of the great momitain ranges and from the occasionally great development in it of contemporaneous igneous rocks, with which are associated metalliferous deposits. In the upper part this formation consists of fine grained argillaceous slates (Maitai slates of Hochstetter), becoming calcareous and passing into true Hmestones at then- base. These limestones, which close the Maitai series, contain the following Lower Carboniferous fossils : — Spin/era bisulcata,:S. c/labcr, I'roductus brachi/tharus, CyatliojihtjUum, and Cijathorrinus. Succeeding these is the Te Anau series, which should probably be con- sidered as Upper Devonian, but fi-om the absence of fossils it has not been distinguished on the map. It comprises an enormous thickness of Greenstone breccias, Aphanite slates, and Diorite sandstones, with great contemporaneous floes and dykes of diorite, serpentine, syenite, and felsite. GEOLOGY. 29 These beds occur in the Longwood range ; the Takitimu moimtains ; and between the mouth of the ]\Iolyneux river and Martin's Ba}-, occupying the area between the Te Anau and Wakatipu hxkes. In Northern Otago and Canterbury they form a continuous belt of country from Palmerston to ]\Iount Cook, embracing the whole of the McKenzie country; and from there north they are fomid in the Tyndal range ; at Browning's Pass ; the Spencer mountains; St. Arnaud mountains; and thence through Nelson to D'Urville Island, and, taking in a large area of the Marlborough province, reappear from below the Peimian rocks in the Kaikoura mountains. They are also found on the eastern side of the Permian rocks at Geraldine ; ]\Iount Peel; the Palmer range ; Big Ben range ; OkulvU range, crossing the Hurunui river, and appearing on the edge of the Hanmer Plains. They are again seen in the Paparoa range at Greymouth, and extend from a point a little west of Mount Herschel, through Reefton and Lyell to the Tasman mountains and Anatoki range near Collingwood. In the North Island their principal development is through the Rimu- taka, Tararua, Ptuahine, and Kaimanawa ranges, and thus on to the "Whaka- tane country, where they reach the sea coast between Opotiki and Kotiki point. They also occur as several isolated patches more to the westward, between Tuhua and Rangitoto; in the Hakarimata, Pataroa, and Wairoa ranges, and again at the Thames and Cape Colville peninsula ; and, appearing once more at Wanganui extend from there along the coast line to the Bay of Islands, also appearing in the same district as several isolated patches. XIII.— LOWER DEVONIAN. Reefton Beds. These, as determined by their fossil contents, have only been dis- tinguished in one locality, viz., Reefton, although from their mineral character they are evidently present in many other jmrts of the South Island. They consist of alternating beds of quai'tzite, chert, and limestone, the latter yielding many fossils, of which SpiriJ'era vespertilllo and Ilowulaiwtus expansus are the most characteristic forms. XIV.— UPPER SILURIAN. Baton River Series. A great part of the area coloured on the map as metamorphic schists should probably be included in this formation, but it has only been dis- tinguished by its fossil contents in the north-west district of Nelson, where both Upper and Lower Silurian rocks are present. The Upper Silurian rocks consist of gi'ey cherts, sandstones and calca- reous slates, with occasional beds of blue limestone. In the Baton River they contain a great variety of fossils in the calca- reous strata, and not infrequently in the sandstones and cherts, of which thirteen species have been determined, besides which a great variety of corals and corallines occur ; crinoids also are very abundant. Some few of the species are identical with those found in the Lower Devonian beds of Reefton, whilst others occur in the Lower Silurian rocks of America, but the prominent facies of the collections is undoubtedly Upper Silurian. The characteristic fossils are Spirifera radiatns, Stricklomlia hjrata, Pteriiiea spinosa, Murchisioiiia tercbralis and Cahjinenc hlumcnbaehii 30 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. XV.— LOWER SILURIAN. Mount Arthur Series. These rocks form the mass of Mount Arthur, and the range to the north- east as far as Separation Point, and they consist chiefly of a dark bituminous slate, associated with a blue or grey sub-metamorphic limestone, which is in places developed to a very large extent. White crystalline limestones are also associated with these beds throughout the whole length of the district from Mount Owen to Motueka. The whole series is disturbed by eruptive hornblendic, and syenitic rocks, which are probably of Devonian age. Fossils have been found in two localities only, and these consist entirely of Encrinite remains, and one species of coral not yet determined, and a few Graptolites which occur in the slates. The central axis of these beds consists of true mica schists, to the east and west of which the limestone and bituminous slates overhe. XVI.— FOLIATED SCHISTS. The metamorphic rocks mider this division have as yet been only sub- divided according to their mineral character ; but they probably consist chiefly of altered Sihu-ian rocks, and even those of formations as yoimg as the Maitai or Lower Carboniferous beds. They occupy the central portion of the Otago district, where they have an area of nearly 8,000 square miles, and from thence they crop out along the western flank of the central range through Westland and Nelson, a detached area also appearing in the Marlborough district, between Queen Charlotte Sound and the Pelorus. They are unkllo^\^.l in the North Island. They have been subdivided as follows : — Upper — A grey arenaceous, almost slaty rock, containing but little quartz, in the form of veins and laminae. Middle — Soft blue slates, often highly micaceous, and intersected with quartz veins of small size, the quartz being often rotten and decomposed. The thickness of this formation is not more than from 500 to 1000 feet, and it is probably the same from wliicli most of the gold in the western, or Lake Gold Fields has been derived, by the direct erosion of glaciers and mountain torrents. This blue slate formation has been removed by denudation ft-om the greater part of the central boss, only remaining in a few localities that are difficult of detection on accomit of its soft and perishable natm-e. Loicer contorted schist. This is a clay schist, foliated, not with mica nor felspar, but with quartz. It is often chloritic, when veins of magnetite occiu' in it, and also crystals of that mineral disseminated through the mass, and in the upper part the quartz is nearly wanting. The schists, apparently, lie very flat, and cover a great extent of comitry. The foliated quartz does not commence at a distinct horizon, but beds thus altered occur in the regular sequence of the strata, separated by quartzless rock ; in the lower part of the series, however, as exposed in the deep valleys that cut right through the central district of Otago, the whole mass of schist is inter- sected by concretionary laminae of quartz (generally of a bluish tinge and horny appearance) that conform to the planes of foliation as in mica schist. Gold occiu"s segregated in the interspaces of this contorted schist, but it is rarely found ill situ. Quartz reefs are confined to the upper schists, but there are few instances of other than true fissure reefs having been discovered, that is reefs that cut the strata nearly vertically, and have a true "back" or wall independent of the foliation planes, and filled with brecciated material. GEOLOGY. 81 XVII.— CRYSTALLINE SCHISTS. The south western portion of the District of Otago is composed of crystalline rocks, forming lofty and rugged moimtains, of which the chief characteristic is then* cubical form, due to their being intersected in all du-ections by profound but narrow valleys, with abrupt precipitous sides to three-fom-ths of the extreme height of the adjacent mountauis. The valleys are occupied on the west by arms of the sea, and on the east by those of inland lakes that resemble the Norwegian fiords, and present most wonder- ful mountam scenery. The base rock of this formation is foliated and contorted gneiss coiTes- pondingto Humboldt's gneiss granite of South America, and associated with it are granite, syenite, and diorite, which belong to the next group. Wrapping round these crystalline strata, and sometimes resting at an altitude of 5,000 feet on its surface, is a series of hornblende schists, soft micaceous and amphibolic gneiss, clay slate and quarizites, associated with felstone dykes, serpentine, and granular limestone. I believe these latter to be metamorphic rocks of not very ancient date, probably of Devonian age. XVIII.— GRANITE. Areas within the crystalline schists where true granite occurs, either metamorphosed, or in the form of j)erfect dykes, have been distinguished under this group. Granites of a light grey colour, and very fine grain, are found in the Nelson and Westland districts, forming isolated hills along the boundary of the foliated schists on the east, and Lower Devonian bed.s on the west. In the south- western extremity of New Zealand, at Preservation Inlet, coarsely crystal- line granites, of white and flesh colour, appear to break through and overlie the younger members of the crystalline schists. IGNEOUS ROCKS. XIX. Plutonic and Dyke Rocks. XX. Basic Volcanic Rocks. XXI. Acidic Volcanic Rocks. Or, if grouped according to age, as in the geological sections — A. Volcanic grouj). Eecent and Post-Tertiary. a. Basaltic. h. Khyolitic. B. Trachytic group. Eocene. a. Trachyte Porphyries. b. Trachyte Breccias. C. Dolerite group. Upper Cretaceous. a. Trachy-dolerites. b. Anamesites. D. Propylite group. Lower Cretaceous. E. Diabase group. Triassic. F. Diorite group. Lower Carbonifei'ous. The igneous rocks have played an important part in almost every formation in New Zealand, marking great movements of the earth's crust at the different geological periods, while the superficial and later formed volcanic rocks occupy nearly one-third of the area of the North Island. 32 NEW ZKALANP HANDBOOK. Thoy are divided on the map into the ahove groups, of which the Phitonic and Dyke Eocks inchido Syenite and Diorite, with associated Breccias, Sorpcntnio, and Ohvinc rocks (Dunite), the eruption of which took pLace in the Upper Devonian period. These rocks are found on a Hne, which extends almost continuously through the South Island, hut Diorite rocks reappear in the extreme north of Auckland, and on the Cape Colville peninsula, and Great Barrier Island. They are generally more or less metalliferous, chrome and copper being the ores of most frequent occurrence. Baltic Volcanic liocks. — These belong to three distinct periods, when there were active eruptio)is, attended both by the formation of floes of com- pact igneous rocks and tufaceous breccias. The earliest of these occurred during the Triassic period, and consists chiefly of Diabase and Serpentinous breccias. The next eruptions took place about the close of the Jurassic period, along on the eastern base of the Canterbury Alps, where the rocks occur in dome-shaped mountains as mela- phyres associated with felsite (quartz) porphyries which belong to the next g^"o"P- . , . . . , In the Cretaceo-tertiary period are massive trappeau eruptions of trachy- dolerite and dolerite, while in the same period mu.st be placed the propylite group, consisting of greenstone-trachytes, and fine and coarse-grained breccia rocks, which form the matrix of the auriferous reefs of the Thames goldfields. In Eocene times dolerite floes were contemporaneous with the lime- atones of the period of the Hutchinson's Quarry beds, while lastly in this group has been placed the Basaltic lavas of Pliocene age in the northern parts of the colony. Aculic Volcanic rockf!. — The rocks belonging to this group have a similar distribution in time to the foregoing, the earliest being the Felsite (quartz) porphyries, while Trachyte porphyries and breccias played an im2)ortant part during Cretaceo-tertiary and older Tertiary periods, scoriaceous lavas and rhyolites being the characteristics of the later outbursts which have continued down almost to the present time. The geysers and boiling springs in the North Island give rise to the forma- tion of siliceous sinter, which must be included as the most purely acidic pro- ducts of volcanic action, and are due to the decomposition of the older rocks by the action upon them of fresh water; but in the case of White Island and other localities, where the decomposition is brought about by the agency of sea water, the sinter deposits are formed chiefly of sulphate of lime and not silica. COAL. 33 MINING AND GEOLOGY. Econumic Minerals. COAL. Coal mines are being worked in the provinces of Auckland, Nelson, Canterbmy, Otago, inc-lucUng Southland. The different varieties of coal may be classed as follow : — Class I. — Hydrous, containing an excess of combined water. Lignite. Brown coal. Pitch coal. Class II. — Anhydrous, containing very little combined water. Glance coal. Semi-bituminous coal. Bituminous coal. I. Hydrous, containing 10 to 20 per cent, of permanent water. Lir/nite shows distinctly woody structure; laminated, very absorbent of water. Brou-n Coal rarely shows vegetable structm-e, fracture irregular, con- choidal, colour dark brown, lustre feeble, ci-acks readily on exposure to the atmosphere, losing 5 to 10 per cent, of water, which is not reabsorbed, bm'ns slowly, contains resin in large masses. Pitch Coal. — Structure compact, fractixre smooth, conchoidal, jointed in large angular pieces, colour brown or black, lustre waxy, does not dessicate on exposiu-e nor is it absorbent of water, burns freely, and contains resin disseminated throughout its mass. II. Anhydrous Coal, containing less than G per cent, of water. Glance Coal. — Non-caking, massive, compact or friable, fi'acture cuboidal, splintery, lustre metallic, structure laminated, colour black, does not form a cak- ing coal, but slightly adlieres. This variety is brown coal altered by igneous rocks, and presents every intermediate stage fi'om brown coal to anthracite. Seini-bituniinous Coal. — Compact, with laminte of bright and dull coal alter- nately, fracture irregular, lustre moderate, cakes moderately, or is non-caking. Bituminous Coal. — Much jointed, homogeneous, tender and friable, lustre pitch-like, glistening, often irridescent, colom- black with a purple hue, powder brownish, cakes strongly, the best varieties forming a vitreous coke, with brilliant metallic lustre. General Descrijition. Class I. — The Hydrous Coals of the South Island occm* on the eastern coast chiefly. Pitch Coal has been worked since 18G7, at West Wanganui in Nelson ; and in Otago at Shag Point, 40 miles noith of Dunedin, it has been worked since 18C2, together with broAvn coal. It is also found at Ileefton, Nelson, where it contains resin disseminated throughout its mass ; "Waikato and Wangaroa, Auckland ; Morely Creek, Southland. It belongs to the Upper Cretaceous period, and has an evaporative power of 5"21bs. Brown Coal is es.teasively worked in Auckland on the Waikato River, and in the Kaitangata mine, Clutha district of Otago, where the seams are from five to twenty feet thick. The area of this latter coal field is about 6,000 acres, and the quantity of coal has been estimated from sm-veys, to be 140 million tons, nearly the whole of which would be available without sinking. In the same Provincial District thick seams of brown coal in grits and clay shale have been worked since 18G1 at Green Island and Saddle Hill, and extensive seams exist in Southland, and to the west of Riverton, which have not yet been regularly mined. It belongs to the age of the upper greenyand, and has an average evaporative power of 4-2 to 5-G lbs. o 84 NEW ZEAXAND HANDBOOK. The fJffmtea occur in tlie interior of Otago, and at otlicr places in super- ficial deposits of limited extent, and have been used chietiy Ly diggers. Class II. — The anhydrous kinds of coal prove to be quite equal to any imported, experiments having been undertaken in 1865 for ascertaining their value as steam coals. Both these and the hydi-ous coals occm- at the base of a great marine formation, underlying limestone, clays, and sandstone of cretaceous and tertiary age, which have a thickness of several thousand feet, tlie coal seams occuring whenever the above foi-mation is in contact with the older rock. Tlie anhydrous kinds are more limited in distribution, and appear to be produced by local distm'bance of the strata, and in some cases are evidently due to the intrusion of volcanic rocks. Bitumiuom Coal is worked chiefly in Nelson Province. At Mount Eochfort or Buller mines the seams are on a high plateau and are 10 to 40 feet thick, and fi'om 900 to 3,000 feet above sea level ; acciu'ate surveys of this coal field show it to contain 140,000,000 tons of bitumhious coal of the best quality and easily accessible ; a railway 17 miles in length is now completed along the level country at the base of the ranges in Avliich the coal occurs. At the Brunner coal mine on the Grey Kiver, Nelson, the working face of the seam is 18 feet, and it has been proved to extend one- third of a mile on the strike -without disturbance, and to be available for working in an area of 30 acres, the estimated amount of coal being 4,000,000 tons in this mine alone, most of Avhich can be worked above the water level. Coal Pit Heath is a second mine lying more to the dip of the same seam. A third mine is being opened on the south side of the river, which, wdth a 370 feet shaft, will command 300,000 tons. The coal from the Brunner Mine, Nelson, which has now been worked for 12 years, yields vitreous coke, with brilliant metallic lustre. Average evaporative power of several samples, 7TUbs. of boiling water converted into steam for each pound of coal. It occurs with grits and conglomerates of Upper Mesozoic age, corresponding to the horizon of the Gault or Lower Greensand. A railway has been con- structed by Government to connect the mine with the port, and harbour im- provements are in progi-ess, whereby a larger class of vessels than at present will be enabled to enter the river. The small quantity of this coal hithei-to obtainable in New Zealand and Australian markets has been eagerly bought up for gas works and iron foundries, who generally pay for it from 10 to 20 per cent, more than for any other coal. Engineers of local steamers esteem it 20 per cent, better than the best New South Wales coal for steam purposes. Coke made from it is valued at £3 per ton. Coal fields in other parts of the Nelson District have also jdelded excel- lent coal. At luangahua, Murray Creek, an 18-feet seam of semi-bituminous coal is worked, associated with quartz grits. At Pakawau, and in the same formation at Colhngwood thin seams of hard bright bituminous coal have been worked fi'om the sandstones of the cretaceous period. The area of the coal field is about 30 square miles, and the facilities of access and shipping, and the abundance of iron ore and Hmestone will probably make this an im- portant mming district. The chief coal mine has been opened by a tunnel 700 feet in length, piercing the momitain at 600 feet above the flats along the Aorere Eiver, the coal being brought down by a self-acting inclme. This description of coal also occurs in the ii-regular seams in sandstone of Upper Mesozoic age (Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous!, at Kawa Kawa, and Whanga- rei, Auckland ; Mount Hamilton, and Wailvava, Otago ; it rarely cakes strongly, and has an evaporative power of commonly 6^ lbs. _ Coal has been worked since 1865 in Auckland at the Kawa Kawa mine. Bay of Islands, fi-om a seam 13 feet thick in gi-eensand, it contains much sulphm-. A similar quahty of coal is also worked at Walton's "mine, COAL. 35 and at Kamo mine, "Whangarei Harbour, and several impoi-tant mines are opened in the coal seams at the Malvern Hills, Canterbury. Glance Cual. — This description of coal does not form a caking coke, but slightly adheres, and is a variety of brown coal, altered by faulting or by igneous rocks, and presenting every intermediate stage from brown coal to an anthracite. Occurring at Preservation Inlet and Malvern Hills, of Lower Cretaceous age, in extensive but detached seams from 2 to 6 feet thick in micaceous and argillaceous shales. Coal Workings. The first export of coal from New Zealand was made iu 1866, amount- ing to 261 tons. The following is a hst of the principal Collieries, and the yield of each, for the year ending on 31st December, 1878 : — Working Coal Mines in New Zealand foe 1878. i B Thickness Output Name of Colliert. °3 Quality of Coal. of for Vear in m Seams. Tons. a 1^ o p o ^ » ^A Auckland. Feet. 1 Kawa Kawa 14 Glance 1 6 to 15 40,000 2 Kamo Brown 1 12 1,000 3 Whan Whau 14 do. 1 9 1,690 4 Taupiri 3 do. 2 6 to 14 11,137 5 VVaikato 2 do. 1 18 3,073 6 Miranda Nelson. 2 do. 1 55 2,000 7 Wallsend (Colliugwood) . . 11 Bituminous 1^ to 32 50 8 West Wangauui . . 1 Pitch 2 1^ & 3 to ^ 650 9 Westport . . 1 Bituminous 1 4X6 1,190 10 Wellington 3 do. 1 18 X 24 1,468 11 Brunner 14 do. 1 12 to 16 19,404 12 Goal Pit Heath .. Westland. 2 do. 1 16 7,742 13 Wallsend (Greymouth) . . Canteebdry. 2 do. 1 16 6,882 14 Springfield . . n Brown 1 3| to 4^ 3,001 15 Homebush . . 7 do. 3 3i and 7 3,129 16 Canterbury 16 do. 2 2 830 17 Wallsend (Malvern) Otago. 2 do. 2 6 and 3 2,016 18 St. Aiadrew's 10 do. 2 9 and 10 400 19 Prince Alfred 2 do, 2 9 2,400 20 Shag Point 16 do. 2 to 12 5,377 21 FernHiU .. ■i do. 19i 132 22 Otago 5 do, 19 — 23 Freeman's . . 3 do. 16 4,560 24 Saddle Hill ii do. 19i 3,600 25 Green Island 6 do. 14 5,874 2G Walton Park 8 do. IB 17,106 27 Bruce H Pitch 11 to 3 1,333 28 Eeal McKay lOi do. 25 1,250 29 Shore's No. 1, Kaitangata 7 do. 30 924 30 Kaitangata C. M. Co. 3 do. 27 14,000 162,218 8G NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK; Tlic most notable feature in the development of the coal fields during the year was the great increase in the consumption of the Kawakawa coal ; owing mahily to the circumstance that the Union Shipping Company have adopted it for tlieir coastal steamers, and report most favourably of its utility as a steam coal. The total quantity of coal imported during 1878 was, from — New South Wales . . . . 172,254 tons Other sources .. .. 1,894 ,, 174,148 The total quantity of coal exported during the same year was, to — New South Wales . . . . 400 tons Victoria .. .. .. 3,513 ,, South Sea Islands .. .. 8 ,, 3,921 Of this quantity 3,913 tons was exported from Greymouth. It thus appeared that the total consumption of coal in the colony during the year was 332,445 tons, of which 158,297 tons were derived from New Zealand mines. It is not at all likely, however, that these figures will long continue to bear the same relative proportion, there being a fair prospect that the improvements now in progress for affording increased railway transport and better shipping facilities, will give such a stimulus to this valuable industry that the output will be sufficient, not only for the supply of a fair portion of the home consumption, but also for an increasing foreign trade. GOLD AND SILVER. Gold was discovered in 1842, less than three years from the foundation of the Colony, but it was not practically worked until 1852, when the mines at Coromandel first attracted attention to the district of Cape Colville peninsula, which at the present time forms the chief seat of true mining operations in New Zealand. The yield from those mines has up to the present time been over four and a half millions sterling, but is small when compared with the quantity of alluvial gold obtained in the South Island, subsequent to 1861, at which date the gold fields of Otago became promi- nently known, QuAETZ Mining. The principal Quartz mines in the North are in Coromandel and in the Thames districts, about 30 miles apart. In these localities the reefs have been "proved" to a depth of over 600 feet below sea level ; but the best mines have as yet been principally con- fined to the decomposed and comparatively superficial rock. Veins have been discovered, and gold obtained, at all levels on the ranges, from the sea level to an altitude of 2,000 feet. The quantity of gold that has been obtained from some of these quartz reefs is very great ; and for considerable distances GOLD AND SILVER. 37 the quartz has yielded very uniformly, at the rate of 600 ozs. to the ton, such reefs are, however, very exceptional in New Zealand, as elsewhere. Auriferous reefs are also extensively worked in the schistoze rocks of Otago, and they occur at all altitudes, from sea level to a height of 7,400 feet, the most elevated gold mine in the Australasian colonies being that opened during the year 1878 on the summit of Advance Peak, near the Waka- tipu Lake. Several promising reefs have also been found in the Westland Gold Fields, amongst which may be mentioned a reef of auriferous Stibnite at Langdon's Creek, near Greymouth, which yields from a few ozs. to 99 ozs. of gold per ton ; but up to the present time these reefs have not received the attention they deserve, except at Roefton and a few other localities. The importance of Eeefton as a well established Mining district may be judged of from the fact that nine mining companies there, during the single year ending 31st March, 1878, divided, as profit, the sum of ^663, 508 among the shareholders. So far as this more permanent form of gold mining is concerned there is every reason to feel confident that it is still in its infancy in this colony, and that it only awaits the judicious application of capital for its develop- ment to a vast extent. Alluvial Mining. Alluvial gold is chiefly found in the South Island, in the districts of Otago, Westland, and Nelson, in which mining operations are carried on over an area of almost 20,000 square miles. The auriferous sand, or gold diift, as it is usually termed, is of three distinct kinds. First, that which is found in the beds of rivers, and which is worked by small parties of miners, as the process requu'es no large expenditure of capital to eliect the separation of the gold. Secondli/, immensely thick deposits of gravel of more ancient date occupy the wider valleys and the flat country, from which the gold can only be obtamed by means of considerable expenditure and large engineering works for the purpose of bringing a supply of water for undermining and working the amiferous deposits. This description of mining is of a more permanent character than the former, and provision has been made by the Colonial Government for assisting the miners by the construction of water races, which Avill supply the means of profitable employment to a much larger number of persons than at present gain a livelihood by this descrip- tion of mining. Some of these deposits are of considerable age, the cements of Tuapeka being certainly not younger than the lowest tertiary deposits of the colony. They occur in beds fi'om 300 feet to 500 feet thick, and cover a considerable area of country. These cements arc treated in a difiereni way to ordinary allu- vial deposits, being crushed and washed in the same manner that a quartz reef is worked ; but in consequence of the nature of the deposit about 150 tons of stone is thus put through the batteries in one day. They consist of coarse gravels and silts cemented together, and carrying variable quantities of gold, and were first found at the liluc Spur in Otago, and subsequently at a number of other places in the same district ; at Charleston and elsewhere, on the West Coast, auriferous cements are also worked, but the localities first cited, however, are those which to the pj-esent time have received the greatest attention. The yield of gold from these cement claims is small, but in consequence of the large amount of material which can be operated upon, 88 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. the value of the deposits is considerable, and their extent guarantees that they will allbrd a remunerative retm-n to those who are working them for some time to come. Thirdly, along the sea coast, the continued wash of the waves produces a shifting action on the sands which are brought down by the rivers and drifted along the shore, thus producing fine deposits of gold, which, by the aid of simple mechanical contrivances, afford employment to a large number of diggers, who can laboiu' ■without incurring the hardships and privations which attend the occupations of the miners in the more inland districts. The alluvial diggings at Collingwood were discovered in 1858 ; those of Otago in 1861, and in 1864 the Gold Fields near Fokitika proved a great attraction to the mining population of New Zealand. In Otago the gold di'ifts rest on the denuded surface of then' parent rocks. The auriferous gravels in the western district, on the other hand, as a general rule, rest on the surface of tertiary rocks of marine origin, and they have a general distribution parallel to Avhatever was the western shore of the island at the time of their deposit. The richest alluvial diggings in Westland usually occm- in places very inaccessible for water supj)ly, the streams having cut their channels much below the sm-face of the country, so that an organised system of ii-rigation is necessary to obtain the required amount of water for the gold washing. The following is the composition of the New Zealand gold as exported fi'om various parts : — Melted gold from West Coast, Hokitika, Westland : oz. dwts. grs. Assay— Gold . . . . -9627 = Fine Gold . . 9 14 16 Silver ., .. -0363 Copper . . . . -0010 Weight, 10 ozs. 2 dwt. 6 grs. Melted gold from Thames District, province of Auckland : oz. dwts. grs, 6 12 18 3 8 13 Assay— Gold . . . . -6565 — Fine Gold . . Silver . , . . -3390 — Silver Copper . . . . -0045 Weight, 10 ozs. 2 dwts. 6 grs. Refined gold, as extracted by Chlorine Eefiniug Process, and as exported by the Bank of New Zealand, Auckland : oz. dwts. grs. Assay— Gold . . . . -9942 — Fine Gold . . 9 19 20 Silver .. .. -0058 Weight, 10 oz. 1 dwt. Total Exports.— The total quantity of gold entered for exportation from New Zealand up to the 31st December, 1879, amounted to 9,246,946 ounces, valued at £36,110,490. SIL.VER AND SILVER ORES. The silver exported from the colony has been chiefly extracted fi-om the gold obtained at the Thames, which is alloyed with about 30 per cent, of the less valuable metal. lEON. 39 Within the last two years, however, several mines have been opened where the ore is argentiferous galena that yields 20 to 50 ozs. of silver to the ton. In some cases the galena is mixed with u-on pyrites that yields a fan- percentage of gold. A mine has recently been opened in Nelson, at Eichmond Hill, where the ore is a form of Tetrahedi-ite, a mixed ore, containing silver, antimony, zinc, bismuth, and copper, the silver beuig at the rate of from 20 oz. to 1792 oz. per ton. The following is an analysis of the ore, which has been called Kich- mondite, after the locahty in which it is foimd : — Sulphide of lead 36-12 antimony 22-20 bismuth . . . . , , . . traces copper . . 19-31 iron 18-59 zinc 5-87 silver 2-39 Oxide of manganese . . -52 The total quantity of silver entered for exportation from New Zealand from the year 1869, when it was first exported, up to 31st December, 1879, amounted to 338,581 ounces, valued at £90,457. IRON ORES. No u-on mines are at present worked, though almost every known variety of iron ore has been discovered in the colony ; the workings being limited to the black sands, which occm- plentifully on the coasts. There are also few soils or stream gravels that will not yield a considerable quantity Avheu washed ; the chief deposits are, however, on the sea shore of the west coast of both islands, the best known being that at Taranaki. Several companies have been formed both in England and the colony to manufactm-e steel direct h-om this iron sand ; they have not, however, succeeded, but a partial success has been attained lately by a new company, by smelting, in furnaces, bricks formed of the ore with calcareous clay and carbonaceous matter ; it remains to be proved, however, if it can be treated in large quantities by this process. Brown hematite Ore. At Parapara, Nelson, immense quantities of brown hematite ore occm-s on the sm-face of the groimd ; some of this was converted into u-on at Melboua-ne in 1873, and gave on analysis : — Iron .. .. .. • .. .. 97-668 Manganese Carbon combined . . ,, free (graphite) Silicon, with titanium traces Phosphorous Sulphur . . , . , . •268 -542 •208 1-00-4 •041 •2G9 100-000 40 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. Its principal characters are : colour uniform, approaching white ; struc- ture homogeneous, and finely granular, hard, brittle. This is therefore the variety called white iron. A further very vahuable deposit of brown hematite has been discovered by an officer of the Geological Survey Department, on the west side of Mount Peel, where the deposit is about GO feet thick. This ore contains 56 per cent, of metallic iron, and has been traced for a distance of three miles, beyond which point it is reported by diggers to swell out to as much as a mile in width. The following are the chief localities in which iron ore is found : Specular Iron. Ore. — Dun Mountain, Nelson. Occurs in irregular veins in greenstone rocks ; contains 63 per cent, of metallic iron. Specular Iron Ore. — Maori Point, Shotover, Otago. A six-foot vein in mica schist, equally rich with the above ; extent unknown. Compact Iron Ore. — D'Urville Island, Nelson. Vein, thickness unknown, in diorite slate, with serpentine and chrome ; yields 63 per cent, of iron. Maijnetic Iron Ore. — This valuable ore, though occm'ring chiefly as black sands, is found in several parts of the colony. Maijnetic Iron Ore. — Dun Mountain, Nelson. In a vein 16 inches thick in serpentinous slates. Magnetic Iron Ore. — Wakatipu Lake, Otago. In a vein in mica schists. Mac/netic Iron Ore. — Maramarua, Frith of Thames. From a vein in ferriferous slates ; contains also oxides of titanium and manganese. Black Iron Sand. — From beach at Taranaki. Iron Band Ore. — Contains 70 per cent of iron. Occurs at Wyndliam River, Otago, and Manukau, Auckland ; formed by the black sand layers becoming cemented with hematite. This would be a most valuable ore if obtained in large quantities. Broun hematite or hydi'ous oxide also occurs in Assuri in great quantity. Reniform Iron Ore, Mongonui. Bog Iron Ore, Spring swamps, Auckland, forms thick layers at the bottom of swamps. Though rich in iron the ore is inferior on account of the sulphur and phosphorus it usually contains. Hematite, an analysis of this ore from Raglan, gave — Sesquioxide of iron . . .. 72-69 Oxide of manganese . . •31 Alumina .. 2-02 Magnesia •69 Lime •58 Phosphoric acid not estimated Sulphide of iron •11 Hygroscopic water .. 461 Constitutional water . . . . 13-02 Silicates undecomposed by acids .. 5-97 100-00 IRON. 41 IRON SANDS. The following tabular statement gives a particular account of Iron sands. •r: -7^ c^ ^ -T^ < 3 ra0DC5(MOC(5T-l(MrH OOC:(MC5COOO cc Ir- lo ■i-i o oi I I C5 O tH (?1 -;*< O o cb c a; ni do (?5 o O CO N »rt 00 O I 1-1 6 t^ t^.-l(MOaOlOOO>AOO oooococoocj ^c. o — C' " u -^ S "= '^ b !-, u o s a U O) „, t- "o to ^ C '•" ^ t; 2-2.2:3 g o t. oS GO OM ;2 I >;3 >^ aj o o I t- !h c3 en OH •^ "^ O CD i- ^ a d S 5 "O "O WP3SS a- o =- o UO o tr ' hn CS " cS n f •) O VIJ cj a. -s ^ _ OJ •^ rt -^ * ' — ; 4^ H ^ <^ 5 S IH O O a: -:yo :^ 1^ , S 1^ "^ S 5 I •"= g ; ^ .^ -^ £ 8 .£ P S 42 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. The composition of the chief massive ores of iron may be ilhistrated by the following analysis. Massive Iron Ores, Oxides, and Titanites. Locality. Ceutesimal Composition. o 1 §2 Viiriet}-. J o a M 1 to S Remarks. a w H cc ^ PM Impure magne- Manukau, Auckland,. 60 20 37-90 Traces 1-90 70-06 tite. Magnetite Dunstan Gorge, Otago 86-32 — Traces 1308 — 63-60 Hematite Dunstan, Otago — 9611 — 3-89 — 68-30 Magnetite Dun Mountain, Nelson — 90-62 — 7-60 1-80 63-40 Mixed magnetite Maramarua ,Auckland 2-24 87-10 Traces 10-66 62-30 and hematite. Bog iron ore ... Spring Swamps, Auck- land. — 73-17 — 13-83 13-00 51-22 Brown iron ore.. Raglan — 72-69 — 9-68 17-60 50-88 [oxide 1-38, »» )) Kawau — 67-98 — 19-65 12-37 47'58 Manganese Hydrous hema- Parapara, Kelson ... — 62-68 24-08 13-24 43-87 Contains a lit- , tite. tle manganese " Moimt Peel, Nelson... "■ ~ 56 00 Black Bands or Spathic Ieon Obes. Variety. Locality. Protoxide of Iron. Sesquiox- ide of Iron, Carbonic Acid. Silicates. Per- centage of Iron. Blackband Blackband Spathic Spathic Collingwood, Nelson Collingwood, Nelson Nurunda, Colling-wood . . Jenkins' Mine, Nelson . . 35-23 40-38 25-77 5-26 21-12 21-97 3-93 16-69 46-06 35-12 40-08 41-00 Spalhic Iron Ore. — This occm'S in considerable quantity in the Colling- wood district, in most cases more or less oxidized ; one form of this ore known as blackband is one of the most valuable kinds known, and alternates with the coal seams in Collin.gwood. A specimen of a siliceous and spathic iron ore fi-om Otamatam-a gully is constituted approximately as follows : — Carbonate of iron Carb. lime and magnesia Siliceous matters 56-9 2-8 40-3 iro-0 The iron amounts to about 27 per cent. Other large deposits of spathic iron ore have been found at Footes' coal mine at the Miranda redoubt, and Jenkin's coal mine, Nelson. They contain 40 per cent., and 41 per cent, of iron respectively. chkome, copper. Analysis of Two Specimens. 43 Spathic D ^GN Oees. Malvern Hills. Collingwood. Protoxide of iron 51-2 35-23 Sesquioxide of iron — 25-77 Oxide of magnesia •8 100 Alumina 1-8 211 Magnesia •4 194 Lime •3 •71 Silica . . 13-6 •90 Sulphuric acid Traces. Carbonic acid . . I 31-2 1 21-12 Phosphoric acid not determined. Sulphide of iron •41 Water •7 1-96 Organic matter 5-72 Silicates uudecomposed by acids — 3-03 10000 100-00 Hematite, contairiing about 40 per cent, of iron, occiu-s intermixed with quartz pebbles, in a stratum 100 feet thick exposed over several acres, at Para- para, Nelson, and from it an excellent paint is manufactiu-ed, -svhich, being a pm-e peroxide of iron, is tlie best preservative for that metal. Wood coated witJi this paint is comparatively non-inflammable, and it is therefore much used in painting wooden buildings. CHROME ORE. This ore which is a mixture of chromic iron and alumina, is chiefly asso- ciated with magnesian rock, resembling olivine in composition, named Dunite by Dr. Hochstetter. It occm-s in veins often 12 feet in thickness, and some- times contains as much as 80 per cent, of chrome ore. This ore has been largely exported from Nelson, and is used for the manufactm'e of salts of chromic acid, possessing the properties of brilliant dyes. The pure ore contains 60 per cent, of the chrome oxide, and is worth £11 to £20 per ton, according to the state of the market. COPPER ORE, Copper mmes have been worked in Auckland on Great Barrier Island, and in Kawau Island, and to a small extent in Doubtless Bay. It has been found associated with the metamorphic rocks in Otago and at Waipori, where a four foot sulphide of copper (pyrites) lode exists ; an attempt to trace this lode was made for a short time and then abandoned. A carbonate of copper is foimd in the same locality, but only in rolled fi'agments. Copper has also been found in the form of cuprite and copper glance in the Dun Mountain, Nelson; and on D'Urville Island, at which latter place the ore has been traced to a depth of 100 feet ; some of the better sam- ples from this place yielding as mi;ch as 45 per cent, of copper. A lode of copper pyi-ites mixed with pja-rhotine has also been discovered in Dusky Somid, Otago, and a mine is now being opened up at this place, 44 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. An interesting occuiTcnce of native copper disseminated as fine grains thron^h a granular serpentinous rock should also be noted. The extent of the ore is as yet unknown, but it occurs in the serpentine mineral belt of Nelson. Cii}»r.oiis iron ore in serpentine has been found at Dun mountain. It is interesting from its being slightly auriferous. Clipper jii/ritcs is present in a lode three to five feet thick in mica schist, at Moke creek, Wakatipu Lake ; it is associated with carbonate and native copper. The ore contains the high proportion of 11 to 55 per cent, of metallic copper, the usual average of Cornish ore being only five per cent. There is limestone in close vicinity to the lode, so that there would be no difficulty in reducing the ore to a "regulus," in which state it would save cost in ship- ment. Near Collingwood, Nelson, a lode has been opened up, and contains 22 to 25 per cent, of metallic copper. Grei/ Sulphide, found at Wangapeka, Nelson, contains 55 per cent, of copper, together with a little silver and gold. In Kawau Island, Auckland, the lode first produced IG per cent, of copper, and then fell off to 8 per cent, and at the bottom of the workings about 5 per cent. The width of the lode was 8 feet. The workings were discontinued chiefly on account of the high price of coal consequent on gold discoveries. In Great Barrier Island the ore (pjnrites) occurs in a quartz matrix ; a fair sample of the mixed specimen afforded 26"62 per cent, of copper. The Otea Copper Mining Company worked this pyrites ore to a considerable extent. LEAD ORES. Lead occiu's as galena in the provmce of Nelson, at Eangitoto mountain in Westland, and also at the Thames Gold Field. It invariably contains silver to a considerable amount. The following localities may be mentioned: — Galena from Bedstead Gully, Collingwood. Galena and zinc blende from Parapara Valley. Argentiferous lead ore from Kichmond Hill, Parapara, value 50/. per ton. Galena, Wangapeka, Nelson. Sulphide of lead, with quartz that contains also sulphides of iron, and antimony with gold, in veins in felspathic schist; the galena contains 26 ozs. of silver per ton. The gold is only in those parts of the ore that contain iron pyrites. Galena with zinc blende. Perseverance Mine, Collingwood, Nelson. Occm-s in a band, 2 to 5 feet thick, parallel with amiferous quartz veins, those two ores are both piu-e, but so intermixed in the lode, that they could not be reduced separately. ZING ORES. This ore occurs at the Perseverance Mine, Collingwood, Nelson, and in small quantity in Tararu Creek, Thames, where it is found in w-hite cement with auriferous veins. It contains 60 per cent, of metalhc zinc, which is worth about 15/. per ton. It is also found in the following localities : — Zinc blende and galena from Bedstead Gully, Collingwood. ANTIilONY, MANGANESE. 45 Zinc as yellow or honey blende fi-om Perseverance Mine, CoIling-\vood, Nelson. Znic blende with galena and pjTites, the former having about 4ozs. of silver, and the latter 5 ozs. of gold per ton. Mount Eangitoto, Westland. ANTIMONY ORES. Stibnite lodes were discovered in 1873 near the coast of Queen Charlotte Sound, Marlborough, and proved to contain fi'om 51-12 to 69-40 per cent, of antimony, the matrix behig quartz. Similar lodes have been known for many years in the Shotover district, at Hindon, at Waipori, and other places in Otago. A sulphide of antimony lode occurs some miles south of Collingwood, containing no less than -757 per cent, of silver, which is equal to 185"88 troy ounces per ton. Besides these localities antimony ores are found at Eeefton, associated with gold ; and also at Langdon's Reef, near Greymouth as already men- tioned. MANGANESE ORES. These ores are useful for generation of chlorine for bleaching pm-poses, also for calico printing, &c. The values of these common ores are fi-om 31. to 4/. per ton, and the following classes of them have been found. lUioduiiite (silicate of manganese), at Dunstan, Otago, as rolled masses; percentage of manganese about 40. Wail (hydi'ous oxide), atPort Hardy, D'Urville's Island, Nelson; percent- age of manganes;e about 45. Braunite, or manganese oxide on Malvern Hills, Canterb\n-y. Ores are also found at Whangarei in Auckland, and in Napier; the latter contains 44 per cent, of manganese oxide, the remainder being mostly claj'. The same ore althoiigh of better quality is at present being successfully woi'ked at the Bay of Islands. The shipments for the year 1879 amounted to 2,140 tons, valued at £8,338. MINERAL OILS. In 1866 attention was directed to the resom-ces of the colony in respect to petroleum, and some vei-y fine oils were found. There are three principal localities, and these produce each a distinct kind of oil : 1. The Sugar Lo&ves in the Taranaki Province. 2. Poverty Bay, on the east coast of the province of Auckland. 3. Mauntahi, Waiapu, East Cape. The oil fi-om the first has a vei-^' high specific gravity, -900 to -964 at 60° Faht., water at 1. It has thus too much carbon in its composition for its commercial success as an illummating oil, but is capable of producing a valuable lubricating oil. It resembles oil occm-ing in Stanta Barbara County, California. The second kmd from Waiapu, Poverty Bay, is a true paraffin oil resembling the Canadian oil. By three successive distillations, and treatment with acids and alkalies, about 65 per cent, of a good illuminating oil is obtainable with specific gravity of -843. The third produces a pile brown oil, nearly or quite transparent, specific gravity -829 at 60° Faht,, bu-ns well in a kerosene lamp for some time, and 40 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. is tlicrcforo of a very supei'ior class, it contains only traces of paraffin, and produces 84 per cent, of an illuminating oil, fit for use in kerosene lamps, by means of a single distillation. By two more distillations G6 per cent, of the crude oil has a specific gravity of -811, which is that of common kerosene. At Suf^ar-loaf Point, Taranaki, the Petroleum (rock oil) oozes from cracks in trachyte breccia. Wells have been bored to the depth of many hundred feet, but no steady supply of oil has been obtained. Crude oil has a specific gravity of -962 at 60° Faht., and yields, by fractional distillation, oils ha\ing the fohowing gravities : — 2 per cent, of oil of specific gravity -874 10 „ „ -893 .8 „ „ -917 60 „ „ -941 80 total distilled off. 6-1 solid bitumen. 12-4 fixed carbon. 1-5 ash. 100-0 The following is an analysis of the Petroleum found at "Waipawa Eiver, Poverty Bay, Auckland : — per cent, of oil, specific gravity -809 (colourless). 16-0 160 19-0 11-0 8-0 21-25 paraffin oil. 93-75 total distilled off. 6-25 residue in retort, pitch. •826 (nearly coloivrless). •836 (pale yellow). •850 (dark yellow). •855 (brown, solid at 40° Faht.) •864 lOO'OO At Waiapn, East Coast, Auckland Province, the crude oil has a specific gravity of -872 at 58° Faht. ; boiling pomt, 290° Faht.; flashing point, 230° Faht. A sample with a specific gravity of -8294, gives — 400 per cent, of oil, specific gravity -800 (colourless). 33-0 ,, ,, '826 pale-coloui-ed oil). .- 12-5 „ „ -840 6-25 „ „ -860 4-25 „ „ -870 96 00 total distilled off. 4-00 residue in retort. 100-00 Another analysis yielded — 11-20 per cent, specific gravity -820 fine lamp oil. 37-75 ,, ,, -853 inferior lamp oil. 2669 ,, „ lubricating oil. 16-00 ,, ,, parafiin. 90-64 total distilled off. 9-36 bituminous residue, 10000 MINERAL OILS, GRAPHITE. 47 OIL SHALES. Petroleioii Oil Shales. — Pyroschist, or bituminous shales, occur to ca small extent in the upper portion of the coal formation. Specimens have been examined from D'Urville's Island in Cook Strait, Mongonui, and Waiapu, in Auckland, Kaikorai, and Blueskin, in Otago. A good variety of oil producing shale is obtained from the Chatham Islands, but it contains traces of sulphuretted hydrogen. These shales have been distilled for oil, those from Mongonui and Chat- ham Islands producing the following excellent results. <» Centesimal Composition. Relative percentage of Volatile Matter. Locality. to ^-* u $,^ o «« 3 u •A o 1 < 03 percentage of fixed Carbon. D'Urville's Island Mongonui Chatham Island Chatham Island 81-79 75-20 66-48 64-67 7-98 9-30 20-41 19-87 •69 1-80 4-61 7-13 9^54 13^70 8-55 8-33 Traces. 91-11 88-99 76-49 76^49 8-89 11-01 23-51 •23-51 GRAPHITE. The mineralized substance known as graphite — plumbago — black lead consists of carbon in mechanical admixture with siliceous matter, as clay, sand, or Hmestone, and in varying proportions, and is the ultimate pro- duct of vegetable remains, mineralized to the highest degree. It has been found at Pakawau ; in the vicinity of Wellington ; and in the pm-e state embedded in marbles fi'om the West Coast. The pure amorphous variety is used for the manufactm-e of pencils, and for lubricants for machinery, while the impm-e siliceous or argillaceous graphites find extensive employment in the manufacture of crucibles, and for polishing material for ironwork. Graphite of the first quality has not been found yet in any quantity in New Zealand, but there is an abundance of the impure varieties. It' has been found in greater quantity in the province of Nelson than elsewhere, but still many other localities yield this mineral in various states of purity, as at Dunstan, Otago, which is of fair average quality. A valuable sample of graphite has lately been reported from Waiokura Creek, Waimate, although the mineral has not yet been found in situ. The following are analyses of two samples : — 1. 2. Fixed carbon . . . . 86-9 . . 92-5 Volatile matter . . . . 6-6 . . 4-5 Ash .. ..6-5 .. 3-0 100-0 100-0 This specimen is of a very homogeneous character, and if, as is probable, purer bands should be found with it, the discovery will prove of great value. The colour of the ash is reddish white. 48 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. BUILDING STONES. Abundant supplies of excellent stones for roads and building purposes are found in every part of the colony of Now Zealand. The varieties useful as such may be divided into — 1. Basalts and diorites. 2. Trachytes, granites, and crystalline schists. 3. Limestones (freestones in part). 4. Sandstones (freestones). BASALTS. Basalts, locally called "bluestones," occur of a quality useful for road metal, house blocks, and ordinary rubble masonry. They are found partly underlying and partly overlying the tertiary rocks, interstratified with tufaceous clays and local beds of altered volcanic ash. In the North Island these volcanic rocks are largely developed, and include some of very recent date. True lavas and scorias are of frequent occuiTence in the northern part of the islands. The latter have been quarried by the prisoners at Mount Eden, Auckland ; theu* colour is dark grey, and though absorbent they are very hard and coherent. In the South Island, on the other hand, the igneous rocks appear to be of much earlier date, and to have been nearly all of submarhie origin. They are principally confined to the eastern sea-board, only rarely occmTing at a greater distance than forty miles from the coast. The Halswell quarries, Canterbury, produce an exceedingly hard and close-grained stone of a dull leaden grey colom* ; but its excessive hardness will necessarily limit its usefulness. Diorites. — This stone occurs on the AVest Coast of Otago, *at the Great Barrier Island, and many other localities where it can be quarried. Aphanite occm's as a conglomorate at Dog Island and elsewhere as a breccia. Porplujrites. — These stones are found at Flagstaff Hill, Water of Leith, 'and in the Malvern Hills. Sijeniies occm- at Dog Island, and the Bluff, and at various localities on the West Coast, and in Stewart Island ; but the chief supply now available for industrial pm-poses is at the Bluff, and from the Boulder Bank at Nelson where a beautiful green variety occurs. It is hard, compact, and of a uniformly bluish grey tint of great beauty, consequently it is suitable for kerbuig, paving, and massive masomy, as well as for monumental and architectiiral work. In Isthmus Sound a vein occm's of a imiformly grey tint, but it is rather coarse. TRACHYTES. GRANITES, The group of trachytes contains many varieties both of composition and textm-e, but they all, together with the granites, are distinguished from the first group by containing a large proportion of silica. At Port Chalmers a fine grey stone occm-s. Another kind, a good fi'ee- stone, is obtained at Harboiu- Cove, Otago, and Creightonville, Canterbmy. Granular trachytes are obtained from Governor's Bay, Lyttelton. BUILDING STONES. 49 Tracli}i:e porphjTy is foimd fit Tairoa Head, Moeraki, and Portobello ; and from Port Clialmers a breccia is obtained, Avitli Avbicb the graving dock there is entirety built. All the kerbing in Diuiedin is from the quarries of this stone. Sanadine trach}i:e is fomid at Portobello, Otago Harbour. Phonolite or clinkstone of a columnar character occm's at Bell Hill, and a laminated and spheroidal variety at Blanket Bay. The gaol and some other old buildings of Dunediu are built of a spheroidal clinkstone, which is of a mottled grey colom-, and exceedingly hard and compact. The foundations of buildings in the city are frequently constructed with the same stone, which is eminently suited for the piu-pose. This stone is probably metamorphosed tufaceous sandstone. Gra)dte. — Granite is only found as mountain mass at Preservation and Challvy Inlets, on the western coast of the South Island, but exists in large veins and blocks in Stewart Island, and the whole of the west coast. At the first-named localities the granite is of a pinkish tinge with grey spots, and rather coarse in the grain. The veins and blocks supply a fine-grained, beautifully colom-ed stone, more suitable for architectural and monumental work than the former. At Seal Island a fine grey granite vein occm-s, having a smooth grain. Granite rocks occm- in detached areas in the Westland district, but not in accessible situations, being very difl'erent m that respect to those occurring on the south-west coast, where they admit of being quarried and shipped with great facility. At Astrolabe Island, and Tonga Harbour on the west shore of Blind Bay is probably the easiest place from which granite could be quarried. It is there of fine quahty, and breaks out in masses that renders it suitable for kerbing and harbour works. A variety with garnets is found at Metal Mountain, West Coast, Cn/stalliiie schists. — Gneiss of equally good quality with the granite fi-om the south-west coast is to be found in many other inlets, and on the north shore of Milford Somid there is one point where there is an immense accu- mulation of blocks of a grey variety mottled with crystals of garnet, and of all sizes and shapes, lying as if ready for shipment. Other locahties are " Con- necting Ai'm," and Anchor Harbour. Ldiestokes. MarhJe — The purest form of this series is found in many localities in the South Island ; statuaiy marble occurs among the gneiss and hornblende schists of the west coast, the grain of most samples hitherto found being rather coarse, but closer grained kinds exist in Caswell Soimd, and also in the Momat Ai-thur district of Nelson, Granular or crystalline and sub -crystalline limestones of eveiy shade and colour, texture and hardness, occur plentifully, chiefly in the Middle Island. Extensive masses of the harder compact kinds occur in the carboni- ferous formation. They are generally speaking of a blue colour and uufossi- liferous. One mass or stratum occurs in the slates of the Kakanui range ; it is several hundred feet thick, with an outcrop of five miles in length, and is probably the best in the province of Otago. A great variety of excellent building stones might be obtained fi'om the Horse Kange (Shag Valley side), at Twelve Mile Cieek on Lake ^Vakatipu, Llalvern Hills, Canterbmy, and Hokanui Hills, Southland. In the latter province a very fine kind is obtainable, very slightly colom'cd ; it belongs to the cretaceo-tertiary series. ^ 4 50 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. A wliitc ffranular limestone called the Oainaru Htoue is worked in exten- sive (juai-rics in the Oamaru district ; but it occupies a large tract of the countiy in the north part of Otago and throughout Canterbury, and has a remarkable uniformity of colour and textm-e ; its weight, wet from the quairy, is 105 lbs. per cubicfoot, and when perfectly dry, 92 lbs. A considerable quantity has been exported to Melbourne. The principal buildings of Dunedin are built of this stone, which shows a very fair amount of dm^ability. At Wairoa, Auckland, there is a good hard close-grained stone, light buff colour, mottled with black grains. Earthy Lmestone. Freestone. — A fine limestone of a brown tint occius near Dunedin, at Boat Harbour ; it works fi-eely, seems durable, and is said to exist in large quantities, and to be procurable in moderately- sized blocks ; it has the dis- advantage of not being in an easily accessible situation. A hard, shell}', and white limestone, belonging to a younger formation than the Oamaru stone occurs at Kakanui, and is used in some structures in that locality; it is of a uniform coloiu' and consistency, and easily worked, and procurable in large blocks. The supply is unlimited. Southland possesses a fair stone of this kind. A valuable limestone occiu-s on the Otago Peninsida, near Port Chalmers, in two beds, one dark coloured and the other yellow, the last contains a rather large amount of fine grained sand, yellow and black ; they burn to pretty good quick lime. A good stone for lime occurs in the Isle of Scinde, Napier ; it is fossili- ferous and of upper tertiary age. At Oamaru a compact variety of limestone is largely burnt for lime, but it is found in dislocated and concretionary masses intermixed with quantities of worthless rock, which greatly increases the expense of extraction. It is fossiliferous. A hard very compact grey colom-ed stone of considerable purity occiu's near the Moke Creek copper lodes, and would afford the flux required for reducing the ore. It is fossiliferous and of lower tertiary date. Varieties. Travertine limestone is foimd at Dunstan Gorge, Otago ; it makes very white lime. It has the usual porosity of this kind of stone. Geodic limestone. — This occiu-s at Hampden, Otago, and has numerous sparry cavities lined ^-ith crystalhzed calc spar. Cellular limestone occiu's at Nelson. This kind has numerous angular cells or holes. A limestone breccia occurs at Euatanua. Lithographic limestone. — A lithographic limestone is found at Oamaiii ; it is a very fine grained stone, hard and compact, its fracture is conchoidal. It occurs in concretions in the limestone and not in slabs. The quarry is situated where the lower tertiary strata have undergone alterations by' the extrusion of submarine igneous rocks, probably during their deposition.' An extensive deposit of lithographic hmestone also occurs at the Abbey Eocks, near the Paringa Eiver, Westland, fi-om which locahty large slabs could be obtained. Lithographic limestone is also found in the Chatham Islands. Chalk with black and white Flints is found at Kaikoura Peninsida, and the Northern part of Canterbury, a very pure bed of this material, which is of value for the manufacture of Cement, occurring near Oxford. Building stones. 61 Sandstones. Saudstoues are very plentiful throughout the islands, and are very varied hi hue. The different khids may he classed under the following heads : — a. Shiceous sandstones, in which the cementhag paste is a siliceous infiltration. b. Calcareous sandstone, having carbonate of lime for its cohesive power. c. Ai'gillaceous sandstones, or claystones, in which clay replaces either of the above substances. a. The true siliceous sandstones are foimd at the base of the tertiary and in the upper secondary formations, where they are associated with beds of coal. The province of Otago has an extensive development of this kind oi stone in the Horse Eange, and south of the Molyneux Eiver, and through- out the central districts of the Middle Island, capable of producing the most valuable kinds of building material. Li Otago, Wakatipu Lake, Moeraki, Saddle Hill, Mount Pleasant, Waikawa, and Arden Bay; in Canterbiuy, Governor's Bay; and in Auckland, the Bay of Islands, produce stones of this class. In the North Island, Mungaroa produces a good stone. The Waikato district, and the range of moimtains fi-om Hawke Bay to East Cape, have large tracts where quarries of good stone might be worked. b. Calcareous sandstones. — These are confined to the upper tertiary rocks, and are variable and concretionary. In the South Island, the valley of the Wau-au ; and m the ueighbom-- liood of Dunedin, Waikawa, and Oamaru, yield many varieties of compact hard stone suitable for building. From Caversham, in the vicinity of Dmiedin, a well-known, hard and compact stone is worked, bluish-grey or yellow hi colom* ; its texture is remarkably miiform, but it is not durable. Other places m Otago are Pleasant Eiver, Cornish Mount, Waikouaiti, Wailvawa, Kaikorai Valley, Hawkesbury ; and in Auckland at Motupipi. In the North Island there are much more extensive districts where this stone occm-s, the greater part of the province of "Wellmgton, and also of Hawke Bay, being composed of tertiary strata in which this stone occm-s. c. Ai-gillaceous sandstones or mudstones, claystones. — These, like the last kind, are found only in the upper tertiary beds, and are as variable ; they occur at Saddle Back, Moeraki, Moimt Pleasant, and at Anderson's Bay, Otago. Cement. Natm-al cement stones, or septaria, occur hi the lower part of the Marine tertiary series, and in some cases are quite equal in quality to those which are burnt for the manufactm-e of hydraulic cement in Europe. The cement hitherto used so largely hi New Zealand has been imported, but with the great resources that the colony possesses in the raw material for the manu- factiu-e, this will probably not be long continued. In the following Table, Nos. 1 and 3 are analyses of the whole nodule, while Nos. 2 and 4 are without tlie calcareous veins. Those fi-om Moeraki are very hard and compact, colour mottled grey, specific gravity 2-656, hygroscopic water 60 per cent, at time of analysis. Those from Amuri are similar in character. Septaria used in England and France for manu- facture into Eoman cement are added for the sake of comparison. 62 NEt7 ZEALAND HANDEOUli. Obtained. Now Zealand. England. France. Moeraki. Aiiiiiri. Sheppej'. Boulogne. 1 2 5 4 Carl), of Lime. . 72-4 50-8 G8-6 64-9 69-0 63-9 Carl), of Magnesia •3 — 1-7 1-5 — — Alumina & Iron Oxides 8-7 7-6 6-5 6-4 lOu 12-3 Soluble Silica •8 10 1-0 I 18-0 150 Sand and Clay 17-8 41-6 31-2 31-9 W ater . . •6 — 1-1 1-2 1-3 •6 Materials for Portland Cement. The manufactm-e of Portland cement might be made an important industry in New Zeahmd, excellent chalk and lime and non-ferruginous clay bcmg obtainable. The Italian jjozzuolano might be imitated also, as there are extensive deposits of volcanic tufas occuring in the North and Middle Island. Those volcanic sands Avould require then to he ground up with an admixtm'e of lime, and makmg, when correctly proportioned, an excellent hydi-aulic mortar. Bricks. The materials for brick making are plentifid throughout the colony. The clays are admirably adapted for the manufacture of the best kinds, and when it is properly weathered and tempered by mixing the clay mto a per- fectly homogenous mass, and thoroughly burnt, would equal any of British manufacture. Pottery. The success of the pottery works that have been established at Toko- mairiro, also at Christchurch and other places, has proved the adaptability of the fire and potteiy clays of the colony for the best kinds of fire bricks, drain pipes, chimney pots, tiles, and all kinds of pottery, porcelain, and terra cotta goods. METEOROLOGY. 53 CLIMATE. Meteorological Observations. Meteorological observations have been made ever since the founding ox the colony, though at first they were of an irregular character, and only with the view of comparmg the climate of New Zealand with that of other countries. From 1853, Meteorological reports appear regularly appended to the Registrar-General's statistics ; but it was not until 1859 that system- atic observations were undertaken by a department established by Govern- ment. In that year eleven stations, equipped with carefully compared instruments, were established at Mougonui, Auckland, Napier, New Plymouth, and Welhngton in the North Island ; Nelson, Christchurcla, Dunedin, and Invercargill, and some years later at Hokitika and Bealey in the South Island. At a later date several new stations were established, making in all fifteen stations, fi-om which monthly retiu-ns are sent to the head ofiice in Wellington. From these the following retm-ns are prepared for pubh- cation : — I. A provisional return obtained by telegraph of the results at the chief towns, and which is appended to the monthly report of vital statistics. II. An abstract of the results for each month compared in the averages for the same month in previous years is published in the Gazette and circu- lated in a separate form to all correspondents. These abstracts are intended for the guidance of agriculturists and other persons who require to watch the peculiarities of each season closely. III. Tabular abstracts in the same form that has been followed since 1853, are prepared for the annual volume of statistics. IV. A biennial report on the climate, embodying all the most interest- ing results, is pubhshed in 8vo. pamphlet and lai-gely circulated. In addition to the above, daily telegraphic reports of the weather are obtained at 9 a.m. from 25 stations, and are suspended for public information at aU the shipping ports in the colony. Since 1874 this branch has been placed under the charge of a special signal ofiicer, who issues warnings ox the probable approach of storms to the different seaports. The following tables embody the averages which have been ascertained for the different elements of the climate of New Zealand. Temperature. The climate resembles that of Great Britain, but is more equable, the extremes of daily temperature only varying throughout the year by an aver- age of 20°, whilst London is 7° colder than the North, and 4° colder than the South Island of New Zealand. The mean annual temperature of the North Island is 57°, and of the South Island 52°, that of London and New York being 5]°. The mean annual temperature of the different seasons for the whole colony is, in spring 55°, in summer G3°, in autumn 57°, and in winter 48°. 54 NEW ZKALANH HANDBOOK. COMPABATIVE TEMPERATUEES OF NEW ZEALAND. I. — General Abstract. i.: dO *.2 ol a ffl»a S5| Yearly Means. Mongonui Auckland Taraniiki Napier Wellington Wanganui Kelson Hokitika Bealey* Christchurcli Dunedint Invercargill .. QueenstonJ . North Island 35 1 173 28 10 59-90 53-06 58 28 66-56 61-52 15-12 89-10 31-82 3G 50 174 51 20 59-54 52-34 57 56 66-92 6116 16-02 88-52 33-26 30 4 174 5 14 57-56 50-90 55-94 64-58 58-82 15-66 86-90 30-02 39 29 176 55 10 57-56 49-10 57-74 66-20 57-02 19-26 90-00 3210 41 16 174 47 14 55-58 48-74 54-50 62 24 56-06 14-76 78-44 32 18 ,39 56 175 6 8 55-90 48-71 53-31 63-31 5712 16-70 8600 29-00 South Island. 41 16 173 19 11 54-86 46-58 54-50 62-78 55-76 17-10 82-04 27-32 42 42 170 59 10 52-34 45-50 51-62 5918 53-06 14-76 74-12 28-22 43 2 17131 9 46-76 37-40 46-04 54-86 48-56 18-18 78-08 12-38 42 33 172 39 12 52-88 43-52 53-24 61-52 53-60 18-72 88-16 25-16 45 52 170 31 17 50-72 43-52 50-54 57-20 51-80 15-30 84-74 29-84 46 17 168 20 14 50-36 42-26 51-26 5810 50 00 16-92 83-84 20-12 45 2 165 39 3 51-01 40 01 50-92 6402 52-31 21-25 84-60 23-21 57-28 55-26 56 88 59-90 46 26 5500 54-72 45-90 65-70 63 00 54 90 63-72 61-39 * Height above sea, 2,104 feet. + Height above Bea, 550 feet. I Height above sea, 1,070 feet. II. — Daily Eange of Tempeeatuee. Difference of the Mean Daily Extremes. — Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. April. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Tear. Mongomii 15-48 16-74 15-30 19 08 1818 16-92 15-30 15-66 16-92 16 02 14-58 16-74 16-38 18-90 19-80 20-88 19-80 19-08 16-92 15-30 15-48 16-74 15-84 16-56 18-00 17-82 19-62 21-60 20-16 21-42 19-44 15-84 15-30 14-40 1 16-56 ; 18-00 16-74 18-54 1 18-18 Napier ■U'ellington 18-72 21-60 21-78 17-82 15-12 14-94 13-86 15-30 ! 15-12 18-00 18-18 19 08 1 17-46 13-32 13-50 12-42 12-42 11-70 1116 10-62 10-62 11-52 ! 11-88 12-24 13-50 12-06 20-34 23-40 20-70 21-24 17-10 17-82 19 08 19-08 19-62 1 21-06 21-42 22 14 20-16 Hokitika 11-34 11-16 13-32 12-60 12-78 13'86 14-58 13-68 14-76 ' 15-66 12-24 11-52 1 13-14 Christchurch ... 17-10 18-36 16-56 17-46 17-10 16-38 14-94 16-56 16-02 ; 16-20 18-54 1908 ! 17-10 Dunedin... 16-20 15-66 15-66 15-12 13-68 11-52 10-44 10-62 12-06 1 13-32 13-68 15-30 13-68 Invercargill 22-50 21-78 22-50 22-68 18-00 10-02 17-64 16-92 19-44 1 22-32 21-06 21-06 1 20-16 Cumparison between climate on east and west coasts. The climate on the west coast of both islands is more equable than on the east, the difference between the average summer and winter temperatm-e being nearly 4° greater on the south-east portion of the North Island and 7° on that of the South Island than on the north-west, on which the equatorial winds impuige. This constant wind is the most important featiu-e in the meteorology of New Zealand, and is rendered more striking by comparing the annual fluctuation of temperatiu-e on the opposite sea boards of the South Island, which have a greater range of temperature by 18° at Christ- church on the east than at Hokitika on the west. Rainfall. The observations that have been taken show that the northern part of New Zealand is within the influence of the sub-tropical winter rainfall. The probability of rainfaU in winter in that part of the colony being twice as large as in summer. In the south, however, the rainfall though irregular, is distributed more equally over the year. The chief difference to be observed, is that on the RAINFALL. 55 west coast spring rains prevail and summer rains on the east coast ; while in the middle of the colony the diiest season is autumn, and in the south it is the winter and spring. The contrast between the rainfalls on the east and west coasts, as with the temperature, is most striking. Thus, in the North Island, Napier on the east has only half the amount of rain that falls in Taranaki on the west. But the South Island with its longitudinal ilinge of lofty mountains, exhibits this feature in a still more marked manner, for the rainfall on the west is nearly five times the amount on the east. The excess of precipitation on the coast is clearly illustrated by the distribution of the glaciers on the opposite sides of the range. Those on the west slope have an excessive supply of snow, and descend to a line where the mean annual temperature is 50° Faht., while on the east slope they descend only to the mean annual temperature of 37°. The winter snow line on the southern Alps, on the east side is 3,000 feet, and that on the west side is 3,700. I. — Beyiew of the Proportions of Rain in New Zealand. Stations. North Island. Mongonui . . Auckland . . Taranaki Napier Wellington . . Soutli Island. Nelson Hokitika Bealey Christcburch Dunediu Southland . . Rainfall, Total for Year. Percentage. 23 19 20 35 24 36 24 82 25 29 27 39 15 29 24 27 26 24 28 22 28 31 21 23 23 26 23 17 20 18 23 26 26 Inches. 58-132 47-008 59-442 36004 51-542 61-599 111-653 105-340 25-536 31-682 49-732 Probability of Rain. 0-66 0-61 0-52 0-26 0-51 0-27 0-52 0-53 0-36 0-51 0-47 0-50 0-52 0-51 0-22 0-43 0-25 0-61 0-61 0-33 0-55 0-47 0-33 0-33 0-35 0-24 0-37 0-22 0-57 0-56 0-28 0-58 0-40 0-39 0-41 0-38 0-17 0-40 0-18 0-48 0-47 0-24 0-54 0-49 Year. 0-47 0-47 0-44 0-22 0-43 0-23 0-54 0-54 0-30 0-54 0-46 Mean Max. in 24 Hours, 3-500 3-358 2520 2-610 7-189 3-532 3-512 1-622 2-079 1130 II. — Totals of Monthly Rainfall in Inches. — Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. April. May, June, July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Mongoniii 2-339 .3-209 7-787 1-492 2-882 5-461 8-319 6-598 6-241 5-831 3-701 4-272 3-752 3-409 2-071 3-272 3-150 3-402 4-771 5-721 5-279 4-331 4-331 4 921 3'221 3-908 2-579 3-.520 7-720 5-914 0-299 5-177 5-252 1-201 Kapier Wellington 5-630 3-571 3-650 1-130 1-358 1-532 8-102 3-681 6-870 2-414 1 539 3-999 3-882 4-453 3-780 8-280 4-540 5-212 5-658 4-299 3-941 Nelson 4-319 5 358 8-331 2-063 3-221 5-177 4-441 6-319 6-233 6-319 5-000 4815 Hokitika 12-109 8-902 9-871 6-752 8-Gll 6 870 8-240 9-638 9-130 5-878 13-402 8-733 2-130 2-969 4-520 Bealey 14-087 9-681 8- ( 3-921 7-4,33 8-079 5-019 10-378 7-799 5-811 15-.501 Cliristchiircli 1-6-22 2-8111 2-370 1-7.52 1-811 2-280 3-169 2 449 2-319 Duuedin... 3-012 3-599 2 142 2-220 2-122 3-94!: 2-441 2-500 2-228 2-000| -,i-ouu Southland 3-622 5-279 3-921 3-980 3-571 5-401 5-019 3-441 4 390 2-6611 3-929 The fluctuation in the Annual Eainfall in the principal Stations is shown in the following Table ; — 56 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. >0 "-I O -fi c o ^ rH l-O 10 C5 C CO CO O) 00 CD CI C5 CO t- o (M CO c; ci CO O) C Ol rH O CO r-< CO -HI CO -31 C5 C5 10 1 t> 'tl tH OD CT CC -H CO t^ CO -HI CO rH 00 lb 1 00 r-l ^ 1 ^ 1 C0 + -Tl 1 ^7 C 1 " + o -t< o o o o t^ o -HI CO rH CI in t> 00 I-H O CO 1^ CO o (M -71 CO rH ;o 00 coo C-. (X) Ol o 00 o t> CO CO ip CO rH .0 Ai o «b do 60 rH lb CO CO CI CO CI ^ + UO^ o + CO + CO rH + CO rH C0 + tl r-i + »^ CM o -* o o O lO c C -HI C-. C CO co i-H (M 00 Ol ^ -T' CO Ci rH X t- 00 CO CO 1.0 t^ O Ol C-1 x> C5 CO -11 l^ -rjt CO L^ t- CI CO C5 lb o l"- 1 CO + CO Ol 'HI t^ CI CI do cb Ttl + 6 CO CO rH 1 lO 1 lO + 2 + c, 1 c, 1 >-i t- C5 c -n o o lO -HI lOi -H > CO c!t o Ol CO CO -M CO o t^ 00 CO 'O CI CO C5 rH C5 CO rH O C-l rH C5 CO 00 CO -T< rH 00 rH '^ CO -HI oq lb -HI -HI CO lb CO j_ cq T- ira CO t'-cb -0 Ci O CO a o t- CO -HI rH CO CO C 'HI CD t-i t> 00 O C5 IM CO o i-~ lO t^ 'Jl OC CO CO -71 t^ CO -* lO -7^ r-H O CC CO o c-1 t CI C5 -H rH CO c W t- CI C5 C<1 ip Oi CC CO C5 i 00 (N t- lb c- CO 00 O C- ■^ CO ip l^ CI cq 00 00 CO CO O CO 6 t?- • lb -^ oo cb -H< CO rH cb cj ^^ "-•^ 1 104. 2 + C0 + C0 + ti + t> o ^ O CO rH Oco rH C; -tl 00 r^ o o l-O CO tr!^ 10 CO C5 CO rH OO CO CO C5 OD 10 CO Cl CO CO 00 CO ^- O CQ tH OD 6 tH 6 ^ I>- rH C) t—t U.+ CO + "* 1 C0 + C0 + '*! 1 CD o o O -HI o o rH -HI -HI m CO o o O CO o o 00 -K c- ^ C] CO O CO t- CO O lyi rH CO ip CO -Tl CO cp C) ip GO cH 0000 OTrH CO(M lO TJ1 s ■HrH 0305 00 00 « (M rH 05 rH SO 8-) B M K O W Furniture- Furniture Makers Chair and Washboard Makers Chemicals— Chemical Works Cleaning and Dyeing Textile Fabrics- Woollen Mills Dbers— Boot Manufactories Clothing Factories Oilskin Manufactories Stocking Weaving FiBBous Matebials- Rope, Twine Works Sail Factory Animal Food— Meat Preserving (includ- ed with boiling down)— see Animal Matters Bacon Curing Establishments Fish Curing „ Occupations of the People. The accompanying two tables give the latest information, in a con- densed form, on the subject of the various occupations of the population 68 NEW ZEALAND HANDHoOK, ficconliiig to the last census; tlie first table siviiifr the occupations of ui.ilos, and the second table those of females. t 00 q CO W M s ^ Pu •spuvisi o ao ojrt ^Tjieaooi.-) :oi-iiHiH-*w (M uivqiEqo 3 ■-1 o C-l T--H CO •oat-'JO X ?5 ^d {grHgaJ^ -1\ ^ ^ in 11311EJEX ,-< c^ rH »H TJJ^ t>^ I-: HH •"< >■ X « o E u 5 u w; S; ft- K O O U 5 2° CENSUS. m a5 SO ^ u- •spueisi ■^ iuBmBH3 05 S5 = § g g s M ^ « s^ "? a ?3 ?? •oSejo ?" T -r o -r -• 5 « - O _ ci X =5 90 m •.Onqj3jui;3 -4 'J' "* -* s" ^' 1 in t- ^ ■M C-K -, -*< X •pUB[JS3A\. o" ■s LI __l " g =^ 2S S IS T)l 00'* CO -n c- (M •uospiS[ o" 05* ^ c: -1 eq-M ^ « •i{SnojoqnEi\[ CO ?f ;n -K ^ « O «5 X o n t--f r- Ti c; -M •XBg 3>iAiEH to" to -^ g « E^ -r •U0]SUI1[3^VV if 55 o" m" ^ X -^ O C5 CM C-. •M I.-; X rj ^ 1.-: -M •i>1t;ui3jex -,- ~r _i ^ oo .' fe eor^ loosx S3 « X •puui5(3uy ^. X. ^ ■ •* < ..- -?« lA £M ;3 X L-; t- IS C-- a :* o U r-i ,- CO f u r-i . ment, itera- mates) ies of , rela- g perl ouBes, imals. • a >3 :'^ 2 : of : : © • ■ • a • • •3 -9 C c u -3 C •■r. C 3 a o 1 1 o •3 g c3 O ri o o O S '3 S o gaged in the General or Local Govern fence or protectiou of the country aged in the loarued professions, or in science ^with their mimediate subord „'aged in the domestic offices or dut others, mistresses of families, children t otherwise returned) ,iaged in entertaining and performin ces for man o buy anronK materials rking and dealing in food and drinks .. rking and dealing in animal and veg es rking and dealing in minerals md others (branch of labour undefined proiJcrty and rank (not returned nnd occupation) pn " ■a =3 a - ? = b ? '-o ? S 3 ^ i"c : i? a rsons or tlie rsons ture, rsons wives tives rsons sojial rsous or got rsons ■3 2 5 tr2 there rsons mech kinds rsons and i rsons rsons subst rsons boure rsons oflice rsons occnp a 3 3 a d » a ^ ^ U Ph Ph Pm Pk Pk P^P^ PhiJPh Ph c ■H o -• s g >> t a > B d ^^ S|S ^ - K S ^ > >^ U 70 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK, MAORI POPULATION. Tlie total number of Maoris, and of half castes living as Maoris, was in 1878 estimated at 42,814, the greater part being in the North Island, only a few living in tlie Soutli and its adjacent Islands. The number of the principal tribes is 19 ; of these the Ngatikalnmgunu is the strongest ; the Ngapuhi rank next in point of numbers ; the Waikatos are third ; then the Ngatiporon and the Arawas. Of the IMaoris in the colony, 24,363 were stated to be males, and 20,335 to be females. The sex of 772 was not given. As much difference of opinion has existed as to whether the numerical decline of the ]\[aori race has not been, at any rate in certain districts, arrested, it maybe interesting to compare, so far as they are given, the ages of the Maoris with the ages of the settled and steadily increasing population of England. The numbers and sexes of some of the Maori tribes have been imperfectly given. It is therefore necessary to deal only with those tribes for which full information as to numbers, ages, and sexes is given. This was the case in respect of the numbers belonging to 13 of the principal tribes, amounting in the whole to 31,645, according to an account taken in the year 1874. Of these 6,079 were males under 15, and 5,225 females under 15. Tlie males over 15 amounted to 11,209, and the females over 15 to 9,132. There was a total excess of males over females of 2,931, or to every 100 males there were 83"05 females. In England, in 1871, the males under 15 amounted to 37' 15 per cent, of the whole male population ; the Maori males, of the tribes given, under the age of 15, amounted to 35*16 per cent, of the whole male population of those tribes. The females of similar ages were respectively, in England 35-12 per cent, of the whole female population, and among the Maoris 86-39 per cent. If the numbers of the males and females under 15 be respectively compared, .the following result is shown : — Ppopobtions per cent, to the whole Population. Males under 15 Females under 15 To draw any conclusion from these figures, it would be necessary to have more exact information as to the numbers of the Maoris living at the various higher age periods, but the information has only been given for the periods under and over 15. The existence among the Maoris of a higher proportion of females under 15 (ultimately to become wives and mothers) to the total female population than obtains in England, the numbers under 15 to the total females being respectively 36-39 per cent, among the Maoris, and 35-13 per cent, in England, might at first sight lead to the behef that the dechue in the numbers of the race had been arrested, and that even an increase might be expected. It will, however, be manifest that if there are causes in operation which increase the mortality of the adult Maoris without increasing the mortality of the children, the actual proportion of children to the wiiole population would be thereby much greater, and an appearance of productiveness shown which did not really exist. CENSUS. 71 Do such causes exist ? Does the fact of the partial adoption by the adult Maori of civihsed habits and costume, and the continual reversion to the habits and costume of barbarism, with a system rendered more suscept- ible to external influences, especially those of a humid and changeable climate, tend to promote the spread of disease, notably of tubercular diseases, and consequent mortahty '? Does the spread of drinking habits tend to shorten the life of the adult Maori ? These and other similar questions have an important bearing on the subject. The examination of the numbers of some of the tribes, points rather to the conclusion that some such causes of mortahty among the adults do exist. The Ngatikahungunu show 41-91 per cent, of the males, and 41-21 per cent, of the females as being under 15 years of age. The Earawa show 40-58 pei cent, of the males, and 48-30 per cent, of the females as being under 15. It is hardly conceivable that the women of these tribes should have been so exceedingly prolific, and that, as in the case of the Rawa, nearly one half of the female population should have been under 15, unless a large number of adult women had died before reaching middle age, thei-eby increasing the proportion of younger females by reducing the proportion of the adults. It may be noticed in connection with this subject that in 1871 the Maoris were estimated at 37,502, and in 1867 at 38,540, while in 1874 they were estimated at 45,470, and in 1878 at 42,819. The estimates formerly made were, however, from the then state of feehng in the Maori population, necessarily much more imperfect and unreliable than those recently made. 72 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. GENERAL STATISTICS.-PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. VITAL STATISTICS. The estimated iiopiilatioii of the colony on BOth June, 1879, araonntedto 445,563. These figures do not include tlie ahoiiginal natives, who numbered about 42,819. If that number be added to the rest of the ])opulation, there would thus be given a total of 488,382 inhabitants at that date. Birth Hate. The children born alive and registered in 1878 amounted to 17,770, or at the rate of 41-90 per 1,000 of tlie population. The average birth-rate in England for the ten years 1868-77, was 35-7 per 1,000. As in the English population the females are more numerous than the males, while in New Zealand the males are largely in excess of the females, to compare the birth- rate in the colony with the birth-rate in England, the rate should rather be estimated on a total population of which the males do not exceed the females. Deducting from the population the surplus males, the birth-rate in New Zealand in 1878 would have been at the rate of 46-24 per 1,000 of equal males and females. Illegitimate Births. These births registered in 1877 numbered 851, or 2-1 per cent, of the births registered. This is far lower than the rates in England or Scotland, the rates in the former country being 5-2, and in the latter 8-6, in 1878. Marriage Bate. The marriages in 1878 numbered 3,375, the number of persons married being at the rate of 15-94 per 1,000 of the population. This is somewhat lower than the average rate in England for the decade 1868-77, which was 16*6 Death-rate. The death-rate in 1878 amounted to 10-96 per 1,000 of the popula- lation. The death-rate in England for 1878 was 23-8, the average rate for the ten years ending 1877 being 21-9. The following table shows the number and proportion of births, mar- riages, and deaths, for the last eleven years. An opportimity of comparing the rates in New Zealand with the rates of the Australian colonies is afforded by the diagrams at the end of this book : — Proportion of Births, Marriages, and Deaths to the Population. Decennial Eeturn. — Births, Marriages, and Deaths. Estimated Numerical. Proportion to every 1,000 of Mean Population. Tear. Poijulaticn of New Zealand. Births. Marriages.* Deaths. Births. Marriages.* Deaths. 1868 222,825 9,391 2,085 2,662 4214 9-35 11-94 1869 231,934 9,718 1,931 2,721 41-90 8-32 11-73 1870 242.824 10,277 1,851 2,703 42 32 762 11-13 1871 260,630 10,952 1.864 2,642 40-64 7-15 10-13 1872 273,273 10,795 1,873 3,194 39-50 6-85 11-68 1873 287,252 11,222 2,276 3,64,'') 38 99 7-90 12-66 1874 320,687 12,844 2,828 4,161 4005 881 12-97 1875 358,858 14,438 3,209 5,712 40-23 8-94 15-92 1876 387,465 16,168 3,196 4.904 41-73 8-25 12-66 1877 408,348 16,856 3,114 4,685 41-28 7-62 11-47 1878 423,465 17,770 3,375 4,642 41-96 7-97 10-96 * The number of persons married, and the number married in loroportion to every 1,000 of the population, maybe ascertained by doubling the numbers in these two columns VITAL STATISTICS. 73 Of the deaths in 1878, 2,156, or 43-60 per cent., were of childi-en under five years of age. Sexes of Deceased Persons. Of the deaths, 2,716 were of males, and 1,926 of females, which, upon the estimated mean number of each sex living in the year, gives a rate of mortality among the males of 11-30 per 1,000, and among the females of 10-80 per 1,000. Causes of Death. The following table gives the classification of diseases which have terminated fatally, with the percentage of each class and order of disease, to the total mortality in 1874, 1875, 1876, 1877, and 1878 :— Class I.- -Zy vioTic Diseases. 1874. 1875. 1876. 1877. 1878. Order 1. Miasmatic diseases . . 26-92 26-84 23^43 21^62 18^13 ., ^• Enthetic ,, •14 •28 •23 •34 •34 „ 3. Dietic ,, 1-85 2^05 218 2-54 2-23 „ 4. Parasitic ,, .. •41 •87 •71 •60 ■78 29-32 30-04 Class II. Order 1. Diathetic diseases 2. Tubercular ,, -CONSTITXJTIONAL DISEASES. 2-93 2-38 9-40 9-82 26-55 3-24 9-95 Class V.- Order 1. Accident or negligence ,, 2. Homicide ,, 3. Suicide ,, 4. Execution . . Violent deaths not classed -Violence. 7-31 •07 •48 •02 6-86 •26 -51 •02 -18 8-32 •25 25-10 2-20 10-93 9-63 •30 •68 •04 21^48 3-01 11-04 12-33 12-20 1319 13-13 14 05 Class III.- —Local Diseases. Order 1. Nervous diseases 10-67 9-61 9-40 10-89 IMS „ 2. Circulation, diseases of 4-71 4-83 5-26 5-44 5-96 „ 3. Eespiratorj' organs, diseases of 12-28 12-87 9-99 10-26 10^84 „ 4. Digestive ,, ,, 6^37 621 7-04 6-72 7^70 „ 5. Urinary ,, ,, •99 1-09 1-24 1^45 1-79 ,, 6. Generative ,, ,, •26 •12 •20 •26 •24 „ 7. Locomotive ,, ,, •22 •12 •18 •26 •15 „ 8. Integumentary system ,, •53 •25 •63 •13 •29 36-03 35-10 33-94 35-71 38-15 Class IV.- —Developmental Diseases. Order 1. Children, diseases of . . 4-80 4-76 6-73 5-70 5-49 „ 2. Adults , , 1^47 1-21 1-33 1-45 1-90 „ 3. Old people ,, .. 1-32 1-32 1-49 1-52 2-48 „ 4. Nutrition ,, •• 5-58 6-16 5^63 5-61 5-41 13^17 13-45 15-18 14-28 15-26 9-17 •11 •81 Causes of death not specified 7-88 1-27 7-83 1^38 9-42 1^71 10-65 M3 9 09 •95 The above table shows a considerable decrease, in 1878, in the total number of deaths from zymotic diseases, but an increase in the number from constitutional, local, and developmental diseases. 74 NEW ZKAIiANI) FrANDHOOK. HOSPITALS. Tlicre wero, in 1878, 28 hospitals in the colony, into which 3,300 males and 1,000 Ccmales were admitted as patients diuing the year. The total nmnbcr relieved as out-door patients dming the year was about 17,000 ; 305 males and 75 females died in the hospitals during the same period. There was provision in these hospitals for 788 males and 273 females, or a total of 1,0(31 beds. Tlie aggregate number of cubic feet of space amounted to nearly 1,100,000, or an average of nearly 1,037 cubic feet to each bed. LUNATIC ASYLUMS. There are eight lunatic asylums in the colony, which contained, at the end of the year 1878, 636 males and 313 females, being an increase of 59 male and 25 female patients upon the number at the beginning of the year. Of the above 919 patients, 411 males and 211 females were supposed to be incurable ; 250 males and 131 females were admitted ; 143 males and 88 females were discharged, and 51 males and 17 females died during the year. The asylums in the aggregate afforded accommodation for 925 persons (600 males and 325 females), with an average of nearly 787 cubic feet of space for each patient. The proportion of lunatics to the general population, exclusive of Maoris, on 3rd March, 1878, the day of the last census being taken, was ... 1 to 471 In England, December, 1877, it was 1 ,, 362 Victoria „ „ 1 „ 313 New South Wales „ , 1 „ 362 Tasmania „ ,, . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 ,, 317 IMMIGRATION AND EMIGRATION. Up to the end of the year 1870, the conduct of New Zealand immi- gration was entirely in the hands of the different Provincial Governments. The Public Works and Immigration Act of 1870 provided a sum of £1,000,000, out of the loan then authorised, to be expended upon the intro- duction of immigrants throughout the colony. The very liberal system under which immigration has been conducted, and which allowed residents in the colony to nominate suitable persons for free passages, has been modified for a time owing to the presence of a super- abundance of labor, coupled with the fact that more than the average number of the most desirable class of immigrants — small farmers and others with means — were coming forward, and paying therr own passages to the colony. The immigrants who have arrived in New Zealand, taken as a whole, may be said to be of a superior class. The total arrivals in New Zealand during 1878 amounted to 16,263 persons, of whom 10,671 were males and 5,592 were females. The number of immigrants brought to the colony at the pubHc expense amounted to 6,618 ; the unassisted immigrants numbering 9,645, of whom 2,640 arrived direct fi'om the United Kiiagdom, and 7,005 from the Australian colonies, in- chiding a few from other parts. The following table shows the General Government expenditure on immigration to New Zealand during each year ending 31st December, from the passing of " The Immigration and Public Works Act, 1870," to 1878, inclusive : — Year. Amoiint ExpendecH £ 1871 .. .. 17,081 1872 .. .. 37,911 Year. Amount Expended. £ 1875 .. .. 447,578 1876 .. .. 323,708 1873 .. .. 142,646 1877 .. .. 140,828 1874 .. .. 426,233 | 1878 .. .. 102,190 IMMIGRATION, FINANCE. 75 A further expenditure on immigration was incui'red by the late Pro- vincial Governments between 1871 and 1876, amounting to £74,409. The following is a decennicxl return of immigration, 1869 to 1878, also for 1879. IlIMiaEATlON AND EMIGRATION. TaBLE FOR ELEVEN YeARS. Immigration. Emigration. Excess OF Immigration OVEJ I Emigration. Year. Males. Females. Total. Males. Females. Total. Males. Females. Total. 1869 6,-302 2,601 8,903 4,001 1,261 5,262 2,301 1,340 3,641 1870 6,178 2,946 9,124 4,203 1,344 5,547 1,975 1,602 3,577 1871 7,526 2,557 10,083 4,041 1,256 5,297 3,485 1,.S01 4,786 1872 6,775 3,950 10,725 4,417 1,335 5,7.52 2,358 2,615 1 4,973 1873 7,871 5,701 13,572 3,507 1,254 4,761 4,364 4,447 1 8,811 1874 25,830 18,135 43,9(55 4,367 1,492 5,859 21,463 16,643 1 38,106 1875 19,558 12,179 31,7:J7 4,727 1,740 6,467 14,831 10,439 1 25,270 1876 11,-524 6,890 18,414 4,677 1,782 6,4,59 6,847 5.108 1 11.955 1877 8,104 1,883 12,987 4,696 1,915 6,611 3,408 2,968 i 6,376 1878 10,671 5,592 16,263 4,138 1,623 5,761 6,533 3,969 10,502 1879 15,186 8,771 23,957 3,852 1,382 5,234 11,334 7,389 18,723 Ei)n(/7'aiion. Of the number of persons returned as having left the colony during 1878, amounting to 5,761, 838 went dh-ect to the United Kingdom, 4,316 to the Australian colonies, and 607 to other places. FINANCE. Revenue. The Customs revenue, in 1878, amounted to £1,844,941, against £1,224,906 i]i 1877, being an increase of £120,035, or 9-80 per cent. The following figures show the comparative amounts realized by this branch of tlie revenue dming the years 1866 to 1878, inclusive : — £ £ 1866 . 844,267 be ing an increase of 114,259 or 15-65 1867 . 843,997 ,, a decrease of 270 „ •03 1868 . 788,829 1) 11 11 55,168 „ 6-53 1869 . 823,511 ,, an increase of 34,682 „ 4-39 1870 . 765,930 ,, a decrease of 57,581 „ 6-99 1871 . 731,883 1) >i 11 34,047 „ 4-44 1872 . 813,279 ,, an increase of 81,396 „ 1112 1873 . 965,800 11 11 i> 152,521 „ 18-75 1874 . . 1,188,948 11 i< 11 223,148 „ 2310 1875 . . 1,231,967 11 11 i> 46,019 „ 3-87 1876 . . 1,206,791 ,, a decrease of 28,176 „ 228 1877 . . 1,224,906 ,, an increase of 18,115 „ 1-50 1878 . . 1,344,941 11 11 11 120,035 „ 9-80 1879 . . 1,237,259 ,, a decrease of 107,682 „ 8-00 The total ordinary revenue for the colony in 1878 was as under Ordinary Eeveniie, raised by taxation . . . . . . ifl, 533,393 Territorial ,, not raised by taxation . . . . 2,634,496 £4,167,889 Total revenue Expenditid'e. The ordinary general expenditure, or expenditure chargeable on general revenue, for 1878, was £4,865,275. This does not include special expendi- ture out of loans. Public Debt. The total public debt of the colony on the 31st December, 1878, mounted to £20,930,111 ; the total annual charge upon which was 70 NKW ZICALAND H/VNDnOOK. £1,178,185, part of this sum, namely, £110, 17G, beinj? a payment to the sinkintf fund. The amount of the accrued sinking fund, at tlie same date, was £1,078,127. The estimated mean population for the year 1878, was 423,405. This is inclusive of 4,442 Chinese, but exclusive of 42,819 Maoris. The latter contribute largely to the revenue through the Customs, and many of them are wealthy. For the present purpose, therefore, they may very properly be included in the general total, which thus amounted to 400,284. These data give a total debt of £44 17s, 9d. per head, and an annual charge of £2 10s. Od. per head of population, but the amount of the accrued sinking fund, £1,078,127, in reality reduced the public debt to £19,251,984, and therefore the rate per head is proportionately lessened to £41 5s. 9d. per head. It has, however, been very justly remarked, that the pressure of a public debt on a community is not to be estimated by the simple process of counting heads, but that it is to be more correctly ascertained by inquiry into the earnings and condition of the population. Consideration must also be given to the fact, that a large proportion of the debt of New Zealand exists in the form of reproductive works, ah-eady, in some instances, returning a fair interest on the outlay. ACCUMULATION. Banks. The total average liabiUties of the banks within the colony during 1878 amounted to £10,031,009; the total assets to £15,393,030; the total paid up capital on 31st December, 1878, to £5,130,009 ; the total amount of last dividends, to £348,875 ; and the total amount of reserved profits, at the time of declaring such dividends, to £2,228,800. Savings Banks. The figures given below show the operations of the Post Office Savings Banks for the last three calendar years. The severe depression which ex- sted throughout the Colony durmg 1879 appears to have had comparatively little effect upon this business. A greater amount of money was withdrawn during the year, but the total amount left standing at the credit ol depositors on 31st December is very little less than in 1878, and is greater than in 1877. 1877 1878 1879 Number of Post Office Savings Banks Amount of Deposits „ Withdrawals , at credit of Depositors 138 . . £684,294 . . £667,023 .. £767,375 147 £762,084 £742,053 £819,071 165 £812,399 £876,180 £7^-^7 006 Average amount at credit of each Depositor . . £26 13s. 7d. £25 9s. 9d. £22 13s. Od. The average cost of each Post-office Savings Bank transaction, deposit or withdrawal, in the year 1879 was 5 Jd. ; the average for the whole period of the existence of the Post-offiee Savings Banks in the colony being 7d. The proportion of depositors to the population was 1 to 13 for 1878. The j)ro- portion in the United Kingdom, in 1877, was 1 to 19. On the 31st December, 1878, the total amount standing at credit of depositors in the Post Office Savings Banks amounted to ... £819,071 At the credit of depositors of other Savings Banks ... ... £224,133 £1,043,204 This amount is equal to £2 lis. 7d. per head of the European popu- lation at the same date. These figures are valuable, as giving an indication of the prosperity of the working classes ; but there is a very large amount of savings constantly TRADE. 77 being invested in Building Societies, and as constantly being witlidra-UTi for the purchase or erection of dwellings, of which no oiiicial record exists. In diagram VII., amongst the statistical diagrams, will be found an in- teresting representation of the fluctuations in the rate of sa^iugs in New Zealand, in comparison with the rates of the Australian colonies, during the years 1868-1877, and with the average rate in Europe for the year 1877. TRADE, INDUSTRIES, PRODUCTIONS ETC. IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. The following table exhibits the rapid growth of the import and export trade of New Zealand, from the date of the colony being established to 1878, inclusive ; also for the year 1879 : — Exports, Period. Imports. the Produce of the Colony. £ £ 1841-5, iverage for 4 years . . 139,000 33,000 lSi5-9 ,, 5 ,, . . 193,000 77,000 1853-5 3 ,, .. 766,000 330,000 1856-60 6 , 1,188,000 438,000 1861-5 ,i 5 „ .. 5,352,000 2,718,000 1866-70 ,, 5 ,, .. 5,168,000 4,335,000 1871-5 5 „ .. 6,367,000 5,276,000 1876-7 2 „ .. 6,939,000 5,783,000 1878 8,755,663 6,015,525 1879 8,373,233 5,563,245 The great bound exhibited in the above table, as taking place in the quinquennial period 18G1-5, was caused by the gold discoveries. The first considerable export of this metal occurred in 1861, the value being £752,657, increasing in the folloAving year to £'1,591,389 ; and the year subsequent, 1863, to £2,431,723. A more than corresponding large increase in the imports took place in the same period, due to the great influx of miners and immigrants fi'om all parts of the world. The total import and export trade of the colony for the year 1878, in proportion to population, stood thus : — Imports — per head . . . . £20 13 6^ Exports ,, .. .. 14 4 11 Total .. £34 17 7^ Diagrams V. and VI., in the statistical diagrams at the end, exhibit a comparison between the import and export trade of New Zealand, the Aus- tralian colonies, and the United Kingdom. Trade ivith different Countries. A comparison of the total value of imports in 1877 and 1878, accord- ing to the countries whence they were received, gives the following results :— £ United Kingdom— Increase . . .. 1,217.626 or 27-1 per cent. Australian Colonies ,, . . • • 125,400 „ 4-9 „ United States „ .. .. 131,049 „ 48-0 Other countries „ .. .. 308,160 „ 4-5 The considerable increase of imports h-orn the United States, noted in the above comparison, was due to a large importation from that country into the Canterbury Province, of reaping machines. 16 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. The following is a return, in detail, of imports and exports from and to different countries during the years 1877, and 1878 : — Imports and Exports from and to Different Countries. Return of the Value of the Imports and Exports of the Colony of New Zealand from and to each undermentioned Country, Colony, or Port, during the Years 1877, and 1878, 1877. 1878. Country, Colony, or Port. Imports Exports Imports Exports therefrom. thereto. therefrom. thereto. £ £ £ £ United Kingdom . . 4,115,544 6,321,499 5,533,170 4,727,242 Australia : New South Wales 675,056 216,740 789,739 239,190 Victoria 1,433,865 *584,264 1,443,702 750,390 Queensland . . 3,188 11,938 1,345 11,044 South Australia 70,811 36,793 48,677 51,723 Western Australia 4,949 3,181 50 — Tasmania 100,384 7,945 110,450 20,939 Mauritius 162,699 — 207,210 16,173 Africa, Cape Colony — — 23,723 India (British possessions) . . 35,976 336 131,136 9 C/»'nr/ (British possessions) . . 56,015 39,863 165,453 21,434 Java and Singapore 5,802 — 10,125 6,960 Islands in the Facijic : Caroline Isles — — — 345 Kermadec Isles — 9 — — Sandwich Islands 472 1,371 47 1,422 Navigators ,, 1,242 6,092 3,790 8,002 Fiji 15,001 12,145 13,789 13,511 Society ,, — 6,343 876 2,579 New Caledonia 1,482 8,984 2,323 4,536 Maiden Islands — — — 562 Cook 9,844 8,455 4,314 11,820 Friendly 1,465 21,373 3,020 27,532 Suwarrow 1.945 2,400 — 1,594 Eotumah 605 1,202 1,837 922 Savage 457 — 1,378 273 Solomon 44 989 253 131 Macquarie 382 — — — Norfolk 1,115 4,201 328 3,006 New Hebrides 391 380 — 22 Marshall Islands — 289 1,199 42 Canada 205 719 Gilbert Islands — 540 219 France . . 1,863 — 25,101 — Germany — — 1,321 — Holland . . — — 2,503 — Spain — — 120 — United States of America : . . On the Atlantic 220,235 24,293 373,046 40,78J On the Pacific 49,421 3,565 59,526 3,159 Peru — — 9,476 20,112 Chili .. — 8 — 3,516 Guam — 1,015 — 1,671 Southern Whale Fishery . . 2,960 1,799 9,200 1,112 Total £6,973,418 £6,327,472 £8,755,667 £6,015,700 * rni,:„ 1 J This mcludes gold to the value of £361,260. The following table shows the total quantity and value of the principal articles (the Produce of the Colony) exported in 1877 and 1878 : — 79 1877. 1878. Articles. ■ ' - Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. Pastoral — £ £ Wool 64,481,324 lbs. 3,658,938 59,270,256 lbs. 3,292,807 Tallow . . 92,505 cwt. 156,552 100,375 cwts. 178,502 Hides 20,882 Qumber 18,486 10,203 number 9,571 Sheepskins 245,770 ,, 27,361 184,123 ,, 16,239 Leather . . 2,634i cwt. 24,294 1,825J cwts. 18,344 Mineral — Gold 366,955^ ozs. 1,476,312 311,437^ ozs. 1,244,190 Silver 83,893 ,, 7,556 23,019 ,, 5,755 Coal 2,658i tons. 2,071 6,362 tons 5,139 Agricutural — Flour 960J tons. 14,315 4,031^ ,, 48,441 Bran and Sharps . . 2,444J ,, 12,583 1,079^ ,, 5,760 Wheat 859,795 bushels 204,157 1,701,011 bushels 423,032 Barley 107,675 ,, 23,848 102,476 ,, 24,468 Malt 1,746 ,, 671 5,951 ,, 2,137 Oats 354,694 ,, 47,776 302,776 ,, 59,130 Oatmeal . . 365 tons 6,956 510 tons 11,084 Potatoes , . 4,183^ ,, 14,205 9,370| ,, 36,906 Butter 5, 206 J cwt. 23,458 3,106| cwts. 12,111 Cheese 4,999 ,, 16,713 3,019 ,, 9,368 Bacon and Hams . . 3,286| ,, 11,380 3,786 ,, 13,232 Salt Beef and Pork 2,751^ ,, 4,258 2,794 ,, 4,429 Preserved Meats 18,193^ ,, 53,401 28,187 ,, 74,225 Miscellaneous — Kauri Gum 3,632^ tons. 118,348 3,445J tons 132,975 Phormium (N. Z.Hemp) 1,053^ ,, 18,826 622^ ,, 10,666 Cordage . . 384^ cwt. 806 368^ cwts. 903 Timber (sawn & hewn) 8,222,329 feet. 37,675 4,071,326 feet 33,656 „ (logs) 2,097 number 13,171 847 number 5,168 „ (spars) 10 ,, 55 70 250 Sealskins . . 1,503 ,, 1,652 820 1,245 Wliale Oil (sperm) . . 15,047 gallons. 4,032 17,483 gallons 4,841 MlNEEAI Exports from 1853 to 1878, inclusive. Coal. Copper.* Iron. Chrome Ore. SUver. Gold. ^ _^- 43 -g ji Year. a 3 < ^ 1 I a < ^ ^ C3 > a < I Tone. £ Tons. £ Tons. £ Tons. £ Oz. £ Oz. £ 1853 41 114 170 1,750 18 254 — — — — 1854 — — 302 3,450 9i 137 — — — — 1855 94 266 140i 3,800 H 20 — — — — 1856 — — 514 11,418 65| 520 — — — — . 1857 3 9 35l| 70 — — -" - — 10,297 39,904 1858 2 4 5,000 — — 3 25 — — 18,533 52,443 1859 — — 245 2,605 — — 8 120 - — 7,336 28,427 1860 1 a 137 1,590 — — 116 1,440 — — 4,538 17,585 1861 — 110 1,300 — — 52 520 — — 194,234 752,657 1862 — — 51 1,024 — — 3,483 24,719 — — 410,862 1,. 591 ,389 1863 — — — — — 595 4.318 — — 628,640 2.432,479 1864 — — -- — 105 52 768 4,910 — — 479,914 l.8.",r,,.s:io 1865 — — — — — — — — — — 574,574 2,252,(;,S9 1666 261 400 — — — — 281 1,315 — — 735,376 2,697,412 1867 973 1,228 246 2,700 — — — — — — 686,753 2,724,276 1868 1,027 1,210 84 977 7 80 — — - — 637,474 2,492,793 1869 756 800 7 179 1 3 — — 11,063 2,993 614,281 2,362,995 1870 1,672 1,508 7 120 — — — — 37,123 11,380 544,857 2,163,910 1871 1,695 1,612 — — — — — — 80,272 23,145 730,023 2,78*^,368 1872 990 855 — — — — — — 37,064 9,910 445,370 1,730,992 1873 724 655 — — — — — — 36,187 9,850 505,3.37 1,987,125 1874 1,463 1,363 — — — — — — 40,500 10,380 376,388 1,505,381 1875 3,385 3,129 — — — — — — 29,085 7,500 855,322 1.407,769 1876 1,854 1,954 — — — — — — 12,G8;i 3,171 318,367 1,268,599 1877 2,658 2,071 - — — — — — 33,893 7,550 366,955 1,476,812 1878 6,362 5,139 4 234 — — — — 23,019 5,755 311,440 1,244,192 Approximate return for period prior to ^853, 2,400 tons, £70,000. 80 NEW ZEAI^AND HANDBOOK, Decennial Table. — Value of Principal Articles of Export. Year. Wool. Gold. Produce. Tallow. Kauri Gum. Timber. Ji £ jtf jC £ £ 1869 1,. 37 1,230 2 341,592 142,647 13,935 111,.307 22,338 1870 1,703,914 2,163,910 184,513 75,583 175,074 18.509 1871 1,606,144 2,78S,368 206,333 67,208 167,958 21,079 1872 2,-537,919 1,730,992 371,887 68,788 154,167 26,718 1873 2,702,471 1,987,425 328,875 67,118 85,116 44,039 1874 2,834,695 1,505,331 4.32,924 65,366 79.986 44,450 1875 3,398,155 1,407,770 262,942 55,865 138, .523 40,046 1876 3,395,816 1,268,599 399,374 109,896 109.234 49,847 1877 3,658,938 1,476,312 433,741 156,552 118,348 50,901 1878 3,292,807* 1,244,192 528,109 178,502 132,975 39,074 * Apparent decrease of production is due to the increased manufacture of wooUen goods in the colony, and decreased price of wool in the Em-opeiiu markets. The value of the wool exported during the year 1879 was £3,126,439 ; of gold, £1,13-1,641 ; of agricultural produce, £763,635 ; of tallow, £145,595 ; of Kauri gum, £147,585 ; and of timher, £35,502. SHIPPING. The coufiguratiou of the colony, and the difficulties of traversing a country with feAV roads, early caused a considerable coastal traffic to be developed. In December, 1878, there were 541 vessels on the New Zealand register, having an aggregate tonnage of 46,965 tons. For the year 1878 the total sliippiug inwards was .. 456,490 tons ,, ,, ,, outwards was .. 428,493 ,, Kegular and frequent steam traffic exists between all the principal ports of the North and South Islands, as also, between the colony and the Australian ports of Melbourne and Sydney. The ever increasing require- ments of inter-provincial and inter-colonial traffic have been fully met, chiefly through the exertions and energetic enterprise of a local establish- ment, the Union Steam Shipping Company of NeAV Zealand. Almost daily communication is now maintained between the large centres of popu- lation in the South Island and the Capital ; and by means of new and very powerful steamers belonging to the Company the passage between Welling- ton and Lyttelton, the connecting link, so to speak, between the railway systems of the two islands, is practically reduced to a matter of some twelve or thirteen hours. This is a less time, by about fom- hours, than would be occupied by proceeding overland, supposing the present Canterbury line of railway continued to Picton, and a quick ferry established across Cook Strait between that port and Wellington. There is also monthly communication with San Francisco by a subsi- dized line of mail steamers ; the subsid}^ paid by the New Zealand Govern- ment in 1878 amounting to £32,500. MANUFACTORIES, WORKS, &c. Unstimulated by the questionable aid to be derived from so-called pro- tective duties, the manufactories and industrial works of New Zealand yet exhibit unmistakeable i^rogress ; their total number in 1878, as shown in OEOWN LANDS. 81 detail in the census returns on a previous page, being 942, and in 1874, 657 ; an increase of nearly a third. This increase is composed almost wholly of an extension in the number of industries dependent on the natural resources of the country, or incidental to a rapidly increasing population, and would seem to indicate a hardy and natural growth. Thus fellmongery, tanning, and currying establishments increased fi-om 71 to 100 ; boiling- down and meat-preserving works, from 10 to 32 ; saw mills, from 162 to 204 ; brick, tile, and pottery works, from 84 to 124 ; iron foundries, from 22 to 29 ; carriage works, from 19 to 49 ; and ship and boat building yards, from 20 to 43. The increase in the number of woollen mills from 2 in 1874 to 3 in 1878, is small, but the increased quantity of goods manufactured is really much larger than the small increase in the number of estabhshments would appear to indicate, and from occupying an almost experimental position the woollen manufactures have grown into a sm*e and flourishing industry. The number of manufactories devoted to articles of clothing increased from 7 in 1874 to 23 in 1878. CROWN LANDS. Prior to the abohtion of Provincial Government, the control and management of the crown lands in each province, was vested in the res- pective Provincial Governments, and the laws and regulations relating thereto were very various. In 1877, a general land act applicable to the whole colony was passed, entitled " The Land Act, 1877." Under this Act the supreme administration of all crown lands was vested in the Minister of Lands ; the colony being divided into ten land districts, each having a Crown Lands Commissioner, one or more Eeceivers of Land Eevenue, and a Board of Commissioners. Land not sold by auction, may, by special proclama- tion of the Governor, remain open for selection, at the upset price, on a system of deferred payments, extending over a period often years. Although the Act ap- plies generally to the whole colony, the Commissioners have authority to modify some of its provisions so as to meet certain exceptional cases, as for example in the Canterbury district, where the price of rm-al land has uivariably been £2 per acre, that price is named as the minimum price for that district. Again in some places where the land is of exceptionally poor quahty, the Commissioners have power to proportionately lower the minimum price. "The Land Act, 1877, Amendment Act, 1879," which came into operation on 1st January, 1880, contains some important pro\dsions, not the least being the repeafment of " The Crown Lands' Sale Act, 1877." It may be useful to give here a brief description of the leading clauses of the new Act affecting the disposal of crown lands. Clauses 4-6 give power to the Governor to declare residence optional on bush land taken up on deferred payments ; also to fix the price at which any allotments of rural or suburban land, open for sale on deferred payment, may be disposed of, the price, however, being not less, iu any case, than Twenty shillings per acre for Rural land, and Ninety shillings „ Suburban land, and may increase the price of any allotments which he may consider to be of special value. Clause 6 provides that several smaU sections, contiguous to one another, may be grouped into one allotment. 6 82 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. Clauses 17-19 contain provisions whereby two or more selectors of land on deferred payment may hold an allotment as tenants in common. The following important clauses of the Act, relating to Village and Special Settlements, are given in full. VILLAGE SETTLEMENTS. 20. The Governor, by proclamation in the Gazette, may from time to time set apart oiit of any Crown lands, such blocks or allotments of land contiguous to any hne of railway or main lines of road, as he shall think fit, and declare the same open for sale as Village settlements ; and he may from time to time alter, amend, or revoke any such Proclamation. 21. The Governor in Council may fix the terms and conditions upon which the lands comprised in any Village settlement shall be disposed of, and the mode of payment for the same, subject to the rules following : (1.) Every village settlement shall be surveyed, and divided into village allotments not exceeding one acre each, and small farm allot- ments not exceeding fifty acres each ; or, if the Governor so direct, a village settlement may be divided into village allotments only, or into small farm allotments only. (2.) The Governor may fix a day on w^hich any allotments within a village settlement shall be open for application, and may appoint that any such allotments shall be sold for cash immediately on purchase, or on deferred payments subject to the conditions of the said Act ["Land Act, 1877."] (3.) The price of village allotments shall be not less than Five pounds per allotment, and of small farm allotments not less than One pound per acre : Provided, that in the case of inland districts not opened ixp by railway communication, it shall be law^fnl to the Governor to proclaim a district a special district for the opening of blocks of land as village settlements, and from time to time to alter, amend, or revoke such proclamation ; and, in the case of village settlements included within the boundaries of any such special district, the price of village allotments shall be not less than Two pounds Ten shillings per allotment, and of small farm allotments not less than Ten shillings per acre. (4.) All applications for land in village settlements shall be made in the same manner as other applications for land are directed to be made under the said Act. (5.) If more persons than one apply for the same allotment on the same day, the right to occupy the allotment shall be determined by lot amongst the apphcants in respect of small farm allot- ments ; but, in respect to village allotments, the same shall be disposed of by public auction amongst the applicants at an upset price of not less than Five pounds for each allotment. 22. The Governor may grant a lease of any allotment within a Village settleuient for any term not exceeding ten years, subject to such rent and conditions as he shall think fit, and may grant in any such lease a condition that the lessee may, at any time during the currency of such lease, purchase the laud in such lease, at a sum to be stated in such lease, not being less than Thu-ty shillings per acre in any case. 23. Notwithstanding anythmg contained in " The Pubhc Eeserves Sale Act, 1878,'' it shall be lawful for the Governor to set apart, out of the lands described in the Fh-st Schedule of the Act named, any area or areas not exceeding in the w^hole five thousand acres, and dispose of the same as viUage settlements under the foregoing provisions of this Act. CROWN LANDS. 83 SPECIAL SETTLEMENTS. 24. The Governor, by Proclamation in the Gazette, may from time to time set apart, out of any rural lands, such blocks of land as he shall think fit, and declare the same open for special settlement ; and he may from time to time alter, amend, or revoke any such Proclamation : Provided that the total amount of land set apart as special settleraents, in the colony, shall not exceed one hundi'ed thousand acres in one year. 25. The Governor in Council may fix the terms and conditions upon ■which tlie lands in any special settlement shall be disposed of, and the mode of payment for the same, but subject in every case to the following rules, that is to say : — (1.) Land in a special settlement shall be sold at a price to be fixed by competent valuation, not beiug less than One pound per acre. (2.) Not less than one-tenth of the price of the whole block of land, selected for a special settlement, shall be paid by the person or persons selecting the same within three months after the deposit of the survey plan of the external boimdaries of the block with the Chief Surveyor of the district wherein the block is situate. (3.) Occupation and permanent improvement of the land to a certain proportion of its area, to be defined by regulations, shall be a condition necessary to be performed before the issue of a Crown grant for any such land. (4.) Neither the whole nor any part of any block of land, set aside as a special settlement, shall continue so set aside for a period of more than five years from the date of the Proclamation whereby the same shall be set aside ; but every contract made with respect to any such block or any part thereof, whilst the same remains so set aside, shall be performed notwithstanding that the block has ceased to be so set aside. (5.) All lands within any special settlement block which, at the ex- piration of five years from the same being set aside, shall not be taken up on the conditions of such settlement, may be declared by the Governor in Council to be open to all purchasers as ordinary Crown lands, fi'om and after a day to be fixed in such order. Croivn Lands Said during year rndiinj June 30, 1879. The total area of Crown lands sold during the year ending June 30, 1879, was as under: — Acres. Purchases. Cash received. Scrip. Town Lands .. 404 to 1,138 ) Siiburban „ .. 2,585 „ 191 - £745,827 £19,864 Emal „ ..386,673 „ 3,243 J Total Land Sold or otherwise disposed of. The total area of Crown land sold, or otherwise disposed of, from the first return in 1856 to 30th June, 1879, amounted to 14,014,632 acres, of which total 11,672,651 acres were sold for cash, realiziug the sum of £11,210,412. Remaining on hand. The following tabular statement shows the area of Cro'\^^l land remaining on hand on 30th June, 1879. This does not include land for the acquisition of which the Government is negotiating with the natives, or the large area 84 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. of land iu permanent possession of the natives ; neither does it include the large reserves made for various public purposes : — Locality. Open for Selection, 30th June, 1879. Remaining at disposal of Land Boards, exclusive of Native Lands. Total. North Island. Auckland . . Hawke Bay Taranaki . . Wellington Acres. 15,417 33,800 5,139 22,244 Acres. 2,370,744 284,883 1,337,623 1,125,977 Acres. 76,600 5,119,227 5,195,827 South Island. Nelson Marlborough Canterbury Westlaud . . Otago Southland 5,847,004 1,096,593 4,458,6.53 246,145 206,978 1,551,701 1,056,547 840,000 2,657,709 10,928,915 218,487 13,407,074 15,701,649 29,108,723 The total number of acres of Crown lauds held for depasturing purposes, June 30, 1879, was 12,253,876 acres, in the hands of 918 holders, the rents and assessments of which amounted to £111,000. LAND TRANSFER. The Land Transfer Act, modelled upon the famous system intro- duced by Su" Robert Torrens in South Australia, has now been in opera- tion in New Zealand for some years, and the simple and inexpensive means which it offers for dealing with landed property and mortgages have been freely and extensively taken advantage of, as is indicated by the figures in the followuig returns : — Retubn by the Registrae-Geneeal of Land for the Yeae ending 30th June, 1879. Number. Value. Applications for Registration . . Transfers . . Crown Grants — Acres. Town and Suburban 4,424 . . Country .. .. 489,603 .. J" Mortgages . . 1,167 8,027 3,134 5,094 £ 992,260 2,644,485 3,948,546 The fees paid to the Government on the above-mentioned transactions amounted to £19,805, being £16,810 for general fees and £2,995 for land assurance, equivalent to an average of £1 2s. 9d. ou each transaction. PUBLIC WOKKS. 85 Titles Guaranteed. The sum mentioned of £2,995 for land assurance represents a charge of one half-penny in the pound on the value of land brought under the opera- tion of the Act, in consideration of which the Government guarantees the titles. No claim, however, has yet arisen upon the assurance fund thus formed. Mortgaf/es. The following return shows the mortgage transactions under the Land Transfer Act for the year ending 30th June, 1879 : — Total Amount secured Total amoimt remain- by Mortgage under the Total amount of Mort- ing secured by Mort- District. Land Transfer Acts, gage paid off during gage imder the Land diu-iug year ending same period. Transfer Acts, 30th June, 1879. 30th June, ia79. Auckland . . £ 200,712 £ 85,328 £ 496,760 Otago 591,258 186,516 2,036,770 Canterbury 1,866,652 627,691 4,386,411 Wellington 506,459 164,940 1,121,628 Nelson 65,854 39,459 188,258 Southland . . 442,243 188,107 352,564 Hawke Bay 184,482 22,756 853,383 Westlaud . . 20,865 4,781 51,813 Taranaki , . 47,112 12,061 84,216 Marlborough 22,905 10,787 79,281 Totals.. £3,948,546 £1,342,478 £9,651,089 Year 1877-78 . . £3,329,579 £1,224,495 •• PUBLIC WORKS. Any account of New Zealand's progress that failed to make special mention of the extraordinary changes wrought by what is commonly known as the " Immigration and Public Works " policy, would indeed be in- complete. The rugged character of the country generally, and the natural difficul- ties appertaining to many of the sites upon which the chief towns were built, very early necessitated a large outlay on roads and public works. This necessity was fully recognized, and, to some extent met, by most of the Provincial Governments, who have justly received great credit for their far- seeing and liberal exertions in that direction. A great deal of road-making, often of a very costly character, was accomplished ; harbour, and other im- provements begmi, and immigration handsomely encouraged. Something was also done in the way of the making of railways, notably in Canterbury, where a line, unusually difficult and expensive in construction, involving some heavy tunnelling, was successfully undertaken and carried through by the Provincial Government, in order to provide easy means of communica- tion between Christchurch and the Port of Lyttelton. Some advance to- Avards the construction of a main trunk line had also been made in the same Province. In Otago, also, the City of Dunedin had been connected A\-ith Port Chalmers by a railway, constructed under the guarantee of the Otago 86 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. Provincial Govevnmont, and some miles of railway had been made in Southland. Bnt the work to be done in the Colony generally was too vast to be grappled by the un-united exertions of a few local governments. It was therefore proposed that the General Government should take in hand the ex- ecution of all public works of a colonial character, upon an extensive and well- defined system, and that a loan of ten millions be raised to provide funds for tliat purpose. The objects sought to be accomplished were defined to be : — I. Systematic Immigration on a large scale. II. Construction of a Main Trunk Railway throughout each Island. III. Construction of Roads through the interior of the North Island. IV. The purchase of Native Land in the North Island. V. The Supply of Water on Gold Fields. VI. The extension of Telegraph Works. In accordance Avith the plan thus laid down, The Immigration and Public Works Act, 1870, was passed by the Legislatm^e, and many, who were greatly alarmed when the scheme was first propounded to the country by Mr. (now. Sir Juliixs) Vogel, and thought it wild and extravagant, have since admitted that the step taken was as mse as it was bold. A con- siderable extent of country has been opened up and settled by a large and thriving population in a surprisingly short space of time. As facilities were offered for the conveyance of the products of agri- culture, the value of land, of course, greatly increased, not its nominal value merely, but its actual value. Hundreds of thousands of acres, worth, before the advent of railways, from £1 to £3 an acre, were afterwards sold at prices ranging from £10 to £20 per acre, and, for the most part, bought by experienced farmers, who had made then- money in the colony, and kncAV the real capability and value of the land so purchased. It may, also, be said, that in addition to the enormous rej)roductive indirect results of the Public Works Pohcy, the outlay incurred, at least in the case of the railways con- structed, is likely to prove a capital investment, and so be directly reproduc- tive, many of the principal lines already yielding a fair interest on the money expended in their construction. The total amount expended on Public Works by the General Govern- ment, from the date of the Immigration and Public Works Act of 1870, and similar subsequent Acts, and under theu- authority, up to 31st December, 1878, is as under : — On Railways .. .. .. .. .. £7,638,135 „ Eoads and bridges .. * .. .. .. 976,083 „ Water Eaces on Gold Fields . . . . . . 465,626 ,, Public Buildings and Improvements .. .. 449,676 „ Telegraphs . . . . . . . . . . 328,220 Land Purchases Immigration Lighthouses Coal Mines Miscellaneous Works Total 705,039 1,782,520 81,240 10,835 215.395 £12,652,739 PUBLIC WORKS, 87 ROADS. A great deal of road making has been doue in New Zealand. The district roads are undertaken by the various Eoad boards. The total number of these boards in 1877 was 320, and their expenditure in the same year amounted to a total of £387,534, the whole being expended on pubhc works, less the sum of £21,706 for expenses of administration. Much road maldng has also been done by the General Government, especially in the North Island. During the period extending fi-om June, 1869, to June, 1879, the General Government expenditure in this department amounted to the sum of £975,552, the roads constructed being about 3,000 miles. RAIL^WAYS. Soon after the passing of the Immigration and PubUc Works Act in 1870, the construction of Railways on a large and systematic scale was com- menced, and has proceeded vigorously since that time. The total length of lines open for traffic on the 30th June, 1879, was 1,14:0 miles ; and there were under construction 142 miles. The total amount of money expended in the construction of railways up to the date of 30th June, 1879, was £8,057,188. The followmg table gives a vieAV of tlie progress made in railway con- fitruction between the years 1870 and 1878. The small railway lines constructed by the late Provincial Governments prior to the Abolition of Provinces Act, are included in the total mileage constructed, but the cost of their construction and maintenance with the amounts received for traflic up to the time that the Act came into operation, are not taken hito account in this table. The length of Hues thus taken over amounted to about 70 miles. Construction. Maintenance. Eeceipts. Number of Miles. Year. Constructed. Under Con struction . £ £ £ 1870 467 1871 108,106 1872 292,851 1873 830,945 145 434 1874 1,564,576 6,800 8,650 209 621 1875 1,780,674 38,142 21,198 624 464 1876 1,432,191 72,073 83,049 718 427 1877 756,047 359,865 470,796 1,052 251 1878 696,100 458,208 670,187 1,090 142 Diagram No. VIII. exhibits the comparative progress made in railway construction by New Zealand and Australian colonies during the vears 1868-79. Bailuay Receipts and Expenditure. It will be seen by the official return below, which gives a very clear account of the working of the railways for twelve months ending 30th June, 1879, that the revenue for that period exceeded the expenditure by £212,618, the ratio of the latter to the former being 71 '95 per cent. At the same time the receipts per mile averaged £666 15s. 8d., and the expenditm-e £473 9s. 8d, 88 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. P^ 0) OS ■^S: h5 00 6D^ «r >^ a B 3 TSh-s "rd ^ -« sa CO O hn H > a -JS <" o ^'S H.y •4H ID ffl OfL, 2; TS t»3 M .y^ o CD » k ^ ^ Hi Ph §5 a® eg" re O 0 i-H IM U5 CO IM fS-^lMOOUii-HOiOOOO i»t-00»C«£>OOOtr-COOO I— I iH tH 1—1 I-H 1—1 (Mt-COi-li-II>-e<10THO eoOit-OOC-OuioOTHI:^ ^> /^v -vM »/^ — ^ I (^T rr^ f,-^ I -Jhi « p 00 O 1-1 IM CO 05 00 O p, ^ -^ 3 ;z; ^ ^ iz; O ^ g'Sb P I -d O ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. The telegraph system is eutu-ely m the hands of the Goverument. The difficulties to be overcome before telegraphic commimicatiou Avas generally established were of an unusual character, the counti-y being to a large extent rugged and wild, while the islands being divided by Cook Strait, ren- dered it necesssary to undertake the laying of a telegraph cable to connect them. The work, however, was pushed forward with great vigour. By July, 1873, 2,356 miles of hne had been completed, carrying 4,574 miles of TELEGRAPH, POST OFFICE. 80 wii'e, at a cost (inclusive of the submarine cable) of £224,580. The number of miles of line now open is 3,434 ; of -vvii-e, 8,035. TeJegraph Business. The following figures show the telegraph business done during the years ending 31st December, 1878, and 31st December, 1879 : — Number of Messages Cash received Value of Govt. Messages 1878. 1,356,863 £78,468 £22,605 1879. 1,412,087 £76,440 £28,802 According to the report of the Commissioner of Telegraphs, the re- ceipts of the department for the financial year ending 30th June, 1879, in- cluding credit taken for the value of Government messages, show a balance over working expenses of £15,527, equal to 3-73 per cent, on the capital invested. Telegraph Charges. The large telegraph business indicated by the foregoing figures is doubt- less due, in no small degree, to the introduction of a uniform and low scale of charges. For the first four years, a mileage rate was charged of from 2d. to 6d. per word. In 1869 this was altered to a uniform rate of 2s. 6d. for the first ten words, and 6d. for every additional five words. In 1870 the charge was reduced to Is. for the first ten words, and 6d. for each additional five words ; and in 1873 the charge was yet further reduced, any additional words over the first ten being rated at one penny for each word. More recently a still further reduction has been made for a certain class of mes- sages classed under the somewhat awkward term of "delayed telegrams." POST OFFICE. The difiiculty of communication, naturally incidental to a new and wild country like New Zealand, has been weU met and mastered by an energetic and able postal organization, aided also by a veiy efficient telegraph system. In both services the policy has been to charge low rates, so as to give the pubhc the greatest facilities for inter-communication. The following figures taken from the last report of the Postmaster- general, will afford an indication of the extent to which these advantages have been made use of by the people. Statistics for Year 1878. The total number of letters, newspapers, post cards, and book packets received during the year for delivery in New Zealand, may be seen in the following table : — Wliere from. Letters. Newspapers. Post Cardfl. Book Packets. United Kingdom Australian Colonies Other places From places within the Colony 445,703 296,771 52,609 7,440,979 1,267,479 422,106 66,095 3,342,227 116,674 126,784 37,658 7,618 333,234 Totals 8,236,062 5,097,907 116,674 505.294 Compared with the returns of the previous year, the letters increased 18-92 per cent., post cards 107*83 per cent., book packets 23-84 per cent., and newspapers 16-66 per cent. 90 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. The average number of letters posted in proportion to the estimated population was 10-85 to each person ; the average in 1877 being 14-51. The increase of post cards, since their introduction in 1877, is very marked. There were 814 post-offices open on the 31st December, 1878, 64 new oflfices having been opened during tlie year and 9 closed. In the transaction of money order business, 101,017 orders were issued during the year for £368,254 ; an increase on the previous year of 10,345 orders, and .£33,281. The money orders issued in New Zealand for payment in the United Kingdom and the Australian colonies were 30,486 in number for £117,393, and 4,788 orders for £20,532 were issued in those coixntries for payment in New Zealand. There was accordingly a balance of upwards of £96,000 remitted out of the colony by means of money orders. The telegraph was used dm-ing the year for the transmission of 13,228 orders amounting to £54,807. The total revenue of the Post office for the year Avas £129,906 showing an increase of £15,715 on the year previous. Taking into account the siun of £56,176 for official postage, the gross earnings of the department for the year amounted to £186,082, being £43,374 in excess of the expenditure. The total weight of the free correspondence forwai-ded through the several post offices, exceeded 122 tons. The total revenue for the year 1879 was £141,448 ; the number of money orders issued 118,099, value £428,673 ; and the number of money orders paid, 88,791, value £319,200. Postage Rates. The charge for postage of letters, is, within towns, one penny per half ounce or fraction thereof, and double that rate for delivery in any part of the colony ; the twopenny rate also franks letters to any part of Australia. Penny stamped post cards are also issued deliverable anywhere in New Zealand. The postage for book packets is at the rate of one penny for every two ounces, and the same scale applies to parcels coming within the category of the pattern and sample post. The limit of weight allowed for the Inland pattern and sample post, is twenty-four ounces, and for the book post, five pounds ; and a packet by book post must not exceed two feet in length, or one foot in width or depth. The postage rate on newspapers is one half- penny within the colony, and double that sum for delivery in Australia and England. GOVERNMENT LIFE ASSURANCE. An Act was passed in 1869 empowering the Government to grant life assurances and annuities on the security of the colonial revenue, and the business was actuallj^ commenced in March, 1870. As may be seen by the statement below, fi-om very small beginnings the business steadily in- creased ; the total number of policies issued up to 30th June, 1879, being 12,869, representing an aggregate insm-ance amounting to £4,529,011. It may be useful in this manual to notice the principal advantages offered to Policy-holders by the Goverumrnt Insurance Department of New Zealand, which is the first British colony that has, by special legislation, and exceptional attractions, stimulated the growth of those self-dependent and provident habits, that lie at the root of the Life Assurance system. These advantages may be briefly stated as follows : — 1. The Inviolable Security offered to the assured, the payment of every policy being guaranteed by the colony under a special Act of Parliament. LIFE ASSUEAXCE, EDUCATION. 91 2. The Division of Profits, the whole of which are by law to be di%-ided amongst Policy-holders only — who thereby enjoy the advantages possessed by members of mutual companies, in addition to that of having the security of the colony for the payment of claims. The first quinquennial investigation shoAved a profit of over £12,000 ; the next investigation takes place on 30th June, 1880, and the sm-plus will then be divided. 3. The low scale of Premiums comes next in order. The Premiums are as low as the usual non-participating rates, and they entitle Policy-holders to a full share in the profits. 4. The Regulations affecting Pohcy-holders are framed in a very liberal spirit, and compare favom-ably with those of other institutions. Under these, policies contain no restrictive conditions as to voyaging, trade, or occupation. A Policy- holder may travel in any part of the world, or engage in any occupation. Admission of age is indorsed on policies when issued, if a certificate of bh-th or the best evidence available is produced. Pohcies are kept in force as long as the Sunender Value is sufiicient to pay the premium in arrear and interest, and may be revived within twelve months after the Surrender Value is exhausted, on proof of unimpau'ed health, and payment of arrears. Policy-holders can borrow ninety per cent, of the Surrender Value of their policies. Policies are indisputable and uuchallangeable after five years' duration, if age has been admitted. The subjoined tabular statement will show the remarkable and steady growth of the business of the Department : — Comparative Eetuex of Policies Issued. Financial Vear. Number of Policies. Sum Assured. 1870 53 27,800 1870—71 409 178,674 1871—72 1,355 456,225 1872—73 1,161 429,450 1873—74 1,499 506,910 1874—75 1,450 498,715 1875—76 1,485 504,509 1876—77 1,409 563,928 1877—78 1,991 680,600 1878—79 2,057 682,200 12,869 £4,529,011 EDUCATION. STATE SCHOOLS, PRIVATE SCHOOLS. The total number of common schools receiving Government aid, and under the control of Education Boards, was, in December, 1878, 748, having a total of 1^611 teachers, and with the names of 65,040 pupils on the books ; the daily average attendance numbering 50,039. There were also at the principal centres of population superior schools, most of which have been endowed, directly or indirectly, with lands and money out of the public estate. The number of private schools from which returns were received amounted, in December. 1877, to 252, the number of teachers being 568, viz., 162 males, and 406 females. 02 NKW ZKALANT) IIANDHOOK. The public schools are free, and the instruction imparted in them is secular; the cost being defrayed by an annual parhamentary vote. For 1878 the expenditure was £306,079, of which £90,491 was for buildings. The average expenditure for each scholar in attendance was £6 3s. 9d., of which £1 17s. 6|d. was for buildings. Some of the secondary schools, and the two collegiate institutions in Otago and Canterbury, are affiliated to the Uni- versity, which is an examining body, having power to confer degrees, and to grant scholarships, and which is maintained by an annual grant from the consolidated revenue. NATIVE SCHOOLS. The number of schools established for the education of the Maori race amounted, during 1877, to 56. The number of pupils amounted to 1,088 males and 711 females, an increase, as compared with the previous year, of 94 males and 135 females. The number of instructors was 103, of Avhom 55 were males and 48 were females ; of these four males and three females were of the Native race. The grants by the Government during 1877 on account of these schools amounted to £10,740. Thirty-six European schools also received subsidies from the Govern- ment for the support of Maori pupils. 436 Maoris — viz., 231 males and 205 females, attended these schools, an increase on the previous year of 71 males and 85 females. The total number of Maori children thus receiving education in 1877 amounted to 2,235. CONSTABULARY, VOLUNTEERS, FIRE BRIGADES. CONSTABULARY. The total strength of the Armed Constabulary on the 31st December, 1878, amouted to 840 men of all ranks, distributed over 213 posts. There were 38 officers, 142 non-commissioned officers and 660 rank and file. As the total strength of the force in December, 1876, amounted to 610 of all ranks, there is an apparent increase in the strength of the force since that date of 214 men. This increase is attributed to the fact that in the abolition of the provincial system of goverment, the police of the colony, formerly under the provincial control, were taken over by the General Government and sworn in as members of the Armed Constabulary. They are drilled as such, and are therefore available for actual service in the field in any part of the colony, theii- general duties, however, being of an ordinary police character. The number of the force thus occupied in police duties amounted in 1878 to 457, leaving 867 of all ranks retained at posts to perf rm duties of a military character. VOLUNTEERS. The various branches of the Volunteer Force in December, 1878, gave a total strength of 8,076 officers and men belonging to 123 corps. The total of each branch of the service were as follows : — strength, 601 427 406 3,597 523 2,222 FIRE BRIGADES. In 1878 there were 27 Fii-e Brigades in the colony, having a total strength of 94 officers and 681 men. Corps, Cavalry . . 9 Artillery . . 10 Engineers 5 Rifles 54 Naval 5 Cadets 40 APPENDIX. 93 APPENDIX. DESCRIPTIVE LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL FOREST TREES OF NEW ZEALAND. Order Coniferas. Genus Dammara (L'Heritier). Dammar a aus traits (Lambert). Kauri. — The kauri is the finest forest tree in New Zealand, and attains a height from 120-160 feet. The trunk is sometimes 80-100 feet high before branching, and attains a diameter at the base of 10 to 20 feet. The timber is in high reimte for masts and spars, deck and other planking of vessels, and is largely used for house finishings. There is abundant evidence of its durability for more than 60 years in some of the old mission buildings at the Bay of Islands, the buried logs of an ancient Kauri forest near Papa Kura Avere excavated and found to be in perfectly sound condition, and were used for sleepers on the Auckland and Waikato Eailway. On the Thames goldfield it is used for mine props, struts and cap pieces. It forms the bulk of the timber exported from New Zealand. Some of the largest and soundest kauri timber has richly mottled shading, which appears to be an abnormal growth, due to the bark being entangled in the ligneous growth, causing shaded parts, broad and narrow, according as the timber is cut relative to their planes. This makes a rich and valuable furniture wood, and in the mai-ket is known as " mottled kauri." The kauri pine occurs only in the North Island, and north of Mercury Bay, and grows best near the sea, on wet clay land. The kauri forests are largely composed of other trees, as well as their characteristic tree. The turpentine of this tree forms the celebrated kauri gum, which is extensively excavated from the sites of old forests as far south as Taranaki. In 1871 there were exported 5,053 tons, valued at £167,958 ; in 1875 2,230 tons, valued at £138,528 ; and in 1877, 3632 tons, valued at £118,348. Genus Libocedrus (Endl.) Libocedrus doniana (Endl.) Kawaka, Cypress, Cedar. — This noble tree attains a height of fromj60-100 feet, and 3-5 feet diameter. Wood reddish, fine grained and heavy, used by the Maoris for carving, and said to be excellent for planks and s]5ars ; grows in the North Island, being abundant in the forests near the Bay of Islands and North of Auckland. Libocedrus bidwillii (Hook.) Pahautea, Cedar. — A handsome conical tree 60-80 feet high, 2-3 feet in diameter. In Otago, it produces a dark red free-working timber, ratlier brittle, chiefly adapted for inside work. Found on the central ranges of the North Island, and common throughout the forests of the South Island, growing at altitudes of from 500 to 4,000 feet. This timber has been used for sleepers on the Otago railways of late years, is largely emplo^-ed in tliat district for fencing purposes, and is frequently mistaken for totara. In former years it was believed to be suitable only for inside work. 94 NEW ZEAXiAND HANDBOOK. Genus Podocarpus (L'Heritier). Podocarpus ferriujinca (Don.) Miro, called Bastard Black Pine in Otago. — Alarge ornamental and useful timber tree, attains a height from 40-60 feet, trunk 2-3 feet in diameter. A useful wood, but not so durable as the matai or true black pine wood ; reddish close grained and brittle; the cioss section of the timber shows the heart wood star-shaped and irregular. The timber is generally thought to be un- fitted for piles and marine works, except when only partially exposed to the influence of sea water, as shown in the railway embankment at the Bluff Harbour, where it is reported to have been durable. Grows in the North and Middle Island, and in Otago, at altitudes below 1,000 feet. Podocarpus totara (A. Cunn.) Totara.— A lofty and spreading tree 60 to 120 feet high, 4-10 feet in dia- meter. Wood very durable and clean-grained, in appearance Hke cedar, and works with equal freedom ; it is adapted for every kind of carpenters' work. It is used extensively in Wellington for house building and piles for marine wharves and bridges, and railway sleepers, and is one of the most valu- able timbers known. The wood, when felled during the growing season, resists for a longer time the attacks of teredo worms ; it splits freely and is durable as fencing and shingles. Totara post and rail fences are expected to last from 40 to 50 years. The Maoris made their largest canoes from this tree, and the pahsading of their pas was constructed almost entii'ely of this wood. Grows throughout the North and Middle Islands upon both flat and hilly ground ; the timber from trees grown on hills is found to be the most durable. Podocarpus spicata (Br.) Matai or Mai. — Black pine of Otago. A large tree 80 feet high, trunk from 2-4 feet in diameter. Wood yellowish, close grained and durable ; used for a variety of purposes — piles for bridges, wharves, and jetties, bed-plates for machinery, millwrights' work, flooring, house-blocks, railway-sleepers, and fencing. Bridges in various parts of the colony afford proof of its durability. Mr. Buchanan has described a log of matai that he found had been exposed for at least 200 years in a dense damp bush in North-east Valley, Dunedin, as proved by its being enfolded by the roots of three large trees of Grisehna littoralis, 3 feet 6 inches in diameter, with over 300 growth rings. Grows in both North and South Islands at altitudes under 1,500 feet. Podocarpus dacrydoides (A. Eich.) Kahikatea. — Wliite pine. A very fine tree 100-15^0 feet high, trunk 4 feet in diameter. Timber white and tough, soft, and well adapted for indoor work, but will not bear exposure. Abundant throughout the Northern and Middle Islands ; when grown on dry soil it is good for the planks of small boats, but when from swamps it is almost useless. A variety of this tree, known as yellow pine, is largely sawn in Nelson, and considered to be a dm-able building timber. Genus, Dacrydium. Dacrydium cupressinum (Soland.) Rimu. — Red pine. Tree, Pyiimidal, with Aveeping branches, when young, trunk 80 feet to 130 feet high, and 2-6 feet in diameter. APPENDIX. 95 An ornameutal and useful timber ; wood red, clear grained, heavy, and solid, much used for joisting and planking, and general building purposes, from Wellington southward. Its chief drawback is in being liable to decay under the influence of wet. It is largely used in the manufacture of furni- ture, the old wood being handsomely marked like rosewood, but of a lighter brown hue. The juice of this pine is agreeable to drink, and was mauufactured into spruce beer by Captain Cook. Grows throughout the Northern and Southern Islands, but is of best quahty in the South. Dacrijdium colensoi (Hook.) Monoao. — Yellow pine. A very ornamental tree from 20 to 80 feet high. Wood light yellow. It is the most durable and strongest timber in New Zealand. Posts of this wood have been in use among the Maoris for several hundred years. Grows in Northern and Southern Islands up to 4,000 feet altitudes. This tree is curious from having two kinds of leaves on the same branches. It is greatly valued for furniture. Genus, Phyllocladus. PlujUocladns trichowaiwidcs (Don.) Tanekaha. — Celery leaved pine. A slender, handsome tree, 60 feet high, trunk rarely exceeds 3 feet in diameter ; wood pale, close gramed, and excellent for planks and spars ; resists decay m moist positions in a remark- able manner. Grows in the North Island, especially in the hilly districts. PlryUodadus Alpinus (Hook.) Toa toa. — A small ornamental and densely branched tree, sometimes 2 feet in diameter. Bark used for dj'eing and making tar. Found ui both North and Middle Islands. Order, Cupuliferfe. Genus, Fagus (Linn.) Fagus Menziesii (Hook.) Towai. — Eed birch (from the colour of the bark). A handsome tree, 80 to 100 feet high, trunk 2-3 feet in diameter. The timber is chiefly used in the lake district of the South Island. Durable and adapted for mast- makmg and oars, and for cabinet and coopers' work. Grows in the North Island on the mountain-tops, but abundant in the South Island at all altitudes to 3,000 feet. Fagus fasca (Hook.) Tawhai, or Tawhai-rau-nui. — Black birch of Auckland and Otago (from colour of bark). Eed birch of Wellington and Nelson (from colour of timber). This is a noble tree from 60-90 feet high, the trunk 5-8 feet in diameter. The timber is excessively tough and hard to cut. It is highly valued in Nelson and Wellington as being both strong and durable in all situations. It is found from Kaitaia in the North Island to Otago in the South Island, but often locally absent from extensive districts, and grows at all heights up to 3,000 feet altitude. Fagus solandri (Hook.) White birch of Nelson and Otago (from colour of bark). Black-heart birch of Wellington. A lofty, beautiful evergreen tree 100 feet high, trimk 96 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. 4-5 feet iu diameter. The heart timber is darker than that oiFagus fusca, and is very durable. This wood is well adapted for fencing and bridge piles, and the bark is useful as a tanning material. _ ^ This tree occurs only iu the southern part of the North Island, but is abundant in the South Island from 3-5,000 feet. Order, Myrtacse. — Genus, Leptospermum (Forst.) Leptospermum scopariuvi (Forst.) Kaikatoa. — Tea-tree of Cook. It is ornamental, and useful for fuel and fencing ; generally a small scrub, but occasionally 20 feet in height in the south. Abundant throughout the islands. Leptospermum erecoides (A. Eich.) Manuka. — A smaU tree 10-80 feet high, highly ornamental, more especially when young. The timber can be had 28-30 feet long, and 14 inches in diameter at the butt, and 10 inches at the small end. The wood is hard and dark coloured, largely used at present for fuel and fencing, axe-handles and sheaves of blocks, and formerly by the natives for spears and paddles. The old timber, from its dark-coloured markings, might be used with advantage in cabinet work, and its great durabihty might recommend it for many other purposes. Highly valued in Otago for jetty and wharf piles, as it resists the marine worm better than any other timber found in the dis- trict. It is extensively used for house piles. The lightest coloured wood, called " white manuka," is considered the toughest, and forms an excellent substitute for the "hornbeam" in the cogs of large sjDur wheels. It is abundant as a scrub, and is found usually on the poorer soils, but is rare as a tree in large tracts to the exclusion of other trees. Genus, Metrosideros (Br.) Metrosideros lucida (Menzies). Eata. — Ironwood. A very ornamental tree ; attains a height from 30-60 feet, and a diameter of from 2-10 feet. The timber of this tree forms a valuable cabinet wood ; it is of a dark red colour ; splits freely. It has been much used for knees and timbers in shipbuilding, and would probably answer well for cogs of spur wheels. Grows rarely in the North Island, but is abundant in the South Island, especially on the west coast. Metrosideros robusta (A. Cunn.) Eata. — A tall erect tree 50-60 feet high, diameter of trunk 4 feet, but the descending roots often form a hollow stem 12 feet in diameter. Timber closely resembles the last-named species, and is equally dense and durable, while it can be obtained of much larger dimensions. It is used for ship- building, but for this purpose is inferior to the pohutukawa. On the tram- ways of the Thames it has been used for sleepers, which are perfectly sound after five years' use. Grows in the North Island ; usually found in hilly situations from Cape Colville southwards. Metrosideros tomentosa (A. Cunn.) Pohutukawa. — This tree has numerous massive arms ; its height is from 30-60 feet ; trunk 2-4 feet in diameter. APPENDIX. 97 The timber is specially adapted for the purposes of the shipbuilder, and has usually formed the framework of the uumerou.s vessels built in the northern provinces. Grows on rocky coasts, and is almost confined to the province of Auckland. Order, Meliacese. Genus, Dysoxylum (Blum.) Dysoxylum spectahUe (Hook.) Kohekohe. — A large forest tree 40-50 feet high. Leaves are bitter, and used to make a stomachic infusion ; wood tough, but si)hts freely, and is considered durable r* . piles under sea water. Grows in the North Island. Genus, Eugenia. Exirjenia maire (A. Cunn.) Mairetawhake. — A small tree about 40 feet high ; trunk 1-2 feet in diameter. Timber compact, heavy, and durable. Used for mooring-posts and jetty-piles on the Waikato, where it has stood well for seven years. It is highly valued for fencing. Common in swampy land in the North Island. Order, Onagrariese. Genus, Fuchsia (Linn.) Fuchsia excorticata (Linn.) Kotukutuku. The fruit is called Konini. — A small and ornamental tree 10-30 feet high ; trunk sometimes 3 feet in diameter. It appears to furnish a durable timber. House blocks of this which have been in use in Dunedin for more than 20 years are still sound and good. The wood might be used as dye stufl', if rasped up and bled in the usual way, and by mixing iron as a mordant, shades of purple may be produced even to a dense black, that makes good writing ink. The juice is astringent and agreeable, and yields a medicinal extract. Its fruit is pleasant, and forms a principal food of the wood pigeon. Grows throughout the islands. Order, Arahacs. Genus, Panax (Linn.) Panax crassafolium (Dem. and Plach.) Horoeka, Ivy Tree. — An ornamental slender and sparingly branched tree. It has a singularly graceful appearance in the young state, having long refiexed leaves. The wood is close grained and tough. Common in forests throughout the islands. Order, CornejB. Genus, Griselinia (Forst.) Griselinia littoraUs (Kaoul.) Puka, Broadleaf. — An erect and thickly branched bush trees 50-60 feet high ; trunk, 3-10 feet in diameter. Wood sphts freely, and is valuable for fencing and in shipbuilding ; some portions make handsome veneers. Grows chiefly in the South Island and near the coasts. Order, Composita?. Genus, Olearia (Mjench.) Olearia avicennicpfoUa (Hook.) Mingimingi. Yellowwood. — An ornamental shrub tree, flowers numer- ous, trunk 2 feet in diameter. Wood close grained, with yellow markings, which render it desirable for cabinet work ; wood good for veneers. Occm-s in South Island. 7 98 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. Olran'a nitida. An ornamental shrub tree, 20 feet high and 2 feet in diameter. Wood close grained, with yellow markings ; useful for cabinet work. Found in the mountainous region of the North Island and throughout the South Island. Olearia Cunnincjhamii. An ornamental shrub tree, 12-20 feet high, with very showy flowers. Fovtnd abundantly on west coast of South Island, and not uncommon in North Island. Order, Ericeoe. Genus, Dracophyllum (Lab.) DracophyUum lonriifoUum (Br.) Neinei. — An ornamental shrub tree with long grassy leaves. Wood is white, marked Avith satin-hke specks, and is adapted for cabinet work. Grows in South Island and in Lord Auckland's group andCampbeU's Island; none of the South Island specimens are as large in the foliage as those in Auck- land Islands. The tree m the vicinity of Dunedin attains a diameter of 10 to 12 inches. Order, Verbenaceffi. Genus, Vitex. Vitex littoralis (A. Cunn.) Puriri. — A large tree, 50-GO feet high, trunk 20 feet in girth. Wood hard, dark olive brown, much used ; said to be indestructible under all con- ditions. Grows in the northern parts of the North Island only. Order, Laurineje. Genus, Nesodaphne (Hook.) Xesodaphne tarairi (Hook.) Tarairi. — A lofty forest tree, 60-80 feet high, with stout branches. Wood white, splits fi'eely, but not much valued. Grows in northern parts of North Island. Nesodaphne taica (Hook.) Tawa. — A lofty forest tree, 60-70 feet high, with slender branches. The wood is light and soft, and is miicli used for making butter kegs. Grows in the northern parts of the South Island, and also on the North Island, chiefly on low alluvial grounds ; is commonly found forming large forests in river flats. ^ Order, Momiacse. Genus, Atherosperma (Lab.) Atherosperma novcB-zealandia (Hook.) Pukatea.— Height, 150 feet, with buttressed trunk 3-7 feet in diameter ; the buttresses 15 feet thick at the base ; wood soft and yellowish, used for small boat planks. A variety of this tree has dark coloured wood that is very lasting in water, and greatly prized by the natives for making canoes. Grows in the North Island, and northern parts of the Middle Island. Genus, Hedycarya (Forst.) Hedycari/a dentata (Forst.) Kaiwhuia. — A small evergreen tree 20-30 feet high ; the wood is finely marked and suitable for veneering. Grows in the North and South Island as far south as Alvaroa. APPENDIX. 99 Order, Proteaceae. Genus, Knightia (Br.) Knightia excelsa (Br.) Eewarewa. — A lofty slender tree 100 feet high. Wood handsome, mot- tled red and brown, used for fm-nitm-e and shingles, and for fencing, as it splits easily. It is a most valuable veneering wood. Common in the forests of the Northern Island, growing upon the hills in both rich and poor soils. Order, Magnoliaceie. Genus, Drimys. Drimys axillaris (Forst.) Horopito. — Pepper tree of colonists, and Winter's Bark. A small slender evergreen tree, very handsome. Whole plant aromatic and stimu- lant, used by the Maoris for various diseases. Wood very ornamental in cabinet work, making handsome veneers. Grows abundantly in forests throughout the islands. At altitudes of 1,000 feet the foliage becomes dense and reddish coloured. Drimys color ata (Eaoul.) This is a very distinct species, very common near Dunedin; it is a very ornamental shrub-tree, with leaves blotched with red. Order, Violariefe. Genus, Melicytus (Forst.) Melicytus ramiftorus (Forst.) Mahoe, pr Hinahina. — A small tree 20-30 feet high, trunk often angular, and 7 feet in girth. The wood is soft and not in use. Abundant throughout the Islands as far south as Otago, leaves greedily eaten by cattle. Order, Malvaceaa. Genus, Hoheria (A. Cunn.) Hoheria poj^uhiea (A. Cunn.) Houhere. — Eibbon wood of Dunedin. An ornamental shrub-tree 10-30 feet high. Bark fibrous and used for cordage, and affords a demulcent drink. Wood splits fi-eely for shingles, but is not durable. Grows abund- antly throughout the islands. Bark used for maldng a tapa cloth by the Natives in olden times. Order, Tiliaceffi. Genus, Aristotelia. Aristotelia racemosa (Hook.) Mako. — A small handsome tree 6-20 feet high, quick growing, with large racemes of reddish nodding flowers. Wood very light, and white in colour, and might be applied to the same purposes as the lime tree in Britain ; it makes good veneers. Genus, Elasocarpus (Linn.) FA(Eocarj)us dentatus (Vahl.) Hinau. — A small tree, about 60 feet high, and 18 inches thick in stem, with brown bark which yields a permanent blue-black dye, used by the Maoris for colouring mats and baskets, and is used for tanning. Wood a yellowish brown colour and close grained, very durable for fencing and piles. Common throughout the islands. 100 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. Order, Olacinese. Genus, Pennantia (Forst.) Pennantia corymhosa (Forst.) Kaikomako. — A small, very graceM tree, with white sweet smelling flowers ; height 20-30 feet. Wood used hy the Natives for kindling fires by friction. Grows on the mountains of the Northern Island, and more abundantly throughout the Middle Island. Order, Ehamnse. Genus, Discaria (Hook.) Discaria toumatou (Eaoul.) Tumatakiiru. — " Wild Irishman " of settlers. A bush or small tree with spreading branches ; if properly trained would form a handsome hedge that would be stronger than white thorn. The spines were used by the Natives for tattooing. Order, Sapindacefe. Genus, Dodonaea (Linn.) Dodonma viscosa (Forst.) Ake. — A small tree 6-12 feet high. Wood very hard, variegated black and white, used for Native clubs, abundant in dry woods and forests. Genus, Alectryon (Gartner.) Alectryon excelsinn (D.C.) Titoki. — A beautiful tree with large panicles of reddish flowers. Trunk 15-20 feet high, and 12-20 inches in diameter. Wood has similar properties to ash, and is used for similar purposes. Its toughjiess makes it valuable for wheels, coach building, &c., the oil of the seeds was used for anointing the person. Grows in the North and Middle Island, not uncom- mon in forests. Order, Coriarise. Genus, Coriaria (Linn.) Coriaria ruscifolia (Linn.) Tupakihi. — Tree tutu. A perennial shrub 10-18 feet high, trunk 6-8 inches in diameter. The so-called berries (fleshy petals) vary very much in succulence, the less juicy bearing seeds which, according to Colenso, are not poisonous. The juice is purple, and affords a grateful beverage to the natives ; and a wine, like elderberry wine, has been made from them. The seeds and leaves contain a poisonous alkaloid, and produce convulsions, delhium, and death, and are sometimes fatal to cattle and sheep. Abundant throughout the islands. Order, Leguminosae. Genus, Sophora (Linn.) SopJwra tetraptera (Alton). Kowhai, — A small or middling-sized tree. It has a splendid appear- ance, with large pendulous yellow flowers. Wood red; valuable for fencing, being highly durable ; it is also adapted for cabinet work. It is used for piles in bridges, wharves, etc. Abundant throughout the islands. Order, Saxifrages. Genus, Carpodetus (Forst.) Garpodetus serratus (Forst.) Tawiri. — White mapau, or white bu'ch (of Auckland). A small tree 10-30 feet high ; trunk unusually slender ; branches spreading in a fan- APPENDIX. 101 shaped manner, which makes it of very ornamental appearance ; flower- white, profusely produced. The wood is soft and tough, and might be used in the manufacture of handles for agricultural implements and axe handles. Grows in the Northern and Southern Islands ; frequent by the banks of rivers. Genus, Weinmannia (Linn.) Weinmannia racemosa (Forst.) Towhai ; Kamahi. — A large tree ; trunk 2-4 feet in diameter, and 50 feet high. Wood close-grained and heavy, but rather brittle ; might be used for plane-making and other joiners' tools, block cutting for paper and calico printing, besides various kinds of turnery and wood engraving. The bark of this tree is largely used for tanning. The extract of the bark is chemically allied to the gum kino of commerce, theii' value being about equal. Grows in the middle and southern parts of the Northern Island and throughout the Southern Island. Order, Eubiaeae. Genus, Coprosma (Forst.) Coprosma linariifolia (Hook.) Karamu. — An ornamental shrub tree ; wood close-grained and yellow ; might be used for turnery. Grows in mountain locahties of the North and South Island. Several other species of this genus grow to a considerable size, and have ornamental timber. It has been proposed to use the berries of some species as a substitute for coffee. Order, Jasmineaa. Genus, Olea (Linn.) Olea cunninghamii (Hook., fil.) Black Maire. — 40-50 feet high, 3-4 feet in diameter; timber close- grained, heavy, and very durable. Much of this very valuable timber is at present destroyed in clearing the land. Order Santalacese. Genus, Santalum (Linn.) Santahim cunninghamii (Hook., fil.) ' White Maire.— A small tree 10-15 feet high, 6-8 inches in diameter ; wood hard, close-grained, heavy. Used by the natives in the manufacture of war implements. Has been used as a substitute for box by wood engravers. 102 NEW ZK ALAND HANDBOOK. MINERAL WATERS. PRINCIPAL MINERAL SPRINGS. New Zealand is singularly rich in springs of water that hold Mineral Salts in solution, and some of these are already noted for their valuable medicinal properties. Both hot and cold springs are found, the former being with few excep- tions confined to the districts of the North Island where volcanic forces have been active during the latest tertiary period, and are not yet altogether dormant. A few thermal springs are found to escape from the Upper Mesozoic rocks, in localities where the source of heat can only be attributed to chemical decomposition of bituminous matters and sulphides, and in a few instances, warm waters spring from Palaeozoic rock formations in the South Island. The cold mineral springs have a wider distribution, but have only, as yet, been examined from comparatively few locahties. The mineral waters of New Zealand may be classified, from the analysis that have been made in the Colonial Laboratory, into the following groups : — Saline. — Containing chiefly chloride of sodium. Alkaline. — Containing carbonates and bicarbonates of soda and potash. Alkaline Sh.iceous. — Waters containing much silicic acid, but chang- ing rapidly on exposure to the atmosphere, and becoming alkaline. Hepatic or Sulphurous. — Waters, the prominent character of whiclj is he presence of Sulphurreted hydrogen and Sulphurous acid. Acidic Waters. — In which there is an excess of Mineral acids, such as Hydrochloric and Sulphm'ic acid. The foUowiug is a list of the best known Mineral Springs, full details concerning which are to be found in the Official Laboratory Eeports, ' ' Trans- actions of the New Zealand Institute," and other similar publications : — MINEBAL WATERS. loa .9 .a a a a J s s t^ P3 25 '^ 3 CO 00 O S !^ fl O 2 pa 2toga:gj2g3-3 a cc CQ Ph PQQ OrHOO t> 00 i?1 rH oi o i a> CO c^ c; CO o O ^ t» rt rH CO o o o ^ § o o "o "o J,->iO'73 ^ rt tD *^ -^ *? --I a !>. O .3 - a> ^ R ^ to awatDo 'TjiD o « .S = = :: ::a2 .S ^ .gca lU .0^ =1 = - "§1 I a' .a ^ a^^ ! g ^ .C .O O 3 o3 <1 ^ ._a 1 1:' -< ij«db5i>li5rWcbrHC5CT)( a-i ^'-^o'^o'^'^.-irHo.-i'-l'ofic; o 6 '=^ g '-' =J ^ ^ S o o - ;:; t- ^ T ;q PQ Tl qT S. g ^ a >> C3 ^ - 'hJ p, r^ O CQ a n3 a S < a '3 eS 3 -3 'x 1— ( >- itelsla Plenty k Tcir ^, -a ra a O^ p:^ ^ s iH N CO -* lO o « M g; 2 c3 •-' * P* 32 - 3 Q "a "S I o o a ^ i' mo; 104 NKW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. 1. Ohacawai, Auckland. A group of springs used as baths, 17 miles from Bay of Islands, the waters of which are acidic, depositing sulphur and alum on cooling. Silica is only deposited as a granular sediment. These springs are chiefly interesting from their being accompanied by an escape of mercurial vapour which deposits cinnabar and metallic mercury. Their medicinal action is tonic and chalybeate, and having a specific alterative action in skin diseases. -Grains in one Gallon. a.ssA±ixai Protoxide of iron ." iNa in yjn Cj VJAiJljUi> 2-23 Lime . . 5-97 Magnesia 1-15 Silica 3-10 Sulphuric acid . . . 13-60 Hydrochloric acid . 66-91 Sulphuretted hydrogen . traces Fixed alkahes . . • . 41-66 Ammonia traces Organic matter . . . 134-62 2. Waiwera, on the coast, 30 miles north of Auckland. A powerful escape of weakly alkaline and saline water, extensively used as baths in rheumatic and dyspeptic complaints ; used internally it has also a mild antihthic action. This spring is largely resorted to, and most comfortable accommodation is provided for visitors. Analysis. — Gbains in one Gallon. Chloride of sodium . . . . . . . . . . 116-715 ,, ,, potassium . . . . . . . . -091 „ ,, lithium . . . . . . . . . . traces Iodide of magnesium . . . . . . . . . . traces Sulphate of soda . . . . . . . . . . -383 Bi-carbonate of soda . . . . . . . . . . 87-513 „ lime .. .. .. .. .. 10-692 ,, „ magnesia .. .. .. .. -954 ,, iron .. .. .. ,. .. -683 Alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . traces Silica .. .. .. .. ., .. 2-464 219-495 3. Puriri, about 10 miles from Grahamstown. A cold effervescent water, having valuable properties from the presence of a large percentage of alkaline carbonates. It is bottled both as still and aerated water, and is coming into repute as an antihthic aperient, and would probably be useful in cases of acid dyspepsia and in disorders of the kidney and bladder. In chemical properties it approaches very closely to Fachingen & Ems' waters, of Nassau in Germany. AnaIiYsis. — Grains in one Gallon. Chloride of sodium 21-938 Iodide of magnesium . . Sulphate of soda ,, ,, potash Carbonate of iron Bi-carbonate of lime . . traces -940 4-938 traces 28-506 ,, ,, magnesia ,, ,, soda .. ,1 ,, lithia . . Silica Phosphoric acid not 25-625 . 452-393 traces 2-772 determiued 537-112 4-5. White Island. A conical island in the Bay of Plenty formed by the summit of an extinct volcanic mountain rising out of deep water, The jnNEBAL WATERS. 105 crater is occupied by a lake of strong mineral water which is fed by inter- mittent geysers and boiling springs which suiTOund it. All these waters are intensely acid, and deposit sulphate of lime, while the accompanjdng vapours form extensive deposits of pure sulphur. These waters are too powerful to be used medicmally in their natural state, but might be turned to valuable account in certain chemical manufactures. Analysis (No. 4). — Graixs in one Gallon. Sulphate of iron . . ,, ,, soda . . ,, ,, potash „ „ lime . . ,, ,, magnesia ,, ,, alumina Sesquichloride of alumium Siliceous matters Hydrochloric acid, free Analysis (No. 5).- Sulphate of lime . . ,, ,, soda.. ,, ,, magnesia ,, ,, potash ,, ,, protoxide of iron ,, ,, alumina ,, ,, ammonia Silicic acid, free . . Sulphurous acid . . Phosphoric acid . . Sulphuric acid, free Hydrochloric acid, free -Grains in one Gallon. 1163-980 680-325 297-124 251-682 66-312 87-668 1870-085 23-628 10409-589 14850-393 115-933 9-240 29-120 traces 23-573 traces traces 9-013 traces traces 11-933 9-706 208-518 6-20. Ai-e associated geogi'aphically as all coming from the famous Kotorua and Rotomahana districts. They however present considerable variety in quality, and may be classed as follows : — 6-11. Alkaline and Siliceous waters. These differ from the ordin- ary alkaline waters in the presence of silicic instead of carbonic acid as the combining agent. They are remarkable from their building extensive mounds and terraces composed of silica deposited by the coohng water and involving as it solidifies a certain amount of granular silica which is held in mechanical suspension ; in this manner the wonderful wliite and pink terraces of Rotomahana, and the domes of Whakarewarewa, have been formed. When used as baths they have an undoubted alterative action, and are especially useful in rheumatic affections, especially m gouty consti- tutions ; this is probably due to the specific action of silicates in promoting the discharge of uric acid from the system, as has lately been pointed out by French chemists. 12. This water, which is reported to possess valuable curative pro- perties in rheumatic affections, has an intermediate character, and is allied to the first group owing to the small amount of salines and the presence of alkaline silicates in moderate quantity, but it differs from that group in its deficiency of sulphates, and in being harsh to the feel, 13-20. Acidic Waters. In the case of these waters the carbonates have been wholly eliminated, and the alkaline salts are formed by a mineral acid, either sulphuric or hydrochloric. In some cases, such as 13 and 14, and 17 to 20, the acid is greatly in excess, forming a bath which has a powerful action upon the liver and upon diseases dependent on the derangement of that im- portant organ. In numbers 16, 18, and 19, the presence of sulphurous and hydro-sulphuric acid gives these baths great efficacy in cutaneous diseases, lOG NKW ZEALAND HAN]>!iOOK, s H CD H H O I O 00 t- tr- ^acoai O COO g U3 05CO odo ■ 2 ffa ■ (N r-t j3 CO o 1 •86 101 18^02 OS iH 16-09 34-37 2-96 59-16 3-33 O rH cp p . o rH 00 iH CD iH t~ CO -H t< O CO -* . CO CO ' tH Ol iH 18^17 26-75 traces 2-45 1-86 •76 '•63 00 CO . . >b • • O 9 CO lO iH lO ^ 00 CO >H OS us tH lO CO CO Ol 05 iH . . . do i■^ ' ■ iri th CO * " • to . lOC^OSlOO . .-^ . .C• OS ' CO c^ : to • O • '1 ■ : : : 00 00 16-32 1-61 1-14 -39 13-47 53-61 1-24 in • a ■ . cS . 00 00 t- 00 Sp ip .CO 'P 'P • aJrH*' *t- 050]* CO CO ; CO 11 . o • . cS . CO c8 Si '5 -_tl rH CD iH CD in 1— 1 CD >o lO> • OSrH .OSO . .OS . .ICO . •tHjH •cbrH • 'O • "COrH ' -* rH OS . >p . to ai Cl . . . cS . . . Si H o CO H !5 H O >q ■< H C ... Silicates of Soda ,, ,, Lime ,, ,, Magnesia ,, ,, Iron Silica Sulphate of Soda ,, ,, Potash ,, ,, Alumina ,, ,, Lime ,, „ Magnesia ,, ,, Iron Chloride of Sodium ,, ,, Potassium ,, ,, Calcium ,, ,, Magnesium ,, ,, Iron Phosphate of Alumina Phosphoric Acid Litliia Iron Oxides Hydrochloric Acid, free Sulphuretted Hydrogen Sulphuric Acid, free jVUNEEAIi WATERS. 107 21-32. These waters are all from the neighbourhood of Taupo Lake, and are characterized by having iodine present as a usual constituent, an important element, which is wanting in almost all the waters pre\dously referred to. In general character they are sahne and faintly acid, and are suitable for internal and external use, as alteratives, in scorbutic and tubercular diseases, also in chronic nervous aftections and cutaneous erupt- tions. This is especially the case in numbers 31 and 32 ; the composition of these is given in more detail on account of their importance. Number 31 is similar to the cold spring at Labassere (Hautes Pyi-ennes) which is used in bronchial catarrh, but it is much stronger. Number 32 is a carbon- ated and slightly effervescent alkaline spring, having a comi^osition similar to that of Luhatschowitz, in Moravia, which is also a cold spring and found useful in chronic mucous iufiamations and conjested liver and hoemorrhoids. Analysis of Mineral Waters ; Numbers 21 to 30. No. Salts Soluble in Water, Principally Alkaline Chlorides. Salts Soluble in Acids, Principally Sulphate of Lluie. Silica. Total Salts. Loss Ignition. Eeaction. 21 22 5-28 18-83 ■74 4-31 7-86 9-25 13-88 27-44 3-47 3-08 faiutly acid 23 3-85 1-69 2-94 8-48 1-54 2i 138-07 4-21 10-03 152-31 3-09 25 64-72 1-63 1851 84-86 12-97 M 26 8-13 9-24 15-75 33-12 1-52 slightly acid 27 24-12 ■ 3-84 28-51 56-47 3-24 28 127-62 9-62 6-25 143-49 4-61 neutral 29 6-16 3-08 12-33 21-57 4-65 slightly acid 30 3-09 4-62 6-10 13-81 3-08 " The following is the composition, in grains per gallon, of numbers 31 and 32 (Tarawera and Parkes' Spring) : — No. 31. No. 32. Chlorine, with hromine traces 40-497 56-076 Iodine . . •714 1-012 Sulphuric acid 2-150 2-156 Silica 2-221 16-752 Carbonic acid traces *35-751 Alumina.. -621 Iron 1049 Lime 2 036 1^994 Magnesia •492 •613 Potash . . 3-681 5^675 Soda 46-495 80-710 Lithia traces traces Phosphoric acid . . — — „ 99-956 200-739 * The Carbonic acid in No. 32 is that which is in a combined form; there is, besides, a quantity of this acid in a free state. 33. Wangape, Waikato, is a hot alkaline water, having a composition similar to those of Puriri and Waiwera. 108 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. 3'i. Onet.apu Desert, at the sources of the Waikato and Wangaehu rivers. This powerful spring, which issues at the base of Kuapeha, is so strongly charged with sulphates of iron and alumina as to taint the water of the latter river from its source to the sea, a distance of seventy miles. It is only one of the many mineral springs which occm- in the still active volcanic district of Tongariro. 35-88. In the East Cape and Poverty Bay district are fom-, out of some seventeen different springs which have been discovered, that yield hydro-carbons, either in the form of gas, or oil, and associated with saline waters. The source of these springs is probably certain bituminous shales at the base of the cutaceous formation. 39. Waipiro. Is interesting as being a hot spring in the same district but in which there is no evidence of any volcanic action, and from its depositing immense quantities of carbonate of lime in acicular crystals. This lime-deposit is built up in the form of a wall, marking the line of fissm-e through which the water escapes. 40-44. Are cold springs in the Wellington district, and belong to the class of saline waters, but are generally feebly acid. Springing from rocks of lower secondary formation they are interesting from the large proportion of iodine and other exceptional elements which they contain. Pahua is the most notable in this respect, and has the following composition : — Chloride of sodium ,, ,, potassium ,, ,, magnesium ,, ,, calcium Iodide of magnesium Bromide of magnesium Sulphate of lime Phosphate of alumina , ,, ,, iron ,, ,, lime Bi-carbonate of lime Silica Iodine, free . . 1303-329 •501 34-960 120-885 -582 traces 3-026 •641 traces -430 6-451 1-696 1-595 1474-096 Total quantity of iodine to the gallon (free and combined), 2-127 grains. 42. Burton's Taipo, in addition to iodine, contains traces of arsenic. 43-44. Akateo (a), is a strong saline water containing iodides and bromides, while Akateo (b) is an aerated chalybeate water and would be valuable as a tonic, being similar to the springs at Pyi'mont, Waldeck, and Eecoaro, Venetia. Aerated Chalybeate waters of medicinal value are found in many other parts of New. Zealand ; among these may be mentioned a locality near Whangarei, in the north, and Chain Hills, near Dunedin, in the south. 45. The springs which occur at the Hanmer Plains, Amuri, are alkahne, with a strong escape of sulphurated hydrogen, and would form useful baths in rheumatic and cutaneous diseases. 46. At the distance of a few miles from Sumner Lake, water, having a temperature of 93° Fahr., gushes from the sandstone rock, but it does not contain sufficient matters in solution to entitle it to rank as a mineral water. 47. Amberley. This was analyised and reported on by Professor Bickerton, of the Canterbury College, as a chalybeate water, but unfit for use on account of the organic matter present. The analysis gave the following quantitative results ;— MINERAL WATERS. 109 Grains per Gallon Total dissolved solids • ■ * 37-6 Volatile 8-8 Fixed 28-8 Carbonate of lime 3-6 Carbonate of magnesia . 2-2 Chlorine 10-5 Iron protoxide 28 Free ammonia •069 Albuminoid ammonia •034 Sediment . 165-2 48. Wickliffe Bay, Otago. An analysis of this water is given by Professor Black, of Otago University. It appears to be a saline water : — Sulphuric acid (combined) Chlorine Magnesia Lime Alkalis Carbonic acid (combined) Grains per Gallon. 39-3 112-0 18-3 11-5 83^0 12-6 49. Gibson's Spring, Southland, is a water which is stated to be a specific in diarrhoea, and contains a large amount of organic matter, to some astringent quality of which its medicinal qualities are probably due. 110 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. STATISTICAL DIAGRAMS. With the view of presenting a ready means for comparing the economic progress of New Zealand and the Austrahan Colonies, some of the leading statistical features, common to all, have been collected and thrown into graphic form, a method of representation which has the double advantage of appealing to the understanding by means of an expression of form as well as of figures, and is especially applicable to purposes such as the present. The period shown is that from 1868 to 1878, and the diagrams will afford opportunity . for much interesting comparison, illustrative of the more or less rapid advances in material prosperity made by the Australa- sian group of colonies. The diagrams treat of the following subjects : — No. 1.— POPULATION. This shows the ratio of increase in the population of New Zealand and the Australian Colonies, England being also included for purposes of com- parison. The great leap made by New Zealand in 1874 was due to the fact of the Immigration and Pubhc Works Act having that year come into active operation, under the provisions of which an extraordinarily large number of immigrants were brought out by the Government. The some- what low position shown in 1878 is accounted for by the ckcumstance of an error having accumulated in the estimated yearly returns of population between the census of 1874 and that of 1878, amounting to 9,004 persons ; the correction being made in the return for 1878 necessarily lowers the apparent rate of increase for that year. Next to New Zealand, Queensland shows the greatest fluctuations, the highest being in '74, '75, a sudden deep fall appearing next year, an abrupt rise in '77, and another drop in '78. In New South Wales and South Australia the rate of increase is sho^vNTi to have been pretty steadily improving the whole time, while in Victoria it has as steadily declined, Tasmania, except in 1878, occupies the lowest position, an actual decrease in the population of 0"5 being indicated in 1875. The order of precedence in 1878, being the last year shown, stands thus: — South Australia (highest), New South Wales, Queensland, New Zealand, Tasmania, Victoria, and England (lowest.) No. II.— MARRIAGES. The marriage rate per thousand of population has fluctuated consider- ably in all the colonies, except Victoria, the rate there having steadily declined during the whole period The only colonies showing a higher rate, in 1878, than England, in 1875, are South Australia and New South Wales, New Zealand, Tasmania, and Queensland standing next in the order named, near one another, Victoria being much lower. DIAGRAMS. Ill No. III.— BIRTHS. The birth-rate exhibits a general dechne in the whole group, with the exception of New Zealand and Tasmania. All the colonies show a higher rate than England, wdth the exception of Victoria and Tasmania, the rate in the latter colony continuing extraordinarily low, until 1878, which year shows a decided improvement. The almost continuous fall in the line representing Victoria is very remarkable. No. IV.— DEATHS. This diagram exliibits a curious uniformity in the general lines of fluctu- ation ; the death-rate in the whole of the groiip being lowest in the year 1871, and highest in the year 1875. New Zealand occupies a remarkably good place in this diagram, her death-rate averaging about half that of England. Of the colonies, Queensland has the worst position, but in all, the death-rate contrasts very favourably mth the rate of the home country : New South Wales, Tasmania, South Austraha, and Victoria are placed very near to each other. No. v.— IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. VI.— LOCAL EXPORTS. In the first of these diagrams, South Australia and New South Wales occupy the highest position ; and in the second, Queensland and South Aus- tralia. Neither Victoria nor New Zealand have maintained the positions they held at the commencement of the decade under notice, and Tasmania sta:ids so low in both figures as to be seemingly quite out of the race. No. VII.— SAVINGS. In this diagram, which exhibits the rate of deposits in Post Office and other Savings Banks to population, all the colonies, it is shown, have made considerable progress. In South Australia and Queensland the advance has been remarkably great and rapid ; Tasmania and New Zealand have, to a large extent, followed their good example, while New South "Wales and Victoria appear to have somewhat lagged behind, the rate in the latter colony, in 1877, being less than the rate in England in the same year. For the sake of comparison, the average rate of Eiu-ope is also shown for the year 1877. No. VIII.— RAIL'WAYS. The proportion of constructed railways to population is shown in this diagram. The place of honour is occupied by New Zealand, and is marked 2-58 miles per 1,000 of population ; Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, and New South Wales, following in the order named, all being better placed than the United Ivingdom, the proportion m that country being 0-54 miles per thousand. No. IX.— TELEGRAPHS. The long Trans-Continental lines necessarily give prominent places in this diagram to Queensland and South Australia. New South Wales, New Zealand, and Tasmania, come next in order, very close together ; then Victoria. 112 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. No. X.— CULTIVATION. This diagram exhibits the area of land in cultivation (including land under sown grasses) in proportion to the population. The extraordinary progress made by New Zealand and South Australia in this direction is very strikingly shown. Tasmania occupies an almost unchanged medium position, and the colonies of Victoria, New South Wales, and Queensland have preserved, in near neighbourhood, a very low level, Victoria, however, showing a slight rise in the last three or four years. No. XI.— WHEAT. The average yield of wheat per acre in the Australian colonies, shown in this diagram, contrasts favourably with the general average given of America. The yield in New Zealand stands considerably higher than that of the other colonies, Tasmania taking second place, New South Wales being next, then Queensland, Victoria, and South Australia, the average of the last-named colony being lower than that of America. No. XII.— GOLD. The value of gold raised in proportion to population during the years 1868-78, in the colonies of Victoria, New South Wales, Queensland, and New Zealand, is shown in this diagram so far as the information at com- mand will permit. The decline in the quantity of gold raised in Victoria and New Zealand is very marked ; the yield in New South Wales has fluc- tuated very little, and in Queensland the quantity of gold raised in 1874 was nearly double that of 1868, but it has since been falling off. No. I. INCREASE OF POPULATION. ■^100 of Popalatn. 1 i 1868 18691870 1871 1872 1873;i874 1875 1876 1877 1878 ■^100 of Populatn. 1 1 15.5 ^— t ' 15.5 15.0 n 15.0 14.5 1 1 1 \ 145 14.0 i I i 140 13.5 l! ! 13 5 13.0 1 13.0 12.5 ' I 12.5 12.0 1 1 1 12.0 11.5 1 : ...J\ U.h 11.0 i l... 11 10.5 1 10.5 ; 10.0 ;■ ; 10.0 i 9.5 9.5 1 9.0 / 9.0 8.5 1 ; ;— "; 8.5 8.0 1 .'"■"I ■ : 8.0 Qiitieiiglantl 7.5 7.0 6.5 ■ r^ j\ : 1 ; 1 :■ 7.5 7.0 6.5 6.0 /) ' \ /J 1 6.0 5.5 >r\' / i / 1 \ 5.5 5.0 r XJ V/-> ''J 5.0 S. Australia. N. 3. WaleJ t^ ..J J >-*» ..' — . ; \ dt-\r-' 4.5 N. S. Wale*. 4.0 N. Zealand i 3 5 Victoria ... ' 3.0 ; 2.0 (IHllO MtilMVJdiiMW,, ft-..im«ll»"''«,J. ! ,\i*ii*iiit ^ r--^ 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 Queensland. N. Zealand. Tasninnia. S. .Australia: 2.0 England ...| i;^ • > HXl-.^ "1,1.".,, 2.0 , Victoria. ].5 ' 1.0 England. t : 1 0.0 ! Decrease. '^. / \ 1 ._7i Dei:rease.' , 0.5 1 1 1 ! 1 1 0.5 1 No. II. MARRIAGES. ^1,000 of Populatn. 1868 1869 i 1870 187 1 i 1872 i ! ! 1873 1874 1875; 187611877 1878 ^l,*tOOof! Populatn. 1 9.60 •"■. _^.^ 9.60 S. Australia. N. Zealand 9.40 9.20 ~V i i / \i 1 t i i 9.40 9.20 9.00 ' 1 ^ u. i 900 8.80 /:^ ^yr\ I N.SO 8.60 8.40 8.20 \ /T^^^"^ \ K\ \ ..,../'■-: i 8.60 8.40 8.20 X.S.Wale.a. Queeuoland ^ .- ^^^ ■ N . S. Wales / ^^^ ' England ... 8.00 ^ pf' "■■^■' \ \.-/ /— — SW) iastuania. N. ZealHiid. 7.80 W / / 7. HO S. Au.stralia 7.60 7.40 7.20 "■■\ ^-\ jr^-^ -4^ 7.60 740 7.20 Victoria ... 7.00 - s^ — V ^—•- 1 r"* i * J 7.00 Queensland. 6.80 ''(1 ^■H"^" , ••—.y>> / t 6.80 Tasmania 6.60 6.40 ^■•-•1 '' / 1 1 1 6.60 6.40 6.20 6.00 1 ij 1 If nOilMMitni IIMIIIH . 6.20 6.00 Victoria. 5.80 \ i i 1 5.80 No. III. ; 1870 1871 BIRTHS. i-^l.OOOof j Populatn. 186S 1869 18721873 ! 1 1 1 187411875187618771878 III ^1,000 of Populatn. j 43.5 Queeuslandi 43.0 I 42.5 .. ..J ■■-■:, \ • 1 1 435 43.0 .... A 1 1 42.5 N. Zoaland 420 — ^ w-/ ^\ 1 1 1 y 42.0 N. Zealand. S. .:^ ustralia 41.5 — . > 1 ,A. y^ 41.5 41.0 \ V ".....' /^ — yr 41 Victoria 40.5 uxy, '• s. • _ ^ 40.5 ]S\ S. Wales 4'>.0 ~^\ \ \ > k 1 /"!■ 400 i 39.5 \ ^•~\ 'N-^ y ■-... 39.5 39.0 38.5 38.0 1 ■-\. ■5 \..y --i N A "— •^^J-* i , 39.0 38.5 3H.0 S. Australia. N. S. Wales. 37.5 '>/ '>""•<» "~^i : \ . f--^>..J:L.y 37.5 37.0 36.5 , \ ' n :}»;.5 36.0 '*" i- % v 36.0 Queensland. 35.5 : 1 ! 3.J.5 England... 35.0 1 34.5 ^ - : ^ •^^^^ ' 35.0 "N < / - 1 34.5 34.0 \/ \ 1 1 34.0 33.5 ' \ 33.5 33.0 ■^"it 1 33.0 32.5 i \,^, r 32.5 Tasmania. 32.0 ' \ 32.0 31.5 ' \' \m 31.5 31.0 30.5 \ ^..»}i f 31.0 30.5 Victoria. Tasmania 30.0 29.5 \ > t"" 1 1 "^V...,' ....>™'— 30.0 29.5 29.0 < \ '' ! i 29.0 28.5 1 1 2S.5 ! 2>s.0 ' \ \ \ 1 , 1 28.0 No. IV. DEATHS. 24.0 i j"'"' 1 24.0 23.5 • ^: j 23.5 23.0 '^"^V- >>^' 23.') 22.5 ^ ^ /|1 22.5 ' 22.0 / ^^ > k 1 : \ 22.0 2i.5 _/ \ > ;: ; 21.5 England ... 211) ^ — ^s-y j: I 21.0 20.5 i \ ^_ '\ /••- 20.5 Queensland. 20.0 : 1 V'. • 2i>.(> 19.0 19.0 J,4...«V.i; n ; • 195 19.0 Queensland 18.5 180 17.5 17.0 16-5 "'■ • .4j 1,41 Ki \ \ \ \ 1 185 18.0 17.5 17.0 16.5 16.0 15.5 150 14.5 ':.., , 1. ••■■■■* > n :^\ )ciz 16.0 N.S. Wales N. S. Wales Victoria ... Ta.«mania 1'"""'/' ^■IIIIIV ( fp4 * 1 1 f C".,'^ 15.5 15.0 14.5 Tannania. S. Australia. Victoria. S. Australia 14.0 13.0 \ C%.^ \j 1 1 i A It.O 13.5 13.0 , '"/ --. \-^ 1 \ 13.0 12.5 i '%-. - J— > i S 12.5 N. Zealand 12.0 11.5 11.0 ^ k r^ ^^ 1 ^ V 12.0 11.5 11.0 N. Zealnnd. 10.5 IV/ 10.5 10.0 1 ^ 1 ; 1 1 10.0 No. V . IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. ^ Head of Popalatn. 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 •» Head of PopuUtn. £47 1 I £47 46 45 41 1 ...... ; — 1 46 45 44 S.Australia Victoria ... N. Zealand 43 42 i ■• 1 r 43 42 41 N -. 1 .. J 41 N. S. Wales. 40 \ / \ ••••• Bf^'x -• ri'iiiii. 40 Queensland 39 38 "^ "^ 1 . '1 _.i fi ' 39 38 N. S. Wales 37 36 35 34 _/ y I ;• 'iiiMK 37 36 35 34 Victoria. N. Zealand. 33 \J / V y^^'"' 33 32 r"\ / ^\ \ , 32 Queensland. 31 t \ !"' 1 31 30 / \ i i i 30 S. Australia 29 28 ...J \ 1 29 28 27 \ 27 26 \ : 26 25 24 \J t ■ i 25 24 Tasmania. .i3 / 23 22 <'"*"" / 22 21 s 21 2"! J / ^^ s i»^ 20 19 r r- ^ s__* — ! 19 18 ,—- ; f / 1 1 18 U. Kingdom 17 ■ \ \ \ / ' 1 17 Tasuiuuia 16 — / j ■ 16 15 > / r 15 14 1 1 14 No. VI. LOCAL EXPORTS. N. Zeiilaiid Qiifonsliiiid Victor! I S. Australia N. S. Waif 9 Tiisninnia £24 £24 23 23 22 21 20 r-> If-' ■•_../ .'"■■"V 3 / 22 21 20 19 IH 17 16 15 It /» -1c| ■"•■•■■'1/ ■'mi Mil' Smmt \ 19 18 17 16 15 14 ''/. 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 r"' V-/ i — / /— — / J / > 1 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 ^-s 6 fi 5 1 6 4 1 4 3 3 2 2 1 i 1 Q.ucensland. S. Australia. N. S. Wales. N. Zealand. Titsniunia. Victoria. No. VII. DEPOSITS IN SAVINGS BANKS. y Head of Populatn. 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878*^ Head of 1 1 1 1 ropulatp. Shillings. ,Stiillings. 80 80 78 76 — 78 76 S. Aueitntlia. 1 1 f 74 ./ 74 73 .-•y 72 70 .-— . .-•—■-. 70 68 i ^ 68 Queensland. 66 66 64 ....... i 1 64 62 i ; 62 60 -.7 60 58 / 58 56 / ' 56 Tasinanift. 54 / / ^ ,— ■' 54 52 r-' / ,.-. C" 52 N. Zealand. 50 ' / \ / 50 48 f 1 ;/ * ^ 48 46 , f 1 t ^ r 46 44 r-- / -z-l^ , — ■< 44 England. Queensland England .. Tasmania S. Australia 42 40 38 36 34 32 ....,!■ , / H .» 1 I '''KOt fi'fi"i, 42 40 38 36 34 32 N. S. Wales. Victoria. N. S. Wales 30 28 f.^ H rtlH./ 30 28 26 .,'' 26 Victoria . . . 24 I'HU'V 24 Europe. N. Zealand 22 20 J 22 20 No. VIII. RAILWAYS ■^l.O'iOof Populatn. 1808 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873j>874 1875 1876 1 1877 1878 ■^1,000 of Populatu. Miles. 1 1 Miles. 2.60 1 2.60 N. Zealand. 2.50 1 r~ 2.50 2.40 1 1 2.40 2.30 j j 2.30 2.20 I -J 2.20 1 2.10 1 r 2.10 Queensland. 1 2.00 / i 2.00 1.90 / ; 1.90 S. Auiitmlia. 1.80 / r 1.80 1.70 i',--. i.____ ; 1.70 1.60 : / /.— -• I]" "■ l.fiO 'ra.'niunia. Queensland 1.50 h-'' ■■•...... .v^ / — > •• / 1.50 1.40 1 j n I.'IO 1.30 j 1.30 1.20 1.10 1.00 r4 jniti.iK 1.20 1.10 1.00 Victoria. N. S. W.tl.'*. 0.90 \ .MHIH^ / t 0.90 N. S. Wales 0.80 0.70. \rz —i — jf---* , 0.80 0.70 U.Kingdom 0.60 f ,.,..J / / ,_ 0.60 N. Zealand ■ Tasmania-. 0.50 0.40 ,..111 III I "--f — 1 ^.,.,...,«' rrri < 1 1 0.50 0.40 U. Kingdom. Victoria, i„J 30 ^ ^ " 0.30 S. Australia 0.20 0.20 0.10 1 n.lO No. IX. TELEGRAPHS. ^1,000 of Populatn. \ ■ ■ ■ I < : 1 . 1868! 1869 18701871 18721873 1874il87o;i876;i877i I87& f l.<^\of i , 1 i . I 1 ; i^upulatn. Miles. ; 1 Miles. 26 i _, 26 Q.iiccnslantl. 25 24 j 25 24 •• 23 •• 23 22 .'"■••• .' 22 21 1 _. _ 21 20 20 19 \ 19 Queensland 18 17 16 '■' '. ' / / i 18 17 16 S.Australia. 15 ";._„.■ -• 15 14 / 14 13 1 13 12 / 12 11 10 ,-n 11 10 N.S.Wales. N. S. Wule:= 9 8 I / ' _^ '..:^ 9 8 N. Zealand. N. Zealand S. Australia 7 6 5 H — ' h-J / ■"" 7 6 5 Tasmania. Victoria ... 4 3 2 1 ...^^ ■ IKIM mil""*/ IIIIIIIIK ■■■•■■■■> -• rfillMI 4 3 2 1 Yictoria. Tasmania No. X. LAND IN CULTIVATION. T Head of ,.68.9. 69-7070-1 I Populatn. i • • Acres. 9.00 8.75 8.50 1 825 8.00 7.75 7.50 1 7.25 7.00 6.75 6.50 6.25 6.00 5.75 5.50 5.25 5.00 4.75 ^..- S. Australia 4.50 4^5 4.00 376 l> r N. Zealand 3.50 m •* 3.25 3.00 ' Tasmania 2.75 2.50 2.25 2.0U 1.75 ,__' U.Kingdom 150 : 1.25 1 l.OO 75 1 Victoria . N. S. Wakfc rii.ii"" 1 Queenslanc .50 ) .25 .►•■•. N. Zealand. S. Australia. Tasmania. N.S.Wales. Queensland. No. XI. AVERAGE YIELD OF WHEAT. Bushels ^ Acre. 1869 1870|1871 1872 1873ll874 1875 1876 1877ll878il879 i i 1 Busliela "p- Acre, 32 32 31 r\ 31 30 1 \ 30 29 J V_^ 29 28 r^ > 28 27 /— V /C.. L^ 27 26 / ^ / ' ; \ 26 25 / ^ r^ : \ 25 Tasmania 24 -V \-N ^ \ 24 N. Zealand 23 J\ \-y ' L_ 23 N. Zealand. 22 \ 22 21 > 1 ■.. 21 20 19 ': 1 \ 20 19 18 ,^ / \ . i*. '— X 18 17 / ■'l 1 r'^ \ /• ' I 17 Victoria . . . 16 •-4, ,'<""'t \-.-^ ^,OIIIII* ^,';;-;;/--^ - v.._ 16 Tasmania. Queensland American 15 14 13 12 _ t i \— . VitliMU^ '/■-' 1 . \ :-'■ < 15 14 13 12 N.S.Wales. QueensLmd. Ayerage i li i ■ ,— . . i ; ■ ^ N. S. Wales S.Australia 11 10 9 i \ i • \ 11 10 9 Victoria. 8 \ •'' \.-./ i X 8 7 . , U '\ 1 t 7 S. Australia. 6 \..J \.j \ j 6 5 1 5 No. XII. GOLD RAISED. l^Xn.^^'' 1 1 1869 187011871 1872 1 1 18731874 1875 1876 18771878 -^ Head of Populatn. £ a. 1 £ 3. 12 12 11 10 11 10 11 11 10 10 1— \ r\ 10 10 Victoria . . . K. Zealand 10 9 10 9 \ D \ i f 10 9 10 9 ' i 8 10 I ••.. 8 10 8 7 10 >H"'l,^ ,-*""''/j 8 7 10 (Queensland. 7 '»..„„»'' «' I i 7 6 10 \ Vflltltl^k 6 10 Queensland 6 5 10 5 1 — i ^ J Y ',, '/>m.lE I 'i'l'if i iiHililii >\ I'M! 1 -i n 1 1 i E s -. r ! f i n s s s i i \i iUiiU ! ! 1 1 i J ! 1 [ !i ! ! Sill! .' 5 i E ! i 1 S ? Ffl i!i KiEl -I mm m Mi ilv, -f \ if t I iliiii'.iii-! ? fJlBlill- ^# ^U ' %i. O uc SOUTHER': reg!0';al library facility AA 000 978 621 i 'H •'>i. V » ■--