INTRODUCTION 
 
 STUDY OF THE CHINESE CHARACTERS.
 
 INTKODCCTION TO THE STODY 
 
 CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 BY 
 
 J. EDKINS, D.D, 
 
 PEKING, CHINA. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 TRUBNER & CO., 57 AND 59, LUDGATE HILL. 
 
 1876. 
 (All Rights reserved. J
 
 HERTFORD: 
 -lU-IIKX AUSTIN ANB SONS, PRINTEB8.
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 THE Chinese characters are records of a distant past. In- 
 stead of being hidden under the rubbish heaps of ruined 
 palaces, like the Cuneiform Inscriptions, they have, millen- 
 nium after millennium, been passing in open day through 
 the hands of scribes. Subject to the caprices of each genera- 
 tion of writers, they now present themselves to us in a vast 
 variety of successive forms. Through these forms, if the 
 inquisitive eye of science trace correctly the process of 
 change, we may acquire a knowledge of the origin of Chinese 
 writing, and the method pursued by the inventors. 
 
 These men did not make a language. What they did 
 was to find out a mode of committing to writing a language 
 which was already made. It was a sufficient medium at 
 that time for the thoughts and wants of a civilized people. 
 The Chinese language, as judged by the characters, is not 
 barbarous. Though simple and not much developed, it is 
 civilized, and represents man in a condition marked by high 
 moral, political, and social characteristics. He is well fed 
 and well clothed. He is possessed of the conveniences and 
 even luxuries of life. Many of the principal elements which 
 make up the social state of modern China existed when the 
 characters were invented. In these inquiries the conviction 
 
 b 
 
 -~x f^ f ' p*~ i~*k *r*% r* 
 
 200 5236
 
 VI PREFACE. 
 
 is forced on us that we are dealing with an old civilization, 
 and a language well stocked and compacted. The words 
 of the language were as clearly divided into parts of speech, 
 and as clearly distinguished from each other by their sense, 
 as at any later period. 
 
 This book is intended to be a guide to the study of the 
 picture writing of the Chinese and to their conventional 
 signs of words. It is an introduction to the analysis of the 
 Chinese characters, and to the history of the words in ancient 
 and modern times in regard to their sounds and written signs. 
 
 Those who have read my " China's Place in Philology" 
 know that I believe in the possibility of proving the ultimate 
 identity of Chinese and European words. My present task, 
 however, does not lead me into opposition with the opinions 
 and practice of any modern philologists, by comparing words 
 belonging to different families of language, except in one 
 respect. I have found it necessary to strengthen the proof 
 of the old sounds of the Chinese characters by citing corre- 
 sponding words in Mongol and Japanese. After the work 
 was in print, and while writing this Preface, I have seen 
 Professor Max Miiller's fourth volume, just published, of 
 "Chips from a German "Workshop," where, at page 111, are 
 inserted three posthumous letters of the late Professor Julien 
 bearing on this very point. The validity of my proof pub- 
 lished in the "Kevue Orientale" of November, 1865, more 
 than ten years ago, of the connexion of the Chinese and 
 Mongol languages, is contested by this great scholar. I will 
 endeavour, as time permits, to collect a much larger number 
 of instances of identity in roots than is contained in that 
 article, for I am fully aware that in this critical instance 
 of contiguity between the monosyllabic and polysyllabic
 
 PREFACE. Vll 
 
 areas the vocabulary of identities should be made as large 
 as possible. 
 
 I have been urged to do this by Professor Max Miiller 
 himself, who yields to none in the interest with which he 
 regards questions connected with the Eastern Asiatic lan- 
 guages, and who has said and done much to stimulate those 
 who are engaged in these researches. I will here only say 
 that Professor Julien, when he condemned my views on this 
 point, did not carefully examine the instances given of iden- 
 tities of roots. For example, the Chinese word loJc " green," 
 Mandarin lu, admits of comparison with the Mongol logon, 
 but Julien compared logon with Psing "blue," " green," and 
 "black." When comparing the Chinese t'ien "heaven" 
 with the corresponding word in Mongol, he wrote it tegri, 
 as in modern Turkish, instead of tengri or tingri, the Mongol. 
 Besides this, he omitted all references to my arguments from 
 common laws of order in words, from rhythmical resemblances 
 and from identity in syllabary. 
 
 Words in the languages of nomad races are, it seems 
 to me, more easily lost or changed than in the languages 
 of settled populations. Hence the necessity of paying parti- 
 cular regard to identical laws whether in the syllabary, the 
 syntax, the system of derivation, or in the prosody. It is 
 much to be regretted that Julien with his vast knowledge 
 of words does not appear to have been conscious of this. 
 
 In this book will be found by the student a much larger 
 collection of explanations of characters than has been before 
 given in works on the Chinese language. The etymologies 
 are traced to their native sources and frequently criticized. 
 The compiler of the Shwo wen is the author of most of the 
 current explanations, but though always deserving of atten-
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 tion, he often errs, as is shown by native students of later 
 times. No explanations then should be ascribed to him for 
 which he is not responsible. Later authors are also worthy 
 of being consulted. Their names are here often cited; for 
 brevity, I have written the initial letters only, e.g. Sw for 
 Shwo wen, and Tt for Tai tung, author of Lu shu ku. 
 
 The early Jesuits were accustomed to interpret Chinese 
 characters on the wildest principles. They detected religious 
 mysteries in the most unexpected situations. Kwei " trea- 
 cherous," is written with Men "nine," and above it one of 
 the covering radicals fa . This then was Satan at the head 
 of the nine ranks of angels. The character ^- tfliwen "a 
 boat," was believed to contain an allusion to the Deluge. On 
 the left side is the ark and on the right are the signs for 
 eight and for persons. The day for this mode of explaining 
 the Chinese characters has gone by. 
 
 The form of the characters made use of for explanation in 
 this work is the modern. This will be most useful and com- 
 prehensible to the student. Old forms are puzzling to the 
 beginner. The best collection of old and new forms of the 
 characters accessible to the European student is that given 
 by Morrison in his fifth volume. It has the advantage of 
 being alphabetical. 
 
 The acquisition of the written language will become 
 easier when the characters are explained than if there be 
 no key to their formation. 
 
 Besides helping the student to acquire the written lan- 
 guage, I have had in view the determination of the phonetic 
 value of the characters. 
 
 There is sufficient regularity in the construction of the 
 characters to render it possible for us to arrive at some
 
 PEEFACE. IX 
 
 important conclusions respecting them. Certain groups of 
 characters have final m uniformly. Others have final p. 
 Others have final k, and so on. These final letters therefore 
 were in existence when the characters were first made. 
 This accounts for their having heen retained as signs of 
 words ending in these letters till they were lost in the up- 
 growth of the Mandarin tongue. 
 
 In the third chapter, containing a list of 1144 phonetics, 
 will be found many lost finals restored. A considerable part 
 of these have the restored final letter in a parenthesis to 
 denote lack of certainty. In cases without the parenthesis, 
 I have felt satisfied as to the propriety of restoring the lost 
 letter, and usually the reasons are given. Whenever I could 
 find the evidence, I have been careful to mark the authority 
 of old works, and chiefly the Kwang yiin, for the restoration 
 of lost finals. This work has been for me the most prolific 
 and valuable source of information on this point. In it the 
 initials #, #, #', #, jt?, p^ etc., are kept carefully distinct 
 throughout. 
 
 When the old final and initial letters, or in other words 
 the ancient phonetic values of the phonetics, are fixed, the 
 determination of roots must follow. Phonetic characters are 
 not roots. They are a key to the roots. Each widely ex- 
 tended root is written with several different phonetics. The 
 knowledge of the phonetics will be followed by the discovery 
 of the roots of which they were the signs. 
 
 If it be asked why had not each root a distinct phonetic, 
 the reply must be that roots rapidly grew. Thus, many 
 round things were in primitive times called lut or sut, both 
 from an older dut. Four or five roots soon became ten or 
 twenty. But it would happen that soon after a number
 
 X PREFACE. 
 
 of round things had received this name, it would become 
 polished, intensified, modified, abridged, and lengthened, in 
 each instance after a fashion of its own. Then came the 
 invention of writing. All the words were written on pictorial 
 and phonetic grounds. The men who wrote them could only to 
 a certain degree, while inventing signs for the various words, 
 act under the impression that any of those words were etymo- 
 logic ally connected. Thus round things with the sounds leu, 
 lit, Itij siij t'eu, tettj would come to be written at first with 
 several phonetics. After the loss of final , there was still greater 
 confusion, for other phonetics which had lost k would be by 
 some writers employed as signs for words which had lost t, 
 while phonetics used as signs for roots anciently ending in p 
 would be used by modern writers for roots once ending in Jc. 
 
 The best way to represent the Chinese roots would be, 
 perhaps, that adopted by Pictet in his " Origines Indo- 
 Europeennes." Philological studies should be perpetually 
 associated with the life of the people and the objects embraced 
 within the horizon of their knowledge. I cannot enter in 
 the present work on so wide an enterprise. 
 
 After sketching the principles of formation in the charac- 
 ters, and the history of Chinese writing, I have described the 
 sources for the history of the sounds and the letter changes 
 which have occurred in the language. As one among the 
 means of gaining information on this point, reference has 
 been made to the Japanese transcription. 
 
 Dr. J. C. Hepburn has been the first in his Dictionary to 
 place the question of the old Chinese transcriptions in Japan 
 in a correct and intelligible form. This he has done in his 
 second edition. I have thus been aided in showing in the 
 seventh chapter of this work how the Go on and Kan on
 
 PREFACE. XI 
 
 transcriptions may throw much useful light on the history 
 of the Chinese language. 
 
 MM. Sarazin and de Eosny do not appear to have seen 
 the new account given by Dr. Hepburn when they discussed 
 the Japanese transcriptions at the Congress of Orientalists 
 at Paris in 1873, as reported in the " Compte Eendu." 
 
 I am obliged to M. de Eosny for pointing out in the 
 " Actes dela Societe d'Ethnographie," 1871 to 1873, vol. vii., 
 an error on the subject of the Japanese passive into which I 
 had fallen in my " China's Place in Philology." It was an 
 inadvertence, as was his when he represented me as seeking 
 to trace a path for the Chinese of the old ages to go in a 
 pleasure train to admire the Tower of Babel. An amusing 
 idea this, but it is not mine, for I was careful in my book to 
 express the opinion that the Chinese must have gone away 
 from western Asia before the time of the separation of lan- 
 guages to which the Hebrew and Babylonian document 
 speaking of the Tower of Babel refers. 
 
 After reading M. de Eosny's opinion of etymology and of 
 the comparison of words, I still think these comparisons may 
 and ought to be made, and become eminently useful when 
 under the guidance of a good philological method. Speaking 
 of my book he says, " Les indianistes, les semitistes et surtout 
 les hellenistes n'auront qu'a ouvrir son livre pour se former 
 une idee de la solidite de ses comparaisons." I know well 
 that this habit of merely opening a book may lead to a strong 
 condemnation of it. It is not, however, safe to form an 
 unfavourable judgment after so brief an examination. These 
 identities of Greek words, for example, and Greek formative 
 syllables with those belonging to some Turanian languages, 
 are too numerous to be accounted for as accidental. The
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 Mongol language has been so little studied by European 
 savans that there is till the present time no Mongol dic- 
 tionary or grammar of that language in English or French. 
 The modern Hellenist believes that the Greeks came from 
 the neighbourhood of the Caspian Sea, where they were near 
 the Mongols, and that the languages of the two races are 
 not connected. He would perhaps modify his view if he 
 first examined the Mongol carefully in regard to roots and 
 grammar and formed an unprejudiced decision, making 
 fair allowance for the effect of geographical contiguity. 
 
 Probably M. de Eosny is one of those ethnologists who 
 are opposed to comparisons of words because they seem to 
 cast a doubt on the widely accepted opinion that the various 
 families of human speech grew up separately like trees from 
 the soil. But however appropriate this way of speaking may 
 be, it should be remembered that each tree comes from a seed 
 dropped from a similar tree. Whenever the metaphor of a 
 tree is used of languages, of laws, of grammatical forms or of 
 roots, their derivation in each case from a pre-existing tree 
 of the same kind should be kept in view as a possibility. 
 
 Among the new methods in philology that are now 
 coming into vogue is the use of the laws of position in 
 determining the family relationship of languages. I rejoice 
 to see that M. de Eosny has himself used this method in his 
 " Affinites des Langues Finno-Japonaises." Professor Boiler's 
 method of proving the connexion of the Japanese and Tartar 
 languages by comparison of words only, falls much short 
 in force because he omits reference to the laws of position. 
 Both these eminent philologists seem to me to limit their 
 subject needlessly by passing over in silence the Dravidian 
 languages. Nor does M. de Eosny notice in the Finnish the
 
 PREFACE. Xlll 
 
 circumstance that its geographical contiguity to Sclavonic 
 and Teutonic peoples has caused a rough shaking in its syn- 
 tactical system. It is indeed so free from that rigidity in 
 the laws of position that marks the other languages of the 
 group, that the combination Mongol-Japanese would be better 
 as a name than that which M. de Eosny has chosen. But 
 better still is the word Turanian. This may be made to 
 include the Dravidian races, which it appears to me essential 
 not to omit. I would keep the word Turanian, but not 
 extend it to the monosyllabic languages. M. de Eosny has 
 praised parts of " China's Place in Philology," and strongly 
 condemned others. In a few years it will be seen whether 
 he is right in lending encouragement to the hypothesis of 
 mutual isolation between the families. 
 
 In giving prominence to the laws of position as valid proof 
 of connexion or disconnexion in language, he cannot claim 
 to be fighting under the "Sanscritist" banner. His studies 
 lie in a more eastern region, and his intelligence compels him 
 to the admission that a careful consideration of those laws is 
 essential to complete the linguistic process which proves con- 
 sanguinity. Let him carry the process a step further, and he 
 will perhaps find himself driven to the conclusion, that 
 Tartar processes of grammar and Tartar laws of position may 
 be applied to elucidate the peculiarities of languages nearer 
 home. His present position, as at the same time the writer 
 of the Affinites and of the critique on my book, is not very 
 tenable. Words are more easily borrowed by contiguous 
 languages than grammatical features. If the close resem- 
 blance of grammatical features between Arian and Turanian 
 languages can be proved by extending the method which 
 M. de Eosny himself employs, then d fortiori the identity
 
 XIV PREFACE. 
 
 of similar words in the two systems may be hopefully 
 discussed. 
 
 It is a matter of great satisfaction to me, that in this 
 book I respond to his challenge in Actes, p. 186, to bring 
 forward the proofs of my readings of old Chinese sounds. I 
 wish they were more complete, but hope that the citations 
 from native authorities such as the Kwang ytin 1 will inspire 
 confidence in the correctness of my renderings. 
 
 The Appendices have been separately printed at Geneva, 
 under the kind care of M. Francois Turrettini. 
 
 Here will be found specimens of old forms of the cha- 
 racters, and among them the radicals of the Shwo wen in the 
 Siau chwen, or small Seal character. Also rules for the 
 pronunciation of words given with the syllabic spelling in 
 K c ang hi. The right use of the tables of sound in K'ang hi 
 is very important in the search for the old sounds. Students 
 who have been familiar only with the Mandarin or Canton 
 pronunciations, and who may not be accustomed to make use 
 of the initials 5, d, g, dj\ dz, will find in K'ang hi's tables 
 proof of their existence. 
 
 A kind friend in China, interested in the progress of 
 Chinese philology, has assisted in the publication of this 
 work. 
 
 1 A copy of the Kwang yiin, with the initials and finals marked in the 
 margin, may now be consulted in the British Museum. 
 
 J.E. 
 
 LONDON, 
 
 December, 1875.
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 THE RADICALS. 
 
 Origin of Chinese Writing. Its Three Founders. Distinction between 
 Wen and Ts'i. What are Radicals? What are Phonetics? List of Radicals 
 as now used. PAGE 1 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 GENERAL VIEW OF THE CHINESE PICTURE WRITING. 
 
 Lines, Shapes and Coverings. Natural and Artificial Objects. Man and 
 
 his Relations and Circumstances. Parts of the Body. Animals. Names of 
 
 Plants and Agriculture. Implements, Clothing, and the Useful Arts. Measures. 
 
 Metals. Qualities of Objects. Verbs PAGE 41 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE PHONETICS. 
 
 Their Number. First arranged by Gallery. Order of Strokes. Their 
 Value as Indicating the Sounds of Words when the Characters were made. 
 Phonetics often acquire two or more Sounds. They present a View of the 
 Chinese Syllabary and the Changes it has Undergone. List of Phonetics 
 according to the Modern Writing PAGE 50 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 HISTORY OF CHINESE WRITING. 
 
 The Implements of Writing, Ancient and Modern. Changes in the Forms 
 of the Writing. Ku wen. Lieu wen. Ta chwen. Siau chwen. Li shu. 
 K'iai shu. T'sau shu PAGE 142 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE Six PRINCIPLES IN THE FORMATION OF THE CHARACTERS. 
 The Lu shu as exhibited in the Dictionaries Shwo wen, Lu shu ku. Ex- 
 amples. Pictures of Ideas. Pictures of Objects. Pictures of Suggestion. 
 New Characters made by Change in Position of Old Ones. Phonetic Charac- 
 ters with Radicals. Phonetic Characters without Radicals. . PAGE 151
 
 XVI TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 HISTORY OF SOUNDS. 
 
 Research shows that the Chinese Language is not Compound. Sources 
 for the History. 1. Phonetic Characters. 2. Rhymes of Old Poetry. Results 
 of the Researches of T\van yu t'sai. The Seventeen Classes of Old Rhymes. 
 3. Tonic Dictionaries. 4. Old Transcriptions, Japanese, Corean, Cochin 
 Chinese. . PAGE 166 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 ON LETTER CHANGES. 
 
 Example of Letter Change in European Languages, k to ch. Chinese 
 Letter Changes. 1. Surd and Sonant from Simple Mutes. 2. Formation 
 of Aspirated Mutes. 3. Changes in the Throat Letters. 4. Changes in the 
 Palatal Region. 5. Changes in Tooth Letters. 6. Changes in Lip Letters. 
 7. Changes in the Vowels PAGE 184 
 
 APPENDICES. 
 
 A. Lithographed Examples of Ancient Forms of Characters. 
 
 B. Examples to show that Words in s, sh, ch, ts, come from the same Roots 
 with corresponding Words in I. 
 
 C. How to use K'ang hi. 
 
 D. Two Old Poems to Illustrate the History of the Sounds. 
 
 E. Account of the Fang Yen, an Old Book on Dialects. 
 
 F. A List of Sanscrit Words in Buddhist Literature to illustrate the History 
 of the Sounds. 
 
 O. Radicals of the Shwo wen in the Siau chwen. 
 
 H. Gallery's Primary Strokes of the Modern Writing. 
 
 /. Notes on some Select Characters. 
 
 INDEX TO PHONETICS. 
 ENGLISH INDEX.
 
 CHINESE BOOKS USED. 
 
 Shu king. Book of History. 
 
 Shi' king. The Odes, or Collection of Ancient Poetry of the Court and of 
 the Provinces. 
 
 Yi king. Book of Changes. 
 
 Li sau. Poems of C'hii yuen. 
 
 Er ya. Dictionary of Archaisms. A work of the latter part of the Cheu 
 dynasty. Kwo p'u added the sounds and sense of doubtful words, A.D. 343. 
 
 Sw. Shwo wen. 
 
 Fy. Fang yen. Work by Yang hiung. 
 
 Kya. Kwang ya. One of the first Dictionaries containing the syllabic 
 spelling. Only words looked on as doubtful are spelled. Chang yi collected the 
 words. T'sau hien explained them and fixed the pronunciation in the Sui 
 dynasty. He cites Kwo p'u's edition of the Fy for the sound of some rare words. 
 
 Yp. Yii p'ien. Dictionary by Ku ye wang, A.D. 543. Arranged according 
 to radicals. Syllabic spelling used throughout. 
 
 Kwy. Kwang yiin. Dictionary arranged throughout like Ty, Tsy, Yh, Chy, 
 according to initials and finals. It was apparently the first of this kind. 
 A.D. 600. The work of an Imperial Commission. Contains the pronunciation 
 of the period in Central China. Kepublished by Ku yen wu in the seventeenth 
 century. 
 
 Ty. T'ang yiin. Dictionary of T'ang dynasty. Cited in Kh. 
 
 Tsy. Tsi yiin. Dictionary of the Sung dynasty. Cited in Kh. 
 
 Yh. Yiin hwei. Dictionary of the Yuen dynasty. Cited in Kh. 
 
 Chy. Hung wu cheng yiin. Dictionary made by order of Hung wu, founder 
 of the Ming dynasty. Cited in Kh. 
 
 Kin shi tsui pien. Collection of inscriptions. 
 
 Lsk. Lu shu ku. Dictionary of Tai tung. 
 
 Kh. K'ang hi ts'i tien. The most valuable of recent dictionaries. Arranged 
 according to the radicals. Published A.D. 1717.
 
 NAMES OF AUTHOES REFERRED TO BY THEIR 
 
 INITIALS. 
 
 Kp. Kwo p*u. An ancient explainer^of the classics. A.D. 343. One of the 
 most influential of the founders of the syllabic spelling. 
 
 Tt. Tai tung, the learned author of Lu shu ku, in the twelfth century. 
 
 Tyt. Twan yii tsai. Author of Lu shu yin yiin piau. The most successful 
 of recent investigators into ancient sounds. End of eighteenth century.
 
 TONE MARKS. 
 
 The old four tones are 2Ji p'ing, _L shang, c'/iu, ^ ju. 
 These are marked in this work 1, 2, 3, 4. 
 
 When the upper and lower series of initial letters, k, t,p, s, etc., g, d, b, z, 
 etc., are distinguished from each other, the four tones become eight. 
 
 Tone class 1 becomes 1 and 5. 
 Tone class 2 becomes 2 and 6. 
 Tone class 3 becomes 3 and 7. 
 Tone class 4 becomes 4 and 8. 
 
 This arrangement suits the native syllabic dictionaries of Canton, Amoy, and 
 Fucheu, and the pronunciation of the old middle dialect, as exemplified in the 
 dialects of Shanghai and Ningpo. 
 
 There was no c'ku sheng in the time of the classics. 
 
 In Sir Thomas Wade's system, tone class 5 becomes 2, 2 becomes 3, and 
 3 becomes 4. 
 
 The subdivision of p'ing sheng in Chinese dictionaries constructed on the old 
 system, into upper and lower, was early made for convenience in binding, and 
 has nothing to do with difference in intonation. 
 
 Later, when the Mandarin dialect was formed, a real subdivision of p'ing 
 sheng into two classes, each characterized by a peculiar intonation, had already 
 taken place. 
 
 The subdivision of shang and hia p l ing in Wu fang yuen yin and other 
 Mandarin dictionaries is real.
 
 OETHOGKAPHY. 
 
 J, a, o, u, as in Italian. 
 
 L r , o, as in German. 
 
 Final e as in the English "then." 
 
 Medial e, not having i or y before it, as a in "America." 
 
 The vowel 'i is like e in " ladle." 
 
 In t, t's, an aspirate follows t in each case. 
 
 In lc ( , p l an aspirate follows k and p. 
 
 In ch' an aspirate follows t and precedes sh.
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 STUDY OF THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 THE RADICALS. 
 
 ORIGIN OF CHINESE "WRITING. ITS THREE FOUNDERS. DISTINCTION BETWEEN 
 
 AND Tsi. "WHAT ARE RADICALS? WHAT ARE PHONETICS? LIST OF RADICALS 
 
 AS NOW fSED. 
 
 THE native tradition points to B.C. 2700 as the time when writing 
 was invented in China. The histories of that country systematically 
 refer all civilized inventions to a native origin. Since, however, it is 
 incredible that weaving, pottery, metallurgy, astronomical observation, 
 the calendar, the use of the plough, of boats, and the cultivation of 
 wheat, barley, rice, and millet, should all have sprung up in China 
 without foreign help, it must be allowed to be quite possible that 
 writing, like other intellectual results of man's activity, may have 
 been brought to China from some other country. Those who brought 
 the early discoveries of civilization to China may well have been the 
 Chinese themselves. 
 
 The reputed founder of Chinese writing was Tsang kic, who is 
 described in fabulous accounts as minister under the Emperor Hwang 
 ti, and distinguished by possessing four eyes and the countenance of 
 a dragon, i.e. he possessed marvellous wisdom and great loftiness of 
 thought. 
 
 Other accounts ascribe it to Fu hi, who made the eight symbols of 
 divination by lines, and invented a system for records and official 
 communications, which took the place of the older method by knotted 
 
 i
 
 2 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 cords. From this beginning sprang the written character and the 
 first books. 1 
 
 Another story says that under the Emperor Hwang ti, B.C. 2697, 
 two ministers, Tsu sung and Tsang kie, transformed the eight symbols 
 of Fu hi into a more complete system, and drew pictures resembling 
 the foot-prints of birds. 
 
 The tradition of the first invention of writing is seen then to 
 hover with uncertainty over three names, and is beyond the reach of 
 more exact inquiry or any certain confirmation of date or person. 
 
 Among the characters, the prominent distinction existing between 
 the pictorial and the phonetic led to two names almost from the first. 
 The pictorial characters were called 3^ Wen. Wen, or mun, means 
 beautiful, striped, ornamented with various colours. The latter and 
 more numerous class of phonetically formed characters are called 
 ^ T*i (Preface to Sw). 
 
 The ideographic characters may be most conveniently illustrated 
 by the two hundred and fourteen radicals of JKang hi's dictionary. 
 The word 'radical' is misleading. The Chinese equivalent pu means 
 classes, and corresponds in use to our words 'kingdom' in natural 
 history, and ' orders' and ' species ' in botany and zoology. 
 
 The radicals were reduced in number by the Chinese lexicographers 
 from about nine hundred to a few more than two hundred in the 
 seventeenth century. They occur in the same form nearly as in 
 Kang hi in the Cheng ts'i tung and Ts'i hvvei, works which were in 
 circulation half a century earlier. 
 
 The following list of radicals is taken from Kang hi's dictionary. 
 Though far from including all the ideographic characters, which, 
 indeed, are said to be two thousand in number, it presents a very full 
 illustration of the mode in which those characters were made. 
 
 It should be kept in mind that they have been modified to suit 
 modern writing in the Kiai shu form. 
 
 The tendency of the modern extension of education has been to 
 simplify forms and to diminish the number of variations. 
 
 This remark, however, needs limitation. A multitude of old forms 
 were indeed simplified, the labour of writing was much shortened 
 by the use of the modern hair pencil, and diminution in the number 
 
 1 Shang shu sii, Preface to Book of History quoted in Kh. Fu hi's period was B.C 2852 
 to H.C. 2738.
 
 THE RADICALS. 6 
 
 of strokes was in many cases effected. But short-hand writing, 
 ornamental caligraphy, and the tendency to add new radicals to 
 characters once destitute of them, have, on the other hand, multiplied 
 forms beyond all precedent. 
 
 The present two hundred and fourteen radicals are the result 
 of three great modifications. They are fewer and more simple than 
 those of the Li shu, as these are fewer and more simple than those 
 of the Chwen wen, and as the radicals of the Chwen wen are 
 simpler than those of the Ku wen. 
 
 The radicals of the Ku wen are the nearest in shape we can 
 obtain to the original ideographs of the inventors of writing. 
 
 LIST OF RADICALS AS NOW USED. 
 
 R. 1. ~ yi, tit, "one." 
 
 The initial t is derived from the Amoy sound chit, where ch 
 represents t, Sw. Picture of an idea (ch'i ski). Sw says the Kw 
 of this radical has R. 56. Tt insists that the single stroke is more 
 ancient and that the addition of ye, "to shoot," is modern. 
 
 R. 2. \ 
 
 Opposite in direction to the strokes of Fu hi and to the characters 
 , H, H- The same as kan, "an upright stem or trunk of 
 anything." First found in Sw, and a result of the study of the 
 characters by Hii shu chung, its author. 
 
 R. 3. ) chit, tu(k}(t}. 
 
 " A dot," " the flame of a lamp or candle." Picture of the object. 
 Used in modern writing as a comma to mark sentences. 
 
 R. 4. ^/ p'ie, p'it. 
 
 A downstroke inclined from right to left. 
 
 Probably formed by contraction from some more complex character, 
 like it in sound. For example, it may be the left-hand stroke of 
 7V pat, " eight." Inclined downwards from left to right, it is called 
 put, but by some this form is called na, for nap, as if it came from 
 A ju> nip, " enter."
 
 4 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 R. 5. y, &#. 
 
 Second in the cycle of ten. It is very old, for it is found on 
 many of the most ancient vases as a single bent stroke. It may have 
 been formed from some character called kit, and having this for one 
 of its strokes. Yet it may be a foreign symbol. Several signs in 
 the denary and duodenary cycles are not capable of easy explanation 
 from Chinese sources. 
 
 If foreign, it is more likely to be a Babylonian symbol than any 
 other, because the Babylonians had also the denary and duodenary 
 cycle. 
 
 R. 6. J kiue, git, "hook." 
 Picture of a hook. In the Chwen form ^- 
 
 R. 7. ~ r'i (er), ni, "two." 
 
 Two strokes conveniently represent the number two. In Sw it 
 consists of three hands and two strokes and in Kw of - and a 
 form with R. 62 on the right, as in ^ . 
 
 As a radical it includes those characters which in modern writing 
 happen to contain, as their most prominent feature, two parallel 
 strokes drawn from left to right. 
 
 R. 8. ~, -"-, t&u, du. 
 
 This is a fictitious modern character contracted for convenience 
 from more complex characters about twenty in number, which are 
 written with it. As a covering, like RR. 13, 27, 40, it is used 
 chiefly with words which suggest roofs or shade of some kind. 
 
 First made a separate character in the Tsi' hwei, a dictionary of 
 the seventeenth century. 
 
 R - 9. A/^w, nin. 
 
 Man. Picture of a man. One author says a picture of the arms 
 and legs. The form used on the left hand of compound characters is 
 as in ^fj . 
 
 Jen, benevolence. So called because it is natural to man. It is 
 written fc as if with ~ ni "two" on the right. Lscw says, "What 
 the original % is to ^ 'heaven,' such is jen, 'benevolence,' to /en,
 
 THE RADICALS. 
 
 'man.'" Confucius said t ^ A tfi "benevolence is humanity," jen 
 die 1 jen ye. 
 
 Human attributes, things done by man or in which man, in the 
 mental picture of the idea, is the most prominent element, are classed 
 under this radical. 
 
 Many particles and pronouns find a place here. E.g. j[ yi, "in 
 order to," "take." Of this the Kw g suggests no likeness to our 
 radical. 
 
 R. 10. J\^ jen 5, nin. 
 
 Man. It is used at the bottom of characters. The same as J{, so 
 says Tt. 
 
 The following examples will illustrate its use : 
 
 Sw ~fa yiin 6, dun, "sincere." "From ^ and A-" 
 
 7C yuen 5, gon, " source." "From ~ and J{." 
 
 JJ hiung, "elder brother." "From P and A 5 because an elder 
 brother should instruct the younger." 
 
 55 si, " rhinoceros." Formerly a picture of the animal. 
 
 R. 11. \ju, nip, "enter," "within," "obtain." 
 
 A picture of entering. 
 
 Sw says in explaining the character, f*J nui, net, nip, "From J] 
 and \, ' entering from outside.' " This is as if from above downwards. 
 
 As a phonetic, 14aju, nip. 
 
 The Mong. nebterehu, "to penetrate," should be compared with 
 this word. 
 
 R. 12. J\pa, pat. 
 Eight. 
 
 A picture of separation. Two men or things back to back. Sw. 
 Perhaps the root derived its sound from the idea of subdivision 
 and separation heard as pat. 
 
 R. 13. J~J kiung, kom. 
 
 Distant regions. The outer regions of a kingdom or city. Etymo- 
 logically it means "empty," and is the same as k'ung, "empty." 
 
 At the top of some characters it has the form ] , and is like R. 73. 
 
 1 Che is a demonstrative or imperfect relative coming after the word or clause to which 
 it points, and belonging to the subject. Ye is a demonstrative following its word or clause, 
 and belonging to the predicate.
 
 6 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 Sw. Immediately outside the city was kiau (kok). Next to this 
 ye (dat). Beyond this, Urn, "the forest." Last of all, and outside 
 of the forest, was kiting (kom). 
 
 Eiung then is the unoccupied land which the Mongols call ejin 
 ugice ne gadjir, "land without a lord" (lord without's land). This 
 description takes us back to the time when much of China was un- 
 felled forest or untilled soil, and when the settlements of civilized 
 men were comparatively distant from each other. 
 
 This may, I believe, be one of the roots named from the mouth 
 in the primitive gesture speech of men, in which, for example, a 
 guttural initial and final m might be conveniently used for any ideas 
 implying disappearance and hollowness, accompanied with the closing 
 of an open mouth as an auxiliary sign of the act. 
 
 But since kom is also a bow, the root kom for emptiness and 
 hollowness may also have originated it, from occasional resemblance 
 to the shape of a bow. 
 
 R. 14. / > mi, mik. 
 Turned downward. 
 
 Sw Hanging downward from one. Another writer says cloth 
 laid on the floor of a tent. It is contracted from P. 627, R. napkin, 
 i|g mik, "curtain," "to cover," which occurs in Sc. 
 As a phonetic, 627 ming or mik, or mien. 
 
 R. 15. y ping, pirn. 
 
 Ice. Picture of hanging icicles. 
 
 This radical is applied to words of coldness. 
 
 R. 16. J\^ ki, kik, or kit. 
 
 A low bench or stool. Picture of a stool. 
 
 Five kinds are mentioned as anciently in use, viz. of jade, carved, 
 red, lacquered, and unpainted. The ancient Chinese learned on these 
 stools, as they sat on mats. The mats were laid on the ground or on 
 a dais of wood or mason work. 
 
 Used for stools, words of leaning, etc. 
 
 R. 17. |J 
 
 To open the mouth. A vessel for receiving things. A picture of 
 the act of opening the mouth.
 
 THE RADICALS. / 
 
 As a phonetic (166) the sound becomes hiiing by the change of 
 final m to ng. See P. 109 UJ "violent," "cruel." 
 See R. 13 for the same root appearing as kiting. 
 
 R. 18. J] tan, tot, "knife." 
 
 In compounds the shape becomes as in fij tan. A picture of the 
 back and the edge of an ancient knife. Sii in Sw. 
 
 As a phonetic it takes the sound tau, chau, and has lost final t. 
 When the form with two downstrokes is used it is in compound 
 characters. 
 
 The tau and pit sjiE "brush," are mentioned as the two ancient 
 writing implements. 
 
 R. 19. jj li, lik, "strength." 
 
 Sw says, "A picture of human muscles." In the old shapes 
 preserved it looks like a hand turned towards the ground <?(, or like 
 a digging implement at work. 
 
 R. 20. ^ po, pok. ) cho, tok. 
 
 The first is a picture of a man bent and holding something in his 
 arms. Sw. The sound is that of pau, " to embrace." The second 
 is a picture of a spoon (dok) with something in it. 
 
 This radical is also a phonetic. See 41st phonetic, and 168, 465. 
 
 Not only is pok employed as a verb, " to embrace ; " the limbs 
 used in embracing and the thing embraced are also called pok. The 
 arm is pik. 1 A bundle is pau for pok. 
 
 With two horizontal strokes inside, our radical is yun, "even," 
 "average," "a little of." But the real sound is ktm, as seen in 
 J^ kitin, " even." Here our sign is both phonetic and ideographic. 
 
 In several words our sign has the phonetic value gut and ktit. 
 See P. 562. 
 
 A common value is kiung, hiung, from kom, as in ^ "breast," 
 "chest," and with ^ yen, "words," enclosed hung, 1 kom, "noise." 
 
 Further, it has the sound kok in P. 458, R. rice, ku, kuk, " chry- 
 santhemum." It is also phonetic in 98#, keu, " a hook," though here 
 the final k is lost. 
 
 1 The late Professor Stanislas Julien did not himself undertake the study of the Chinese 
 old pronunciation ; but when I pointed out to him during our lengthened correspondence 
 that^t, " arm," being pik in old Chinese, it became like the Greek TTTJ^IT, he admitted that 
 it was a most interesting coincidence.
 
 8 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 R. 21. b pi, pit. 
 
 Spoon. Picture of a spoon. To compare. 
 Also a phonetic, the llth. 
 
 Probable origin in pat, "to spread out," or in bat, "to strike," 
 from the sound of the implement. See R. 81, where 21 is doubled. 
 
 R. 22. . 
 
 Fang 1 pom. A peck measure, or rather a vessel used for 
 holding a peck. It was, says Lsk, called fang, because of its 
 squareness. "To place" and "a place" are also fang. Looking 
 for a physical origin of these abstract terms, we perhaps find it, 
 if we wish to speculate, in feng, " abundant, well filled." Things 
 that are well filled give out a sound when struck which may have 
 been heard as pom or bom. 
 
 Another source may be suggested. Pang 5 bong, " side." The 
 side of a bench or wall might give origin to the idea " squareness," 
 and might receive the name bom as an imitation of the sound of 
 striking against it. 
 
 The peck, ten 5=f "of ten pints," is also called fang. 
 
 R. 23. C 
 
 Hi 6 gl. A containing vessel. The idea here is squareness and 
 not only capacity ; for it is used to write picn, " an oblong tablet 
 of honour," and ti having a similar meaning. 
 
 Compare kicei, ku, " carpenter's rule," for the origin of the sound. 
 Through these it may come from kot, " to cut." Sw says it is 
 formed from 22 with yi, " one," to cover it. 
 
 R. 24. -f- sh'i, dap. 
 
 Ten. Origin probably in grasping. A bundle of ten would be 
 called dap, because zhip, dip, is one of the roots for " to pick up," and 
 tip to take hold of in the hand. But crossing hands is also tap 
 and c'ha. This may have been the origin of zhip, for " ten." 
 
 Sh'i is the third phonetic. 
 
 R. 25. \\ pu, pok, " to divine." 
 
 A picture of the act of scorching a tortoise for the purpose 
 of divination. Another account says it is a picture of the lines, down 
 and across, seen on a tortoise shell. Also a phonetic, the seventeenth.
 
 THE RADICALS. 9 
 
 R. 26. JJ tsie, tsik, also tsit. 
 
 Joint. Of bones, of bamboo, etc. Picture of bones, which, fitting 
 neatly into one another, were used as seals to indicate delegated 
 power, the king keeping one of them. The oldest sound was tik, 
 for final t is derived from final k frequently, and ts comes out of t. 
 
 Form in Sw B^ , in Li shu fft . "When the bent form is as in j^ , 
 it is g R. 163. 
 
 Also phonetic. See 575, 974, both of which, [||} tsi, fjft tsie, are the 
 same with this radical. Note that tsit is the sound in classical poetry, 
 and the supposed change from k to t must therefore have taken 
 place previously to B.C. 1100, unless, as is unlikely, t has changed to k. 
 
 R. 27. JT han. 
 
 Picture of an impending rock or mountain. A cave in which 
 men may live. Sw. Lspy says it is a picture of a river bank bend- 
 ing over and forming both bank (ngan) and shelter. Also phonetic. 
 See 2a. It describes, like RR. 8, 14, 40, things that are covered. 
 
 R. 28. J\ si, tik. 
 
 To think for one's self, same as ^ si, " private." 
 
 Han fei, the old philosopher of that name, said that Tsang kie 
 formed this character to represent thinking and planning for one's 
 self. It has the value tik or sik in PP. 5Qa, 120, 186, 287a, and in 
 RR. 52, 120. 
 
 It has also the phonetic value meu, with the meaning "coat 
 of mail," " a certain one." See P. 286. 
 
 The shape is probably the half of j^ s'i, " silk," and is that of 
 a cocoon as in 120. 
 
 R. 29. ^ yen, dut, and duk. 
 
 Hand, also, other. Sw says it is a picture of the hand, or rather 
 of three fingers of it. 
 
 Written on the left of another symbol or above it, the form is as in 
 the two upper strokes of /f yen "have." 
 
 The hand is pictured also in % c'ha, tap. Here the fingers of two 
 hands are represented crossing. The action of crossing is tap. Join- 
 ing hands as a token of respect is called either c'ha sheu or kung sheu, 
 the former in allusion to crossing the fingers, the latter to raising the 
 joined hands.
 
 10 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 The symbol for " friend," dok, is two hands ;. Sometimes the 
 upper of these two symbols was written like the lower. 
 
 The symbol for turning over is ,, the hand is the most con- 
 venient sign for this action. It is individualized and tied down to 
 this meaning by adding one of the symbols for covering, R. 27. For 
 the sound, the common word fan, pan, was taken. 
 
 Words of receiving and giving are also conveniently expressed by 
 a picture of the hand. 
 
 To receive s/teu, zhu, dut $ is a picture of two hands, and one of 
 the covering radicals between them. The upper hand is R. 87. The 
 sound is in this case the name of the hand itself. 
 
 In the RR. 64 sheu, 66 pok, 94 chau, there are other illustrations 
 of the use of the hand in the Chinese picture writing. 
 
 The use of the hand in the composition of various phonetics should 
 be noticed. 
 
 In R. ts'uii, " inch," the Chwen wen is a hand with beneath 
 it, indicating that the hand supplies a measure for an inch. The 
 stroke is a symbol of a measuring unit. 
 
 In R. 65, j chi "branch," the hand is seen grasping a branch. 
 In R. 107 p'i, "skin," the hand is seen flaying the skin of an 
 animal. 
 
 In \$, P. 178, pet "give," the hand suggests the idea of giving. 
 
 In P. 227 hicei, "ashes," we have a hand and fire. The hand 
 is put forth to the fire as if, says Sw, to lift the ashes which are, the 
 fire being out, ready for removal. 
 
 In 2fc ki, gip, "to reach," the two strokes on the left are said to 
 be R. man, and those on the right R. hand. 
 
 In p. 255 c'heng, jjt " receive," a hand is held out on each side to 
 receive something represented by certain strokes between them. 
 
 At the foot of characters two hands are frequently represented by 
 ft. See 315, 308, 367, 490, 498, 861, 854. 
 
 The upper part of J| tseu, " offer a petition or address, etc. to the 
 emperor," and of c'hun, "spring," consists of two hands with 
 "ten" above and between them. See 519, 520, 633. In these cases 
 the hands are represented as above. 
 
 In kitten, " to roll," 219, two hands are seen rolling up what is 
 meant for a scroll. 
 
 In 983 pan, pok, " to scorch," two pairs of hands occur with the
 
 THE RADICALS. 11 
 
 sun above them and the water below. Here the symbolism ig not l\ 
 explained. 
 
 In Shicang, "a pair," two birds' tails, R. 172, were anciently 
 placed together, with 34 below. Two hands side by side form t),ie 
 modern contracted character. 
 
 R. 30. P k'eu, k'ok, kit, gap. 
 
 A picture of the human mouth. Also a phonetic 51. 
 
 To the above sounds may added k'ung, kam. 
 
 The reason of this variety of sounds is found in the variety of 
 ideas that the word 'mouth' or 'aperture' may be used to express. 
 For example, 
 
 Speaking, calling, telling. 
 
 Mouth of animals, rivers, caves, hollows. 
 
 The opening or closing of apertures. 
 
 Gaping, pressing, devouring, grasping. 
 
 Disappearance, seizing. 
 
 The mouth may have been used in the primitive language of signs 
 as descriptive of any of these and similar ideas. 
 
 If any of these ideas had names already, the ideographic sign 
 would be likely, in order to prevent confusion, to take a new sound, 
 viz. that of the object. 
 
 This seems to be the best way to explain the fact that this 
 phonetic has several values, which may not have arisen from one 
 another by ordinary changes of letters. 
 
 That it had properly a final consonant, which was k, appears from 
 the fact that final k occurs in seven phonetics containing this shape, 
 and final t in three. Evidence is in favour of a lost k in eight more. 
 The fair conclusion is that the old sound was kok, and that it changed 
 partially to kit. 
 
 The sound of the 31st radical is kok, and this is also in favour of 
 the same conclusion. 
 
 For the sound kak cf. 272, for kok 338, 342, for kit 243, for gap 
 285. 
 
 R. 31. I kwo, kok. 
 
 Any thing encircling. Circle. According to the native view this 
 radical takes the phonetic value of certain words of which it came to 
 be used as the symbol.
 
 12 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 Htcei 5 gut, as in JU hwei, "come back." Sw. "A picture of 
 jyolting and returning," 
 
 'l*he same sound without the h is found in ^ wei, "encompass." 
 Il|re, however, the final was probably k. 
 
 mother phonetic value is kok, as in |pl "kingdom." It stands 
 a'Jhe as a symbol for this and the last character in old writing. It 
 is the sound k'wun in ^ " to shut in," " keep in close quarters," 
 Because this idea is properly expressed by the sound k'wun (which is 
 the same thing as k'iuen, hwan, ynen, "a circle"), and which takes 
 derived meanings, "to be wearied," "powerless," "render power- 
 'less by imprisoning," etc. 
 
 This radical probably takes its origin from R. 30, keu, " mouth." 
 The value of this was originally kok. Kok therefore may be regarded 
 as the proper sound of our phonetic. Gut and kicun are sounds 
 derived from special uses of the character. 
 
 R. 32. t'u, t'ot, " earth." 
 
 Picture of the earth (the two horizontal strokes) sending forth its 
 productions (the upright stroke). Sw. 
 
 The final t is deduced from its occurring in phonetics, of which 
 this forms a part. 
 
 R. 33. - shi, zhit, " scholar." 
 
 The uppermost of the four classes of the people. The governing 
 and learned class. Sw. The character is formed from " one," 
 and -p " ten," the first and last in the decimal notation. 
 
 The author seems to have thought numerical perfection a proper 
 symbol for the learned class. The true explanation of the symbol is 
 probably lost. 
 
 In the Sc and Kw there is on each side of the upper stroke an 
 additional downstroke. 
 
 Words under this radical are classed from connexion, not in 
 meaning but in form only. This is because probably the character 
 had originally a physical sense now lost, and was borrowed from 
 likeness in sound to symbolize " scholar." 
 
 R. 34. ^ chi, "arriving from behind." 
 
 Picture of the legs of a man, and of some person or thing pushing 
 him from behind. Sw.
 
 THE RADICALS. 13 
 
 R. 35. ^ si, " walk slowly." 
 
 Picture of two legs meeting some obstacle. Sw. 
 
 Old form of sui, " rest ; " p. 336, R. silk, " to secure," " at peace." 
 
 R. 36. ? si> ziky "evening." 
 
 Picture of a half moon. Sw. Sii adds that the new moon as a 
 crescent is seen in the west in the evening. Hence the symbol for 
 evening. 
 
 R. 37. %. ta, dap, "great." 
 
 The same as -fc and ,|jf , but in the last p has become k. Sw says, 
 a picture of a man, because, after heaven and earth, man is the 
 greatest of all things. Tt says it is a picture of a man stretching out 
 his arms and legs in full health and vigour. Tt then proceeds to 
 explain /$ kia, chia, kap, as a picture of two men seizing on another 
 man. 
 
 R. 38. & nii, nok, "woman." 
 
 It is p. 50. The character is the same as p. 187, mu, "mother," 
 except that it wants the two dots. It is a part of P. 188, mi, " slave," 
 287 jit, " as," and is in both phonetic. 
 
 Root the same with/w, "like," jo, "soft,"/?/, "soften in water." 
 
 R. 39. 3- s'i, tak, " son." 
 Picture of a new-born child. See the Chwen wen. 
 
 R. 40. fl- mien, min. 
 
 Covering of a house. Used chiefly for words connected with 
 houses and residences. In the Cw the short strokes on the 
 right and left are prolonged to the bottom, and some phonetic is 
 enclosed which indicates the name of the concealed object. The root 
 is the same with man, " hide," " a curtain," etc. 
 
 R. 41. "7J~ t'sun, t'on, "inch." 
 
 The tenth of a hand's length. Picture of a hand with a stroke 
 representing " one," which is understood to begin from below the 
 wrist.: Sw and Sii. 
 
 Sc ^\ . Origin apparently in tun, " to cut," as if referring to 
 notches cut in a measuring rod.
 
 14 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 E. 42. >J> riati, sok, " little." 
 
 From a downstroke, denoting visibility, and two side strokes, pat, 
 " eight," representing division. Sw. Sii says the downstroke means 
 " on first seeing." Compare k'an and ktcan, both meaning to " see." 
 
 R. 43. ^C ^ong. 
 
 A picture of a bent leg broken. Sw. The true radical and 
 phonetic for which this stands as representative is rather ~fc yen, dnk, 
 "fault," "move." 
 
 R. 44. J* sfi'i, shut, " corpse." 
 
 Sw says, " A picture of lying." The idea is that of spreading or 
 stretching out as descriptive of a body that has lost all power of motion, 
 
 R. 45. Cjj c'he, te't, " plants." 
 
 Sprouting. A picture of the stem and branches of plants. 
 R. 46. jlj shan, " mountain." 
 
 A picture of the object. More anciently two upright cones or 
 triangles connected at their bases. 
 
 R. 47. {(( c'hicen, fun, 1 " river, stream." 
 
 The same as )]\ . A picture of the object. Except in the 
 character ']fi\ cheu, " city, province, island," the bent form is preferred 
 in all compounds. The shape is much the same as in R. 85, shtti, 
 " water," and under R. 208, in lap, " wax." Three parallel lines 
 drawn downward express 'flowing' in all these cases. 
 
 R. 48. X hung, kom, " work, workman, cunning work." 
 
 A picture of a man holding a carpenter's rule. 
 
 The primitive m for ng is apparently retained in p. 815, kam. 
 " dare," but this vanishes in the Chwen form of 815. It really occurs 
 in P. 1039. Since to bend and to work are both called kung, the 
 name as applied to work may be derived from the bent body of the 
 workman. 
 
 R. 49. B M, " self." 
 
 Also used with R. "silk," for ki, "to manage a matter." 
 In Sc it resembles p. 34. It is p. 32. 
 
 1 Also called kwun. A single bent line of the same shape is called kitten. Both are 
 variants of the root kuwn, " hubble up," " spring up."
 
 THE RADICALS. 
 
 15 
 
 R. 50. fjj khi. 
 
 A cloth or napkin hung at the girdle and used as a handkerchief, 
 duster or towel, or to wrap round the head. Picture of the object as 
 it hangs. The sound from kwnn, " to wrap," " to tie up." 
 
 R. 51. ^f kan, "shield." 
 
 Probably a picture of the frame- work of a wooden or leather 
 shield. East of the Great Pass, says Fy, it was used interchangeably 
 with tun, with the sense " shield." 
 
 In the phrase jo kan, "how many," the usage is peculiar. Jo, 
 " that," becomes interrogative. Kan is " many," " several." An 
 upright staff is also kan. This would be the standard of a shield. It 
 would also be sticks used as counters laid on the matted floor on which 
 the primitive arithmeticians sat when calculating or expounding. 
 Each stick represented something. Thus kan would come to be used 
 for " a thing," " a matter." 
 
 Jo kan is parallel to ki ko jfij " how many." The slips of bamboo 
 laid down in a row to help in primitive counting, would be ^j nok kan, 
 or [|| ki kan, nok kak, or ki kak, in the sense "so many" (demonstra- 
 tive), or "how many" (interrogative). 
 
 Upright staves were used as a fence, and so this root came to 
 mean kan, "balustrade," han, "to check, ward off," and Men, "to 
 limit, a boundary." The idea of resistance originated that of offend- 
 ing, and so we find kan in the sense of sinning against. 
 
 R. 52. ^ yau 1, ok, tok. 
 
 Small. A picture of a child just born. Sw. Su hiuen says, 
 "like something that has just received shape." 
 
 When doubled it is called yen. The meaning is the same. 
 
 It is used phonetically in |$| yen, " secret," " hidden." 
 
 It is used ideographically in ^ ki, "how many," "a weaving or 
 spinning machine. In the Chwen form one ball is suspended above 
 another and they are connected by a thread or needle. 
 
 Rejecting the native explanation of the ideograph, it is preferable 
 to read z^ s'i as tok, identify it with our radical, and derive the 
 symbol from silk balls or natural cocoons connected by thread or 
 a needle piercing them. 
 
 The origin of all the words is in fineness or smallness.
 
 16 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 The lower part of s'i, "silk," is then phonetic, tok, ISa. But 
 this is not a certain appendage in ancient forms. It is therefore 
 preferable to derive final k from p. 620, where it is beyond question. 
 
 R. 53. f" ngam, yen. 
 
 Picture of a roofed house. 
 
 It is used like RR. 27, 40, for words alluding to residence, houses, etc. 
 
 They are such as/tJ, pot, "house," Jft "palace," "office of govern- 
 ment records;" c'han Jj dan, "a house with a mow and a half of land, 
 sufficient for the residence and support of one man." 
 
 R. 54. jJL yen, yin. 
 
 Take a long journey, to prolong, lengthen. The character is 
 explained as R. 60 prolonged. If so it is a picture of men walking. 
 
 The root is din or tan, which is also written JiE, and occurs in tan, 
 "occupy time," as in tan yen, tan ko, and in yucn, "distant" j|f; ; also 
 in tan, "spread out," "stretch." The likeness in sound also enables 
 us to discover it in ffi c'hen, din, "spread out." 
 
 This radical is phonetic in JtE yen, and it is from this origin that 
 the whole character has become phonetic, and then by contraction the 
 five right-hand strokes have also become phonetic. 
 
 R. 55. ft hung. 
 
 To elevate the joined hands. Picture of two hands in the Chwen 
 form. Yang hiung of the Han dynasty says that this character 
 consists of two joined hands. Sw says it consists of jJj and 3^.. 
 
 The root is kom "rise," which occurs in king, "rise," k'ing, 
 "elevate," king, "honour," kung, "to honour, revere." 
 
 See P. 21a, 251. 
 
 R. 56. -^ ye, tik, " throw," " dart." 
 
 Picture of throwing with a sling or shooting with the bow. 
 The root coincides with J|J she, dik, "to dart," for d changes to t. 
 
 R. 57. fj kung, kom, "a bow." 
 
 The old Chinese archers used a bow bent in at the centre. 
 
 The bow is used as a measuring instrument, and is then five feet long. 
 
 Sw has a suggestive remark. The bow " from the near reaches 
 the distant." Reaches is here k'iung, "limit," "exhaust." The 
 author thinks the words etymologically connected.
 
 THE RADICALS. 17 
 
 R. 58. 3 kie, k?t. 
 
 Sw. The picture of a boar running to a point ; above which is 
 seen the head. 
 
 The shape to which reference is here made is like the upper part 
 of jjg hioei, " hedgehog," of the head of which animal, says Kwy, this 
 character is a picture. 
 
 It forms part of the following phonetics: 426, sh'i, djit, "thing;" 
 438, sau, sot, " sweep ; " 733, sine, sif, " snow." 
 
 Consequently it has two phonetic values, ket and sit. The last is 
 sometimes tat, as in 440. 
 
 The second of these values, sit or tat, is probably the hand, 
 shcu ^ , one of the old sounds of which is tut, and written with two 
 strokes X . This is in the Chwen wen a rude picture of the hand. 
 
 The caprices of writing have caused the two values to coalesce. 
 
 R. 59. ^ shan, sham. 
 
 Ornaments of hair, real or painted, such as were used on reins. 
 Long hair. A picture of hair, ornamental or natural. 
 
 R. 60. ^ c'tri, t'tt. 
 
 A short step. Limping. 
 
 A picture of three men's thighs or of three persons walking, the 
 middle one stopping behind a little. 
 
 If the two upper strokes are horizontal, the sound is t'uk. Kwy. 
 
 Sii yuen says the character means standing still, but Cheng sien 
 says walking. Probably the last is right, for the root tuk, "to walk," 
 appears in j|_ tseu, R. 156. Walking also is the prevailing idea 
 throughout the words written with this radical. 
 
 In pictorial symbols, motion and rest become identical. 
 
 This is phonetic and ideographic in P. 773, si, " to remove," and 
 in R. 162, where it constitutes the upper part. 
 
 R. 61. >[j sin, sim, tim, "heart." 
 
 Picture of the human heart, which in the old form it resembles. 
 
 Words descriptive of the feelings and acts of the mind are placed 
 under this radical. 
 
 The compilers of Kang hi's dictionary correctly say that to identify 
 the sound of this radical with sin, "acid," as is done in the dictionaries 
 Tsi hwei and Cheng ts'i t'ung, is wrong. 
 
 2
 
 18 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 They wrote after the labours of Ku yen wu of Sucheu and others, 
 who brought to light the difference between the old and modern 
 sounds in a more thorough way than had previously been done. 
 Their time was the latter half of the seventeenth century. The 
 compilers of Kang hi could profit by their productions. 
 
 In compounds the form is contracted, as in f\^ sing, "nature," 
 " disposition." 
 
 R. 62. *$ kwo, kak, "spear." 
 
 An even-headed spear rather short. It is formed, like R. 56, with 
 the addition of a horizontal stroke, which refers to its being flat at 
 the top, having there a sharp edge six inches long. Attached to the 
 handle was a blade, four inches broad and six inches long, which had 
 the edge just mentioned. 
 
 Final k is deduced from p. 430, jjjjj hwok, "whether," "some person." 
 
 R. 63. p 1m, go(t], "a gate, door." 
 
 A picture of the object. Anciently it was an inner door and single, 
 while the outer and double door was called men. 
 
 Mong. eg ude. Jap. kado: 
 
 Some grounds exist for regarding the lost final of this word as k ; 
 for which see among the phonetics, No. 101. 
 
 R. 64. 3* sheu, tu(f), "hand." 
 
 Picture of a hand. 
 
 Final t is inferred from R. 29. See for proofs those given under 
 p. 15. But some facts favour final k. 
 
 Almost all verbs which represent acts done by the hand, or by 
 implements held in the hand, take this radical, and its form is usually 
 that of the left part of ft fa, "beat." 
 
 R. 65. - ch'i, ti(t), "branch." 
 
 The lower two strokes are the hand. It grasps a piece of bamboo, 
 Sw says half a bamboo ; the lower half is hidden by the hand. 
 
 The final consonant may possibly be k. Giak occurs as the sound 
 in Kicy. The initials k (or g] and ch are both commonly used. 
 
 Mong. sala, Jap. yeda. The source of / is in t or d in all the 
 Eastern Asiatic languages.
 
 THE RADICALS. 19 
 
 R. 66. p'u,p'ok, "a slight blow." 
 
 The hand which strikes is seen below. The upper strokes are the 
 same as f> pok, "to divine," which is here phonetic. 
 
 In compounds the form is as in $C mil > "shepherd," and it is used 
 on the right hand. 
 
 The words placed under this radical are such as might with 
 equal propriety be found under 29 and 64 sheu, "hand." 
 
 This radical is called fan wen, the reverse of wen, viz. R. 67. 
 
 R. 67. 2$ wen, mun, "strokes," "literature," "characters," "ornament." 
 
 When used as a verb " to ornament," the tone changes from p'ing 
 to c'hii sheng. 
 
 A picture of strokes. Two above cover two below, those below 
 form a cross. 
 
 R. 68. =[ ten, tu(k], "ten pints." 
 
 A measure, shaped like the four stars in the Great Bear, which are 
 called Pel tea, "Northern peck." 
 
 If this measure is the same as shau, cho, etc., usually translated 
 "spoon," the old sound will be tok as in ^ cno > '^ a ^ 80 meaning a 
 spoon. 
 
 Properly, however, the three stars in the tail are called cho, and the 
 four forming a trapezium k'lvei, while the seven constitute together 
 the ten. When the ten was employed as a vessel of capacity for 
 wine, the word "to pour," tok, was used when ladling it from a large 
 jar or cask into a goblet. 
 
 In the variety and complexity of the Sc, Kw, and other old extant 
 shapes it is difficult to say whether the -f- in this ideograph was at 
 first the symbol for ten in reference to ten pints, or whether this was 
 a late modification. 
 
 R. 69. ft kin, "a hatchet." 
 
 It was made of iron with a crooked piece of wood for a handle. 
 
 As a weight it is llbs. English. It is divided into 16 ounces. 
 
 The identity in size and weight led the ancient Chinese, in the 
 absence of weights, to employ the hatchet or the knife, tan, in 
 weighing.
 
 20 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 R. 70. "ft fang, pong, "square." 
 
 Picture of two boats, side by side, Sw. 
 
 A boat of a certain kind was called fang. The radical then is both 
 phonetic and ideographic. Such a combination of the two main 
 principles which guided the inventors of the characters in their task 
 is extremely common. 
 
 R. 71. ^ wu, mo, "not." 
 
 The ancient form was either this or . The modern is ^ which 
 was first applied to mean "not" in the T'sin dynasty. When the 
 Chwen wen was changing to the Li, j came to be read mong. Hence 
 in editions of the classics it is requisite to indicate in notes that the 
 sound was mo, at the time when they were written. 
 
 R. 72. Bfi 4, nit, "sun," "day." 
 
 Picture of the sun. Originally a circle with a stroke or dot in 
 the middle. 
 
 R. 73. J3 yue, yet, "say," "said." 
 
 Picture of the mouth with breath issuing. The middle stroke is 
 the breath and was anciently & . 
 
 R. 74. Jfy yue, nget, get, " moon." 
 
 The moon was called " the bright one." See p. 733. 
 Picture of a crescent moon. 
 
 R. 75. Tfc mu, mok, " wood." 
 
 Picture of a tree. Trees are all ranged under this radical, with 
 the exception of bamboo, which is in China so extensive in its uses 
 that it is in dictionaries made the head of a separate class. 
 
 R. 76. ?fc k'ien, k'im, " wearied," " deficient," " owe." 
 
 The three upper strokes in the ancient form of the character 
 represent the rapid breathing which attends fatigue, and the stool 
 below indicates that on which the wearied man seated on the floor leans. 
 
 Words ranged under this radical are concerned with the outward 
 expression of feelings, acts of the mouth, and the like, so far as they 
 are conveniently indicated by the breath. 
 
 R. 77. j cht 2, tik, "stop," "stay." 
 
 Picture of the stem of plants just growing above the ground. Sw 
 and Sii. It is in fact the lower part of J, tsok, "foot." Tsok=tok.
 
 THE RADICALS. 21 
 
 Sw explains the character for foot as derived from ch'i, "to stop," 
 and P. It is better to suppose the foot to have been first drawn 
 by the inventors of writing, and the verbs ^ tseu, tok, "walk," 
 
 -^ 
 
 and ch'i, "to stop," with J^ t ( ok, R. 162, to have been all formed 
 from it. The author of Sw felt a difficulty in explaining the shape as 
 a picture of a foot. I would suggest some such outline as one foot 
 raised, and one on the ground, as in the act of walking. The 
 application to the act of stopping would occur later. The ground for 
 substituting a new explanation is in the fact of 35, 77, 156, 157, 162, 
 having the same phonetic base. 
 
 R. 78. ~Z/ tai, ngat, tat, dat. 
 
 Broken bones. The form in Sw is H , of which see in Kh the 
 explanation. As a phonetic 65 a, tat. Perhaps it was the old word 
 for " die." S'i, "die," , was written anciently with this radical, and 
 jen, "man," on the right. The tendency of writers was to add 
 radicals, and the addition of jen may have been subsequent to the 
 invention of the character. 
 
 R. 79. | shu, zhut, " a spear." 
 
 A spear twelve feet in length, used in war. Many words of 
 fighting and arranging are placed under this radical. The upper 
 part is called shu 5, zho, " short feathers," and differs from ki, 
 " bench," which is very like it in form. It is phonetic. The lower 
 part is a " hand." 
 
 R. 80. {: wu, mo, " do not." 
 
 Used anciently as ^ mo, mok, " do not," is among the moderns. 
 Hence it would seem a final k has been lost. This is more probable 
 from mei, " every," g, being also used in Kwy once with k final, 
 R. grass. 
 
 An incredible explanation of this character is found in Sw. Sw is, 
 however, doubtless right in making nit, "woman," the basis. To 
 account for the middle downstroke I suggest that it was a symbol 
 of a child. The whole represents a mother holding a child with the 
 sound mo, "mother" (perhaps mok}. The imperative "do not," 
 which also happened to be mo, was written with this symbol pho- 
 netically. This explanation reverses the native order, which places 
 mu, " mother," under the range of this radical. The character which
 
 22 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 had the least number of strokes was made the radical. The radicals 
 in their present form are only two centuries old, and they were fixed 
 on for convenience in consulting the dictionary. 
 
 R. 81. Jfc pi, pit, " compare." 
 
 Two men, one before the other, represent the idea of following. 
 Reverse them and you have that of comparing. Sw. 
 
 In place of this explanation which rests on the supposition that 
 XA t'sung, " to follow," was a primitive character, and that our 
 radical is the reverse of it I suggest that the verb " to compare," 
 then called pit, was written phonetically with ^ pi, pit, " spoon," and 
 that it was doubled, because, in comparing, there must be at least two 
 objects. Any object of simple shape would serve, if doubled, as the 
 written symbol of the idea of comparing. The spoon was chosen 
 because it had the right sound. It was called (pi or) pit, and 
 therefore served as a symbol for the verb pit, " to compare." It was 
 probably used in measuring as well as eating. 
 
 R. 82. ^ mau, mok, "hair." 
 Picture of the object. Final k occurs in Kwy with R. mu, " eye." 
 
 R. 83. j sh'i, zhik, dik, "tribe," " family name." 
 
 The name dik is the same as Jjfjjg tsu, dzuk, dok, "tribe." It 
 originated in dik, "to bind." Men first bound themselves into 
 a tribal relation, and then gave this relation a name from the act 
 of binding. 
 
 As to the shape of the character, it perhaps came from i ^> 
 "bottom," formerly tik, used phonetically, or it may have been a 
 picture of binding, and ti, " bottom," would then be formed from it. 
 The horizontal stroke ties the two downstrokes. Final k occurs in 
 Kwy with R. yen, " words." The Chinese derive ti, " bottom," from 
 our radical, but do not explain the pictorial meaning, which they 
 suppose to attach to it. 
 
 R. 84. ^JT </, k'it, "breath." 
 
 Picture of cloudy vapour. Sw. It helps to form P. 38 and p. 664. 
 In the old shape three bent lines proceeding from left to right, 
 begin high and end low.
 
 THE RADICALS. 23 
 
 R. 85. 7JC shin, su(t) or su(p), "water." 
 
 Turk, su, "water," Mong. oso. 
 
 In the Chwen wen three strokes descending indicate the appearance 
 of flowing water as seen in a river. This was adopted as the written 
 symbol. The two outside strokes are broken in the middle. 
 
 It occurs again in R. 47, which is but a modification of 85, and in 
 $j lieu, "flow," where it forms the lower right-hand portion of the 
 character. It occurs besides in p. 502 tap ^, where it is phonetic, as 
 it is also in p. 980 lap, "wax." 
 
 In P. 754 it indicates the dripping of varnish from the tree, or its 
 liquidity, *{f t'sit. 
 
 R. 86. >X hico 2, ka(t), "fire." 
 A picture of sparks and flame. Mong. gal, "fire." 
 
 R. 87. J chau, tok, " nails," " claws." ' 
 
 To scratch. Contracted into Tit . 
 
 Picture of the hand turned downwards. Sw. 
 
 It is like the phonetic 47, c'ha, t'ap, and occurs itself as a phonetic, 
 102. 
 
 The compound phonetic 686, tsau, "early," has the meanings, 
 " to scratch," " to feel an itching sensation," " to feel uncomfortable 
 in mind or body," which are all derived from the root symbolized by 
 this radical. 
 
 The names of the hand were applied to acts of the hand. 
 
 It occurs phonetically or pictorially in 336, 449, 1019. In the 
 last, tsiak " office," k is in the dictionaries. In 336, with R. woman 
 beneath, t'o, "fixed," "secure," final k is supported by the Mongol 
 toldaho, "to stand," toktagaho, "to make or keep firm." In 449, 
 ? ts'ai, it is supported by the meanings. 
 
 R. 88. 4fu, 6, 7, bo, "father." 
 
 Perhaps the use of fit as a phonetic 114, infu, "a cooking pan," 
 R. " metal," indicate a lost origin for the shape which may have been 
 that of some vessel. The upper part may be ) < pat, " eight," used 
 phonetically. But in that case how can we account for the cross 
 below ? See under p. 114.
 
 24 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 -^r 
 
 R. 89. ^C hiau, 5, gak. 
 
 Picture of two crosses, each made by two strokes crossing obliquely. 
 
 Sw says it is derived from tlie strokes of the Pa kwa, six in 
 number, crossing at the top. 
 
 Strokes, drawings, lines, are called gak, probably from cutting, 
 k'ak. In the modern Mandarin sound hwa, and the Old Middle sound 
 teak, w has been inserted. In the latter case the h is lost. See p. 115. 
 
 R. 90. -r t'siang, 5 dong. 
 
 A wooden framework, such as a bedstead, a turning lathe, an ice 
 sleigh. In its full form it has the symbol for wood on the right, 
 UTJC c'hicang, dong. 
 
 It is a phonetic, 118, and perhaps gives a phonetic value, t'siang, 
 to P. 894, gig snk. 
 
 R. 91. J^ p'ien, p'in. 
 
 A. split piece of wood. Picture of the right half of the wood radical 
 #.-Sw. 
 
 To cut or divide into two is p'an. That which is cut is p'ien. 
 
 R. 92. ;Jf ya, 5, ngat, "tooth." 
 
 Anything in the shape of a tooth. Picture of the object. 
 As a phonetic, 76. 
 
 R. 93. ^ nieu 5, ngu(k), " cow." 
 
 A picture of a cow's horns and tail. 
 
 Since horn is kak, the animal may be named from its horns. 
 
 R. 94. ^ k'iuen, k'on, "dog." Contracted into |, as in $f . 
 
 A picture of a dog. Confucius states that it is so when alluding 
 to the origin of writing ^, Such was the form the sage had before 
 his eye when he detected in it the shape of a dog. 
 
 Sw says it is " a dog with its foot (the small downstroke on the 
 right) suspended in vacuo." 
 
 There are three kinds of dogs, says an old author the hunter, 
 t'ien k'iuen ; the barking dog, fei k'iuen ; and the dog for eating. 
 Formerly "men ate dogs as now they eat beef." 
 
 A phonetic value of this radical is hit or tut, as in PP. 462, 505.
 
 THE RADICALS. 25 
 
 K. 95. ^ hiuen, gun. 
 
 Dark blue. Colour of the sky. Black, as in Hiuen wu, " black 
 warrior ; " god of the month, in the mythology of the Li ki, i.e. the 
 Book of Rites, and of the Han dynasty. 
 
 R. 96. 3 i/ii 8, ngok. Contracted form J, as in Jjc, J|! . 
 
 Precious stones. Especially jade, which, from the large quantity 
 of that stone found in Eastern Turkestan, has always been well known 
 to the Chinese. 
 
 R. 97. J& kwa 1, ku(k), "melon," "cucumber." 
 
 Picture of the object. The four upper strokes are the plant, the 
 circle, now two strokes, is the melon, p. 172. 
 
 R. 98. J wa 6, ngo, "pottery." 
 
 The invention of Kwun wu in the Ilia dynasty, B.C. 2100 to 1700. 
 The last Emperor Kie had a palace of porcelain made for him by 
 Kwun wu. This account comes from the Po wu ki by Chang hwa. 
 Probably what Kwun wu did was to improve the art which already 
 existed. 
 
 R. 99. -ft kan 1, kam, "sweet." 
 
 Picture of the mouth. The upper cross stroke represents some- 
 thing going into it. As a phonetic, 151. 
 
 R. 100. sheng 1, shang, "come into life," "live," "life," "produce." 
 p. 164. Probably formed as a root from twig, dong, "to move," 
 
 "moving," and identical with yang, "produce," "nourish." Y here 
 
 stands for d. The primitive source of all these words is the old root 
 
 dom, " move," which again originated in imitation of a natural sound. 
 
 Found with the sound lung in p. 835. L has here taken the place 
 
 of d. 
 
 A picture of _ "earth" below, and tj4 c'/ie, 62a, "springing 
 
 plants" above. 
 
 R. 101. $J yung, 7, dong, dom, "to use." 
 
 Cheu pe k'i says it is formed by contraction from Hg yung, and 
 that from | chung, " bell." See in Kb.
 
 26 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 R. 102. t'ien, din, " field." 
 
 A piece of land, divided among farmers. From the idea of 
 spreading out, which is expressed by din, found, e.g. in c'hen 5, din, 
 " to spread out." Something flat and wide is what is meant. 
 
 This symbol is tik in 701, by dialects and by the dictionaries. 
 
 In 792, J3 yi, initial t is known by the following indications : 
 1st. Resemblance to 701. 2nd. The meaning, " to cultivate the 
 ground," is that also of tsukuru in Japanese, and tsok in the Fukien 
 cho c'han. 3rd. ch'ik, t'ek, is the sound given with R. tseu, "walk." 
 
 R. 103. 2E su, sok, " must," " ought." 
 
 "With sound p'it, " a piece of cloth." Properly 40 feet. At first 
 a double Hang was called p'it. But a Hang was two ehang=2Q feet. 
 See P. 161. 
 
 R. 104. JJ ni, nik, "sickness." 
 
 Picture of a sick man leaning against a support. 
 
 All words connected with diseases are arranged under this head. 
 
 K. 105. ;/. pet, pak. 
 
 Picture of two legs being stretched out and pushing something 
 away. Lspy. 
 
 Another authority, following the sound of pei > supposes the 
 character to be the picture of two men back to back. 
 
 R. 106. & pe8, bak, "white," "clear." 
 Picture of a man joining two to two. Sw. 
 
 R. 107. $ p'i 5, ba(t], " skin." P. 170. 
 
 Contracted from a hand (the lower right-hand corner) and wci, 
 " to be," " to do," P. 839. So Sw. Another author says it is from 
 hand and corpse p sh'i. To take off the skin the animal must be 
 dead. A skin undressed is p'i. Dressed it is kak, R. 177. Softened 
 it is tcei, R. 178. 
 
 R. 108. fff| ming, "chinaware." 
 
 Picture of the object, viz. several jars on a table. 
 See R. 143 for an explanation.
 
 THE RADICALS. 27 
 
 R. 109. g mu 8, mok, "eye." 
 
 Picture of the eye. In Kw two strokes like J{ were usually 
 drawn above the modern character. 
 
 R. 110. y^ men, "a spear." 
 A spear twenty feet long set up in the general's chariot. 
 
 R. 111. fc shi, shik, "arrow." 
 Picture of an arrow point wrapped in feathers. 
 
 R. 112. ;g s/i'i 8, zhak, "stone." 
 Picture of a stone lying under an overhanging hill. 
 
 R. 113. ffc sh'i, zhi(t] "announce;" also gi, "spirits of earth." 
 
 The two strokes above are _ shang, "above." The three below 
 represent the sun, moon, and stars. Heaven makes announcements to 
 men by means of the heavenly bodies. Sw and Sii. 
 
 This radical embraces words relating to ancestors, spirits, sacrifices 
 and the like. 
 
 R. 114. pi| jeu, nieu, nok. 
 
 Foot of an animal trampling on the earth. 
 As a phonetic, 117. 
 
 R. 115. ^ ho 5, gak, "corn." 
 
 From mu "wood," and chui "fall or hang down," to represent the 
 falling appearance of the ear of corn. 
 As a phonetic, 167. 
 
 R. 116. ^ hiue 8, git. 
 
 A hole or house in the ground, e.g. in the loess or light loam of 
 North China. This soil breaks vertically, and presents in valleys a 
 perpendicular face often hundreds of feet in height. Villagers scoop 
 out cave houses in this soft earthy formation. 
 
 The root probably is the verb git, "to dig." 
 
 R. 117. & li, lip, " stand," "set up." 
 
 Formerly used for -fjfc wei, which had therefore at one time a final 
 p, and has lost initial d. In the modern compound form it is an 
 example of suggestion. 
 
 As a phonetic, 128.
 
 28 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 R. 118. fj- chu 4, tok, "bamboo." 
 Picture of bamboo leaves, and stems. As a phonetic, 2600. 
 
 R. 119. ft mi 6, mi(k), "rice." 
 
 Seed of the rice plant. Picture of seeds. 
 See P. 220. 
 
 R. 120. 3 & 1, aik, " small," " silk." 
 
 In writing the colloquial si', " silk," the doubled form is used fj. 
 
 Another sound used is mik. Kwy. In Kh mik takes the place 
 of si ; but the double form is, in Kh, s'i, and this is likely to be the 
 original sound. A picture of a small heap of fine silk. The Chwen 
 form is rather a picture of cocoons. The silk produced by one worm 
 is called hut. That of ten is called s'i. Sk. 
 
 The Mongol sereg and the Latin seres, with the words 'satin' and 
 ' silk/ all point, if taken alone, to ser or sat as the root. If so, our k 
 above written must be changed to t. But the k may have been lost 
 before the trade with the west began. In this case the r is a Tartar 
 suffix. Let it be remembered that reg is a common noun suffix in 
 Mongol and Turkish words at present. For proof of final k see R. 52. 
 
 R. 121. - feu, put, " earthenware," " covered jar for wine and soy." 
 
 Also used as a musical instrument. As a phonetic, 258. 
 
 Pottery would greatly facilitate the early extension of the art of 
 writing, from the ease with which, as in the Babylonian brick inscrip- 
 tions, signs of ideas impressed on a soft substance could be made 
 permanent by baking in a kiln. 
 
 R. 122. pXJ, fflwangG, mang, mam. Contracted form DU. 
 
 Picture of a fishing net. The author of Sw apparently connects 
 this character with the story of the employment of knotted cords 
 anciently used for writing. He says that Fuhi made nets by tying 
 cords together for use in fishing and hunting. The inner four strokes 
 represent the tied strings. The outside strokes are R. 73, i/ue, "say," 
 used as a covering radical. See p. 488. 
 
 R. 123. := i/ang, dong, dom, "sheep." 
 Goats or sheep. Picture of the head, horns, and tail. P. 218.
 
 THE RADICALS. 29 
 
 R. 124. f} yu 4, tolt, "feathers," "wings of birds." 
 Hole is another phonetic value. P. 254. 
 
 R. 125. % lau, 6, lot, " old." 
 
 Picture of a man's hair. The two lower strokes indicate that the 
 beard and hair are white. Sw. p. 244. 
 
 R. 126. ]}jj r'i(er) 5, nik, "hair on the cheek." 
 Sw. And, and further. Possibly the same as sit, p. 847 tok, 
 " beard," by change of t to n. P. 232. 
 
 R. 127. ^ lei, lu(t), "plough." 
 
 In Kwy lei and hit. See P. 257. 
 
 Picture of the hand holding a bent piece of wood. 
 
 In Kwy the sound hit is given when the upright stroke does not 
 pass the upper inclined stroke. The sense is then, " know the mea- 
 sure of corn." The other word for a plough ** //, li(k) is also used 
 as a verb to plough, p. 344. 
 
 R. 128. 5 ri(er), ni, "ear." 
 
 Picture of the object. See p. 238. 
 
 The common sound when used as a phonetic is shep, nip. The n 
 here is dental and not guttural. The Amoy hi k'ang, " ear," makes 
 it guttural, for /?=&. The sound then has passed from teeth to throat. 
 
 R. 129. i yu, yut, "pencil," "say," "follow," "only," "self." 
 
 See P. 252. Picture of a brush as anciently used in writing. Sw. 
 
 In Hunan it was called ot ; in Kiang nan, put lut ; in Chili, put ; 
 and in Shensi, pit. In Tiechiu at present it is Int. 
 
 Its phonetic use in p. 252 lut, proves the lost initial to be dental. 
 Let us say it was chit, and identify it with Jgji] shica, sut, " to brush." 
 
 The common word pit, "a hair pencil," is the same as $fi/w, "to 
 brush," " to dust." 
 
 R. 130. \ ju 8, niok, "flesh." 
 
 Picture of cutting flesh. Used for all words where flesh is the 
 prominent idea. It is named from softness, says one author, not 
 without probability. 
 
 Its contracted form is jj ; this mark is narrowed when placed on 
 the left of a character, and widened when placed below.
 
 30 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 R. 131. gi c'hcn, din, "subject," "servant," "servant of a noble." 
 
 A picture of bending and prostration. Sw. 
 
 Hence it is used in writing ^ wo, nga, "lie down," a picture of 
 a subject and a man. The characteristic of a man who serves his prince 
 is prostration. So Sw. 
 
 In accordance with this, din might be expected to mean "lie 
 prostrate." It is so in P. 533, [g yen, tan, R. "man," "lie down." 
 
 R. 132. g ts'i 7, dik y "self," "from," "spontaneously." 
 
 Same word with fa p. 202 in the sense "from." Perhaps the 
 shape of the two characters was at first the same. 
 
 Final k is known from p. 676, sik, "to rest," which adds R. 
 " heart," to our radical. As a phonetic 176fl. 
 
 This word for the reflexive pronoun agrees in sound with ^ sfi'i, 
 dik, "this," "is." Hence its origin is likely to be demonstrative. 
 
 R. 133. g| chi, tit, "to arrive." 
 
 Picture of birds flying from above to the earth below. Sw. 
 As a phonetic, 237. 
 
 R. 134. 3 Itieu 6, gu, guk. 
 
 A mortar for pounding rice. Anciently a hole was dug (kut) in 
 the ground for this purpose, and hence, says Sw, the sound. This 
 etymology is probably wrong, because the final, which had been lost 
 in the time of the Sw, was k, and not t, if we may judge by the sound 
 kuk in Kwy, in the sense of joining the two hands and lifting them, 
 Hem sheu. Kh treats kuk as a separate word without good ground. 
 
 The bottom stroke was originally broken in the middle. It was 
 joined in the Li shu, the form of the character in which the author of 
 the Sw wrote. 
 
 The character is found, says Sii, in $\ han 5, gam, P. 444, in the 
 upper part of H, shu, "rat," and in the old form of f$ c'/ti, "teeth," 
 but though like, it is really different. 
 
 R. 135. 75 s ^ e > 8, zhet, " tongue." 
 Picture of the tongue protruding from the mouth. P. 262. 
 
 R. 136. 4- c'hwen, t'un, "lying opposite to each other." 
 
 The right hand is si, "evening." The left symbolizes back to 
 back. Sw.
 
 THE RADICALS. 31 
 
 R. 137. j$ cheit, to(k), "boat." 
 Picture of a boat on the water. As a phonetic, 273. 
 
 R. 138. & ken, "boundary," "check," "firm." P. 253. 
 
 From - pi, "spoon," and fi, "sun." 
 The full explanation appears to be lost. 
 
 R. 139. , she 4, shak, "colour," "expression on the face." 
 
 R. 140. Jf ts'au 3, t'ok, " grass." 
 
 A contracted form -t-r is used at the top of compounds. A picture 
 of grass growing. It is formed by doubling R. 45 Vet. 
 
 As a phonetic, J|L 696. 
 
 The four upper strokes of this form came into use in the Li shu. 
 
 Final t in R. 45 is perhaps changed from k. 
 
 In /tan, " cold," ^ the elements are 1, a cover ; 2, a man under 
 it ; 3, grass ; 4, ice, at the bottom. 
 
 R. 141. )& hit, 2, kok, "tiger." 
 Representation of the stripes of a tiger. As a phonetic, 487. 
 
 R. 142. *P c'hung, (long, dom. 
 
 Any reptile or insect. Any creature with a shell or scales. Kwy. 
 Representation of a reptile coiled up. 
 
 R. 143. jfil hiue 4, kit, " blood." 
 
 The upper stroke is blood. The lower strokes are the vessels used 
 in sacrificing. Sw. Each upright stroke represents a vessel. 
 As a phonetic, 281. 
 
 R. 144. fj hiny, gang, "walk." 
 Picture of the right leg and the left leg in the act of walking. 
 
 R. 145. #c yi, " clothes." 
 Derived from the idea of covering. 
 Picture of clothing inclusive of collar and sleeves. 
 
 R. 146. [P] i/a, "cover," "reverse," "look down." 
 
 From "one," f] and Q. Lscw. Looking down. 
 Under this radical is placed |f s *> "west," which is in Sc a bird, 
 R. 196, and inclosed in its lower part a character which serves to
 
 32 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 represent a nest. Sw says it is a picture of birds going to their nests 
 at sundown. 
 
 R. 147. jf, kien, kin, " see." 
 
 From g " eye," and )l " man." p. 366. 
 
 R. 148. j kio, 4, kak, " horn of animals." 
 From ~}j and J^j. Sw. Such was its old shape, p. 346. 
 
 R. 149. =" yen, ngan, "words." 
 
 Cheng tsiau of the Sung says it is from _fc written with two strokes 
 and ^ . Sw says from mouth and a phonetic meaning "fault," which 
 may be found in the right-hand lower portion of P. 1014, but want- 
 ing one horizontal stroke ; or in P. 296, sin, " sharp in taste," the 
 shape of which in Sc agrees nearly with our radical. 
 
 R. 150. ku4,kok, "valley." 
 Water half seen issuing from an opening. Sw. p. 338. 
 
 R. 151. _ feu, 7 dut, " beans." 
 A vessel out of which food was eaten, p. 319. 
 
 R. 152. ^ sh'i 2, tok, " pig." 
 
 A picture of the animal, especially the hair, feet, and tail. 
 
 The other words for pig are tot, p. 531 ; kik, p. 357 ; ^ yi, tit. 
 
 Final k is deduced (1) from p. 412 ffi tok. Yet this is not certain, 
 for Sw and Lscw say this last character is a picture of a pig tied by 
 the feet. (2). The animal was called tok because it is dirty and foul 
 in its food. Tok is one root for "dirty." (3). It is phonetic with the 
 sound tok with R. "sickness," and R. tseu, "walk." 
 
 R. 153. ^ chi 5, dji, " reptiles without feet." Ry. 
 
 It is however used as a radical with many quadrupeds, and in Sw 
 it is described as " having the appearance of seeking something to 
 devour." Picture of an animal. 
 
 R. 154. g pel 3, pi(t), " sort of shell-fish." 
 
 As a phonetic 367. The shells were used as money till the Ts'in 
 dynasty B.C. 220, when metallic coins were first employed. 
 
 R. 155. ^ ch'i 4, ch'-iak, t'ak, "red." 
 In the Han elemental philosophy, the colour of the south. Sw.
 
 THE RADICALS. 33 
 
 The colour of warmth, abundance, and prosperity. The imperial 
 colour in the Cheu dynasty. The form in Kw has the character for 
 earth below, surmounted by the character for fire repeated one above 
 another. It was formed then on the principle of suggestion at the 
 sight or thought of some red earth or clay reddened by heat. But 
 see another explanation in the examples of Hwei yi. p. 318. 
 
 R. 156. i. tseu 2, tok, "walk." 
 
 From yau, tok, ^ and jfc ch'i, tik. Sw. See R. 77. See p. 318. 
 
 The sign yau is probably phonetic, and ch'i also. Sk says yau, 
 "short-lived," "short," is used, because, in walking, the leg is bent 
 and shortened. By restoring the old sound of yau, we have here the 
 advantage of regarding it as phonetic, and thus obtaining a more 
 satisfactory explanation. 
 
 R. 157. AJL tsn, tok, "foot," "enough," "complete." 
 
 Picture of the foot. From "mouth" and "to stop." Sw. Mouth 
 P, says a commentator, is here in fact a picture of the thigh bones. 
 
 See R. 77, and P. 376. 
 
 This symbol forms, with yi, "one," above it, the character j 
 cheng, ting, "correct." 
 
 R. 158. % shen, tin, " body." 
 
 A picture of the human body. Sw. It agrees in sound with JJH 
 ts'in, "self," "own," and the senses are so connected that the two 
 words cannot but be nearly akin. 
 
 The native etymologists trace the word to shin, chan, tin, "to 
 stretch," "to spread." They thought the body was called tin because 
 it is stretched. In this there is nothing unreasonable. The ancients 
 always sat with their legs under them, and to rise was to stretch the 
 body. 
 
 R. 159. j|| ku, kut, "carriage," "wagon," "barrow." 
 
 Picture of the object. Used to write the common modern word 
 c'he, " carriage," which is the Mongol t'ereg. 
 
 R. 160. 3 sin, "acid." 
 Taste of metal. See R. 149, P. 296. 
 
 R. 161. Jg c'hcn, din, "an hour," "time," "seven to nine A.M." 
 Constellation. A celestial space. Morning. See P. 302. 
 
 3
 
 34 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 R. 162. jj. c'ho, t'ak, "walk." 
 
 From \ R. 60 and ^ R. 77. Lscw. An example of Hwei yi 
 " suggestion." The ideas motion and standing still suggest that of 
 now moving and then stopping, which is the accepted sense. But Lsk 
 says it means " walk fast along the road." The sound t'ak, says Kwy, 
 is inherent in the lower part chi, " to stop." 
 
 The ordinary contracted form 5^ was first used in the Li shu. 
 The coincidence with tseu 2, tok R. 156, "walk," and % t'ak, 
 " walk," in sense and sound, is striking. Native authors who saw in 
 the upper part of the character only a pictorial symbol, would, if they 
 had known of this coincidence, have admitted a phonetic element also. 
 
 R. 163. gq yi 4^ ip } "city," "place where men live together." 
 
 In compounds it takes the form $ and stands on the right. As a 
 phonetic 372. 
 
 R. 164. If yeu 5, dok, " five to seven P.M." 
 The eighth month, which ends the autumn. As a phonetic 324. 
 
 R. 165. zg pieu, bin, " to distinguish." 
 Picture of the claws of beasts parting. 
 
 R. 166. jl /;, li(k), " village." 
 
 The Chinese mile, one-third of an English mile. 240 pu, each 
 pu being five feet. p. 369. 
 
 R. 167. ^ kin 1, leant, " gold." 
 Any sort of metal, p. 478. 
 
 R. 168. J| c'hang 5, dom, "long." 
 p. 402. 
 
 R. 169. pj men 5, mun, "door." 
 
 Sw says "the picture of two moons." More likely the picture 
 of the object, which is a double door. p. 439. 
 
 R. 170. ]| feu, bu(t], "an earth hill." Sw. 
 
 The form p is used on the left in compound characters. 
 See P. 474.
 
 THE RADICALS. 35 
 
 R. 171. j| tai 3, dat, "reach." 
 
 From 3 "hand," and J| "tail." The hand, which is the upper 
 half, grasps a tail, and comes from behind. Sw. 
 As a phonetic 440. Final t is found in Kwy. 
 
 R. 172. \ chui, tok. 
 Picture of short bird tails. Sw. As a phonetic 472. 
 
 R. 173. ff yw, "rain." 
 
 Picture of rain falling from the clouds. 
 
 The Amoy ho, "rain," shows that an initial g has been lost. 
 
 R. 174. ^f Wing, fang, "blue." 
 
 Picture of the appearance of newly grown plants. Sw. Colour 
 of the eastern quarter in the Han dynasty physics. By the letter 
 changes it is the same as lam "blue." L = ts, final m = ng. P. 420. 
 
 R. 175. ^ fei}, pit, "not." 
 
 From fei, "to fly." P. 583. The root seems to be a demonstra- 
 tive pi, pit, used negatively. The demonstrative having taken a 
 negative signification, and requiring a character to represent it, the 
 character fei, "to fly," was modified to serve this purpose. P. 451. 
 
 R. 176. p5 w?V, min, "face." 
 Picture of the face. P. 526. 
 
 R. 177. Jpt ke 4, kak, "unprepared leather." 
 When prepared it is icei. R. 178. 
 
 R. 178. jp. u'ti, nguk, " prepared leather." 
 
 Apart, oppose. From y?L ideographic and P phonetic, p. 550. 
 R. 179. j^jr kieu, " onions." 
 
 The stroke below here represents the earth, and above it is the 
 object. Sw. 
 
 R. 180. fj i/in, am, " sound." 
 
 Formed from iff with a stroke inclosed, p. 508. 
 
 R. 181. I hie, git, " head." 
 
 Same as "f^, and should not be called hie. Lsk. From JL, Sw. 
 p. 525.
 
 36 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 R. 182. JH, feng, bam, " wind." 
 
 The inclosed part is c'hiuig, " reptile." When the wind blows, 
 reptiles and insects are born. The outer shape J^ bam, is here 
 phonetic. Sw. P. 571. 
 
 R. 183. /,!>," fly." 
 Picture of birds flying, p. 583. 
 
 R. 184. ^ sht, dik, "eat," "food." 
 
 R. 185. "If sheii, tut, " head." 
 
 Picture of the object. Same as hie, 181, with which it agrees in 
 the old shape, except that it has R. 47 { at the top, and wants the 
 two strokes at the bottom. The three top strokes are representative 
 of hair. p. 516. 
 
 R. 186. ^f hiang, kong, kom, " incense," " sweet smelling." 
 Probably the root is kam, "sweet." p. 561. 
 
 R. 187. ^ ma, " horse." 
 
 Picture of a horse. It contains head, hair, tail, and four feet. 
 p. 642. 
 
 R. 188. *pf ku, hot, " bone." 
 
 The kernel of flesh. Sw. The lower part is flesh. The upper 
 agrees with p. 605, kap. The final is doubtful in that phonetic. As 
 a phonetic, 700. 
 
 R. 189. ft kau, kok, "high." 
 
 Picture of a high tower. Sw. The radicals |3 yue, " say," and 
 13 k'cu, " mouth," are used below with the same significance as in ^ 
 " granary," and " cottage." P. 622. 
 
 R. 190. j^ pau,po(t), "long flowing hair." 
 One of the radicals for hair. 
 
 R. 191. | \ ten, tu(t), " to quarrel." 
 Picture of two soldiers fighting, their spears behind them. Sw. 
 
 R. 192. ^g tfhang, t'ong, t'ow. 
 Name of a fragrant herb anciently used to flavour alcoholic drinks.
 
 THE RADICALS. 37 
 
 R. 193. pna H } lik, a certain three-legged vessel, whose feet were bent. 
 As a phonetic, 649, its value is ke, kak. 
 
 R. 194. & kwci, ku(t), "demon," "ghost." 
 
 A picture of the fancied shape of a demon, r. 684. The lower 
 part is like p. 9, ki, " bench," which is kit or kik, and may be phonetic 
 here. 
 
 R. 195. $S yu, ngu, " fish." 
 
 Representation of a fish. The four dots below are the tail. Their 
 resemblance to " fire" is accidental. Perhaps final t has been lost. 
 
 R. 196. J| niau, tiau 2, tok, "bird." 
 
 A picture of winged animals. 
 
 The sound tiau is found in the dictionaries Ty, Tsy, Yh, and has 
 been changed since the time of these dictionaries into niau. In 
 Shanghai tiau is used colloquially at the present time. 
 
 Proof of final k. 1. Phonetic use in Kwy with kieu "a mortar," 
 above, in place of the usual heading, sound sak, t'ak. Yet since kieu 
 is also tak, this proof is insecure. 2. Ts'io with k final, used for the 
 sparrow, magpie, and peacock, is sufficiently generic to suggest an 
 identity between it and our radical. 3. Comment on Heu han shu 
 has tsiak, i.e. tak, as the sound. 
 
 This radical, with its old sound tak, has given its form to the 
 phonetic 964, sie "to write," JH, through the medium of sic, si/,-, 
 "a wooden clog to keep damp from the feet," which is written with- 
 out the three upper strokes. See P. 775. 
 
 R. 197. |j|j In, dik, "potash." 
 
 The Chinese call it native salt. Land impregnated with natron. 
 p. 787. 
 
 R. 198. $| hi, lok, "deer." 
 
 The tail of the deer is on the left. The four legs are the four 
 lower strokes. The remainder is the body, head and horns. p. 722. 
 
 R. 199. ^ me, mak, "wheat." 
 
 Derived, says Kh, from ^ lai, lak, "come," and #, which is the 
 same as ^ yen, "hand," "and." The seed and root are believed to 
 be pictured by these two parts.
 
 38 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 R. 200. jft ma, mok, "hemp," "flax." 
 
 Lscw says the inner part is called mak, and represents the pieces 
 of hemp. The outer part is a picture of the house in which the 
 labourer works in preparing the materials, and weaving hempen cloth. 
 p. 719. 
 
 R. 201. ^ hicang, gom, " yellow," " brown." 
 
 Colour of the earth, colour of the centre in the Chinese physical 
 philosophy. The upper part t'sau, "grass," alludes to some plant 
 that produces yellow or brown colour, p. 824. 
 
 R. 202. shu, " glutinous millet." 
 
 Sw says it is called shu because it is sown in hot weather (shu), 
 and adds that it is formed from ho, "grain," jfr. and yu, "rain," |pj, 
 the last being contracted. 
 
 R. 203. Eg he,kek, "black." 
 
 Tiff 
 
 Sw says that the four dots meaning fire are placed to represent 
 that exposure to fire causes blackness, p. 862. 
 
 R. 204. IJjjj ch'i, " sewed clothing." 
 
 Sw says it is from 'jjjjj piet,.o.ndi ^ nip, "shortened." The upper 
 part is phonetic in p. 871. 
 
 R. 205. Hp ming, min, "frog." 
 p. 922. A radical which shares the reptiles with R. 142, c'huiiy. 
 
 R. 206. JgJ ting, tarn. 
 
 "A vessel having three feet and two ears or handles." It is used 
 to cook food. 
 
 R. 207. gj ku, kok, "drum." 
 
 Formed from p. 65, ki or ch'i. This is on the right. The left is 
 p. 817, pang, here used to suggest sound. The phonetic element is 
 probably on the right in p. 65, which has giak in Kwy. 
 
 R. 208. H shu 2, fo(0, " rat," " mouse." 
 
 The upper part is a picture of the teeth, and the lower of the 
 abdomen, claws, and tail. Kh. A generic name for burrowing 
 animals. S\v.
 
 THE RADICALS. 39 
 
 It forms part of the phonetic 1016, Tsican, "to steal away," 
 " abscond." The name probably originates in the verb te'u, " to 
 steal," old form tut. The most prominent characteristic of the rat 
 and mouse is thieving. " They are clever thieves." Kwy. If this 
 be correct, a final t has been lost. 
 
 R. 209. |p pi, bit, " nose." 
 
 Derived from tsi, " self," and bi, " give," phonetic 498. The last 
 of these is composed of a field and two hands below it. The hands 
 suggest giving. They appear clearly in the Chwen wen. 
 
 R. 210. jj|f ts'i, dit, "even." 
 
 Corn, when mature, has an even appearance. More than any 
 other produce of the soil, it grows to a common average height. 
 This radical is a picture of ears of corn of uniform height, p. 934. 
 
 R. 211. j|j c'Jii, fit, "teeth." 
 
 The rude square is the mouth, and the inclosed strokes the teeth. 
 The phonetic value of the upper four strokes is tik, but it does not 
 occur in old forms, and is therefore modern. Mongol, shidun, 
 " teeth." 
 
 R. 212. f| lung, lorn, "dragon." 
 
 A fabulous winged animal that has four legs with claws and 
 a scaly skin. It mounts in the air after lying hidden in marshes and 
 rivers. Since dom means " to rise," the chief idea is here. It is large 
 or small, hidden or revealed, long or short. At the spring equinox it 
 mounts in the sky, at the autumn equinox it descends and hides itself. 
 
 In the Chinese dragon there seems to be no prominent re- 
 semblance to the serpent. An identification of the ideas which 
 revolve round the old Chinese dragon with those which revolve 
 round the serpent of Persia and the worship connected with it 
 appears forced, p. 989. 
 
 R. 213. H. kwci, kit, "tortoise." 
 
 This animal was used anciently for divining. The shell was 
 heated, and the marks which appeared on it, read by certain rules, 
 were viewed as portents of coming events.
 
 40 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 R. 214. ^> yo, dak, "flute." 
 
 A picture of a bamboo flute having three holes for producing 
 harmonious sounds, 
 
 From |5p p'in, "rank," "order," and |^ Inn, "law," "discourse," 
 "reason," R. man being omitted. 
 
 The same word as ti, dik, "flute," "fife." The dik is pierced with 
 seven holes. P. 1013.
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 GENERAL VIEW OF THE CHINESE PICTURE WRITING. 
 
 LINES, SHAPES AND COVERINGS. NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL OBJECTS. MAN AND HIS 
 RELATIONS AND CIRCUMSTANCES. PARTS OF THE BODY. ANIMALS. NAMES OF 
 PLANTS AND AGRICULTURE. IMPLEMENTS, CLOTHING, AND THE USEFUL ARTS. 
 MEASURES. METALS. QUALITIES OF OBJECTS. VERBS. 
 
 AMONG the 214 radicals there are 28 lines, shapes or coverings. 
 There are 23 inanimate objects of nature. Man and his relations 
 occupy 23 radicals, and the parts of the body 33 more. There are 
 15 names of animals, 13 names of plants, 25 names of implements, 
 clothing, etc., 6 names of measures, 17 names of colours and other 
 qualities, and 29 names of verbs. 
 
 The use of simple natural shapes, such as the mouth, nose, eye, 
 ear, hand, foot, as well as the shape of branches, trees, grass, caves, 
 holes, rivers, the bow, the spear, the knife, the tablet, the leaf; these 
 formed, in addition to pictures of animals, much of the staple of the 
 Chinese ideographs. 
 
 Attention should be drawn to the fact that the mouth and the hand 
 play an exceptionally important part in the formation of the symbols. 
 
 Men were more accustomed then than now to the language of 
 signs, by the use of these organs. Perhaps three-twentieths of the 
 existing characters are formed by their help as one element. 
 
 This large use of the mouth and hand in forming characters is, as 
 we may very reasonably suppose, only a repetition of what took place 
 when the words themselves were made. 
 
 There is likely to be a primitive connexion between demonstra- 
 tives and names for the hand, because the hand is used in pointing.
 
 42 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 Words descriptive of ideas that are most easily expressed by the 
 mouth, such as a pit, fall into a pit, totality, compression, disappear- 
 ance, roundness, may be found to terminate in m or p, because these 
 are labial letters formed by the lips, as would be done in the primitive 
 gesture language. Possibly Chinese researches may thus throw light 
 on the origin of words. The intellectual task of forming the charac- 
 ters was in several respects a renewal of the original task of forming 
 words themselves. The classification of ideas could not but be in 
 these two successive undertakings somewhat similar both in its con- 
 trolling principles, and in the proportional extent of its parts. 
 Observe further, for example, that guttural letters are found ex- 
 tensively in words expressive of acts and things which the action of 
 the throat easily pictures. Such are Jean "tube," gap "press," gut 
 "throat," kok "cough," sik "sigh," hap "grasp," yam "hold firmly." 
 Throat letters naturally represent throat action. Labial letters do the 
 same for labial action. Dental letters occur when dental action has 
 to be described. They may be combined in various ways. Un- 
 fortunately the connexions of words and their objects are obscured 
 through the growth of language. At first a word was as nearly as 
 possible pictorial. It is very important that attention should be 
 drawn to the conditions of those times anterior to linguistic history, 
 when language was a true idealism, every word the clear and ex- 
 pressive sign of some natural sound, and the human sensations in the 
 hour of their juvenile freshness and truthful sharpness were assisted 
 in the formation of language by an intellectual faculty which only 
 acted in accordance with the unartificial laws of nature. 
 
 It is easy to trace the process of symbol making in the words 
 used for the crenelated top of city walls, which are ya and c i hi, both 
 meaning " teeth," and both being pictures of the object, and further, 
 when the former is found also to be used for tree buds and to bud. 
 Such instances of word creation show how considerable has been 
 the prevalence of analogy and the association of ideas. The picture 
 writing of the Chinese is to a large extent a continuation of the 
 process of forming analogies to which the human mind had already 
 become accustomed in the earlier stages of the history of language. 
 
 Another instance of this analogy is in the treatment of species. 
 Almost all fish are spoken of in Chinese with the word fish subjoined. 
 Thus U iju "carp," is never called li only, unless preceded by a
 
 GENEKAL VIEW OF THE CHINESE PICTURE WRITING. 43 
 
 qualifying word. The same thing is done in the written character. 
 The radical for fish is added. It is natural to the human mind to 
 distinguish species and genus, and it is the province of language 
 to give it expression. The eye sees the object, and therefore the 
 species is first mentioned in Chinese. The mind then refers it to its 
 genus from a habit of generalizing. It is on this account the word 
 for genus follows. 
 
 Among the first radicals are several strokes and lines representing 
 numbers. The dot (3), inclined line (4), bent line (5), horizontal 
 line (1), perpendicular line (2), hooked line (6), all are represented, 
 together with the numbers one, two, eight, and ten. To these may 
 be added two pairs of strokes crossing each other obliquely, R. 89, and 
 wen, the common word for the written character as a product of the 
 caligrapher's art, and as a collection of symbolic pictures (67). 
 Several of these are rather modern than ancient, and are the result of 
 contraction. Thus chit, a dot, was originally the picture of a flame, 
 and called tok. 
 
 Simple shapes, such as a branch, a joint of bamboo, and of other 
 grasses, an upright stem, a circle, a square, a hand, a foot, a sphere, a 
 wheel, and so forth, all found their way into the written symbols. 
 Most of them occur among the radicals, and very many among the 
 phonetics. 
 
 Natural and artificial objects requiring symbols are drawn 
 pictorially. A few strokes are enough. In making a written symbol, 
 what need of elaboration ? A short conventional mark agreed upon 
 is sufficient if only it be recognized by readers. 
 
 Three downstrokes parallel to each other were adopted as the sign 
 for water. The two side strokes were broken in the middle. An up- 
 right stem and two cross strokes, or one cross stroke and two inclined 
 strokes, to indicate branches, form the symbol for a tree. In every 
 case the common name of the object became the recognized symbol. 
 
 Wood may assume in Chinese symbols the shape of a staff, a 
 tablet, 91 ; a bow, 57 ; a spoon, 21 ; a shield, 51 ; a bedstead, 90 ; 
 a gate, 63 ; a door, 169 ; incense, 186. 
 
 Earth, 32, and stone, 112; jade stone, 96; a tile or earthen 
 vessel, 98 ; potash, 197; pottery, 121, and metal kirn, 167, represent 
 the mineral kingdom. Fire is delineated by a few strokes represent- 
 ing ascending flames and sparks, 86.
 
 44 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 Heaven was symbolized by three parallel curved lines. The sun 
 was a circle with a stroke in the middle, 72. The moon was a 
 crescent, 74. Slightly modified it became evening, 36. Stars were 
 three small circles. Mountains were triangles standing side by side. 
 They either rest on their bases, 46, or stand on one end, 170. The first 
 was shan or tan, a mountain generally. The second was feu and but, 
 "a hillock." Rain was falling drops, 173. Two drops one over 
 the other formed an icicle. A valley was water issuing from an 
 opening, 150. 
 
 Man, represented in R. 9, 10, is seen using his muscular strength 
 in field labour in 19, lik, " strength." He pants for breath when 
 fatigued, and leans against a stool. The breath and the stool are the 
 objects chosen to make up the sj^mbol in 76, k'iin, " to be weak and 
 fatigued." Man is lying as a corpse in 44. In 48, kung " work," 
 he holds in his hand a carpenter's rule. Man appears prostrate and 
 bending in 131, c'hen " subject." Man in his self originating activity 
 occurs in the form of the reflexive pronoun in 132 and 49. The 
 ideograph of something else has here come to be used phonetically 
 for a pronoun. Man, as father, 88, is probably phonetic. The 
 pictorial original is unknown. A general name for tribes, 83, is most 
 likely a symbol of joining. Woman, 38, is an unexplained ideograph. 
 A scholar, 33, is also probably a picture of something else used for 
 this sense on account of identity in sound. Sickness is indicated by a 
 picture of a man leaning against a post. So it is explained in 104. 
 This symbol once invented, all words descriptive of disease can be 
 conveniently classed under it. They form a numerous group of com- 
 pounds in which this symbol occupies the top and the left hand side, 
 and some phonetic the remainder. 
 
 The parts of the human body are extensively delineated in the 
 primitive Chinese writing. 
 
 The hand, mouth, face, 176, eye, ear, teeth, head, 181, 185, 
 foot, heart, 61, nose, 209, are all pictured. Not only are these parts 
 of the human body drawn to become signs of themselves, but they are 
 drawn also to represent very many other ideas. One hand above 
 another represents a friend, 225. A man's two hands joined denote 
 " to make a bow in token of respect," R. 55. The mouth embraces 
 two radicals, 30, 31, but it occurs in many more, and with the sun, 
 the inclosing walls round houses and cities, 13, 17, 163, and any
 
 GENERAL VIEW OF THE CHINESE PICTURE WRITING. 45 
 
 natural hole or opening, 116, helped to originate many of the square, 
 circular, and other shapes found among the ideographs. 
 
 Kok is the commonest sound for the square, and proceeds from 
 "mouth." Kiung 13, ham 17, k'am, come from an original verb 
 gam, which expresses holding in the mouth, opening the mouth, to be 
 hollow, etc. The original symbol for mouth was a semicircle open 
 upwards, with a straight line crossing it above from left to right. 
 
 A small addition is made to the picture of the mouth to indicate 
 sweetness, kam, -y* 99. Speech found a symbol in breath in the act 
 of issuing from the mouth, and is expressed by one stroke across the 
 circle in R. 73, yue, yet, "say," and by four strokes above the 
 circle in R. 149, yen "words." This last furnished a symbol for 
 yin, Urn, "sound," 180, one stroke more being added for the sake 
 of distinction. 
 
 Breath is represented by horizontal lines, one, three or four in 
 number, drawn from left to right, and straight or waving. In 84, 
 k'i "breath," and in 76, they begin high on the left, and descend 
 more or less as they pass to the right. In 73 and 149 they are more 
 horizontal. Straight and bent lines are both used in yun " clouds," 
 p. 64. 
 
 Spirits, principle of life, soul, are represented in 84, and heavenly 
 influences in 113. Demons have a class word which is used as a 
 radical for ghosts, for all outre shapes, and generally for such things 
 as are not canny, 194. Some Chinese authorities say that jpljl shen 
 "spirit," is so called because the spirits "lead out" things into life 
 and order, shen ^, meaning "to lead." They also say that fy kwei 
 "ghost," is from | kwei "to return," because the proper agency 
 of the kicei, or spirits of darkness, is to cause all things to return, in 
 opposition to the agency of the shen. A more probable explanation 
 would be to refer krrei to k'it "breath," and shen possibly to din 
 " spread out," and shen or chan, " to stretch," the word deing derived 
 from the animated human body stretching out its limbs, or the ex- 
 pression of the face when animated with emotion. 
 
 The foot and leg play a part in RR. 105, 60, 144, all of which 
 represent two legs, but differently employed. 
 
 The foot is represented in 156, 157, 162. The acts of the feet in 
 walking, standing, or halting, are depicted by representations of one, 
 two, or more, feet, slightly differentiated to suit variety in sense.
 
 46 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 The foot of a large beast appears in R. 114, and serves as one of 
 the class symbols for the zoological portion of the vocabulary. 
 
 Feathers, yii, tok, 124. 
 
 Hair, sham, 59, mok, 82, er, mok, 126. 
 
 Head of a boar, 58. Horns, kak, 148. Blood, kit, 143. 
 
 Bird tails, chut, tok, 172. 
 
 A bone, kut, 188. Broken bones, 78. Claws, c'hau, t'ok, 87. 
 
 Teeth, ya, ngat, 92, tfM, fit, 211. 
 
 The whole body is represented in 158. 
 
 The animals pictured in Chinese writing are such as the horse, 
 sheep, cow, dog and pig, 152. 
 
 They also delineated the tiger, 141, hare, dragon, 212, rat, 208, 
 deer, 198, frog, 205, tortoise 213. 
 
 A picture of a reptile coiled up, 142, served as a generic symbol 
 for almost all reptiles and insects. 
 
 Birds are represented by a single symbol, which probably was, to 
 judge from the old sound, tok, the magpie or the sparrow, 196. 
 
 Fishes are also symbolized by one character, 113. 
 
 Here appears the wisdom of the inventors of writing. They 
 declined to overburden themselves with too great a variety of pictures. 
 For each species among reptiles, birds, and fishes, the phonetic 
 principle was called into play. E.g. the shad, a fish long in use in 
 China for consumptive diseases, as the cod more recently among our- 
 selves, is called sh'i yii, "the time fish," in allusion to its punctuality 
 in returning in May to the rivers of central China. 1 R. fish, p. time. 
 
 The bamboo, so useful in many ways in China, is looked on as a 
 thing sui generis. The people do not call it a tree, or write it with 
 the tree symbol. The number of words which bamboo has connexion 
 with is so great that it heads a distinct and extensive class in Chinese 
 dictionaries. 
 
 The Chinese agriculture fills so large a space in their ideas that 
 no fewer than four radicals, names of seeds, are employed in con- 
 structing the agricultural vocabulary. Besides this, they have a 
 picture of a cultivated field and a plough. 
 
 The productions of the soil delineated among the radicals are 
 plants 45, trees 75, corn 115, rice 119, grass 140, onions 179, 
 wheat 199, hemp and flax 200, millet 202, melons 97. 
 
 1 Dr. Macgowan.
 
 GENERAL VIEW OF THE CHINESE PICTURE WRITING. 47 
 
 The metals are all embraced under one word kim, which also 
 means gold in particular. The name kim was probably derived from 
 the sound given out by metals when struck. The k'ing (old form k'ini) 
 is a flat sonorous piece of metal or stone which is struck in a hanging 
 position. Its name perhaps originated the word "gong" employed 
 by Europeans as the name for the Chinese h. 
 
 Gold being found in the form of dust and nuggets in river beds, 
 and on the surface of the soil, we need not be surprised that in the 
 Chinese vocabulary it should be identical with the idea of metal as 
 being the first metal known. It should also be remembered that 
 etymologically Jnvang " yellow," is gom, and thus is nearly the same 
 in elements as kim. It is therefore possible that kim, " gold," may 
 derive its name from its colour; or it may be the other way, the 
 colour may be named from gold. 
 
 Copper, dong, dom ; silver, ngin; iron, Pit; lead, yuen=tan; tin, 
 sik, are all written with a phonetic on the right, and on the left the 
 radical kim "metal." 
 
 Although gold may have been the earliest metal known, all these 
 metals may well have been known at the time of the invention of the 
 characters. They may each have had a symbol, and the radical sign 
 may have been afterwards added, or have been in use from the first. 
 The inventors of writing finding the name kim applied indifferently 
 in the language of their day, as since, both to gold and to metal, 
 would proceed to relieve the ambiguity of the symbols for other metals 
 by prefixing the sign for kim. 
 
 It is difficult not to believe ii'on, silver, and copper to have been 
 in common use in China at the time when the characters were made ; 
 for they occur in the oldest historical fragments, as in the Yu kung, 
 a topographical section of the Shu king, and ascribed to B.C. 2200. 
 They are there mentioned as objects of tribute. Polarized iron seems 
 to have been known from the time of Cheu kung, B.C. 1100. It is 
 found in abundance in some parts of the iron districts of North China, 
 as for example at Ts'i cheu, " city of the load-stone." 
 
 Implements made of metals and wood mixed are such as, knife, 
 tau, 18, kico, kak, javelin, 62, kin, knife, catty, 69, man, spear, 110, 
 lei, plough, 127, ku, cart, 159, mortar, 134. 
 
 From the time of T'sin sh'i hwang, destroyer of the small states, 
 the manufacture of iron, silver, salt, and other minerals extended
 
 48 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 greatly in China. Uniformity in government, brought about by this 
 conqueror, B.C. 221, gave a stimulus to trade and to the working of 
 minerals. 
 
 Common utensils occur such as a knife, 18, stool, 16, spoon, 21, 
 spear, javelin, 62, bow, 57, drum, 207, flute, 214, pencil of hair, 129, 
 net, 122, arrow, 111, spear, 79. 
 
 A general name for earthen utensils is ming, 108. 
 
 Containing vessels, definite measures, or mere receiving vessels, are 
 22, 23, 68, a three-legged vessel, 193, 206. Among measures of 
 length are found, an inch, 41, a foot, ten feet, a mile, 166, and a piece 
 of cloth about 40 feet in length, 103. 
 
 Skin and leather are expressed by three radicals, 107, 177, 178. 
 
 Clothing, cloth, yi, clothes, 145, ch'i, sewed clothing, 204, a napkin, 
 50, silk, 120. 
 
 The industry of the people in weaving silk and flax, has caused a 
 picture of balls of silk or cocoons to take its place in the vocabulary. 
 It is indisputable then that when writing was invented, weaving was 
 already in use. See 52, 120. Boats have originated radical 137. 
 
 Coverings are represented by RR. 8, 14, 20, 27, 40, 53. The 
 peculiar senses are those of river banks or cliffs impending, of 
 wrappers inclosing, and of roofs. 
 
 Oblong and square shapes are expressed by 13, 23, 31, 70, 73. 
 
 The colours among the radicals are no fewer than six. They are 
 white 106, blue 174, yellow 201, red 155, black 203, dark blue 95, 
 and a general word for colour, shak, 139, is also included. 
 
 Adjectives, not being colours, are great 37, small 42, 52, square 
 70, sweet 99, acid 160, fragrant 186, high 189, even 210. 
 
 Among the radicals are found the delineation of 28 verbs : 
 
 To divine, 25. 
 
 To shoot, tik, 56. 
 
 To walk, 3, tak, gang, 144, t'ak, 60, 162. 
 
 To take a long journey, din, 54. 
 
 To enter, nip, 11. 
 
 To stop, tik, 77. 
 
 To stand, lip, 117. 
 
 To hang down, 14. 
 
 To open the mouth, 17. 
 
 To embrace, hold in the arms, 20.
 
 GENERAL VIEW OF THE CHINESE PICTURE WRITING. 49 
 
 To elevate the two hands, 55, negative, mo, 71, mok, 80, put, 175. 
 To speak, 73. 
 To compare, 81. 
 
 To arrive, 133. This is a picture of birds flying down to the 
 ground. To reach, 171. 
 To look down, 146. 
 To see, 147. 
 To distinguish, 165. 
 To eat, 184. 
 To fly, 183. 
 To dispute, 191. 
 
 To be fatigued, deficient in energy, 76. 
 To use, 101.
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE PHONETICS. 
 
 THEIR NUMBER. FIRST ARRAKGED BY CALLERY. ORDER OF STROKES. THEIR VALVE 
 AS INDICATING THE SOUNDS OF WORDS WHEN THE CHARACTERS WERE MADE. 
 PHONETICS OFTEN ACQUIRE Two OR MORE SOUNDS. THEY PRESENT A VIEW OF 
 THE CHINESE SYLLABARY AND THE CHANGES IT HAS UNDERGONE, LIST OF 
 PHONETICS ACCORDING TO THE MODERN WRITING. 
 
 THE phonetics of the present Chinese language are characters used as 
 signs of sound. As the 214 radicals are used for classifying words 
 ideographically, so the phonetics are used for writing them down 
 phonetically. The phonetics constitute a body of sound symbols. 
 They are here presented as they appear in the modern writing, and 
 make up in all, many rare ones being omitted, eleven hundred and 
 forty-four. They are a hundred and four more than in Gallery's 
 Systema Phoneticum Scripturae Sinicae. 
 
 The order and numbering of Gallery are here preserved. He was 
 the first to make a list of the phonetics, which he has embodied in his 
 Systema published in 1841. 
 
 The order is that of the number of strokes, as in K'anghi's 
 dictionary. But where the number of strokes is the same, it must 
 be remembered that the strokes themselves take an order. This 
 depends on the practice of Chinese caligraphy and school teaching. 
 Gon9alves and Gallery fixed the order for application to the arrange- 
 ment of words in a dictionary. It is that order which is the basis of 
 the arrangement adopted in the following list. The names and signs 
 of the nine strokes in use are 1, chu f ; 2, hwa ; 3, keu 7 ; 
 4, pie J; 5, yi & ; 6, kwun \ ; 7, kiite ] ; 8, t'i / ; 9, na \.
 
 THE PHONETICS. 51 
 
 The sound of the phonetic part of a character is an index to the 
 sound of the words when the characters were first made. 
 
 To learn the primitive sounds, the losses sustained by letter 
 changes, and by wearing away, and all additions made through the 
 acquisition of new elements, must be carefully examined. This I 
 have endeavoured to do in each case ; and following the Mandarin 
 pronunciation of the present day, will usually be seen the nearest 
 approximation I have reached to the primitive sound. 
 
 When a phonetic has final k, t, or p in the dictionaries under a 
 part of the examples, it is to be attributed to all the examples. The 
 partial loss of such letter is to be ascribed to phonetic decay. 
 
 The modern final n and ng have both changed from m in a 
 larger or smaller number of cases. They are here indicated in each 
 instance. 
 
 Many phonetics have two or more sounds, which may be entirely 
 unconnected or derived the one from the other. Thus wu, hu, mu, 
 wen, are sounds all given to 96 wu "do not." They can be divided into 
 three, kot, mot, mon. The first two have no connexion but in meaning. 
 They are different roots. The last may be connected with the second 
 by an ancient change from t to n. 
 
 If we look at phonetic 187 mu "mother," we find the sounds 
 mu, wu, meu, all closely connected by interchange of letters. Here, 
 then, is no likelihood of two sounds having been originally attached 
 to the character. 
 
 Phonetics acquire a new sound when they are applied through 
 resemblance in idea to write some word whose sound differs. Thus 
 wang, mong 18 "to disappear," "be lost," is used in hwang, kong 
 " waste, desert, vast," 217, on account of similarity of idea. 
 
 The guiding principle on which this chapter has been compiled is 
 that anciently words like in their phonetic symbols were like in sound. 
 This is at once recognized by every one in simple cases. Thus flj pi 2 l 
 "he," f^ p'i 5 "skin," were written with the same symbol because 
 their sounds were regarded as like. 
 
 We may proceed farther than this, and say that where difficulties 
 occur in discovering similarity of sound, it is in every case due to the 
 
 1 "When in this list the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, or 8 occur after the modern pro- 
 nunciation of any character, they are tone marks. Usually the old pronunciation follows 
 them.
 
 52 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 changes effected by time in the sounds of the words. Of this state- 
 ment, the facts of the present chapter may be taken as proof. 
 
 It has been a chief aim throughout to obtain as nearly as possible 
 an approximation, by the light of the phonetic signs, to the sounds 
 given to the words at the time the characters were made. 
 
 There is a circumstance that can scarcely fail to strike the student. 
 The limitation in area of the letter changes is very remarkable on 
 account of the peculiarity of the Chinese syllabary. Thus in English 
 the initials k, t, and p can take after them the letter r, and k and p the 
 letter /. In Chinese, i can take after it s or sh. In English, s may 
 precede k, t, or p at the beginning of a syllable. For example, scan, 
 crumb, clan, plan, etc. The expansive power of English is as eight 
 to two therefore as compared with the Chinese in regard to the pre- 
 fixing or affixing a consonant to the radical initial in a syllable. 
 
 There is a similar lack of expansive power in the other parts of a 
 Chinese syllable. Changes take place within a very small area, and 
 can be reduced to a few simple principles. There are few known 
 languages which are so limited as the Chinese in the faculty of syllabic 
 development. 
 
 Through the four thousand years of its history since the invention 
 of writing, the Chinese language has never been able to extend its 
 syllabary after the fashion of the more richly developed types of speech 
 to which in Europe we are accustomed. 
 
 The changes undergone by the syllabary within its very small 
 circle of variation are registered in this chapter in an imperfect 
 manner, with references to native authorities. 
 
 As a whole, the phonetics are here given as they are found in the 
 modern writing, but an eye has been kept on the ancient forms. 
 
 LIST OF PHONETICS IN THE MODERN WRITING. 
 
 ! 2* y*y 4, kit, second in the denary cycle. K'it in 38 k'i, "beg." 
 Initial t deduced from the sound kieu, with RR. 142, 157, 167, and 
 from HI ngit in Kwy, R. ear. Perhaps also tat, as in cha, p. 150. 
 
 la. yi, 4, tit, " one." Tiechiu, chek 8, it 4. Also him, 8, gak, 
 " a stroke." 
 
 16. f ktcun, kon, a downstroke. Perhaps a contraction from 20.
 
 THE PHONETICS. 53 
 
 le. J pi, pit. Found in 11, 13, 132, etc. First occurs in Sw. A 
 contraction for some longer character. 
 
 Id. * chu, 4, tok or tot, " a dot." Tak, tok, in PP. 29, 41, 42, 69, 
 129. Tot in 148 shut, with several radicals. See 53. 
 
 le. \. fit, put. The reverse of \c. Sometimes na, nap. 
 
 If. J kiue, 8, get. Found in kie 37, ya, "tooth," 76. See 311 sie. 
 
 Iff. L kiue, 4, kit, " hook." Found in kieu, 16 yue, ket, "spear," 154. 
 
 lh. *~* mi, mik or ming. Found in 627. 
 
 2. ^ k'au, 2, k'ok. Found in 19, 21, yu 111, hi 194, hau, "sign," 
 236 k'wa, 241 k'au 427 kik 603 ngok, 731, 1006. Final k in 427, 603, 
 indicates loss of k in the others. 
 
 2a. JT tfse, 4, ta&, ##, # or ngam, "impending cliff." See for 
 tak 140, 166 ; for cjan, ngan, 512, 637 ; for ngam, 939, 1035. It is 
 ideographic in 810, and may be so considered in many of those just 
 enumerated. Also yai, ngat, 410. 
 
 2b. . t'si, tsit, "seven." Found in 74 t'sie. 
 
 3. -p sh'i, 8, zhap, dap, "ten." Chi, 4, tap, "sap, juice," R. water. 
 Chen, Urn, "needle," R. metal. Hip in hie, "rule," R. water; and in 
 hie, " to agree," R. mouth. 
 
 4. "J* ting, 1, tang, "nail." Phonetic in 513, dang. The forms 
 on old bells and vases are often only a dot or small black square. 
 
 5. JJ tau, 1, tok and tot, "knife." Tak in the Odes, RR. sun, 
 water. Tyt. Found in 160 chau, tok, "shine." Tit in 74 t'sie, 
 "cut." Kit and sit in 567 hie. 
 
 6. j[f K, 8, lik, " strength." Found in 189 yeu " young." 
 6#. ~jf liau, lo(k], " ended." Lio in Kwy, RR. metal, boat. 
 
 7. (2 /, 5, 5ffw, " contain," " rule." Phonetic in fan, bam, 
 45, 127. 
 
 8. 75 na?; 6, #, "then," "therefore," "thou," "it is so;" 
 "milk," "breasts," R. woman. K is inferred from the meanings. 
 See in 287 "milk" and "thou." Also ning. It is used in 564 yiug 
 "full." 
 
 9. Jl ki, "bench." Kik in 309, k'ek "overcome" 487. Kit in 
 22 of, 103 ku, kot. Also she, tit. See 777 ten and sfo, " place," 103. 
 
 10. -Jikicu, "nine." Kuk in Kwy, RR. 44, 32, 72, 157, 170. 
 Kuk in the Odes, R. hole, III, where it rhymes with words in k. 
 Kik in Kya, RR. earth> corpse, combined. 
 
 11. ^ pi, pit, "spoon." Found in 108. Bit in Kwy, p. 108.
 
 54 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 Pin, Um, " female," R. cow. The meanings, as well as the instances 
 in Kwy, favour final t, which however is lost in modern Chinese 
 dialects. 
 
 12. J^jen, niti; "man." Used ideographically in wo "lie down," 
 with g. 
 
 13. A pa, P^, "eight." Found in 451 fei "not." But this is 
 better derived from, fei "fly." 
 
 14- X y*> 7> n $ ai > nga(k\ "cut," "rule." Found in 16, 306, etc. 
 14a. fc ju, 8, nip, "enter." Found in 121, artemisia, R. grass. 
 
 15. 3t yeu, 3, tttk, " hand," " and," ' another." S/iok in 484, dok 
 in 511. See 29, 69, 675, 681, 686. Uk in the Odes, Tyt. Shut in 
 103. Ehymes with tik 799, R. words, and with k'ak 309 in Odes. 
 Ideographic in she, "place," 103; sheu, "receive," 447; shot, "kill," 
 778 ; tsu, " take," 417. In the last it is perhaps tup. 
 
 16. l| kieu, kut, " tie," "wrap up." Also sheu, tut, n.p'u (strike). 
 16. ^ si, tik. Found in t'ai 186. See upper part of 360 yi, dik, 
 
 and 237 chi ]g , " arrive at." See 70. 
 
 1Gb. LI kan, k'am, "mouth of a pit or vessel." Found in hinng 
 109, where m has become ng. K'am in Kwy, R. hand. Phonetic in 
 151 kan, " sweet," and in ham, " hold," 444. 
 
 17. \\ pu, 4, pok, "to divine." Also fit, 3, pok, as in/w, "to arrive 
 at." RR. words, walk. Fall, R. man. 
 
 17. 7J kiung, 1, kong, " desert waste." Found in k'iung 206, 
 which is the same word. The sound resembles that of hiang 280, 
 which is also shang. See also 489 kang and 562 hung. 
 
 18. tcang, 5, mong, " die," " disappear." Found in hwang 217, 
 where it symbolizes " broad and desert vacancy," without connexion 
 in sound, and in wang, 5, mong 488, where sound and sense agree. 
 
 18a. >]* siau, 2, sok, " little." Shau in 123 " few." Sha in 295 
 " sand." Siau in 380. Sfiok in 484, 707. Final k occurs in 380, 
 484, 407 ; and it may be concluded to have been lost in 18#, 
 123, 295. 
 
 19. -^ yti, gok, " in," " at." From 2. Yet in Kwy, with R. rice, 
 above inscribed in f} . Final t from k. Same as 21 //?/. 
 
 20. -f- kan, 1, "a shield." Phonetic in 261 kien, 364 han, 653 kan, 
 895 kan. Also in lb, which is probably derived from it by contraction. 
 
 21. ^f yu, 5, go(k), "in," "at." Hu in Kp, R. words, eye. 
 Another form of 19.
 
 THE PHONETICS. 55 
 
 2la. j^j- kung, 1, kong, two hands held up respectfully. Found 
 in kung, "together," 251. 
 
 22. 7C wu > 8, ngot, " high," " a stool." Resembles in form and 
 sense ki " bench" 9. From man and one. Sw. 
 
 23. ^ ta, 7, dap, " great." Wasteful, R. heart. Load, carry a load, 
 R. horse. Tap in Kwy with R. ear underneath, and this again is used 
 as a phonetic with p'i\ "skin," 170. Tat in Kwy, R. water. (Tfrom 
 p.) Found in yen, dam 413. Found in cha 529 with to "many" 
 underneath, and with the sound yip in Kwy, RR. flesh, metal, eat, etc. 
 See to "many" 265. Found in jican "soft" 527, and this phonetic 
 is Hap in Kwy with R. ear. These instances indicate final p in ta, 
 "great." 
 
 24. T cliang, 6, 7, done/, " staff," measure of ten feet. The lower 
 stroke to the right is a hand grasping the staff. Phonetic in 739 
 shivang " clear," " cold," " fresh." 
 
 25. - yi, tik, " to shoot." Dak in 176. Shak in 225 and 799. 
 Yik 4 in Ty. Tik 8 in Tsy, Yh. 
 
 26. f hia t 6, 7, ge(t), "go down," "down." Japanese kudari 
 " descend." Kw has one downstroke only. 
 
 27. X kung, 1> kom, "work." Kong in Kp, R. water. Found in 
 k'ung "between" 250, king "straight down," the direction of flowing 
 water 310, k'ung "empty" 384, kung "tribute" 646, hiang 827. Also 
 in 32 lor, 1039, where final m is retained. 
 
 28. t'u t l o(t), "earth." Found in ch'i "arrive" 237, lau "old" 
 244, li " Chinese mile" 369. This last has final k in Kwy. See ta, 
 8, dat, 885; t'ie, t l it, "iron," 888. Men, mu, "thumb," R. hand. 
 See 369. 
 
 28a. i ski, 6, 7, zhi(f)> " scholar," " learned man." Found 
 in 313. T in 814. 
 
 29. TJ- t'sun "inch." Tok, shak, tsiak in 681, 1019. Zik in 
 240, 491. Nok in 636. The likeness in 942 disappears in old forms. 
 Yet we find dzuk in Kwy for 942 with R. gem. T'sun is the sound 
 with the sense "inch." Found with the sound lie, 8, hit in 334. 
 Tsim in 748, 854. 
 
 30. jf t'sai, 5, da(t), "power," "wealth," "materials." Also pit 
 in Kwy, close up, hide, R. door. 
 
 31. ^ kung, 1, kong, "bow." Found in k'iang 359. Much con- 
 nected in meanings with 27.
 
 56 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 32. ki, 2, ki(t), " self." Found in 331. Also p'ei, p l ot, R. earth. 
 
 33. g, si, 6, 7, zi. Dze 6, and cfeefc in Odes. Tyt. Nine to 
 eleven A.M. To sacrifice, R. shl, announce. 
 
 330. p sh'i, I, tit, " corpse." Chi, 5, dit, in 656 ; chan, tan, in 657, 
 671, 897, 833. Kuk in Kwy, R. nine (kieu). K'ut in 442 "crooked." 
 
 34. Ifl jen, 7, nin, "sharp," "edge of a knife," "patient/' 
 R. heart. Phonetic in 332. 
 
 34a. J^ yen, 5, din, " walk slowly." Phonetic in 350 yen. See 141. 
 
 35. -fl) ye, 6, efop, "and," "also," final particle of simple indication. 
 Found in 165 yi, t'o and in 510 sh'i, " give." A dental initial occurs 
 in half of the examples. Final p is shown by the meanings which 
 connect 35 with t'o "carry" 125, to "many" 265, tso "left" 136, and 
 its kindred phonetics, ye, yep, " to draw," 289, and others. Final p, 
 while lost in most examples, is preserved in 289 and some other 
 phonetics. 
 
 36. ? ts'i, 2, tik, " son." 
 
 37. % kie, 4, kit, " alone," " solitary." See I/ kiue, where the 
 downstroke has the sound kit, and is perhaps contracted from 37. 
 
 38. *C k'i, 3, k'it, "to pray." Found in k'i, "breath," 89 a 
 and 664. 
 
 39. ^ to, 4, tok, t'ok, "leaf," bud appearing above the ground, 
 sprout. Dzak in 210, for which dak in Kp. Young girl, R. woman. 
 Dzak, " house," R. 40, mien. 
 
 40. ^ tsien, 1, t'sin, " a thousand." To engrave, R. knife. To 
 correct and reform, R. 162. 
 
 41. j cho, 4, tak, "spoon," "draw water." Tik in Kp R. heart. 
 Also pok, which occurs in pan " embrace" 168. Yau, dau, dok in 
 465. See 929. 
 
 42. ? si, 8, zik, dik, " evening." See 394 ye " night." From 
 yue " moon," as seen at evening. 
 
 43. ^ shan, 1, sham, " hair." Phonetic in shen, t'sam, 780. 
 Perhaps also phonetic in 328, in 183, and in 829 sitin, dim. 
 
 44. & kieu, 2, ku, " past," " long time." Final k is probable 
 from the resemblance in meaning to 153 ku, kok, " ancient," and 
 to 349* kieu, 6, 7 guk "old." 
 
 45. Jf. fan, 5, bam, " all." From 7. Bung in Kwy, RR. water, 
 grass. Sw says that it is phonetic in fcng "wind" JU,, referring to 
 the outside line.
 
 THE PHONETICS. 57 
 
 46. |L wan, 5, ngan, " pill," " small globe." H often commences 
 the sound. This is changed from ng. 
 
 47. jHj, ch'a, 1, t'ap, " fork." Meanings favour final p. Seize hold 
 of. Cross way. Cross branches. Quiver n. leather, kek. 
 
 48. J|j c'htven, 1, Von, " streams." Originally the same as R. water 
 in form. 
 
 49. ft, sin, 1, "light in weight," "swift." Also sh'i, si, sip, 
 ship, as in 899. 
 
 50. ;& nu, 6, nok, " woman." Found in 188, 287. The latter, 
 ju " as " is nok in Odes, Tyt V. 
 
 500. ^ yen, 1, M-, "small." Found in 189, 2870, tik 619, 
 t'sttk 620, so& 641. 
 
 51. P k'eu, 2 k'ok, kok, "mouth," any orifice. Kok in kok, 
 "each," "every," 272; ku, kok, "valley," 338; kau, kok, "tell," 
 342; kau, kok, "high," 622; ke, kek, "to separate," 649; kwok 
 "suburbs" 727. Evidence favours final k in 169, 194, 378, 153, 
 497, 441, 544, 306. Gok occurs in 330. Kit in ki "good luck" 
 243. Gat in hai "injure" 610 and in 262. By clear majority of 
 instances the old final was k, T was formed from it. 
 
 510. I ] ktco, 1, kak, " kingdom." Final k occurs in 497, K. 
 water, Jiak, " dried up," 794 ; kwo, kok, " kingdom." Also hiung, 
 1, kong, and the same in fact as 170 and 206, kiung, " waste." Also 
 k'tffun, kon, as in k'wun "confined in a circle" 377; R. wood inclosed, 
 499 k'iun "granary ;" 702, hu-un "boar." 
 
 52. ilj shan, 1, " mountain." Phonetic in twan, 606, which 
 retains the old t that has become sibilated in 52. Mam, name of a 
 place, R. stone. Mam, R. mouth. In the Wu dialect this last means 
 give the breast. See in Kwy. 
 
 520. |J4 c'he, 4, t'et. Found in c'hu " go out " 207, with sound 
 t'ut, and in ku "crooked" 442, with sound k'ut. See 693, ch'i. 
 
 53. ^ ten, 2, to(k), "ten pints." Final k is inferred from 
 41, Id, etc. 
 
 54. ~fj fang, 1, pong, " square." Phonetic in 615. Pong in Kp, 
 and is there used in spelling 475 with R. bamboo. But 475 never 
 appears with initial/. Hence 54 was formerly pronounced with p. 
 
 55. / hang, 5, gong, " neck," " strong," " sincere," " vestige," 
 " tracks," " ditch," "resist," "boat," " greedy," with the appropriate 
 radicals.
 
 58 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 56. ]JC icen, 5, mun, " literature," " the characters," " beauty." 
 Phonetic in 830. 
 
 57. ~fT pien, 1, pin, "law," "method," "Rejoice," R. heart. 
 
 58. *fc yin, c'hen, 5, dim. Phonetic in 398, and in t'san 813. 
 
 59. >J hwo, 2, kat, " fire." Used in modern writing for hwo, 
 kap, "associate," "partner," for which kico, kap, 605, is usually 
 employed. Possibly final t may be from p. But the Mongol is 
 gal "fire" =.kat. The phonetic value of 59 is dik in 352. Also 
 yen, dam in 400, and in 398 as sometimes written. 
 
 60. fo sin, 1, tim, "heart." Phonetic in 403 ticm. 
 
 61. % yuen, 5,ngen, "origin." Phonetic in wan "to finish" 294. 
 
 62. ifc tsing, 2, tarn, "a well." Called tarn in Kwy, with a 
 dot in the middle. Also keng, 1, kang, "to plough," R. plough, 
 R. field. The character was chosen to express ploughing because 
 it represents the old division of land round each city in nine 
 squares. From it comes the character king, "punishment," 222, 
 according to one etymology. 
 
 63. $ifu, I, man, "husband."- "Bran," R. wheat. "Hatchet," 
 R. metal. " Support with the hands," R. hand. Pak in the Odes, 
 Tyt Y. 
 
 64. w yun, 5, gun, " say." " Cloud," R. rain. Initial g inferred 
 from hicun, "soul," R. demon. In yim 764 it is not phonetic but 
 ideographic. 
 
 65. 3 wang, 5, gong, "king," "feudal prince." From this come 
 k'wang 223, 353, and hwang 574. 
 
 65rt. y? tai, ta(t), " bad." In Kw corpse below mouth. A new 
 character used for one in the Li shu, where pit, " divine," takes the 
 place of the horizontal line at the top. 
 
 66. /g nge, wei, ngek. Wok in Kp R. feu " hill." See 267. 
 
 67. JA tse, 4, tak, " bent," " crooked." From 2a. 
 
 68. Jx/tf/*, 2, pan, "turn over," "opposite." A hand with a 
 covering radical. 
 
 69. % yen, 5, tsieu, duk, " excessive," " strange," " fault." 
 Found in 803, which see for proof of k final. 
 
 70. ~fc kung, 1, kong, " arm." So called from its curved shape, 
 which is represented pictorially by the two lower strokes. The two 
 upper are one of the hand symbols. The lower part is found in 
 kung "just" 116, and in hung " great" 156.
 
 THE PHONETICS. 59 
 
 70a. QT p'i, 4, p'it. Numeral of horses. Forty feet of cloth. 
 Sw. A pair. To pair. Kwy. Same as 161a p'i. 
 
 71. ^ pu, 4, pot, " not." Found in p'ei 138, feu 308. 
 
 72. ft k'iuen, 1, &'<w, " dog." Phonetic in 1033 Men. T'ot iu 
 505 " sudden." Li in 462 " crooked." 
 
 72#. fj k'ai, 1, k'a(t), "to open." The part inclosed is here the 
 phonetic. 
 
 73. g hu, 6, 7, gok, "mutually," "together," "interchangeably." 
 Final k deduced from the meanings. 
 
 74. UJ t'sie, 4, t'sit, tit, " cut," " important." From 2b and 5. 
 
 75. * kico, I, kak. See 303, 857. Gak in 430, hwo, "suddenly." 
 
 76. ^p y, 5, ngat, " tooth." The downstroke is kit in I/. Found 
 in ki, kit 776, where Kwy has kit. Also apparently sie, da(t) in sz'e 311. 
 But here the true phonetic is R. 180 dap, and the true primitive final 
 is p, as in c'ha, " erroneous," ^'tf/> 629. 
 
 77. ft fei, 3, pit, "short clothing." Lungs, sheep, shady, run. 
 Pat in Kwy, RR. heart, hand, clothes. Bat in Kwy, R. foot. Pz^ in 
 Kwy, R. grass. Found in p'-ei, " carry at the girdle." 
 
 78. j c//i', 1, tik, tit. Also 7cz, giak. Giak in Kwy alone and with 
 R. cart. Gi, gik, with R. 60 on the left and R. corpse above it. 
 
 79. U| mien, 7, min, " dark," a protection from arrows. Also kai, 
 kap, "beg." 
 
 80. yfc mu, 8, mok, " wood." Also hieu in 278. 
 
 81. -^ yn, 6, zut, "give." Su, chii, shu are common sounds. 
 Also ye, R. li, " a mile." Mongol yara, "wild," "desert," retains in r 
 the lost final t. 
 
 81a. ^ yin, 6, yz, #, "govern," "rule." See yi "he" 279, 
 where 81a is phonetic. 
 
 82. 51 yin 6 din, "lead," "guide," "draw." Djin in Kwy, 
 RR. silk, flesh, eye. Shin with RR. words, arrow. Shen " to lead 
 out" 196, is probably the same word. 
 
 83. jj c'heu, 2, sieu, tok, nok, " second in the cycle of twelve," 
 "one to three A.M." Niok in Kp, R. reptile. Nok in Kwy, 
 RR. heart, spear (man}, reptile, blood, water. Found in 730 sieu "be 
 ashamed." 
 
 84. Q ku-ai, 3, kit. Also k'wai 3, " quick," R. heart. Kiuc, 4, kit, 
 "counsel," R. words. 
 
 85. ^ mu, 8, mot, " draw from the water." R. water gives the
 
 60 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 sense submerge in water, die, disappear. A hand is seen taking 
 something from the water. 
 
 86. pa, 1, pak, "would that!" "tail." Found in 459 fei 
 "fat," the meanings of which indicate final k. 
 
 87. -^ fa, 8, bap, "exhausted." Also/aw, 3,pam, "float." Offend, 
 R. dog. Also pien, 3, pirn, R. hole, "bury." Pung in Kwy, R. west, 
 R. yen, " cover." The letter changes are p to m, m to ng, and initial 
 .pto/. 
 
 88. 3g mau, 5, mok, " hair of animals." Mok in Kp, R. wing, and 
 in Kwy, R. eye. Rhymes with yo, gak, " music," in the Odes II, 
 R. grass. 
 
 89. tf wu, 6, ngok, " moon." For final k see 90 and the 
 meanings. 
 
 89a. -^ k'i, 3, k'it, " breath." Same as 664. One stroke less 
 gives the sense to "beg," "pray." It then becomes the phonetic 38. 
 
 90. ^ nieu, 5, nguk, " cow." Gu in Amoy and Tiechiu. 
 Phonetic in kiai "loosen" 902. Mongol uher "cow," where h 
 stands for the lost k in the Chinese word. 
 
 90. 3& jen, 5, nim, the ninth in the cycle of ten. Also t'ing, 
 5, dam. Phonetic in t'ing 341, c'heng 373, sheng 886. See 10376, 
 282, 448. 
 
 906. ^f feng, 5, pong, "abundant," "beautiful in face." Phonetic 
 in 339, 348, 401, 1021, 774, and perhaps in 452. 
 
 91. ^j yau, kok or tok. Final k with R. water. See 162, 378, 
 ngok, 845 k'iau, k'ok, "bridge." It forms the upper part of 845, and 
 thus we might recover initial and final k. Note, however, that in 
 old forms of 845 the upper part differs. With R. bamboo it is siau. 
 
 92. pu, 4, pok, " beat," and as in $fc mu > m0 ^^ " to tend as a 
 shepherd," R. cow. P'ok in Kwy, R. fire. 
 
 93. $ tan > 1> mm * t am -> "red," "elixir of life," "red oxide 
 of mercury." Nam and tarn in Kwy, but the dot within becomes 
 there a horizontal stroke. Dung in Kwy, R. sham 59. 
 
 94. *J yun, 5, kiiin, kun, "even," "smooth." The outer part is 
 phonetic in stun 264. 
 
 95. /j yue, 8, get, nget, " moon." 
 
 96. ^7 icu, 4, kut, "do not." Phonetic in 466, hu, 4, kut, 
 " suddenly." Also wu, mut. Also wen, mun. 
 
 97. 2fc h\ 8, gip, "reach to," "arrive at." Also cha, sa, 4, sap,
 
 THE PHONETICS. 61 
 
 with RR. hand, dog, words, leather (kek}. The upper curve is want- 
 ing in some old forms. 
 
 98. <fc k'ien, 3, k'im, " to owe," "be deficient." Also c'Awf, t'o 
 " blow," R. mouth. It is with reference to this sound that Sw says 
 98 is phonetic with R. fire. 
 
 98a. j keu, 4, kok. See final k in 458, 562. Also hung. See 908. 
 
 99. Jf kin, " hatchet," " a pound weight." Also si, she, tit, as in 
 c/ie, " break," 326 ; s'i, " that," 823. Phonetic in Am, 468. 
 
 100. 5t sheng, 1, " rise upward." Agrees in sense and sound 
 with shang " go up," c'heng " to present " 373, and other kindred words. 
 
 101. Jz Aw, go(f), "door of a house." Found in heu 268, k'i 
 463, AM 769. But in Kwy 101 with 1 below it is ok. Other grounds 
 for a lost k are the meanings to " meet," " union," as in 167. Other 
 grounds for final t are found in the shape of PP. 442, 760, kut, wei. 
 
 102. Jft chau, 2, to(k), "nail," "scratch," "comb." See 449 
 for the contracted form. 
 
 103. Q 1 shu, 5, shot, "long spear." The sound is shortened to 
 yi in 737. Ku 2 kot, " goat," R. sheep. A form like it is found 
 in kia "false" 549. Also sham, RR. knife, grass. Found in 670a 
 yin. Also yik, " pestilence," R. sickness. 
 
 104. Ig t'un, 5, don, "assemble," "heap," "generous," "bud," 
 " pure." Ton in Kp, R. fire. 
 
 105. -ffc hmt, 3, kap, " renovate," " change in nature and 
 appearance." Mong. hobilho " to be transformed." Flower, R. grass. 
 " Goods," "merchandise," R. shell money. "Boots," R. leather (kek). 
 The other hwa, " flowery," 860, has final p with several radicals. 
 Final p is therefore inferred in 105. 
 
 106. J5 sh'i, 6, 7, dik, " family name," " tribe." Also k'i, gi(k). 
 Tik in Kwy, R. words. See ti, "low," 174, and R. 83. 
 
 107. f]J yang, 5, ngong, "look up," "look up to." Also y, yik, 
 RR. wood, hand. 
 
 108. Jfcpi, 2, pit, "compare." Formed of two spoons, 11, used 
 in comparing. Sit in Kwy. Phonetic in pi 354, 685. 
 
 109. L*J hiung, 1, kong, "cruel." From I6b k'am, which is here 
 phonetic. 
 
 110. ^ kin, 1, kim, "now." Phonetic in ham, "take into the 
 mouth," 356, in Urn 379, in niem 477, in t'arn 779, in k'im 808a, 909, 
 764 yim, and in 478 gold.
 
 62 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 111. ^ hi, 5, gik, " Ah ! " A final particle in poetry. From 19. 
 
 112. ft fen, 1, 7, pun, bun, " divide," " division." The two upper 
 strokes mean parting and those below are the knife which effects it. 
 Pan in Kwy, R. bird. 
 
 113. # kiai, 3, kat, " great," " firm," " help." Sot, gut in Kwy, 
 RR. stone, heart, bone, earth. 
 
 114. 3 fu, 6, 7, bo, "father." Fu, "stewing pan," R. metal, is 
 also in Fy exchanged with 514 fu, bok, R. metal, as if fu, "father," 
 was also anciently bok. 
 
 115. 5 hiau, 5, gak, "imitate," "join," "cross." Kok in Kwy, 
 R. cart. See 14. 
 
 115fl. XA t'sung, 5, dom, "follow." Abridged from t'sung 771, 
 "follow." Zemin 911. 
 
 116. Q kung, 1, kong, "just." First of the five titles of here- 
 ditary nobility. Formed from part of 70 by resemblance in sound. 
 See 156. Also sung, tung, RR. word, words, etc. As such it is 
 phonetic in sung 434 and in 690 weng. Sim in Odes Ty, where it 
 rhymes with sim, " heart," and feng, "wind." 
 
 117. -fa yun, 6, dun, "assent to," "nod the head." Zhun or dun 
 in Kwy, R. mouth. Compare 359. From g and A- Sw. 
 
 Il7a. tb\ jeu, 6, nieu, nok. Tok in 577. Picture of the foot 
 of a wild beast trampling on the ground. In Cw three strokes 
 only. Ctt. 
 
 118. j{ t'siang, 5, (long, "bedstead," "wooden support or frame." 
 Accusation, R. dog. So called because written on an oblong tablet. 
 Used in 783, 361, 438 tsang, " hide." 
 
 119. chi, 2, tik, "to stop." T'si, t l ik in 191. The lower part 
 of 593 and 773 is like 119 in form and sound. Lik in 993. It is 
 only in the modern form of c'h'i, "teeth," R. 211, that 119 appears to 
 be phonetic. It is not in old forms. 
 
 120. ^ j'i, 8, nit, " sun." Also hu, got, RR. hand, water. Mong. 
 nara "sun." 
 
 121. j^j nei, 7, nip, "within." From ju, "enter," 14fl. Nap in 
 Kwy, R. fish. Also nat in Kwy, RR. flesh, wolf, etc. Final t from 
 final p. 
 
 122. 4 1 chung, 1, torn, "middle," "strike the middle." Mong. 
 domda "middle." Same as yang, "middle." Y has taken the place 
 of t. Phonetic in 323 sung " elevate," " fear," etc.
 
 THE PHONETICS. 63 
 
 123. $? shau, 2, sho, shok, "few." Mio in Kp, R. wood. "Mo- 
 ment." For k, see 776, 380, 484. See 180 siau. 
 
 124. * chu, 6, to, tot, " roofed tablet," " space between 
 the outer screen and door." Clear, R. water. Winding sheet, 
 R. napkin. 
 
 125. .*g t'o, 5, da, dap, " carry." Stone roller, R. stone. Camel, 
 R. horse. Cake, R. wheat. Bundle of silk threads, R. silk. Rudder, 
 R. boat. She, " snake," R, reptile. 
 
 126. $t hiue, 8, git, " hole," " pit." 
 
 127. $t fan, 5, bam, " overflow." Also bam in Kwy with p. 452, 
 ping, R. water. From 7. 
 
 128. j #) 8, &J9, " stand." Lap in Kya with RR. hand and 
 grass combined. Also ts'ip, shap in 388, t'sie, " concubine." Found 
 in tcei 349, yu 590. 
 
 129. c/i, 2, fo, " lord." To* in 419 " poison." Su for so& 
 in 634 "plain," che for taA- in 735 " chastise." See 850 tsiau. 
 
 130. =j 7w/e, 5, gun, "dark." Silk is probably used as sug- 
 gestive of colour. Phonetic in 725 and perhaps in 618. 
 
 1300. ifr sh'i, 6, 7, zhik, dik, "market," Tsi in 180 "sister." 
 T'si 249 "thorn," "choose," " a bundle of leaves or sticks." Si, 8, 
 zikin 6l7a "mat." 
 
 131. ^j< yiaig, 6, dong, "eternal," "long." Same as c'hang 
 "long" 402 in regard to meaning. Tiling in Kwy, R. sun. Also 
 hung. Yung, to sing, RR. mouth, words. In explanation of the form, 
 notice that water bubbling up is called yung. See under 327. 
 
 132. $ pi, 4, pit, " must." Also bik, " once." Found in 708. 
 Mit with R. cover, mien. It occurs as pik in Kwy, RR. 182, wind, 
 31, 109. 
 
 132tf. fj* sh'i, 7, dit, " announce," " divine intimation." Found 
 in tsi, " sacrifice," 768. Nat in 414. 
 
 133. Zp p'ing, 5, bang, "even," "flat." Criticize, R. words. 
 
 134. TJ\; icei, 7, mit, "not yet." Mit in Kwy, R. rice. Savour, 
 R. mouth. Met, "younger sister," R. woman. Dark, R. sun. 
 
 135. % mo, 8, mot, " end of a thing," " saliva," " flour," " to 
 obliterate." A sort of turban. Picture of a tree, with a stroke to 
 denote its top twig. 
 
 136. & tso, 2, tsap, "left hand." Found in 522, 629 c'ha 
 " err," 883 sui " follow."
 
 64 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 137. fa pa, 8, bat, " pluck up." See 322p'ok, for likeness in shape. 
 
 138. 21 P <e i> 1> ptt-> " great." Other meanings : sun-dried bricks, 
 fear, full, foetus, strong. From 71, pu, pot, "not." See 71. 
 
 139. :fj yen, 7, duk, "right hand," "assist." Jo, niok in 587, 
 " if." Ni, nik in 745 " hide." From hand and mouth. Sw. 
 
 140. ft sh'i, 8, zhak, dak, "stone." Weight of 120 Ibs. 
 
 141. tfft pu, 3, pot, " cloth." That which is spread out. To spread 
 out. Final t is inferred from the meanings. Compare them with 
 155 fu, etc. 
 
 141#. JiE yen, 5, din. The phonetic here is the right-hand portion. 
 It is phonetic in yen, din "prolong," 350, tien, din 382, and in siuen, 
 dzun 716. 
 
 142. J cheng, 1, 3, tarn, "correct." Subdue, R. 60. Phonetic in 
 ting "to fix" 382, which see. 
 
 143. -5^ k'u, 3, k'op 90. Final p occurs in one-third of the examples. 
 Also fa, pap, "law," R. water. Found in kai, kap, "to cover" 645. 
 In 317 k'io, ku, "valley," 338 should rather be written when the 
 final is k, as with RR. heart, flesh, man. But when p is the final, R. 
 mouth, reptile, this phonetic is correct. 
 
 144. |H kit, 6, 7, gut, "great." Out in Yp, R. bow, kung. Found 
 in 797 ku " canal." 
 
 145. pj" k ( o, 2, Wat, "may be," "can." Perhaps k'ak, for the 
 Mongol has gagwei used exactly in the same way, "you may," "it 
 may be." Found in k'i 408 " strange," and in ko, ka, " elder 
 brother," 650. 
 
 146. ^ ping 2, " third in the cycle of ten." 
 
 147. 01 tsa, 1, tap, " round." In Kwy the bounding line is want- 
 ing except the part at the top. 
 
 148. /K shu, 8, zhut, "glutinous millet," a kind of edible root. 
 Timid, R. heart. Method, R. walk, /tiny. Formed from mu, "wood," 
 with Id phonetic. See Kw form. 
 
 149. TjS pen, 2, pun, "root." Phonetic in pen 528. Picture of a 
 tree with its root. 
 
 150. ^L cha, 1, tat, "slip of wood." Right-hand part same as 1. 
 
 151. -ft kan, 1, kam, "sweet." From I6b k'am. See 109. Mam, 
 " old woman," in Kwy, R. woman. 
 
 152. itf; sh'i, 3, shap, "age," "thirty years." Generation. Formed 
 by the character for "ten" thrice written. Also sit by change of p
 
 THE PHONETICS. 65 
 
 to t. Found in ye "leaf" 542. Final p, lost in 152, is uniformly 
 preserved in numerous examples under 542. 
 
 153. - ku, 2, ko, kak, " ancient." Eak, gak in 497. Found in 
 kii 441, hu 544. 
 
 153ft. jrj| wu, 7, mu, "name of the fifth symbol in the denary cycle." 
 Still called men, with R. grass. Found in 982 nrie, mit. 
 
 154. \% yue, 4, kit, "javelin." See \g kit, the hooked downstroke, 
 which is the phonetic element in 154, the right portion being kak 
 also "javelin." Initial k is recovered from the sound het in Kwy, with 
 KR. 46, 85, 124, 157. 
 
 155. i$j fu, 4, pot, " not," " opposed." Like, mallet, strike, resist, 
 overflow, boil, waste money. From pat "eight" 13. This root for 
 the negative seems to take its origin from separation as signified in 
 the character for eight. 
 
 156. j hung, 5, "great." Both parts are phonetic. See 31, 70, 
 116. The right-hand part is a picture of a bent arm, called from its 
 curved shape kong 70. 
 
 157 /g ni, 1, nit, "peace." Name of the hill near which Confucius 
 was born. Nit in Kya. Nit in Kwy, R. sickness. 
 
 158. fj s'i, 1, sik, "oversee." Sik in Ta tai li. Tyt I. 
 
 159. J min, 5, "people." Use strength vigorously, R. strike, 
 p'u. Destroy, R. water. Sleep, R. eye. Another phonetic is formed 
 with R. strike, p'u on the right. 
 
 160. |3 chau, 1, to, tok. From 5. Rhymes with 978 yak 
 " music," and other words in k in Odes, Tyt II. RR. sun, fire, water, 
 
 161. jjfj kia, 1, kap, "add." The left part tripled is read hie, 8, gip, 
 659. Senses the same in kap 304. 
 
 161#. 3E sit,, sok. See 553, 593. In 593 djik occurs in Kwy. 
 Also p'it = 70a. See 141 dien. 
 
 162. 3f> hu, 5, gok. Final k inferred from 784, where 162 is 
 phonetic with hu, kok, "tiger" 487. Compare hi, the poetical final 
 particle 111. 
 
 163. *J= she, 4, tit, " lose." 
 
 163fl. ^ sh'i, 1, shik, "arrow." Found in yi, dik, % 360, ch'i 
 "know" 454, tsuk 717 "tribe." Tik in 454, ch'i "know" in Kwy, 
 R. water, and t l ik, dik, R. to see, kien. Tit in 163, and in tsi 
 " sickness " 616, yi " shade," " heal," 737. Probably in these cases 
 t is changed from an earlier k. 
 
 5
 
 66 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 164. sheng, 1, shang, "to produce," "live." Phonetic in sing 
 "star" 595, and in 835 lung "flourishing." 
 
 165. ^ yi, 5, mountain tribes in Kwang si. T'o, dap, "stone 
 roller," R. stone. From yc, 6, dap 35. Rudder, R. boat. 
 
 166. ^ cha, 4, 8, tuab, dzak, " suddenly." Tsab in 611. Narrow 
 R. hole. Yesterday R. sun. Do, make R. man. 
 
 167. Jfc hico, 5, gak. Nywei in 457. Lik in 993. Sicu, tok 
 in 343. Shuk in Kwy R. 162. For final k see 978, yo, gak 
 " music." Tok in 343 in Kwy, RR. words, bird, hand. Li in 344 
 for lik=sik, "interest for money." Tsieu for tok in 560. Su for 
 sok in 998. 
 
 167fl, $ yung, " to use." See 327. 
 
 168. Q pau, l,pok, "bundle," "to embrace." Pok in Kwy, RR. 
 rain, horse, gourd, bone, hole. P'ok in Kwy, RR. 177, 182. From 41. 
 
 169. 'pj ku, 3, kok, " sentence." Kik in Kwy, R. grass. See 
 330, 458, 562, and 98. 
 
 170. Jfjt p'i, 5, be(t], ba(t), "skin," "skin with the fur on." 
 Exhausted, broken, to suffer, robe, he. 
 
 171. ft ch<e > 4 *'* "break off," "blame." Sib in 433. In 
 modern writing it has become like ki)t "hatchet" 99 in shape, the 
 hatchet being used in the action of breaking or punishing. Tit in 
 326, t being changed from k. 
 
 172. Jffc kwa, 1, ku(k) or ku(t}, " melon," " gourd." Kut in Kwy, 
 R. grass, but attended by kit "luck" 243, which may be the source 
 of final t in that example. 
 
 173. 3 tung, 1, " winter." Pain, R. sickness. Chung " end," 
 R. silk. The upper part is phonetic in 423 ling, 835 lung " flourish- 
 ing," 776 t'sung " hearing clearly," 582 tsung " glad." 
 
 174. & ti, 2, tik, " bottom," " low." From sh'i phonetic. 
 
 175. ^ man, 6, mo(t), " six A.M.," " to negociate." The phonetic 
 is without R. sun above. Also lieu, 5, dut, as in 673, " willow," 
 " to touch." 
 
 176. f tai, 6, 7, dak, "generation," "instead of." From 25. 
 Tek and dek in Kwy, R. 154. T'ek in Kya, R. reptile. 
 
 176. g tn, 6, 7, dik, "self." Sib in 676. Chen, t'ok in 677. 
 Hieu, kieu in 677. See 411. 
 
 177. k'ieii, 1, l; ( uk, " hill." For final k see the lower part of 
 857 liu, which is 177.
 
 THE PHONETICS. C7 
 
 178. ]$ fii, 3, pot, " to give." Bubbles, rotten, boat, strike, near. 
 Phonetic in 393. Final t deduced from meanings. 
 
 179. pc, 8, bak, " white." Phonetic in 230, 473, 475. 
 
 180. tfe ts'i, 1, tik, " sister," R. woman. From 130. See 249 
 " thorns," 617a " mat." Note that " younger brother" is dek. 
 
 181. * pan, 2, " half." The verb " to cut in half" isp'an, and 
 in this the noun " half" finds its origin. 
 
 182. ^ tiny, 7, " command." Lien in Kwy, RR. heart, rain. 
 Rhymes with final n seven times in the Odes. Ny for a more 
 ancient n. 
 
 183. ^ chen, 2, tin, "tangled hair." Precious, R. jade, metal. 
 Shine, R. sun. 
 
 184. ^ yen, 6, dun, " marsh among mountains." Zhun in Kwy, 
 R. boat. Compare the upper part of 386a, 396, 802, 879. From 
 mouth, and water breaking its bounds. Sw. 
 
 185. ^ pien, 7, ban, "helmet." Picture of the object. Sw. 
 Fromp'an "take hold of," as that which holds the hair. Yp. From 
 ban " great," as that which gives a dignified appearance. Comment 
 on Yi Li. The picn was a hat used in the Cheu dynasty. 
 
 186. -* t'ai, 5, dat, " terrace." Same as 945, where the parts 
 indicate final t. Hai, ga(t) is also found. 
 
 187. $ mu, 6, mo(k], "mother." Phonetic in mei "every" 340, 
 and final k is found once in Kwy with this phonetic and R. earth. 
 
 188. * nu, 5, nok, " slave." From 50, woman. See 287 and 50 
 for proof of k. In Kw, instead of yen on the right, we find A on 
 the left. 
 
 189. tyj ycu, 3, tok, "young." Final k is inferred from 620 and 
 641. Initial t is inferred from 634, 641, 619, 620. See 287 a, 619, 50. 
 
 190. |5 chan, 1, tarn, "to divine," "occupy." Also tie, tip, RR. 
 heart, foot, etc. 
 
 191. jfc t's'i, 2, t'ik, "this." From 119 ch'i "stop." 
 
 192. H tan, 3, or ta, tat, " dawn." Phonetic in 264, 503, 879. 
 The stroke below is the horizon. 
 
 192. g kit, kok. Found in 490, 1023, 1034. Also mok " eye," 
 of which our phonetic is a picture. 
 
 193. ^ t'sie, 1, t'ik, "and further." Tsik in Kwy, R. grass. 
 Chit for dok in 370. 
 
 194. 5^ hau, 7, gok, " signal." The five strokes on the left are
 
 68 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 the phonetic. From 2. The left-hand part is 487, and may be 
 exchanged for RR. mouth, wood, mountain, etc. 
 
 195. ^p kia, 4, kap, "first bursting bud of plants," "coat of 
 armour," "shell," "covering." In "Kwjen "man" is above. 
 
 196. ^ shen, 1, shin, " extend," " stretch," " second time." The 
 root is tin, tan. Phonetic in din 425. Same as 81, 82. 
 
 197. -g- kwa, 2, ku(t), " cut flesh from the bones." Stafi , R. wood. 
 To kidnap, R. hand. Kwa is not a classical character. It first 
 occurs in Yp. 
 
 198. Jg, Mung, 1, kong, "elder brother." From 206 and 51a. 
 Also tok, RR. announce, wood. King in 309. 
 
 199. j^ ch'i, 4, tit, " only." Cart ruts, R. cart. 
 
 200. Jfe yang, 1, tong, " centre." Same as chung, 122. Phonetic 
 in ying "flourishing" 588. 
 
 201. fg t ( ien, 5, din, "cultivated field." Also s'i, as in s'i " think" 
 600. Wei in 601, 602. Lei in 763, 881, 985, 1037a. Lu in 917, 
 981. Since s, I, d are interchangeable letters, these nine phonetics may 
 be all derived phonetically from 201. Final t changed formerly to n. 
 
 202. |J[ yen, 5, dok, " from," " cause." Fife, R. bamboo. Same 
 rootasfoii "from" g 176a. 
 
 203. fy jen, 6, nim, " gradually." Also without the middle 
 vertical nim " to carry." Picture of the act. 
 
 204. ^f c'he, 4, t'ak, list on a tablet, or on a bundle of slips 
 of wood. Also shan, 1, tan. Altering t to lit appears as lun in 480. 
 L=sh=t. Like tien 500. See Men " field" 201. The slips of wood 
 are tied together by a string, which is represented by the long hori- 
 zontal stroke. 
 
 205. si, 3, si(k), "four." Also hik R. man. Also c/i'i. 
 
 206. |tjj k'iung, 2, k'ong, " desert." From 170, if that phonetic 
 is not rather contracted from this. Meanings : full, robe, sincere, 
 flame, wide, cold, distant. 
 
 2060. fill ming, 6, " vessels of porcelain." Phonetic in meng 
 445, and in 958 meng " dream." 
 
 207. fij c'hu, 4, t'ot, " go out." From 52<z, " plants budding." 
 Found in 442 k'ot, which indicates that k'ot is also a phonetic value 
 of 207. 
 
 208. Jl yi, 2, yit, "in order that." Phonetic perhaps in kwan 
 " magistrate," 386. Note that 208 has final n in the Tiechiu dialect.
 
 THE PHONETICS. 69 
 
 208. $ ni, 8, ngak. Tok in 630. Kit in 6300, 810. Ngak. 
 ngiak in Kwy. RR. reptile, silk, mouth, and R. 162. 
 
 209. f^ ts'i, 7, dzik, " written characters." Sheep, R. sheep. From 
 ts'i 36. 
 
 210. 32 tse, 8, cfe*, "house." Dak in Kp. 
 
 211. 4^ ngan, 1, , (), " rest." For initial t see the meanings. 
 Lower part phonetic in 533. 
 
 212. Jft yi, 8, yik, dik " also." Tsik " vestige," R. foot. 
 
 213. ^C yi, 1, F(0> " clothes." 
 
 214. ? A-/Vw, 1, kok, "join together." .Sff& in Kwy, R. cart. 
 Also in Odes. Tyt. 
 
 215. ^ c'fatng, t'ong, "fill." Take the position of, fill the post of. 
 Same as tang 914, in respect to meaning and ultimate sound. For 
 shape, see kung "just," also sung 116. 
 
 216. < hai, 7, gak. From 14. Nine to eleven P.M. K'ek 
 " cut," R. knife. 
 
 217. fa hicang, 1, kong, " waste," " wide." From 18 mong " die," 
 " wide," " blind." The resemblance is in sense and shape of the 
 symbol, though not in the sound. The three lower strokes represent 
 water, a frequent accompaniment of desert spaces. See 699. 
 
 218. :=, yang, 5, dong, " sheep." The initial d appears as t's and 
 dz with RR. words, etc. Phonetic in yung 729, yang "nourish" 969, 
 t'sung "gathered together" 1017a. 
 
 219. kiiien, 3, kon. The same phonetic as in kiuen 453. The 
 radical below may be changed for various other radicals. Picture 
 of the hands rolling something up. 
 
 220. ^ mi, 6, mi(k}, " rice." 
 
 221. -<fr t'si, 3, t'ik, "in order," "rank," "second." Found in 
 518. Tsik in Kya, R. reptile, with R. pe'i "shell money" underneath, 
 
 222. JflJ hing, 5, gong, " punishment." In Kh it has two forms, 
 one derived from tsing " well" 62, and the other from 261, kien "join 
 hands." 
 
 223. ^ k'icang, 5, gong, " basket." Other meanings are fear, 
 deceive, urge. Bony cavity of the eye. Door frame. From wang 65. 
 
 224. :j jung, 5, nong, "military weapon." "You" as in Shang- 
 hai dialect tiling. " Great." 
 
 225. ^ sh'i, 4, shak, "rule," "measure." From yi " throw" 25. 
 Root the same as tit, dok jr . T=sh.
 
 70 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 226. |1| yi, 5, dik, "eastern barbarian," "destroy." Di, dik 
 "brother," in 301. Tit in Kwy, P. 226, R. metal. From R. great 
 and R. bow, as suggestive of eastern men. Compare ?$ tiau, written 
 with kung " bow," and one straight downstroke through it, and called 
 tik in Kwy R. 162. T'e in Kya, R. water. 
 
 227. ^ hwei, 1, ku(t), " ashes." From hand and fire. 
 
 228. ~JJL keng, 1, kang, "constant." In Kh. there are two ex- 
 planations of the shape ; (1) from 273 cheu " boat," between the two 
 strokes of r'i, er "two ;" (2) from yue " moon" 95, and r'i "two." 
 
 229. JlJ lie, 8, lit, "order," "arrange." From 65. Same root as 
 lu "tubes" ^, and all those words called lu, lut, which are written 
 partly with |U , and have the idea of " arrangement." 
 
 230. "g pe, 4,pak, "hundred." From 179 bak "white," phonetic, 
 and "unity." 
 
 231. ^ yen, 6, guk, "have," "there is." Guk in Kwy in four 
 words. Rhymes in the Odes with six words in k, R. man. Tyt I. 
 
 232. ffij r'i (er), 5, ni, "and," "and further." Shame, nok in Ty, 
 R. heart. 
 
 233. j$ c'heng, 5, ding, "make," "complete." 
 
 234. % Psun, 5, dzun, "remain," "keep under protection," "place 
 in safety." 
 
 235. $1 su, 4, sut, 7 to 9 P.M. Also hii, kut. Kut in Kwy. 
 
 236. ^ k'wa, 1, k'ok, "boast." From 19 phonetic and ^. 
 
 237. ^ ch'i, 3, tik and tit, "arrive at a place," "to." Rhymes 
 with final k in Odes II. Tit in more than twenty words. Found in 
 tau "arrive" 415, ch'i "to cause" 639, t'ai "terrace" 945. 
 
 238. 5 r'i (er), 6, nip, "ear." Niak in Kp R. eye. Top in 314. 
 Tsat in 417. Tsip in 599. Nong in 694. Dzip in 941. Shep, nip 
 in 1018. 
 
 239. rfr kicei, 1, ku-a, kuk. Sceptre made of a precious stone. 
 Cassia, R. wood. Women's apartments, R. door. So named from 
 cassia. Deceive, R. words. Yai, ngak in 410, Kica, kuk in 421. 
 See 422 kwei, 316, 346, 428. 
 
 240. 3f s'i, 6, 7, zik, dek, "official apartments," "monastery." T'e, 
 dek, R. cow. Shi 5, dik, "time," R. sun. From 29, which has final k. 
 Tck in Kya, R. wood. 
 
 241. ^ k'au, 2, k'o(k), "examine," "old." Beat, R. hand. From 
 ^7, 2, as phonetic. Kw has 2 on the left and fan wen, R. 66, on the
 
 THE PHONETICS. 71 
 
 right. A father after death is styled kau. Lau "old" is ideographic 
 in this character. 
 
 242. j|{ tsfii, 3, tak, "to load," "carry." R. cart on the left below 
 may be exchanged for several other radicals. Tsai and tak in the 
 Odes, Tyt. Also tat. 
 
 243. * hi, 4, kit, "good luck." The root the same as hi "joy" 
 818. Here 243 is found as a phonetic. 
 
 244. % lau, 6, "old." See t'u "earth" 28. Picture of hair. 
 244#. f\ hwei, 2, kit, "flowers." Ngot in Kwy RR. mouth, tree. 
 
 In Kw R. 45 c'he "sprout," thrice written. 
 
 245. ^ siuen, 1, son, "promulgate." The cover radical mien is 
 not here part of the phonetic. It goes to make up phonetic 503 siueii 
 "promulgate," which see, Phonetic 245 is also hivan "strong," with 
 R. wood. Anciently HJ was used instead of . Also yuen " low 
 wall," R. earth. 
 
 246. ]|? //, 7, lit, "servant." To send, to use, ^ sh'i, 2. Historio- 
 graphers were called jj sh'i without the upper stroke. The first 
 historiographer was appointed in the reign of Hwang ti. T'sang kie, 
 inventor of writing, was the man. The bottom stroke was formerly 
 5(, i.e. a hand grasping something, viz. the symbol of office pictured 
 in the upper part of the character. 
 
 247. |f si, 7, sik, "west." Same as lok "fall." 8=1. Also sha, 
 shen. Yen in 324. Tsieu in 324, R. water. Yen, t'siett in 581. In 
 324, R. dog, yeu "like "=287, 587, ju, jo "like." In 651 lit 
 " chestnut," P. 247, began to appear in the Sc. In the older Lw it 
 is not seen. See 722 lok "deer," 826a sok "millet," 1026 lik 
 " bright." Final k in 826 indicates final k in all. 
 
 248. Jg yi, 6, (jit, "cheek." Also yai. 
 
 249. ^ t's'i, 4, s/iak, t'ik, " thorns." See 323 shok " bind." T'sik 
 in Odes, Tyt xvi, R. knife. Picture of a tree bound round with a 
 wisp (mang~) of straw. 
 
 250. JfL k'ttng, 2, k'om, " embrace." Lest, hold in the hand, firm. 
 From kioig "work" 27. Same as yung 876 "embrace," R. hand. 
 The right-hand three strokes are found with p. 614 kinng "lonely," 
 " sad." See chu 836. 
 
 251. ^ kuHy t 7 ? gong, "together." Kuk in Kwy, RR. hand, cart. 
 Two clumps or sprigs of grass above. Two hands below. 
 
 252. ^: yii, 8, ut, dut, " obey," " writing brush." Lu, 8, lut in
 
 72 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 569, tubes used for measuring. Used ideographically with sound pit, 
 and R. bamboo, for "a pencil of hair." 
 
 253. ^ ken, 3, kin, "firm." Ngin "silver," R. gold. Ngen 
 " eye," R. eye. Hen " hate," R. heart. 
 
 253a. jjft} yu, 4, tok. In the middle R. rice may be changed for 
 other radicals. Also bit. Nok "weak" in 655. 
 
 254. ffl yu., 6, yi, tik, kik, " wings." Also hit. Lieu, lok, and 
 kiau, kak in 763. Ti, tiau, tok in 948. Also hit, where t may come 
 from k. Hu 6 in Tsy, Lp. 
 
 255. ^ ch'eng, 5, ding, "present," "receive." To offer with 
 joined hands. To receive with joined hands. Lift up, R. hand. Go 
 up, R. mountain. Rising vapour, R. fire. The strokes on each side 
 are the hands held up respectfully. Phonetic in 660. 
 
 256. kie, 4, kat, " a contract," " that which binds." The left part 
 is phonetic. The right is ideographic, and describes the cutting of 
 documents. Found in 567, 809. The left-hand portion is found in 
 610. Kit is " to tie," " to bind," as in ki 243. 
 
 257. ^ lei, 7, lu(t), " plough." 
 
 258. fa feu, 2, put, " urn." Tau 5 dok in 465. Used in the 
 Han dynasty for du in bedu " grapes," then first known to the 
 Chinese. Final k was already lost. You 5 dok in 668. 
 
 259. ^c chu, 1, to(t), " red." Final t inferred from ch'i, tit " to 
 cut" 455, from likeness in shape. The stem of a tree is called c/tu. 
 Hence the occurrence of R. wood in the picture. 
 
 260. *fc sien, 1, sin, " before." Phonetic in 1028 tsan. 
 260. ft chu, 4, tok, " bamboo." 
 
 261. Jf kien 1, kin, "join hands." Ki 1 ki(t) "cross piece of 
 wood," " needle for the hair." Same as 72, the inner part of k'ai " to 
 open." Also hing "punishment," "figure," "shape," "wine cup." 
 See 222. From kan " shield" 20, repeated. 
 
 262. 3^ she, 8, dit, " tongue." Used as an ideograph with R. words, 
 and called hwa 7 gat " words," " to speak." Thus a second phonetic 
 value hwa, gat, was gained to this symbol. Shat in 481 she "cottage." 
 T'iem " sweet," R. sweet, kam. Kica " scrape," " shave," R. knife. 
 
 263. $fe to, 2, tap, " anything hanging down." Lobe of ear, 
 hanging bud or flower, sleeve, bundle of stalks, butt shot at with 
 arrows. Also "to fall," "cut in small pieces." Connected in sense 
 with " leaf," ye, dep 542.
 
 THE PHONETICS. 73 
 
 264. ty sitin, 5, din, " period of ten days." The sound hiun from 
 94 kiwi. The sound siun is tan in 192 " dawn," with one horizontal 
 stroke below, and in siiten "proclaim" 503, fan " altar" 879. 
 
 265. JJ to, 1, tap, "many." Found in cha, tap 529. The root is 
 connected with ta " great," which also had formerly final p. For 
 final p see 10370. 
 
 266. ^g ming, 5, mini, "name." The upper three strokes are mim 
 in Kwy, with the addition of a horizontal stroke, and R. fire above 
 them. The sense is skull. The upper part is perhaps phonetic in 
 meng " dream " 958. 
 
 267. j& wei, ngu(k] "danger." See 66. Kwei in most of the 
 examples. The two strokes at the top are man standing on an im- 
 pending cliff. Sw. The two strokes below are phonetic ki. Sk. 
 
 268. jg- hen, 6, gu, "ruler," "empress." Title of nobility. From 
 101, hit " door." 
 
 269. $< p'ai, 3, p'ak, " streams of water," " reticulated lines." 
 Me, mak "pulses." P'ak in Kwy, R. 91. 
 
 270. ff king, 5, gang, " walk," " elemental powers," " the five 
 elements." The ideograph often goes into the middle. 
 
 271. ^jj> kiang, 3, koiig, "descend." Inundation, red, strike. Also 
 p'ang 5 bong, " sound of the tambourine." 
 
 272. & ko, 4, kak. Also lo, 8, Idk. Kieu for kuk in 469. K'ek 
 in 504. See 338, 342, 603, 994. Also lieu in 469. Lu 1 lok in 865. 
 
 273. ft cheu, 1, to(k), " boat," " ship." 
 
 274. ;) chau, do, do(k], " portent." Dio in Kp. R. hole. 
 
 275. |f ch'i, 2, tik, "will," "decree." For final k see 119. To 
 point, R. hand = Mongol jigaho "to point." 
 
 276. f fu, 8, bok, "prostrate oneself." Fulcrum of abeam, R. wood. 
 
 277. ffi fa, 8, bat, "punish," "strike," "boast." Boat, to dig. 
 
 278. fft hieu, ku(t], "to stop," "cease," "good." 
 
 279. $ yi, 1, "he," "that." From 81a. Sin in Kwy, R. 
 bamboo. Also hin, R. cart. 
 
 280. jpj hiang, 3, kong, " towards," " direction." Also shang, RR. 
 door (Jni), rice, eat, day. See Via. Perhaps 280 is contracted from 
 501, to take the sound shaing. 
 
 281. jfiL him, 4, hit "blood." Also hik. Also su, sut. 
 
 282. ft Jen, 5, mm, " burden," "to carry." From 90. Let for 
 hire, R. shell money.
 
 74 
 
 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 283. $>} cheu, tuk, "island," "province." Tok in Kwy, with 
 R. mouth above doubled. 
 
 284. t'siuen, 5, dun, "all." 
 
 285. fe ho, 8, gap, "combine." The root is the same as that 
 of kia, kap 304. Also zhip, with R. hand. Found in 853, hip. 
 See 837. 
 
 286. f men, 5, muk " to bellow." Desire, companion, excite to 
 diligence, barley. K is deduced from the meanings. Compare 541 men. 
 
 287. in /, 5, nok, " as," "like." Same as -g 587. 
 2870. jjjr ytfw , smaU," " minute." From . 
 
 288. ^ *MWi<jr, 1, kong, " light," " glory." Found in 699 Incang. 
 288a. fa hu, 3, yfo, " tiger." Phonetic without the lower strokes. 
 
 See 487, 784, 857, 915, 916. Final k in 915. 
 
 289. \jji yi, tap, " drag." The lost dental initial appears as s, 
 with RR. water, silk. Final p occurs in several words, RR. hand, man, 
 water, silk. 
 
 290. @ yin, 1, tin, "because," " cause." Marriage, mat. Smoke, 
 cloud. Throat. Initial t is inferred from the meanings. 
 
 290ff. |jL tsau, 2, tok, " early." Clio, tok, in 486. 
 
 291. If t'ung, 5, dong, (km, "same," "together," "like." The 
 same root as siang "like" 848. 
 
 292. $ k'ii, 4, k'ok, " crooked." 
 
 293. m hicei, 5, gii(t], "return." Mong. haireho. Jap. kayesti. 
 R and y here stand for t. Found in 604 hicei. 
 
 294. ^ wan, 5, gan, "finish." From yum 61. 
 
 294. ^ sung, a family name. Sam in Kwy, RR. man, head. 
 Ham in Kwy, R. hand. Lam in Kwy, R. water. Ng from >n. 
 
 295. $? s ^ a > 1> s hak, "sand." From 123, which see for final k. 
 
 296. ^ sin, 1, " acid," " sharp." Phonetic in t'sin 988. Also 
 sing, ting, RR. horse, horn. Also tsi, ti(t], as in 656 si, ch'i, and in 
 607 tsai. Also pik in 898. 
 
 297. =" yen, 5, ^ew, " words." For explanation of the form, 
 see R. 142. 
 
 298. $c lien, 5, /?/(), " flow." R. water is not part of the phonetic. 
 The lower part represents flowing water. Shu "comb," R. wood. 
 
 929. 7y heng, 1, kany, " penetrating." Mute, stupid. P'eny 
 "to cook," with R. fire. Forms hiattg "enjoy" 396. Resembles 
 partiaUy king " great," "the capital," 397.
 
 THE PHONETICS. 75 
 
 300. JL Hang, 5, " long," " good," " mild." Niany with R. woman. 
 Phonetic in latig 624. 
 
 301. |H ti, 6, 7, rf//i-, " brother." Order, rank, R. bamboo. See 
 226. Hong, degu " brother," dogar, ordinal suffix, as in gorabdogar 
 " the third." Read tik in Kwy, without the two upper dots, alone 
 and with R. 162. Once 301 is dit in Kwy, but with U 926 attached, 
 which may give the sound t. Compare 221 for final k. 
 
 302. jfp^ c'/i-en, 5, din, "morning." From 7 to 9 A.M. 
 302tf. $& jan, 7, mam, "to dye." 
 
 303. J$ kiai, 3, kak t " prohibit." Kak in Kwy, R. 145 and p. 323. 
 Kak and ka 2 in Odes. Tyt. 
 
 304. ^ kia, 4, kap, " compress with the arms," " pincers," etc. 
 Name of any compressing implement, as scissors, the shells of 
 molluscs, shells of fruit. Hence the butterfly, straits, the jaws, etc. 
 Also sham. It forms 521 with a circle. Also tsie, tap. 
 
 305. 2 icu, 5, mo, mo(k\ " enchanter." Also hi, kik. Also sh'i, 
 zhik. See 409. Compare Mongol huge "enchanter." 
 
 306. H WK, 5, nrjok, "I." See 7Qa, 272, 342. 
 
 307. ^ many, 5, mong, " a dog with thick hair." Head, R. head, 
 hie. Much, large, R. cover, yen. 
 
 308. ^ feu, 2, put, " is it so or not ?" From put " not" 71. See 
 138 jto 
 
 309. % k'e, 4, k'ak, "shoulder," "overcome," "carry." Also 
 king " trembling," R. ice, as if from hiiing 198. Note that in Kw 
 the upper five strokes are the same as in 7? heng, and in T king. 
 
 310. ? king, 1, kom, "branches of rivers." Notice the running 
 water and at the top the bank of the stream. Below is the phonetic 
 kung" work "27. 
 
 311. flft sic, 5, za "crooked,'-' "illicit desires." Also ye "father," 
 R. father above. Ye " mud," R. earth below. First used as a phonetic 
 character to write the name of the old city Lang ya, and afterwards 
 applied to the sense " crooked." Hence the R. city, yip. Tt. 
 
 312. -f: po, 8, bat, " rebel," " comet." Rebel, to be unfilial, 
 pluck up, cake, suddenly, flour. Once bak in Kwy, R. horse. About 
 twenty examples have final t. Ts'i ^f is used to denote rebellion 
 against parents. Comets are called po, as opposing man's happiness. 
 
 313. -- chi, 3, ti(t), "will," "counsel," "intention." Descriptive 
 article in a history on some special subject.
 
 76 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 314. JJ che, 4, top, "hanging ears." Also t'up, t'ip. Tim in 
 Kwy, R. kin "napkin." Also ngit "noise made by birds and fishes." 
 Picture of hanging ears. Sw. 
 
 315. Ojj. lung, 7, long, "play with," "do." It agrees nearly with 
 167 a, yung "use" in sound, and in some senses. L=d. Picture of 
 two hands holding a jade ornament. 
 
 316. ^ hiau, 3, kak, " filial piety." See 14. Rhymes with 
 p. 338, R. 76 yu, ok, " to wish," in Odes III. Tyt. 
 
 317. ^J k'io, 4, k'ak, "to refuse." Also k"ip. From 143. But it 
 is irregular. It should be written, when the final is k, with p. 338, 
 as is done in Kwy. 
 
 318. jfc. tseu, 2, tsuk, "walk." See R. 162 t'ok, and 376 tsok 
 " foot." The four lower strokes are the ultimate phonetic. See 119, 
 ch'i "stop." They are also read tset in Kwy, with RR. 30, 64, 78. 
 Here t is for k. 
 
 319. gt ten, 7, dut, "bean." Final t inferred from yit "one" 814. 
 Found in 816, 965. See also 158 s'i " to govern," for the form. 
 
 320. jfi ku, 1, kut, "carriage." C'he for t'ut in the modern 
 sound, which stands for another old word t'ut " carriage," and is con- 
 nected with lun "wheel," lut "anything round or which revolves." 
 Hwei in 515, where it is also kiun. Final t is inferred from final n, 
 which anciently often came from t. 
 
 321. gl keng, 1, kang "watch," "to change." The root means 
 " change." 
 
 3210. ^ hung, 5, gom, " quicksilver." Also hung 1. 
 
 322. Iff fu, 4,pok, " an honourable name," " many," " beginning." 
 Phonetic in 648. 
 
 323. fja shu, 4, shok, "bind." See 249. Picture of a tree with 
 something tied round it. Ti for tik in 507. Sung with RR. heart, 
 stand, hand. Shok and sen for suk in 750. Nun once in 750. 
 
 324. |f yen, 6, duk, " six in the evening." Wine, spirit, R. water. 
 Sok in Kwy, R. grass. Tsieu, sieu, and yeu in 581 . See si " west " 247, 
 979. Yep once in K wy, R." square "fang. Ok in Odes III, R. dog. Tyt. 
 
 325. ^c k'ieu, 5, guk, "seek." Quk and gu in Kya, R. hand. 
 Globe, R. jade. 
 
 326. Jjf ch'i, 4, tit, "break off." Know, wise, R. heart. From 
 171 tak (t for k), and 208 with R. 53, "covering" yen. Picture of a 
 hand grasping a hatchet. Suggestive of breaking.
 
 THE PHONETICS. 77 
 
 327. pf yung, 6, dong, "central path," R. walk, /ting. Dung 
 "bucket," R. wood. Tube, R. bamboo. T'ung "pierce through," 
 R. 167. Yung "brave," R. strength. From 1670, yung "to use." 
 But the parallel lines seem to indicate a bamboo tube or some such 
 thing as the original of the symbol. The top stroke and middle down- 
 stroke are han, 5, gam, bud of flowers and trees, ideographic. Tt. 
 
 328. ff? tsin, 3, t'sim, " moisten." 
 
 '328a. Jfjp twig, 5, dong, dom. From tan " red stone," and sham 
 " hair" 43. 
 
 329. ;g ki'un, 1, kon, "ruler." Ngun in Kp, R, cart. In idea 
 the same as kwan "officer" 386. From ^ yin "to lead," and R. 
 mouth. Mouth denotes the giving out of commands. 
 
 330. jij A-W, 8, gok, "any place where people come and go." 
 From 168. See 98a. Circle, ring, R. metal. Bent, R. cover, mien. 
 Mouth under J^, c'/i'i " foot measure." Sw. 
 
 331. ,a lei, 2, kit, "fear." From 32, ki "self," here phonetic. 
 
 332. % jen, 2, nin, "patience," "enduring." From/era "sword 
 edge" 34. 
 
 333. 3$ na, 6, 7, no, "that," "which?" Name of a city. Hence 
 R. city. Change place, R. hand. Two sounds nam and na. Tt. 
 The left-hand part is phonetic, with sound nam. The final m was lost 
 early. In Odes has the sense " peaceful," " many." As a pronoun 
 = #0 , and nai 414. 
 
 334. %. lie, 8, lit, "thumb." Dig, R. field. Weak, R. heart. 
 Weight of twenty- four ounces, R. metal. From t'sun "inch" 29. A 
 measure roughly indicated by the thumb. The upper part is the 
 hand. Lid in Kya, R. earth. 
 
 335. ^ fu, 5, but, "float," "brood." Picture of suggestion. 
 A bird sitting on eggs. Claws are the bird. Tsi " son," indicates 
 the eggs. Tt. 
 
 336. ^ t'o, 2, t'ak, " certain," " safe." The upper part is the 
 hand, t'ok in 102, and the lower is 50. Mong. t'oktaho "to fix." 
 Sk. says R. woman is contracted from ^ tig an "peace." 
 
 337. ^ tso, 6, 7, dzak, "sit on the ground," "sit." Dzitk in 
 Kwy, R. metal. Mong. sago " sit." 
 
 338. ^ kn, 4, kok, " valley." See 272, 5810, 317. Su for zok, 
 with R. man. Yu for tok, with RR. water, clothes, mountain, deficient. 
 See 689.
 
 78 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 339. ^|5 pang, 1, "kingdom." The left-hand part is 90&, and is 
 phonetic infeng 348, 401, in ping 452, /ewjr 1021, 774. 
 
 340. | mei, 5, mu(k), "each," one of the demonstrative roots. 
 From 187 mu "mother." Mik once in Kwy, R. earth. Also hicci, 
 kuk. Rhymes in Odes with sh'i 8 zhik "eat." Also min,fan. Also 
 hai 2 ka(k) " sea," R. water. Mei " apricot," R. wood, was formerly 
 written with mu, mok "eye," above R. wood. Yp. This proves 
 final k. 
 
 341. ? t'ing, 5, dim, " hall," " imperial palace," " central hall in 
 a house." From 90a. See 373. T'ing in 90, the phonetic of 
 341 represents plants growing out of the ground with the sense t'hig 
 " grow upward." 
 
 342. & kau, 3, kok, "tell." See 766 tsau "make." Final k 
 occurs with eight radicals. From mouth and cow. Sw. The cow 
 striking a man with its horn, kio, kak, suggests the sound. 
 
 343. H sieu, 3, sok, " beautiful." Rust, R. metal. From 167 ho 
 "corn," and, say some, kung "bow." S/iok in Kp, R. 162. Sok and 
 shok in Kya, R. words. Yen for dok " tempt," R. words, mouth. 
 Teu "pierce," R. 162. 
 
 343. ^ t'o, 4, t'ok, "bald." T'ui for t'ok "fall," R. head, hie. 
 
 344. ^ ti, 7, lik, " sharp." Other senses flay, pear, oyster, 
 to plough, clever, hate, dysentery, have the appropriate radicals. 
 Lit in Kwy, R. wind. Probably t from k. From hico " harmonious." 
 Sw. Note that in 993 hwo "corn" is lik. Hence hwo "corn" 7^, 
 is phonetic here with sound Uk. 
 
 345. 3 ngo, 6, ngak, " I." Found in 880, 1006. From 75 ktco 
 " spear," and 167. See 430 for final k. The primitive sense con- 
 nected with a spear is lost. Used phonetically with the sense "I." 
 
 346. $ kio, 4, kak, "horn." Found in 770 hu, 902 kini. 
 
 347. ^ mien, 6, min, "avoid," escape." Ban once in Kp, R. 
 woman. Some say from t'u " hare," without one foot. 
 
 347. /^rt ch'wen, t'un. Lin in 805, shun in 838. Also kit in 669. 
 From R. 34 and 45 t'et. 
 
 348. 2jx feng, 5, bong, "meet." Lower part phonetic in 339, 401, 
 452, 1021, 774. The root is bam, which occurs in fan, bam, "sin 
 against," 7. 
 
 349. -fit icei, 3, o(p), "rank," "seat." From Kp "stand" 128, 
 and R. man.
 
 THE PHONETICS. 79 
 
 349#. 3 kicu, 6, 7, gttk, " a pounding mortar." Kuk in Kwy. 
 Phonetic in 906 hwei "destroy," and in kieu "old" ff. Tok in 
 Kwy, R. rice. Also tso for tak. See 7746. 
 
 3496. ^ ?rt, 7, wo/.-, "shape," "appearance." Phonetic in 949a. 
 Picture of human face. Sw. Mok in Ty. 
 
 350. 5jE yen, 5, din, "prolong," "spread out." From 34. Outer 
 part from 34a. Inner part 141cr. Found also in 716. Ch'in in Kwy. 
 Din in Kwy R. water. 
 
 350rt. ^g kic, 4, A-?}?. Also pz, pip, which are both in Kwy. Also 
 hiang, 1, bi, 8, Up. Ty. Corn in the bag. The spoon below is to 
 lift the corn. Some say a single grain. Also pik in Kwy by change 
 of p to k. 
 
 351. f yen 5, duk, "who," "which," "suddenly," "gaily." Sieu, 
 "to ornament," R. man and R. flesh below. T'iau for dok, "long," 
 anything long or found in lengths, R. man with R. wood below. In 
 Kwy sieu is tik with RR. grass, eye. In Kwy t'iau is tik with RR. 
 grass, water. Formerly R. water was used in this phonetic for R. man. 
 From R. strike p'u, R. man and R. water. 
 
 352. $ ti, 4, dik, "enemy," "northern barbarians." See 212. 
 From yi "also" 212 7$, as phonetic. Tt. 
 
 353. $ k'wang, 5, gong, "mad." Troubled, walk about leisurely. 
 From 65. 
 
 354. 4 pi, 2, pit, "together," "turn." From pi 108. Steps to a 
 building, R. hill, feu. 
 
 355. $ yu, 5, did. "I." In the sense "!," = of which y and 
 d are both initials. Other senses are, slow, vomit, way, mud, put 
 away, with the sounds ZH, fit, du, dju. The ultimate sound for all 
 these senses is dut. Found in c'Jiu 355, and c'ha "tea" 695, but in 
 the last R. wood comes instead of the three downstrokes, which in the 
 other examples imply flowing water. 
 
 356. -^ han, 5, gam, "take into the mouth," "hold in the mouth." 
 Formally from kim "now" 110, but actually that phonetic may be 
 formed by contraction from this. 
 
 357. ^ hi, 1, ki(k), "hope for." From RR. 115 Man, and kin 
 "napkin." Final k deduced from 115. Also kit in Kwy, R. words, 
 and three other words. Also ch'i, ta(f), with RR. tile, silk. 
 
 358. ^ tui,7, dut, "exchange." Yne, 4, yet, "rejoice, 7 R. heart. 
 Shwo, I, shet "say" R. words. Yui, 7, nut "sharp," R. metal. Final
 
 80 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 t in eight words. T changed to initial y in four words. Form de- 
 rived from RR. eight, mouth, bench, which suggest the idea. 
 
 359. $* tsi'un, 1, tun, "glad," "right." Upper part the same as 
 in yun "to assent" 117, where it has the sound dun. P. 359 is also 
 ts'utin Kwy, R. fire. Also so, 2, sot, "shuttle," R. wood. 
 
 360. ^ yi, 6, yik, dik. The old form Lw has in it ^ lok "six," 
 with RR. grass, eye. It is not then from 163. It is used as a final 
 particle in predicative sentences. 
 
 361. fa chwang, 3, tong, "robust," "fertile." From 118 tsiang, 
 phonetic and sh'i "man," "scholar," ideographic. 
 
 362. ^ yi, yit and tsa, tsat, "flowing water," "narrow," "compel." 
 Tat in Kwy, RR. foot, knife, hand, water. Tai, R. 78, is the lower 
 part, and is here phonetic. 
 
 363. ip pu, 7, bok, "step." Bak in Kwy, R. foot. Chi for tik 
 with R. hill/ew. Formed by combining 119 and 123. Also she, tap, 
 "to ford," R. water. See 1001 pin, for the explanation of the ideo- 
 graph. 
 
 364. ^ han, 6, gan, "dry." From kan "shield" 20, and R. sun. 
 
 365. Iji nie, 4, net, nget, "stop up," "descend." Nget in Kwy, R. 
 170. Nit RR. 85, 30, 32, 62, 114, 130, 140. Meanings: black, 
 tumultuous, shout angrily, take up with the fingers. 
 
 366. H, kien, 3, kin, "see." From R. eye and R. man. A 
 suggestive picture. 
 
 367. j| pei, 3, pu(t), "precious things," "pearl oyster-shells" 
 used as money, found in 551 fu. Ting in 959, 1015, so called from 
 the use of pei as head ornaments in a circular shape, which is ying. 
 
 368. % p'ing, 5, bing, "quickly," "to drag." 
 
 369. J[ /t, 6, lik, "third of a mile." From earth and field. Tt. 
 Rhymes with fu, pok "happiness," in Odes, R. fish. See 28, 365. 
 T'uk, huk, each once in Kwy, R. grass. Mai "bury," R. earth, where 
 the phonetic force may lie in the radical as in earth, R. cow. See 28. 
 NoJt in Kya, R. grass. 
 
 370. $[j ehu, 6, 7, dok, "assist." From 193 t'sie, phonetic, R. 
 strength li. 
 
 371. %\] pie, 4, pit, "other," "to separate." Also bit. The Kw 
 has one eight above another, i.e. a double symbol of separation. 
 
 372. |a yi, 4, yip "city." The meanings "moist," "use a 
 ladle," etc., indicate initial t. Dip in Kh, R. man. Also yung with
 
 THE PHONETICS. 81 
 
 tsa, the water symbol 50b above, in 606#. The square above ia the 
 city. The lower part is phonetic. Sw. 
 
 373. ^ c'/ieng, 5, ding, "offer a petition to any one." Phonetic 
 in 886. Radically the same as sung " to present." From 90. The 
 upper part is mouth. The lower is phonetic. 
 
 374. pj yuen, 3, kon, " excite." Picture of certain small insects 
 with R. flesh below. Be angry, R. heart. Throw away money in 
 subscriptions, R. hand. To throw away. Taffety, R. silk. Oftener 
 kiiien than yuen. See j| yuen 703. Hicun in Kwy, R. head. Sun in 
 Kwy, R. hand. 
 
 375. g- lu, 6, ltif(f)(k), "vertebrae," "emperor's servants," 
 " ministers." The resemblance to 789 " gallery," is in favour of 
 final k. The resemblance to 682, 683 favours final t. Ku with RR. 
 bamboo, grass. Kung, R. mien "covering." Picture of vertebrae in 
 conn exion . Sw. 
 
 376. jg, tsn } 4, tsok, " foot." Picture of the knee, leg, ancle, and 
 foot. Tt. For the explanation in Sw see R. 157. 
 
 377. ^ k'icun, 3, fcon, " wearied." Bind, R. silk. From 51a 
 k'mtn. See 499, 702. 
 
 378. ^ tcu, 5, ngok, "kingdom of Sucheu." Kok without the 
 upper square in 91, and in the upper part of 845. Also tsak in Kwy 
 without the upper square. 
 
 379. ^ c'/ien, 5, dim, "high." From kirn "now" 110, which 
 has also a sound t'am as in 779. Also ngim. 
 
 380. f=| siau, 3, sok, "like." Cut, R. knife. Saltpetre, R. stone. 
 Sheath, R. leather, kek. Melt, R. metal. Waste away, R. water. 
 From siau 18a, and R. flesh, which alludes to cutting flesh. 
 
 381. ^ tsitng, 1, torn, "ancestor," "source." Three-cornered 
 cakes of boiled rice. R. rice. Also ham in Kwy, R. rice. 
 
 382. 5f? ting, 7, ding, "fix." Tarn in Kwy, R. yellow. Also ticn, 
 tan. Note that this sound connects the phonetic with 141^, 350, 716. 
 
 383. $g yuen, 2, kan, "the centre made lofty," "surround," 
 " bend/' One of the roots for "circle." 
 
 384. k'ung, from, "empty." Sincere, R. heart. Strike, R. 
 hand. Throat, cough, bend the bow, admonish, high. From kung 
 27, as phonetic, and R. hole, ideographic. 
 
 385. gj yi, 5, ga, nga, "ought." It was anciently written with 
 to "many," below. In Odes rhymes in a. 
 
 6
 
 82 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 386. *jr kican, 1, kon, "officer," "to rule." The same etymo- 
 logically as kiiiu "ruler" 329. Phonetic in 961 Men "to send," 
 where, however, the radical differs. 
 
 386#. Uf tan, 5, dan, "sincere." The upper part is the phonetic. 
 Phonetic in 878 tin, 879 tan. See 184. Same as sin "believe," tun 
 "honest," c'hun "genuine." S=t=c < h. 
 
 387. f chan, 1, tarn, R. water. From 190. Dzien once in Kwy, 
 R. bamboo. 
 
 388. ^ t'sie, 4, ('sip, "concubine." From lip 128. The original 
 idea is " connecting." Hence the meanings, join, receive visitors, to 
 graft. From 128 lip, phonetic. 
 
 389. -fife pei, 7, but, "double," "to double." R. man may be 
 exchanged for others. Bok in Kwy, RR. grass, walk (tseii), foot. 
 Also t'eu. Also t'ak in Kwy R. 78. 
 
 390. ffi tm, 4, tsot, "soldier." Meanings: sudden, sad, intoxi- 
 cated, stop up, high, leap. From yi "clothing," in allusion to the 
 costume worn by a soldier, especially as the servant of some chief. 
 To this is added in Kw } . Tsik once in Kya, R. fish. 
 
 391. jf keng, I, bang, "to change." The five watches of the 
 night. The idea of the watch is named from changing. See 721. 
 The seventh in the cycle of ten. See 321. 
 
 392. ; yii, 1, tot, "at a place." Meanings: mud, dark, eat 
 greedily. See for similar meanings and likeness in sound 355. Ot in 
 Kwy, R. door. The varieties of ancient shapes are endless. Same as 
 tcu "crow" 680. The form 392 first appeared in the Li shu, with 
 fang " flag," on the left. Picture of a crow. 
 
 393. Jjjf -fu, 2, pot, "house," "city." Formed from 178 phonetic. 
 
 394. ^ ye, 7, dak, "night." Tik, with RR. water, fire, hand, 
 flesh. Tik, with R. clothes. From 42. 
 
 395. ^f yu, 8, dok, "nourish." Walk, R. 162. Bright, R. fire. 
 See 298. The lower four strokes are R. flesh. The upper four strokes 
 are tet in 801. Tfromk. 
 
 396. 3f!C hiang, 2, kong, "enjoy," "offer sacrifices." Also chun, 
 shun, tun, with the senses, sincere, pure, reverential, yellowish brown, 
 dark, dun. Used in 802 tun "sincere." See 184 yen. 
 
 397. / king, 1, kang, "capital," "great," The shape resembles 
 hiang 396, and heng'299. Liang, cool, distant, dry in the open air, 
 carriage for coffins. Also lio 8, liak, " to rob."
 
 THE PHONETICS. 83 
 
 398. $g shen 1, shim, "deep." From yin, c'hen 58. R. water may 
 be exchanged for others. 
 
 399. ^ kiang, 1, kony, "strong." Western tribes. R. sheep yang 
 is used in allusion to the habits of the Si kiang people as shepherds. 
 
 400. jj| yen, 5, din, "flame," "flaming." Dam in Kwy, RR. 
 mouth, water. The symbol is fire doubled. 
 
 401. |p; feng, 6, bung, "to offer respectfully with joined hands." 
 The lower part is phonetic in 339, etc. The upper part consists of 
 two hands offering something respectfully. 
 
 402. J| c'hang, 5, dung, "long." Chang, 2, tong, "senior," "elder." 
 
 403. ffi t'ien, 2, t'im, "to disgrace." The lower part is here 
 phonetic and is sim, tini 60. As the upper part, t'ien "between," 
 seems to be phonetic in |^ chen, dim, "I," it may also be so here. 
 
 404. j u-u, 6, mo, "military." Also/, po. Pak in the Odes, R. 
 pci, shell money. It rhymes in the Odes with/0, 7, nidk, "if." Tyt V. 
 
 405. ^ t'si, 1, t'sip, "wife." Final p inferred from resemblance 
 to 406. Formed from ^ woman, c'he " plant," and yen 3 hand. 
 Sw. Formed from t l si "even" 934, as phonetic 3^. Tt. 
 
 406. ;|f nie, 8, nip, "pedal of a loom." Tsie and tie with eight 
 radicals. Also she. 
 
 407. )pf kien, 1, kin, " shoulder." Picture of a shoulder. Sw. 
 Lower part isju "flesh." It is phonetic in Iricn 832. 
 
 408. ^ k'i, 5, gi, yi, " extraordinary," " single," " odd." Crooked, 
 bent, lame, to ride, alone. From Up "stand" and k'o "can" 145 pj" 
 phonetic. Standing suggests standing on one leg. Tt. 
 
 409. 2j la /', 5, dak, "come." See 305 for the double man with 
 sound zhik. Zh=L Lai, 5, and lak in Odes. Tyt. 
 
 410. JH yai, ngat, " bank," " precipitous shore." Kwei 239 
 phonetic. See 2a for the covering symbol, which is here phonetic 
 and ideographic. 
 
 411. H cJii, 8, dik, "straight." See 176*. From pi "spoon," 
 sh'i "ten," mu "eye," and yi "a bent stroke." 
 
 412. 2F< c/ni, 4, tok, "fetter." From shi "pig." The cross 
 stroke denotes that the animal's legs are tied. Strike, R. hand. 
 Engrave, R. hatchet, gem. Footsteps, R. earth. Chung in 625. 
 Sh'i for tok in R. 125, pig. Here the cross stroke on the left is want- 
 ing. Chu for dok in 636a "drive." Sui for duk "follow" in 910. 
 The cross stroke does not affect the sound.
 
 84 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 413. ^ yen, 2, (t)am " hide." A few of the words have ap. Am 
 " I," R. man. Initial t and d are probable. 
 
 414. $fc nai, 7, na(t], a fruit of three colours, white, red, and 
 black. From 132 ski "announce" and mu "wood." For wood we 
 also find ta " great." 
 
 415. ?ij tan, 3, to, tot, "arrive at." From ch'i 237, and tan 
 "knife" phonetic. 
 
 416. 2*? king, 6, ging, " good fortune." Perhaps connected by 
 its sense with heng 299. Much, cold, hate. 
 
 417. EX t'sii, 2, t'&ut, " to take." For final t, see 864 tsui "very." 
 R. hand is ideographic. Radical ear is phonetic. See 238 t'up and 
 314. Final t is probably changed from p. See 599, 1018. Tap in 
 Kwy, R. fire. 
 
 418. jf| piau, 2, po(fy, "to manifest," "make an official state- 
 ment." From yi " clothing," and man " hair." 
 
 419. ^ tu, 8, dok, "poison." From 129 chu "lord." Final* 
 lost in 129 is retained in 419. 
 
 420. ^ t'sing, 1, "blue," "dark blue." Rest, pure, feelings, 
 invite. Also t'sai. The part below is fan, "red," here used as a 
 phonetic, probably through 328 t ( ung " red." 
 
 421. ^ ku-a, 3, ka(k), " divining lines." To hang up, R. hand. 
 From kicei 239 phonetic. 
 
 422. 3? lu, 8, lok, " dry land." Also kicei (for kuk} and mo];, both 
 once. 
 
 423. ^ ling, 5, " hill," "treat coldly," " angle," " side of a table." 
 From R. earth and 173 tung " winter." R. ice may be changed for 
 others. Also lin, Kp R. heart. The upper part, says Sw, is formed 
 of mountain and six and means " high." 
 
 424. gg ya, 7, (K)ak, "second." Found in 819. For final A- see 
 819. For initial k see g| hit, 5, gok "a pot," "a pot with a lid." 
 Lime plaster, to plaster, ya, 4, ak, with R. earth underneath. 
 
 425. Tf? tung, 1, "east." The idea here is rising, sheng, shang, 
 100, 164, etc. The sun is seen rising through a tree. T sh. It is 
 phonetic in chnng, dung, 558. Also c'/trn, din, as if like shen in 96, 
 and lin in 746. 
 
 426. "^ *Jn, 7, zliit, "thing," "matter." For final t see sit 
 "snow" 733. See 158. Probably from sh'i j|? "use" phonetic, and 
 a hand consisting of the three lower horizontal strokes ideographic.
 
 THE PHONETICS. 85 
 
 427. ijji hi, 4, hih, "quick." K'ak in Kp. From man, hand, 
 mouth, and two. Sw. 
 
 428. ^ hica, 8, gak. The radical yii at the top is removable. 
 The phonetic is the lower part with a complete square round it. 
 See 14, which gives the sound of the inscribed cross, and 205, 51, 
 which give that of the circumscribed square. The phonetic without 
 the radical yu is not ancient. Picture of a pencil sketching a map 
 of a field with its four boundaries. 
 
 429. Jg hicn, 1, kin, " firm." R. earth below may be changed 
 for others. Also shen, din. Also shit, 6, do(t), R. bean, " to raise." 
 Hien, " virtuous and wise," R. shell money underneath. Also k'eng 
 " firm," KR. hand, metal. Ng from n. 
 
 430. ^ htco, 8, gok, "if," "perhaps." Found in 794. See 57a. 
 A kingdom, and hence from mouth and spear. Sw. " Region," 
 yu, oh, R. earth. 
 
 431. f{9 Hang, 6, long, "two," "ounce." From \ ju "enter" 
 doubled, and kiung |~]. Sw. 
 
 432. ffi tin, 5, lini, "forest." Lam. in Kp, R. hill, feu. Also 
 sham in Kwy, R. net. Phonetic with sound kirn in 892 "to limit," 
 " forbid." From mu " tree " doubled. 
 
 433. /f si, 4, sik, " divide," " break or cut in two." From 171, 
 which has here lost the cross stroke. 
 
 434. $ sung, 1, tong, torn, "fir." That is, "the high tree." 
 From 116 sung phonetic. 
 
 435. it k'i, 5, gi(t), "he," "that," one of the demonstratives. 
 Same as kiue, hit "that." See 490 ku 6, 7, guh, " all." The original 
 final of 435 was perhaps h. In Kw a horizontal stroke and two 
 downstrokes beneath. 
 
 436. ^ si, 4, tik, "formerly." Found in 950. See 511, 718, 
 for likeness in the upper part. 
 
 437. f$| t'sien, 5, din, "money." R. gold may be changed for 
 other radicals. To wound, robber. Two spears denote wounding by 
 robbers. Same as t'san "cruel," "to injure," R. tai. Money was 
 called din (t'sien) from thinness, and written as in 437 for the sound, 
 R. gold being added. 
 
 438. ^ cheu, 2, tot, "sweep away refuse." Final t probable 
 from 733 sui, sut, RR. rain, hand. Picture of a hand grasping a 
 broom. Tt. The hand is the upper part. See 426 for the hand.
 
 86 
 
 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 439. PJ men, 5, mun, "door." From hu "single door" |5 
 doubled. 
 
 440. jj* tai, 2, tat, "arrive at." Tut in Kwy, RR. heart, foot. 
 See t'ap 705. From hand <5 and "tail" wei abbreviated. 
 
 441. Jg ku, 1, kok, "dwell," "be at a place." From kit 
 "ancient" phonetic and sJii "corpse." Sw. Tt says the upper part 
 is rather an abbreviated picture of man. 
 
 442. Ji k'u, k'ut, " crooked." From 52 and 207. 
 
 443. J| cho, 4, tot, " connect." Also got in Kwy. 
 
 444. jlj han, 5, gam, " hold," " that which holds." Picture of a 
 hole or of the mouth. From 16b. Ham 5 and kam 1 in Kp, R. water. 
 
 445. jjg; meng, 7, mang, "great," "first." From ming 206 
 phonetic. 
 
 446. |^f ngo, la, " great mound," " river bank." 
 
 447. jg sheu, 6, 7, dut, " receive." A hand above, chau, and a 
 hand below, yeu. 
 
 448. |g yin, 5, nim, "adultery," "sensual excess." From 90#, 
 Sw, and 282. Nim, the lower part is phonetic. 
 
 449. 3fc t'sai, 2, t'sa(k), "beautiful," "many coloured." See 102 
 for the upper part. 
 
 450. |fc cheng, 1, tang, "contend," "struggle," Two hands 
 grasping something. Tt. From ^ and /"* han. Sw. 
 
 451. jj fei, I, put, " not." Fromfei "to fly." Found in 1000 
 gat and in 1025 mi, mit. Tsui "sin," R. net. Sin entraps like 
 a net. Tt. 
 
 452. ffi ping, 1, "combine," "join." Bam in Kwy, R. foot. 
 Also picn, pin. Perhaps from 905, the phonetic element in 339 feng. 
 But it is preferable to follow Sw, which gives a doubled J{ above and 
 ^ below phonetic. 
 
 453. % kitten, 3, "roll up," "a roll." From 219, with which 
 it is indeed identical. 
 
 454. p ch'i, 1, tik, " know," " be acquainted with a fact." Tik 
 in Kwy, R. water. T'ik, dik in Kwy, R. see kien. From 163a 
 and mouth. Tt remarks that sin " mind" would be more appropriate 
 than mouth here. 
 
 455. -ijilj chi, 3, tit, "limit," "cut," "law." Tat in Kwy, R. 
 heart, and t'et, R. hand. See 259. From R. knife ideographic. 
 
 456. fjg c'hui, 5, dop, "fall." Picture of flowers drooping.
 
 THE PHONETICS. 87 
 
 "Weight, staff, to strike, pound in a mortar, hanging ball of a steel- 
 yard, sleep, heavy. Final p is inferred from the meanings 502. 
 
 457. ^ wet, 2, tuk, "send," "unjust," "officer's post." Nui and 
 j'ui with four radicals. Send away, low, lame, From nu and hwo, 
 both of which have final k. 
 
 458. ^ kii, 4, kok, " take with both hands," " the two hands," 
 " that which is held in the two hands." In the picture rice is held in 
 the hands. 
 
 459. 8| fei, 5, bi(k), " fat." From pa, pa(k) 86. Sw says the 
 right hand is tsie " temperance." 
 
 460. JJJJ p'eng, 5, bang, " friend," i.e. one with whom one daily 
 meets. From bang " to strike against." Kh says from feng 
 "phoenix," because thousands of birds begin to follow it immediately 
 on its appearance. 
 
 461. IJJ fit, 8, bolt, "submit." In Kw, moon and man. Also 
 in Kw, boat and man. Bind. Clothing. 
 
 462. ^i li, hii, lit, " crooked," " evil." Lit and lut in Kwy, RR. 
 silk, hand, mouth, foot, stone. See 505 t'ut " suddenly." From dog 
 and door. A bad man stoops and bends his body like a dog, coming 
 out of a low door. Sw. 
 
 463. Jjjf k'i, 3, k'i(tj, "open," "instruct." From hu "door" 
 101, R. strike, p'u. The radical mouth below is removable. 
 
 464. JU clieu, 1, tok, "round," "complete." T'ik in Kwy, 
 R. man. To in Kp, R. clothes. From yung "use," and k'eu 
 " mouth." Sw. 
 
 465. j|j fan, 5, dok, " kiln for making pottery." Sw says pan 
 " wrap," is the phonetic here, but it is in fact cho, tak, the middle dot 
 being lost. 
 
 466. '$ hu, 4, hot, "suddenly." K'ot in Kp, R. hand. From 96. 
 
 467. ^ //ien, 5, gim, "to fall into a pit." Picture of a pit and a 
 man falling into it. Also tan, tarn " absinthe," R. grass. Also kap, 
 UR. hand, knife. 
 
 468. jfr hin, 1, "joyful." From kin " hatchet" 99 phonetic. 
 
 469. JQ k'ieu, 5, gu, "calamity." Also lieu "bundle of thread," 
 R. silk. Also kicei " sun-dial," R. sun. From man and ko, kak 
 " every," i.e. men all acting in opposition to one another. 
 
 470. Jj^ ri, er, 5, ngi, hik. Hik in Kwy, RR. 76, 161. Picture 
 of an infant, the head bones not yet closed. Also ngit and kip.
 
 88 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 Ngit in Kwy, RR. 142, 145, 173. See 3496, 906. Perhaps it was 
 first jo, as in Mongol hubegun. This changed both to k and to t. 
 
 471. f yu, 5, duk, " an instant." Sen for sok in 675, which see 
 for final k. Ok in Kwy, but the identity of the form is doubtful. 
 From yi 289 turned round. 
 
 472. \ chui, 1, tuk, " short-tailed birds." Final k in 7766 and 
 948. See for tok la, 129. See 796, 850. Also hok 992. Hwei, kak 
 in 472, 626, 957, 992, 1003, 1023. Also kican 1022. Also chun, 
 tun, as in 904. 
 
 4720. ^ yo, yue, 8, ngak. Same as the more ancient 954. High 
 mountains. 
 
 473. ^ pe, 4, pak, " silk plain woven." From 179 bak phonetic. 
 Kin, 2, kim " silk embroidery," R. gold. 
 
 474. J feu, 6, bo(t), " hill." Shan " mountain," is here turned 
 on its side. For the upper part, see 1014. 
 
 475. f^ pei, 1, pik, bik " low." Bak 179 is phonetic. The two 
 hands below are represented in the act of giving. Bak, pik, in Kwy, 
 RR. wood, silk, grass, hair. Once p'it in Kwy, R. bird. Here t is 
 probably from k. Once in Kwy bit, R. silk. T from an earlier k. 
 
 476. -p hwun, 1, Icon, " dim," " dull." Also tm'n. Sw says the 
 upper part is ti J^, " down," " going down," 'in allusion to sunset. 
 
 477. fe nien, 7, niam, " think," " recite." Also nie, trip, with 
 several radicals. From kim 110. 
 
 478. ^ kin, 1, kim, "gold." From kim 110 phonetic, kican 
 meaning "ore," and earth as representing the place from which 
 metals come. Tt. 
 
 479. ^ hiau, 6, go, gok, "food." The upper four strokes are 
 hiau 115, the lower arej'u "flesh." 
 
 480. ffif lun, 5, " order," " arranged principles," " round." R. 
 man is not part of the phonetic. Cf. shun, tan, 204. See tien 500. 
 L=t. The prime physical idea is that of wheel. 
 
 481. > she, 3, shot, "cottage." The meanings indicate final k, 
 but R. tongue, she is shet. Perhaps the use in this character of R. 
 tongue was not primitive. 
 
 482. -fa lu, 8, lok, " engrave," " good fortune," R. announce, sh'i. 
 Green, R. silk. Also pok " to strip off a covering," R. knife. Lok, 
 lok is the sound of chopping wood. Sw. 
 
 483. gj chi, 1, ti, " untilled land." Ti in Kwy. See 362, 980,
 
 THE PHONETICS. 89 
 
 which render final p possible. The symbols only speak however of 
 land and water upon it. 
 
 484. fy shu, 4, shok, "uncle." Good, R. water. Lonely, R. 
 cover, m-ien. From 18. Nik in Kp, R. heart. Sw says the left 
 portion is phonetic. But in fact the right portion, yeu " hand," 
 may be phonetic also as tok. Sh=t. 
 
 485. -^ k'eng, k'en, 2, k'eng, " willing." The lower part is jit 
 "flesh." 
 
 486. j cho, 4, tok, " high," " excelling." From 290a. The two 
 upper strokes, says Sw, are shang "above." 2 1( sau, 2, tok in 696. 
 
 487. J& hu, 2, kok, "tiger." From 288. See 784, 857, 915, 
 916. Kok in 915. 
 
 488. j^j ivang, 6, mong, "nothing," "net." Picture of a net. 
 Disturbed, R. heart. Speak falsely, R. words. From 18 icang, mong, 
 which contains in fact some of the same roots. In Sc 488 is made 
 up of wang 18 and R. net. 
 
 489. [23 kang, 1, kong, "mountain top." Steel, water, jar, 
 diamond, to carry with a pole between two. From I7a as phonetic. 
 The mountain within is covered with what seems to be a picture 
 of something on its summit. 
 
 490. ^ ku, 6, 7, guk, "all." See 1023, 1034. From 192a mok 
 and kok @. 
 
 491. $p ngai, 7, ngak, " obstacle." R. stone may be changed for 
 others. Final k with four radicals. Te for tik "get" R. 60. Te for 
 dik "alone," R. cow. For lower part see 29. For upper part see 
 494 and 436. Both parts are separately phonetic. 
 
 492. ^ kico, 2, kap, "fruit," "in reality." Also lo, 6, la(p} 
 " naked." Picture of fruit (the square) upon a tree (the lower part). 
 
 493. 0$ ming, 5, mang, " bright." Picture of the sun and moon. 
 
 494. %, yi, 8, dik, " change," " viper." Easy, 7. Sik " tin," 
 " give," R. metal. Picture of a viper. 
 
 495. H kuntn, 1, k'on, "same," "elder brother," "together." 
 
 496. ^ c'hang, 1, t'ong, "flourishing," "bright." Two suns 
 express this idea. The same root is found in lung, sheng, t'ttng, 
 which all mean flourishing. L=sh=c'h=t. 
 
 497. gj ku, 3, kok, "firm." Used with RR. bamboo, man, as a 
 numerative of many substantives. Anciently, ku ancient with heart 
 beneath. Ku is phonetic.
 
 90 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 498. |f pet, I, pit, "give," "distribute." The field is the thing 
 given. The two hands below denote the act of giving. Found in 
 pit to "finish" 791, and in bit "nose," over which R. ts'i "self" is 
 placed. P'i occurs in Kp in the third tone, R. flesh, with the 
 character jot "nose." 
 
 499. ]H k'tcun, "mushroom." R. grass may be removed. It 
 then means "granary." From 510. See 377 k'wiin, which is 
 radically the same. 
 
 500. ^ tien, 2, tin, "law," "rule," "example." Phonetic in 
 710. Like tan in sound under t'se 204 and lun 480. See t'ien 
 "field" 201, tun "shield" 565, for physical objects the names of 
 which resemble the character in sound. From t'se "book" 204, 
 and icu "bench," "table" 22. The book rests on the table. 
 
 501. f^ shang, 7, zhong, "yet," "still." The lower part is the 
 same in form nearly as 280, shang and hiang. Above is pa "eight." 
 Phonetic in fang " hall" 786, c'heng "support" 858, c/t'eny 870, tang 
 914, tang 1032. See 776c " to taste " ^ ch'i " flavour " below. 
 
 502. ^ ta, 8, dap, "heavy." To fall, converse. Similar mean- 
 ings in 456 dop. The upper part represents water dropping, which 
 was called dap, dap. See 980 "wax" lap, which was also named 
 from dropping. See 505, 362, and 705 ta " glance of the eye." 
 
 503. ^ siuen, 1, sow, "preach," "proclaim." Same as shen " to 
 stretch out." Also hiuen. From hiuen 245. The sound siuen from 
 tan 192, see 879. The covering radical above alludes to the house 
 from which the imperial decrees were sent forth. 
 
 504. %. k'e, 4, k'ak, "guest." Ko, kak is phonetic. The 
 covering radical alludes to the house in which the guest is received. 
 
 505. *$ t'u, 4, t'ot, " suddenly." The phonetic element is in the 
 lower four strokes, as in 462 Ini, U, /it, " crooked actions." Picture 
 of a dog suddenly coming out of his den. 
 
 506. 'jg heng, 5, geng, " constant." From keng 228. 
 
 507. j^ U, 3, tik, "emperor," " supreme governor." Sw says it 
 is from shok 323 " to bind," as its phonetic. See 755 tai " girdle," 
 which is like in shape. 
 
 508. ^ yin, 1, yim, him, " sound." Found in a Kw form of yim 
 "dark principle in nature" 764. 
 
 509. jft yen, 5, ok, " banner." From 36 ts'i " son." Probably 
 dok, and as it means " flowing," it is very likely=/i<?w " flow."
 
 THE PHONETICS. 91 
 
 510. $ ski 1, ship, "give," "send forth to." From 35 ye. See 
 165. For final^? see 35. 
 
 511. g tu, 7, 8, dok, "think," "measure," "cross a stream," R. 
 water. Cover with gold or silver, R. metal. Two phonetics, sik 436 
 and ym, duk 15 " hand," are here found. The hand was used as 
 a measure of length. 
 
 512. ^ yen, 7, ngan, "wise sayings." Also fan in c'han "pro- 
 duce" 723. The two middle strokes are phonetic in 2 and 637 
 yuen " spring of water." 
 
 512a. Ijjt yen, 6, dan, name of one of the nine provinces of ancient 
 China. The five middle strokes are the phonetic yen 184, which is 
 dun with R. boat, cheu. 
 
 513. 2| t'ingr, 5, ding, "portico." A house on pillars without 
 walls. To stop, R. man. Here the root is identical with that of chan 
 7 dam " stand." M became ng. The lower two strokes ting are 
 phonetic. 
 
 514. f fu, 8, bok. Found in 849. 
 
 515. j|t kiiin, 1, kon, "battalion," "wings or centre of an army." 
 From 320 ku "cart." Hun or gun in Kp R. water. 
 
 516. "if" sheu, 2, shut, " head." Final t inferred from 319 ten 
 "bean," head with R. hie "head." Mong. t'ologai " head." jij| tan 
 "road" in Kw, has both R. 162 and R. walk, hing. 
 
 517. "fjif f'sien, 5, dzin, " before." 
 
 518. ^ t'si. From 221 t'si and mouth. 
 
 519. H tsett, 3, to(k}, "speak to the emperor." Heaven below is 
 the emperor. For upper part see 520. 
 
 520. ^ c'hun, 1, fun, " spring," " the bursting season." Phonetic 
 in t'sin 633. The sun as ideographic speaks for itself. The upper 
 part represents hands offering gifts. T'un "bursting" 105 was 
 anciently used for the upper part. 
 
 520#. ^ he, kak. Kak in Kwy, RR. water, fire, knife. 
 
 521. ^ kie, 4, kap. From 304. 
 
 522. ^ t'o, 5, dap, "lazy," "fall." From tso "left" 136. 
 Subordinate phonetic ; pff to fall in ruins, R. earth. See 883. 
 
 523. J^ wei, 1, ka(k], "dignity," "authority." See 457, 75. 
 
 524. j^ Men, 5, gam, " all." Also chem. Phonetic in- kam 884. 
 
 525. g hie, 4, kit, "head." Found in Ma "summer" 638, yen 
 "sad" 871, kie, kit 927. S'd for sut, with R. 59, san "hair." Fan
 
 92 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 "give trouble," with R. fire. See suk 847. For meaning head, see 
 515, 319. 
 
 526. fSJ mien, 3, min, "face." Picture of the face. 
 
 527. ^ jwan, 6, non, "soft." Liap in Kwy, R. ear. Upper 
 part twan in 606. From 23 ta, dap " great " and 232. Nu " woman," 
 sometimes takes the place of ta "great" underneath. NU in Kwy, 
 R. hand. 
 
 528. 3jt* pen, 1, "to run." From pen 149. The six lower strokes 
 are phonetic in pen 887. They are three cows in Kw and three 
 hands in Sc. See 821. 
 
 529. ^ cha, 1, tap, " boast," " large," " extend." From 23 dap, 
 265 tap. Yip in Kwy, RR. flesh, metal, etc. This character occurs 
 in Chwang Tsi, B.C. 330. 
 
 530. ^ feng, 1, pong, " heap up earth for an altar." Earth over 
 earth expresses this. A hand on the right points to human agency. 
 To seal. 
 
 531. ^ che, 2, tak, "that which," " he who." Same as shi, dik 
 & "is," "this." Found in 812, 8320, 919a. Tak in Kwy, with 
 RR. grass, bamboo. 
 
 532. 6|5 kien, 2, kin, "divide," "distinguish." Also lien. Lan 
 in 1009. From shok " to bind" 323. The two strokes in the square 
 and the two supporters below, are each ). pa "eight," symbol of 
 division. Tt. 
 
 533. m yen, 2, tan, "hide," "cover." Mole, R. rat. Lie down, 
 R. man. Also ya, 4, yat "pull up." Earth-dike, R. earth. Tot in 
 Kwy, RR. hand, eye. For initial t, see 536, 192, R. 131. The inner 
 seven strokes are phonetic here. 
 
 534. jjj| fu, 4, pok, "happiness." The right-hand part/w "full," 
 is the phonetic, the upper four strokes on the right are phonetic as in 
 Zj% po, 8, bok, "an ancient city," having R. 14 below and t'ok 39 below 
 it. From kau "high" ^, as being that which is high and thick. 
 Sw. 
 
 535. ifl la, 8, lat, "sharp speech," "cruel," "beat," "to be sick." 
 From R. knife, and 249 ts'i, tsak. Final t from k. The phonetic is 
 the part on the right. 
 
 536. ]3C yin, yen, 1, tin, kin, "stop a water gap." Zhu and du in 
 Yp. Kin in Kwy, R. tile. From si "west," and t'u "earth." Sw 
 says the natural bent of water is to flow east, but through the inter-
 
 THE PHONETICS. 93 
 
 ruption of earth banks and rocks it will sometimes flow west. Hence 
 the use of si. See in 533 earth dike, R. earth. 
 
 537. H yau, 3, tok, "want," "desire." From 247 and 50, both 
 of which have final k. Also the dictionary Po ya says it means the 
 same as yak, " to bind." 
 
 538. /fg slang, 1, sioiig, "together," "assist," "chief minister." 
 Phonetic in 1007. Formed of two ideographs, wood and eye. A side 
 border, houses on the side of a court, etc., are called slang. Same root 
 as 1005. 
 
 539. 3H c'ha, 5, daf, "seek." From tan, tat "dawn," phonetic 
 and R. tree. 
 
 540. jJ shcn, 7, zhun, dim, " exceedingly." Also k'am. The 
 upper part, "$ kam "sweet," is phonetic. The lower part is p'it 
 "a pair." Hence the explanation " doubled sweetness" or "sweet- 
 ness in pairs " found in Sw. 
 
 541. ^ men, 2, muk. From 80 mok " wood," below ideographic, 
 and mil, mok "eye," above phonetic, for which kam "sweet" has come 
 to be written in later times. Meanings : go between, a certain one, 
 coal, muck, machinate, form stratagems, desire. Apricot, same as mci 
 340, R. wood. 
 
 542. Pj^ ye, 8, dep, "leaf." Agrees in some meanings with dzip 
 851, sit 1014. For initial y are found s, t, s/i, ch. The ruling signi- 
 fication is anything in the shape of a leaf, e.g. butterfly, plate, slipper, 
 ticket, slip of wood, metal leaf, sickle. From R. wood and sh'i phonetic. 
 
 543. ] nan, 5, nam, "south." From the lower left portion of 
 742 ch'i, tip, tim, " hold in the hand." 
 
 544. $3 hu,5,gok, "how," "what." Ku is phonetic. The 
 right-hand part iaj'u "flesh." Throat, neck. 
 
 545. ^ jen, 5, nok, " soft." Young twigs as an ideograph suggest 
 softness. Final k inferred from the meanings. See 655, 636, and in 
 sepia, R. fish, as compared with the Tibetan nig "black." The upper 
 and lower parts separately are both mok. RR. wood, spear. 
 
 546. J wu, 8, mak, "strong," "limits." Mok in Kwy, R. eye, see 
 92. Helps to form 893, and is formed itself from 92 mok phonetic. 
 
 547. gg Men, 3, kin, "build," "make firm," "set upright." 
 Same root as kan " upright stem." From ^ lu " rods," and t Ping 
 " the court," i.e. the setting up of the court rods. Sw. 
 
 548. H wu, 4, (t)ok, "house." For initial t see 1037. Sh'i
 
 94 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 represents the master. Sw. Another says sh'i is the picture of a 
 house and clii " to," the place to which men go to rest. 
 
 549. fj kia, 2, kat, "borrow," "false." R. man is not part 
 of the phonetic. Initial h in Kp, R. fire. Also twan, ton, with 
 which compare twan 572. 
 
 550. ja wet, 5, ngu(k], "prepared leather." From #4- clncen and 
 mouth phonetic. Hwei and wei in Kp, R. clothes. 
 
 551. H fu, 6, 7, pot, " owe money," " carry on the shoulders." 
 Married woman, R. woman. To imitate, R. man. From 367 pel 
 " money." Sw says the upper part is J{. To have money permits a 
 man to be in debt. 
 
 552. jj^ hwan, 1, Jean, " great," " brilliant." Also twan. From 
 two hands placed together, kung below and hican above, the last 
 of which wants R. eye and R. si 35 beneath it. 
 
 553. Pf sit, 1, sok, "all," "flesh of crabs." Son-in-law, R. woman. 
 Found in 893, 593. The upper part, su, is, says Sw, tsok, " foot," 
 and is here phonetic. The lower part is R. flesh. Zhik in Kwy, RR. 
 40, 85, 162. 
 
 554. Jjji niei, 5, mu, "eyebrows." Picture of the eye and hair 
 above it. 
 
 555. ^ yuen, 6, gan, "lead by the hand." From t'o "secure" 
 l| and ff*. yu. Hwan, gan in Kwy, R. bamboo, silk, fish. Also 
 
 Van, R. field. Also mean, R. fire, day. Upper four strokes yin 
 in 949. 
 
 556. ffy'c'heng, 1, t'ing, t'im, "raise out of a well." Weigh, 
 R, corn. From a hand above chau, and keu 635. 
 
 557. 5; kicei, 2, Jcut y tenth of the denary cycle. Kut in Kwy, 
 RR. horse, door. In Kp 557 occurs inserted in R. door, with R. eye 
 added on the left, with sound ngat and sense "ignorant," "deaf." In 
 Kw water is seen flowing from four sides to the centre of a piece 
 of land. Sw. 
 
 558. tfr chung, 6, 7, dong, dom, " heavy." To move, R. strength. 
 Tung "east" 425 is here contracted and used phonetically. Tt. 
 Liang "to measure," is in Kw formed from chung '"heavy" J|. In 
 the modern shape it is formed from U " a mile." 
 
 559. j$j c l ha, 4, t'ap, " to beat." Picture of a pestle and mortar. 
 See 662, where a mortar also occurs. 
 
 559<7. $C mtt > 8, mok, "shepherd," "to do a shepherd's duty."
 
 THE PHONETICS. 95 
 
 From 92 and R. cow. P'ok " strike " 92 is also ideographic, and 
 alludes to the shepherd's staff. 
 
 560. $fc t'sieu, 1, t'sok, "autumn." The ripe time, as c'hun 
 " spring" is the swelling and bursting time. From 167, which is sok 
 in su "coagulated milk," in su "to revive," and in s'i "private," "that 
 which is one's own," same as ts'i 176a "self." For final k see 3430, 993. 
 
 561. :ff hiang, 1, kong, "incense," "fragrance." 
 
 562. =|| hung, 1, kong, "noise." See 17a. Also ku, kok, R. 
 leather kek. From R. words and y'iin 94 "even." Sw. But it is 
 better to regard the wrapping radical as a hand indicating noise made 
 with the hands. See the same hand in 438. 
 
 562tf. ^ ki, 4, kip " quick." Kik once in the Odes, Siau ya. 
 The present form first appears in the Li shit. From R. heart and ki, 
 8, gip, phonetic ~fc 
 
 563. j|. t'sung, 1, " the whole." The phonetic is the five strokes 
 in the upper right-hand corner. Hasty. The primary idea is 
 piercing through. A window piercing a wall is c'hicang, R. heart 
 below, R. hole or p'ien " slip of wood" above. Intellectual penetra- 
 tion is frsung, R. ear. To stimulate is t'sung, R. strength on the right. 
 T'ung " penetrating," " reaching through," is the same root. 
 T' = c'h = t's. Picture of a hole made in a house or wall. The wall 
 is the outside cover, which in Kw is a circle with a dot at the top. 
 
 564. || ying, 5, dong, " full." From jeng, 8, phonetic, and R. 
 vessels, ming. 
 
 565. ^ fun, 5, dun, "shield," "follow," "sow," "flee." Also 
 tu, 4, tut, R. flesh. It may be phonetic in 956 siun, 674 chen, etc. A 
 picture of covering the eye. 
 
 566. f| pien, 2, pin, "inscription written over a door." From 
 We " book," and hu " door." 
 
 567. Jig k'i, 3, k'it, " contract." Also sit and zip. R. great, ta, 
 may be changed for R. silk, as in 809. From 256, where the knife 
 indicates the cutting of characters on bamboo and wood, and the 
 four strokes on the left are phonetic. 
 
 568. f^f yen, 6, gin, "overflow." From R. water and R. walk hing. 
 Sin, k'ien, R. heart. 
 
 569. f lu, 8, hit, " rods," " rules," " laws." From R. 60, short 
 step, c'h'i, tik, and 129 " brush " yu, I'ot. 
 
 569a. ^ lieu, 6, 7, guk, "after." K'ok once in Kwy, R. hemp.
 
 96 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 From RR. f, ^, A^, the last of which means behind. Sw. The 
 second, silk, keeps a man back by binding him. Sk. 
 
 570. j; kiai, 1, hat, "all." Kat in Kya and Kwy, R. corn. P* 
 "compare," and bak "white," suggest "all." 
 
 571. JH /<?>*<7, 1, .pew*/, 5am, " wind," " customs." Bam in Kwy, 
 R. horse. 
 
 572. J twan, "a cut-off portion of anything." See 549. From 
 R. spear, shu, and ^ ^><w. 
 
 573. A> an d on the right ^, _pt>, 6, 7, bin, "convenient." From 
 keng, "watch." Sw. 
 
 574. Jl. hicang, 5, gong, " emperor." From 65 wang, with which 
 it is ultimately identical as a root. Also from g ts'i " self," here to 
 be readjui, as in^', bit, "nose," "beginning," m . 
 
 574. j!^ t'siuen, 5, zin, "spring of water." Picture of water 
 flowing from a covered place. 
 
 575. |p tsi, 4, tsik, tik. Also tit, as in Odes Tyt xii, in Kwy, R. 
 hand, bamboo. Here probably t is for an older k. The right-hand 
 portion of 575 is omitted in Kwy, R. fire. 
 
 576. ft heu, 6, 7, gu(t), "inquire," "wait for," "go to see." 
 Without the middle downstroke it is the second rank of nobility. With 
 the middle stroke it is "to wait for," " go to see," "inquire about." 
 The arrow on the right refers to archery, by success in which noble 
 rank was anciently acquired. 
 
 577. $i yu, 6, nguk, guk. Name of the founder of the Hia 
 dynasty. Tok in Kwy, R. 44. See H7a. See 598 and 929. 
 
 578. { pan, 2, pot, " to protect." Citadel, to reward or praise 
 the good, baskets for carrying children. In Kw the right-hand part 
 is nearly ^fu. 
 
 579. ^ yen, 1, ngem, "to cover." Kam in Kwy. Picture of 
 two hands covering something up. Ho fe suggests closing up. 
 
 580. -Sr yu, 5, du(t], "yes." Initial t occurs in t'eu "rob," R. 
 man ; dig, R. knife. Initial sh occurs in shu " lose " in gambling, R. 
 cart. Final t is inferred from the meanings, "pass over," "rejoice," 
 " exchange," etc. See 154. 
 
 581. jflj t'sieu, 5, du, "a chief." Spirits, R. water. From yen 324 
 and a half 7JC above. 
 
 581tf. g|< k'io, 4, kak, "meet," "division," "union of relatives." 
 Kok " valley " is phonetic.
 
 THE PHONETICS. 97 
 
 582. ^ hung, 1, " to plant," " small branches of trees," " coir." 
 See for the lower part 173 tuny "winter," and 423 ling. L=t. 
 Upper six strokes phonetic. Tt. 
 
 583. f[| fei, 1, j9'/(0, " to fly." Picture of birds flying. 
 
 584. ^ t'wan, 1, t'on, fix the meaning of the lines used in the 
 ancient divination. A pig walking. Sw. Also hwei, ku(f) "wearied," 
 R. sickness. Yuen " cause," R. silk. 
 
 585. ^ nau, 2, no(k). Upper three strokes the same as in 283, 
 which is tok. See 782. Hence final k is inferred, as is also deducible 
 from the meanings, e.g. poison as compared with tu, dok "poison." 
 D = n. 
 
 586. J| clteng, 1, ting, "chastity," "correct." 
 
 587. ^ jo, 8, nok, " if," " that," " like." One of the demonstra- 
 tive roots. Same as #0 287. From yen "assist" 139. 
 
 588. jj^ ying, 1, yang, tang, "flourishing." Same root as c'hang 
 "flourishing" 496. From 200 yang "middle," phonetic. 
 
 589. g miau, 5, mok, "early growing corn." Final k is inferred 
 from meanings like those of 546, 594, "beautiful," "small stalks," 
 " good," and from Kw, which has mok " eye" above and mok " wood" 
 below. 
 
 590. M yu, 4, tok, "brightness." For the upper part see 436, 
 491. Yip in Kwy, R. fire. JTfrom p. The lower part is 128. 
 
 591. glj tsc, 4, tsak, "law," "method," "limit." Found in 921a. 
 From knife and shell money, the ancient standard of value. 
 
 592. ijj yang, 5, dong. Same as c'hang " bright," nam " south," 
 long " bright," by change of d to y, d to n, final m to ng. Phonetic 
 in 767, 798. 
 
 593. J| sin, 6, 7, zhfk, "this," "is." See 553. Zhik in Kwy, 
 R. 40, etc. Dik in Odes, Tyt xvi, R. hand. The lower part is cheng 
 IE . The upper is " sun." Sw. 
 
 594. >> miau, 6, mok, "mysterious," "small." From 123 >> 
 and R. eye. What the eye sees to be few. 
 
 594. -fL kieu, hieu, k'ok, "dogs looking." K'ik, h'ik in Kwy, 
 RR. cart, horn. From RR. eye, dog. 
 
 595. Jl sing, 1, sing, "star." From sheng "life" 164. It means 
 sparks, with R. fire, and is probably the same with chang " to illus- 
 trate," " make bright." Ape, R. dog. Apes are perhaps so called 
 as being imitators. Sing= |^J t'ung " like," = siang " like" ^ . 
 
 7
 
 98 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 596. & ho, 4, kat, " why ?" From R. say, yue and ko, kat " ask," 
 " take," the lower five strokes. 
 
 597. g mau, 7, mok, " blindly," " sacrilegiously." From mu, 
 mok "eye," and R. moon. Sw. Mok in Kwy, RR. woman, boat, 
 wood. Placed in Kh under R. desert, kiung, on the ground of the Kw. 
 
 598. & yu, nguk, "ape." For final k see 577 and 117a. Ngung 
 in Kya, R. fish. Ngu in Kya, R. reptile. 
 
 599. g- tsi, 4, tsip, " flatter." Twist a cord, R. silk. From 238 
 ear and R. mouth. 
 
 600. jg, s'i, 1, sit, " think." The upper five strokes are sit in $$ 
 si " small." From the upper part of 7760 as phonetic in Kw, and 
 R. heart. 
 
 601. Pj| icei, I, kut or tut, " fear." If t is the lost initial of this 
 and the next phonetic, they are to be understood as derived from 201, 
 finals t and n being interchangeable. Ut in Kwy RR. wind, hand, eye. 
 R. mouth is not part of the phonetic. 
 
 602. ^ wei, ku(t) or tu(t), "stomach." Picture of the object 
 with R. flesh below. Sw. Witt in Kwy, RR. wind, eye, hand, and 60. 
 Kwei R. mouth. A lost t is inferred. 
 
 603. 3f ngo, 8 ngak, " to alarm." See 994. See 2 for the lower 
 part of 603 and 14 for the cross of 994. Beat a tambourine. The 
 two mouths express two voices singing in harmony, one answering to 
 the other. Tt. The lower part was anciently 208a, ni, 8, ngik, con- 
 trary, opposed to Sw, and was phonetic. 
 
 604. ^g hwei, 5, gu(t), "return," "bend." From 293. 
 
 604a. ffi fan, 3, "charcoal." From R. fire and ^ an "bank," 
 phonetic. 
 
 605. j^ k'wai 1, k'a. Rhymes with nik 655 in the Yi king, Tyt 
 xvii. Source of ku, kot, "bone" 700. But since Sw takes no notice 
 of the connexion, perhaps it is merely a modern resemblance. The 
 meanings seem to require final p. Found in kwo "pass" 674. 
 
 606. [^ ttcan, 1, tan. Lower part see 527. From shan 
 "mountain," where sh has changed from t. But Sw says the upper 
 part is growing plants and the lower roots. 
 
 606a. m ynng, 1, "bank up water." Same as 876. Formed from 
 water, 48, 362, above, and 372 "city" yip, below. Two mouths some- 
 times stand for city, and these mean banked-up earth to keep in the 
 water. Tt.
 
 THE PHONETICS. 99 
 
 607. 3J tsai, ta(t), "ruler." Butcher, to kill, R. 79 shu. From 
 R. cover, mien, and sin "acid" 296, which has also the sound ts'i, fit, 
 See 656. 
 
 608. ^ Iden, 2, k'in, "tear up." The radical below may be 
 changed for others. Sai and chai for sak, with RR. earth, heart, shell, 
 wood. Phonetic in 1004, with R. foot and sound k'ien. 
 
 609. ^ kia, 1, ko(t), "house," "home." Mongol ger "house." 
 Picture of three men under a roof. Tt. 
 
 610. ^ hai, 7, gat, "injure." The middle part k'i is the phonetic 
 as in 365. The cover and the mouth below indicate, says Sw, that 
 calamity begins at home. 
 
 611. % chai, 8, dzak, dak, "narrow." Compress with the hand, R. 
 hand. Wine press R. yeu (six P.M.). From 166 as phonetic. 
 
 612. J& wa, 1, "hollow," "concave." From melon phonetic. 
 Melon is sometimes doubled. Not a classical character. The same 
 probably as kiue, 8, git, " to dig," and hiue, 8, git, " hole." 
 
 613. yung, 5, dong, "contain," "hold." Same as c'heng 
 " receive," chioang " to stow." Easy. Probably the same as t'ltng, 
 passable, capable of reaching. From R. cover, mien, kit, kok, valley. 
 Sw. From R. hole hiue, and kung "just," al^o called sung. Tt. 
 
 614. ^ ying and yung, 5, dom, " light of fire." Same root as in 
 400. The radical wood is changed for others. Ying for vase, encamp- 
 ment, grave, etc. Yung for cover, light, glowworm. King with p. 
 250 with the senses " flax," "alone." Lo, liau, lok, brightness, R. cow; 
 fat, R. flesh. See 806. The lost k is recovered by the help of Ty, in 
 which lok occurs with R. cow. To measure with lu ^, below. Ying 
 = linng, "measure." Y for d. D=L 
 
 615. ^ p ( ang, 5, long, "side," "broad." From fang "square" 
 54, phonetic. In Kw R. cover mien over fang. 
 
 616. g| tsi, 4, tsit, "sickness," "hasty." Tsit in the Odes, Tyt 
 xii. The phonetic is 163. 
 
 617. ^ fang, 5, dong, " name of a dynasty." See 720 yung for 
 form and sound, and 391 for the form. 
 
 617a. fjfg si, 8, zik, " mat." See 1300. From shu 718 ]&. Sw. 
 
 618. ^ k'icun, 1, k'on, "embroidered robe." Perhaps from 130 
 hiuen " dark." From R. clothes and 5V. Sw. From 184. Kwy. 
 
 619. 2 ts'i, 1, tik, "this," "black." From hiuen 130 doubled. 
 Tt. But this is improbable. See oOa, 620, 641, etc. Final k in 620,
 
 100 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 641. Soften, R. water. Bring to life, R. son. Pity, R. heart. Stone, 
 R. magnet. Hoe, R. metal. 
 
 620. jf ch'-u, 4, t'ok. The six domestic animals. Take care of. 
 An animal that is taken care of. Same root as 395. Also hu, 4. hok. 
 
 621. *jj*i shicai, 1, shat, "straw coat used as a protection against 
 rain." Picture of the object. Tt. Decayed. The form in Sw 
 indicates that we may perhaps look to 778 shat "kill," for an explana- 
 tion of the middle portion of 621. There are four oblique crosses called 
 shat. These may be the phonetic. The remainder is R. clothes. 
 
 622. ^ kau, 1, kok, "high." Final k with three radicals. Found 
 in 845, 935. 
 
 623. JH mung, 5, "obscure," "covered," "ignorant boys." From 
 R. pig, that animal being a type of stupidity. 
 
 624. j|)3 lang, 5, long, "man," "portico." The portico is said to 
 be used for the lord of the house honorifically, but since the word is 
 employed for shepherds, and the Amoy dialect has lang " man," it is 
 more likely to be an original word. From 300. 
 
 625. ^ chung, 2, tony, "great," "hill summit," "tumulus," 
 "tomb." From 563 t'sung, phonetic, and pan "embrace," ideographic. 
 In Kw the upper two strokes, pan, surround the whole character. 
 
 626. ^ ho, 8, ngak," high-flying bird," "high." From 472. See 
 957, 992. See 7766 tak, and 729 tuk. 
 
 627. HJ ming, 5, " dark." From R. sun, fc, and R. cover mik. 
 Mik in Kwy, RR. 50, 145. Also mien. 
 
 628. 3 kau, 1, kok, "lamb." Final k deduced from 880, 1006. 
 Kok in Kwy, R. corn. Tak in Kwy, RR. 113, 115. 
 
 629. H c*Aa, 1 V<*P, "to err," "slip." From tso "left" 136, 
 below, and a form which in Kw is much like chui, dop " fall " 456, in 
 shape. It seems to be a double ideograph and also a double phonetic. 
 
 630. ijljjj sho, 4, skok, tok, "new moon." Sok is "to return." The 
 new moon is the light returning. To suck, R. mouth. Sok, plaster a 
 wall, R. hand. K is lost in su " to mould a statue in clay," R. earth ; 
 su " to tell," " accuse," R. words. 
 
 630a. JJG/J kiue, 1, kit. See 810 kiiifi. To dig, to pierce. 
 
 631. j$ mi, 5, mi(k), "deceive," "go the wrong way." From 
 120 mi " rice," phonetic. 
 
 632. Hf tsi, 4, tsik, "backbone." Picture of the spine, R. flesh 
 below. See 1037 for the four horizontal strokes.
 
 THE PHONETICS. 101 
 
 633. Jj| t'sin, 5, dzin, ancient name of north-western China. 
 Upper part phonetic in c'hun "spring" 520, but note that in Kw 
 c'hun has a different form. 
 
 634. ^ su, 3, sok, " white," " uncoloured." Mongol c'hagaii, 
 " white." Upper part chu, tok is phonetic. Lower part si " silk," is 
 descriptive of material, but is also phonetic. See 2876. 
 
 635. j|| ken, 1, kok, "connect," "join by crossing." Same as 
 kiau 214. Kak in Kwy, R. peck. Kiang with four radicals. The 
 upright characters are R. tree. The horizontal are beams of timber 
 interlaced with the tree. Tt. 
 
 636. Jf| ju, 8, niok, "to feel shame." Soft, moist, R. water. 
 Same root in this sense as 545 and 655. The lower part tok 29 is 
 phonetic. 
 
 6360. %j chu, 8, dzok, " drive," " pursue." From 412 and R. pig 
 phonetic. 
 
 637. Jfj( yuen, 5, ngen, " spring of water," " source." From 
 t'siuen jf " a spring, flowing from under a cliff." See 2. 
 
 638. J[ liia, 6, 7, get, "summer," "to dance," "large house." 
 Name of the Chinese people. Sw. From hie " head," kieu " a 
 mortar," " the two hands," and clii R. 34 " the feet." This is in 
 allusion to dancing. Sw. 
 
 639. ffc clii, 3, tit, " to cause." From 237 and R. hand p'u. 
 
 640. |f tsin, 3, " receive." Same root as tsin " to enter." 
 
 641. ^ so, 4, sok, "rope," "search." Blow, R. wind. Lower 
 part, 2876, is both ideographic and phonetic. See 50. Upper part 
 isshok "bind" 323. 
 
 642. JB| ma, 6, mo(), " horse." Mong. morin. 
 
 643. f keu, k'io, 4, k'ak, "husk of grain." About 16 radicals 
 take the place of R. bench, ki in the lower left-hand corner. 
 
 644. -f| k'i, gi(t), "old." From 244 lau "old." Also ski, zhik. 
 See 275 ch'i, tik " decree," for which the four lower strokes of 644 are 
 a contraction. 
 
 645. ]H ho, 4, kap, " why." Also with ta "great," with a stroke 
 underneath, instead of k'u " go." Also kat in Kwy, R. stone. From 
 143. Kat in Kya, with R. fire, instead of the upper three strokes. 
 
 646. ^ kung, "gift," "tribute." Also found in 1039. From 
 kitng "work" 27. Pei below is the ancient shell money and other 
 precious things presented in tribute.
 
 102 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 647. H yuen, 5, gon, " robe." Far, R. 162. Monkey, R. dog. 
 Cart-shaft, R. cart. From R. clothing and |f| k'iuen "circle" 
 phonetic. Tt. 
 
 648. 3lf fu, po, 3, 4, pok, "publish," "wide." From R. inch, 
 indicating measuring, and fu, pok 322 phonetic. With R. water on 
 the left it becomes itself a compound phonetic. In this form it is 
 bak in Kwy, RR. grass, bamboo. Note that this form with R. grass 
 is also a double compound phonetic with RR. wood, stone, fish, 
 metal, eat. 
 
 649. jjfjj ke, 4, kak, " to separate." Feu on the right is changed 
 for several radicals. See 622, etc. Lik in Kya, R. fish. 
 
 650. H3 k> h a > " elder brother." From pj" k'o 145 phonetic. 
 
 651. H U, 8, lit, "chestnut." Not from si "west." The Lw 
 form shows this. The upper part is in Kw jeu " flesh," and represents 
 the chestnut. 
 
 652. 7H pei* 7, bik, " prepare." Usually with R. man. Bik in 
 the Odes, Tyt I. Bik in Kp, RR. man, fine. Mongol beldehu. Bit in 
 Kh, R. man. 
 
 653. f$ kan, "skill," "business." The radical kan "shield" 20, 
 may be changed for yu " feathers," and others. One of the words for 
 morning being kan, j|t cho, a symbol already in use, was employed 
 for it. The symbol thus acquired a new sound kan. Some say kan 
 " shield," is phonetic here. 
 
 654. 5 t'ui, 3, t'u(t), " go back," " refuse." In Kw, R. 34 is 
 phonetic in this character. It is U. 
 
 655. |Jj jo. 8, nok, " weak." Nik " to immerse," R. water. Mud, 
 R. earth. This is the same as ni "mud" 157, which was used in this 
 sense after the k was lost. Cover with the hand, R. earth. Nan 
 "soft," R. woman. The bow indicates bending through weakness, 
 and the separate strokes soft and pliant hair. Sw. 
 
 656. Jp si, 1, si(t), "to be slow." From s/ii "corpse" 33, and 
 sin 296 "acid," "new," etc., which also has the sound tsi, ti(t). See 
 607, tsai. 
 
 657. H? chan, 1, tan, " stretch." See 671, 897. Upper part from 
 33a, which here is read tan. Lower part shwai 621. 
 
 658. JH sic, 4, sit, "fragments," "to despise." Sw uses /V instead 
 of the three strokes in the middle, of this character, so that siau, 2, sok 
 " little," is not phonetic here.
 
 THE PHONETICS. 103 
 
 659. ^ hie, 4, hip, '-'ribs." From 161 kia, 1, kap "add." But 
 the six upper strokes are also to be viewed as a picture of ribs. Below 
 is> "flesh." 
 
 660. %jj> cheng, 1, ting, " to steam," " cook by steaming," " rise in 
 the form of vapour." The idea is that of rising. From 255 c'heng 
 " offer with two hands," as the phonetic. 
 
 661. 3& sun, 1, son, "grandson." From tsi "son," and hi 
 " thread," i.e. thread of descent or succession. 
 
 662. j?| yau, 6, dop, "to draw water with a ladle." The lost 
 dental appears as d and t' in almost all the examples, as t'au, Pop 
 "sheath," R. leather icei. See 559, where the picture of a mortar 
 occurs with the same sound. 
 
 663. ^ hi, 5, gi(t], " servants and dependents." From R. great 
 ta, and the rest R. claw above and doubled silk below, phonetic. Sw. 
 
 664. ^ k'i, 3, k'it, "breath." From 89a and R. rice. 
 
 665. ^ c'heng, 5, ding, " to mount," " a carriage." Same root as 
 teng and shang " to go up." In Kw apparently a picture of objects 
 with a stand on which they rest and a cover over them. 
 
 666. Jjf sheng, 3, ting, ting, "conquer." R. strength below is not 
 part of the phonetic. The right-hand upper part is phonetic in 991. 
 The left hand is R. flesh. This radical may be changed, as for R. 
 reptile below. Djim in Kwy, R. reptile. 
 
 667. ^ c'/ni, 5, dok, "fodder," "grass." Widow, R. woman. 
 Cheu "wrinkle," R. clothes. C'hu "run," R. walk. Zhuk in Kwy, R. 
 metal. From R. grass and cho, tok 41, phonetic. 
 
 668. $ft yau, 5, dok, "pottery," "kiln," R. hand. Servant, R. 
 man. Tsok in Kwy, R. metal. Upper part the same as chau 102. 
 From 258. 
 
 669. %, kie, 8, git, " hero." To go up and stand on the high parts 
 of a tree. Also kik in Kwy. See 348a c'hwen, t'un, for the upper part. 
 
 670. )| pan, 1, " kind of anything." The left part is phonetic, 
 being composed of p'ien, R. 91, in the old character with a winding 
 stroke on its right. 
 
 670tf . | i/in, 1, " flourishing," " correct," " many." See 94 yiin, 
 329 kiiin. See 103 for the right-hand appendage. 
 
 671. /g shan, 3, " fan." Radically connected with 657. Shan= 
 tan = chan. From yu " wing" and hu " door," both of which a fan 
 resembles.
 
 101 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 672. J^f ti, I, tik, " transmit to another," R. 162. Call, R. mouth. 
 Examine, R. words. From R. 27 "cover" and || ch'u 3, t'ok "place," 
 phonetic. Note that R. 34 in ch'u is tok in 394, 701. Compare also 
 the meanings, as flute, R. bamboo=^' 8, dik " flute" 202, for additional 
 proof of final k. 
 
 673. fjg lieu, 5, ln(t), "remain." From 175 mau, lieu, according 
 to the modern form. For the old form see Kh. 
 
 674. Jj| chen, 1, tin, "true," "genuine." Phonetic in tien 1029. 
 See 500. See tun "shield" 565, Men "field" 201, for physical objects 
 which may have originated the form. From (1) R. eye, (2) "to 
 change," " renovate " hwa (the upper two strokes), and (3) " a 
 hatchet" kin. 
 
 675. j seu, 1, sok, "old man." Sail "sister," R. woman. Sok 
 in Kwy, R. words. Sheu " thin," R. sickness. Like 471. Tu " mo- 
 ment." To in Kwy, R. insect. Modern form is R. kieu "mortar." 
 In Kw fire and hand appear to be phonetic here with sound sok or tik. 
 
 676. Jj, si, 4, sik, " to rest," " cease." Interest of money. From 
 tsi, dzik "self" 17 6a. Son's wife, R. woman. 
 
 677. ^ ch'eu, 3, t'uk, "bad odour." From tsi "self" 176. 
 With R. ^ below. With R. eye above the pronunciation is hieu, kek. 
 See 594. See 811 liok. 
 
 678. f|| ye, 8, ngit, "judge of a province." Ngit in Kwy, RR. 
 door, mountain, and with 267. The older senses are, door-sill, 
 hindrance in walking, which occur also in 810 kiue, kit. From R. 
 wood, which refers to the sense door-sill, and R. self, where the allusion 
 is not traceable. 
 
 679. Ipt kau, 1, ko(k), "information," "prolonged sound," "sound 
 uttered in entering the hall of audience." R. white alludes to in- 
 formation, and pen to walking fast, as is done when approaching the 
 hall of audience. The root agrees with kau " to tell," and hau, ffok, 
 " to call." 
 
 680. ,| wu, I, o(k), "raven," "crow." Probably tok. Picture of 
 the object. 
 
 681. $ she, 7, zhak, dak, "to shoot arrows." See nguk 772, and 
 cheu, tok, 29. Sie for dak "thank," R. words. She "musk deer," R. 
 deer. S.ee in Kh several examples from the Odes and the C'hu t's'i, 
 tending to show that she " to shoot," anciently always had final k. 
 
 682. zJ3 chui, 1, tut, "pursue." Mallet, R. wood. This word is
 
 THE PHONETICS. 105 
 
 called dui in Kp. The six strokes on the right with the sound tui 
 mean a small hill, and form the phonetic of 682, 683. 
 
 683. |j|j sh'i, 1, shet, "instructor," "leader." Sieve, comb, R. 
 bamboo. Shut in Kwy without the upper right-hand stroke. The 
 left-hand portion is sit and nget in 1014 and kut in 1020. 
 
 684. % kicei, 2, kut, " demon," " ghost." From man, below, and 
 a picture of a demon's head, above. Sw. The upper part, says Tt, 
 is phonetic in wei "to fear " 601. 
 
 685. gl p'i, 5, bit, "clear," "to help," "thick." Pit in Kwy, 
 RR. hand, strength. From pi 108, phonetic. In modern writing t'ien 
 
 '" field," is written usually instead of the upper part, and often on the 
 left hand. 
 
 686. ^ tsau, 2, tsok, tok, "louse." Early. Scabies, R. sickness. 
 To trouble, annoy, R. horse. Pride, lofty, R. man. Rebellious, R. 
 heart. From R. insect, and R. claws chau, phonetic. Nails, to scratch, 
 and the insect that causes scratching, have one root tok. 
 
 687. jjr t'sang, 1, t'ong, " granary." Same as 938 hang " hide," 
 "treasury." From shi, .eat, and k'eti "mouth," which represent a 
 granary. Sw. 
 
 688. ffi kien, 1, kirn, "altogether." Also lim. Kim, k'im and 
 ngim in Kya, R. 170. Phonetic in lien, 5, lim 875. In Idem, hico, 
 "corn," ^; is twice written and joined by three horizontal strokes 
 which represent a hand holding the stalks. 
 
 689. ^ yi, 4, yik, tik, "gain." D=s in 676 sik "gain," and z in 
 su, dzok in 838 vulgar, and ch in chai, dak, " narrow," in 611, compared 
 with yai "narrow pass," in. feu, hill. From water and R. vessels. 
 
 689. ^ na, 5, nap, " take," " carry." From 285 ho, gap, and R. 
 hand. 
 
 690. H weng, 5, yong, " old man." Initial g is inferred from the 
 meanings "wasp," i.e. the yellow insect, etc. From kung 116. 
 
 691. |j| sang, 1, som, "mulberry." Forehead, throat. Final m 
 is inferred from the representation of three, sam, in the upper part. 
 
 692. ![{? neng, 5, nim, "to be able." Nim 282, is " to carry," and 
 is the same root. Nai with RR. clothes, fire, reptile. Tai with RR. 
 man, heart. Hiung, 5, gom, " a bear," RR. fire, yellow. Nek in Kya, 
 R. reptile doubled. From R. flesh. 
 
 693. |g c'h'i, 1, fit, "stupid." See 52 c'he. From R. reptile, and 
 R. sprouting plants, c'he, with a horizontal stroke to represent the earth.
 
 106 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 694. Jj: jung, 5, nong, " growing plants." From ear 238, which 
 is shing, ting in 886, and is here phonetic. N and t interchange. 
 
 694a. 3p[ ke, 4, kak, " to separate," " dyed skins of animals." 
 
 695. 2fe c'ha, 5, dut, " tea." From 355 yu, dut " I," and R. grass. 
 
 696. |fC t'sau, 2, t'ok, "grass." From tsau "early," tok 290. 
 See tsau 686 " early." 
 
 697. H$ sJii, 5, zhik, " time," hour, of 120 minutes in length. 
 From s'i 240, phonetic, and R. sun. 
 
 698. ff| to,, 4, t'ap, tap, " fly high." The upper part is dap in 
 502. From R. feathers, R. say yue. Sw. 
 
 699. ^ hwang, 2, king, "light," "brightness." From 288 kwang, 
 phonetic. Uncertain, vast space of water. Same in roots as hwang 217. 
 
 700. ^ ku, 4, kot, "bone." From 605, but this is not substantiated 
 by Sw. If 605 is kop, as is likely, the connexion in form may be 
 viewed as accidental and modern. 
 
 701. ^ t'si, 4, t'sik, " spade," " sharpen." Grain, R. corn. See 
 792 yi " other," " different." 
 
 702. ||<j hwun, 7, gon, "pigsty." From k'wun "shut up in a 
 circle" 377. See 50. Picture of a pig shut up within a barrier, 
 which is k'iuen=hwun. 
 
 703. J| yuen, 5, (d]on or (g}on, "magistrate." Sun "take 
 from," R. hand. Tt says it is from pel "shell money." Kiang t'ai 
 kung was the first to introduce gold pieces of money, which were 
 called yuen. The square hole in the money is P, the round circum- 
 ference is J^. 
 
 704. Jj|; wen, "warm," "kind." Also wu for ot. Ut in Kwy, R. 
 mouth. See 596 ho, kat "why?" From R. vessel and t'sieu 5 
 "prisoner," in allusion to kindly feeding of prisoners. Sw. 
 
 705. ^ ta, 8, dap, " glance of the eye." See 502 ta. See tat 
 440, dap 502. Also kwan, R. 162. From R. eye and P. tai 440, as 
 phonetic. Sw. It is thus shown that 440 had formerly final p. 
 
 706. t|* k'i, 2, k'ut, "how?" Sw gives as one of the meanings ^ 
 teng "a vessel of earthenware used in laying out offerings of food." 
 R. mountain probably refers to the shape of the piled- up fruits in 
 some vessel named k'i. See 841 teny. 
 
 707. B so, 2, sak, "small particles of anything." Clink of shell 
 money. Sw. From siau " small," and R. shell money.
 
 THE PHONETICS. 107 
 
 7070. *== k'i, k'iak, " small window in a wall." K'iak in Kwy, RR. 
 150, 170. See for the lower seven strokes 811 liok. Initial k and / 
 often interchange. From R. small and R. sun, in allusion to the use 
 of the window. 
 
 708. ^ mi, 8, mit, "hidden." R. mountain below is exchanged 
 for R. insect and R. eye. R. cover mien is sometimes omitted. Honey 
 R. insect. 
 
 709. 5j$ k'eu, 3, k'ut, "rob," "robber." From R. p'u "strike," 
 and wan "complete," as if to say, robbers carry away all that is 
 valuable. 
 
 710. ^ yin, 5, din. From 3 to 5 A.M. Compare 500. The Kw 
 forms favour the idea that y was formerly d. 
 
 711. Jf sieu, 3, 4, sok, "to lodge," "pass the night." Same root 
 as si, zik "evening," ye, dak, "night" 42, 394. Lower part is pak in 
 230. 
 
 712. J|L chang, 1, tong, "chapters" in verse or prose. From ^ yin 
 "sound," and, in allusion to rhythmical arrangement, -f- ten. Tt. 
 The upper part is phonetic in 715, 714, 800 t'-ung "boy." Tt views 
 the character as entirely suggestive. 
 
 713. fjjt king, "boundary," "end," "in reality." Strong. Mirror. 
 From yin "sound" ^ 508, and man J^, below. Sw. Tt suggests 
 kin hatchet below. 
 
 714. \jjft ti, 4, tik, "root," "harmony." Drop, R. water. Bank, R. 
 wood. Oppose oneself to, R. strength. The lower inclosed portion is 
 kok 153 ancient. Upper part phonetic, just as in 799. Below, ku is 
 ideographic in the sense of " firmness." 
 
 715. ^ shang, 1, shong, "merchant," "consult," "learn men's 
 thoughts by consultation." The form partly resembles shang, "still" 
 501. From chang "illustrate" 712, as phonetic, and below no,, not 
 " speak in whispers." Sw. 
 
 716. WJE siuen, 5, dzin, "revolve." Lower right-hand corner is 
 phonetic in 382 ting, dien, and has also the sound din in 350, 141a. 
 From fang "flag," and sti "the foot." Sw. Men in beating bounds, 
 adds Sk, follow a flag with their feet till they have completed the 
 circuit. 
 
 717. ^ tsu, 8, dzok, dok, "tribe." T'sok, t'su and tsok inKya, R. 
 metal. From "to bind," which is lik and shok, forming the root. 
 The sound is from 163a sh'i, tik. Tribes were distinguished in ancient
 
 108 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 as in modern times by banners. Hence the use of fang 54, and 435 
 k'i " banner," which explain the ideographic part. Note that k has 
 become t in 163, 454, 616. 
 
 718. $ shu, 1, tok, " many." Che " partridge," R. bird. To cover, 
 R. 162. Sugar-cane, R. grass and 40. Tik in Kya, R. hand. See 
 436, 511, 722. 
 
 719. j$t ma, 5, mo(t], "hemp." To grind, to rub. Grindstone. 
 Found in mei 1025. 
 
 720. Jjjf yung, 5, dong, "common," "ordinary." Same root as 
 c'hang "constant" 501. Walls. Workmen. Great bell. From 
 167 and 327. The upper part is the same as in Vang, dong 617. 
 Zhung in Kwy, RR. fish, heart, leather. 
 
 721. Jjfc k'ang, 1, k'ong. "peaceful," "tranquillity." See 391 
 keng, for the phonetic. Used for ge k'ung " empty " both words 
 having been formerly k'ong. 
 
 722. J| lu, 8, lok, "deer." Found in 718 and 1026 as a phonetic. 
 
 723. jH c'han, 2, fan, "produce." Also ngen in 512 with R. 
 hair sham, instead of R. produce sheng. Shan in Ty. 
 
 724. [|3 li, 5, lip, "dawn," "separate," "depart." Final p known 
 from the meanings, as wet R. water=shap. See 762. 
 
 725. ^ k'ien, 1, k'in, "draw," "pull or lead by a rope." From 130 
 hiuen " dark," as phonetic, but the included ideograph silk refers to 
 the rope. The ox below indicates the animal that is being led. 
 
 726. ^ sho, 4, shot, "a proportional," "to lead." In the middle 
 is silk 50a sik. Lnt occurs as the sound with several radicals. Com- 
 pare 793 lu to wind, revolve, pile in layers. The ten -p, below and 
 the two pairs of parallel strokes, all refer to laying out in order, and 
 are ideographic. 
 
 727. |J5 kieo, 4, kak, " suburbs." Like 728 in form. Vast, R. 53. 
 Extend, R. hand. Scatter, R. rain. Coffin case, R. wood. The idea 
 is that of a circle beyond the city wall. As a root it =. jj|| kico "king- 
 dom," and R. 31, in both of which bounding circle is the prominent 
 idea. 
 
 728. ffc shu, 8, zhok, dok, "not raw," "ripe," "who?" Same as 
 shui "who" 472, R. words. Left-hand part also hiang "to enjoy," 
 In Kw the left-hand portion was icei " prepared leather," in allusion 
 to the sense "not raw." The present form comes from the Li shu. 
 
 729. fj| yang, 5, yung, dong, "great," "waves." Model, shape, RR.
 
 THE PHONETICS. 109 
 
 wood, hand. Move, R. man. R. heart, not part of the phonetic. The 
 same as lang " wave." L=d. Same as chwang, 7, dong "shape." Same 
 as tung " move." From yang 218, ideographic and phonetic and yung 
 131, phonetic. 
 
 730. ^ sieu, sok, " blush." From 83 ch'eii, which see for proof of 
 k. One meaning is " to offer." A sheep was often offered. Hence 
 sheep is the ideographic part of the character. Sw. 
 
 731. p. 19 J^l yu, 5, gok, name of a sacrifice for rain. To lie, 
 R. words. Hu "beautiful," R. woman. C'hu, 5, for dok "fuel," 
 R. wood. To extend, R. hand. The lower part is phonetic for the 
 sound gok. 
 
 732. ^ shung, e'hung, 1, t'ong, " to pound corn." A mortar 
 below kieu 6, 7, guk. Two hands above are working the pestle. T'ong 
 is the sound of the verb imitated. 
 
 733. |y| sui, 3, sid, "large broom." Sit "snow," R. rain. Also 
 /ncci, 3, hut, wise, clear-minded, small stars, stellar brightness. The 
 lower part is the hand, which also occurs in 438 cheu "sweep," "a 
 small broom." Each is a picture of the implement with the hand 
 grasping it. 
 
 734. ^ kicei, 1, kit(t), "rule." From kien "see." The root is 
 the same with ku " carpenter's rule," by changes of vowels. In Kw 
 sh'i "arrow," ^, takes the place of ^, and shut "water" occurs below. 
 The arrow and water would both be used in determining the level, as 
 also the eye in seeing, kien. 
 
 735. j| tsc, die, 4, tak, "blame," "punish." From 129 chu, tok, 
 as phonetic. 
 
 736. H| U, 5, lik, 1000th part of an ounce. The radical U below 
 is changed for many others. In Kw we find Jai "come," in place of 
 wei "not yet," and ch'i "branch," in place of fan wen. Lai, lak "come," 
 is phonetic and indicates final k. 
 
 737. H yi,\, yit, tit, "cure," "heal." R. yen below is not part of 
 the phonetic. For the inclosure see 163 sit. For the right-hand 
 portion see 103. Yit in Kwy, R. feathers below and R. reptile above. 
 
 738. jg$ t'si, 4, t'ik, " relations by marriage," "grieved." Ascent 
 by steps, R. earth. Tsu, " wrinkle." See 667 cheu, i.e. ruga. From 
 484 shu, shok, phonetic (and ultimately 18a), and R. spear, which 
 alludes to a kind of hatchet carried in the hand in the Shang 
 dynasty and called t'sik.
 
 110 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 739. J$ shwang, 1, shong, "bright," "clear," "fresh." Same as 
 t'ung "passable," "communication open." From chang 24, phonetic. 
 But Sw says from ta "great," and It "bright," which is written with four 
 crosses. Sk says the four crosses are cracks and holes that let in light. 
 
 740. 2H yen, 1, kin, "how?" Kin in Kwy, RR. woman, mouth. 
 But perhaps the upper part indicates tin as an ancient value. See 
 14. Picture of a sort of pheasant. Tt. 
 
 741. jfa ngau, 5, gok. For final k see 907. Earth on the left is 
 radical and is exchanged for white as in 907. See the same form in 
 the Cw of 693. From $ c'hu and fang " let go." Sw. 
 
 742. ^ cn 'iy 4, tip, " take hold of." Also tim in Kp, R. earth, in 
 Kwy, RR. earth, rain, etc. The five strokes on the left-hand lower 
 corner are nim in Kwy. See 282 mm. 
 
 743. pn?sj[ k'ing, 3, k'ing, "musical stone." Also sheng "sound." 
 This last may be in fact the original sound of 743. It occurs as a 
 root in t'ing " to hear " 10375. T=sh. 
 
 744. fJl yi, 7, ngit, " to plant," " office," " duty." Hot, jo, nit, 
 R. fire. Also sh'i influence and authority, R. strength. Treat contu- 
 meliously. Sie, 4, sit, R. clothes. From lok 422. K to t. Nget in 
 Kwy, R. corn. Since earth is the radical, the sense "to plant" ngi, 7, 
 ngit, should be regarded as the primary meaning. 
 
 745. ^y inclosed in R. n> m > 8, nik, "to perish," "hidden," 
 "hide." Jo, nok "if" 587, is here phonetic. 
 
 746. ^ lien, 5, lin, " connect." Same as lin 1008. Compare c'hen, 
 din 425, otherwise tung east. But see 748 chwen, where the inclosure 
 of 746 is phonetic. 
 
 747. $ff chan, 2, tarn, " kill," " cut off the head." R. cart alludes 
 to the carts in which criminals are conveyed to execution, and which 
 stand in a row while the execution takes place. Sw. 
 
 748. ;fs chwen, 1, tun, "whole," "with one mind intent," "single." 
 Same as tan " single," c'hun " sincere." The lower part is phonetic, 
 as in t'sun " inch " 29. Upper part is like 746 lien. In Kw it is I-J4 
 c'het " springing plants," above, and below that two round cocoons. 
 See 50a. R. water is not part of the phonetic. 
 
 749. ^ k'u, 1, k'u, "hide," "place where things are hidden," 
 "place of residence." A plurality of persons is represented by the 
 inner part consisting of three mouths called p'im-, alone, and ngam in 
 Kwy, with RR. mountain, stone, words. See also 923 sok.
 
 THE PHONETICS. Ill 
 
 750. $jgfc sho, 1, shok, "suck in." From shu "bind" 323, 
 phonetic, and R. k'ien, to indicate the action of the mouth. 
 
 751. "H> t'sau, 5, dzot, "many persons." A sign of the plural. 
 Imperial gaoler. From yue " say," below, alluding to the speaking 
 by which the gaoler performs his duty, and east T|f , above, alluding 
 to the position of the gaol on the east of the emperor's court. In Kw 
 east is doubled. 
 
 -TT| 
 
 752. J^ piau, 2, po(k), "fire-sparks flying." Final k is inferred 
 JJ> 
 
 from meanings agreeing with such as those of 41, 179, white, flag 
 
 signal. The lower part was formerly R. fire, and the upper part 
 hing " to rise " 5U. 
 
 753. ||[ sien, 1, sin, "go up high." Also t'sin. From si "west,'' 
 and ta " great." 
 
 754. |H tsi, 4, fit, " varnish." Knee, R. flesh. "Water as an ideo- 
 graph appears to have been introduced below in the Sc. Picture of 
 sap (R. water below) dropping from a tree (the part above). 
 
 755. ffi tai, 3, tat, " girdle," " to carry." Tat in Kwy, RR. heart, 
 earth, mountain. From fei, 1, put 77, and above it the picture of a 
 string for tying. 
 
 756. H han, 3, kan, name of a river, of the milky way, and of a 
 dynasty. R. water is not part of the phonetic. The right-hand part 
 is phonetic in 757. Also fan. In Kw, R. spear, kico on the right, 
 and mouth and heaven on the left, as if in allusion to the milky way. 
 
 757. JK| k'in, 5, gin, " diligent." See 756. R. strength not part of 
 the phonetic. From R. leather kek and R. earth t'u. Sw. The 
 phonetic without the radical is the name of a kind of sunflower. 
 
 758. $| man, 6, " full." From twenty above and two Hang below. 
 Sw. The phonetic without the radical water means "even," 
 " peaceful." 
 
 759. ijfjf) kiang, 5, gong, "strong," "violent." A rice insect. From 
 156 /noig, phonetic and R. insect. 
 
 760. |j*[ wei, 1, tut, "comfort." Here Sw and Sc have R. fire 
 below, instead of siau "little" on the left side. Ut in Kwy, RR. fire, 
 grass. The five upper left-hand strokes are yi "barbarian" 226, here 
 phonetic. A hand seizes fire to impart warmth to some one. 
 
 761. P leu, 7, hi, "to leak." From yu "rain," and wu M "house." 
 ^f 
 
 762. H si, 8, zip, " to be accustomed to." Picture of birds flying
 
 112 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 irregularly. Moisture, shining, fear, incline. Trowsers, from the 
 verb chap to gird. See 724. L=s. 
 
 763. |g lieu, 7, 8, lok, "fly high." R. grass not part of the 
 phonetic. Imitation of the sound of birds' wings, thus lok, lok. Lok 
 = tok in 254 wings. Hence the upper part is phonetic and ideographic. 
 Kieu, 4, kok, with RR. wood, hand. The senses bind, hang, twist, glue, 
 call, with appropriate radicals, prefer initial k. Solitary, lofty, deep, 
 to kill, to go, prefer initial L Final k throughout is probable from 
 the meanings. 
 
 764. [^ yin, 1, yim, gim, " dark principle in nature." From kim 
 "now" 110. R. hill/ew, alludes to shade. Tim 64, at the right-hand 
 lower corner is ideographic in the sense of " cloud." See 508. In 
 Kw forms, ^ yim "sound," and ^< yung, "long," formerly yim, are 
 both used as phonetics. 
 
 765. 3^ si, 4, sit, "all," "to make oneself acquainted thoroughly 
 with." Some think the upper part is pien " distinguish," here ideo- 
 graphic. In Kw we find shu, shot 148, instead of it, and this could 
 only be phonetic. 
 
 766. jfr tsau, 6, 7, dzok, " make." From 42 kok. Rhymes in the 
 Odes with kio, kak " to perceive," Tyt iii. In Kw cheu " boat," was 
 phonetic, instead of the radical on the left, with sound tok. 
 
 767. fH shang, 1, shong, tong, " wound." R. man is not part of 
 the phonetic. Same as yang, any sickness. From 592 yang, dong, 
 as phonetic. Initial sh=t=d=y. 
 
 768. fg tsi, 3, tsat, "to sacrifice." From R. sKi "tell." The 
 upper six strokes are pronounced t'siet in Kwy, R. words. They 
 consist, says Sw, of a hand (on the right) holding flesh (on the left). 
 But they are, as the example from Kwy shows, also phonetic. 
 
 769. )f| hu, 6, go, name of a kingdom. From R. city, and hit 
 phonetic 101. Servant, name of an office. 
 
 770. jJ|=J- hu, 8, gok, measure of ten pecks or teu. From kio, 
 kak " horn," phonetic, and teu ^ ideographic. 
 
 771. $ t'sung, 5, dzung, " follow." There are two men above on 
 the right. These are contracted into 115. The lower part, tseu "to 
 walk," contracted, is ideographic. See 318. The sound dzung is the 
 same as t'ung, dong "together " 291, and is akin to it in signification. 
 
 772. ^ yu, 7, ngu, ngak, "to guide horses and chariots," "go up." 
 Honorific word for anything imperial. Rhymes with she, zhak " to
 
 THE PHOXETICS. 113 
 
 shoot" 681, in the Odes. Tyt v. The non-radical part is sie, 3, sik, 
 and means to unharness a cart, unlade a cargo. Final k is known 
 from jt tik. 
 
 773. $jj si, 2, sik, " remove." Shoes, R. corpse. Formed from 
 119 above, 161 below, both phonetic, and radical 60. In Kw we 
 find R. 34 ch'i, and RR. fire, rice, on the right. See 553, 993. 
 
 773a. ^ me, 8, mek, "seek." Mok in Kwy, R. 113. From the 
 hand employed in searching and Men " see." 
 
 774. ^fcng, 5, bong, "meet." From feng, 348. 
 
 77 4a. HJ sie, 2, sik. R. cover mien is not part of the phonetic. 
 "Shoes." Shak in Kp, R. metal. Sik in Kwy, RR. stone, water, 
 leather kek, grass. The upper part is tak in 349. The lower part is 
 contracted from 775 "bird" tiau. 
 
 775. ,% niau, tiau, 2, tak, " bird." Tak in Comment on Heu Han 
 Shu. Tton. 
 
 776. gj ki, 3, kit, "end," "already." See 350 for the left-hand 
 part. Kit in Kwy with tan "morning" 192. The right-hand part 
 is not ya tooth, but is called ki, and, says Sw, it is here phonetic. See 
 in Kh under R. 71 tcu. 
 
 776a. (iff sieu, 1, sok, " to beautify." From 351 yen, and more 
 immediately from ^ sieu, sok, "to adorn," where sham "hair," takes 
 the place of jw " flesh " in our phonetic. 
 
 7765. -^ t'sio, 4, t'sak, t'ak, "magpie," "bird." From 123 shau, 
 and 472 chui. Both these parts are phonetic, and the last is ideo- 
 graphic. Also tat by change from k to t. Tsit in Kwy, RR. water, 
 heart. 
 
 776c. ^ t'stotg, "hearing and thinking clearly." Same idea as 
 in t'ung 327 penetrating. Inclosed part phonetic in tung 173. The 
 outside is like 501 shang, and may also be phonetic. 
 
 777. (& teu, 1, tu, "helmet." Picture of a man with a helmet on. 
 Tt. Note that the lower two strokes are most likely pictorial, but 
 if phonetic they have the sound tot in shwo, shet " say," and in she 
 "place" 103. 
 
 778. f sha, 1, shut, "kill." Left portion is phonetic. Right- 
 hand portion is shu R. 79, and in Kw R. strike p'u. 
 
 779. ^ fan, 1, t'am, "covetous," "covet." From kirn "now'' 
 110 and R. shell-money, pel hair. In Kw sam "three," below, and 
 meu above.
 
 114 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 780. ^ t'san, 1, saw, " together." From men, jen and sham 43, 
 below, and the triple si above. This triple si is called lei in Kwy 
 alone, and with several radicals. 
 
 7800. 11 kwan, 1, kon, " shut," " gate," " a pass." The radical 
 door is changed in 1008. 
 
 781. J| kwan, 3, kon. Pass through a coin or anything valuable 
 with a thread (the horizontal line). Accustomed, R. heart. Also s/t'i, 
 8, zhit, " true," " real," R. cover mien. Also in Kwy without R. shell- 
 money below. Pei below alludes to the stringing together of the 
 ancient shell-money. Tt. 
 
 782. jj| c'hau, 5, do(p), " nest." Picture of a nest on a tree with 
 little fledgelings appearing over the nest. Tt. 
 
 783. m tsiang, 1, "about to," "near," "help," "a general." Also 
 sap, soy, exhort, praise, oar, to row, lead an army. Radically the 
 same as sung praise, ling lead. From hand on the right, and 118 
 
 t'siang phonetic. 
 
 rf? 
 
 784. * hu, 1, A-0A;, "alas!" A crack, fissure, RR. stone, earth. 
 
 From hit " tiger," phonetic, and hu an exclamation, ideographic and 
 
 phonetic. 
 
 F& 
 
 785. |V t'so, 5, dza, dzat, " fierce and crafty like a tiger." From 
 
 tan, dat, phonetic. 
 
 786. ^ t'ang, 5, dong, "hall." From 501 phonetic, and R. earth 
 t'u, representing the site of the building. 
 
 787. |:|j lu, 6, lok, " salt before it is refined." Dik in Kwy, R. 
 water, and with the sense "moist," "unrefined," "salt." Picture of 
 the object in a pan. Tt. In Kw si "west" is like IK, and Sw derives 
 lu therefore from si, because salt is found extensively in "Western China. 
 
 788. ^ mo, 8, mok, "do not." Name of an edible plant with 
 red joints and hairy leaves, of which in Kw the character is a picture. 
 
 789. ;H leu, 5, lok, "gallery," "upper story of buildings," "tower." 
 Phonetic in shu for shok 984 "number." For k see 984. From kmni 
 "pierce," chung "middle," and nu "woman." The idea suggested 
 is that of hollowness. Sw. 
 
 790. *jj* man, 7, "lead." From R. hand yen, and man "blind."- 
 Sw. The middle portion is R. eye, mu, and the upper R. say, yue. 
 Other meanings : long, end, light in weight. Bread, RR. wheat, rice. 
 Veil, R. napkin. The hand holds the veil which mau blind suggests.
 
 THE PHONETICS. 115 
 
 791. j|| pi, 4, pit, "finished." From R. field, and cross lines 
 below, which suggest cutting and boundaries. 
 
 792. fS yi, 7, dik, "strange," "different." See 701. T l ik in 
 Kwy, R. walk. Ok in Odes. Tyt. Wings, RR. wings, fly. Also 
 to aid, R. wings. Here the root is the same as chu, 6, 7, dok, " assist " 
 193. From Jj$. kiai " boundary," above, and kung " offer with two 
 hands," below. 
 
 793. ^ lei, 5, hit, "place in layers one over another." Mule, 
 R. horse, i.e. the grinding animal. Also Cap, R. water. The phonetic 
 part is the upper five strokes. See 881, 985. 
 
 794. |<j kico, 4, kok, "kingdom." From 430 hwok, phonetic. 
 The word kok is derived from the boundary of the kingdom pictured 
 as a square, as in R. 31 j | kok or wei. See 727. 
 
 795. fJ hwan, 7, gan, "misfortune." See 386 kwan, which has 
 >c* 
 
 two mouths. A stroke pierces the doubled character chung, which 
 
 represents the heart. 
 
 796. >g t'sui, 5, dzok, "high." Chui 472 is here phonetic. 
 
 797. j| k'u, 5, got, "canal." From ku 144, phonetic, and RR. 
 water, wood. 
 
 798. \% fang, 1, t'ong, "hot water," "broth." From 592 yang, 
 phonetic. Initial y and t ( probably both from d. 
 
 799. f chi, 4, tik, "fire," "signal." Office, mark of secret duties 
 (Sw.) and responsibilities, R. ear. Weave, R. silk. Banner, R. napkin. 
 Call to mind by a mark, R. words. SKi "know," R. words. See 714 
 tik. From R. spear, kico, and yin sound. Most of the senses imply 
 mark or signal, to the eye by fire or banners, or to the ear by sound. 
 
 800. fji t'ung, 5, dong, dom, "boy." Upper part phonetic in 712 
 chang, 715 shang. Sh=ch=d. 
 
 801. HJ c'he, I, t'et, "penetrating," "intelligent." Root same as 
 ta 885. The left-hand radical may be changed for others. See 395 
 yii for the shape. 
 
 802. f tun, 1, "sincere," "liberal." Anvil, hill, tower, strike 
 with the fists, sunrise, breathe, much. From 396 tun, which has 
 similar meanings. A rounded shape is the physical idea in most of 
 the meanings. 
 
 803. jjfc tsieu, 7, dzuk, duk, "to complete," "go to a place," "im- 
 mediately." Dzuk in Kwy, R. mouth. Tsuk in Kwy, R. 78. Tsok 
 in Kya, R. reptile. From T king or liak, R. hand, and 69 -fc ycu, duk,
 
 116 
 
 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 phonetic. Common roots are such as tso, tsak " do," f tsi, tsik " im- 
 mediately." 
 
 804. |f shan, 6, 7, zhon, don, "good," "virtuous." In Kw, R. 
 goat above, and "=f yen "words," below, for which k'eu "mouth" is a 
 contraction. The odour of the he-goat is called shan and the goat 
 itself. Hence R. goat is used as suggestive of sound. 
 
 805. HP Jin, 5, "neighbour." Lower part is c'hwen in 348#, and 
 shun in 838. L=ch=sh. Lower part kit in 669. The right hand, R. 
 city, is not part of the phonetic. Without this Kn means "fire caused 
 by the ghosts of the dead." In Kw, instead of R. rice above, we find 
 jj| yen, din, which is phonetic (d^l) and also ideographic. The light 
 of the glowworm is called lin. 
 
 806. ^ lau, 5, lok, " labour." Draw from water, R. hand. Same 
 root with fik "strength." Lok in Ty, R. cow, instead of R. ^/. Hence 
 the upper part may be phonetic. In Kw ^ occurs for R. strength, as 
 if in allusion to the bending of the whole mind to labour. See Tt. 
 
 807. A group of three hearts, >jj, jui, 6, noli, "suspect," "impede," 
 " buds." Stamens and style of flowers, R. wood. Nok in Odes, Tyt 
 
 xvi, R. silk. Picture of buds not yet opened. Tt. 
 
 ^ 
 807. | t'i, 3, fit, "for," "instead of." T'it in Kwy, R. man. 
 
 But in tai 176 for, instead of, the final is k. Perhaps t in 807 is 
 from k. Lip "to stand" doubled, and bak "white" below. 
 
 808. fj er, r'i, ni, "two." R. throw alludes to throwing shell- 
 money, R. pei, in counting. 
 
 808. Ip k'in, 5, gim, "harp." From kim 110 phonetic. The 
 upper part is a picture of the harp. In Kw kim "metal" occurs for 
 kim "now." 
 
 809. fg kie, 4, kit, "clean." From 256 phonetic, with R. silk. 
 
 810. ^ kiiie, 4, kit, "that." Throw a stone. Sw. From 630tf, 
 and 630 with the cover 2a. Since ngik is the sound of the left part 
 of the inclosure, final t probably comes from k. See also s/iok 630. 
 So then it comes ultimately from ngak 2Q8a. In Kw 106 J^ with -f- 
 or pj" occurs. Here 106 is phonetic with sound kit. 
 
 811. jg liau, 6, lok, "burn," "signal-fires," "shine." The radical 
 is not part of the phonetic. Bind, little, high, inundation, far, with 
 appropriate radicals. From R. fire at the bottom, next R. sun, above 
 that R. fire, and at the top a cover. See in Sc.
 
 THE PHONETICS. 117 
 
 812. 3| she, 1, tak, "wasteful," "extend." From ta "great," and 
 
 ^3 
 
 che 531, tak, phonetic. 
 
 812a. A group of three dogs ft, piaii, pa(k), "wild," "uncon- 
 trollable." Said of dogs and of wind. Picture of three dogs. Final 
 k is known from pan, pok, 168, used convertibly with it. 
 
 813. W t'san, 1, tarn, "cruel," "sharp-pointed." Calumniate, 
 silkworm, hide, to punch, usurp. Also tsa, 8, dap. Partly from yin 
 58, which is doubled. Four strokes added are Q " say " yue. Tsam 
 in Kp, R. eye. 
 
 814. j! yi, 1, tit, "one." Die, R. 5. Spoiled food, R. eat. For 
 the form see 319, 816a. It is an ancient_form of yi "one." Picture 
 of the sacrificial vessel called tcu with a double cover over it. The 
 upper one may be ^fc stii, zhit, dit, phonetic. 
 
 815. jf kan, 2, kam, "dare." Phonetic in yem 1035. The 
 present form dates from the Li shu. In Kw a hand or shu " spear" 
 occurs on the right. On the left a hand above, and ku ancient OTJ'U 
 flesh below. 
 
 816. 3& yau, 5, nyok, name of a royal sage. From earth heaped 
 on a bench as a symbol of height. Also kiau, nan, hiau, shau. Hiau 
 in Kwy, R. corn, identified with a word having p. 622 kau "high," 
 which indicates final k. The nine upper strokes are read ngau " high 
 earth." For final k see 944. K'ik in Kwy, R. 66. Niau in Kya. 
 
 816a. $ c'hu, 5, djot, "kitchen." For final t see 814, 965. The 
 radical may be removed. It is then chit, 7, djot, "stand up," "set up- 
 right." From hand on the right and feu 319 phonetic. In Sc 
 3 were used above ten. 
 
 817. j|2 p'eng, 5, beny, sound of cymbals, of wind, of water 
 
 bam. An implement attached to the side of (p'any, and hence the 
 sound) a war chariot to injure an enemy. From R. hair sham and 
 the rest phonetic. The phonetic is formed from R. teu in the sense 
 implement. 
 
 818. :g hi, 2, kit, "joy," "joyful." From 243 kit "good luck," 
 with which it is the same in sound and sense fundamentally. 
 
 819. H nffo, 3, 4, ak, "bad," "to hate." From ya 424, which is 
 shown by this example to have final . 
 
 820. 3g hwei, 7, guk, " favour." See 889 kik. K'ak in Kwy, R. 
 79. Also sui, suk. Also mit in Kwy, R. black. Gik in Odes, Tyt 
 xvi, R. silk.
 
 118 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 821. H/flw, 5, ban, "hedge." See for the crosses 528. The 
 character is phonetic without ta " great" below. The crosses indicate 
 the weaving of twigs to make the hedge. Tt. 
 
 822. !p fan, 5, dam, "extend to," "spread out." Djam in Kp, 
 R. hand. Wine-jar, R. vase. Probably a picture of a vase originated 
 the character, for in Kw below R. west is found a contraction of teng 
 >f or teu, both pictures of vessels. 
 
 823. $f s'i, 1, si(t) or si(k), "that," "to separate." Kin "hatchet," 
 on the right has the sound sik in 433 R. wood, and sit in 326 che " to 
 break." See 99. K'i on the left ideographic. Final t probably 
 derived from final k. 
 
 824. ^ hwang, 5, gong, "yellow," "brown." Found in kicaitg 
 " wide " 966. In Kw kieu " long " above, hico " fire " below, and R. 
 grass in the middle. 
 
 825. fjfc san, 3, "to scatter." Also sa, 4, sat, "scatter." Other 
 meanings : flour and any powder are called san. Also umbrella, RR. 
 silk, napkin. Final t changed formerly to n. On the right is the 
 hand employed in scattering. The left is probably a picture of some 
 implement used in scattering with sound sat. 
 
 826. ilJj chatt, 1, tok, "morning." To see the emperor in the 
 morning. The court. Sw says it is derived from 486 with/tw "man" 
 on the right, that is, 895 kan " brightness " of the sunrise, and that 
 the rest is cheu, tok 273 " boat," phonetic. 
 
 826or. 3 su, 4, sok, "ear of corn." Picture of the object. Tt. 
 From 247. Fear, R. heart. The true old sound perhaps of si "west" 
 is here seen. In lit " chestnut " the writing has become irregular. 
 In Kw three chestnuts on a tree with their stalks and four prickles 
 on the husk of each, are plainly seen, but no si " west." 
 
 827. 3g hiang, 7, gom, "matter or thing," "neck." From 27 
 work phonetic and R. head. 
 
 828. j|g yu, 8, got, zhot, "to pierce or bore." Zhitt with RR. 30, 
 85, 142, 187, 195 in Kwy. See 81, 545, 546. Also kiue, kit. From 
 man spear ideographic and the lower part phonetic. 
 
 829. sf|[ siiin, 5, zi), dim, " seek." From knng " work," k'eu 
 " mouth," yeu " hand" and t' sun " inch." In Kwju " flesh" and c'hi 
 "foot," occur in place of mouth and work. Since t'am, to search 
 for the depth of water, is the same word, the foot measure would be 
 alluded to as used in measuring depths.
 
 THE PHONETICS. 119 
 
 830. jfjij fmn > 6, " to pity." From teen 56 phonetic and door, 
 representing the visitor who goes to the house of mourning to 
 sympathize. Sw. 
 
 831. |1|] jun, 7, non, "intercalary month." At the beginning 
 of other months the king stayed in the temple of ancestors. At the 
 beginning of the intercalary mouth he stayed within his own door. 
 Hence the use of R. door. 
 
 832. ^ Men, 5, gin, 1, kin, " interval," " crevice." Han in Kp, 
 R. hand. Inclosed part phonetic in kien 407. The inclosed moon 
 may be exchanged for wood. The moon seen through a crack in a 
 door is suggestive of " crevice." Sk. 
 
 832. J|f t'u, 5, dok, "kill." From 531 che, tak, phonetic and 
 JH " house," the butcher's shed. 
 
 833. p and below it written thrice J* c'hwcn, 5, zhon, " weak," 
 " tyrannize." Same as jican 527. Upper part from 33a. See 897, 
 657, etc. Picture of three children in a house, suggestive of weak- 
 ness ; but the three children are also phonetic with sound zhon, with- 
 out the radical. 
 
 834. H siuen, 1, sun, "condescend." Sim, shun both mean 
 " bend." From a double s'i, 9 A.M. to 11 A.M. and two hands joined. 
 The hands offer gifts. In the modern form a bench is added below 
 on which to place the gifts. This Kw is without. 
 
 835. ^ lung, 5, long, " abundant," " prosperous." High, R. 
 mountain. Vault of heaven, R. hole, is called lung in reference to 
 height. From R. hill, feu. For the upper part see 173 tung here 
 phonetic, as also is sheng "life" 164. T=.l=sh. 
 
 836. ft and below it jfl, chu, 4, tok, "guitar." From 2600, 
 bamboo phonetic. The lower part is kiung 250, which is here 
 ideographic. The instrument has a small neck and thirteen strings. 
 
 837. ^ ta, 4, tap, "answer," "recompense." T'ap in Kp, R. 
 foot. In Kw field below instead of bamboo. Ho, hap, implies exact 
 agreement. 
 
 838. %fe shun, 3. Name of an ancient emperor. From R. claw, 
 R. cover, and P. 348 c'hicen. In Kw yen, burning brightly, is 
 probably phonetic with sound din. 
 
 839. 2 wei, 5, 7, hicei, gi(t), "to be," "to do," "for." Kid in 
 Kwy, R. woman. Form of a female monkey. Sw. The hand at the 
 top is intended for one of the fore limbs of the animal.
 
 120 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 840. ^ fan, 1, pan, " foot of a quadruped," " people on or beyond 
 the boundaries." The upper part pien is phonetic. Same as pien 
 "side." Ban in Kp, R. side. Also po, 1, pat, "to send forth," 
 " distribute." Found in shim 963, to inquire into as a judge. 
 
 841. %j teng, 1, " ascend," " sit on something elevated." The 
 lower part teu points to the use of the ancient wooden vessel which 
 contained flesh at the sacrifices. Another of earthenware was named 
 teng. The upper part on the right is hand and on the left flesh. 
 A hand holds the flesh over the teu. 
 
 842. |f fa, 4, pat, " to send forth." The upper part R. pel 
 is phonetic and also expresses separation. The bow and the other 
 implement or implements shu are the instruments of sending forth. 
 
 ^ 
 
 843. ^^ t'sui, 3, t'u(t), "thin hair of animals." Also kiatt. 
 
 From mau " hair." 
 
 844. |Bt wu, 5, mo, mo(k) or mo(t). Also ho in Kp, R. napkin, 
 heart. Also fu, po. In Kw R. wood, mok, occurs in place of R. fire, 
 and is phonetic. It is found in twenty-two out of forty-one old forms 
 of the character in Lsfl. This agrees with mok 788. It is also used 
 interchangeably with mot. 85, 96, both meaning " not." 
 
 845. f| k'iau, 5, gok, "high." With R. wood, "bridge." From 
 yau and kau, kok " high," both phonetic. 
 
 846. %% jan, 5, nen, "set on fire." From hwo "fire" ideographic 
 and the upper part phonetic. Derivative senses, " thus," "it is so." 
 
 847. ^ su, I, sok, " beard," " must," " ought." For final k see 
 123, 553, with which several senses of 847 agree. See R. 126 er, nik, 
 "whisker." From hie "head," and sham "hair ornaments." Sw. 
 
 848. ^ siang, 7, zung, "like," "elephant," "likeness," "image." 
 The elephant, of which this is a picture, would seem to have been 
 known to the inventors of the characters. In Kw the ear, tusks, and 
 four legs are pictured. Sw. 
 
 849. $[ fu, 8, bok, " going backwards and forwards." From 514 
 bok. Also It. The Kw comes from 534 and 168 fu and pan. The 
 radical on the left indicates walking. 
 
 850. jjjL tsiau, 1, tsok, tok, "to dry," "upper viscera." Tsak in 
 Kwy, RR. 86, 119, 115, 140. See 948. Tsam in Kwy, RR. grass and 
 wine combined. From chui 472 phonetic, and R. fire. 
 
 851. ^H (si, 8, dzip, " gather." The upper part, as a phonetic, is
 
 THE PHONETICS. 121 
 
 toky perhaps by change of p to k. It is dzap in 1017 tsa various. 
 Compare Mongol shibegun " bird," with t'sio " bird " 176c, where t'ak 
 is the old sound. See R. bird. Picture of birds on a tree. Sw. In 
 Kw three birds and no tree. 
 
 852. |ft chung, 3, tong, "all." The lower part represents a group 
 of three men. The upper part is in Kw an eye written horizontally. 
 Sw. Same as tsung 77 Qa. Ch = ts. 
 
 853. & hi, 4, kip, "unite." Attract, R. hand. Cut, R. knife. 
 
 V9 
 
 Drink, R. water. Dry in the sun, R. sun. From no, gap, 285 
 phonetic and ideographic, and R. feathers. 
 
 854. H tsun, 3, "name of a wine vessel," "honourable," "title of 
 parents." The lower part from t'sun, the hand engaged in offering, 
 but also here phonetic as in 748. The upper part is tsieu " wine " 
 contracted. Instead of t'sun, R. earthenware, feu was often used on 
 the left hand. Sw. 
 
 855. ^ tseng, 1, and t'seng, 5, "already." From eight at the 
 top, R. 5) at the bottom, and the Kw of c'hwang " window " in the 
 middle. C'hwang means " that which pierces " = t'ung, t'sung, etc. 
 C'h=t's=t'. C'hwang is here phonetic. Sw. 
 
 856. 3$| ki, 2, ki(t), "weaving loom," "how many," "any cunning 
 machine." From R. silk, and sut 235, which is here, says Sw, ideo- 
 graphic. It is not then from kak " spear " 75, though found there 
 inKh. 
 
 857. jig hii, 1, hok, "empty." From k'ieu "hill," and hu "tiger" 
 phonetic. Tt. 
 
 857a. jjt~JQ ki, 4, kik, " a weapon with two prongs." Cho 
 " high " on the left suggests great length. The spear on the right 
 is ideographic and phonetic. 
 
 858. '$ and under it 5f, c'heng, 1, fang, "to pole a boat," 
 " fulcrum." From 501 and R. ya, tooth. The hook or spike at the 
 end of a boat pole seems to have originated the use of this ideograph. 
 
 ifr 
 
 859. & tsui, 2, tsok, "beak of birds," "lips," "point of horns." 
 
 From R. horn and t's'i phonetic. For final k see 191. The lips 
 are so called from sucking. Sok is to suck. 
 
 860. l|? hwa, 4, gap, " flowery." Ngo in Kp, R. words. Final p 
 in Kwy, RR. sun, eat, fire, white, eye. See hwa, 104. The lower part, 
 says Tt, is chid |g " flowers drooping " 456.
 
 122 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 861. ^ many, 5, a kind of evergreen grass. Also men 6, 7, "a 
 certain person." Mo in Kp. 
 
 862. ^F! he, 4. ?, " black." At, nat, in Kwy, RR. woman, ear. 
 
 JiTS 
 
 T from A. Formed from 400. Jf<?& with R. earth. Form explained 
 under R. 205. 
 
 863. ^ king, 2, hang, "bright." Ting "shadow." Beautiful 
 view. From R. sun and king " metropolis," phonetic. 
 
 864. 1 5 tsui, 3, tsut, " very." Tsut in Kwy, RR. hand, silk. 
 
 *V> 
 
 From 417 t'su phonetic and R. say, yue. Sw. Collect, take by 
 violence. 
 
 865. $ hi, 7, M, " way." Reveal, dew, R. rain. From lak, 
 kak, 272 phonetic and tsu "foot" on the left ideographic. Final k 
 known from the phonetic. 
 
 866. jlr kwei, 3, ku(t], "noble," "dear in price." Also t'u, 5, 
 du(f). Also with R. 162 yi, disappear. From R. shell-money, pel. 
 With R. cover, hi, nearly surrounding it, kwei becomes a compound 
 phonetic. 
 
 867. | tan, 1, tan, "only," "single." Also t'o, 5, do(t), "fall in 
 ruin." 
 
 868. J| mai, 6, mak, " buy." Mik in Kwy, R. water. Mok in 
 the Odes, R. grass. Tyt. From R. shell-money, pei, and R. net. 
 
 869. f|| pu, 8, bok, " slave," " servant." R. man is not part 
 of the phonetic. From R. grass, R. wood in the middle, and two 
 hands below offering a gift. 
 
 870. j$c c'hang, 2, "high," "wide." Business court yard, R. 
 cover, yen. From 501 shang and R. hand, p'u. 
 
 871. $$ pi, pit, " worn," " spoiled." To cover, strike lightly, 
 hill, bent, cup, to go past a place outside. Picture of worn-out 
 clothing. From kin "napkin." Sw. The two pairs of strokes on 
 each side of the upright line are, say some, the pattern of the cloth. 
 
 872. ^ yi, 3, (t)ik, "sentiment," "thought," "intention." 
 Upper five strokes phonetic in 590 and 714. The middle four 
 strokes are phonetic in 799. By Sw yin "sound" above is supposed 
 to indicate that the thoughts are known by sounds. 
 
 873. )H chai, clii, 6, dik. A fabulous reptile. Final k in 722 
 lok "deer," and in 775 tiau, tok "bird." Also tsien "straw," "to 
 recommend any one to another," R. grass.
 
 THE PHONETICS. 123 
 
 874. ||c ying, 2, tang, "eagle." The meanings "ought," 
 " bosom," indicate initial t. Inclosed part phonetic in 876. Probably 
 the covering radical is also phonetic with value yung, ding, Urn, as in 
 875, 876, 878. R. heart is not part of the phonetic. See fring, a 
 name of houses, 5, ding 513, and t ( ang 786. 
 
 875. |H lien, 5, Urn, "economical." From lien, 5, Urn 688, and 
 R. cover yen. 
 
 876. ^jf yung, 1, ong, tony, " peaceful." Same as 606#, which is 
 the Kw. Formed from and part of 874 above. The lower right- 
 hand part c/mi, since it alludes to birds, belongs naturally to ying 
 " eagle" 874 in the first place. 
 
 877. f|| lo, 6, la, " naked," " wasp." Also ying, dong, " to 
 " conquer," " to fill," " full." Kwo " fruit" below is not part of the 
 phonetic, and is exchanged for several radicals. The phonetic is, 
 says Sw, a picture of the animal lo, some unknown wild beast. 
 
 878. Spy I'm, 6, Urn, "to give." Also pirn. Upper part tan in 
 386 and in 879. From R. corn, implying a present of corn, and 
 lin, the upper part, " granary," from ju " enter," hwei " return." 
 Here, says Sw, a picture of a house with a window and door in it 
 to let out steam and heat. In modern times the sense "granary" 
 is expressed by attaching R. cover, yen. 
 
 879. fj{ tan, 2, tan, " sincere." Same radically as chen " true," 
 c'hun " honest," tan " dawn." Upper part see 386a, 878. 
 
 880. j| yi, 7, ngak, "right," "justice." Rhymes with lok in 
 Yi king xvii. Tyt. The phonetic part is wo, nga " I " below. 
 
 881. ft lei, 5, lut, "thunder." See 981, 985. From 201, lei, si, 
 lut, tit, and R. rain. In Kw Vien " field," is repeated two, three, and 
 four times, perhaps to indicate successive peals of thunder, it being 
 here phonetic with the sound lut. 
 
 rr? 
 
 882. j sa, 4, sap, "bad," "torn," "negligent." Also kut in 
 1000, 1010. A bottom stroke is often added. From "not," im- 
 plying moral condemnation, and t'ten " heaven." 
 
 883. J)ff sui, 5, dzup, " follow." From to, dop, 522 phonetic, and 
 tso left 136. The R. flesh is in allusion to "marrow," one of the 
 meanings. In Kw R. hill was added within R. walk. R. walk 
 alludes to the act of following. 
 
 884. |jj| kan, 2, kam, "to influence," "affect." As a root prob-
 
 124 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 ably from kam "sweet." Phonetically from hien 524 "all," R. heart 
 below. 
 
 885. 5|| ta, 8, dat, "reach to," "be successful," "arrive at a high 
 point." Other meanings: otter, flee, beat, knot. The same root 
 in the sense "beat," occurs in 888. From RR. great, sheep, and 
 walk. 
 
 886. |g sheng, 3, shim, " wise," " a sage." Phonetically from 
 cheng 373. Etymologically from the root shin " deep," or from sheng 
 " to rise." See 90# and 282 jen, nim. The ear on the left is nong 
 in 694. ^ 
 
 887. n fen, 1, pun, "strong," "ornament." Upper five strokes 
 phonetic in 528 pen "to run." Also pi, 3, pit, "ornament." R. 
 shell-money seems to be phonetic here, but is certainly ideographic 
 in the sense " ornament." 
 
 888. H t'ie, 4, Pit, "iron," "to beat," "iron-coloured." A 
 variation of 242 tsai, tai, perhaps derivable from 28 t'u " earth." 
 R. metal is changed for R. horse, hand, sheu. 
 
 889. |$ ki, 4, kik, " to strike." From 820 hwei phonetic. Also 
 bind, R. silk; urn, R. earth. R. weapon s/ni, points to the action 
 of the hand. 
 
 890. J| kiting, 1, kong, "boundary." Same radically as 713, 
 "strong," "stiff," "violent." Also ginger, reins used in riding. 
 From three strokes and two fields indicating boundaries of land. 
 
 891. j^ Ma, 2, ko, " to sit in a shop and sell goods." From R. 
 shell-money. 
 
 892. *| kin, 3, kirn, "forbid," "check." R. announce, sh'i, is 
 ideographic. As a root it is from kam "cut," R. announce, shi. 
 Phonetically from Urn "forest" 432. K=.l. Gim in Kp, R. head, hie. 
 
 893. iH c'htt, 2, t'ok, " a thorny plant," " grief," " trials." Name 
 of the province Hu kwang. The wooded character of the country is 
 indicated by the two trees. The lower part is phonetic. Tt says it 
 was the abundance of the plant called ch'u that caused this name to 
 be given to Hu kwang. 
 
 893<z. ;}$cji men, 7, mok. A phonetic of rare use found in Kwy. 
 
 894. ^ she, 4, shok, "reaper," "avaricious." Harvest, R. corn. 
 From lai "come," lak and Urn " granary" 878. Sw Also t'siang, 5, 
 doncj, "mast on a boat," R. wood. "Wall, R. earth. In Kw field 
 sometimes takes the place of kicci.
 
 THE PHONETICS. 125 
 
 895. f> ban, 3, kon, " skill," " light of morning." According 
 to Sw it helps (without R. kan "shield") to form 826 chau "morn- 
 ing." Kan is both phonetic and suggestive of meaning. Cf. the 
 senses arrow, stalk, stretch anything out with the hand. 
 
 896. i|f su, 4, sok, "reverential." From R. brush and yuen. 
 Sicu "rust," R. metal. Siau "fife," R. bamboo. Siau "blow," 
 R. wind. The present shape was completed in Lw, and Sc. Sw says 
 the writing brush held over an abyss denotes reverence. In Kw are 
 seen two hands beneath offering some vessel, or, as in another shape, 
 R. heart on the left and two hands on the right, one of them grasping 
 a staff in an upright position. Sw. 
 
 897. $$ ticn, 7, din, "hall," "temple." The left-hand upper 
 part is properly a house, and beneath it are in Sc two benches to 
 indicate furniture. On the right hand is R. spear, shit, which may 
 allude to the warlike implements placed in the temple. Temples and 
 halls are not mentioned under this name before the T'sin dynasty 
 B.C. 220. 
 
 898. f p'i, 4, p'ik, " prince," whether lord paramount or feudal 
 baron. In Kw R. man on the left, and on the right a hand of three 
 horizontal lines above, R. cover, mik, in the middle, and R. fire below. 
 Wall, R. earth. Arm, R. flesh. Noise of a thunderbolt, R. rain. 
 
 899. Two of 1JJ above, and below them two of jfc , she, 4, shap, 
 "rough," "hard." From s'i "four" above, and ch'i "to stop" 
 below. Sw. Checks on all sides. 
 
 899a. j^j ch'i, 7, dit, " swine." Yet in Kwy, RR. jade, stone. 
 The swine's foot being like the deer's foot, the two ^ of the picture 
 are the same in both. Sw. The upper part is R. boar's head, ki. 
 In the middle below is sh'i " arrow" phonetic. Sw. 
 
 900. ^ ngai, 3, ai, ak, "love." From R. heart, and in Sc a line 
 drawn round it, as if to denote embracing. The foot radical si at the 
 bottom is in Sc wanting, but appears at the top turned the other 
 way. To cover, R. bamboo. Clouded, R. rain, with yun "cloud." 
 Clear, R. white. Dark, RR. sun, eye. 
 
 901. ;& chan, I, tarn, "too many words." From yen "words" 
 below, pa " eight" in the middle, and icei " a man standing on a cliff" 
 above. Sw. Courage, liver, R. flesh. Jar, R. tile. Carry, R. man. 
 
 901. $,|J kie, 4, kit, "keep fish," "cut," Kit in Kya, kit in 
 Kwy, RR. walk, grass. Also ki, 3, " loosen."
 
 126 
 
 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 902. ^ kiai, 2, kale, " to unloose." From 346 kak " horn," tau 
 " knife," and R. cow. Kak in Odes, Tyt xvi. Sw says it is a knife 
 cutting off a cow's horn. Kak " horn," is phonetic. 
 
 903. ^ icei, 5, mi, " subtile," " minute." Tt connects 
 it by resemblance in sound and meaning with fei, pit "not," 
 wu, mo "none." May it not be allied to mo "grind," mot 
 "fragments"? The hand on the right will then allude to striking 
 or grinding. 
 
 904. ^| tsiuen, 5, dzun, " fat flesh." The lower part is a bow. 
 Upper part is chui 472 " small bird," which is to be shot with an 
 arrow. Also tsui. Found in 1003, hi. 
 
 905. Jft hio, 8, gak, "learn." Instruction, a sense which is 
 derived through the notion of imitation. The radical son below is 
 removable. About twelve radicals take its place. See 14, 115, 349a, 
 the last two of which, " imitate," " mortar," are phonetic here. See 
 953. R. 14, meng " boy," alludes to the pupil. 
 
 906. Q% hwei, 2, ku(k), "break," "destroy." See 349, which is 
 here phonetic. R. implement, shu, is the instrument in destroying. 
 Below kieu "mortar," on the left/en 90#, , is used in Kw. 
 
 907. ^f ki, 4, kak, " venerate." Without the radical, final 
 k is lost in two-thirds of the words. Hit once in Kwy, R. corn. 
 Sw says the meaning is " light flowing," and that it is formed from 
 bak "white" andjoow^ "let go." 
 
 908. J|L ngau, 3, (k)ak, ()ak. Ok in Kwy, R. earth, and in Kya, 
 R. water. From the inscribed radical lien and R. white. Kh. In 
 Kw no ta " great." The upper stroke of the inscribed radical is 
 often wanting. In Kwy, R. hole above, R. sun in the middle, and 
 R. spoon, pi, below, occur as one form. In Sc two hands instead 
 of ta below. 
 
 909. -fj k'in, 5, gim, "birds." From kim, 110. The lower part 
 is R. 114. 
 
 910. 3H sui, 7, dzuk, " follow," " immediately." From eight and 
 R. pig. Sw. In Kw we find ts'i " sister," instead of R. pig. This 
 indicates final k. See 412 t'ok. 
 
 911. j$ t'sien, 1, t'sim, "all." Sim "inquire into," R. words. 
 Lim " face," R. flesh. To dress a corpse, R. 78. Gather up, R. 66. 
 Kim "select," "pick up," R. hand. Gim "parsimonious," R. man. 
 The four lower strokes are t' sting, dom, in H5a and 771. From a
 
 THE PHONETICS. 127 
 
 man, a stroke, two mouths, and two men, i.e. consultation among 
 several speakers and consent to follow. Sw. 
 
 912. -* hwei, 7, gut^ "join together," "assemble." Kot in Kwy, 
 RR. wood, knife, woman. In Kw . with [El below. These words 
 indicate (yue) speaking (ho) unitedly. The modern character is 
 modified from ho in the upper part. 
 
 913. ^ hiang, 1, kong, "village." Village of a hundred houses. 
 From R. city on each side. The middle part occurs in 300 and 481. 
 In Sc the left-hand part is R. city turned round. The middle part is 
 |pj phonetic (?). 
 
 914. 'H' tang, 1, tong, "ought," "act in place of," "to be such 
 and such a person," " to give in pledge." From 501 shang phonetic. 
 The use of R. field seems to imply that land or its produce was given 
 in pledge in early times. 
 
 915. ||i| ki, 8, gik, " a play." Circle, R. gem. Chicory, R. grass. 
 To shake, R. foot. Ashamed, R. heart. Laugh, R. mouth. R. knife is 
 not part of the phonetic. See 910 duk and 916 and 412. From 
 RR. tiger, boar, because these animals when fighting will not cease 
 from the contest. Sw. This alludes to the meaning of the phonetic 
 "fight pertinaciously." But hii "tiger" is also phonetic, having 
 final k. 
 
 916. J$| hi, 3, kik, "a play." Without the radical on the right, 
 " a vase." R. tiger is phonetic. Ten "vase" is ideographic. The 
 character is phonetic with and without R. spear, kico. 
 
 917. J^ and below it 03 and below it jj IH, 6, lot, "carry off as 
 plunder." From R. tiger, which points to the ferocity of the 
 plunderers, and fH "field," which has often the sound hit. See 981, 
 999, 881. Tt says it is from jj phonetic, and kican J| ideographic, 
 and imagines kican "to pierce with a needle," to refer to tying up 
 the captives. 
 
 918. f| t'san, 1, fan, "eat," "food." With R. rice in place of R. 
 eat, "good rice," "rice for seed." The upper part is phonetic hero, 
 and ought also itself to be classed as a phonetic. It consists of R. tai 
 and R. hand. 
 
 919. jH sui, 3, sok, "year." In Kw j]^ above and >p below. Both 
 have final k. Final k is found in the similar phonetic 738 t'sik 
 "relation by marriage." This phonetic is also kicei, hwei with RH. 
 knife, feather, etc. Once it is yet in Kwy, R. mouth. See ISa. Kwy
 
 128 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 says it is formed from sit, sut, 235. Also hut in Kwy, R. 37, 85. 
 Probably t from k. 
 
 919#. jjz cho, 4, 8, tak and dak, "make public," "show." From 
 531 die, tak, and R. grass. 
 
 920. ffc king, 3, kang, "to honour," "elevate," "fear." From 
 R. hand j9' on the right, and R. kiung J] phonetic. Compare |^J. In 
 Kw R. grass above is varied by the use of R. bamboo, and seems to 
 allude to some bending instrument. The ideas "to bend" (as in kioig 
 "a bow") and "to raise" (as in king] are united in this root. Raising 
 the joined hands and prostrating the body are both reverential. 
 
 921. 'H wan, 7, man, "ten thousand." Insects such as bees that 
 fly in great numbers together are so called. In Kw we find fu 
 "father" above, R. net in the middle, and R. grass below. 
 
 921. 3% tse, tsei, 8, dzek, "thief." The left-hand part is 
 phonetic as in 591 tse "a law," here contracted. The right is jung 
 "weapon." 
 
 922. Bp| ming, min, 6, mang, "frog." Picture of the animal. 
 Sw. Also ying, 5, zheng, ding, "fly." Sheng, ding, "cable," R. silk. 
 Sw says it is the same without the three strokes on each side. 
 
 923. DP sau, 3, sok, "birds' voices." "With R. heart rhymes in the 
 
 ^PC 
 
 Odes with yak "music," nidk "tyrannical," ii. Tyt. Picture of the 
 mouths of three birds calling or singing, as the case may be, upon 
 a tree. 
 
 924. i^ kwo, 3, ka(p], "to pass." From 605 kwai, which see. 
 Also chwa, ta "beat," R. hand. 
 
 925. J| nung, 5, nong, "farming pursuits." From R. c'hen, 8 A.M., 
 time, morning, alluding to the time of farming labours. Above c'hen 
 in Kw is si "west," for sok "millet," or Urn "forest," or R. grass, etc., 
 all indicating country life and objects. 
 
 926. iflj! U, 6, lit, "ceremonies." The phonetic without R. 
 announce means a vessel used in sacrifices. It is dit in Kwy with p. 
 301. It is t'i with RR. bone, body. In the upper part the offerings 
 are in two piles in a vessel. In the lower part we have ten R. 151, 
 p. 319. 
 
 927. j| yi, 5, tak, "look at from aside." The upper part is R. eye, 
 mu, and the lower itself a phonetic consisting of ta "great" above and 
 five strokes below, the same as here, and called nip in Kwy. Lead, 
 give, glad. Also nip in Kwy.
 
 THE PHONETICS. 129 
 
 928. jgj hwan, yuen, k'ing, 5, gwan, gung, "round." The square 
 is not part of the phonetic. Without the square the sense is " look 
 in a frightened manner," and the sound hican or Muen. Also siuen. 
 In Kh gung and zitten. Delicate, quick, return. 
 
 929. J| shu, 8, zhuk, dok. Old name of the province of Si c'hwen. 
 From R. eye, mu, above and pan "wrap," with R. reptile inclosed 
 in it, below. Picture of the silkworm that lives on the sunflower. 
 The eye above is its head, and the two middle strokes its body. Dok 
 in Kp, R. dog. Kp infers that without R. dog the sound was 
 anciently dok. 
 
 930. ff| ye, 8, niep, gnep, " business," " source of income." Niep 
 in Kwy, R. silk. It is now placed under R. wood. In Sw it is derived 
 from P. acid, sin, R. grass, R. napkin. It is there explained as a large 
 board for suspending bells and drums. Of this use R. napkin is a 
 picture f[J . Upright boards were called hii jjj[, the modern ngok. 
 The horizontal were called siun, R. wood, p. 264. The niep was 
 a larger board placed above the siun. It became a symbol of riches 
 because every rich man had a large one. 
 
 931. 3| ning, 5, "rest," "peace." From k'au, p. 2, and the 
 upper twelve strokes, which are ning. Connected with tang " firm," 
 "steady." Cf. ting, ning, "to command," where ting = ning. T=n. 
 
 932. ^ pin, 1, " guest." Middle part phonetic in 1001. In 
 Kw the upper five strokes are R. hole, hiite. In another old form, 
 R. pei becomes RR. eye, fire. 
 
 933. |$ pien, 6, bin, " distinguish." The sound is pan " to act," 
 with R. strength. The shape is connected with pan " half," 181. 
 
 934. 3J|f t'si, 5, dzik, " even." The meanings suggest final k, e.g. 
 ascend, full, fast. Those which are suggestive of final t are govern, 
 level, sickness. In Sc the form ^ 16o, written three times, with ~ 
 " two" beneath, favours final k. Another old form has three upright 
 lines with a small circle at the top of each, indicating ears of corn 
 of equal height. 
 
 935. || ha-u, 5, gok, "a hero," "boar." From R. pig and kau 
 "high" phonetic. 
 
 936. fjg ju, 5, dok, " blouse." Without R. clothes the phonetic is 
 sii, 1, tok " necessary." Weak, R. woman. Fringe, R. silk. Ju 
 " timid," R. heart. Warm, R. fire. Shoes, R. leather, kek. Literati, 
 R. man. Moisten, R. water. Connected with jo 655 " weak." From 
 
 9
 
 130 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 R. rain and er phonetic, 232. Another form, in Kw, has t'ien 
 " heaven " in place of er. 
 
 937. f$ ri, er, 6, nik, "thou," "you." Near, R. walk, c'h'i. 
 Nai "milk," R. woman. Si "imperial seal," R. jade below. Mi 
 "great," R. bow, kung. Final k from the meanings. Originally 
 there was R. man at the top. This with >J* just below it formed the 
 phonetic with sound ni. The lower part consists of [~] kiung and 
 four crosses. Sw. Niep in Kwy, RR. bamboo, metal. Kap in Kp 
 and Kya, R. metal. 
 
 938. jjijl tsang, 1, " gather into a granary," " good." Hide, R. 
 grass. Same root as t'sang " granary " 687, where the idea is 
 pictured as a house. From R. t'siang " wooden frame," representing 
 the hiding place, R. spear kwo, and R. servant c'hen, both suggestive. 
 
 939. )P yen, 1, am, "dislike." Quietness, fullness, satiety. 
 Also ye, ap. Probably initial k is lost. From 2a, ngam, which is here 
 phonetic and ideographic. Also from kam ^ and $ Jan. Kam is 
 phonetic. Tt. 
 
 940. 'Jjt ch'i, 3, ti, tek, "hindrance," connected in shape with 553, 
 593, su "all," and sh'i "it is," which both have final k. Of. c'hu 893. 
 From tying, which implies hindrance, R. field and R. foot. The four 
 upper strokes in ^ 641 indicate the sense to tie, and have the sound 
 sok. Ch=s=t. 
 
 941. fpfc tsu, 6, 7, dzup, " gather." The lower part is a picture of 
 three men. The upper part is tsu 417, phonetic. Tmng with R. 
 bamboo, with sense "cage for fish." Here the sound tsung is not 
 altered from tsu, but borrowed from p. 230. The character tsu is used 
 suggestively. 
 
 942. f| sheu, 6, 7, zu, zhok, dok, "old age." Zhok in Kwy, R. 
 gem. The three right-hand strokes below are tok in 29. In Kw 
 they are altered into yen "hand." In Kw lau "old" is also used for 
 the upper part of the character, and kii "sentence" below. 
 
 943. HE tsie, 8, dzit, dzik, "cut off" Varied from tsai 242, and 
 formerly written with >]?, instead of ^. In this case the left-hand 
 part is wholly phonetic with sound t'siak. See 776e. R. kwo is the 
 instrument of cutting. 
 
 944. C'/ii ^ twice written forms the phonetic he, 4, knk, "bright." 
 To threaten, R. mouth. R. red c'h'i doubled suggests the idea. Note 
 that the upper part resembles that of 316, 816, both kuk.
 
 THE PHONETICS. 131 
 
 945. ^ t'ai, 5, dai, dat, "terrace," "tower." From ?g below, 
 above, and ]^ in the middle. Sw. Same as 186 t'ai. Final t is 
 found in the upper and lower parts of the more modern of these two 
 forms. See 243 kit, 237 ch'i. But the last is also tik, and a doubt 
 lies between final t and k. In the Kw in Kh kail "high," and t e u 
 "earth," occur, and not ch'i. 
 
 946. fg kien, kam, "inspect." Ten "salt" & Lam "covetous," 
 R. heart; "blue," R. grass; "burn," R. fire. Upper part phonetic in 
 995 f. From 5; ^ m "come down," and hiue "blood." Lscw. It 
 is added that in ancient times, when treaties, meng, were made, blood 
 was drawn and the spirits of heaven came down to inspect. Hence 
 the use of hiue in meng "treaty," and in kien "inspect," as a 
 suggestive sign. In Kw, yen "words" occurs in place of hiue or 
 rather ming. 
 
 947. !J t&in, 7, chin, "exhaust," "end." From ming "vessels," 
 which when empty suggest exhaustion, says Sw, and tsin "ford," 
 which occurs under 252 with R. water. Here R. fire occurs instead of 
 R. water. 
 
 948. ff ti, 8, dik, the long and many-coloured feathers of the 
 pheasant. Tau "brightness," R. sun. Cho "wash," R. water. Yo 
 "leap," R. foot. From p. feathers, 254 tik, and chid, tok 472. Both 
 are ideographic and both phonetic. 
 
 949. If, i/in, 2, "hidden," "hide." Without R. hill "diligent." 
 The radical is not part of the phonetic. From R. heart and yin, the 
 remainder phonetic. The phonetic consists of hand above, kung 
 " work," and hand again below, and is suggestive of diligence. 
 
 949a. ^i with, on the left, R. ^f c'hai "wild animal," man, 7, mok, 
 "face." From pe "white," jen "man," R. beast, c'h'i. See 3490. 
 Mok in Kwy, RR. 61, 64, 140, 162. Rhymes in the Odes with words 
 in k. Tyt ii, R. grass. 
 
 950. |^ tsi, 8, dzik, "cultivate the ground," "plough." From 
 sik 436 phonetic, and R. plough. 
 
 951. Hf. hiiin, 1, kon, "to smoke," "flames and smoke rising and 
 going out." From ty\ c'he "plants," and hck "black." Sw. 
 Anciently R. \\\ instead of c'he. Sw. 
 
 952. |j| yi, 5, ngai, ngak, "suspect." Consider, R. hand. Obstacle, 
 R. stone. High, R. mountain. Ngik in Kwy, RR. mountain, mouth, 
 etc. C'h'i, 5, dik "stupid," with R. sickness. Ying, 5, nging,
 
 132 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 "congeal," R. rice. From -^ tsi "son," j^ ch'i " stop," and the left- 
 hand side 2^ yi, 360 phonetic (sik and nyik}. 
 
 953. $a yu, 6, dok, " give," " with." Ku " raise," R. hand below. 
 Hing "rise," with (pj in the middle. Zu in Kwy, R. grass. For 
 final k see 471, 774b, 964. The oldest picture was that of four hands 
 lifting, and called kit. After it came to be used for " to give," 
 and " with," a hand was added below for lifting. 
 
 954. jfUi yo, 8, niok, ngok, "prison." Mountain, R. mountain. 
 The five Confucian mountains are E. T'ai shan, S. Heng shan, "W. 
 Hwa shan, N. Heng shan, R. heart, Central, T'ai shi. 
 
 955. m ki, 3, kit, " succeed in order." Also twan " cut," R. 
 hatchet. See ki " how many " 856. From silk ^ , as a symbol of 
 connexion and succession. The outer strokes are the outline of the 
 cocoon. 
 
 956. ijj jui, nu(t), "wise." Also siun "deep," "astrolabe," with 
 RR. water, jade. See 565 tun " shield." In Kw it becomes like kit 
 "valley" 338, with a double covering over it. As a picture it seems 
 to have represented at first only a deep stream overhung by rocks. 
 
 957. ff| ho, 8, gak, "obtain." Without R. dog, "to measure." 
 From line, hwa 428, as used in measuring. Take, get, R. grass. 
 Guard, R. words. Cooking vessel, R. metal. See 626, 472, 992, 
 1003, 1023. Final k lost in one-fourth of the words. 
 
 958. | meng, 7, mang, "dream." From 2060. Lower part 
 ideographic, si, zik " evening." Upper part phonetic from miatg 
 " dim," written with RR. bamboo, vessel miny, cover mik, eye. Sw. 
 
 959. H ying, 5, ding, " collar." Vase, R. tile. Infant, R. bird, 
 woman. The radical woman below is not part of the phonetic here, 
 and may be changed for several others. See 1015. To bind, sur- 
 round. Wreath of head ornaments. From R. pel " shell," doubled, 
 which is here suggestive, from its use in decoration. 
 
 960. II Men, 2, kin, " shine." It is also used without the upper 
 four strokes. Also sh'i, shop, " moist," with R. hill, feu. The upper 
 part is dap in 502, t'ap in 691. RR. sun, silk, suggest seeing silk in 
 sunlight. Sw. 
 
 961. Jj| k'ien, 2, k'in, "send." The middle part is phonetic in 
 kwan " magistrate " 386. 
 
 962. U tui y 3, tot, "opposite," "a pair." Mongol, t'os "op- 
 posite." On the right is a hand. On the left a pair of articles are
 
 THE PHONETICS. 133 
 
 seen resting on a stand. Sometimes in old forms the hand is under- 
 neath and is occasionally doubled. If the hand is phonetic, the old 
 sound is tok. See 352 ti, dik, " enemy." 
 
 963. :j shen, 2, shim, " distinguish," " judge." Radically from 
 tiin, one of the verbs " to cut." It helps with p. 19 to form Jg., with 
 the sense of caution and discrimination. From RR. cover, mien (here 
 meaning to turn over), and distinguish pien. In Kw, R. field is wanting. 
 
 964. |g sie, 2, sik, "dismiss," "discharge," "write." It is a 
 phonetic with or without the radical. Same as 774. 
 
 965. )|J c'hu, 5, dot y " kitchen." From R. cover, yen, and 816a. 
 See also 319, ten " bean," for final t. 
 
 966. J| kwang, 2, kong, "broad." Also ho, kwo, 4, kak, "to 
 widen." From 824 hwang " yellow " phonetic, and R. cover, yen. 
 
 967. J|| piau, 5, bo, "a one-horned stag." From R. lok "deer," 
 and R. fire here representing the animal's legs. 
 
 968. Ifl chan, 5, dan, "a men and a half of land, suitable for one 
 family." Chun, 5, djan, "warehouse" (which omits the lower five 
 strokes and the dot at the top), is a contraction from this. From 
 yen a covering radical, li "village," pa "eight," t'u "earth." 
 
 969. 3Jj yang, 6, dong, "nourish," "bring up." AVide, R. water. 
 Itch, R. sickness. To excite, R. hand. From yang "sheep" 218, 
 phonetic, and R. eat below. The roots are the same as appear in 
 shcng "produce," "bring to life" 164, tung "move" 558. 
 
 970. 970. ]g U, 7, lit, "cruel," "severe." Exhort to diligence, 
 R. strength. Dit in Kwy, R. rice. From R. cover, ngam, and a 
 phonetic written with ^ above and R. reptile below, and called c'ha, 
 4, t'at. 
 
 971. |g yen, 1, yo, ket, "grieved." From R. heart and hie, kef 
 "head" phonetic. Sw. 
 
 97 2. ^f hie, 8, get, "straight neck," "flying upward." From R. 
 head hie, and kit "luck," phonetic. 
 
 -=t? 
 
 973. J| yu, 8, dok. From R. shell, pei, and the rest phonetic. Once 
 dap in Kp, with R. words doubled. Mak in 868 "sell," our phonetic 
 pronounced mai, 7, "sell," has c'hu f} at the top abbreviated. For 
 final k see Kh, who says mok "harmonious" was used in Kw for 
 yu " sell." 
 
 974. US tsie, 4, tsit, joint or nodule of bamboo, of a finger, etc. 
 From tsik 175, and R. bamboo. T from k.
 
 134 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 975. jg ch'i, 4, tit, "substance," "reality," "plainness." Strike 
 against anything, fall, R. foot. Shiver, R. ice. Connected with t'i 
 "substance," as one root, as also with *j^. Kin "a. pound weight," 
 pei " money," are suggestive of real value. 
 
 976. ;fL lu, 5, lok, "rude," "rustic." In Kw ch'i "to stop," with 
 two men below. Ch'i is tik. In Kwy this phonetic is identified with 
 787, 865, which are both lok or dik. 
 
 977. ^ cheng, 1, ting, "evidence." Dim or nim are old sounds 
 of the four middle strokes at the bottom, as in 282, 373. From Hfc 
 wei "mysterious," "unknown," and nim "pledge," phonetic. 
 Evidence is only needed in unknown matters. 
 
 978. |H yo, 8, ngak, "music." Drugs, R. grass. Sho, 4, shak, 
 "bright," R. fire. Refine metals, R. metal. Lo, 8, lak, "joy," "joy- 
 ful." Bright, RR. gem, white. Run, RR. cart, foot. Shak in 
 Kp, R. metal. From RR. wood, silk, white. Silk alludes to stringed 
 instruments. 
 
 979. 5 cheng, 7, ding, "prudent." Also ch'i, tik, dik. On the 
 left the upper nine strokes are tuk in 581, and yen, tok in 324. From 
 R. city on the right, alluding to Cheng, an ancient kingdom. 
 
 980. $| lie, la, 8, lap, "hair hanging irregularly." Wax, that 
 which drops, R. insect. See 50>, 362, 502, for the upper portion with 
 sound tap. Twelfth month, R. moon, which is not part of the phonetic. 
 From R. rat shu, suggesting hair, and R. ch'wen. 
 
 981. {| lit, 7, lut, "think," "revolve in the mind." See 917, 
 201, 881. The use of R. tiger would begin with p. 917 "to carry off 
 as plunder," in allusion to the habits of the animal. Here it is simply 
 phonetic. The formation of 917 must have been earlier. 
 
 982. f^i mie, 8, mit, "extinguish." Cover, mat, stockings, strike. 
 From 153 wu, meu, as the phonetic base. Mit "to extinguish" is 
 also written \^ mie, 8, mit. From RR. grass, eye, alluding to lamp 
 wicks when extinguished, and the eye when spiritless. 
 
 983. B| pan, 3, pok, "cruel," "scorching," "high wind." The 
 side radical is often omitted. Half the words have final k. In Kw, 
 deer above, fire in the middle, sun at the bottom. The cruel kill men 
 as they would deer. 
 
 984. |fc shu, 3, shok, "numbers." Shok in Kwy. From 789 
 ku, lok phonetic, and R. handjo'w, as employed in calculation. L=sh. 
 
 985. J|j lei, 5, lut, " broad fields." Meanings : raise in layers,
 
 THE PHONETICS. 135 
 
 push, cup, overthrow, bind. See 917, 201, 881, 999. Picture of 
 a wall of earth. R. earth may be changed for others. 
 
 986. jjg pa, 6, 7, bat, "finished." From R. net and neng, to be 
 able, 692. 
 
 987. ;fr hien, 3, kin, "magistrate." From hai ^ "injure," mu 
 @ "eye," and <fo sin, heart." Kh. This explanation fairly cor- 
 responds to the form preserved on the Stone Drums. 
 
 988. ^H t'sin, 1, f-sin, " near," " relation," " approach." From 
 sin 296, which omits the radical on the right. 
 
 989. HI lung, 5, long, long, "dragon," "that which ascends." 
 The dragon disappears and appears at will, is sometimes long and 
 sometimes short, ascends the sky in spring, and hides in the depths in 
 winter. Symbol of imperial power. Also /*, sip, Up, RR. clothes, 
 words, etc., 712. The upper five strokes on the left are tung in 
 712, 715. The right part consists of ffi and fj| to " fly." Sw. 
 
 The left part is fjr[ 800, and is here phonetic. Sw. 
 *-*-. 
 
 990. Jg. hicai, 5, ga(p], "embrace," "take an infant in the arms." 
 
 From R. clothes and some unknown object represented by the inclosed 
 part. Since gap and kap are common in the sense of pressing and 
 drawing things close together, it is probably the same root. The 
 character is not classical. 
 
 991. ?|| t'eng, 5, dim, "leap up," "go up." Same root as shang 
 " up," " upper." The upper part is phonetic in 666 t'eng. R. horse 
 below may be changed for R. woman and R. reptile. Djim in Kwy, 
 with R. reptile. 
 
 992. !g! ho, 8, gak, "sudden." Bean, R. grass. White, R. white. 
 From chui, 472. See 626, 957, 1023. Probably R. rain is here 
 phonetic. In Amoy rain is ho. The root gak " quick" is also found 
 in 915 kit, kok, and in 427 kik. Then clmi below is ideographic. 
 The notion is of birds taking flight as a sign of haste. 
 
 993. ]H U, 8, lik, " to pass over a country." Calendar. Corn 
 inclosed represents the country travelled over. The doubled hwo 
 "corn" in the middle are lik "standing alone" and t'ok in 343, 343. 
 See 344 H " sharp." See 978. The lower four strokes are tik in 
 119 chi " stop." 
 
 994. H ngo, 8, nnak, " reverential," " fear." See 603. See 2L 
 and 14 for the cross, which is here phonetic. Tt. Crocodile, R. fish. 
 Same root as SB ku " fear."
 
 136 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 995. H^ Ian, 6, lam. See also kiem. Upper part phonetic in 946 
 kien, kam "see," where the radical below is hiue "blood." See 946 
 for an explanation. 
 
 996. j|| lai, 7, lat, " rely on." Final t occurs frequently. Lan 
 with RR. woman, heart. From 535 lat " cruel," and R. shell. Sw. 
 
 997. J^B yen, 1, (t)an, "swallow," "rest." Picture of the mouth, 
 wings (on the sides), and tail (at the bottom) of a swallow. 
 
 998. jjfc su, 1, sok, " return to life." Same as sok " return." 
 Rest, same as sik "to rest." From 167 hico "corn," which is tok in 
 343, and lik in 993. 
 
 9980. 1 Pan, 5, dam. The three parts may be all ideographic. 
 Upper four strokes phonetic, as in 822, 813. 
 
 999. ^ lu, 5, fat, "round furnace or stove," "ploughman." 
 Meanings : anything round, as a basket, skull, cucumber, hut made 
 with branches, reed. See 201, 917, 881, 985. 
 
 1000. || liiai, 3, ka(p), "strong," "narrow," "daring." From 
 kieu " onion," R. 179, here used as a phonetic. The upper part is a 
 phonetic with sound t'san, 5, dan " to pierce," as in 918 with R. rice. 
 Final p is probable from the likeness in sense to kap, gap " narrow," 
 and kam " dare." 
 
 1001. ipJK p'in, 5, bin, "quick," "many times." Resembles the 
 middle part of 932. The left-hand part is pu, bok, 363. The 
 phonetic resembles in some degree 932 ^ pin, and the two characters 
 are often used for one another. The left-hand part is ideographic, 
 as in $? R. water, she, to " ford," which is its probable source. 
 
 1002. $ hien, gin, "connect," "hang." From si "silk thread," 
 symbol of connexion. Same as hiuen "hang," and kican "connect." 
 The sense "district" is from the idea of connexion. The smaller 
 cities were suspended on the larger, or kiun, in T'sin shi hwang's 
 empire. Hien kican ^ means the Emperor. Shi ki. 
 
 1003. -^ hi, hwo, 5, gak. Hicok, boast, R. mouth. See 472, 957. 
 Picture of a swallow, called Cheu yen. The ch'e at the top is the 
 bird's crest. Mountain is modern. 
 
 1004. H kien, 1, kan, "lame," "walk lamely." From k'ien 608 
 and R. foot. 
 
 1005. H siang, 1, tong, " upper," " complete." From R. clothes. 
 Also nang, niang. Phonetic in nang 1 038, nang. Radically the same 
 as siang 538, shang, " above," and sheng " ascend."
 
 THE PHONETICS. 137 
 
 1006. ^ hi, 1, ki(k). See 2, 343 tok, 167, 75. From H and 
 p. 111. Sw. The larnb above and spear, or the two combined in yi 
 "right," favour final k. Name of Fu hi, an ancient king. 
 
 1007. J-B s/ncang, 1, shong, "frost." Widow, R. woman. From 
 538 siang phonetic, and R. rain. 
 
 1007#. H sie, 4, sap. The inclosed radical may also be sin 
 " pungent," R. 60. 
 
 1008. ffjj lien, 5, lin, "connect." Same as lien 746. The right- 
 hand part is phonetic in 780a, " to pierce," with sound kwan, and 
 the double silk symbol is hien in 960. A silk thread piercing wooden 
 tablets or other objects binds them together. The ear on the left 
 refers to certain ornaments strung together to be used as earrings. 
 
 1009. |?J Ian, 5, Ian, "check," "railing." From kien, lien, 532, 
 and R. door, in allusion to a door or something that hides a door 
 or checks entrance by it. 
 
 1010. m t'sien, 1, sun, Urn, "mountain onions." The two men 
 at the top with the spear on the right are also used as a phonetic 
 with sound sham in Kwy, with RR. rain, sound, sham feathers. The 
 remaining nine strokes, here ideographic, are sap in 882. In Kwy 
 1010 is dzien "once," with R. bamboo. 
 
 1011. ^f- c'han, 5, zham, dam, "hare." The upper part alone is 
 c'Jto, 4, tok, " hare," some animal like a hare, but larger. Compare 
 this phonetic with 813 t'sam. T'sai with R. silk, the adverb "just," 
 has lost final m. From t'u " hare " and c'ho. 
 
 1012. $ sien, 1, sin, "fresh." R. fish and sheep, yang, phonetic 
 make up this character. Perhaps sin "new" 296, has to do with the 
 sound sin here. Also see shan "good" 804, and yang " sheep" 218, 
 having 221 below it, with the sound sien, to " admire." 
 
 1013. ^s" i/o, 4, tak, "flute." Form explained under R. 214. 
 Shak in Kwy, R. fire. Initial t is deduced from initial sh and also 
 from the meanings; for example, "key" 553, zKi "flute," dik, 202 
 " leap." The lower five strokes are t'se, t'ak. 
 
 1014. jpp sie, 4, tit, "juncus." From -^ 296 ts'i. R. mountain 
 is used instead of R. grass. Also nget, nit. The left-hand part is also 
 used alone in the sense " high." Nget in Kwy, RR. son, wood, reptile, 
 woman, rice. See 682, 683. 
 
 10140. j^ hi, 3, kik, " sound of sighing," " laugh," " a play." 
 From 784 and hco " spear."
 
 138 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 1015. H ying, 1, "infant." From ying 959. There is an idea 
 of circularity in several of the meanings. Head ornaments are so 
 called as being in a circle. Cherries are ying t'au, as strung in a 
 circle. Pet "shell-money" is doubled in allusion to the use anciently 
 of shell-money or shells in wreaths for head ornaments. 
 
 W15a. |g c'hunff, c'hun, "rush impetuously." T'im in 
 "rush out," i.e. like a horse rushing through a gate. R. water. 
 Floating: on water. T'am. 
 
 o 
 
 1016. la t'swan, 3, Pson, "flee," "hide oneself." RR. hole, rat, 
 are combined in this phonetic as suggestive of the sense. 
 
 1017. ^ t$a, 8, chap, "mixed," "mixed colours." The right-hand 
 portion is dzip in 851, but it may be ideographic as distinguishing 
 colour or some other feature of variety in birds. See 304 for instances 
 of the use of the two men represented on the left hand. 
 
 1017. JH; t'sung, 5, dong, "collected together." From ye "pro- 
 perty" fH, and f|J. Sw. From yang 218 phonetic, and tsu 941, 
 contracted and used as an ideograph. 
 
 1018. | nie, 8, nip, "speak secretly in the ear." From 238 ear. 
 Tep and shep occur in examples with several radicals. 
 
 1019. f$ tsio, 4, tsak, tak, "cup," "office." The three right-hand 
 strokes below are tok in 291, 636, 491. See 41. The four top strokes 
 are hand, as in chau "claws" 102, and in yau "kiln" 668. They are 
 the hand that holds the cup or its lid. The middle five strokes are 
 zhuk, s/tuk, in 1037, 429. The lower left portion is tsik in 575. In 
 older forms the wine and fragrant herbs infused in the cup were 
 drawn. 
 
 1019tf. j| shwang, 1, shong, "pair." Picture of two birds held in 
 the hand. Suggestive of the idea. 
 
 1020. |f ktcei, 1, kut, "to return," "go home." Of a woman 
 being married. From fu "woman" 438, and ch'i jfc. See 1014, sie, 
 nget. 
 
 1021. Hf} feng, 1, " prosperous." From 90 as phonetic. Ten 
 below is a vessel containing food. Above it are seen piles of food 
 heaped like mountains. Hence the use of shan llj . On the tables 
 where offerings are placed food is usually piled very high over the 
 vessels.
 
 THE PHONETICS. 139 
 
 1022. Ijjf k'iuen, 3, k'on, " exhort." The phonetic without R. 
 strength is ktcan " to pour," R. water, a jar, R. crockery, feu. To 
 call, R. words. From R.- chui " birds' tails," R. mouth, in reference to 
 the calling of birds. Afterwards R. grass was added, when the word 
 was used for the sign of a plant, ciconia. 
 
 1023. fl, ku, 7, guk, " fearing," as in the sentence Hang mu ku 
 ku jan " the two eyes express extreme fear." From 192 and 472. 
 See 957, 1003, etc. See 490. Fear, R. heart. Street, R. 144. The 
 eye, mu, obtains the sound ku because in birds it is that organ which 
 most readily expresses fear. 
 
 1024. f|| liven, hcan, 5, Ian, " confused." Also man, pien. In 
 Kw chau " claws " above, a triple R. 52 yen in the middle, and yen 
 " hand " below. Law, connect, to rule. Also ican, man, and pien. 
 The modern form was originated in Sc. The meaning "connect" 
 is that of lien 746, 1008. " Confused " = Iwan " disorder." Silk thread 
 is the sign of connexion. R. words alludes to the sense "words without 
 end." 
 
 1025. =| mi, 5, "not," "without." From 719 ma phonetic and 
 fei 451 ideographic. The last is modern. In Kw R. c'/te, walk, and 
 
 R. hemp. 
 
 1026. ]H //, 7, lik, "bright." The upper eight strokes are used 
 in Kw alone, with the same sound and sense. The lower part is luk 
 " deer," here phonetic. It proves the loss of final k. 
 
 1027. H nan, 5, 7, tan, fan, " difficult." Name of a bird. From 
 756 han and chui " bird." 
 
 1028. f|r tsan, 1, " to praise." Assist. Go forward with a person 
 into the presence of the Emperor, in order to introduce him. From 
 260 sien " before " doubled, and R. shell money, pei, which refers to 
 the precious ornaments carried in the hand on approaching the 
 Emperor. 
 
 1029. H tien, tin, "turn over," "head," "top." From chen 
 "true" 674 phonetic, and R. head, hie. 
 
 1030. JH pien, 1, pin, "side," "border." Same radically as 
 932 pin. Pan in Kp, R. man. 
 
 1031. H lo, 5, lat, " net." High net for catching birds. From 
 wang "net" and wei, in allusion to the cords called tvci used in this 
 net. Other meanings : hedge, choose, gong, cake, to go round beat- 
 ing the watch. They indicate final t.
 
 140 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 1032. ] j tang, 1, tong, " eldership of five hundred families." 
 
 *rrt 
 
 From shang 501 phonetic, and R. black. Parties, assist, one-sided. 
 
 1033. fR /n'en, 3, hm, " offer in sacrifice-." From kiuen " dog " 
 72 (here referring to a kind of dog anciently used in offerings to 
 ancestors), and the remainder phonetic. 
 
 & 
 
 1034. JTT ko, 4, kok, "to look timidly and furtively." From ku 
 
 1023, and yen "the hand." This phonetic is important in the proof 
 of final k having existed in 1023. See also 957. To dig, R. metal. 
 Look, R. see. Fear, R. heart. 
 
 1035. JH yen, 5, ngem, "strict," "venerable." From kam "dare" 
 815, phonetic, and two mouths to indicate strict prohibition. Tt. 
 
 1036. SB pa, 4, pak, "black part of the new moon," "usurper," 
 "use violence." In Kw R. rice above inclosed in R. cover, kiting and 
 R. moon below. Same as p'ak "animal soul." Pak in Kwy. 
 
 1037. JH shu, 4, 8, chok, tok, zhok, dok, "belonging to." The root 
 is the same with sok, lik, zik, "to bind," tsu, dzok, "tribe." The upper 
 part is iru, 4, ok, "house," abbreviated. For the five strokes in the 
 middle see tsi, tsik, "spine" 632. The remainder is from 929, which 
 is here phonetic. The upper part, says Sw, is J tcei "tail." The 
 tail is a continuation of the body. 
 
 1037a. j| ta,.8, dip, "fold over," "doubled," "place in layers." 
 The upper part, t'ten "field," is the sign of anything flat and square. 
 It is written three times as a sign of repeatedly laying something 
 upon something else. The lower part is half of to, tap, "many" 265. 
 See 793, 881, lei, lit. 
 
 10376. H t'iny, I, 3, Vim, "hear." The lower left-hand part is 
 like 900 and Ping in 341, 373. Sam "three" agrees in sound nearly 
 with the phonetic t'ing 5Qa, as it resembles it also in shape. Sam 
 "three" was anciently tarn, and therefore three strokes were used for 
 the sound tarn when its meaning was very different. In ILwjen 50a 
 is on the right, and R. ear on the left. Same radically as ling "hear," 
 and sheng "sound" 743. 
 
 1038. fH nang, 5, nong, "bag," "pocket." The upper seven 
 strokes are ]}( shok "to bind," here a radical, though not regarded as 
 such by the compilers of dictionaries. The phonetic is siang 1005. 
 
 1039. i|c on the left, and on the right R. #, having below it J|, 
 kung, 3, "to give." Also kan, kam, RR. water, bamboo. In this
 
 THE PHONETICS. 141 
 
 phonetic lies concealed a curious and convincing proof of the change 
 from final m to ng. K'am and kam occur in Kwy, with RR. grass, 
 water, square vessel, and 164 yen. In Kwy, R. tooth ya occurs 
 instead of hung "work." This suggests a connexion with kiang 
 "descend" 271. The radical is pei " shell." The rest is phonetic. 
 
 1040. fS| ling, 5, "efficacious," "soul," "influence." From rain. 
 From R. rain and /g icu "enchanter." Tt. This author says the 
 enchanter by his reverential divination brings spirits down, and is able 
 to foretell future events. Sw says it is from R. rain to denote the 
 celestial source of beneficial influences, and from R. yu "jade-stone." 
 
 Note. The preceding phonetics with the radicals of the first 
 chapter form a body of between 1200 and 1300 signs. They con- 
 stitute the basis of Chinese writing, and by compounding them in 
 various ways most of the remaining characters are formed. 
 
 The native etymologists, whose researches have been made use of 
 in the preceding explanations of the formation of characters, have 
 naturally in each case selected from the old shapes that presented 
 themselves some one which was at the same time old and easy to 
 explain. Sometimes they explain new forms, and leave the primitive 
 shape unaccounted for. But they deserve on the whole the greatest 
 praise for their ingenuity, industry, and judgment. 
 
 By omitting all compounds, the number of phonetics may be 
 greatly reduced ; but for the student this would not be the best course 
 to adopt.
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 HISTORY OF CHINESE WRITING. 
 
 THE IMPLEMENTS OF WRITING, ANCIENT AND MODERN. CHANGES IN THE FORMS OF 
 THE WRITING. Ku WEN. LIEU WEN. TA CHWEN. SIAU CHWEN. Li SHU. K'IAI 
 SHP. T'SAU SHU. 
 
 THE natives of China rejoice to trace all useful inventions and new 
 attainments in knowledge to their ancient sages. Among these some 
 are mythical and others historical. The invention of writing belongs 
 to mythical times. 
 
 Chinese accounts say that Fu hi taught the method of cutting 
 certain symbols on wood, that is to say, the Eight Diagrams are 
 believed to have been engraved. Hien yuen taught the use of a 
 knife as the implement in writing. Shun made the first writing 
 brushes, and employed black paint as an ink, and oblong strips of 
 bamboo to receive the writing. Another author ascribes the first 
 use of the brush in writing to T'sang kie, who also first recommended 
 glue and paint to write with and pieces of silk to write upon. 
 
 Cheu kung, who died B.C. 1105, is said to have painted with 
 a brush the shapes he saw upon the shell of a tortoise. 
 
 When it is stated that Meng kwa invented the writing brush 
 B.C. 220, this is explained as meaning that he improved it, for 
 writing by the brush is mentioned twice in earlier books, viz. the 
 Shu king in speaking of Cheu, and the Li ki in the passage Sh'i tsai 
 pi, " the historian carries a brush." 
 
 The brush of Meng kwa is supposed to have been made of deer's 
 hair, while later it was common to use the hair of hares, black sheep, 
 squirrels, weasels, rats, and foxes. For the handle, ivory, rhinoceros' 
 horn, rock crystal, and particular kinds of wood were employed. 
 Afterwards bamboo handles became common.
 
 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 143 
 
 In the fifth year of T'ai k'ang, A.D. 280, the Roman Emperor 
 made a present to the Emperor of China of 30,000 sheets of paper, 
 who ordered the Ch'un t'sieu of Confucius, with the text, comments 
 and explanation, to be written upon them. Paper is spoken of in 
 China before that time, but not before the Han dynasty, and it 
 should be kept in mind that commerce in the Indian Ocean, and 
 caravans passing through Parthia and Turkestan, would introduce 
 paper and ink during a long period before the mention of the 30,000 
 sheets. 
 
 Paper has been made in China from hemp, from mulberry bark, 
 and from tender bamboo. Rattan, moss, wheat stalks, rice stalks, 
 cocoons, have all been tried and used on a limited scale. The word 
 ch'i "paper" means a thin flat fold of silk or linen. Others say 
 it means something smooth, as a grindstone, which is called by the 
 same name. The radical of paper is silk. That of a grindstone is 
 stone. The phonetic is s/ii, di, ti, 106 J. Ti J^ is also used. 
 
 Ts'ai lun in the reign of Hwo ti, A.D. 264, made paper of old 
 linen by pounding and maceration. He also used fishing nets, hemp, 
 and bark. To him is commonly attributed in China the invention 
 of paper. 
 
 In the cyclopaedia Ke ch'i king yuen, a passage is quoted from the 
 work Tung t'ien t'sing lu, " Exact account of investigations into 
 heaven," which states that anciently a bamboo style was dipped 
 in paint and used as a writing implement. From the third century 
 of our era downwards, writers began to use ink balls made of lamp- 
 black and pine-wood soot, 1 which I suppose to be made by the 
 Chinese after their becoming acquainted with Greek ink. They 
 were rubbed in concave ink stones. 
 
 The word mek "ink" means black, and is the same etymo- 
 logically as mei " coal." Final k has been lost from both of them. 
 Ink stones are called yen, from yen " to grind." Flat and concave 
 ink stones are now used. In the temple of Confucius the ink stone 
 that he used is said to be still preserved. 
 
 The Chinese never appear to have used the style in writing. 
 The knife was employed in cutting characters, and the brush in 
 writing them, in ancient as in modern times. 
 
 Sw states that when the writing is upon bamboo or on silk or 
 1 Literally, " paint smoke mixed with pine-wood soot."
 
 144 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 other cloth, it is called s/iu, a word which implies in its symbolism the 
 idea of painting as distinguished from graving. Thus shu "write," 
 "book," is in the upper part the same as ^ pit "hair pencil," 
 "writing brush," in its lower part. 
 
 The word pit for pencil occurs commonly in literature from the 
 T'sin dynasty, B.C. 200 onwards. The pencil then introduced by 
 Meng kwa, builder of the Great "Wall, was made of deer's hair in the 
 middle and goat's hair on the outside. The tube that contained it 
 was red, and vermilion was the colour of the paint made use of in all 
 documents in the office of the historiographers. 
 
 Before that time the usage may be judged of by passages such as 
 that in the Sh'i yi ki of the Han dynasty, "In times when there was 
 no teacher who might give constant instruction, pupils did not fear 
 long and mountainous paths which they trudged bravely with book 
 tablets on their backs. Their pens were made by cutting willow 
 twigs, and the sap of trees was used by them as ink." There seems to 
 be an allusion here to the Chinese black varnish, which exudes from a 
 tree and was anciently much used in writing. 
 
 In another passage tan "knife," and pi "brush," are spoken of as 
 the commonly used ancient implements of writing. The knife would 
 be used in cutting on bamboo tablets or on stone, while the brush 
 would be the implement in ordinary use. The proper meaning of the 
 word shu, when used classically as a verb, seems to be "brush." This 
 is the sense when, in the Li ki, the six accomplishments of an 
 ancient education embrace writing as the fifth among them. The 
 others are li ceremonies, music, archery, riding and driving, and 
 arithmetic. 
 
 The Buddhist cyclopsedia Fa yuen chu lin, by a Chinese author of 
 the Sung dynasty, says three men invented writing. The first was 
 Brahma. He taught to write from left to right (Sanscrit). The second 
 was Shu ku lu, 1 who taught a method of writing from right to left 
 (Semitic). The third and most recent of these three inventors was 
 T'sang kie, the maker of the Chinese characters, who originated the 
 method of writing from top to bottom. 
 
 The extant examples of the most ancient writing are known as the 
 
 1 See Kh under ^j with R. man. The same character here used to write the syllable k'u 
 is employed in expressing the second syllable of the name Bokhara. Hence Shu ku lu may 
 be Shakra, i.e. Indra, as suggested to me by Prof. Max Miiller.
 
 HISTORY OF CHINESE WRITING. 145 
 
 j^f 3 Ku wen, and are found in old monuments and in the dictionary 
 Shwo wen. 
 
 They are rude pictures of objects and suggestive groups of two or 
 three pictures. A large number of the pictures when formed were 
 borrowed for words that could not be represented by pictures. Thus 
 one picture came to be the written sign of two or more things, the 
 same in sound but different in sense. 
 
 Thus cho ) dok "a spoon" takes as another meaning tik "to 
 catch fish." Afterwards the radical kin "metal" was added on the left 
 to indicate a special sense, suggested by the material of which fish- 
 hooks are made. In such a combination we call spoon the phonetic 
 and metal the radical. 
 
 In the Ku wen pictures and suggestive groups were more common 
 and phonetic combinations fewer than afterwards. 
 
 The number of characters that had radicals added to them in the 
 Ta chwen, Siau chwen and Li shu is very great. 
 
 There is no record of any change in the character from the times 
 of T'sang kie to B.C. 800. But many different forms described as Ku 
 wen are found for the same character. 
 
 In the old vases, which reach back some of them to about B.C. 
 1500, the pictorial form of characters, as it was originally, may still 
 be traced to some extent. The more ancient the form, the more true 
 would it be to the original. It is rather in the modern shape of 
 the characters that difficulty is found ; for after they had passed 
 from the Ku wen to the Lieu wen, from that to the Siau chwen 
 and the Li, and so to the modern shape, it must not be expected that 
 the primary form will be in all cases easy of detection. 
 
 There are some other forms of writing known as fro feu, 
 yu chu, etc., which are fanciful. The k'o ten is a very ancient 
 style, older than the ta chwen, and like tadpoles. Hence the name 
 7$ ^ . The pa fen /^ ^ intervened between the Siau chwen and 
 the Li shu. The Hiny shu or rapid running hand is of recent origin. 
 
 The discussion of all these may be omitted here, except the chwen, 
 li, t'sau, and kiai. 
 
 The large chwen was the form introduced by Lieu, the historio- 
 grapher of Cheu siuen wang, B.C. 800, whose name was applied to the 
 new style. It looks as if it were properly a stone cut character, or a 
 character made with a thick pointed brush. It is the shape used on 
 
 10
 
 146 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 the Stone Drums, the legends of which have been recently translated, 1 
 and belong to the same period and emperor. 
 
 This style is called either Ta chwen or Lieu wen. Yet there 
 is a difference. When Li si, B.C. 200, made the Siau chwen, that 
 which was before known as Lieu wen received often the designation 
 Ta chwen, to distinguish it from the new. There is more elaborate- 
 ness in the Lieu wen than in the Ku wen. A fondness for orna- 
 mental flourishes crept in. The increased number of strokes thus 
 brought into use rendered writing more laborious, and led to the 
 reform which gave origin to the Siau chwen. 
 
 In the collection Kin sh'i tsui pien, published at the close of 
 last century, the text of a large number of old monuments is given 
 in chronological order. 
 
 At the beginning the Stone Drums occur. Then follows the 
 inscription of Yii, known as Keu leu pei, attributed, but on in- 
 sufficient grounds, to Yii, B.C. 1900. It is followed by the basin 
 of Pi kan, who was minister of state B.C. 1123, and another of the 
 San family. Both of these basins are assigned to the Shang dynasty, 
 and are authorities for the Ku wen. 
 
 Of the Cheu period are given Tsiau shan ting, the tripod of 
 Tsiau shan, in the province Kiang su. Then comes an inscription 
 of four characters on the T'an mountain, at the town called Tsan 
 hwang, and of the period B.C. 1000. In objecting to the genuineness 
 of this inscription, native critics remark that the form of the four 
 characters is more like the Siau chwen than either the Ku wen or the 
 K'o teu, the styles then prevalent. 
 
 The other inscriptions belonging to the Cheu dynasty are Kau 
 k'e tsun ming, of about B.C. 600, and containing about fifty characters, 
 Mau tuy ming of forty-nine characters, Chung keu tui ming of 
 thirty-two characters, and a brick with a single character on it. 
 Tsun was a vessel for holding wine, and tui for holding millet. 
 
 There are three of the T'sin dynasty, and about eighty of the Han. 
 
 The Yin and early Cheu inscriptions represent the Ku wen. 
 From 800 B.C. to the end of the Cheu the inscriptions belong to the 
 Ta chwen. They constitute the first great change, so far as we 
 know, after the characters left the hands of T'sang kie and Tsii sung. 
 
 The word chwen lj refers to the appearance of slips of bamboo 
 i By S. W. Bushell, M.D.
 
 HISTORY OF CHINESE WRITING. 147 
 
 written upon and tied round with tangled strings of silk. The writing 
 looked like the strings in regard to their presenting rounded and con- 
 fused shapes, and hence the name chwen. 
 
 Li si, minister of T'sin shi hwang, was a great initiator of changes. 
 His part in the introduction of the Siau chwen was the composition 
 of the treatise called T'sang kie p'ien. He was assisted by Chau kau, 
 who wrote Yuen li p'ien ; and by Hu mu king, who wrote Po hio p'ien. 
 Their main object was to diminish the number of strokes and make 
 writing more rapid. The change was easily accomplished under an 
 arbitrary and strong government such as China then had. 
 
 The Siau chwen comes next in order. In this writing there is 
 a great preponderance of round curves and circles, instead of the 
 squares which are common in the modern writing. 
 
 It was anciently much used on seals and flags. Hence it has been 
 called by French and English authors the seal character. It is not, 
 however, said of the Ta chwen that it was used on seals, so that the 
 name is of doubtful propriety. It is better to transfer the Chinese 
 word chwen. See in Kh the word li under radical tai 171. 
 
 It is the form used by Hii shu chung in the Shwo wen for the 
 text. The explanations he wrote in the Li shu. The radicals of the 
 Shwo wen in the Siau chwen are given in Appendix F to this work. 
 
 The Li shu must now be considered. This form of writing was 
 intermediate between the old and the new. It arose in the Han 
 dynasty. 
 
 Many of the contractions of modern writing had their source in 
 the Li shu. Thus, the two upright crosses, as in J^, crowning 
 botanical words, are the contraction for t'sau "grass," introduced in 
 the Han. 1 
 
 In the T'sin dynasty public business greatly increased. Docu- 
 ments were multiplied. The seal character was felt to be cumbersome. 
 A man named Li 2 was ordered to prepare a more convenient mode of 
 writing. The Li shu was the result, and it was named from its 
 inventor. 
 
 Another account is that it was done in the peaceful times of the 
 Han dynasty. 
 
 1 So the three dots on the left in words relating to water took the place in the Li shu of 
 the three downstrokes which in the earlier writing represented water. 
 
 2 The word li means attached to government directly. The new writing might be so 
 called as used hy official persons. See in Kh R. 171, nine strokes.
 
 148 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 A distinct approach is observable in the Li to the quick movement 
 of the modern writing. The Li shu looks like the first writing done 
 with a finely pointed brush. The width of the stroke increases or 
 diminishes in certain circumstances. There is nothing of this feature 
 in the Ta Chwen or Siau Chwen writing. In the Li shu it is quite 
 distinct. 
 
 Two strokes are often run into one. A sharp angle takes the 
 place of a round curve. A stroke with two curves in it becomes 
 a stroke with one. 
 
 There is a careful avoidance of round curves. The sun and moon 
 were formerly rounded in form. They became in the Li square and 
 rectangular. See in the lithographs at the end. 
 
 A considerable change in form sometimes took place. Thus ^f ngi 
 "ought" had more anciently for its lower part the whole or half of 
 % to "many." So also te ffi "to get" was formerly written with J^ 
 pel above, and *S yeu "hand" below. 
 
 Wang "king" 3E> and yu "jade" 3t, were first distinguished in 
 the Li by adding a dot to the latter. 
 
 The contracted form of shui "water," as in ftji c'hung, was not 
 employed in the Chwen wen. The full form was then used in writing 
 characters compounded of water and some phonetic. It appeared 
 first in the Li. 
 
 The contracted form of JJ tau "knife" was first used in the Li 
 shu, and from that time consisted of two vertical strokes on the right 
 of compound characters. 
 
 C'hu \R "go out" became j^ "earth" in the Li shu, in ^ "to go 
 out and amuse oneself." Here the suggestiveness of the combination 
 of *|Jj; -with fang "let loose," is lost sight of, and is only restored by a 
 study of the ancient modes of writing. 
 
 The Kiai shu, or modern style of writing, dates from the period 
 of Wang hi ch'i, viz. A.D. 321 to 379. The Chinese have continued 
 to write the same form of the character, and with the same materials, 
 since that time. Specimens of his writing preserved on stone tablets 
 are much sought after and admired. 
 
 The change which then took place in writing proceeded naturally 
 from the introduction of new materials, such as paper, pencils of fine 
 hair, and ink adapted to make fine strokes. 
 
 Since brushes with paint were used before this, the chief for-
 
 HISTORY OF CHINESE WRITING. 149 
 
 mative elements, in addition to resting on the wrist (of which more 
 afterwards), that availed to force in the modem form of the 
 character were ink and paper, then recently brought from the 
 Roman Empire. 1 
 
 The word ^ k'iai shu, applied to the writing then introduced, 
 alludes to the sense rule, pattern, belonging to the word k'iai. This 
 is the meaning of the quotation in Kh from the Tsin shu, " "Wang 
 t'si chung of Shang ku was the first to make characters according to 
 the method called k'iai." 
 
 K'iai is also the name of a tree which grows at the tomb of 
 Confucius. 2 
 
 The strokes which make up a Chinese character will be found 
 in Appendix E, as given by Callery. They form eight strokes in all. 
 The Chinese themselves are accustomed to say that the character 
 ^j< yung contains them all ; according to this view there are only six 
 strokes. 
 
 On the direction of the brush in writing, it should be noticed 
 that it is predominantly from left to right and from above down- 
 wards. Pie J goes from right to left, but then it has a downward 
 direction. Ti / begins below and goes upwards obliquely to the 
 right. It was introduced to allow for a very natural movement of 
 the brush, and is in fact but a variation of pie. 
 
 To rest on the wrist joint in writing, and not on the thumb, 
 is a fundamental requisite. The form of the character has not 
 changed since the time of Wang hi chi, and it was probably therefore 
 by him that the resting of the hand on the wrist in writing was 
 introduced. This will partly account for the superior beauty of the 
 character since his time. 
 
 The Grass character, or abridged running hand, originated in the 
 Han dynasty soon after the Li shu. Its forms are drawn rather from 
 the Siau chwen and the Li shu than from the K'iai shu. It continues 
 
 1 In Notes and Queries for China and Japan, I have shown that trade, opened up with 
 the "West in the Han dynasty, brought Greek paper and ink to the knowledge of the Chinese. 
 
 2 I saw it there in 1873. It is said to grow nowhere else. It is found, however, 
 through the whole region for many miles from the tomb. It has opposite leaves like those 
 of the Hwai shu, Acacia sophora. It has a yellow flower, smaller than that of the Hwai. 
 The people say there are no seeds. The leaves fall in the ninth month. It flowers in the 
 third. The stem throws off branches at five feet and upwards. The people say it is propa- 
 gated by the agency of birds, and not by that of the gardener.
 
 150 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 to be extensively used down to the present time for correspondence, 
 book keeping, and the rough copy of any written compositions. 
 It is current among friends and equals. In any document addressed 
 by an inferior to a superior it is not permitted. The K'iai shu must 
 then be used. 
 
 The invention of printing led to the introduction of a new form 
 of the character called Sung t'i. Both this and the K'iai shu are 
 employed in printed books at present, but the Sung t'i is the more 
 common. The handwriting taught in schools is the K'iai shu.
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE Six PRINCIPLES IN THE FORMATION OF THE CHARACTERS. 
 
 THE Lu SHU AS EXHIBITED IN THE DICTIONARIES SHWO WEN, Lu SHU KU. EXAMPLES. 
 PICTURES OF IDEAS. PICTURES OF OBJECTS. PICTURES OF SUGGESTION. NEW 
 CHARACTERS MADE BY CHANGE IN POSITION OF OLD ONES. PHONETIC CHARAC- 
 TERS WITH RADICALS. PHONETIC CHARACTERS WITHOUT RADICALS. 
 
 IN the dictionary Shwo wen, A.D. 200, the first elaborate attempt was 
 made to explain the formation of the Chinese characters. Hii shu 
 chung, the author of that work, described about 10,000 characters 
 according to the nature of their symbolism as ideographic or phonetic. 
 He only busied himself with the illustration of the written symbols. 
 As to the etymology and origin of the words themselves he attempted 
 nothing. But the book was a great achievement, and its explanations 
 of the formation of words and their meanings have been imported to 
 a vast extent into the productions of all succeeding lexicographers. 
 
 This book was written before the Hindoo Buddhists taught the 
 Chinese to spell, so that the author had no method for preserving the 
 sounds of words as they were pronounced in his own time. 
 
 To analyse sounds and divide vowels from consonants has always 
 been a problem which the Chinese have failed to comprehend. Down 
 to the present century their best writers on the changes of sounds 
 have never made use of the alphabet or divided words into vowels and 
 consonants. 
 
 One great advantage of the Shwo wen is that it selected the best 
 established forms of the characters, suggested an explanation of them, 
 and fixed them according to a system. In the forms of the characters 
 as preserved on old bells, vases, cups and tablets, there is the most 
 remarkable variety. This variety the author reduced to a certain 
 unity. There now exist in the country only a portion of those forms
 
 152 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 that must have been familiar to this author. He lived at the closing 
 part of an eminently critical and learned time, 1 during which the 
 ancient texts were published with comments, and made the foundation 
 of a government system of examinations. Although we meet there- 
 fore with considerable diversity in the forms of characters, we may 
 look upon those given in the Shwo wen as the collective result of the 
 learning of the Han dynasty in this department. 
 
 The Han dynasty scholars, meditating on the classical phrase lu 
 shu "six principles of writing," and on the various modes of forma- 
 tion discoverable in the characters, placed pictures of ideas and 
 objects first. Then came a want. Pictures could not be for ever 
 multiplied. They might be turned round. Two might be joined to 
 make a third. Hence came a large accession of new signs. After- 
 wards the phonetic principle and that of borrowing were introduced, 
 and these were the most fruitful of all principles in forming new 
 characters. The philology of the Han period could proceed no 
 farther than this. 
 
 Even in the Sung dynasty, a thousand years later, the study of 
 the formation of the characters is represented as attaining its grand 
 result in a better understanding of the Yi king, the text book of the 
 ancient philosophy which the Chinese sages loved, and which aimed 
 to explain the world by means of a mystic symbolism. 
 
 The first mention of the lu shu "six kinds of writing " is in the 
 classical work Cheu li, attributed to Cheu kung, B.C. 1100. The fifth 
 of the six accomplishments to be taught to princes is stated to be lu shu. 
 This is explained by the Han comment to be the six modes of forming 
 characters, siang king, hwei yi, chwen chu, c'hu sh'i, kia tsie, hie sheng. 
 
 Tai tung, the author of the Lu shu ku, divides the characters into 
 479 classes. Among these he distributes them further according to 
 the six principles of formation. 
 
 He arranges them in the following order : 
 
 1. Chi sh'i, symbols of ideas, acts, numbers, and positions in space. 
 They are such as a stroke for one, two strokes for two, the sign _L 
 for "above," and T for "below." 
 
 2. Siang hing. Pictures of objects. The sun, the moon, vapour, 
 mountains, fire, water, a sheep, a fish, etc., are represented by outline 
 pictures. 
 
 1 Han dynasty, B.C. 206 to A.D. 220.
 
 THE SIX PRINCIPLES OF FORMATION. 153 
 
 3. Hicei yi. Suggestion. Thus in // one man is seen following 
 another. This is used as a symbol for the verb " to follow," with the 
 sound t'sung. 
 
 Three men placed together represent chuny "many," as in the 
 lower part of ^ . 
 
 Two fires, one above the other, represent yen "burning," "bright." 
 
 4. Chwen chu. The characters are sometimes turned partially or 
 completely round (chwen " turn "), to indicate a new sound and modi- 
 fication of meaning (chu " indicate "). Thus J^ feu " hill " is 
 ll| shan " mountain," turned up on its end. 
 
 5. Hiai sheng. Phonetic imitation. Characters are used as sound 
 symbols, their original pictorial sense being for the time put out of 
 view. Thus, for example, "a hundred," "g pe, pak, is formed from 
 the stroke " one," and j^j pe, bak, " white." 
 
 Sing J| "star" is formed in the Li shu from pp ideographic and 
 ^ sheng phonetic. The former, a pictorial group of three stars, was 
 the entire character in the ancient writing. ^ chau "beckon" is 
 from J] tau "knife" phonetic, and as an ideograph k'eu P "mouth." 
 P'u ^ " to strike lightly with the hand " is formed from <JC yen 
 " hand," the ideograph, and f pu, pok, " to divine," the phonetic. 
 
 6. Kia tsie. Borrowing. Examples : ^ sok " rope," formed from 
 R. silk below and shok "to bind" above, is used in the sense "to 
 seek," merely on account of the sound agreeing. Chu "to dwell in a 
 place" is sometimes written ^, because it formerly agreed in sound 
 with that word. 
 
 There are more examples of Kia tsie in and before the time 
 of Confucius than afterwards. It became customary in later times to 
 add radicals to the kia tsie characters, which thus became phonetically 
 written, and passed into the fifth class. 
 
 In Chi sh'i abstractions are drawn pictorially as well as they can 
 be. Chi " to point to." Sh'i " a matter," " thing." 
 
 Siang hing embraces objects having a form. Siang " likeness." 
 Sing " form." 
 
 In Hwei yi " understand the meaning," one, two or more objects 
 in a picture suggest another. 
 
 In Chwen chu "turn the explanation," we have a change in the 
 meaning accompanying a change in the posture of the figures. 
 
 In Hiai sheng we have the borrowing of a word symbol already in
 
 154 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 use, to be the symbol of another word like it in sound. An additional 
 mark helps to indicate the new word symbolized. Hie " agree." 
 Sheng "sound." 
 
 In Kia tsie we have borrowing without an additional mark. As 
 in nii " woman," used for " thou," because both were called nu 
 or nok. 
 
 The six principles may be reduced to three. First, pictures of 
 objects. Second, pictures suggestive of ideas, words or things, 
 including the first, third, and fourth principles. Third, borrowing 
 symbols on the ground of phonetic identity, including the fifth and 
 sixth principles. 
 
 EXAMPLES OF Cm SHI. 
 
 5^ " heaven." Sw says from yi " one," ^ ta " great." Tt 
 says, with more probability, that it is a picture of an idea. Three 
 concave lines horizontal and parallel represent heaven in one old 
 form. 
 
 Tan "sunrise." The sun rising. Here the single stroke is 
 the horizon. The sunrise is named tan from its redness. Tan " red " 
 is applied, among other things, to the golden elixir, which was cinna- 
 bar, called kin tan, sien tan, " elixir of the immortals," chu sha " red 
 sand," etc. The reference here is to red oxide of mercury. The 
 medical properties of mercury, and its assumption of a liquid form at 
 low temperature, led the ancient Chinese alchemists to believe that in 
 it was concealed the elixir of life. 
 
 Evening, si, zik, dik, is suggested by the half-moon just seen. 
 
 A boundary between fields is represented by two fields placed side 
 by side, ^; kiang, with a line between and two lines above and below. 
 
 The character [3 inclosed in four detached straight lines is called 
 hwa, gak, and means a stroke cut with a knife or written with a 
 brush. It is a picture of the four boundaries of a field. The 
 phonetic 293 JSJ hwei, gut, " return," is in Sw a single line returning 
 into itself. 
 
 In phonetic 30 ~% t'sai, 5, dat, we see the cutting away of useless 
 portions of a tree -fc, while the good parts are selected to use as 
 building materials or for other purposes. In choosing a symbol for 
 dzai " ability," " faculty," " capacity for usefulness," it was the dzni 
 of a tree which suggested the required sign. This was afterwards
 
 EXAMPLES OF PICTURES OF OBJECTS. 155 
 
 applied to the talent of men and the power of money, which are 
 other modifications of the same idea. The character represents a 
 tree partly stripped of its branches. Li yang ping in Tt. 
 
 In s/i'i "historiographer" a hand below grasps a writing imple- 
 ment, viz. 252 yu above. See the hand in Cw drawn plainly. 
 
 In |^. jen " edge of a knife " we have a knife, and a dot pointing 
 to the edge, to indicate that this is the part of the knife to which 
 reference is made. Tt. 
 
 EXAMPLES OF PICTURES OF OBJECTS. 
 
 Rain "pjij was anciently without the upper line, and instead of the 
 vertical line in the middle, there were four, but all shorter. Above 
 each of them and within the concave was a dot. These four dots 
 were rain-drops, the four lines were the direction of their descent, 
 and the concave was the firmament. 
 
 Water ^C shui is regarded by Sw as one of the eight divining 
 symbols known as the Pa kwa. It is supposed to be H kan turned 
 on end. This explanation was in agreement with the philosophy 
 of the Han dynasty, according to which the origin of writing was 
 found in the Pa kwa. It was believed that the physical theories 
 of the Yi king, Book of Changes, influenced the makers of the 
 characters. For us it is better to regard the old form with its three 
 descending lines as a picture of water flowing downwards. 
 
 p. 456 chui "to fall" fg has in the seal character a form some- 
 thing like that of yu "rain" and of rain-drops. It was perhaps 
 an imitation. But see in Chapter III. 
 
 Mu "mother" -flj: differs from nu jfc "woman," by having the 
 breasts added. This is very noticeable in the Cw. I should rather 
 have referred this to the principle of suggestion, but Tt calls it 
 a picture of the object. The separate provinces of the six principles 
 of formation are not always well defined. 
 
 Eyebrow mei J| . Picture of hair above an eye. Tt says that 
 on the ancient bells and vases this character is not found. The word 
 mei is symbolized by some much more complex characters. Siiin tsi 
 uses H* and below it 7^ mi, for "eyebrow" in the sentence mien wu 
 su mi "his face without beard or eyebrow." 
 
 T'si ^ " son " is in Lw formed with jl| at the top to represent 
 hair. In Kw the form is still more complex, including not only hair
 
 156 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 at the top, but arms, legs, and the second man radical at the bottom. 
 See Sw. 
 
 Jf| t'siuen, 5, dzin, "fountain." Water flows from a covered 
 place, pe " white," which is represented in Cw by R. cover, mien. 
 
 Hu ff a " teapot," or " winepot," has several old forms which are 
 evidently pictures of the pot with its lid. But the lower part of the 
 character usually resembles closely " V a 424, which had final k, 
 as in |j| ngo, ak, " bad." If ak has lost an initial k, as is probable, 
 the character hu would furnish a still closer likeness to ya 424. 
 
 Pe, pak, jfb " north," " back." Two men are here seen back 
 to back. 
 
 Tu, ok, -j. "writing implement." Picture of a hand grasping 
 a knife used in cutting or drawing. Tt. 
 
 Ch'eu, nieu, 6, nok, JJ " * a ^ e hold of things." A picture of the 
 hand taking hold of something. Tt. 
 
 Tin, yi, ffi " he." The original of this, without J^ , is a picture 
 of the hand grasping something. The thing grasped is the down- 
 stroke, and is here the symbol of authority. A ruler is called yin. 
 In Kw there are two hands and the symbol of authority is represented 
 by four strokes. 
 
 Heu "ruler" Jtf. The first two strokes are a man, the ruler, 
 who expresses his will by "one" P "mouth." 
 
 Din " a subject," c'hen, |5 is expressed by a character which 
 pictures a person bent and prostrate before his chief. 
 
 C'hwen Jl[ " streams of water " becomes an island when written 
 jH cheu, and a "calamity" when written $ tsai. The last as it 
 stands is composed of c'hwen " descending calamities " and fire below. 
 Unaccountable disasters are supposed to come from above. 
 
 Tung -fa " constant," " constantly flowing." Two streams of 
 water uniting are here pictured. Tt. 
 
 Shen ^ " stretch out straight." Picture of ribs in two rows 
 with the backbone dividing them. The three horizontal strokes 
 are all divided in the middle in old forms. 
 
 In the oldest forms of the characters for "right" and "left," 
 tso "left" is three fingers and an arm bent downwards to the left 
 ^, while yeu " right " is three fingers and an arm turned down to 
 the right. 
 
 Pictures of animals are tripled with the sound pia-u, probably for
 
 EXAMPLES OF HWEI YI, " SUGGESTION." 157 
 
 an older bok, "to run." Thus we find a picture of three horses 
 running called p-iau, and the same of three dogs. 
 
 The same sound, piau for bok, is applied to a triple picture of a 
 dog or "fire" >fc> w i tn tne character JU, "wind " on the right in the 
 sense wind. The use of fire is probably an error. 
 
 Tern is the sound for the triple picture of "fire," old sound dam. 
 "Flame." "Shining." It is sometimes called hek, because a root 
 represented by that sound also means "shining." Further, it is called 
 yi for dik, for a like reason. 
 
 Hung, 1, kom or hum, is the sound assigned to a picture of three 
 carts whose rumbling is thus represented. 
 
 Lui, 5, dut, is the sound assigned to a triple arranged as in pf|. 
 This represents, for example, layers of stone in walls or sun-dried 
 bricks in earthworks round a camp. On account of resemblance in 
 sound, "thunder" is also thus represented. 
 
 EXAMPLES or HWEI YI, "SUGGESTION." 
 
 Characters formed by the principle Hwei yi consist of two or more 
 parts which by juxtaposition suggest the word intended. The sound 
 is not expressed, and must be retained by the memory acting on the 
 principle of the association of ideas. 
 
 K'ing "to congratulate," "happiness," J| k'ing, 3, k'ang, kam, is 
 formed from R. heart and J| Ink "deer." Formerly the skin of a 
 deer was taken as a present at visits of congratulation. As often 
 happens in compound characters, part of one of the component charac- 
 ters is omitted. One of the words for "all" $ t'sien, 1, tsim, is 
 composed of a man above, two mouths in the middle, and two men 
 below. It is intended as a picture of several persons conversing 
 together, and accompanying each other as they walk. 
 
 Some characters formed on this principle, according to the Lu shu 
 tsung yau, are made phonetic in Sw, as c'h'i "shame." Swsays, "from 
 heart, ni ear giving the sound." Lsty says, "from heart and ear 
 by suggestion." When a man hears his faults mentioned, he is 
 ashamed. His ear grows hot and his face red as a consequence of the 
 shame he feels, }] c'h'i, 2, t'i, t'ip, "shame." 
 
 Sii hiai, editor of Shwo wen, sometimes errs in inferring the 
 principle of formation in characters to be that of suggestion. Ho 
 says that in |^f R. words, ku "sayings," "sayings of old," we have
 
 158 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 ku "ancient," acting the part of a suggester of the thought. It is more 
 likely that the word properly meant in the first place only " words," 
 "sayings." From its having the same sound with feu "ancient," 
 scholars took it to mean ancient sayings in particular, and hence the 
 explanation. 
 
 The bow of five short feet in length being used in measuring land, 
 two bows side by side were anciently used as a symbol for field 
 boundaries, with the name kiang or kong. 
 
 Two trees side by side suggest Urn "grove" ^. 
 
 Hiun "instruct" consists of yen f|f "words" on the left, and Jl| 
 c'hwen "streams flowing" on the right. 
 
 Lin "avaricious" is formed by ^ wen "elegant" above, and p 
 k'en "mouth " below. Fair speeches are the cloak of covetousneas. 
 
 Wai "crooked" consists of ^ put "not" above, and cheng ] 
 "right" below. 
 
 T'sieu, 5, du, dut, "a captive," is represented by a man J{ in a 
 square inclosure [ J kico. 
 
 S'i "four" si is formed from the character /^ pat "eight," 
 within a circle, which here marks the horizon. The idea is "part- 
 ing" a circle, since pat is to "separate," "part." 
 
 Tsiang "workman" is composed of Jf kin "knife," "hatchet," 
 within, and/<7(/ "C. "a vessel of capacity" outside on the left. 
 
 Sien "before" ^fc, from ch'i . "to go," and beneath it man, i.e. 
 gone before some one else. 
 
 Kicang "light" *fc. Formerly fire above *fc, and man below A> 
 i.e. light above man. 
 
 K'e "able," "conquer," "can," }, consists of Jf| kicn "shoulder" 
 contracted, and man below, i.e. what can be carried on the shoulder. 
 
 Ch'i " red " TJ^ t'ak " red " is an older form composed of ta 
 "great" above, and htco "fire" below, to suggest the colour of a great 
 fire. Tt. This character repeated has the sound he, 4, kek, and 
 means "bright," "glorious." 
 
 Ch'i "to cauterize" tak. Flesh over a fire. This suggests the 
 sense of the verb. 
 
 Tso, dzak, "to sit," ffi- Two men are sitting vis a vis on the 
 ground. 
 
 C'hu, t'o, "beginning," jgj. From clothes and scissors. The 
 beginning of clothing is in the action of scissors cutting cloth.
 
 EXAMPLES OF HWEI YI, "SUGGESTION." 159 
 
 Lo "net" Sjji. From a net set up high and icei to indicate that 
 the net shuts the birds in on the four sides. Wei, meaning cross lines 
 on the astronomical sphere, is here taken in the sense of boundaries. 
 
 Wang " king " ] consists of three strokes, horizontal and 
 parallel, with one downstroke crossing them. They indicate that the 
 king joins heaven, earth and man in one person. 
 
 If this is doubtful, we may refer to its use as the radical for 
 precious stones, in search of a more satisfactory explanation. It may be 
 borrowed from the name of some shape connected with precious stones. 
 
 Pan "class" 3$E consists of a knife in the centre cutting two 
 precious stones. 
 
 Tftiai "eager " consists of the character 3fc sien "before" doubled. 
 He who is eager is soon far in front of every one else. 
 
 When men, ten in number, make up a military company, it 
 is called zJiip ff-, the character consisting of man and ten. 
 
 Wei " position," " rank," fii consists of men and lip to " stand." 
 
 Lau "old" ^ is formed of hair, man, and ^fc "transform." The 
 last, as was very common in old times, omits the radical jen J\> " man." 
 The change of the hair to white is the transformation intended. 
 
 Hituig "elder brother" JijJ,. From mouth and man. The eldest 
 brother is spokesman. 
 
 Sun "grandson" J. From ts'i "son," and hi to "follow in 
 succession." 
 
 Hau "to love," "good," jj. From woman and son. These are 
 the two things chiefly loved by man. 
 
 T'o "safe" ^f. From a hand reaching down to help a woman 
 and put her in safety. This explanation comes from Tt. Strangely 
 the character does not occur in Sw. It is delightful to find, if we 
 may rely on it, a most chivalrous sentiment in the minds of the 
 inventors of Chinese writing. 
 
 Su "beard," " whisker," g|. From head and hair. 
 
 Siang "mutually," "think about," ^g. From wood and eye. 
 The workman when he uses wood must inspect it to know if it is 
 suitable in regard to length, quality, and shape. Tt. 
 
 Chit, tok, to " pray" jJJ. From sh'i, symbol of things sacred and 
 celestial, k'eu "mouth," and jen "man." A human voice praying. 
 This example belongs to the class called H ^ Hf ^ san ts'i Incci yi, 
 " suggestion with three characters."
 
 160 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 In JE ping "weapon," "soldier," we see two hands ft hung 
 below, grasping a hatchet ff kin above. 
 
 -f* sh'i, Jip, dap, "ten." The downstroke indicates that counting 
 has arrived at ten. But this is rather classed by the native lexico- 
 graphers under the first principle. Two tens ~\fr , pronounced niep, 
 imply twenty. Niep = ni + jip. The j is dropped and the two 
 separate words coalesce. Three tens placed together are pronounced 
 sap, and imply thirty. Sap = sam -\-jip. Here m andj are dropped. 
 
 Sh'i "age," "generation," $;, is a picture of three tens. A term 
 of thirty years. 
 
 To, tap, " many" ^>. Repetition is suggested by two half- moons, 
 the moon being by nature a symbol of change. 
 
 Yang "light," "south aspect," f^. Hill on the left. The sun, 
 etc., on the right is phonetic. In regard to mountains, the south 
 is yang. In regard to rivers, the north bank is yang. Hills, as 
 having a bright and dark side, suggest the idea of yang, one of the 
 principles in the old Chinese dual philosophy. This character is both 
 phonetic and suggestive. 
 
 In yin, gim, the dark principle in the same philosophy, a hill 
 as casting a shadow is also used as a distinctive mark (^ . Here also 
 there is a phonetic element, viz. Mm " now." 
 
 In the old form of sui, duk, " a path between two hills," the same 
 radical feu is thrice written, and with the cones of the one turned 
 towards those of the other, to suggest the sense. In the modern 
 writing that on the left is retained. On the right is p. 170. 
 
 In P. 267 jfc wei " danger," there is a man on the top of a cliff, 
 expressed by R. 27, to suggest the idea. The remaining part is a 
 later addition. 
 
 In p'in, 2, p'im, $ "ranks," "divisions," the three mouths 
 suggest the idea of division. 
 
 Bfl ming " bright." The sun and moon placed side by side 
 suggest the idea. 
 
 In kau "bright" the sun seen above a tree /fc suggests 
 the idea. 
 
 In yau "dark" the sun j'i seen below a tree "fa suggests the 
 idea. But in Kw the sun is above and a sort of two-pronged fork 
 below. 
 
 T|? tung " east." The sun seen through a tree suggests the idea.
 
 EXAMPLES OF HWEI YI, "SUGGESTION." 161 
 
 ^ tsau " louse." The hand scratching and insect suggest the 
 idea. The sense " early " is borrowed. 
 
 In mu, mok, " evening," the sun is seen in the midst of grass. In 
 Sc the lower part is grass, as is the upper. In the middle is a single 
 round ring with a dot at the centre. In the modern character ^ 
 and " sun " below it form the lower part. 
 
 J^ yi, tik, to " change." The sun is seen above the moon, the 
 lower part being in the old character a picture of the latter luminary. 
 But see in the Chapter on Phonetics another explanation. 
 
 f| si, sik, " formerly." The upper part is in Sw the sign for 
 flesh. The sun is below. The primary idea is dried flesh. It is 
 used for "formerly" by the principle of borrowed application. In 
 the interest of plainness, R. flesh was afterwards added on the left for 
 the sense " dry flesh." 
 
 >]?, and below it ^/, Hue, 8, hit, "feeble." The components shau 
 "little" and li " strength " suggest the meaning. 
 
 Pj| ming, 5, "call of birds." The components niau "bird" and 
 ken "mouth." 
 
 3L& i g called ping, 6, 7, bang, bam, " standing together." The 
 character lip to "stand" is doubled. A shortened form is $fc "and." 
 Another is ^f 452. But see other explanations in the Chapter on 
 Phonetics. 
 
 The next example is one of Tauist origin. It was under the 
 inspiration of Tauist ideas that it was made. It is JJL cJien, 1, tin, 
 " true." Sw says it refers to the immortal man changing his form 
 and ascending to heaven. The author sees in it liwa "transform" at 
 the top, and eye and eight below with a stroke between them. The 
 character occurs first in Chwang cheu, a Tauist author. Tt finds the 
 ancient equivalent in chun 396 ''pure," "genuine." Our character 
 was made about the time of Chwang cheu probably. 
 
 fJ ping, 2, " handful of corn," handle, hold, that which can be 
 held. From hico ^ " corn" and a hand grasping it in the middle. 
 
 The character jig kik is singled out by Tai Tung as being the 
 only character in the Shwo wen which consists of four ideographic 
 elements. Sw says it consists of man, mouth, hand, and two. The 
 two limiting strokes, says Sw, are heaven and earth. Tt notices that 
 Sw omits any explanation. He suggests that 'pj kii, kok, is phonetic in 
 this character. 
 
 11
 
 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 The character T chang "staff" of ten feet in length, if looked at 
 in the old forms, consists of a hand grasping a foot measure. The 
 stroke below to the right is the hand. The foot is one of ten inches. 
 Ten therefore is written. The staff was ten feet in length. 
 
 The roots of the three measures t'sun "inch," c'h'i, t'ak, "foot," 
 chang, dum, "ten feet," are probably all found in verbs, chen, ts'un, 
 tun, "to think," Mongol sana, "think;" dok "to measure," "think;" 
 Hang "to think," "to measure," and the Mongol sana "think." 
 
 In jfc kiai, "prohibit," two hands on the left grasp a kwo "short 
 spear" on the right. 
 
 Pft c'hui "to blow." This sense is suggested by a mouth and 
 k'iem "breathe." 
 
 In ^ ycu, 7, "assist," the mouth and hand are suggestive of help 
 by speech and act. Tt. 
 
 In 35 ming, 5, "name," the upper part si "evening," indicates 
 darkness |jt, which is ming, and is therefore phonetic. The lower 
 part "mouth" is ideographic, indicating "name." Tt. 
 
 In fo ming "command," we see mouth and ling <fy "command," 
 joined to suggest the sense. 
 
 In shu Zf "millet," the symbol for water underneath refers to 
 distillation, large millet having been commonly used for distilling 
 spirits in ancient times. The upper part is hwo " corn." 
 
 Compound characters formed in this way greatly facilitated 
 the early completion of the task undertaken by the inventors of 
 writing. 
 
 When a considerable number of characters were already made, 
 they were used in couples to form new ones. 
 
 The language had the words kok, kot, som, and lorn, the last two 
 both derived from dom, and all meaning "high." The former two 
 had characters. New ones were needed for the other two. ^ kok 
 "high," with jlj shan "mountain" above it, was invented for som, 
 which meantime became sung in sound. As an equivalent ^ sung 
 "pine tree" also came into use with "mountain" above it. 
 
 Thus various characters came to be employed for the same thing, 
 with the same or different pronunciations. Also it often happened 
 that characters added new meanings to the old ones, and assumed new 
 pronunciations. Out of these conflicting processes of change, number- 
 less diversities arose.
 
 EXAMPLES OF CHWEN CHU AND HIAI SHENG. 163 
 
 EXAMPLES OF CHWEN CHU, CHANGE OF POSITION. 
 
 A Jen "man" is turned round and doubled to make pi Jfc "com- 
 pare." But see page 61. 
 
 Tt, wan "pill," "small ball," is J/\ tsck "inclined to one side," 
 turned round. Tt remarks that the idea of ball proceeds from that of 
 turning round. 
 
 One may be allowed to doubt the sufficiency of this explanation 
 and of the following. 
 
 jj^j shu "negligent" t'ut. The right-hand part of the character 
 is here explained as -^ "son" turned over and three downstrokes 
 below to represent flowing. 
 
 / heu "ruler" by change of position becomes "gj si "an officer in 
 charge of an outside department." 
 
 fc yung "constant," incessantly flowing, a picture of running 
 water, becomes by change Jj^ p'ai "streams of water" parting in 
 various directions. 
 
 $% shen " body " is turned round to form the left part of Jjx! yin 
 "flourishing" with the sense "revert to." 
 
 Jff man "Pleiades" is in its lower part, which is also man with 
 the meaning 5 A.M. to 7 A.M, composed of the two parts of fj men 
 "door," both turned the other way. Tt. This seems doubtful. 
 
 EXAMPLES OF HIAI SHENG, PHONETIC FORMATION. 
 
 7C yuen, 5, ngon, is formed, say Sw and Tt, from yi "one," and 
 7 nyun phonetic. Another copy of Sw makes ngun not phonetic, but 
 suggestive. This Tt rejects. Another author derives it from ~~. shang 
 above, and JL man, and thus makes the character suggestive, and 
 not phonetic. 
 
 >$fr ti "emperor," "ruler." Sw says it is formed from _L above 
 and the phonetic ^ shok "bind." The old sound then of both words 
 was tok, the vowel only being uncertain. 
 
 iff shu "book," "write." A pencil above and % che phonetic 
 below. Tt. 
 
 Jff she, shok, dok, 7, "to shoot." Sw says the left-hand symbol 
 shen "body" suggests that the arrow proceeds from the body (and 
 therefore the body must form a part of the picture) and strikes a 
 point at a distance ; tok "to strike," the right-hand part of the symbol 
 being used suggestively.
 
 164 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 I prefer to regard tok as phonetic. The suggestive principle may 
 be rightly applied also as by Sw, but probably the phonetic principle 
 is more prominent. 
 
 Nie,nit, to "go down" is formed of R. water on the left, and EJ 
 above ^fc on the right. Sw says that water and earth are here ideo- 
 graphic, and "sun" nit phonetic. 
 
 The suggestive and phonetic principles are often combined, Jl 
 p'in, 5, bin, "poor." From/ew "to divide," and pel "money." Here 
 fen is both suggestive and phonetic. The inventors of the characters 
 selected that phonetic symbol which was nearest in sense. 
 
 3%. hiau " filial piety " is in Kw formed of ^ Man 115, two 
 crosses above, phonetic, and son below. But hiau with the crosses as 
 its symbol means to imitate, and imitation is an essential part of filial 
 piety so far as the father is virtuous. 
 
 Ti, compounded of ffi yi phonetic and beneath it ta ^, is so 
 written in allusion to two persons playing at a game. This is ex- 
 pressed by two hands, for ta is here really altered from the ancient 
 symbol for two hands. 
 
 Two sounds belong to some phonetics. These originate in the 
 operation of the principle of suggestion in the peculiar application of 
 some phonetics. Thus ^ k'ing "musical stone" 743 is composed of 
 R. 79 shu "implement," on the right, of certain other elements on 
 the left and of R. stone below. The character stone below, is an 
 addition, and without it the sound is now sheng "sound." 
 
 This character, having probably at first the sense "sound," was 
 used by the principle of suggestion to write k'ing, the name of a 
 musical stone. After this it became phonetic with the sound k'ing. 
 
 The combination of the principles of suggestion and likeness in 
 sound occurs in JU, fcng "wind," where the outside line is fam J^ 
 "all," used because wind was then called bam, and the symbol for 
 reptile within was added, we are told, because, according to the old 
 Chinese belief, reptiles begin to move when the wind blows. 
 
 EXAMPLES OF KIA TSIE, BORROWED CHARACTERS. 
 
 ?j* kwan "a pipe" borrows from ^ kivan the meanings "care 
 for," "govern," control." 
 
 Lo, a common family name, is written by means of f| lo a "net." 
 Li, a family name, is written by means of ^ li a "plum."
 
 EXAMPLES OF KIA TSIE, BORROWED CHARACTERS. 165 
 
 Tt explains jfj fei, put, as meaning an apron. The horizontal line 
 is the line of the shoulders, from which hangs a string fastened to the 
 waist-band. It is applied, with R. grass, to the word fei "thick and 
 shady," as descriptive of vegetation. It is found as a verb in p'ei "to 
 wear at the side," and forms a part of ^ tai "girdle." The upper 
 portion of tai represents the tying of that which hangs from the 
 girdle. 
 
 Kican, the upper part of 5t "to pierce," "penetrate," is borrowed 
 to act as the symbol of kican "to be accustomed to." As the charac- 
 ter is here borrowed to be applied to a new sense, so kwan "to be 
 accustomed to" may, as a word, be derived from piercing and thorough- 
 ness, just as our word "thorough," coming from through, has attained 
 the new sense complete, perfect in action. 
 
 In the older classics J|f sh'i, 5, zhik, "time," was used for the 
 demonstrative ^ sh'i, 6, 7, zhik, "this." 
 
 ^ sun "grandson" is used for siun "compliant" by Confucius. 
 
 Very many abstract terms, verbs, adjectives and particles were 
 supplied on this principle with the required written signs.
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE SOUNDS. 
 
 RESEARCH SHOWS THAT THE CHINESE LANGUAGE is NOT COMPOUND. SOURCES FOR THE 
 HISTORY. 1. PHONETIC CHARACTERS. 2. RHYMES OF OLD POETRY. RESULTS OF 
 THE RESEARCHES OF TWAN YU T'SAI. THE SEVENTEEN CLASSES OF OLD RHYMES. 
 3. TONIC DICTIONARIES. 4. OLD TRANSCRIPTIONS, JAPANESE, COREAN, COCHIN 
 CHINESE. 
 
 THE sources of information on the history of the sounds are very 
 varied. Among them the oldest is the body of common roots found 
 in cognate languages. These I do not now touch, wishing to limit 
 myself, except in a few examples from Mongol and Japanese, to the 
 Chinese field. 
 
 The next source for the history of the sounds is the phonetic 
 characters ; for convenience this will be called the first. 
 
 The second is the rhymes of old poetry. 
 
 The third is the use of certain characters in the classics and else- 
 where in senses different from those intended by the inventors of the 
 characters, and which now, through change in sounds, in many 
 instances, do not suit them. 
 
 The fourth is Buddhist transcriptions of Sanscrit words. 
 
 The fifth is the Tonic Dictionaries. 
 
 The sixth is Japanese, Corean, Mongolian, and Cochin Chinese 
 transcriptions. 
 
 The seventh is the dialects of Modern China. 
 
 All research tends to show that the Chinese language has a self- 
 consistent history. The difficulties which occur in the illustration of 
 it may be expected to obtain a solution as the reward of research. 
 
 The present chapter will conduct the student only over a part of 
 the wide field here sketched.
 
 PHONETIC CHARACTERS. 167 
 
 The result of this kind of inquiry is to show that there are no 
 compound elements in the Chinese tongue. 
 
 No abrupt introduction of a foreign language into the country, which 
 might have materially affected the traditions or language of the people* 
 can have taken place at any period since the invention of the characters. 
 
 The normal condition of a Chinese word consists in having an 
 initial, a final, and a vowel to join them. 
 
 There is no appearance of dissyllabic structure in roots, and 
 a fortiori words of three or more syllables cannot be found there. 
 
 All Chinese words were anciently, as now, monosyllabic. Various 
 as are the laws of change in their sound, none are inconsistent with 
 this principle. 
 
 PHONETIC CHARACTERS. 
 
 The phonetic characters, which are in number above a thousand, 
 help us to discover what final letters have been lost or changed for 
 others. Thus ^ tui, a common phonetic, has lost final t. It is 
 recoverable from words written with this phonetic, e.g. with R. "=" 
 shwot "say," and with R. heart, yuet "to rejoice." Not only is the 
 final restored, but the initial also can be reduced to its most ancient 
 form by careful comparison of facts and words. T is both initial and 
 final in all these three words. S/t and y both come from t. 
 
 One native author says there are 2425 characters formed by the five 
 modes which are not phonetic, and 21810 by the phonetic principle. 
 
 The phonetic characters are necessarily somewhat newer than the 
 others. Pictures of objects which had been first made formed the 
 basis from which characters constructed on the phonetic principle 
 were made at a later time. 
 
 Many characters now phonetic anciently belonged to the sixth or 
 borrowed class. The Han writers, who were more learned and 
 scholarly than those of the Cheu period, though less original and 
 powerful as thinkers and system-founders, had much to do with 
 extending the influence of the phonetic principle in writing. They 
 added a radical to many words found in the classics without one. By 
 this addition the character was transferred from the sixth class to the 
 fifth, and became distinctly phonetic. 
 
 The special interest and philological importance of the original 
 phonetic characters consists in this : they afford a clue to the actual
 
 168 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 sounds attached to the characters at the time when they were made. 
 Thus i5 cham or tarn, wherever used, has final m or final p. The old 
 dialects of Canton, Fukien and Kiang si agree in this respect with the 
 usage of the mediaeval tonic dictionaries and the rhymes of all ancient 
 poetry. When we find this phonetic employed with four dots helow 
 in item "a dot," "a comma," in J& tiem with R. roof, yen "an inn," in 
 $ djam, with R. j "to stand," or in tyfa t'iep "a ticket," and in any 
 other examples, the final is m or p. There are no exceptions. 
 
 Here we obtain a firm standing ground in our examination of the 
 ancient language. The initial was t or d. The final was m or p. 
 This principle extends to all the words written with this phonetic, 
 however great their variety of meaning. 
 
 Kim "now" was written ^. From it are formed, among others, 
 IP k'im, gim, "a harp ;" & niem "to think," "to read aloud ; " jf yem, 7, 
 niem, "result," "evidence," with R. horse on the left and heart below; 
 jfe nie, 8, niep, "take with, the hand," "press between the fingers," 
 with R. hand on the left and heart below ; ^ ham, 5, gam, " to take 
 into the mouth," to "contain," "include;" jj| t'am, with R. shell 
 below, " avaricious," " greedy." It is interesting to know that, 
 whatever may be the age of the phonetic characters, they contain 
 in them incontestable evidence of the phonetic state of the language 
 at the time when they were first used. 
 
 If it be asked why t aspirated occurs in the last example, it can 
 be replied that this may be an instance of association of ideas. The 
 upper four strokes may be a contraction for -^ . Of such contraction 
 many examples exist, as the reader of the Sw is constantly made 
 aware. But the existence of the final m in the word may have had 
 its own influence on the mind of the inventor as a labial letter 
 symbolic of greediness, in addition to that of the suggestion derived 
 from the whole word ham. 
 
 Final m and final p were looked on by the inventors of the 
 phonetic characters evidently as very nearly connected. They fre- 
 quently used the same phonetic for both. But possibly p may have 
 changed to m in cases of this kind. 
 
 In the same way a phonetic in n forms compounds also in n or in 
 t, its kindred mute. Thus J| tan " dawn," " the red light of sun- 
 rise," forms $J dan "but," "only;" tan "name of a woman," R. 
 woman, and tat " fear," R. heart. So fffc san, " to sprinkle," " scatter,"
 
 RHYMES OF OLD POETRY. 169 
 
 forms san "umbrella," with R. cloth, kin, and sat, "to sprinkle," 
 sow seed, with R. hand. 
 
 In the same way, again, phonetics in ng have also ng in all their 
 compounds. If there be a variation, it is k, or it may be m. Thus 
 ^ff t'sing " blue," is found in t'sing " if you please," " invite," with R. 
 words, and in tsing "essence," "pure," with R. rice. 
 
 As an instance of a phonetic which has final k and also ng, among 
 its sounds may be mentioned }(, which is k'ek and king. Among 
 instances where a phonetic has both m and ng as a final letter, may 
 be mentioned JK, feng, bam, " wind," ffi bang, bam, " together." 
 
 Through all the letter changes that have taken place there has 
 existed a real distinction of six final consonants, reaching back to the 
 time of the invention of the characters. Three great groups end in 
 k, t, p, respectively. Three more terminate in ng, n, m, respectively. 
 
 Many phonetics have never changed their final consonant. For 
 example, 3fe s ^ en " before," sien " having naked feet," with R. foot. 
 But the n has been dropped in si " wash," R. water. This word was 
 anciently pronounced sin, or sien, as in some dialects now, e.g. that of 
 Sung kiang. *|J kican " officer," kican " coffin," with R. wood, kwan 
 " a pipe," with R. bamboo. Final n has been indeed subject to very 
 slight variation. During the last twelve hundred years, k, t, and p 
 have all been dropped, and m has changed to n. 
 
 But if we take our stand on the basis of the mediaeval dictionaries, 
 we can look back on a tract of time amounting probably to 2500 
 years, during which the major part of the phonetics kept their finals 
 as they were at the beginning of that time. 
 
 RHYMES or OLD POETRY. 
 
 The second source of information on letter changes is in the 
 rhymes of the ancient classical poetry. 
 
 The rhymes of the old poetry in the Shi king, or Book of Odes, 
 constitute a valuable source of information as to the state of pro- 
 nunciation and the extent to which final consonants had been dropped 
 and modified at the time it was made. 
 
 These fine remains of the literary genius of the ancient Chinese 
 were composed at the time when Hebrew poetry was in its most 
 flourishing state. The principle of antithesis is common to both 
 styles. Rhyme, however, is peculiar to the Chinese. The nature 
 of Hebrew grammar and the peculiar Hebrew structure of words
 
 170 . THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 prevented the artifice of rhyme from becoming an admired quality in 
 poetry. In Chinese poetry, on the other hand, the natural order 
 of words and the monosyllabic simplicity of the roots, rendered rhyme 
 from the first a pleasing and appropriate element in poetry. 
 
 A Hebrew-like expansion of antithesis as a poetic ornament has in 
 later times taken place in Chinese literature, as exemplified in the 
 tui lien, or paired sentences, so common in ancestral halls, temples, 
 and private houses. Sir John Davis has stated in his last publication 
 on Chinese poetry that Dr. Morrison suggested to him the propriety 
 of comparing Chinese and Hebrew poetry in regard to this principle, 
 and that he followed the suggestion. 
 
 The old classical poems consist of upwards of three hundred 
 popular songs, the productions of many authors, who inhabited 
 several of the kingdoms into which China was then divided. They 
 differ in one important respect from modern Chinese poetry, they 
 were not written by rule, but according to nature's impulses. The 
 poet of to-day keeps in his hand a volume of rhymes arranged in 
 agreement with an obsolete pronunciation. He does not write spon- 
 taneously. Words that rhyme in modern Chinese often cannot 
 rhyme according to the recognized standards. The old poem had no 
 stiffness, not being composed for the eye of the literary examiner, 
 but to become a genuine popular song. 
 
 Two poems, one from the Odes, and another from a writer of the 
 Tang dynasty, will be found in Appendix D, with the ancient and 
 modern pronunciation of the characters. It will be there seen that 
 old poetry gives by its rhymes satisfactory information on final 
 letters, whether vowels or consonants. 
 
 A modern Chinese author, Twan yii t'sai, has made the ancient 
 pronunciation the subject of special researches. He is one of those 
 numerous critical authors who have conferred honour on the present 
 dynasty, and many of whose works are found in the splendid col- 
 lection Hwang t'sing king kiai, " Explanations of the Classics of the 
 Imperial Tsing Dynasty." 
 
 The books from which Twan yu t'sai has collected rhyming words 
 are first, and mainly, the Odes, B.C. 1300 to B.C. 800. The next in 
 importance is the Yi king, " Book of Changes," the most of which 
 is in rhyme, B.C. 1100 to B.C. 500. The others are Shang shu, "Book 
 of History;" Mencius; Li sau, the poem of the celebrated K'ii yuen ;
 
 RHYMES IN OLD POETRY. 171 
 
 Ta tai li, Li ki, Ti li, Er ya, Ch'un t'sieu tso chwen (the " Spring 
 and Autumn Annals," with comment by Tso), and Kwo yu. 
 
 The results of Twan yii t'sai's labours are seen in the discovery 
 of new classical sounds for many words. Thus kiai, chie, " prohibi- 
 tion," is recorded in Kh as kit in the Odes. Tyt shows that it 
 was kak. His labours are very important for the history of the 
 change from final m to ng. He shows that not a few words now 
 ending in ng were in the time of the Odes pronounced with m. 
 He has made it clear that in the time of the Odes the second tone, 
 or shang sheng, did not exist when the final was ng, n, or m. The 
 second tone class grew up when the finals k, t, p, were thrown off. 
 When an alphabetic element was lost, a tonic element attached 
 itself to the word to indemnify it for the loss, and help to make 
 the sound sufiiciently distinct for the purposes of language. The 
 rise of c'hu sheng, the third of the four tones, he refers to A.D. 200. At 
 that time many characters began to leave the other tone classes and 
 to form a new tone class. Before the Han era, he says, and during 
 the first part of that dynasty, the remains of rhyming compositions 
 contain no evidence of the existence of c'hii sheng in the language. 
 
 Liang wu ti, an Emperor of the Liang dynasty, who became 
 a Buddhist monk, asked on one occasion of his courtiers, "What are 
 the four tones ? Cheu she replied : ^C ~? !& If ^ en ^ sheng che, 
 " Heaven's son is holy and wise." 
 
 No light shone on the minds of Cheu she, Shen yo and other 
 scholars of that age as to any difference in classical pronunciation 
 as compared with that which prevailed in their own time. Many 
 scholars have devoted their attention since to ancient sounds. To 
 none of them did it occur that by making use of alphabetic signs 
 better and surer progress could be made in these inquiries than could 
 ever be the case without them. 
 
 The results for the history of sounds at which Tyt has arrived are 
 the following : 
 
 I. Words in ai, if that was the sound belonging to this class, were 
 well separated into the three tones p'ing, shang and/M, or 1, 2, 4. Yet 
 a good number of words were in transition, and were slowly dropping 
 final k. The loss of this final letter would transfer them from the 
 fourth tone class either to the first or to the second. Among such 
 words which were at the time pronounced with k or without it were
 
 172 
 
 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 2j lai "come," ^ ts'i "son," J$ chie "prohibition," Ijjjj twi "to carry," 
 fg, si "to sacrifice," fu "rich," belonging to 534, and having the same 
 phonetic as J^fu, pok, "happiness." 
 
 II. The second division consists of words in ok or in o. Our 
 author appears to be wrong in arranging them all under the p'ing 
 sheng. We must preserve the final k in all words where that letter 
 remained firm till the time of the Kwang yiin. Such words are lak 
 "joy," fj gak "music," tsiak "official rank," "wine cup," yak "medi- 
 cine." Where these and words like them in the possession of a firmly 
 fixed final k in Kwy, occur in classical poetry, it is right to modify 
 the statements of our author, who places them in the p'ing sheng and 
 destroys unwarrantably their final k. His second division must be 
 separated into a 1st and 4th class. The principle to be followed is 
 wherever a word undoubtedly ending in k, t, or p, occurs in rhymes, 
 the words in the rhyme must all be regarded as having k, t, or p. It 
 is on the ground of this law that we restore k in words such as ^, ^, 
 |3, 0g, mau, kiau, man, chaii, "hair," "instruct," "appearance," 
 "shine upon." They all rhyme with words in k. 
 
 III. The third division consists of words in u or ok. They are 
 classed in the three groups known as p'ing, shang,ju. Here, again, 
 the principle must be recognized that k existing as a final in a word 
 holding a place in a string of rhyming words indicates the existence 
 of k in all words which rhyme with it. Applying this rule we restore 
 k to H chut, to 5 and to $jf. 
 
 IV. In the 4th division Tyt finds only p'ing sheng and shany sheng. 
 The vowel is u. Among the words occur heu "after," chu "lord," 
 k'eu "mouth." From other sources we know that most words in 
 division IV. have lost final k. The place they hold in Tyt's arrange- 
 ment shows that in the time of the composition of the poems they had 
 lost this final letter. 
 
 V. The vowel seems to be o. The author places ^ kia, ko, 
 "house," J=^ t'sie "and further," ^ ago, ak, "bad," in the p'ing sheng. 
 
 Tyt must be wrong when he makes f, ?, ^, $(, $, jfc, all 
 rhyme together in the section of the Siau ya called T'sai wei. In fact 
 the first two words rhyme as tsak, mak, and the remainder as ko, ko, 
 kio, ko. The first two words stand third in the first two lines. The 
 last four stand fourth and last in the last four lines. It is a very 
 arbitrary proceeding to make two penultimate words rhyme with four
 
 RHYMES OF OLD POETRY. 173 
 
 ultimate words. Tyt has followed Chu hi, who wrongly makes all the 
 six words rhyme in u, without admitting in any instance a final conso- 
 nant. The absence of final k in Kiang si dialects of our own time, 
 which retain final m and p, may account for this error of Chu hi, or 
 his guide in old sounds, Wu t'sai lau. These dialects are spoken not 
 far from Chu hi's native place, in the southern part of the province of 
 An hwei. 
 
 The incorrectness of the Sung authors on the subject of ancient 
 sounds is seen in instances like the following. The character ^ nit, 
 "woman," Chu directs to be called $ ju. This is an inversion of the 
 actual state of things. He did not know that a sound like ju comes 
 from an older niu, for ni in Chinese changes toj. 
 
 Tyt in the Siait ya, Lu yuch s'i chang, again follows Chu hi in 
 making if| hit, phonetic 951, instead of hok, rhyme with #0 Ju, 
 which should rather be read nok. 
 
 Tyt was himself a native of Tan t'u, near Nanking. The k final 
 of the tonic dictionaries is there entirely unknown. He had conse- 
 quently no clue in his native pronunciation by which he might have 
 been led to detect the law by which final k has been lost. 
 
 VI. The sixth division consists of words ending in ng, all in 
 p'ing sheng. The medial vowel I suppose to be i or a ; kitng " bow," 
 p'eng " a friend," heng " constant," here occur. 
 
 Two words in m, viz. yim " sound," t'sim " coat of mail," p. 328, 
 here rhyme with ying "answer," kung "bow," Peng "to tie," It ing 
 "to rise," in the one case, and t'etig "to tie," kung "bow," tseng 
 " many," ying " answer," cheng " punish," cheng " hinder." All of 
 these words must then have had final in. 
 
 VII. Words ending in am and ftp. There is here no shang sheng. 
 The want of shang sheng in VI. and VII. shows the slow progress to 
 completion made by that tone class. 
 
 At the time of the composition of the Odes, feng "wind," was 
 commonly called bam, thus affording us an epoch in the development 
 of final ng out of final m. Among the phonetics in VII. are sini 
 "heart," Urn "forest," yim "sound," nam "south," kim "now," 
 z/iim "exceedingly," cham "to divine," kim " embroidery," gip "to 
 reach," hap " to combine," shap " wet," dzip " gather together." 
 
 VIII. "Words in am and ap. Probably this division was dis- 
 tinguished from VII. by an inserted i or w. But the exact sound
 
 174 
 
 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 is now perhaps beyond our reach to know. Among the phonetics in 
 VIII. are kietn "inspect," kam "sweet," kam "dare," ngem " severe," 
 yem "eaves," yep "leaf," kctp "coat of mail," giep "occupation," 
 " property," tsiep " to go quickly past," shop " to pass over." 
 
 IX. "Words in ong, all in p'ing sheng. Among them are tioig 
 " east," dong " together," kung " work," chung " end," djutig " reptile," 
 "insect," tsung "root," chung "middle," dung "move," kung "just." 
 Here again Tyt wrongly follows Wu t'sai lau, or at least Chu hi, in 
 assigning the sound yung to [^ . Both should rather have given the 
 sound torn to fy , which rhymes with it. The passage is in SKi, in 8 
 of the chapter on the Seventh Month, near the end of the Kwo feng. 
 
 Yim " to drink" is found in Ta ya, in the chapter Sheng min ch'i sh'i, 
 Kung lieu, 4, and is made by Tyt, though doubtfully, to take final 
 ng, because it rhymes with ^ tsung " foundation," " original source." 
 Tsung with djung " reptile," kung " palace," kung " body," are found 
 rhyming with Urn " to come down upon," " to arrive." This is in 
 the Yun han, or Milky Way, a division of the Ta ya. Now tsung 
 being found rhyming twice over with a word in final m, the case 
 becomes very strong. We may then, in the absence of a better 
 solution, regard kung "palace," djung, c'hung, "reptile," kung "body," 
 as all then heard with m for ng. This agrees with the law of change, 
 which on other grounds we know to exist, viz. that of m to ng, 
 through some hundreds of common words. 
 
 If we examine Tyt's tables of Yi king and other rhymes, the 
 argument just stated acquires new strength. 
 
 BOOK. 
 Yi 
 
 Li sau 
 
 NAME OF kwa. 
 Tun. 
 Pi. 
 
 
 
 ( Siang hia, ) 
 ( Chwen heng. ) 
 
 Ken. 
 
 
 
 T'ien wen. 
 Pukii. 
 
 WORDS IN m. 
 gim "bird." 
 
 shim "deep." 
 
 sim "heart." 
 
 
 
 djim "to sink." 
 c'ham " to slander." 
 
 WORDS iir ng. 
 k'iung "to exhaust." 
 chung " middle." 
 chung " end." 
 chung "middle." 
 yung " face." 
 hiung " violent." 
 kung "merit." 
 kung " body." 
 cheng " correct." 
 feng " to seal." 
 t'sung " follow." 
 
 All these words in ng should be supposed to have ended in m in 
 the time of the authors of the poems.
 
 RHYMES OF OLD POETRY. 175 
 
 X. Words in ong, all in p'ing sheng. They include such as ku-ang 
 " broad," fang " square," ping " weapon," " soldier," king (gang) " to 
 go," yang "the bright side of nature," Hang "cool," sluing "high," 
 hiung " brother." One word having final m is found in the Sh'i 
 mixed with this large mass of words in ng. It is /" cham, with 
 R. eye. The word cham " look up to," in the double sentence, " To 
 this gracious prince the people look up admiringly," stands last 
 of eight words, and the rhyming words which follow are siang " chief 
 minister," tsang "to hide in the mind," k'u-ang "mad." They 
 rhyme in succession each at the end of eight words. The ode is in 
 the Tang ch'i sJii portion of the Ta yd, and is the eighth of sixteen 
 sections, in all of which the eighth word keeps to the one rhyme. 
 We are obliged therefore to change the ng of the three rhyming 
 words into m. 
 
 In the Li sau of Kii yuen, B.C. 314, the following rhymes 
 occur, , JH, j>-, J|, nwng, ngem, hong, djting. Are we to 
 treat these words in the same way? The poem is six or seven 
 centuries later than the Ta ya. It appears to me that we are 
 compelled to do so, for this example is supported by those in VI. as 
 above given. 
 
 XI. Words in eng, all in p'ing sheng. They include such as sheng 
 "living," tsing "a well," c'heng "to accomplish," ting "to fix," cheng 
 "correct," sing "surname." 
 
 With this division are very significantly mixed up several words 
 ending in n. They indicate either that a part of the present collection 
 of words in ng came from an earlier n or that some words in n tempo- 
 rarily changed it for ng. The intruding words in n are jen "man," 
 yuen "beginning," t'ien "heaven," yuen "abyss," sin "believe," min 
 "people," shen "body," hicn "wise," pin "guest," chen "true." They 
 occur in the Yi king and in Li sau. 
 
 Beside these, a single word in m, > kirn "gold," "metal," also 
 creeps into the rhymes. It rhymes with c'heng "city," in the Kwo yii 
 (Cheu yii), and accords with the law in VI. and IX. 
 
 With regard to the intrusion of words in n among words in ng, let 
 the following facts be considered. In Kwy ming "command" and 
 some other words commonly ending in ng are also found with n. 
 Such words may have sprung from min, etc. But the peculiar sounds 
 of these words in the Yi king and Li sau seem to be limited at most
 
 176 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 to the Cheu 1 and Ch'u 1 kingdoms. If they had been national, they 
 would have crept into the Shi. 
 
 It is more probable that the above-mentioned ten words temporarily 
 changed final n to ng in some parts of the country, than that sheng 
 "living," c'heng "to complete," king "form," cheng "correct," cheng 
 "chaste," p'ing "even," keng "to plough," ming "name," Fsing 
 "clear," ying "pillar," should have changed n to ng subsequently to 
 the third century before Christ. In the absence of direct proof as to 
 whether the final was n or ng, it is only safe to say, however, that the 
 words rhyming together were attracted into a single group which 
 ended either in n or ng. 
 
 XII. XIII. XIV. Words in . The final of XII. seems to have 
 been in. XIII. tin. XIY. an. Assuming these three classes to have 
 been thus distinguished, words such as t'ien "heaven," t'ien "field," 
 Men "wise," nien "year," were heard t'in, din, kin or gin, nin. Perhaps 
 in was rather en (e as in our there). 
 
 Ling "command," ming "destiny," were then called lin, min, as 
 they are found afterwards in Kwy. They both occur frequently in 
 the Odes rhyming with words in n. 
 
 When kang "hill," kung "body," Mng "shape," etc., also occur 
 rhyming with words in n, this may be attributed to local and peculiar 
 causes. In the western part of China at present it is usual to confound 
 n and ng as finals. 
 
 King " basket twig," p'ing "even," sheng "living," cheng "cor- 
 rect," are pointed out by Tyt in the Odes, Shu or Yi king, as also 
 rhyming with words in n. 
 
 Words such as $ sun "grandson," c'hun "spring," yun, "cloud," 
 yin "diligent," p'in "poor," were heard as sun, t'un, yun or gun, yun, 
 bun. With them are classed Men "misfortune," wen "hear," teen 
 "ask," lun "wheel," men "door," pen "run," shun "obedient." 
 
 In class XIII. ping "ice," tung "east," and ping "bright," 
 "glorious," are mixed with words in n indicating that there was an 
 approach anciently of final ng to n, or of n to ng. At present in 
 western China ng approaches n. In the old middle dialect and in that 
 of Fu cheu n approaches ng. 
 
 In class XIY., where shan "mountain, "/an "to turn over," siuen 
 
 1 The Yi king being composed by Wen wang and Cheu kung, its dialect would be that of 
 Cheu. K'ii yuen was a native of Ch'u.
 
 RHYMES OF OLD POETRY. 177 
 
 "announce," yen "swallow," etc., occur, we find two words in ng 
 rhyming with them. They are 3L, fj, kung, hing. 
 
 In looking over Tyt's tables of rhyming words, the fact that shang 
 sheng and c'hu sheng words often occur among the p'ing sheng rhymes, 
 is most instructive. Thus fan "to turn over," "rebel," is known to 
 have rhymed with an "rest." Consequently the entrance of fan into 
 the tone class called shang sheng is subsequent to the time of the 
 establishment of the Cheu dynasty, B.C. 1100. Such facts as this led 
 the way to the conclusion of Tyt that the second tone class was not of 
 greater antiquity than the Shang and Cheu dynasties, as afterwards 
 the third class forced its way in during the Han and Wei period. 
 
 In class XY. we return to words with vowel endings, and to the 
 distinction of p'ing sheng and shang sheng. "We also encounter words 
 ending in t. 
 
 The words mp ( ing sheng are such as wei "fear," yi "clothes," hwai 
 "cherish," kwei " return," pei "pitiful," fei to "fly," ki "hungry," sh'i 
 "instructor," wei "small." 
 
 The words in shang sheng are such as li "ceremony," si "die," ti 
 "brother," ni "mud," tsui "sin," shut "water." 
 
 The rhyming of ch'i "arrive at," with li "ceremony," in the Siau 
 ya shows that in the time of the classical poetry the final t of ch'i was 
 already gone. The rhyming of Jf ti "bottom," with $; yi "to follow," 
 and with other p'ing sheng words, shows that ti, like some other 
 words, has moved from p'ing sheng to shang sheng since B.C. 1000. Ki 
 "several," has also thus changed. 
 
 A transposition of the reverse kind has taken place with yi 
 "clothes," \J& ni "mud," and some other words. They were then in 
 shang sheng, and are now in p'ing sheng. 
 
 Many words now placed under c'hu sheng are in XV found marked 
 ju sheng. A final t has since fallen from all of them. Among them are : 
 ff pai "worship," fp| c'hi, Hf icei, f|j wei, ^pi, Jti pi, #h wai, jjfr siti, | 
 pai "fall," % ta, -^ sh'i "age," ft nei, ffi tai, f$ tsui, ffi mei, si, 
 ^ haL 
 
 Among these words occur ta "great," nei "within," sh'i "thirty 
 years." From other sources we discover that p was the primitive 
 final of these words. In the Odes, however, the final found in these 
 words is t. It is a transitional value, like the final t of the Hakka 
 dialect, at present extending itself beyond its original sphere of opera- 
 
 12
 
 178 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 tion to words properly ending in p and k. P became t before being 
 dropped for ever. 
 
 XVI. Words in i, iJc. About thirty-two words in p'ing sheng here 
 occur, and about forty in ju sheng. Among the former are such 
 as chi "branch," ch'i "know," yi "easy," s'i "that." Among the 
 latter are ti " emperor," sik " tin," yik " increase," dik " enemy." 
 
 The loss of k in the p'ing sheng words of XVI. is quite clear in 
 instances such as yi "easy," t'i "to carry in the hands," because 
 they have final k in some passages as here shown. 
 
 XVII. Words in a, all in p'ing sheng; and sixty-five in number. 
 Among them are t'a "other," ho "what," ho "river," p'i "skin," 
 wei " to do," yi " ought," ma " hemp," tso, 2, " left," to " many," she 
 "snake," kia "add," ko "to sing," c'h'i "a lake," sh'i "give," mo 
 " grind," k'o, 2, "can." 
 
 The following ch'u sheng words occur here in p'ing sheng : ti 
 " earth," lu " way," pa " finish," kwo " pass," hica " renovate," 
 " change," p'o " break." 
 
 Tyt wrongly regards the rhyme as ending in a in the case 
 of two ju sheng words in XVII. They are ^ and || nok. He 
 should rather have said that the rhyme was in ak, and formed a 
 subdivision for ju sheng words. There is no evidence that k was lost 
 in these words so long ago. 
 
 TONIC DICTIONARIES. 
 
 Tonic dictionaries furnish very abundant and trustworthy evidence 
 on the history of the sounds. 
 
 These books began to appear about A.D. 350, when Kwo p'u and 
 Li teng made the first successful essays in this branch of study. 
 Their object was to register existing sounds. No thought of secular 
 change in sounds occurred to the scholars of this period. They 
 laboured under the light of Hindoo analysis of sounds, seeking only 
 to systematize the pronunciation of words as they were at the time, 
 and knowing nothing of any difference between ancient and modern. 
 Kwo p'u belonged to Ho tung, the old name of Shan tung, and such 
 part of Ch'i 1'i as lay to the East of the Yellow River in its ancient 
 course. The language in all that region at present is entirely 
 according to the modern Mandarin type. 
 
 A little earlier than the time of Kwo p'u appeared a work on
 
 TONIC DICTIONARIES. 179 
 
 Er ya, explaining the sounds and meaning of words. The author 
 was Sun shu yen. He lived at the end of the Han dynasty, or about 
 A.D. 200, and was the first to introduce the use of the word fan and 
 the syllabic spelling to which it refers. Tt. He lived not long after 
 the compilation of the Shwo wen, and we may therefore regard the 
 pronunciation as known to us by dictionaries and other works from 
 nearly the time of the author of the Shwo wen. We know from 
 these books how the language was spoken seventeen hundred years 
 ago or nearly so. 
 
 The preservation of old sounds in the tonic dictionaries is 
 often of great value, especially when dialects give no information. 
 Information on this subject occurs in the next chapter and in 
 Appendix C. 
 
 I give only one instance here. The union of the substantive verb 
 and the demonstrative in one word, sh'i, zJtik, dik, renders the old 
 form of that word, here written dik, very important to know and 
 verify. It means " it is so." As a demonstrative it means " this." 
 As an adjective it signifies " right." As copula in a predicative 
 sentence it acts as the connecting link between subject and predicate. 
 In the Yau tien it is written sh'i "time," "hour." Here a phonetic 
 which has final k is used, and it is in the oldest part of the Shu 
 king that this is done. If the sound in that passage can be shown to 
 be dik, the gain to classical knowledge will be great. 
 
 This can be done, for the dictionary Kwy registers ^ sh'i as zhik. 
 A thousand years ago such a sound was commonly attached to it. 
 This is confirmed by the rhymes of the Sh'i, where, according 
 to Tyt, J{| has the value dik, as proved by its rhyming with ^ bik 
 "a chief." 
 
 A fact like this helps us greatly in our inquiries. For this word 
 is a phonetic in extensive use, and we may obtain, by means of this 
 new knowledge of its old final letter, the exact form, or nearly so, 
 of the old roots ranged under it, which meant to examine, spoon, 
 key, cut, shoes, embankment, sharp point, silk woven from twisted 
 threads, explore, run, inscription, title. These are all written with 
 the phonetic 593. 
 
 To these we may add as also determined, the old sound of all 
 words written with 3f the phonetic of sh'i " hour." They embrace 
 the following meanings : To plant, insert in the ground, a perch for
 
 180 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 fowls to roost on, trust to, poetry, gatekeeper, attend upon, island, 
 hemorroids, to take, hold in the hand, stop, temple of ancestors, 
 alone, specially, store up grain, wait for. 
 
 OLD TRANSCRIPTIONS. 
 
 The Japanese first learned Chinese A.D. 286, when Atogi, son 
 of the King of Corea, went to Japan as ambassador. He recommended 
 the Japanese to send for "Wang jen, or as they pronounce it Wani, 
 to come to them and teach them Chinese. He taught them the 
 (Wu) Gro (yin) on ^ ^, or the language as then spoken in the 
 modern Nanking and Sucheu, A.D. 222 to 280. It is this pro- 
 nunciation that the Japanese still follow chiefly in their language. 
 
 The pronunciation then which the Japanese know as the Go on 
 belongs to the same period as Kwo p'u and the introduction of the 
 syllabic spelling into China. 
 
 The value of the Go on transcription is very great in a philological 
 point of view, because it is the favourite pronunciation in the Buddhist 
 books. This has led to its being very full and self-consistent on 
 account of the perpetual use made of it by priests in reciting liturgical 
 books. The extension of the Buddhist religion in Japan was a 
 principal instrument in advancing the knowledge of Chinese in that 
 country, and on account of this the pronunciation of the Wu kingdom 
 at the time mentioned is that which is best known to the Japanese. 
 
 The other two pronunciations are later. The Kan on, introduced 
 about A.D. 600, is said to be used specially by Confucianists. The 
 To on is a sort of metropolitan pronunciation, probably representing 
 the language as spoken in the Tang dynasty at the Chinese capital. 
 In A.D. 605 five Japanese students spent a year at that city, the 
 modern Si-an-fu, and the Arabian Kumdan. 1 This was in the Sui 
 dynasty, three hundred and nineteen years later than the time of the 
 introduction of the Go on. During this long interval the Buddhist 
 propaganda was active in Japan. The greater part of the Chinese 
 words that have passed into the Japanese language may be character- 
 ized as pronounced with the Go on. 
 
 1 Kumdan, mentioned as the capital of China by Arabian travellers, is King c'heng 
 Tnf 4ijB . Ng was beyond the power of Arabian vocal organs, and is expressed in the first 
 word by final m, and in the second by final . Kiang dang was the true sound, or nearly so, 
 that they had to express with Arabic letters.
 
 OLD TRANSCRIPTIONS. 181 
 
 The sounds were written at first without alphabetic signs by the 
 help of the Chinese characters used as phonetic symbols. The oldest 
 Japanese books "f ^ IS and ~$ 3|j ^ were written with Chinese 
 characters before the invention of the Japanese alphabet. The former 
 dates from A.D. 711. The latter from about A.D. 760. The Kata- 
 kana, or Japanese alphabet, was invented by Kibidaishi, who died 
 A.D. 776. Thus it appears that both the Go on and Kan on were 
 taught traditionally for centuries before they became fixed by the 
 adoption of an alphabet. 
 
 The Hirakana was introduced by Kobodaishi, who died A.D. 835. 
 Both these inventors of alphabets appear to have been Buddhists. 
 Dai shi is a common title of the Chinese Buddhists who write books. 
 Japanese education owed very much to Buddhism, as is clear from 
 this and many other facts. 
 
 The To on being comparatively modern, and at least several 
 centuries more recent than the Go on, is less important for us than 
 the other two. 
 
 A comparison of the Go on and Kan on resultif in the following 
 conclusions : l 
 
 The sound intended by *** the Japanese wu was at first ng. After- 
 wards the sound ng became attached to the symbol ^ n, and the 
 letter wu passed from a nasal into a vowel. 
 
 It was during the period between A.D. 280 and 605 that a medial 
 * was introduced in China in pronouncing such words as J5[ kit, 
 J^ k'ieu, formerly gu, k'n. The difference between the Go on and 
 Kan on shows this. During the same period e was in China 
 introduced as a medial letter in several words, and, as a final, 
 e changed to a in words such as "f, which in Go on is ge and in 
 Kan on ga. 
 
 The Japanese chi was at first ti and di, and afterwards changed to 
 chi, zhi. This was between A.D. 280 and 605. This change did not 
 take place in the Chinese language, but in the Japanese. Thus ~J* 
 has never changed in Chinese to ching, yet it is sounded by the 
 Japanese chi ya wu. The syllable changed its value therefore soon 
 after A.D. 280. The natural syllabary of the Japanese language was 
 subject to changes before the invention of the alphabet in use among 
 
 1 These new facts and conclusions in regard to the Japanese transcriptions were arrived at 
 by me during a visit to Japan in 1873.
 
 182 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 that people, and the history of their syllables can be traced by pecu- 
 liarities found in the native transcriptions of Chinese sounds. 
 
 The old sound of T chang is by Go on dji ya wu, but this is to be 
 read di yang by the preceding laws. Further, medial a was lost in 
 words such as $) between A.D. 286 and 605. It was formerly called 
 pi yang, and became pi yeng. This was a Chinese change. 
 
 In changing the name of the city of Yeddo, when it became the 
 residence of the emperor recently, the sounds To kio and To kei were 
 and are both used. The first is the Go on. and the. second Kan on. 
 The words are in Chinese ^ /^ " eastern capital." 
 
 The Corean transcription of Chinese sounds must, like the 
 Japanese, have been made -much later than the date of the intro- 
 duction of the Chinese* language and literature. 
 
 The relations of China with Corea go back as far as to B.C. 1100, 
 when a Chinese prince was made feudal lord of that peninsula. It 
 was from Corea that Japan received the knowledge of Chinese 
 civilization A.D; 280. At that time the Coreans would have a system 
 of education baseton the Chinese, and would transmit orally the 
 sounds of the characters. The spread of Buddhism led to the in- 
 vention of the Corean alphabet, which is a syllabary founded on the 
 Sanscrit characters. This is clear from their form and the order 
 of their arrangement. 
 
 The Corean and Japanese transcriptions support one another in 
 bearing testimony to the changes that have taken place in Chinese 
 sounds. 
 
 In the recent attempt made in Japan to strengthen the claims 
 of the Shinto religion to the respect of the people, it was stated 
 among other things that that ancient religion possessed an alphabet 
 which deserved to be better known and more used than it has been. 
 This so-called relic of old Shintoism proved to be no other than the 
 Corean alphabet. 
 
 The Cochin Chinese transcription is important on account of its 
 age. The country was conquered about 2000 years ago and reduced 
 into the form of a province. The Chinese sounds are likely to take a 
 form at least as ancient as those of Japan. 
 
 "We have the traditionary sound of the Chinese characters in the 
 Dictionary of Morrone, and there are here signs of great antiquity. 
 Thus initial t and t' occur in many words which are now heard in
 
 OLD TRANSCRIPTIONS. 183 
 
 China with, s, ch and c'h. The laws of letter change require us to 
 suppose that the slipping of letters which has here happened is from 
 t to s and ch, and not from s or ch to t. Ch'eit "enemy" is t'u. Shoiy 
 "holy" is Vang. Shen "spirit" is than. Stun "seek" is tim. Sin 
 "believe" is tin. Sing "nature" is ting. Sheng "sound" is tieng. 
 
 In all such cases the Cochin Chinese sound is an index to what the 
 Chinese sound was at the date of the transcription. The people of 
 South China must then at that time have pronounced a very large 
 number of words suclPks sit\i "heart," t'sien "money," c'hicen "boat," 
 c'h it "place," with initial t or t'. 
 
 Isolated examples come to view in different parts of China 
 supporting this conclusion. At Shanghai, money is called dien. At 
 Amoy and Tie chiu the word ch'i "straight" is tek and tit, and this is 
 an instance out of many tens of words where t occurs .for the Mandarin 
 ch. This transcription is also useful in the proof of the derivation of 
 the modern Chinese / from p. Thus Confucius is called IP on p'u tu. 
 Here final ng disappears from K'ung and fit ts'i becomes, p'u tu. 
 
 The remaining sources for the history of thWsounds are the 
 modern dialects, various native authors on old sounds, and the 
 Buddhist transcriptions of Sanscrit words. They are treated of in 
 other parts of this work and in the appendices.
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 ON LETTER CHANGES. 
 
 EXAMPLE OF LETTER CHANGE IN EUROPEAN LANGUAGES, K TO CH. CHINESE LETTER 
 CHANGES. 1. SURD AND SONANT FROM SIMPLE MUTES. 2. FORMATION OF ASPI- 
 RATED MUTES. 3. CHANGES IN THE THROAT LETTERS. 4. CHANGES IN THE 
 PALATAL REGION. 5. CHANGES IN TOOTH LETTERS. 6. CHANGES IN LIP LETTERS. 
 7. CHANGES IN THE VOWELS. 
 
 DURING the las^two thousand years we see in Europe a specially 
 prominent development of k into ch, or, speaking more generally, the 
 removal to the palate of the surd and sonant that formerly belonged 
 to the throat. Caisar has become Cesar. Calor has become shaleur. 
 Feapyos has become George. Largus is now lardj. Just as d slipped 
 into /, so g slipped into dj orj and k into ch, sh or s. But this change 
 can be traced to a much earlier time. It is found also in the Sclavonic 
 and Sanscrit vocabularies, and has its origin therefore in the period of 
 the formation of the Indo-European system, whenever that was. No 
 traces of it are found in the more easterly Asiatic families. When 
 conducting inquiries among their vocabularies, it may be noticed that 
 the hissing letters s, sh, j, and ch, all originate in the tooth series. It 
 was an ancient characteristic in human speech for the voice to slide 
 from the teeth to the palate. It is a modern characteristic for it to 
 slide from the throat to the palate. In modern Chinese ki and ku 
 have become chi and chu, but this is by the operation of a new 
 principle, entirely unknown to the ancient language. There is no 
 ground in the history of the Chinese language for our tracing the 
 origin of this change from k to ch, when standing before certain 
 vowels (', u), to a period farther back than three or four centuries. 
 In the dictionaries of the Yuen dynasty there is no trace of it. In 
 the corresponding European change, on the other hand, we cannot
 
 LETTER CHANGES. 
 
 185 
 
 place the date of its introduction later than the time when the Hindoo 
 race had not separated from its western kindred. 
 
 The most important letter changes now to be described are, first, 
 the division of surd and sonant flowing from the simple mutes; 
 second, the formation of aspirated mutes ; third, changes in the throat 
 letters ; fourth, in the palatal region ; fifth in the tooth region ; 
 sixth, in the lip region ; seventh, in the vowels. 
 
 1. SONANT AND SURD. 
 
 This change may be observed still in the relation of the Old 
 Middle Dialect to the northern and western Mandarin. Accumulated 
 proof has been given in the last chapter that the initials b, d, g, j, s, 
 once belonged to the general language. They still exist in the Old 
 Middle Dialect as spoken over a triangle of thickly populated land, of 
 which the base reaches from the mouth of the Yang ts'i kiang along 
 the sea-coast to the south boundary of Che kiang, and of which the 
 apex is in Kiang si. Along the sides of the triangle lies a belt of land 
 fifty miles wide more or less, where the dialect is irregular and un- 
 fixed. Beyond it is a new system. Within it is the region of the 
 old sonant initials. This triangle was once co-extensive with the 
 nation. Slowly it has diminished to its present limits, comprising 
 perhaps sixty millions of people. 
 
 In the following tables the sonants of the old language are shown 
 breaking up into aspirates and surds in four different dialects now ex- 
 isting. It will be seen that the tone class to which words belong has 
 something to do with their modern sound. Thus gio " a bridge " 
 becomes predominantly k'iau in modern dialects, because it is in the 
 Hia p'ing tone class. But gio "a sedan chair," being in the Hia c'hii 
 tone class, becomes predominantly kiau in the modern dialects. 
 
 Table of tenues, mediae, and aspirates in the modern Chinese dialects. 
 Fifth tone, Hia p'ing. 
 
 OLD 
 CHINESE. 
 
 HAND. 
 
 OLD MIDDLE 
 DIALECT. 
 
 HAKKA. 
 
 SOUTH 
 FUKIEN. 
 
 CANTOX. 
 
 9 
 
 c'h, k' (h} 
 
 rCIO 
 
 k' 
 
 *',* 
 
 k ( 
 
 d 
 
 t<(!) 
 
 d 
 
 f 
 
 t', t 
 
 t 1 
 
 I 
 
 *'(/) 
 
 (t) 
 
 P ( 
 
 ?,p(*i 
 
 P'
 
 186 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 Sixth, seventh, and eighth tones, Hia shang, Hia c'hii, Hia ju. 
 
 OLD 
 
 CHINESE 
 
 HAND. 
 
 OLD MIDDLE 
 DIALECT. 
 
 HAKKA. 
 
 SOUTH 
 FUKIEN. 
 
 CANTON. 
 
 9 
 
 eh. k (K) 
 
 *(*)(#) 
 
 *'(*) 
 
 k', k 
 
 k 
 
 d 
 
 t(l) 
 
 d 
 
 f 
 
 V, t 
 
 t 
 
 b 
 
 p(n 
 
 00 
 
 P' 
 
 P',P(V 
 
 P 
 
 The other four tone classes, i.e. the other half of the vocabulary of 
 words having mute initials, need not be here tabulated, because they 
 have no mediae, and they had arrived at their present state before the 
 separation of the dialects. In regard to these words, aspirates are 
 aspirates in all the dialects, and tenues are tenues. They grew up 
 therefore in the pre-Confucian era, or soon after the epoch of the Sage, 
 but before the dialects assumed distinct forms. 
 
 What has taken place with the initials of the words represented in 
 the table shows a tendency to change sonants to surds existing during 
 twelve hundred years and extending over five-sixths of the country. 
 
 Probably a similar change affected the corresponding groups 
 represented by the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th tone classes at an earlier 
 period in the history of the language. 
 
 LETTER CHANGES. 
 
 A law like that of Grimm, when found in Eastern Asia, only 
 occurs within a limited period, and, as it would appear, within the 
 area of one such language as the Chinese or Mongolian or Japanese. 
 
 This view is based on the following facts. 1. In Chinese the 
 changes of letters are open to easy observation, and they take place 
 now, as they have done for centuries past, in a way something like that 
 of Grimm's law. D changes to t and to the aspirated t in proportion 
 as the area of the northern and western Mandarin trenches gradually 
 more and more on the region of the central and southern dialects. In 
 the translations of Hiuen tsang, who after his return from India 
 twelve centuries ago lived at Chang an, in the modern Shen si, the 
 sonant initials are found distinct and unquestionable. At present the 
 dialect of that province has no trace of them so far as has yet been 
 discovered. They have merged into the unaspirated and aspirated 
 letters of the surd series. 
 
 2. The initials k, k' and g occur commonly within the range of any
 
 LETTER CHANGES. 187 
 
 given phonetic. Thus ^ kan "a pole" 20, is also han and k'an in the 
 dictionary Kwang yun. So kiai "all" 570 takes as initials the lower 
 h and k' in the same work. These transitions of sound are the 
 equivalent of the transitions which Grimm's law is concerned with, 
 but they take place within the area of one language, and as to their 
 time they are anterior to the date of the dictionary in which they 
 occur, and of the origin of the syllabic spelling. 
 
 3. In Mongol, while the same word humun "man," for example, 
 occurs in the dictionary only under one initial, it is found in the 
 dialects to be hicmi, k'wu-n, and gmm. The Sunid people prefer g. 
 The western Mongols like k c . The eastern Mongols have a fancy for 
 h. This is a law occurring under the same conditions as in China. 
 We cannot learn the changes of Mongol sounds from old dictionaries 
 as we can the Chinese. But so far as the existing dialects afford us 
 information, they reveal the existence of a law similar to that which 
 exists in Chinese. In either of these languages it will be found that 
 within an area of a few hundred miles initial g in one dialect will be 
 exchanged for an aspirated initial k in another, and (in Mongolian) 
 for h in a third. 
 
 Phonetics in Chinese, originally, as we may suppose, having one 
 initial, show a tendency to break up into parcels distinguished by a 
 difference in the initials. 
 
 Thus ehung 122 "middle," "to strike the middle," "faithful," 
 occurs as Jung "insect," "reptile," "empty," and as c'hung "sad," 
 " empty." These initials are changed from t, d, t l . The correspond- 
 ing Mongol word for "middle" is domda, in which da is suffix and m 
 is the old final, which has in Chinese become ng. 
 
 In Mongol the derivatives are all such as have the initial occurring 
 in one form only. Thus when d is the initial of the root, it will be 
 also that of the derivatives. In Chinese, where our means of exam- 
 ination are much more extended, we may suppose reasonably that 
 chicang "to pack full," and c'hung "full," are the same word modified. 
 T'ung "to penetrate" is the same as t'sung "penetrating in ability 
 and perception." 
 
 The natural intonations attached to Chinese words help to separate 
 words which were once alike. Chung "middle" has the first intona- 
 tion. With the active sense "to strike in the middle," it has the 
 departing tone or third.
 
 188 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 Kiuc or kit, "this," "that," "he," is probably the same with k'i 
 $, also called gi, c'hi, j'i, and anciently pronounced, as is most 
 likely, git. 
 
 A difference in the initial of two words did not prevent the same 
 phonetic from being used for both. A difference in the phonetic of 
 two words cannot, if we study the letter changes, conceal their 
 original kinship when their meaning and sound point to the fact. 
 
 2. ASPIRATED MUTES. 
 
 Whether the aspirated k, t, and p belonged to the earliest form of 
 Chinese cannot be determined. In the lower tone classes (V. to 
 VIII.) they spring from the sonant g, d, b. What was their history 
 in the upper tone classes is beyond our research. T'en "heaven," 
 k'un "dog," were aspirated as long ago as we can trace their sound. 
 
 This class of letters has attained a very distinct development in 
 the Tartar languages and in Tibetan, as also in Sanscrit, and may 
 therefore be expected to be a primitive feature in Chinese. 
 
 Definite information on this point it is vain to expect from the 
 phonetics. Thus %} 338 kit, 4, kok, "valley," is k'io, c'hiue, 4, k'ok, 
 when used with R. city gj{. Phonetics have been employed as 
 symbols of words without reference to whether those words were 
 aspirated or not. 
 
 Here is another example. P. 86 c'heu, t'ok, name of the hour 1 to 
 3 A.M., is also nieu, nok, in Kwy, and sieu, sok, in p. 730. The three 
 initials have all sprung from a common source t, t', or d. We cannot 
 now tell which was the oldest. 
 
 The compilers of Kang hi notice under R. heart, p. leaf, ^ that 
 the dictionaries Kwy, Tsy, both give Vip and dip as the sounds, but 
 that Chy gives only tip. The two former pronunciations are more 
 likely to be right, they add, and the phonetic might warrant this 
 being expected. That is to say, the aspirated and sonant initials 
 occur commonly in the same words or phonetics, and the surd is 
 cften more recent than either. 
 
 Recently the aspirated letters have been entering into the 
 language with increased frequency. J| ch'an " to bear children," 
 " produce," is shan in Kwy, Tsy, and also c'han in the same works. 
 Jjjf so " that which," is used in spelling words with its old initial sh. 
 
 All the sonant initials capable of taking the aspirated surd form
 
 LETTER CHANGES. 189 
 
 in the Hia p'ing tone class have done so. All words in that class 
 commencing with k, t, p, ch, ts, are aspirated. 
 
 3. THROAT LETTERS. 
 
 Recently initial g has changed in tone classes V. to VIII. to k 
 and k'. The same may have taken place anciently with phonetics 
 which we now only know as having A-, k ( , and as being in the tone 
 classes I. to IV. There has been an extensive change from k and g 
 to h. Every initial h becomes k on being transferred to Japanese, as 
 if h were commonly pronounced k at the time that the Japanese 
 transcription was made. But it may have been because the Japanese 
 at that time had no h. The Japanese h has been developed recently 
 from f and p. There are proofs stronger than this from the example 
 of Japanese transcribers. The Hindoo transcribers when writing 
 Ganges in Chinese used *jg heng "constant." This character was 
 therefore formerly called Gang. Two centuries later, when the 
 traveller Hiuen Tsang made new translations from Sanscrit, he 
 avoided this character for Ganges and used another, now called k'iny, 
 but then evidently called Gang. We conclude that P. 506 changed 
 g to h about A.D. 500. 
 
 That this was not a solitary instance, may be shown by reference 
 to the Amoy dialect, in which several words have initial k which in other 
 dialects have h : e.g. Jiien " district city," is there kicai n ; hing 
 " walk," is kia"9. The Amoy people in reading these words change 
 k to h. This habit is in exact accordance with the direction of 
 change, which is not from h to k, but from k to h. The vulgar initial 
 is more archaic than the cultivated. The ancient sound lingers in 
 the vernacular of a border province when it has been changed for 
 many centuries everywhere else. 
 
 H in Chinese rests on k or g as its basis. Yet at present it is 
 rapidly passing to the tooth region, for in northern and western 
 Mandarin hi is now identical with si, and hii with sii. If is therefore 
 gradually leaving the guttural region and attaching itself to the 
 dental region. This is an example of how k and g, by first changing 
 to h, may become s, and it is an extremely modern one. 
 
 There has been a similar change from k'i and k'ii to c'/ii and c'hu, 
 as also from ki and kit to chi and chu. It is in the same dialects with 
 the preceding, and is a phenomenon equally recent.
 
 190 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 The change of k to / will now be considered. This change is 
 specially prominent in the occurrence of k and I in the same phonetics, 
 a phenomenon which is very frequent. In kien "to choose," the 
 sense is the same whether the initial is k or I, for lien is also "to 
 choose." It is hard to believe then that / has not come out of k 
 somehow. In what way the transition took place it is very difficult 
 to determine. In German and English we have gleich, the same as 
 like. Here / has been inserted, as I suppose, and g has then been 
 pushed away and lost. But it is contrary to the genius of the 
 Chinese phonology to insert I after an initial mute. Such a physio- 
 logical fact may occur at any time, but where is the dialect which 
 will prove its occurrence by furnishing examples of it ? I again ask 
 may not k have changed to ni, or ng have changed again to / ? But 
 there is a third hypothesis. "When y is inserted after g or k in the 
 Shanghai dialect, g and k are heard like d and t. Gio "sedan chair," 
 nearly = did. Ki6 " a religion," nearly = U6. New-comers write gio 
 "bridge" jaw. Natives correct their pronunciation, and try to bring 
 them back to g. Still they prefer j as more near to what they hear. 
 This is evidence of a tendency from the guttural to the dental region. 
 Thus J^ kwan, kan, "to be accustomed to," p. 781, is Men, gan, in 
 p. 832. Here i or y is inserted. In an earlier stage of the language 
 h was preceded by g. On the y coming in, the g would be changed 
 to dj or d, and this d might become altered to I, as was common long 
 ago. Of the three hypotheses this seems the best. In confirmation 
 of it let it be noticed that in lien " to become accustomed to," and 
 lien " to choose," the y is found to be inserted in both cases. 
 
 The number of words in k and /, or their equivalents, whose 
 meaning is like, is by no means small. Kiem " pick up," Hem " gather 
 up ;" kam " to like," lam " to be greedy ;" kiem 688 " covet," t'am 
 " covet," hwang, tang, " wild in behaviour ; " 946, 995, kam, lam, 
 both mean "to see;" fg| yo, gak, "music," lak "joyful." Re- 
 member too that the phonetic element lim " forest " forms part 
 of kirn " to prohibit," " restrain." Further, kim and Hang both mean 
 "cold." Compare also 749 ngeu "to scoop out," c'hu "a pivot," so 
 named, as it would seem, from the scooped hollow in which it rests. 
 
 The change, however it occurred, took place so long ago that it 
 has run its course, and left no vestiges in modern dialects sufficient to 
 furnish complete explanation of the manner in which it came about.
 
 LETTER CHANGES. 191 
 
 Final letters in their changes do not follow the same laws as 
 initials. But it should be mentioned that when final k changes, it 
 changes to t, and when final t was changing in the time of the T'ang 
 dynasty, it took the form r. 
 
 A presumptive proof of the transition from k to I is furnished by 
 the fact that if phonetics which end in m have mixed initials, which 
 are in some words guttural k, h, y, and in other words dental t, ch, 
 s, I, the final letter is m throughout. Similarly if the final is n with 
 mixed initials, guttural and dental, the final is n throughout. Cf. 467. 
 
 According to the preferable hypothesis, as now given, k changed 
 to t and g to d. Afterwards t became s or ch in some cases, and d 
 became ch or /. The reality of this change can scarcely be viewed as 
 doubtful when the facts as now stated are carefully considered. Such 
 difficulties as occur may be referred to the caprices of writers, which in 
 each age of the history of Chinese writing have had no small in- 
 fluence in modifying it. A direct transition from k to / is unlikely. 
 D is the natural predecessor of / in Chinese phonology. D, again, 
 comes more naturally from g than from k. Lastly, g in Chinese 
 phonology proceeds easily from k. 
 
 While on this subject, let it be remembered that h, j, f, occur as 
 initials in the same phonetic. This is a singular phenomenon hard 
 of explanation. We find in p. 756 han,jan, fan. 
 
 The occurrence of h and ni as initial to J| 756, R. fire, meaning 
 to "dry by fire," "dry," is perhaps a key to part of the mystery. 
 This character was called han and nicn. JTwe know changes to ng, 
 and ng, ni, are sometimes confounded. Thus nieu "cow" is gu in 
 Fukien and ngeu in Ningpo. Further, n changes to /. If n can be 
 shown also to change to t, the riddle will be solved. I also here 
 mention that in Eastern Kiang si the aspirated t becomes h. This is 
 a change the other way. But it probably arises only from dental 
 indistinctness limited to one locality. 
 
 The word ni "thou," "you," now er (r'i), has in it a small oblique 
 cross four times repeated |$f 937, and this sign has the value gak in 
 several phonetics. The prevalent initial of 937 is dental, e.g. ni, n, s. 
 Here there seems to be a change from g to ni or . 
 
 The sound spelt by Mr. Wade hs is quite modern, and has not 
 found its way yet into native dictionaries. It is formed from h and 
 from s, and is a temporary coalescing of these sounds. The sound is
 
 192 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 undecided and appears to be on its way to sh. Hs only occurs before 
 the vowels i and M. In correspondence with it is the coalescence of 
 ts and k before the vowels i and u. There is here the same want of 
 decision in the sound and the same difficulty in knowing how to spell 
 it. It is usually spelt chi, chu. 
 
 Initial w and y are often derived from g and k. 
 
 W and y are inserted after consonants to lengthen the sound, and 
 sometimes they increase in power and push off the initial letters. 
 Thus under the phonetic yuen ffi 383, sometimes written without the 
 cap to it, we have now in Mandarin no sounds but yuen and wan. 
 Compare also p. 704 J^ wen "warm." 
 
 Yuen, R. heart, "feel aggrieved," "a small perforated hole for 
 thread," "hate," "feel surprised." R. bird, "Mandarin goose." 
 K. bamboo, "a canister." R. grass, "flourishing." 
 
 Wan, R. knife, "cut out in concave shape." R. wood, "cup." 
 R. flesh, "wrist." R. bean, "peas." 
 
 The reasons for believing that k or g has been lost are the follow- 
 ing. "To hate" is hen. "Goose" is otherwise called ngen or gen. 
 "To cut out in concave shape" is also written with the P. y^ 61, which 
 has ng as its old initial. Several round objects, such as balls, cups, 
 plates, canisters, and baskets, seem to be written indifferently with 
 p. 383, 386 ^ kwan, 46 )t Jiwan, 61 yuen or wan. 
 
 Since there is no trace in p. 383, P. 704, of the lost initial, it is 
 probable that when these characters were made, it had already dis- 
 appeared in the words written with these phonetics. At that time 
 certain equivalents still retaining the g, k, or h, were written with 
 other phonetics, such as 386 and 61, which retain k t or g in dialects or 
 in Mandarin. 
 
 The first step of change was the insertion of w. Then the initial 
 g became ng. Lastly ng was dropped. Ng often became ni before it 
 was dropped. 
 
 The initials g, ng, and h are apt to become lost before wan. 
 
 Wan " a pill," is spelt in the dictionaries with g and h as its 
 initials. In actual pronunciation that letter is not heard. 
 
 The phonetics wan 46 " pill," " small ball," % 61 yuen 
 " origin," " covet," " love," " finish," " round," " stupid ; " wan 294 
 "finish," "small shield," "strike," "laugh," "bright," "tube," 
 "small round cake of flour," "white," "thigh bone," "a name of
 
 LETTER CHANGES. 193 
 
 residences and offices," have under various radicals many words spelt 
 in the dictionaries with ng, g, h, and k. Thus under the radical 
 heart, p. 61, ican " to love," " covet," is spelt with WK, ngu, " five." 
 Under the same phonetic in many words in the modern pronunciation 
 the same sounds h, k, are retained. Thus yuen " to wish," at Amoy is 
 gican. Ng is a favourite consonant at Fu cheu and in Che kiang. At 
 Shanghai, a little further north, ni occurs often for ng. A little 
 north of Shanghai y takes the place of ni. 
 
 In the tonic dictionaries of the T'ang dynasty ng is the initial. 
 
 But how do we know that ng came from g ? In reply, let it be 
 said that kiucn " a circle," and yuen " a circle," are analogous and 
 ultimately identical. The root is found most distinctly in the surd 
 series, but its proper point of departure is gon in the sonant series. 
 The root in this form gave out branches, viz. kon, ngon, k'on, all 
 meaning " round." This is according to the analogy of changes now 
 taking place, by which g becomes k and k', when passing from the 
 old middle dialect into Mandarin. 
 
 In hu " to assent," f hok, kok, we have a phonetic which in b 
 " noon," is ngu in old Chinese and mi in Mandarin. Here the vowel 
 u acts as an inserted w would do. It pushes off the initial ng. But 
 the initial h in hu shows that the primitive initial was not ng, but 
 rather g, from which sprang k and h in one direction and ng in 
 another direction. In regard to ng and ni, when there is a disagree- 
 ment in the initial between dialects, the reason is found in a transi- 
 tion from ng to ni. Thus ngu or gu, the old word for " cow," becomes 
 nieu in Mandarin. Ngi " son" is ni in the dictionaries, and becomes 
 ni and ng in the Shanghai dialect. 
 
 The dictionary Kwy sometimes gives the same phonetic with both 
 initials. P. 365 nie "obstruction," is nit and ngit. The priority 
 of ng over ni may be known in some words by the Mongol, e.g. 
 hubegun " son," has a guttural initial. On the other hand, the 
 Mongol c'hihe " ear," is reducible to tik. Perhaps ni for " ear," 
 would have therefore originally a dental initial. But the Amoy hi 
 in hi kang " ear," would then be another root, which is not likely. 
 Mandarin words in r and j appear in Kwy with ni, or with ngi. 
 These come usually from d, but occasionally also from g. 
 
 Ng from g. That ng comes from g appears from the occurrence 
 of both in the same phonetic. Thus ^ yau, 5, ngok, " the Emperor 
 
 13
 
 194 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 Yau," has as a phonetic usually the value kian or Man. But h and k 
 come from g, and Yau being in the lower series of tone classes, should 
 also come from g, to complete the natural connexion of the sounds. 
 So 472a Jg- yo "mountain," is in the dictionaries ngali. But this 
 is no other than the root used in the name of the Emperor Yau. 
 It is also identical with kau, 1, kok, "high," and several other 
 words with like meaning, and sprung from the same root, which 
 may be called gok. So also yen, 5, ngem, 1035, " a precipitous and 
 abrupt cliff," is the same with 815 hiem. 
 
 That the direction of change has been from g to ng, and not from 
 ng to g, may be supported by the fact that in the language at present 
 ng is a new initial in many words, e.g. in % ngan or an, " rest," we 
 have a word which, when Roman visitors went to China in the reign 
 of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, was selected to spell the first syllable 
 of that monarch's name. Hence ng was not an initial of the word in 
 the latter half of the second century of our era. 
 
 Many examples occur of k and ng meeting as initials in the same 
 phonetic; e.g. $fc kicei " demon," with R. ln.i[\,feu, is ngicei "lofty." 
 
 Final k has been extensively dropped in consequence of a law by 
 which all the final surds, k, t, and p, have disappeared. 
 
 When the mediaeval dictionaries give two sounds to characters of 
 which one is in the fourth tone class (ju) and the other in the third 
 (c'hu), this means that the dropping of k, t, or p final was taking place 
 at the time. In A.D. 500, for example, tak "to weave" was pronounced 
 tik (Ky) and ti, the former in the ju tone class and the latter in 
 the c'hu. 
 
 T'i "to end," "destroy," "wait," is in Kwy, Tsy, Yh, pronounced 
 t'i in c'hu sheng. But in Tsy, Yh, Chy, it is also pronounced Viet 
 "loosen," "relaxed." Final t then was being lost during the period 
 A.D. 600 to 1200. 
 
 ^ 799, composed of R. spear, kico, and yin "sound," "adhesive 
 earth," is in Kwy chik (tik) and in Tsy chik, sh'i 3, and ctii 3. Here 
 we see the k losing its ground in the time of Tsy, while in the earlier 
 period of Kwy it was strongly rooted in the language. During the 
 same time ch (ti) became sh or ch'. 
 
 Final k sometimes changed to t before being lost altogether. 
 Thus in Kwy tsio "a bird," 626, is tsak and chit. The final t is 
 here a transitional sound destined shortly to disappear. In p. 974
 
 LETTER CHANGES. 195 
 
 tsie "moderation," "joint," we have final t well established, and in 
 575 tsi "immediately," final k and t are in Kwy much mixed. 
 Final k is found by Tyt in the Odes as the final of this phonetic, and 
 is the one final of both. In hiue "blood" 281, hit and hik both 
 occur in Kwy. Probably where k occurs, as with R. water, " canal," 
 R. blood, is used ideographically in the sense of reticulated. 
 
 At present in Amoy and Tie chiu ~ft lik "strength," is also called 
 lat, a modern instance of an ancient law. 
 
 In some phonetics commencing in m, where k does not occur as a 
 final in the dictionaries or dialects, it may be shown by the meanings 
 to have formerly existed. Thus $fc mi " rice," jg{| " deceive," 
 "bewilder," has k, because (1), 627 mik has the sense "dark;" (2), 
 546 meu, mok, has that of "stupid," "dark," " dim vision ;" (3), 788 
 mok means " cover with the hands," " stupid," " a veil," " evening." 
 
 So also ^ mau, " hair" with yu "feathers," has the sound mok in 
 the dictionaries, and interchanges with 546. In the case of 597 p| 
 mau, the final k is found in Kwy alone and with R. boat, and kia " a 
 coat of mail." In 589 g miau " young grain," a picture of a field 
 with grass growing above, the k is likely to have existed by the 
 meaning miau, to draw a copy of pictures or characters, which prob- 
 ably means originally " make black strokes," and is the same word 
 as me "ink," mei " coal," both of which have final k. Also miau has 
 the sense " seek," which is found in phonetic 773a mek. 
 
 The phonetic ^y jo, nok, " if," is found in Kwy twice with the 
 sound nit, viz. with RR. sun, heart. This helps to show that the 
 course of change was from k to t. 
 
 In the case of phonetics beginning with ki, tsi, si,j, examples are 
 more numerous than with others. Thus Jpf sie, 4, sit, " fragment," is 
 so spelt in Kwy. The phonetic >Jt siait, sok, " small," would lead the 
 incautious to believe that t could not be the final ; but wrongly so, for 
 Sw has /\ pa instead of siau. The latter of these came into use be- 
 cause its sense suited the meaning of sie. 
 
 In the Tie chiu dialect we find I? met, pronounced ngiak, as also 
 with RR. wood and rice in place of son. In the same dialect || niet is 
 ngiak. Probably here k is old, and on this the dictionaries give us 
 some light. The meanings also render final k the more probable 
 ancient owner of the position of final letter in these words. Thus 
 ngai " to stumble," was ngak. The stump of a tree left after cutting
 
 196 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 down the trunk was written with wood underneath instead of son, and 
 is called in Kh nget and ngak. The last is in a poem of Su tung p'o, 
 A.D. 1000. 
 
 The chronology of letter changes of this sort may be determined 
 in the following manner. When in the classical period we find a 
 word for " thou," written in the Yi li by ] Jok, and in the Shu by 
 R. water, p. Ju, the respective phonetics of these words being in 
 more than one particular closely related, we conclude that in the 
 Cheu dynasty, at the time when the Yi li was written, the final k 
 of this word for " thou" was not yet lost. Else why should the 
 writer use for it a character which kept its k down to the T'ang 
 dynastj^ ? 
 
 The finals ng and n are confused at present in western and 
 southern Mandarin, and partially in the Old Middle Dialect. At 
 Nanking, e.g. Ian and lang are sounded alike. 
 
 Tai tung was a native of S'i chwen. He says in explaining the 
 Fan t'sie or syllabic spelling, that 'ffi shang "merchant" is spelled by 
 joining jj^ sh'i "a model," and ^pT kan "a pole." Being himself a 
 speaker of western Mandarin as it existed 700 years ago, he did not 
 notice that an and ang are not one sound. 
 
 Final ng has been lost from a few words. "J" ta "to beat," with 
 R. hand, is called tang in Shanghai. The dialect there has preserved 
 the old sound. Such examples are rare. 
 
 4. PALATAL LETTERS. 
 
 Among the palatal letters is j. It comes from ni and is modern 
 Chinese. At Sucheu and the cities lying west of it towards Nanking 
 there is to some words both a reading and a colloquial sound. Among 
 the words having/ in the reading sound are Jen "man," Jen "patience," 
 je "hot." In the colloquial dialect these words are sounded with ni. 
 
 In transcriptions from Sanscrit, such words represent Sanscrit 
 syllables beginning with ni. This change has taken place within the 
 last thousand years. 
 
 Among the 36 initials j ranks as the last. It is r before the 
 vowel z, as in r'i 2 "ear," r'i 5 "and," "son," r'i 3 "two." That is to 
 say, the old ni has become separated into two initials j and r in the 
 modern language.
 
 LETTER CHANGES. 197 
 
 Ch comes regularly from t in Chinese and neighbouring languages. 
 Thus cfii "to know" is U in Amoy. Since ch was found by the 
 Hindoo authors of the syllabic spelling already existing in the 
 language, but not so widely spread as now, this is a change that took 
 place within a time reaching back to at least the beginning of the 
 Christian era. Thus then the Chinese ch has a dental origin. The 
 tongue has slipped back from the upper teeth to the palate. 
 
 Since the whole of the words commencing with t did not together 
 make this change, but only a part of them, there was some law of 
 limitation. That law was probably based on the nature of the 
 following vowel. At present when k becomes ch, it is necessary that 
 the vowels i or ii follow. The same necessity may have existed when 
 some of the words beginning with t took ch instead of it, while others 
 kept t unaltered. In Amoy cho " to take fire," is tio, and c'heng " a 
 city," is sia"ff. If, however, it was necessary that i should follow t in 
 order that t might become ch, it was not a necessity ruling in all 
 words, for t'in "heaven" still kept its t unaltered. Yet this word 
 may very well have been t l en and so escaped change. 
 
 The old initial d became ch in the same way. Yet there was a 
 difference. D first changed to dj, and afterwards, when the sonants 
 all became surds, j was altered to ch or c'h. Thus ch'wen "boat," 
 once dun, assumed the form Jon in the Sucheu dialect and the region 
 west of that city. The next step, as shown in the case of the Nanking 
 dialect, will be to change j to c'h. 
 
 C'h aspirated occurs in words which belong to the fifth tone class, 
 or hia p'ing. Ch occurs in words belonging to the three tone classes 
 known as hia p'ing, hia c'hii, hia jit. 
 
 There are words beginning with ni which do not in Mandarin 
 change that initial for/. These are such as niang "woman," "wife," 
 "mother," "lady," nii "woman," "daughter." 1 
 
 Kwo pu tells us that in his time, A.D. 350, wives of brothers in 
 Kwan si (Shan si) addressed one another as dok Uk. The characters 
 here are J^[J J[. The orthography cheu li, now expresses the sound 
 of the words that he had in view. In spelling the sound of cheu by 
 the syllabic method, he used JjH ^ dok. Hence d was the initial and 
 k the final in his time. 
 
 1 These words are placed by Kh under the ch series and not under /. Kh's reason is 
 that they never become j or r.
 
 198 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 5. TOOTH LETTERS. 
 
 The old t, t', s, ts, sh, t's, n, in the case of many words remain 
 as they were. The old d, z, zh, have become , t', ts and t's, sh and 
 ch or c'h. Many words having formerly t and t e have taken ch or c'h 
 instead. 
 
 In Chinese, as in other languages, s has quite commonly sprung 
 from t. Thus in Cochin Chinese and dialects further south, sit 
 "heart" is tim. When Cochin China was made a province in the 
 Han dynasty, if the initial t was common in China, its appearance in 
 the Cochin Chinese vocabulary is accounted for. That it was so is to 
 be shown by examples which throw light on the law of sibilization. 
 
 In the south Fu kien and eastern Canton dialects we have the 
 same phenomenon. This is not by change from ch to t, which is 
 unprecedented, but by change from t to ch in Mandarin and in those 
 parts of China where ch exists. In Tie chiu, chung "middle" is tong, 
 c'ha "tea" is te, chui "to follow" is tui, ch'i "straight" is tit for dik. 
 
 The title of the Emperor of the Hiung nu, corresponding to the 
 Chinese " Son of heaven," is given in Panku's History of the Han 
 Dynasty. The Turkish word for "son" is there said to be 5 \fe 
 ko do. This is probably the same as ugli, the word now used. The 
 Turks of the time would say for " son of heaven," T'ingri gndu or 
 ugudu. Since that time d has changed to / in Turkish. Panku's 
 word ko do is now read ku t'u by the speaker of Mandarin. 
 
 In regard to the epoch when t became s and ch, we may conclude 
 that it was in the case of very many words a little after the Han 
 dynasty. The Cochin Chinese transcription was made in that 
 dynasty. Later by a few centuries we have the early tonic dic- 
 tionaries, which contain a very large number of examples of words 
 in t and d now pronounced with s or ch. The change was spread 
 over several centuries, and appears to have been completed in the 
 T'ang dynasty a thousand years ago. We must except the province 
 of Fu kien, where the change here referred to is not yet concluded. 
 
 D has in many words changed to sh, through the medium of dj. 
 There is no room for doubt that this change has taken place ex- 
 tensively. According to the spelling of sh'i ^ with R. metal in the 
 dictionaries, we have the sounds ti in Kwy and Tsy, " a sharp edge," 
 di in Tsy, "an instrument for pricking blood," dji in Tsy, "key."
 
 LETTER CHANGES. 199 
 
 In the introduction of ,;' we see the first step, taken in the Sung 
 dynasty, of the sibilating process in this word. The next step was 
 the change of dj to sh. 
 
 DJ thus produced long kept its position at the beginning of 
 several words, as is shown by the Mongol transcriptions in the Yuen 
 dynasty, when Baschpa's alphabet was used to write Chinese sounds. 
 Here dj frequently occurs. 
 
 The character for S'i c'hwen ^ shu, is given as dok in Kp 
 A.D. 350. In Ty, Tsy, it is zhok and in Mandarin shu. It is a worm 
 that preys on the sunflower, and resembles a silkworm in form, but 
 likes different leaves. 
 
 The change of d to / has taken place extensively, but not in recent 
 times. At Shanghai clii li " closely attached," is called dze di. This 
 is an unquestionable instance of the change from d to /. 
 
 Examples are not only rare in dialects, but in phonetics. Yet 
 among the phonetics there are some instances of sh and / meeting 
 as branches of one family or phonetic tree. Thus $jjfc shu, shok, 
 " number," has a phonetic which also occurs as leu 789. These are 
 to be explained as follows : d became both sh and L In this instance 
 the double change took place subsequently to the invention of the 
 character. Duk was the sound when the character was invented. 
 The character was applied to the senses "tower," "several times," 
 "silk thread," "to engrave," etc., which all became leu or lu. 
 Afterwards shok " number," needing a character, this one was with 
 p'u, one of the hand radicals, employed for the purpose, either as a 
 suitable ideograph having the sense "several times," or phonetically 
 by change of d to sh. 
 
 In most cases there is no likelihood that d changed to / and sh 
 after the invention of the characters. Numerous words occur in pairs 
 having the same sense and differing in their initials only. Such are 
 | shwang "two," ffi Hang "two." The inventors of writing chose 
 different characters to write these words because they were already 
 separated. 
 
 The following examples will help to show that words whose 
 initials are s, sh, ts, or ch, very often agree in meaning with words 
 whose initial is /. 
 
 Shwang "clear," "fresh," t'sing "clear," Jiang "bright," Hang 
 " clear," lang " clear."
 
 200 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 Shwang " cool," shwang " frost," sang " clear," Hang " cool," leng 
 "cold," ling "ice." 
 
 Siang "think," Hang "calculate," "measure," "conjecture." 
 
 Siang "chest," "basket," lung "cage," ling "prison." 
 
 Sung " high," lung " high," tsung " high." 
 
 Sheng "sound," t'ing "hear," ling "hear," ling "command." 
 
 Si, sik, " addition," " gain," It, lik, " interest of money." 
 
 Tsung "all together," chung "all," lung "bring together," "the 
 whole," t'ung " the whole." 
 
 See Appendix B for the Chinese characters and more examples. 
 
 L, s, sh, having become parted from the original d and t, are 
 usually found in separate phonetics. That it should not be so always 
 is evidence that the change of d or t into those letters, continued to a 
 small extent beyond the time of the invention of writing. Thus 
 sheng " to produce," " raw," " living," is found as a phonetic 
 element in 835 lung "flourishing." It is possible, however, that 
 164 is here ideographic, as leu 789 may be in shu "number." 
 
 The letter y as an initial often occurs for t or d. The loss of an 
 initial t, d or s from many words now beginning with y may be con- 
 cluded from the sound given in old dictionaries. In the Fang yen 
 the author says, speaking of Jjj yung, that it is also called ^ sung by 
 change in pronunciation. The dialects at that time contained pecu- 
 liarities which guided lexicographers to such opinions as this. 
 
 It may also be shown by Kw forms of characters. Thus ^ T'ang, 
 the name of the dynasty of Yau, was written in Kw with ^ as 
 phonetic. This character is now yang, but it was anciently (long. 
 See under 592 and 767, where the character is phonetic to % s/tang, 
 which always has sh, t, or is as its initial. With R. water the 
 same phonetic always has initial t, as in fang "hot water." 
 
 ^ yang "sheep" has dz as its initial in several words where it is 
 used as a phonetic. This fact points to a primeval initial tL 
 
 The latent connexion of many words is brought into clear view by 
 recognizing this law of change. Thus $j yo, yak, "to bind," is ^ 
 shu, shok, "to bind," both coming from dak. Yo, yak, "to jump," is 
 t'iau, t'ak, having the same meaning. Yin, yim, "fornication," is 
 c'hen, dim, "to sink," "be immersed." -f^ yin, yim, "sound," is the 
 same as Jjj| t'ing "hear," and sheng "sound," because ng comes from 
 m and t f , sh, and y all come from the same original t.
 
 LETTER CHANGES. 201 
 
 {Jj yen, duk, "from," is the same word as g ts'i, dik, "from," 
 because y and dz both proceed from d, and final k has been lost from 
 each of them. 
 
 The dropping of final t is parallel to that of the finals k and p. 
 
 Many words have two sounds in the dictionaries, one with the 
 final letter which it originally possessed, and one without it. Thus 
 shu, "to relate," "record," "tell," is read by the dictionary compilers 
 zhut in Kwy, Tsy, Yh, and zhiti is required by the rhyme in a poem 
 called in Kh, Tsau ch'i tsieufu. 
 
 So shu "a plan" is in Ty, Tsy, Yh, zhut, but it is also (in Tsy) zui. 
 
 The rule is that words may drop finals or change them for others, 
 but they do not take new finals where there were none before. 
 
 Final t changed to /, r in north China before it was dropped. 
 
 In Mongol the Chinese final t becomes /, as in bal "honey," 
 Ch. mit\ tololaga "lacquer," "varnish," Cb. t'sit', t'ologai "head," 
 Ch. t'eu, Put ; t'ailaho " explain," " open," Ch. t'ot " unloose," " ex- 
 plain;" t'olai "hare," Ch. t'u, t'ot; Variho " to sow," Ch. sat 
 "sprinkle;" haireho "return," Jap. kayeri, kayeshi, Ch. hicei, 5, gut. 
 
 In Corean vocabularies of Chinese words, final t is regularly 
 represented by r. This seems to indicate that in north China at the 
 time when the Corean transcription was made, r was common as 
 a substitute for the old final t. 
 
 The Indian name for Frank is Feringa. The Chinese name 
 of the Roman Empire became in the T'ang dynasty Put Urn j$ ffi . 
 But these characters were at that time in western China probably 
 heard as For-ling. This would account for their being selected in 
 preference to others. 
 
 The interchange of n and t may be illustrated from the sounds 
 assigned to some phonetics, e.g. H_ tan, dat, tat, fjfc san, sat, " scatter." 
 
 That the direction of change was from t to n appears from cognate 
 languages. Thus in Mongol t'ariho " to sow," agrees with the 
 Chinese sat. But in Chinese we find both sat and san "to 
 scatter." The form in t then is the older. This change was very 
 ancient, and nothing remains of it in the modern language except in 
 the phonetics. It was taking place therefore about the time of the 
 invention of the characters. Of this we have the traces. But as its 
 area is limited to a few phonetics, the wider field of change must have 
 been before the time of this invention. Thus fy fen " divide," and
 
 202 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 $lj pie, bit, " divide," are not connected in written symbols, but are 
 certainly connected in their roots. The change then by which the root 
 bit or bat became bin, pien, fen, was anterior to the period of T'sang kie. 
 
 Final n changes to ng occasionally. This change occurs ex- 
 tensively in Nanking, Su cheu, Hang cheu and Fu cheu. Here it is 
 a dialectic peculiarity attached to words which are classed together in 
 large groups. In Peking and Tien tsin the sound tsin is heard chine/. 
 The examples of this change, however, are few. 
 
 In the dictionary Kwang yiin many words now chiefly read with 
 final ng have also final n. Thus P. 182 ling "command," is there 
 sometimes lien. In the classical poetry this phonetic has only final n. 
 See examples in Tyt. In the same ancient poems fo ming " com- 
 mand," which is probably the same word, occurs six times with final 
 n. See Tyt. 
 
 The word jen " to know," is pronounced both nin and ning in the 
 dictionary Kwang yiin. 
 
 6. LABIAL LETTERS. 
 
 The labial letters should come first, because they are learned the 
 earliest by children. But the usage of Sanscrit grammar has led to 
 the placing of k in the post of honour. 
 
 The Chinese / is derived from p and b. Of this there are many 
 proofs. I select a few. The word for Buddha -jS|j is now called Fo. 
 In the south Fukien dialect Buddha is called Put. The Japanese, 
 who derived the religion of Buddha from China, call him Budzu or 
 Fo to ge. But dzu represents the old syllable du. Supposing that 
 the ancient Chinese called this personage Bud, the Fukien people 
 would naturally change b to p and d to t, for this is in accordance 
 with the genius of their dialect. The history of this word enables 
 us to determine that the change from b to / took place about a 
 thousand years ago, or five hundred years later than the introduction 
 of Buddhism into China. 
 
 The reason why Buddhism is known in China as the religion 
 of Fo, is that the sound of the character used to represent Buddha 
 has changed from but to/o. 
 
 The change from initial p to initial m is found in some phonetics. 
 Among words written with Jj^ p'ai, 269, we find, with R. flesh, mak 
 " vein."
 
 LETTER CHANGES. 203 
 
 The change from initial m to w is common, and may be well 
 observed in the phonetic wen "literature;" also meaning lines in 
 palmistry, rings in trees, veins in marble. In the sense to endeavour, 
 put forth effort, encourage one's self or others, also to pity, min is the 
 sound. The lexicon Ty in spelling min, uses icu " military," proving 
 that when that dictionary was made the ordinary sound of icu 
 "military" was nm. 
 
 Initial m is apt to become b in some dialects, as in that of south 
 Fukien. This is also observable in Chinese roots which have strayed 
 into the Mongol vocabulary. Thus bal "honey" is the Chinese mit, 
 behe " ink " is the Chinese melt. 
 
 I now proceed to speak of the change from final p to k. 
 
 Did this change occur anciently in Chinese? We find traces 
 among the finals. We find dak "to give" in J|2j lai, 7, dak, but dap 
 occurs in ^ sh'i, I, tap, "to give." We may suspect that the first of 
 these came from the second. If this be correct, may we not surmise 
 that fjjt kik "hasty" is derived from ^ kip, having the same sense? 
 
 To hold in the hand is both tip (now ch'i) and tik or dik (now chi 
 4 and chi 5). So with tik and tip "to shine." To shine is found both 
 under P. 762 ip from an older dip, under p. 128 lip "to stand," where 
 it has in Tsy the sounds yik and yip (see Phon. 762, 590), and 
 under p. 799 having a distinct k final. 
 
 As a final letter t for p occurs in several phonetics, as $J nei, nap, 
 nat, -ffr sh'i, siep, siet, ^ ch'i, tep, tiet. 
 
 That final t came in the place of p may be seen in certain words 
 beginning with s. As in 3|| 542 ye "leaf," we find under R. water 
 sie "to scatter," "disperse," "remove," "leak." This is given in Ty, 
 Tsy, siet. But the phonetic has properly final p in tie "platter," ye 
 "leaf," tie "butterfly." The initial became in some words s from an 
 older t. The consequence was that p changed to t through some 
 curious effect of the sibilant initial. 
 
 p5j )iap P. 121 changes to nat with R. woman, mouth, grass, insect, 
 etc., Kwy. 
 
 In Kwy the phonetics -ftf: 152, ^ ?42, 542, all unquestionably 
 belonging to the p final class, have sit with RR. water, sun, woman 
 respectively. In the Tie chiu vocabulary siet "to bind" is written 
 with R. silk, and p. sh'i, ship, "generation," and with P. ye, yep, "to 
 drag." The same character is sit in Kwy, Tsy, Yh.
 
 204 
 
 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 The change from p to t probably took place in a few words in 
 these two phonetics a few centuries before the time of the dictionaries. 
 Only words with initial s, and a few with initial n, 121, and with ch, 
 742, made the change. Others kept p firmly. 
 
 j^J nei "within" was formerly nap. With R. c'hai it is nat. 
 
 When the old root began and ended with p, we find final p 
 changed to t in Amoy, but preserved in the Tie chiu dialect. Pap 
 "law" is hwat in Amoy and hwap in Tie chiu; in Mandarin it is fa. 
 
 This change, if it took place in a considerable number of phonetics, 
 as we know that it has done in some instances, must be attributed to 
 the unconscious action of the organs of speech. The labial letters at 
 first were overcharged with work. They were gradually relieved by 
 a transfer of their functions in part to the dentals and gutturals. 
 
 The change from p to m seems to have existed later than the 
 corresponding changes from ng to k and t to n. We have it exempli- 
 fied in recent times in the sound of nien "twenty." This in the 
 dictionary spelling is niap. In the Old Middle Dialect at present it 
 is nian, as shown in the occasional mistake made in the sense of the 
 phrase nian king "to recite Buddhist prayers." This is in comic 
 stories confounded with nian kin "twenty pounds weight." N and 
 ng are not distinguished in the dialects where this mistake can be 
 made. Here then there seems to be a change from p to m. 
 
 Final m has changed extensively to ng. This change of final may 
 be conveniently observed in words where both m and ng are found 
 with the same sense. For example, k'eng is a " pit," and hieni or gim 
 is to " sink into a pit." K'am is also a " pit." On the principle that 
 labial letters changed into tooth and throat letters more frequently 
 and regularly in ancient times than now, we decide that m was the 
 primary form. Whenever words with ng final have equivalents with 
 m final in some phonetics, it may be concluded that the change 
 of finals has taken place since the invention of the characters. 
 
 In fimbria, Fr. frange, ~Eng. fringe, we find m changing to nj and 
 ndj, with the insertion of r after the initial. 
 
 That this change is traceable in some phonetics may be shown in 
 this way. The fifty-fifth radical ^r kung " raise the hands," has 
 the value gam in the phonetic ^. yen, ngam, " to cover." 
 
 It is probable therefore that when this phonetic was invented, 
 m was its final, and lung " to play," kitng " to present gifts with
 
 LETTER CHANGES. 205 
 
 joined hands," were then pronounced with final m in place of final ng. 
 In Sw yen is said to be formed from ho, gap, " combine," and the two 
 hands kung. In Kw we find hiuc, git, "hole," instead of ho, with 
 R. sun in the middle, and kung at the bottom. The phonetic element 
 then is in the lower part which has always belonged to the character. 
 Phonetic 46 fan "all," 5, bam, appears in Kwy with R. grass, as 
 p'ung, 5, bong, " luxuriant vegetation." Under the radical water, 
 Kwy gives the meaning "float," and two sounds bung and bam. 
 
 With Urn "forest" above, the sense is the noise of wind blowing 
 
 o 
 
 upon trees, and the sound bung. 
 
 The old value of ^ jen is nim. It is met with in Hfc cheng, in the 
 middle part of the character at the bottom. But chcng means " proof," 
 " evidence." The Mongol temdeg also means " proof," and ch comes 
 from t. The Mongol here helps then to show that the direction 
 of change is from m to ng, and not from ng to m. 
 
 We find kim and king, two sounds to one phonetic, ^ kirn "now." 
 With R. spear, man, on the left, it means " to pity." This is king in 
 Kwy, Tsy, Yh. This must be explained as a recent instance of an 
 ancient law. In most of the roots in m, which have changed m to ng, 
 it was before the invention of the characters that the change from m 
 to ng took place. In these few instances and some others it is later. 
 
 This change may be traced in many words where the phonetics 
 made use of constitute no key. Thus |^ with R. mountain k'am 
 neans the hollowness of valleys. The Tauist philosopher Chwang cheu, 
 wishing to praise the hermit's life, said, Hien die fu yu ta shan k'am 
 ngam ch'i Ida, "He who is wise hides under the hollow crags of a great 
 mountain." K'am means "hollow." But k'ung is also "hollow." 
 K'im is "to respect." But king has the same sense. The change 
 from m to ng accounts for facts of this kind. 
 
 The time when final m changed to ng may be judged of in the 
 following manner. The word for sails occurs in m phonetics and in 
 ng phonetics. In one of the former, p. 45 fan "all," it is called both 
 fan and p'eng. In p. 348 it has final ng only and is called p'eng. 
 We conclude that when the first of these phonetics was written, bam 
 was the sound. Afterwards, when the other was made, the pronun- 
 ciation in ng had become prevalent. Since both pronunciations 
 existed contemporaneously, both characters were retained. 
 
 C'liang for the adjective "long" has now in China the final ng.
 
 206 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 Fy says that dim was used in the sense "long" in what is now Shen 
 si and Si chwen, that is, the north-west corner of China. In the time 
 of that writer then, B.C. 53 to A.D. 18, final m was still lingering in 
 this adjective over no small part of the Chinese area. 
 
 We know that final m only disappeared entirely in north China 
 from an immense mass of words which retained it after the Mongol 
 conquest, as shown by inscriptions in the Baschpa writing. 
 
 The change of m final to ng final is one of great importance for 
 clearing up much of the obscurity of Chinese etymology. 
 
 In modern China the final ng appears in the place of final n and 
 m in the whole region occupied by the Old Middle Dialect, extending 
 from the mouth of the Yang tsi kiang to the city of Fu cheu in 
 Fukien province. 
 
 The law of change now referred to is much more ancient. One of 
 its examples is in the word feng "wind" which in the age of the 
 Book of Odes three thousand years ago was called bam. 
 
 In the northern provinces of China in recent times m has been in 
 all words replaced by n. The tendency to change from m to ng 
 belongs then to a very ancient period. It has long since finished its 
 career and given place to new laws. 
 
 The period occupied by this change, terminating in some words 
 about three thousand years ago as the ward, feng "wind" teaches us, 
 reaches back to a much earlier epoch. In the phonetic characters we 
 do not find more than a very few examples of m and ng used as finals 
 interchangeably in characters having the same phonetics. Hence we 
 conclude that the change of m to ng was made and nearly completed 
 before the invention of the phonetic characters. That such a change 
 took place anterior to that epoch is not open to doubt if we consider 
 that many roots alike in sense have two phonetics or two series of 
 phonetics, one in m and one in ng. Thus k'iem is "humble," kim is 
 "to hang down the head," kiang is "to descend," and hiang "to bow 
 down to." T'sam is to "place together," and t'ung, dung, is " together." 
 T'iem and ch'ang are both "to lick," but ch'ang has the special sense 
 "to taste." T'iem and tseng both mean "to add." Nim { "to under- 
 take a duty," "oflice," is probably the same as fg ncng "to be able," 
 "capable." Jf& hien or gam "all," ^ kung "all." Nam "south," 
 yang "facing southward." Lam "bright," lang "bright." 
 
 Yet there are not wanting examples of ng for m in recent times.
 
 LETTER CHANGES. 207 
 
 Tsy spells the character R. grass, p. gim "harp," ging. Ty gives gim. 
 M then changed to ng in this word during the period between the 
 Tang and Sung dynasties. At present it is pronounced n in northern 
 Mandarin, ng not being able on account of diminution in force to 
 continue its acquisitions. 
 
 Let a fair consideration be given to the following evidence from 
 Mongolian of the change of final m to ng in Chinese roots. The 
 Mongolian language, like the Chinese and Tibetan, has the three 
 root finals ng, n, m. Of these ng is the rarest, the guttural ending 
 being less developed than the dental and labial in that language. 
 
 Among words which in Chinese end in ng, the Mongol equivalents 
 end in m or ng, but mostly in m. 
 
 Hien, or gam, hung, "all together," M. hamt'o "together." 
 
 King " end," M. hem " end," " object." 
 
 K'ung " empty," M. hemel " empty." 
 
 K'am " cut," M. hemjihu "cut." 
 
 K'icn, or k'im, " deficient," "short in quantity," M. homsa "few." 
 
 K'ing "light in weight," M. himda "cheap," hunggen "light in 
 weight." 
 
 Hwang "wrong," "irregular," M. gem "harm." 
 
 Hung "stupid," "ignorant," M. monghag "stupid." 
 
 Shwang "fresh," M. tenggcrehu "be refreshed." 
 
 Ch'eng "weigh," "estimate," M. t'engchehu "weigh," "equalize." 
 
 Cheng "proof," "evidence," M. tengsel" proof," t'emdeg "evidence," 
 " mark." 
 
 Cheng "to dispute," M. temechehu "to dispute." 
 
 T'ung " throughout," " through," M. Pong " through." 
 
 Tsung "traces of feet," M. t'om "track in a wild," jam "road." 
 The Mongol j comes from d. 
 
 Cheng " correct," " straight," " in the middle," M. tomiraho " set 
 right." 
 
 T'sing " clear," M. Vomoron " clear." 
 
 Ch'ang "always," M. dang "always." 
 
 T'sttng, cJntng, "again," M. dam "again." 
 
 Tang " to carry," tarn " carry on one shoulder with a yoke," M. 
 damjigor "a shoulder-yoke," damnaho "carry a load with such 
 a yoke." 
 
 T*ing, dslng, " still," " quiet," M. semeger " still."
 
 208 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 Chung "middle," M. domda "in the middle." 
 
 8hen t tsen, djim, " what ? " " how ? " M. yambar " how ? " " what ? " 
 
 Sing "the nature of anything," sim "heart," M. jang "nature 
 of man." 
 
 Cheng "to blame," M..jima "blame." 
 
 T'sing "blue," M. ch'enggis. 
 
 Ch'eng " to weigh," M. ch'englehu " to weigh," ch'englcyur " weigh- 
 ing machine." 
 
 Ting, ding, " a fly," M. simagol " a fly." 
 
 Chung, t'ung, tsung, "all," M. c'hum. 
 
 T'sang " hide," t'sang " granary," M. sang " treasure," " treasure 
 house." 
 
 Sing "ape," M. samja "ape." 
 
 Tsing "sap," "essence," "vital power," M. sima "sap," "power." 
 
 When a Chinese implement such as a shoulder-yoke appears in 
 the Mongol vocabulary, a suffix is usually added. Thus in the word 
 damjigor, the last two syllables correspond to legur in ch'englegur, 
 " weighing machine," " steelyard." The Tartar languages have a 
 set of such suffixes ready to append, in the same way that the Romans 
 added us to the Hebrew Adam and Abraham. In such words ng 
 indicates that they have been adopted from Chinese during the 
 modern juxtaposition of the races, that is, since the Hiung nu dis- 
 appeared and with them the Turkish language from the region north 
 of the Great Wall. 
 
 The root in the Tartar languages is the first syllable, and it is 
 with that syllable that we have to do in the preceding list. Final m 
 is much more frequent than ng, and the words in which it occurs are 
 the more primitive in their appearance. The conclusion to be drawn 
 is that long ago, in some age anterior to the empire of the Hiung nu, 
 the letter m occurred both in Chinese and Mongol at the end of a 
 very large number of words, where now in Chinese ng is usually 
 found. 
 
 Remark, 1. Out of twenty-two Mongol roots here collected, ending 
 in m, five occur in Chinese with final m, and nineteen with final ng. 
 
 2. Out of ten words ending in ng in both languages, hunggen 
 "light in weight" has also a Mongol form in m, viz. himda. Further 
 ch'englehu, ch'cnglegin; as referring to the weighing of articles, would 
 easily become transferred from Chinese to Mongol in recent times
 
 LETTER CHANGES. 209 
 
 in the course of buying and selling. Thus final ng is here ac- 
 counted for. 
 
 3. In Mongolian there is a recent tendency to introduce ng. Thus 
 sonos-ho "to hear" is now heard songsaho. There is no such tendency 
 at present to any new production of m. 
 
 4. The general conclusion to be drawn is that ng is a final of new 
 growth, that it has made much less progress in Mongol than in 
 Chinese, and that it has made its appearance chiefly since the separa- 
 tion of the vocabularies. 
 
 5. The roots were well developed and the words were representatives 
 of well-defined ideas before the separation of the Chinese and Mongol 
 languages from the common stock from which they both sprang. 
 
 6. The Japanese vocabulary has in it the same sort of evidence as 
 the Mongol to the identity of roots when compared with the Chinese, 
 and gives clear proof in the same way of the change from m to ng. 
 I refer here to the indigenous part of the Japanese vocabulary, e.g. 
 samashi "wake from sleep," Ch. sing; same "become cool," Ch. t'sing, 
 leng. Examples are extremely numerous. 
 
 The only change of labials that now remains to be considered is 
 that from m to n. 
 
 Tsam 813, and tsan 1028, both mean a Chinese hair-pin, one of 
 those thick pins, seven inches long, which Chinese women put 
 through their hair. Tsam and tsan both mean "to pierce," "to take 
 with the hand," "to congregate." When the final letter changed to 
 tig, a small portion of the words that lost m took n instead of ng. 
 
 The above is an instance of an old change from m to n. In the 
 modern language m has universally become n over the whole area 
 occupied by the Mandarin tongue. 
 
 7. CHANGES IN THE VOWELS. 
 
 The researches of Chinese scholars have shown, as exemplified in 
 the Chapter on the History of the Sounds, that the rhymes of the Shi 
 king may be divided into seventeen classes. 
 
 This division embraces both vowels and consonants. The old 
 vowels are less capable of detection than the consonants. Yowels 
 readily slide. Minute changes in their character readily occur. We 
 can only hope therefore to arrive at conclusions of a general nature. 
 
 The letter a in father belongs now to c'ha "tea," ta "great." In 
 
 14
 
 210 THE CHINESE CHARACTERS. 
 
 the Odes it belonged to most of those characters which are at present 
 pronounced with o, as p'o "break," ico "I," to "many." "With the 
 testimony of Twan yii t'sai, who places such words in his XYIIth 
 class, agrees the evidence of the Cochin Chinese, Japanese, and 
 Corean transcriptions. 
 
 Some modern words in i, as ^f yi "ought," ki "fowl," were nga, 
 ka, Coch. Ch. ga "fowl." 
 
 Some words now in a were also anciently a, so that the old a was 
 made up of words now pronounced with o, i, a. 
 
 Medial ya occurred in many words where now i is found, as in 
 king "metropolis," formerly kiang. This we learn from foreign 
 transcriptions. 
 
 The letter e is now in Peking heard nearly like o, in she "to 
 forgive," and such words. In southern Mandarin it is more like 
 itself and Morrison's spelling with ay represents it well for English 
 learners. The i of ti "brother" was formerly e. This we learn from 
 the Mongol degu, and the Fukien te "brother." 
 
 Words in Tyt's class XV. may all have had the vowel e in the 
 days of antiquity. Among them wei "to fear," kicei "return," pel 
 "pitiful," etc., have nearly kept their old sound till the present time. 
 For though we write ei, the sound may be stated to be that which we 
 mean by e in the French bonte. 
 
 "Where we now have medial ie there was formerly only e, as in 
 Pien "heaven," which the Japanese and Corean transcriptions show 
 was a thousand years ago Pen. 
 
 The vowel i occurs in ancient Chinese in some words still possess- 
 ing it, as yi "easy." Many words now pronounced with 'i, in Sir 
 Thomas Wade's spelling i/t, had formerly i. Such are cKi "branch," 
 chi "know." Not a few words now ending in f, as ti "emperor," 
 had formerly ik for their final. 
 
 Since anciently tsi "son" and lai "come" rhymed together, we 
 may expect lai, which retains its sound in Fukien, to have been per- 
 manent since the time of the Odes. 
 
 The letter o has gone through great vicissitudes. Many words 
 now sounded with au were formerly pronounced with o or ok. 
 Such are mau "hair," kiau "instruct." Kia "house" was ko. So 
 also was ku "cause." What is now called tung "east," was formerly 
 tong, and probably at a still earlier time, torn.
 
 LETTER CHANGES. 211 
 
 Many words now pronounced with medial #, as c'hang "long," 
 wang " to be lost," were formerly heard with medial o, as dom, mom. 
 
 The vowels u and u have both been in extensive use in China. 
 Many words now ending in au, eu, and ieu, were formerly pronounced 
 with the vowel u only. Thus kieu "to investigate," and tsau "to 
 make," were ku and dzu, with a final k still clinging to them which 
 has been long since lost. In Fukien at present, yen " to have," 
 is still u or u-u, as we write it commonly. Many words now heard 
 with medial a had formerly u. Such are yang " sheep," yiung. 
 
 Here we cannot clearly distinguish between o and u. The modern 
 medial a may have come from an ancient medial o or u or both.
 
 ENGLISH INDEX. 
 
 Agriculture, 46. 
 Amoy, 3, 189, 193, 195. 
 Animals, 46. 
 
 Antoninus, Eoman emperor, 194. 
 Arrow, 27. 
 Aspirate, k to h, 189. 
 Aspirated initials, 188. 
 Association of ideas, 42. 
 
 Bamboo, 28, 46. 
 
 Baschpa, 199, 206. 
 
 Birds, 37, fly, 183, tails, 35. 
 
 Black, hiuen, 25, he, 38. 
 
 Blood, 31, 195. 
 
 Boat, 31. 
 
 Body, 33. 
 
 Bones, 36. 
 
 Broken bones, tai, 21. 
 
 Borrowed characters, 145, 153. 
 
 Boundary, 5, 6, 12, ken, 31. 
 
 Branch, 43. 
 
 Breath, k'i, 22, 45. 
 
 Brush, 29, 142, 145. 
 
 Buddha, 202. 
 
 Gallery, 50, 149. 
 
 Cheu kung, 142, 152. 
 
 Chinese characters, time of invention, 1, 2. 
 
 Chi shi, symbols of ideas, 152, 153, 154. 
 
 Chuhi, 173, 174. 
 
 Chwang cheu, 205. 
 
 Chwen, 3, old form of writing, 146, 147, Ta 
 
 chwen, 146, Siau chwen, 147. 
 Chwen chu, characters turned round, 153, 
 
 examples of 163. 
 Clothes, 31, 38, cloth, 15. 
 Cochin Chinese transcription, 182, 198. 
 Colour, 31, red, 32, blue, 35, yellow, 38. 
 Compare,^', 22. 
 Compound characters, 162. 
 Corean transcription, 182. 
 Cover, covering, 6, 9, 13, of a house, 16, to 
 
 cover, 31. 
 Cow, 24, 193. 
 Cucumber, 25. 
 
 Deer, 37. 
 Demon, 37. 
 Dog, 24. 
 Door, 18, 34. 
 Dragon, 39. 
 
 Ear, 29, Mongol for, 193. 
 
 Earth, 12, 35, 43, in sheng "produce," 25. 
 
 Evening, 13, 30. 
 
 Eye, 27. 
 
 Face, 35. 
 
 Father, 88. 
 
 Feathers, 29. 
 
 Field, 26. 
 
 Final k in long tone phonetics, 57, 60, 78, 79 
 
 178; sh'i "is," 97. Final t, wei, 63, 168, 
 
 177. Final p, 56, 61. Final ng, 169. 
 
 Final n, 168. Final m, 81, for ng, 141, 
 
 m and ^?, 168. 
 Fire, 23. 
 Fish, 37. 
 Flesh, 29. 
 
 Fold of anything, 140. 
 Foot, 33. 
 Frame, t'siang, 24. 
 
 Go on transcription, 180, 181. 
 
 Grain, hwo, 27, 38, 66, rice, 28, wheat, 37. 
 
 Grass, 31, Grass character, 149. 
 
 Great, ta, dap, 55, 177. 
 
 Guttural, see Throat. 
 
 Hair, than, 17, man, 195, er, 29,pau, 36. 
 
 Hand, 9, 18, 41, 54. Grasp, 8, 10, 26, 35. 
 Two hands offering, 10, 16, 72. Giving 
 a blow, 19. Sweeping, 17, 109. Scratch- 
 ing, 87. 
 
 Head, hie, 35, sJieu, 36. 
 
 Hear, t'ing, 140. 
 
 Hiai sheng, phonetic imitation, 153, ex- 
 amples of, 163. 
 
 Hiuen tsang, the traveller, 186, 189. 
 
 Hole, 27. 
 
 Horn, 32.
 
 11 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Horse, 36. 
 Hwang ti, 1, 71. 
 Hweiyi, 153, 167. 
 Hii shu chung, 151. 
 
 Ideas, symbols of, 152. 
 
 Ideographs, pictures of objects, 41, 142. 
 Extensive use of the mouth and hand, 41. 
 Analogy between the formation of charac- 
 ters and the origin of words, 42. Outline 
 pictures, 43. Four in one character, 161. 
 
 Initials. 2' to ch, 183. Ptof, 183. Sonant 
 to surd, 185. 
 
 Ink, 143, origin of Chinese, 143. 
 
 Inscriptions, 146. 
 
 Insect, c'huny, 31, 174. 
 
 Jade, 25. 
 
 Japanese, 180, 209. 
 
 Japanese transcription, 180, 210. 
 
 Kan on, 180, 181. 
 
 K'ang hi's dictionary, 17. 
 
 Kiatsie, borrowed characters, 153, examples, 
 
 164. 
 
 Kiai shu, writing of this name, 148. 
 Knife, tau, as a graving and perhaps writing 
 
 implement, 143, 144. 
 Ku wen, ancient writing, 145, 200. 
 Ku yen wu, a student of old sounds, 18. 
 Kwo p'u 178, 197. 
 
 Leather, 26, 35. 
 
 Leg, tsu, 12, 20, jeu, 27. Two legs, 13, 26. 
 
 Letter changes. M to ng, 174. Sonant to 
 
 surd, 185. Aspirated mutes, 188. Throat 
 
 letters, 189. Palatal letters, 196. Tooth 
 
 letters, 198. JTto ch, 184. 
 Li si, his agency in changing the mode of 
 
 writing, 147. 
 
 Li shu, old writing of this name, 147. 
 Li yang ping, 155. 
 
 Lieu wen, old writing of this name, 145, 146. 
 Lu shu, six principles of writing, 152. 
 
 Man, picture of, 4, 5 ; muscles, 7 ; on a cliff, 
 
 73 ; human body, 44. 
 Measures, 26; li, 34; At, 8; teu, 19; t'sun, 
 
 10, 13, 162; e'A'i, 162; chang, 55. 
 Meng kwa, 142. 
 Metals, 47. 
 
 Mongolian, 58, 59, 187, 207. 
 Moon, 13, 20. 
 Mortar, 30. 
 Mother, 21. 
 Mouth, 11; to open, 6; radical k'ien, 20; 
 
 H. kam "sweet," 25. Final k, 57. 
 
 Name, tribe, 22, 61 ; ming, 73. 
 Negative, not, wang, 20, wu, 21,/et, 35. 
 
 Net, 28. 
 
 Nobility, five ranks, 62. 
 
 Odes, 169; old sounds in, 170, 174, 175. 
 
 Old, 29. 
 
 Old middle dialect, 185, 204, 206. 
 
 Palatal letters, 196. Ni to/, 196. Tto ch, 
 
 d to ch, 197. 
 Paper sent to China from Europe, 143 ; 
 
 Chinese earliest manufacture, 143 ; Greek 
 
 paper, 149. 
 Pencil, 143, 144. 
 Phonetics, 2, 50, 51. Why phonetics have 
 
 two or more sounds, 51. Phonetics a key 
 
 to the ancient sounds, 61, 167. List of 
 
 phonetics, 52. Hiai sheng, 153, 163. Two 
 
 sounds to one phonetic, 164. 
 Pictures of objects, 144, 152, 155. 
 Pig, 32. 
 
 Poetry, rhymes of old, 169. 
 Pottery, wa, 25, ming, 26, feu, 28. 
 Prostration, c'hen, 30. 
 
 Eadicals, 1, 41 ; Divided into 10 classes, 41. 
 
 Reptile, 31, 32, Z%,feng, 36. 
 
 Rhymes of old poetry, 169. 
 
 Rice, 195. 
 
 Round, lut, 136. 
 
 Running hand, hing, 145 ; t'sau, 149. 
 
 Say, 20. 
 
 Seal characters, see Chwen. 
 
 See, 32. 
 
 Self, ki, 14, ts'i, 30, 66. 
 
 Shapes, 43. 
 
 Sheep, 28, yang, dom, 69, 200. 
 
 Shell money, 32. 
 
 Shi, Odes, 169, 170. 
 
 Shwo wen, 151, 161. 
 
 Siang hing, pictures of objects, 152, 153, 
 
 154. 
 
 Sick, 26. 
 
 Silk, balls, 9, 15, 16, 28 ; industry, 48. 
 Six principles of formation in characters, 151 . 
 Skin, 26. 
 Small, 195. 
 Son, 193. 
 Sounds, history of, sources of information on 
 
 old sounds, 166. 
 Sow, 201. 
 
 Spear, kwo, 18; shu, 21 ; mcu, 27. 
 Species and genus, 44, 45. 
 Spirits, 27, 45. 
 Splinter, pien, 24. 
 Spoon, 8, 22. 
 Square, 8, 20. 
 Stand, 27. 
 
 Stone, 27 ; Stone Drums, 146. 
 Stop, 20, tik, 62. 
 
 Strips or slips, kan, 15 ; p'ien, 24 ; t'se 68. 
 Strokes, 3, 4, 19, 43 ; of Gallery, 50; two 
 
 pairs of strokes crossing, 24.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Ill 
 
 Style, as a writing implement, 143. 
 
 Sii Mai, 157. 
 
 Suggestion, Hwei yi, 153, 157. 
 
 Sun, 20. 
 
 Sung t'i, shape of the characters adopted for 
 
 wood engraving, 150. 
 Syllabary, 52. 
 Syllabic spelling, 179, 196, 197. 
 
 Tai tung, Chinese philologist, 196. 
 Tauist words, 161. 
 This, same as substantive verb, 179. 
 Throat letters, K to I, 190. G and k to w 
 
 and y, 192. Ny, 192, 193. Final k, 194, 
 
 195,196. Final k to t, 88. 
 Tiger, 31. 
 To, eKi, 30, tai, 35. 
 Tone classes, 171, 172, 177. Shang sheng 
 
 dates from B.C. 1100, 177. Ch'ii sheng 
 
 dates from B.C. 200, 177. Tables of 
 
 tenues, etc, 185. 
 Tongue, 30. 
 
 Tonic Dictionaries, 178. 
 Tooth, 24, 39, 59. 
 Tooth letters, 198. Tto *, 198. 2) to *A, 198. 
 
 Dj\ 199. D to 1, 199. D to * and /, 199. 
 
 Examples of this double change, 200. 
 
 T, d, to y, 200. Final t, 201. 
 Tower, kau, 36. 
 T'sangkie, 1, 71. 
 Tsii sung, 2. 
 Turkish, 198. 
 
 Twan yii t'sai, author of researches in the 
 old pronunciation, 170. Results of his 
 labours on the Odes, 171, 210. Labours 
 on Yi King, 174. On Li sau, 174, 175. 
 Native place and dialect, 137. 
 
 Use, 25. 
 Utensils, 48. 
 
 Verbs, 48, 49. 
 Vessels, 32, 37. 
 
 "Wade, Sir Thomas, 191, 210. 
 
 Walk, 16, 17, 21, 31, 33, 34. 
 
 "Wang hi chi, founder of the modern writing, 
 149. 
 
 "Wang jen, 180. 
 
 "Water, 14, shut, 23, 43. 
 
 "Weave, 194. 
 
 White, 26, 67. 
 
 Wind,/w^, 36, 164, 206. 
 
 Wood, 20, 43. 
 
 Words, 32, 35. 
 
 Wreath, ying, 133. 
 
 Writing invented, 142. Buddhist account of 
 the invention of Sanscrit, Semitic and 
 Chinese writing, 144. Different modes of 
 Chinese writing, 145. Resting on the 
 wrist, 149. Six kinds of writing, 152. 
 
 Yang hiung, 1 6. 
 Yi king, 162, 155. 
 
 THE END. 
 
 STEPHEN AUSTIN AND SONS, PRINTERS, HEKTKjRD.
 
 WORKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR. 
 
 A GRAMMAR OF THE SHANGHAI DIALECT. SECOND EDITION. 
 
 A GRAMMAR OF THE CHINESE COLLOQUIAL LANGUAGE COM- 
 MONLY CALLED MANDARIN. SECOND EDITION. 
 
 RELIGIOUS CONDITION OF THE CHINESE. 
 
 PROGRESSIVE LESSONS IN THE CHINESE SPOKEN LANGUAGE. 
 
 THIRD EDITION. 
 
 A VOCABULARY OF THE SHANGHAI DIALECT. 
 CHINA'S PLACE IN PHILOLOGY.
 
 TTE N <DI X 
 
 EXAMPLES 
 
 ANCIENT FORMS OF A SELECT NUMBER 
 
 CHARACTERS
 
 BAN-ZAI-SAU 
 
 9 7>
 
 APPENDIX A. 
 
 KWANG, KONG ^^ %,. rAr *tf- 
 
 ~rp ^\" Light above man ^S ji'^ [^ w -] 
 
 
 [Sw.j Fire above 
 
 > v% A hare sitting. An 
 
 T'n "^^ ^*<^ - xfrk 
 
 -^S TOV' i\ animal with large 
 
 Hare / w ( >^ ^ ^ earSi a short taili 
 
 the upper lip wanting, the front feet short, and with 
 hair on the soles. 
 
 ol n i ^ 1*^1 ro... i S*. re 
 
 ^^^ ^__ 
 
 Rhinoceros 
 
 [Kw.j The rhinoceros horn Was used by the 
 ancient Chinese as a drinking cup. They 
 knew the animal well. 
 
 ft\ ls "" |T " c ' ci 
 
 just II wanting a clue 
 
 to the connection between the sign for silk here used 
 and the present meanings of the character. But it is 
 better to regard it as a picture of che bent arm. Sec 
 P. 170.
 
 APPENDIX A. 
 
 PING 
 
 weapon 
 soldier 
 
 [Lw.] 
 
 [Sw.] Two hands below grasp the weapon or 
 weapons, usually a hatchet kin. 
 
 K'l, GIT, 
 
 He, that 
 
 KlEN, KIM 
 
 Together 
 
 GH'E, T'AK 
 
 Book, > 
 
 register 
 
 Stone drums. With R bamboo -fc^ it means 
 a winnowing implement or dust pan --H- 
 of basket work used in sweeping. The 
 
 lower part represents the hands holding it. The 
 
 upper part is the Ki. 
 
 Kw forms of this 
 
 implement wi- 
 thout the radical. 'I 
 [Kw.] Additional forms of the Ki 
 or ancient winnowing implement 
 which is shaped lihe a sleeve, is 
 made of basket work and is used in throwing corn into the air 
 after threshing, as a rude winnower. It is probably the original 
 character afterwards used for the pronoun. 
 
 [Up.] 
 
 [Kmp] JK'Jf* hand 
 holding 
 
 two stalks of corn (the upright strokes). 
 
 [Kw.l 
 
 [Sw. 
 
 [Kw.] 
 With 
 
 K bamboo above. A bundle of written tablets tied together. 
 The curve is that of the bamboo slips on which the characters 
 were cut or painted. T"ak is to tie.
 
 APPENDIX A. 
 
 KEU, KOK 
 loin togeth 
 "junction 
 
 Join together)) 
 
 [Sw.] Two rafts of timber, or two sets of 
 roof beams . are here represented as 
 astened together. 
 
 HWEI, GUT 
 
 Return 
 
 [Kw.j The idea of returning is 
 represented by a line going 
 back into itself. 
 
 YEU, 
 
 A walled 
 
 park for birds 
 
 and beasts 
 
 [Lw.] 
 
 [Lw.J 
 
 [Sw.] After the time of the Lieu wen, a 
 phonetic yen * have, was inserted ins- 
 tead of the four trees and two partition 
 walls of the old form. 
 
 Tl, DAP 
 
 Earth 
 
 1 
 
 [Lw. 
 
 [Lw.] Here tun 
 j^ an earthen 
 dyke is sugges- 
 tive of earth. 
 
 YUEN 
 low wall 
 
 ffi 
 
 f^ [Lw.] Here the 
 
 [Lw.] use of kwei is 
 
 VQ/^i 
 
 ideographic (cir- 
 cularity) and not phonetic. 
 
 GH'ENG , DING 
 cit wall 
 
 Lw - The hon etic u is in 
 fr m ting phonetic< In Kw - 
 
 with R spear in reference to the 
 military use of a wall. The Kw from wu * noon is not 
 easily explained.
 
 APPENDIX A. 
 
 f T'ANG, DOM, 
 Family hall 
 
 [Kw.] 
 
 [Kw.] 
 
 /k [Lw.] Here is an example of increased 
 ornament in the caligraphy of B. C. 
 800. 
 
 CHOI, TOT t . g: l Sw -l Derived 
 
 p?i Same as H t""^ r~T by Sw from 
 
 To heap up ** p* 
 
 a picture of a 
 hill. Perhaps this may be the explanation of the old form 
 
 K'IN, GIN. 
 
 to plaster 
 
 diligent 
 
 [Sw.] From -fr" earth, 71 man 
 
 -f-I-; 
 
 (the plasterer) and "pf brown. 
 The yellowish brown earth of North 
 
 YAU 
 
 The ancient 
 
 emperor Ngok 
 
 high 
 
 China has much lime in 
 it and is used commonly 
 for cement. 
 
 [Hyp.] 
 
 [Kw.] JjT [Kw. 
 
 [Sw.] < High 
 
 [Kw.] Earth heaped up and bench suggest 
 height 
 
 TU, TOK ^ ^jj^ [Lw.] Heaped 
 
 Stockade i|| $" t Lw- ^ ^IgV earth was thought 
 
 wi th 5 stakes to be better re P re - 
 
 sented by ,CT, feu hill than by ~r' t'u earth, but 
 the moderns have thonght differently.
 
 APPENDIX A. 
 
 CH'EN, DIN 
 Dust 
 
 [Lw.] Three deer are here seen 
 running and raising two clouds 
 of dust. 
 
 HIA, gat 
 Great 
 China 
 
 Monument in ^^ 
 
 temple *& [K w .] 
 
 ^^. 
 
 of Confucius 
 
 WAI, GAT 
 
 out side 
 
 Su, SOK 
 
 To work 
 
 before it is 
 
 light > 
 
 fk 
 
 M 
 
 [Kw.] From si evening and 
 pu to divine. To divine in 
 the evening is outside of the 
 common way of doing things. Sw. 
 
 [Kw.] From man and flesh which 
 is here phonetic. 
 
 [Kw.] From man and ping the third in 
 the denary cycle. 
 
 [Sw.] This dictionary derives the cha- 
 racter from night zik and wor- 
 king kik -j-4 a picture of holding 
 
 4rfe 
 
 in the hand, the last is otherwise written J Jft and 
 
 Yl, TIT 
 
 one 
 
 [So.] | [Tshp.] 
 
 K'AU, K'OK 
 
 Panting for 
 
 breath 
 
 ~S 
 
 [SW.]
 
 8 
 
 APPENDIX A. 
 
 TING, TAM 
 nail, 
 
 man, r* 
 strike Used 
 for the sound 
 of bells 
 
 Shangbell. 
 
 Shang tripod of O [LA ,.] Same 
 
 O 
 
 /i 
 
 Ts'i, T'SIT 
 Seven 
 
 -b 
 
 ESC.] 
 
 Stone 
 classics 
 
 [Kw.] 
 
 SHANG, DUM 
 
 Up, 
 above, 
 ascend 
 
 CHANG, DOM 
 
 Staff, 
 lean upon 
 
 SAN, 
 
 SHAM, TAM 
 
 three > 
 
 
 
 Staff, strike, lean 
 upon. 
 
 [Kw.] Used as a 
 
 phonetic for 
 
 shirt, and pine 
 
 tree. 
 
 
 [Khk.] 
 
 [Hyp.] Same as teng, sheng 
 < Ascend. >
 
 APPKXDIX A. 
 
 HIA, GE(T) 
 
 Down, -r- "5" -y 
 
 below, . go 
 donw 
 
 - Khk - 
 
 IV, POT 
 
 < Not 
 
 Shang 
 
 MlEX, MIX 
 
 C'HEU, T'OK 
 tO dl^W Ollt 
 1 tO 3 A. M. 
 
 T'SIE, T'AK 
 
 " and ^ " 
 
 further 
 
 15 f 
 
 - rKw -J Used as a phonetic for flour. A wall 
 f r P rotection against arrows. It is said to be 
 
 - 
 
 a picture of JJ- ^^^ j n thc act of hein ,, 
 drawn to one side. 
 
 fil 
 
 ^ [Hkm] It 
 
 [Sc.] ^ [Hkn.J ^- is said to 
 ^ be a 
 
 picture of a hand being pulled. 
 
 n fHkn -i A 
 
 **^ *" 
 
 3. 
 
 [Kw.] 
 
 P'EI, P'UT 
 Great 
 
 PC.] 
 
 Stone classics. The phonetic 
 
 x 
 
 is ^]\ pot * not. 
 
 P.AN-ZAI-SAU
 
 lO 
 
 APPENDIX A. 
 
 NlEU, NGUK 
 
 (( Cow 
 
 
 
 K'IUEN, K'ON 
 Dog 
 
 YANG, DONG 
 Sheep 
 
 [Sw.] In allusion to its gre- 
 garious character it helps 
 to form k'iiin, gun, 
 
 flock. 
 
 Hu, KOK 
 
 .Tiger. 
 
 [Kw.] Representation of the streaks 
 on a tiger. 
 
 , SHIK 
 
 T). 
 
 Pig 
 
 [Kw.] Of these two forms, 
 that on the right is the real 
 Ku wen. That on the left 
 is modified to suit modern writing. 
 
 MA, 
 Horse,, 
 
 [K "' ) 
 
 [Lw.] The head, hair, legs and tail are 
 represented.
 
 APPENDIX A. 
 
 11 
 
 KlA 
 
 Equipage v 
 
 [Lw.] This form shews thet the old sound was 
 kak, and that in ancient times bullocks were 
 much used in drawing persons of high station. 
 
 ( 
 
 
 
 R 
 
 m 
 
 [Lw.] 
 
 K'u, c'Hii ,. 
 
 11 fig? 
 
 Drive 
 
 [Kw.] 
 
 [Kw.] From R strike p'u. 
 ^ ew characters composed 
 of R horse and a phonetic 
 remain in the existing Ku wen. Another radical often 
 occurs instead. The same is the case with the names of 
 other animals among the radicals. 
 
 Ci, NIT, 
 Sun, day 
 
 
 
 [Kw.] 
 
 [Sw. 
 
 [Kw. 
 
 (*) 
 
 [KMT.] 
 
 [Sw.] 
 
 SlOX, ZUN, DUN 
 
 Ten days 
 
 (( fllll (year) 
 
 [Kw<] 
 
 [Km P ] 0J ^ w . equal , . complete 
 
 But yun says Ywpl. 
 is also here phonetic. If so the lost initial of yiitt 
 was d. 
 
 SHENG, TINU, 
 
 TANG 
 ascend 
 
 [Sw.] 
 
 Kw.]
 
 1-2 
 
 AITKXDrX A. 
 
 X, TUN 
 
 Spring 
 
 Tun the upper portion, is here both phone- 
 tic and ideographic. 
 
 [Kw.] Three burst buds. Tu'n or c'hun is a 
 bud, spring, and to burst. The form y^ 
 c'he, te't is the 45th radical and is found also 
 
 in radical JT f grass, t'sau, 
 t'ok. The more antique form 
 of c'hun is. 
 
 SIXG, TING 
 Star 
 
 [Kw.] 
 
 [Kw.] 
 
 [Sw.] 
 
 oo 
 
 [Kw.] 
 
 [Kw.] 
 
 [Lw.j 
 
 SHI, D.JIK 
 
 YUE, NGET 
 
 moon 
 
 [Lw.] Sw derives it from 
 
 0TC 
 sun and || . 
 
 ; [Kw .] 
 
 correct 
 
 [Sw.] 
 
 [Kw.] 
 
 Shang bell. 
 
 Bells and 
 vases. 
 
 Shang tripod
 
 APPENDIX A. 
 
 SHI, ZHIK 
 time, 
 hour 
 
 Mu, MOK 
 
 Wood, 
 tree 
 
 WEI, MIT 
 not vet 
 
 (Sw<] From and 
 
 . from "C., and 
 
 
 
 
 [Sw.] 
 
 1 
 
 Examples of characters of the Shang dynasty 
 
 taken from the copper basin of the 
 
 San family. 
 
 i 
 
 $ 
 
 to, that, in order that. 
 
 Clll, TIT 
 to, arrive at. 
 
 ascend. 
 
 Si, SIR 
 
 .west., 
 
 TVJ 
 
 NAN, NAM 
 south. 
 
 Yii DIK 
 
 to, to be at. 
 
 7|C Mr, MOK 
 * wood, tree. 
 
 SANG " -^ Iulberr y- From g ra ss / I abovc and 2**- * hand ' 
 or XjU ycu right hand, boiow.
 
 14 APPENDIX A. 
 
 -j NEI, NIP JV^C 5&<: TENG ascend. With two hands 
 
 I^J <r within. i=i -*^~ beneath as in Lw. 
 
 r/ YAI, NGAT cliff brow *Vn^ viz YUEN, GON 
 tlT f^VvV\ ' '^ source 
 
 of a hill. Same as /=p yai. 
 
 fj P Tu, TOK, chief city. The left hand part is the 
 sameas lu, Jjj lu and ^ cAu all which charac- 
 ters were used convertibly in the Ku wen. The whole in- 
 scription is in 19 columns, of 19 characters each. The basin 
 is eight inches and a half high, and six feet four inches is 
 circumference. It is preserved at Yang cheu in the province 
 of Kiang su. Some doubt its genuineness. 
 
 Examples of Lieu wen from the Stone drums 
 
 B C. 800 
 
 The writing on these drums consists of ten poems 
 inscribed on ten drum shaped stones to commemorate a 
 hunting expedition of Gheu Siuen wang, emperor at that 
 time. 
 
 
 JL In Lw for ^C KUNG .oppose. /(JV | T 4) , togethcr . 
 
 /A 
 
 /V 
 
 T ' UNG
 
 VI'FKXDIX \. 
 
 | ~ t 
 
 
 Wo, NGO, here used as a surname. 
 
 K'IEU, r,r 
 
 * ask 
 
 beg. . 
 
 princ e 
 
 , KONG 
 bow. , 
 
 CHI, TIK 
 
 sign of 
 
 genitive. 
 
 Ts,, TIK 
 thi,. . 
 
 a certain 
 official building 
 
 K'l, GI 
 
 . he, , 
 
 c that. 
 
 come. , 
 
 !p 
 
 TS1 ' 
 
 hour. 
 
 
 , SHIM 
 
 WO, XGAK 
 
 KU) KQK 
 
 'net..
 
 APPENDIX B. 
 
 List of characters to shew that words with the initials s, SH, CH, and TS 
 on the one side and L on the other agreeing in their meaning come 
 from the same roots in an older stage of the Chinese language when 
 the initials 'were D or T. 
 
 CLEAR, p[ shwang, >Jg liang, ^ff ts'ing, lang, q] 
 
 v>> 
 tsung, 'JE5J smg, awake. 
 
 COLD, >P^[ shwang, /JEj{ li an g> VpJ ts'ing, v3J ling, ice, 
 
 v // p leng, cold, ^\ shwang, frost. 
 
 |i| 17'*^. '- T -' IT^dU 
 
 HIGH, ^p sung, |^ lung, ^ ts'ung, |>^ ling, tomb, 
 
 high. 
 
 "jkH! i- 1 - Tfrr 
 
 THINK, ^^ siang, g^ liang, f^j shang, consult. 
 
 >^vv r/ct . -W* i 
 
 CHEST, VASLET ^g siang, ptj ling, prison, ^^ lung, cage, 
 
 tfj-- 
 
 jgj t'ung, dong, cylinder of bamboo. 
 
 J*/tj Tt". J-* Tf Tt 
 
 SOUND, ^^ sheng, ggj t'ing, hear, *\j) ling, hear, 
 
 -^ ling, command. 
 
 ADD, interest of money, 7* sik, TrlJ li, gain, interest, 
 -j=j: te, tik, get.
 
 APPENDIX I!. 17 
 
 GIVE, j'|y si, sik, PJ^ t's'i, sik, ^jj lai, luk. 
 
 ROPE, ^T so, sok, jf:^ lok, thread. - 
 
 *T* F-?f-z / h* 1 
 
 BIND, ^ shu, shok. Iffi liau, lok, ;pjg eo, sok. 
 
 -rJ_^ T^r 
 
 OLD, =^i shen, old age, ^^ lau, okl. 
 
 J.IH1 ^Spll 
 
 TEAR, KEND, J^ s'i, ^J li< 
 
 MV* v>i' t 
 
 ALL, altogether, together, j^j ts'img , collected, f.;j^, tsmig, 
 
 [j-fj t'ung, clong, together, same, 
 J^| lung, bring together. 
 
 SIDE, |^>g piang, side buildings, /^p lang, side 
 
 rooms, 
 cloisters. > 
 
 FLOURISHING, ^j sheng, pig lung. 
 
 HONEST, lp c'hong, p^ Hang. 
 
 LEAK, j|| sie, sik, <( drain out, )|g leu, luk, leak, 
 
 BLUE, p3 ts'ing, blue, jjif ts'ang , azure, 
 
 JFg^ Ian, lam. JV^ from m. 
 
 FOLLOW in succession, f |f sii, zok, )^ shu, zhok, belonging to, 
 A/f lo, lok, connected. 
 
 PAIR, TWO, ljj shwang, j^J Hang. 
 
 BAN-ZAI-SAU " 7 5 I 14
 
 APPENDIX B. 18 
 
 These coincidences are too numerous to be fortuitous. 
 They are explained by supposing s and I to be separately 
 derived from d or t . The dental root has given out two prin- 
 cipal branches, one by sibilization, consisting of s, sh, ts, 
 eh, the other by lingualization consisting of 1. This branch- 
 ing out of letters took place before the invention of the 
 characters. The inventors shew no consciousness of it in 
 their choice of written signs. A few of the examples have 
 d or t as their initials. These are instances still extant of 
 the primitive dental.
 
 APPENDIX C. 
 
 HOW TO USE KANGUI. 
 
 In looking out a word the student must first notice to 
 which radical it belongs. 
 
 If this is not manifest look for it in the list of words 
 called Kien tsi How to search for characters. > Time will 
 be saved by doing this in doubtful cases. 
 
 Neither in Kanghi nor in Morrison are the words clas- 
 sed except as to the number of strokes, and the radical they 
 belong to. 
 
 In consulting the dictionary the number of being 
 known strokes you can only look patiently from beginning 
 to end of that section which contains the number. 
 
 In Medhurst's dictionary time is saved by an alphabe- 
 tical arrangement under the strokes. 
 
 The word being found, it will be seen that Kanghi's 
 first information is on ancient forms of the characters. He 
 usually gives one or more as examples of the Kuwen. 
 These represent the Chinese written character as it was
 
 20 APPENDIX C. 
 
 previous to B.C. 800, when the Ta Chwen or Lieu wen was 
 introduced. 
 
 The examples of Ku wen in common editions of that 
 work, are cut to suit the graving tool. They are not in fact 
 the true Ku wen, hut a Sung t'i or printer's shape of the 
 Ku wen. When compared with the old shapes on hells and 
 vases and on the old monuments, the want of likeness is 
 due to this cause. 
 
 It was Hii shu chung who, in the Shwo wen commen- 
 ced the practice of giving a specimen of the Ku wen. His 
 object was to place before his readers the facts as to the 
 oldest extant form of the characters, so that they may 
 judge for themselves as to the correctness, of his etymo- 
 logies. 
 
 The next point on which K'anghi gives information is 
 the sound of words. The old tonic dictionaries give to the 
 characters their contemporary, recognized sounds. 
 
 In the dictionaries of the Sung and Ming dynasty it, 
 became a habit to quote' some one of the spellings from the 
 old tonic dictionaries without saying which. This was 
 unscholaiiy and unsatisfactory because of the variety of 
 Chinese dialects and the regular process of change in the 
 sounds of the language. 
 
 K'anghis Dictionary has the merit <>(' commencing a 
 better system. This was caused by the researhces of Ku yen 
 wu of Kwun shan near Sucheu. He reprinted the Kwang 
 yun and arrived at more, e.onvrt views than any scholar
 
 APPENDIX C. *vl 
 
 had done before about the history of the changes of sounds in 
 the language. Under this new light the Peking commission 
 that compiled K'anghi's dictionary wisely resolved to change 
 the method of representing the spelling of old sounds. They 
 quote three or four authorities in an order determined hy 
 their age . Of these Kwang yiin and T'ang yiin are the most 
 valuable as representing the sounds in the oldest registered 
 form. 
 
 To become skilled in 'the reading of the sounds the 
 rhyming tables in the introduction to K'anghi must be stu- 
 died. 
 
 The letters A', I; , <j, n<j are distinct. So are t, I', d y n 
 and p, p', b, m. S is distinct from z and s/i from z/i. There 
 is a strong and weak aspirate. W arid Fare pitched both 
 high and low. The letters f and ch had better be referred 
 back by the foreign student at once to the p and t series 
 from which they come. 
 
 Of the two sets of rhyming tables in the introduction 
 to K'anghi choose the older. The number of initials is here 
 lower. The sounds also are older. 
 
 The thirty six initials, found in K'anghi and several 
 older dictionaries, and based on the Sanscrit alphabet. 
 
 V5$ 31.1? 
 
 k ' n Throat - 
 
 Teeth.
 
 >> 
 
 APPENDIX G. 
 
 ch 
 
 c h Jff dj 
 
 # 
 
 t's 
 
 fcflc* 
 
 ^ ( ts ) ^p c 'h 
 
 v, b 
 
 dz 
 
 <jj 
 
 r, m 
 
 pj j 
 
 Labial aspirates. 
 Dental sibilants. 
 
 Palatal sibilants. 
 
 Throat aspirates. 
 Vowel initials. 
 
 Tongue and palate. 
 
 The throat aspirates are one pitched high, a strong 
 aspirate, and one pitched low, a weak aspirate. They are 
 separated in actual pronunciation in the old middle dialect 
 by about half an octave. 
 
 The vowel initials include , i, o, u, with w and y. 
 They are upper and lower and are separated also by about 
 half an octave. 
 
 Surds and aspirated surds are in the old middle dialect 
 pronounced in a high tone and sonants in a low tone. Ng, 
 n, ni, m are in the low tone as also l,j. 
 
 Thus eighteen initials belong to the upper pitch of 
 pronunciation and eighteen to the lower. 
 
 The palatals chl, che, dying, niatiy are derived from 
 the dentals twan, t'wan, ding, ni, by a process of change 
 which had just commenced when the Hindoo Buddhists
 
 APPENDIX ('., V;i 
 
 arranged, for Chinese use, the syllabic alphabet here given. 
 The /"series fei, fu, vung, vi had also recently begun 
 to appear when this alphabet was made. The reason that 
 we find two f columns is that the first is derived from ;; 
 and the second from p' aspirate Dialects known to the au- 
 thors of the alphabet contained both the old letters and the 
 new. Consequently two /"columns appear. The difference 
 is not in the quality of /", but in the quality of the p from 
 which it sprang. 
 
 So with the two r columns. The former is from an 
 older m. 
 
 The ten sibilants are tsing, tsing, dzung, sin, zie, 
 chau, c'hwen, djong, shen, zhan. 
 
 These are in fact all expansions of the dental series, 
 but they appeared sufficiently distinct 1200 years ago to 
 demand a separate place. 
 
 The reason why ch occurs here a second time is that 
 in dialects known to the alphabet makers some words in 
 ch were in close connexion with t and others with ts*. It is 
 not necessary to suppose that there was more thau one ch 
 in any one dialect at one time. 
 
 * In Peking tea is called c'Jia at present. In Tientsin it is called 
 ts'a. If the old alphabet makers were now buisy at their work in Pe- 
 king, they would place cha on this account in the second ch column 
 from a belief that it is in its nature allied to ts. In Sucheu to the 
 present time words in the first ch column are pronunced with a very 
 soft ch, while words in the secund ch column are pronounced with ts.
 
 '24 APPENDIX C. 
 
 The six remaining initials are hiau, hia, yiiig, ////, 
 lai, jl or strong h, weak h, high pitch vowel, low pitch 
 vowel, I andj. 
 
 All the vowels come under the two y columns. The di- 
 vision into two columns refers to high and low pitch. /? is 
 classed withj. 
 
 The two h columns really belong- to the guttural series,, 
 the I column to the dental and thej column to the ni divi- 
 sion of the dentals. The makers of the alphabet did not 
 however see their way to the recognition of this. 
 
 The first set of tables of rhymes represents imperfectly 
 the mandarin sounds. In the second set of tables of rhymes 
 there are 26 leaves. 
 
 I. In the first leaf !j\ ka, even tone njf ka, rising tone 
 gf ka, departing tone ^ kak, entering tone, form the first 
 group of four. They are intended to be pronounced accor- 
 ding to the old spelling. Then follow kia, kia, Ida, kiat; 
 kie ooo kiet, o o o kiet. 
 
 II. In the second leaf ^ kwa J^ kwa jjjl kwa :?]* 
 kwak are followed by JJ^ kwa Jjk kwa i)j[ kwa pi) 
 kwat, ooo itp. 
 
 There are two groups called kwa because in some 
 dialects words in the former of these two groups omit w, 
 while those in the latter never omit w, at least in the 
 dialects hold in view by the compilers of the tables. 
 
 ^T A 
 
 III. In the third leaf )f keng, keng, kek are followed 
 by king, king, king, kik, and this last group is repeated, but
 
 APJ'KXDIX C. 
 
 with different characters. The reason of (his ivpcfitini] is 
 similar to that given for the second leaf. 
 
 IV. In the fourth leaf (pf kung, etc., kok, kiung, etc., 
 kiok, are found. 
 
 V. In the fifth leaf J keng, etc., kek, king, etc., 
 kik, are found. 
 
 These are distinguished from those in III from a d<><in- 
 felt hy the compilers to keep those words separate whirl i 
 were separate in the tonic dictionaries of early timi's. 
 
 VI. In the sixth loaf |j^ kung, etc., kwak, kiung, etc. 
 
 r\ 1 1' 
 
 VII. /& kung, etc., kok ^ kiung, etc., kiok, 
 
 tsung, etc., tsok. 
 
 VIII. |5j pei TO poi 4b P e ^ lH ki, etc., kit, mei, 
 
 mek, tsi,tsek,etc. 
 
 IX. fjfl kwei, etc, kiuet, k'iut, etc. 
 
 X. g^ kai, etc., kat, kiai, etc., kiat, ki, etc., kit. 
 
 Here again the reason why the syllable ki occurs as in 
 VIII is that in the older tables certain words now having the 
 same sound wore separated. An attempt is made to keep 
 them apart in these modern lists, but it is not warranted by 
 existing dialects, so far as known. 
 
 XI. ij/l kwei, etc., kwat, kwai, etc., kiuet, kwei, etc/, 
 
 kiuet. 
 
 XII. J3[ ku, etc., kuk, jj- kii, kink, JL t'sia, etc., 
 
 tsok. 
 
 XIII. ~f kan, etc., $| kat, JJK kien, etc., ^ kiet. 
 
 XIV. kwan, etc., kwat, kiuen, etc., kiuet. 
 
 BAN-ZAI-SAU 
 
 I it..
 
 APPENDIX C. 
 
 XV. L kam, etc., ]t kap $% kiern, etc., J/<J kiap. 
 XVI. ~p kan, S^ kiem, etc., JpTJ kiep. 
 XVII. JH ken, ^ kirn, etc., ^ kip, ^ shim, etei 
 XVIII. Jj| ken, etc., J kit, rfl kin, U kit. 
 XIX. J^l kwun, etc., ^* kut, ig kiiin, etc.,^kiiiet. 
 XX. JI kiang, jt kiak. 
 XXI. ||^ kang, kak, ^ kiang, ^ kiak. 
 
 -. * ^_t^. r yH>tfc 
 
 XXII. 7TQ kwang, ^|* kwak, ^ shwang, etc., >hok 
 
 n. 
 
 XXIII. j^ kau, etc., ^ kak, ^ kiau, etc., U kiak. 
 
 XXIV. |^J keu, etc., kak, j[J kieu, etc., fflf kiak. 
 
 The extreme left column in each page contains the cha- 
 racters which mark the corresponding sections in the tonic 
 dictionaries. 
 
 These rhyming tables attempt to reconcile the old and 
 new pronunciations. They are therefore more useful to the 
 native than to the foreigner. The sounds they attempt to 
 express are midway betwen the pronunciation of the T'ang 
 dynasty and that of the present day. 
 
 The characters selected for insertion in these tables are 
 frequently made use of in the syllabic spelling of the dictio- 
 naries quoted by K'anghi. 
 
 After determining the sound, Kaiighi givf-s flip mean- 
 ings of the word, with f.xamplcs of \\< nso, d^sir-al and 
 modern.
 
 APPENDIX ('.. V< 
 
 The tones are four, viz. ^f-, r. ? i&> ,A ? P'ing, 
 shang, c'hii, ju. 
 
 The rule for the tone is that each word takes that of the 
 second word used in spelling it. Thus Hx is spelled bai. 
 
 /f/{ >'.'. 
 
 The words used in spelling it are fig ba -$ mai. Ba mai = 
 
 bai. Bai is in the tone called c'hii sheng because mai is so. 
 
 Meanings and examples of use are then given. Often 
 the etymology proposed in the Shwo wen is cited. 
 
 In mentioning meanings the preference is given to 
 those of the Shwo won and Er ya on account of their being 
 the oldest dictionaries. Then follow Kwang ya, Yii p'ien and 
 others. 
 
 In citing examples from books the classics appear first. 
 Then follow Gheu and Plan authors and those of later times. 
 
 When the regular history of a word is complete, irre- 
 gular pronunciations and peculiar usages are treated in a 
 postscript to the article. 
 
 Examples of Syllabic spelling. 
 
 -f" tsi son j|f jjj| T'ang yiin {2|J M ^7 *' H 
 t'sie. To bo pronounced tsi. bv the method of fan t'sie. in 
 
 ' ** i 
 
 the ascending tone, : , being in that tone ; j|| J| Tsi 
 yiin j|ij \\\ tsu si to be called tsi. In the same tone 
 -j-~ kie , alone Jif |^ Kwang yun % 
 kii lict. To be pronounced kit Tr. \\^\ Cheng yiin "^f jpj 
 ku set. To be pronounced ket, and in the entering tone or ju 
 
 sheng. Both these words are in the upper or surd series. 
 j._j _ j. * y - j* fnf ^ri* 1 jjj*i 
 
 q^ tsi a character g^ gg T'ang yiin.
 
 AlTiLMHX G. 28 
 
 dzi clii. To be pronounced dzi, taking the sonant initial 
 of the first and the tone and final of the second. The initial 
 and final are both determined by the tonic dictionaries, but 
 the tables of initials and finals in Kaughi's dictionary will 
 serve to indicate them. 
 
 . t__^ 
 
 Thus 27^ dzit is found on the 1 1 th leaf of the second 
 table with initial dz and final it. 
 
 ^dzun. J|f |M 111 I? ^.According to the Tang 
 collection of rhymes to be called by the syllabic method 
 dzun. It occurs on the 20th leaf of the 2nd table of rhymes 
 under initial dz and final un. 
 
 ;--f-* ^ _|. rt~T' 
 
 ^ pei. By the spelling in Ty ^ bu M J; mei it is to 
 
 be pronounced bei. By the spelling in Kwy, Tsy, Yh it is 
 
 i . 
 bei. Kh adds in a note that ^ has two different spellings 
 
 in Kwy, ff| Hj bei fjjj \fy hot, and four in Tsy, ~/J 7^: 
 pei $^ Rf bei fjf ]fy hot |f ^/ pot. Kh decides the 
 standard sound to be the first of the Kwy spellings. In this 
 he is of course wrong because final t has been dropped. 
 
 ^ Meng, family name of Mencius, the elder, the 
 beginning. By Ty, Tsy, Yh, Ghy it is meng and is the same 
 
 in sound and tone as meng dream. Also Tp: j|[P mang 
 
 ii" "/ 
 
 i^L ilz mang. 
 
 Jgi yin. In Ty ~\; g. yin. In the 2nd set of tables 
 it is under the lower y and is therefore in the r n 
 p'ing tone. 
 
 U t'sim, sleep. Spelled by Kwy, Tsy, Yh, Ghy 
 t'sim. It is on the I8th leaf of the second set of tables
 
 APPENDIX U. 29 
 
 under initial t's and final im. In the first set of tables it 
 occurs under initial ts and final /// . 
 
 jfjj hu the second character in the name of coral 
 
 shan hu. In Ty ^ fe hu ngu, that is hu. 
 
 . f 
 
 y% wei y mi tail is to he read mi hy the con- 
 current testimony of four tonic dictionaries. Three old 
 forms of the character are given. It is formed of )r Shi 
 corpse and ^ Man hair. Sw. says it is composed 
 
 of hair turned up at the end of a corpse. 
 j k 
 g liai injure is to be called hai with the 
 
 weak aspirate. Since the w r eak aspirate flows out of g, it is 
 to be read gal , It is in the c'hii sheng. The Shwo wen 
 explains it to injure and analyses it as formed from ^~* 
 mien house and fj k'eu mouth, for,, he adds, 
 words come ont of houses. The four strokes in the middle 
 are, says Sw, phonetic. From this we learn that the oldest 
 form of the sound was gat. 
 
 p su, to be read, shut. Sw gives as the meaning to 
 finish catching birds, and as an explanation of the char- 
 acter above and below the head, kang, of the silk net, 
 are seen the pole and handle. Two pages of examples and 
 meanings follow. 
 
 fP tsang bury. In Ty, Tsy, Ghy JNJ ^ tse lang, 
 to be called tsang. Also in Tsy Jf* ^ dze lang to be 
 
 t. ^dbr 
 
 called dzang. Both these pronunciations are in the ^ J** 
 c'liii sheng as will be found by referring to the 20th table 
 for lang. Another sound is in Ghy % J|P tsang in the
 
 30 APPENDIX G. 
 
 jaj p'ingsheng. This last is based on the authority cited 
 in Kh of the commentary on the Han shu. 
 
 At the end of each article when the principal examples 
 have been all given Kh adds the word tseng which means 
 addenda. Here are appended old forms, varieties, and new 
 characters. The old forms are useful because a reference is 
 made to the new radical under which, by the changes of 
 modern writing, they are to be found. To be able to read the 
 Ghwen wen is very important both for philological res:arch 
 and because several valuable works have been printed in 
 it during the present century. 
 
 The tonic dictionaries cited in Kanghi spread over 
 about 825 years. The following are their names and approx- 
 imate dates : 
 
 Yii p'ien 3 ^ Liang AD 550. 
 
 Kwang yiin, T'ang yiin J| f f| j|f f fj Tang 650. 
 
 Tsi yiin j| ff| Sung 1000. 
 
 Wuyintsiyiin ; it H |M Kin 1150. 
 
 Yiinhwei ff| ^ Yuen 1-350. 
 
 Hung wu cheng yiin Jit ^ IE IM Ming 1375. 
 
 In the earlier among these dictionaries the compilers 
 wrote as they spoke and the spelling can be relied upon. 
 
 From the Sung dynasty onward the old system of pron- 
 unciation was shaken and the compilers of the dictionaries
 
 APPENDIX C. 31 
 
 had no firm footing. They were often without a clue in 
 doubtful cases. They did not like to leave the authority of 
 the dictionaries that preceded and they dared not follow 
 their own pronunciation. The sounds as they pronounced 
 them themselves deviated too far from early models. 
 Hence, from the Tsi yiin and onwards there are several, 
 points, e, g, in regard to the final letters k, t, p, on which 
 we caunot feel satisfied that the compilers knew what they 
 were about. 
 
 Each dictionary spells words according to its own 
 system of initials and finals. In Kanghi the tables prefixed 
 cannot be supposed to indicate correctly the initials and 
 finals for all the pronunciations cited from the preceding 
 seven works. But generally the second set of tables will 
 serve the purpose in a certain rough rnauner. 
 
 This is specially true of the Tsi yiin, JH Q^. In the 
 time of this dictionary the final p and t were not disting- 
 uished and were one or both of them lost. Thus under R. foot 
 @ is spelled dap which is identified with dat. If final/? and t 
 had been in existence in the dialect spoken by the compilers 
 there would not be this identification. Ta great is phon- 
 etic here.
 
 APPENDIX D. 
 
 TWO POEMS. 
 
 From the following poems some conclusions may be 
 derived on the history of Chinese sounds. 
 
 The existence of rhyme as a poetical ornament in the 
 oldest Chinese literature was occasioned by the nature of 
 the language. In any national literature the poet would he 
 almost certain to seize on this ornament and adopt it, if 
 the words of the language were suitably constructed. The 
 suffixes attached to words in Greek, Latin, and Sanscrit pre- 
 vented the introduction of rhyme into those languages. It is 
 suited to Chinese because the roots have no suffixes, and 
 because they are mono syllabic. 
 
 The poems that follow, having, been written by those 
 who spoke as they wrote, can be depended on for what thoy 
 contain of information on the state of the language at the 
 time of their composition, and also for negative conclusions 
 founded on what they do not contain. This cannot be said of
 
 APPENDIX D. 
 
 modern poetry which is made by those whose rhymes, 
 unless they are southern men, widely differ from what they 
 are in their native mode of speech. 
 
 The word ]% feny rhymes in these poems with 
 words in m. We find in Kwaiig y tin that 1200 years ago 
 m was the final of several words in which this character 
 forms a phonetic element. It was therefore then called 
 ham. It occurs in the following poem in the Ta ya or third 
 great division of the Odes. Like the other poems of that col- 
 lection it was written under tiie Clieu emperors, and in the 
 time of Li wang B.C. 850. The affairs of state were then in 
 disorder and a poet uttered his grief in the following 
 manner : 
 
 m 
 
 f 
 
 ft 
 
 n 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 7L 
 
 tt 
 
 1 
 
 & 
 
 * 
 
 ^ 
 
 W 
 
 E 
 
 & 
 
 il 
 
 1 
 
 dai 
 
 ko 
 
 lik 
 
 ho 
 
 peng 
 
 min 
 
 \ ik 
 
 No 
 
 
 zhik 
 
 sik 
 
 min 
 
 zhi 
 
 wun 
 
 Wll 
 
 k'ong 
 
 pe 
 
 
 
 mi 
 
 mi 
 
 dai 
 
 ko 
 
 pot 
 
 sok 
 
 ti 
 
 sok 
 
 5 ^ 
 
 ho 
 
 po 
 
 zhik 
 
 sik 
 
 tai 
 
 tarn 
 
 ai 
 
 bam 
 
 
 tai 
 shi 
 
 chia 
 se 
 
 li 
 min 
 
 hau 
 shl 
 
 ping 
 yi'in 
 
 min 
 yeu 
 
 yi 
 
 .In 
 pi 
 
 C/3 S 
 
 o o 
 
 wei 
 
 wei 
 
 tai 
 
 chia 
 
 pu 
 
 SII 
 
 chi' 
 
 so 
 
 = T 
 
 p- 5 
 
 hau 
 
 pau 
 
 sh'i 
 
 se 
 
 tai 
 
 sin 
 
 ai 
 
 feng 
 
 
 HAN-/AI-SAU
 
 APPENDIX D. 
 
 Literal translation. 
 
 Like that (man) against wind. 
 
 Also greatly (suffix) pants. 
 
 People have ready mind 
 
 Obliged (to) say (we) cannot come (to anything effective) 
 
 Good is sowing, reaping. 
 
 Strength people for food 
 
 Sowing, reaping, alone valuable. 
 
 (To work) for food alone good. 
 
 Paraph rast ic rendering . 
 
 Against that hostile northern gale 
 
 The panting traveller's strength must fail. 
 
 Willingly would the people bring 
 
 Good words of wisdom to their king. 
 
 But, ah ! , they are compelled to say 
 
 The time to act is far away. 
 
 Doubtless 'tis better for me now 
 
 To seek the fields and delve and plough, 
 
 Eschew state service, and instead 
 
 Toil with the people for their bread. 
 
 Surely the nation's truest gain 
 
 Is found in fields of yellow grain. 
 
 I will no longer vainly grieve 
 
 But sow and reap that they may live.
 
 APPENDIX D. 35 
 
 Editions of the Sang dynasty insert in the text of each 
 ode or after the sections notes respecting the old sounds. 
 Since the pronunciation was in the time of those editors 
 very much broken up they conld see but indistinctly what 
 was the actual state of things so many centuries before. 
 When in the ode here translated they say hau good was 
 pronounced heu, chia house, grain ku, and yeu 
 have yl, we must not place very much reliance on tin MM. 
 They did not appreciate correctly the state of the langiui ; 
 when the syllabic spelling was invented, and were not able 
 to perceive the nature of the letter changes which had 
 taken place. We must take a wider recension of author- 
 ities and dialects than they were able to do. Much more 
 successful and intelligent investigators have followed Jthem 
 during the Ming and Tsing dynasties down to the present 
 time. 
 
 Lei it be noticed that in the ode translated the follow- 
 ing rhymes occur : 
 
 bam ai sik po 
 tarn tai zhik ho 
 
 From these four pairs of rhymes may be drawn the 
 following conclusions : 
 
 1. In B. G. 850 final m was fixed in the language. 
 
 2. Some words which have since acquired a final mj 
 then had m . 
 
 3 . Final k was then in the language and words which
 
 36 APPENDIX D. 
 
 have since gone into different rhymes as se, /// were then 
 
 so pronounced that they rhymed well together. 
 
 4. Many words ending in vowels as the fourth pair ho, 
 po, have till the present time kept one rhyme while their 
 vowel has changed from o to au, by the insertion of a . 
 
 5. Three tones existed B. G. 850 and they are here 
 exemplified, llie first pair of words are in the ping shetig, 
 the second and third in \\IQJU sheng, and the fourth in the 
 shang shetig. Rhyming words keep the same tone through 
 each stanza. 
 
 6. The existing dialects which agree in final letters 
 most closely with the old classical pronunciation are those 
 of Canton, Swa tow, Tiechiu, Amoy and some in Kiang si. 
 The locality of old classical pronunciation as used in this 
 poem, was the hanks of the Yellow River to the south and 
 west of the great bend at the T'ung kwan. 
 
 The intermediate poetry enables us to acquire a know- 
 ledge of the process of change through which the language 
 was passing. 
 
 The final settlement of the rhymes was made in the 
 T'ang dynasty from 1000 to 1200 years ago. The system of 
 public examinations was then elaborated into almost its 
 modern completeness. At that time the final m was still in 
 the language. In the rhyming dictionaries its existence is 
 ,-ihvays recognized. 
 
 The following poern of Su of the Tang dynasty will 
 illustrate this point.
 
 APPENDIX D. 
 
 37 
 
 ?o m 
 
 45 
 
 ' - 
 
 >--* 
 
 A 
 
 & 
 
 @ 
 * 
 
 
 
 Hi 
 
 m 
 
 \ ,LU> 
 
 2 
 
 fc 
 
 0, 
 
 m 
 
 n 
 
 tt 
 
 HI 
 
 & 
 
 & 
 
 han 
 
 lio 
 
 ding 
 
 tek 
 
 Fung 
 
 narn 
 
 to 
 
 Bit 
 
 dza 
 
 lio 
 
 Jmn 
 
 pok 
 
 shui 
 
 shan 
 
 lai 
 
 nip 
 
 fing 
 
 nin 
 
 mi 
 
 kang 
 
 yong 
 
 long 
 
 shang 
 
 ku 
 
 c'hun 
 
 kang 
 
 zik 
 
 long 
 
 on 
 
 ho 
 
 yin 
 
 yu 
 
 gim 
 
 ngwa 
 
 vim 
 
 sit 
 
 lim 
 
 yo 
 
 sim 
 
 c'ho 
 
 
 
 
 Modern 
 
 sounds. 
 
 hien 
 
 liau 
 
 fing 
 
 dm 
 
 Feng 
 
 nan 
 
 tau 
 
 Pic 
 
 tso 
 
 liau 
 
 hwun 
 
 fu 
 
 shui 
 
 shan 
 
 lai 
 
 ye 
 
 fing 
 
 jen 
 
 wei 
 
 ching 
 
 ying 
 
 tang 
 
 sheng 
 
 chii 
 
 c'hun 
 
 ching 
 
 si 
 
 tung 
 
 yuen 
 
 hu 
 
 yin 
 
 yeu 
 
 c'hiri 
 
 wai 
 
 yin 
 
 siue 
 
 lin 
 
 \>M1 
 
 sin 
 
 c'hu 
 
 Litera I tra nxlation . 
 
 leisurely solitary hall bamboo Feng south arrive Leave 
 
 sit solitary gloom bending water mountain come occupation 
 
 listen man not yet passes reflect fronts produce dwell 
 
 spring region night winter garden gate retired quiet 
 
 beyond dark snow grove aperture mind place
 
 38 APPENDIX D. 
 
 f Paraphrastic rendering . 
 
 To a lonely country home 
 Seeking holiday I come, 
 Cherishing while none intrude 
 Thonghts in love with solitude, 
 
 Mountain scenery fronts my door 
 And the Feng flows on before. 
 In its waters deep I see 
 Images of house and tree. 
 
 Downward bending each bamboo 
 Still looks fresh the winter through. 
 Bound my darkened cottage home 
 Long ere nightfall all is gloom. 
 
 Far from men in this retreat 
 Freed from busy cares I sit 
 Listening to the birds that sing 
 Hymns of welcome to the spring. 
 
 In restoring the sounds of the characters in the case 
 of poetry of the T'ang dynasty we have the help of the 
 Kwang yiin and other dictionaries. By the use of these 
 works we can approximate to the true old sound.
 
 APPENDIX D. 39 
 
 By referring to these authorities the following conclu- 
 sions can be established. 
 
 1 . The sonant initials appear in the above poem as b 
 in bit, d in ding, g in gim, z in zik, dz in dza. We find 
 also the low pitched weak aspirate, symbolized by h as in 
 hsiu leisurely, and /iu, a door. 
 
 2. The modern j was then n as in nin man. The 
 modern initial w was then often ng as in ngwa outside, 
 or m as in mi, not yet. The modern c/i was often t as 
 in tek bamboo. The modern /"was often p. 
 
 3. The modern o, e, u, ie, an, iue were formerly a, 
 i or a, o, i, o, I and these are particular cases of a regular 
 process of change by which all the vowels have advanced 
 or retreated from one position to another in the graduated 
 scale of vowel pronunciation during the thousand years 
 that have elapsed since this poem was written. 
 
 4 . The finals m, k, t, p were in the T'ang dynasty, as 
 in the Gheu dynasty twelve or fourteen centuries earlier, 
 characteristic of th ;> prevailing pronunciation. Thus in the 
 translated poem the words sim heart, Urn grove 
 yim dark, gim winged animals are there found to 
 rhyme together, just as they do in the poetry of the clas- 
 sics, whether in the Odes, the Book of Changes, or the Book 
 of Historv.
 
 APPENDIX E. 
 
 FANG YEN, AN ANCIENT WORK ON DIALECTS. 
 
 The auther of this work was Yang hiung B. C. 53 
 to A.D. 18. Kwop'umade annotations on it about A.D. 300. 
 
 113 ""^ \ ' *.- 
 
 It is cited in Kanghi as f^j -Jp /j pj Yang tsi fang 
 yen. 
 
 It assigns geographical boundaries to the use of particular 
 words. Thus ^ pen a drinking vessel of earthen ware 
 is a term used in the region west of the T'ung kwan for 
 yang employed elsewhere. Tung kwan here referred to is 
 the pass at the point where the three provinces Honan, 
 Shensi, Shansi, meet near the bend of the Yellow River. 
 
 The area of the Chinese language as defined by the 
 use of words given in this book embraced Shensi, Shansi, 
 Chili and Corea on the north, with Kiang su, Chekiang, 
 Kwei lin, Hunan, Si' c'hwen, on the south, with the inter- 
 vening regions. 
 
 \ The dialects were Ch'u 38, T'si ^, T'sin ^. Tsin
 
 APPENDIX E. 
 
 ^f , Yang J, Nan C'hu M 7E or the southern C'hu, i. e. 
 Hu nan, Tung Tsi J^[ ^f , T'sing ^ , Stt ^, Kiang Hwai 
 vl Jit the region of the Kiang and Hwai rivers. The Wu 
 dialect ^, embracing Sucheu and Nanking. Liang i^ 
 Yi *, in Sichwen, named by the emperor Han wu ti 
 B.C. 100 on account of its narrow passes, yik narrow. 
 Lu , in Shantung, Kwei lin fd: W the modern Kwang 
 si, Wu hu,, the five lakes ^L \ L C'hen P^, Sung -fc y 
 Wei ]$, Ghau ^, W T ei ^f , Yen J^, Cheng f|P and 
 
 some others. 
 
 The regions known in the Han dynasty as p| jjjjx Nan 
 yuei.e. Canton and Cochin China, with Liang ^ in Si' 
 ch'wen, are spoken of as yielding the elephant and rhinoce- 
 ros, which probably means the tusks and teeth brought by 
 commerce. 
 
 Resemblances between the words in use in modern 
 dialects and those contained in the Shwo wen are rare to 
 find. The intervening time has been long enough to sweep 
 away, at all events, the most of the provincialisms of that 
 day,, and to spread over the whole country a more modern 
 type of the language. 
 
 The preservation of the Fang yen was secured by its 
 authorship when that became known. Yang hiung was a 
 great scholar. The comment of Kwo p'u on the book fixed 
 its reputation, as a genuine production of Yang hiung and 
 give it that important place in the national literature which 
 it has ever since filled. 
 
 BAN-ZAI-SAU ' 2 - 7 s I iS
 
 42 APPENDIX E. 
 
 In the Han shu, says, the Si' k'u, the name of this book 
 is not found, nor in any author of that dynasty. In the Tsin 
 shu the comment of Kwo p'u is mentioned in the Life of 
 that author. It is alluded to previously in the Feng su t'ung, 
 a work of the end of the Han period, which states that it 
 was the custom for the emperors of the Gheu and T'sin 
 dynasties to send envoys in carriages to inquire for the 
 words used in various regions. On returning these messen- 
 gers presented reports to the emperor which were preserved 
 in the house of archives, and afterwards scattered and lost. 
 A native of Shu named Yen kiiin p'ing collected more than 
 a thousand words used in dialects. Lin lii and Weng ju t'sai 
 made use of a method they called Keng kai chi fa general 
 list. This was highly thought of by Yang hiung and he 
 worked upon it for 27 years. During this time he diligently 
 inquired of persons in repute from every part of the coun- 
 try, military and civil. His book contained 9000 words. 
 The same author in his comment on the Han shu cites the 
 Fang yen as the work of Yang hiung. 
 
 The eighteenth century critics proceeding in their 
 account defend the book against charges of want of genuine- 
 ness brought by Sung dynasty authors, on the ground of 
 the improper use of characters. 
 
 They then add that the Sh wo wen borrows frequently 
 from Yang Hiung and vet the words used are not found in 
 
 o *> 
 
 the Fang yen. At the same time many expressions occur in 
 the Shwo wen which are also found in the Fang yen. This
 
 APPENDIX E. 43 
 
 is as if at the time \vheri the Shwo wen was composed the 
 Fang yen was not known by that name, nor was the hook 
 now known as the Fang yen attributed at that time to 
 Yang Hiung. This accounts for the fact thet the great 
 critics Ma, Chang, etc., of that age make no allusion to it. 
 
 In the second century and near its end Ying shau, as 
 stated above, brought the book into open day by the refe- 
 rences he made to it. Sun yen and Tu yii refer to it soon 
 after, and Kwo p'u wrote comments upon it in the third 
 century. From this time forward it was known in literature 
 as Yang Hiung fang yen. 
 
 We now find instead of 9000 characters more than 
 12000 and thirteen chapters instead of fifteen. Kwo p'u 
 mentions fifteen as the number. The Sui and T'ang histories 
 make it thirteen. 
 
 There is a letter extant fram Yang hiung to Lieu yin in 
 which he states that he is collecting words, that the work is 
 most laborious, but if his friend will allow him time he will 
 ultimately complete it. This shews that Yang hiung had 
 this work in hand, that Lieu yin wished to borrow it, and 
 that it was not finished. It was consequently not entered in 
 the book list of the Han shu, nor inserted as a separate 
 chapter in that work. 
 
 The book fell into private hands and underwent va- 
 rious changes. It was suspected by some and altered by 
 others, especially in regard to the divisions into chapters. 
 
 But, say the critics, careful reseach did not permit
 
 44 APPENDIX E. 
 
 them to doubt the genuineness of the work, and the name 
 of the author is therefore retained in the imperial edition. 
 They have followed the text preserved in the great collection 
 of the fifteenth century called Yung lo ta tien in restoring 
 to order and correctness the common editions of the work. 
 
 Kwo p'u the commentator wrote a preface which is still 
 preserved. After quoting the same old account above given 
 of the labours of the commissioners for collecting provincial 
 words in the third and preceding centuries before the 
 Christian era he says that he himself from his youth 
 loved studies in dialects and that this collection of archa- 
 isms and provincialisms had to him a pleasant flavour. 
 
 He therefore devoted time to its explication, correction, 
 and expansion, that those who came after might have addi- 
 tions made to their knowledge and intelligence. This pre- 
 face comes from are author who lived from A.D. 276 to 324 
 and was a native of Ho tung the modern Shantung. 
 
 The Fang yen was much used by the early lexicogra- 
 phers. In the Shwo wen, Kwang yiin, Kwang ya and Yu 
 p'ien its words are frequently found and in the second and 
 last its name mentioned. 
 
 Kwo p'u in his notes quotes the dictionaries Kwang 
 ya and Shwo wen. In the list of phonetics classified accor- 
 ding to finals will be found the sounds by Kp's spelling. 
 He was the first after the Kwang ya to use the syllabic 
 spelling.
 
 APPENDIX F. 
 
 BUDDHIST SACRED BOOKS. 
 
 A distinct source of information on the old pronun- 
 ciation of Chinese is found in the Buddhist sacred books. 
 
 The translations into Chinese of the Buddhist sacred 
 books originally composed in Sanscrit constitute a valua- 
 ble testimony to the contemporary sounds attached to the 
 Chinese characters. They were mostly made before that 
 great change in the language which has reduced the num- 
 ber of syllables capable of being pronounced by the Chi- 
 nese from upwards of seven hundred to a few more 
 than 400. 
 
 It was the habit of the Hindoo and Chinese transla- 
 tors of these books to transfer proper names, and also 
 some Sanscrit terms of great doctrinal importance, but for 
 which there were no satisfactory equivalents in Chinese. 
 
 Among such words are the following :
 
 46 APPENDIX F. 
 
 j. 
 
 rJJL bo sat, p'u sa, Bodhisattwa. 
 
 %& Pi ba l a niun, p'o lo men Brahman. 
 
 barn, fan, Brahma. 
 
 $ff P^F ?H Pi! 1$ -Mw mo ^ ""' da But. Nan 
 wu Ngo mi t'o Fo. Namo Amida Buddha. 
 
 fH Ni wan, Nirvana. 
 
 j=a 
 
 g A bi dam, Ngo pi tan Abidharma. 
 
 mzb ^m bo di, San mian 
 
 san pu t'i, Samyaksambodhi. 
 
 In order to shew how the sounds of the Chinese 
 characters employed have changed since the Sanscrit 
 words were transcribed the old and new sounds are here 
 placed side by side with the corresponding Sanscrit 
 equivalents. Thus in the Chinese for Brahma now called 
 Fan we find in the Kwy and other old dictionaries bam, 
 and this is supported by the usage of the Hindoo transla- 
 ters. The proof is here quite valid. One branch of it sup- 
 ports other branches. It is clearly impossible that the Chi- 
 nese character f j|j fo can have been called Fo, at the 
 time when it was selected to represent Buddha*. 
 
 * In Julien's work on the transcription of Sanscrit words in Chinese, the 
 modern mandarin sounds are tacitly assumed to be unchangeable and 
 unquestionable. The book is most valuable except on this point.
 
 APPENDIX F. 4 / 
 
 
 
 The character mio belongs to phonetic 949 a which 
 has the old sound mok. Probably then this character was 
 chosen because at the time final k was still pronounced at 
 the end of it.
 
 APPENDIX G 
 
 NOTES ON SOME SELECT CHARACTERS AND PARTS OF' 
 CHARACTERS. 
 
 1 . Shu 3ft shak bind occurs as the upper part of 
 sok f rope, and of ffjf /i, emperor. The lower 
 
 part of both the characters is descriptive of the material, 
 silk and cloth, employed in the manufacture of the objects 
 represented. The character for emperor was originally 
 used for a band or girdle, as may be deduced from the 
 character itself and the existence of the root sok bind 
 tai, tak, a band. 
 
 The same element in the form and in the sense occurs 
 in ^ p'ang, side. One of the meanings of the root pang 
 is to bind. 
 
 2. Sheu ^ shok 3C y eu i duk (( hand ~jj cheu, 
 tok arm yjv c'hau, t'ok, claw ~fe yen aright hand 
 /r, tso left hand are all pictures of the hand or arm.
 
 APPENDIX G, 49 
 
 The hand as grasping or striking or turning over 
 occurs in ^ yen have j p'u, p'ok strike ^ chi, ti(t) 
 branch J^ fan to turn over. Two strokes crossing 
 each other represent a hand in all these cases and in 3c 
 shu, weapon. 
 
 Three strokes drawn horizontally with one down stroke 
 crossing them on the right represent a hand in ^ ping 
 
 -f ^.y* ^ ,^ 
 
 hold == sui broom ^ c//ew, sweep -5- s/zz, 
 thing 5f| /zz^ pedal of a loom s/zw ,, write 
 
 ^ &ze/z together. 
 
 1 1 . 
 They may be assumed to be the hand in /^ keng 
 
 k'ang, in Jjfi yung, in T yin to lead , and in 
 kiiin, leader. 
 
 Thus in yung 720 we find the meaning bell IJj}, and 
 workman fjj, to both of which the action of the hand is 
 appropriate. 
 
 The forms j\ kung, and the upper part of 
 chun, spring ^ feng, offer with both hands ^ 
 tseu, present a memorial shung pound in a 
 mortar, always represent two hands. 
 , The old form of fu father probably consists 
 
 si of a hand and something with which blows are 
 inflicted. Fu is also a hatchet. The reason why 
 fu father was written with this character would be 
 identity in sound. 
 
 3. Chen \jji true consisting of hwa renovate, mu 
 eye, and kin hatchet, as before described, indicates 
 
 B.VN-ZAl-SAU " 7 ' Il .>
 
 ,")() APPENDIX G. 
 
 that the inventors of characters were, when this one was 
 made, under the influence of Tauist doctrine, which 
 teaches that a true man is one who has become reno- 
 vated by meditation on stillness and purity. 
 
 The upper two strokes occur in \% hwa renovate, 
 
 jfls ._t__t . 
 
 _^ hwo goods 4 hwa flower. Flowers in their 
 metamorphoses indicate that they possess the power of 
 self renovation. 
 
 The effect of systems of thought on the formation of 
 characters may be seen in J kwei, the last of the cycle 
 of ten. Kwei means return to, come to an end. The Ku 
 wen form is found in the Tsan hwang monument : 
 
 8 
 
 o 
 
 4 
 
 Here Kwei is said to be a picture of water flowing to a 
 centre from the four quarters of the horizon. It was in 
 this way that the first inventors chose to indicate the place 
 of the last in a cycle of symbols. So thought the Shwo wen. 
 Another critic appears on the scene and overthrows this 
 explanation by suggesting that it is simply two pieces of 
 wood crossing each other, and is no other than an ancient 
 implement used in levelling. This was called kwei and was 
 used by builders in reducing land to a level. The root is
 
 APPENDIX (i. 51 
 
 either connected with, K'wei to " guess at, estimate, or 
 kjpei * carpenter's square. 
 
 The Li shu adopted the form ^ where we easily 
 detect 4fc F'~i north and 7^ shi arrow. The north be- 
 longs to winter and kwei is applied to both. Both earth 
 and water then become smooth and flat, and can be easily 
 measured. 
 
 The preceding four characters in the Chwen wen are 
 takjn from a monument at Tsan hwang a small town 
 belonging to the department of Cheng ting fu in the metro- 
 politan province. It was found A.D. io53 upon the T'an 
 mountain close by, by an officer of the district, and was 
 removed to the office of the magistrate within the city for 
 safety. It belongs to the period, it is supposed, of the roth 
 century B.C. for it is mentioned in the account of the ex- 
 ploits of Mu wang of that time that he visited Tsan hwang 
 and offered sacrifices on the mountain of that name. Of 
 that sacrifice the inscription on this stone is believed to be 
 a record. The name fan means altar. 
 
 4. Pei J| is in page 80 written puft). Perhaps the 
 fact that in Kw it is used in ^ mau, mok instead of the 
 right hand part of that character, indicates that it was 
 anciently puk. For p changes to m. In Lw -~f pokwas 
 used as the right hand phonetic . It was anciently used for HJf 
 pai beat down. (This favours final /) and jj( fu 
 carry on the back. (This favours final k.) 
 
 5 . Very few of the ideographic signs are without pho-
 
 52 APPENDIX G. 
 
 netic use. Thus the covers * ) yen have the force 
 
 . 
 dang, dom, meaning house as in the phonetics f* 
 
 ,%t^ x 
 5 1 3 ^T 786. These sounds became modified by loss and 
 
 change mtoying as in 874 /(, yung as in 876 pf|, Urn as 
 in 878 Jj, Hem as in 875 Jf|. 
 
 Yet it is safer to view these as only ideographic. Thus 
 Urn granary Jf| lim curtain Jjj| take the covering 
 symbol because they have the idea of closing or covering. 
 
 Let it also be noted that the first of these covers is 
 found in \g. 879 tan where the old final is n. For some 
 phonetics are also ideographic. The same character may 
 be phonetic without being ideographic. Or it may be 
 ideographic without being phonetic or it may be both at 
 the same time. 
 
 6. ^ Tsang, bury. Si ^ " tne dead placed 
 between grass above and grass below. Sw. In the Kw 
 instead of the dead we find Q pe white doubled. 
 White being the colour of mourning, it is evident that the 
 inventors of the Chwen shu and Li shu have imitated the 
 primary thought of the first makers of the Ku wen.
 
 APPENDIX H. 
 
 THE STROKES OF CHINESE WRITING. 
 
 The strokes used in modern Chinese writing have been 
 arranged by Gallery in the following manner : 
 
 GHU 
 
 HWA 
 
 KEU 
 
 FIE 
 
 Yi 
 
 9 X 
 
 KWAN 
 
 KlUE 
 
 Ti 
 
 NA 
 
 Note that the proper name of 9 is rather Fu or Put, 
 and that 1 is also called tien or tim.
 
 54 APPENDIX H. 
 
 Gallery gives the following varieties of these nine ori- 
 ginal strokes : 
 
 7 
 
 -7 
 
 1 1 1 '! 
 
 j 
 
 These varieties of the strokes are here given as inter- 
 esting to the caligraphist rather than as important for Chi- 
 nese archaeology. They came into existence in conse- 
 quence of the qualities of the fine hair pencil used in wri- 
 ting the Kiai shu. The same is true of the nine primary 
 strokes.
 
 APPENDIX I. 
 
 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 Bv. Bells and vases. 
 
 Civ. Ghwen wen. The seal character. 
 
 Hkm. Han Idem. Mirrors of the Han dynasty. 
 
 Hkn. Han kien. Tablet of the Han family. 
 
 Hyp. Hwa yii pei. Monument of the Hwa mountain. 
 
 Khk. Ku hiau king. Old copy of the book of Filial 
 piety. 
 
 Kmp. ^ ^0J Kung miau pei. Monument in the 
 temple of Confucius. 
 
 Kyp. \ 7^. ^P K'ungyiipei. Monument of Kung 
 yii. 
 
 K\v. Ku wen. Old forms of characters anterior to 
 
 the Lieu wen. 
 
 Ltp. Ling t'ai pei Inscription on the Ling terrace of 
 
 Wen wang. 
 
 Lw. Lieu wen. The character as modified B. G. 800 
 by a scholar named Lieu. The Ta chwen or great seal cha- 
 racter.
 
 56 APPENDIX I. 
 
 Sc. Siau chwen. The small seal character. 
 Sw. Shwo wen. The dictionary of Hii shu chung. 
 Tshp. T'si heu pei. Monument of the Hen (noble of 
 second class) of the T'si kingdom.
 
 APPENDIX J. 
 
 RADICALS OF SHWO-WEN. 
 
 I 
 
 f * 
 
 I ' 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 1 1 
 
 IN |j| 
 
 m i 
 
 1- 
 
 H a 
 
 f f W 
 
 fv^ 
 
 MMM 
 
 . 
 
 4A 
 
 n 
 
 Iff 
 
 1 ^ 
 
 1 * 
 
 f * 
 
 ' ' 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 ^* 
 
 BAN-ZAI-SAU ' 7S 
 
 20
 
 58 
 
 APPENDIX J. 
 
 U U 
 
 0Un 
 
 
 it Jt 
 
 Jit 
 
 e 
 
 IE 
 
 Lfcl 
 
 y 
 
 I-FH 
 
 III 
 
 ua 
 
 Wtf
 
 APPENDIX J. 
 
 59 
 
 t 
 
 * 
 
 f * 
 
 
 fi, 
 i 
 
 $JI*. 
 f 
 
 m 
 
 fl* 
 
 If 
 
 f A 
 
 13 
 
 _. 
 
 * 
 
 (R*
 
 DO 
 
 APPENDIX J. 
 
 6 B 
 
 
 I- 
 
 XX 
 XX 
 
 IV 
 
 TT 
 
 T
 
 APPENDIX J. 
 
 lii 
 
 
 
 "* 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 fi 
 
 f 
 
 V 
 
 BAN-ZA1-SAO J. 76
 
 APPENDIX J. 
 
 
 7T 
 
 7T 
 
 XI 
 XX 
 
 b) 
 
 J5L 
 
 -it, 
 
 M 
 
 o 
 
 * 
 
 jjjTint
 
 APPENDIX J. 
 
 63 
 
 _ * 
 
 
 
 A A 
 
 ^zn^ HI 
 
 e 
 
 ft 
 
 S 
 
 w 
 
 t^t. 
 
 VI
 
 64 
 
 APPENDIX .1. 
 
 ft* 
 
 
 
 f* 
 
 Ok 
 
 I 4 
 
 T 
 
 . 
 
 : 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 !f * 
 
 m 
 
 OP 
 
 oo 
 
 
 VII 
 
 8 
 
 66 BB
 
 HAN-ZAI-SAU
 
 66 
 
 APPENDIX .T. 
 
 n 
 
 r i 
 
 A 
 
 f 
 
 VIII
 
 APPENDIX J. 
 
 67 
 
 n 
 
 
 * 
 
 n 
 
 <* 
 
 IX
 
 68 
 
 APPENDIX J. 
 
 fe 
 
 * 
 
 in 
 
 FP 
 
 ill 
 
 rf
 
 APPENDIX J. 
 
 69 
 
 * 
 
 3- 
 
 m 
 
 
 X 
 
 E 
 
 
 BAN-ZAt-SAU i. "fi 
 
 ISO
 
 70 
 
 APPENDIX .1. 
 
 ft*- 
 
 
 ^s 
 
 (t 
 
 
 tt 
 
 IT 
 
 I 
 
 Jlft 
 
 
 XI 
 
 * 
 
 
 I ( 
 
 **
 
 APPENDIX J. 
 
 71 
 
 ' 
 
 
 mi 
 
 f 
 
 XII 
 
 fr 
 
 \ I 
 
 n *
 
 APPENDIX .1. 
 
 ft 
 
 XIII 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s
 
 APPENDIX J. 
 
 73 
 
 
 IZ. 
 
 y 
 
 XIV 
 
 f 4 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 pcj 
 
 _. 
 
 BAN-ZAl-SAU 5. 76
 
 APPENDIX J. 
 
 -7. 
 
 
 * 
 
 ft* 

 
 ALPHABETICAL INDEX 
 
 Cha 
 
 Chai 
 
 3 47 
 
 Chan t5 l^ 
 
 tt 150 
 
 ^ 387 
 
 ^ 166 
 
 Chan ^ 657 
 
 l 529 
 
 2f 723 
 
 3 539 
 
 $Jf 747 
 
 fj 559 
 
 ^901 
 
 !g 629 
 
 1^? 968 
 
 ^ 695 
 
 1 1011 
 
 Jf R153 
 
 Chang 51 24 
 
 ^ 611 
 
 ^ 402 ] 
 
 $1} 873 
 
 g 496
 
 76 ALPHABETICAL INDEX 
 
 ^ 712 
 
 iff 919a,ld, R/3 
 
 $$ 870 
 
 Ghu^j 1 124 
 
 G'hang ^g R. 192 
 
 i 129 
 
 Ghi M 237, R. 133 
 
 Ghu ttj 207 
 
 13 275 
 
 ^C 259 
 
 dt Q1Q 
 
 vj-^Ti O 1 t-J 
 
 i<f 260 a, R. 119 
 
 ^ 318 a, R. 155 
 
 flj/ 370 
 
 Oil 411 
 
 |C 412 
 
 ^P 454 
 
 Hf 620 
 
 ffeO 455 
 
 ^ 636 a 
 
 BE? 483 
 
 stftj f* /> w 
 
 ^7 DO / 
 
 f 639 
 
 ^ 836 
 
 Hi; 693 
 
 ^ 893 
 
 ^L 742 
 
 SJ" 81 6 a 
 
 Si 799 
 
 fi- 965 
 
 H 899 a 
 
 Chui f| 456, R. 172 
 
 H 940 
 
 ^ 472 
 
 tK. 
 
 ^ . 
 
 M 975 
 
 iE 682 
 
 Gho ^J 41 
 
 S 843 
 
 Cho g 443 
 
 G'hun 520 
 
 ^. 486 
 
 Chung $* 122 
 
 ^ 669 a 
 
 $ R. 142
 
 TO THE RADICALS AND PHONETICS. 7 
 
 7L 215 
 
 Fei Tfl 77 
 
 H 558 
 
 |^ 451, R. 175 
 
 ^ 625 
 
 BE 459 
 
 Chung yfc 852 
 
 fRt 583, R. 183 
 
 }hwang 7(1 361 
 
 Fen ^ 112 
 
 Chwen JII R. 47 
 
 Jlf 887 
 
 JII48 
 
 Feng ^ 90 b 
 
 #t 347 a, R. 136 
 
 H 774 
 
 748 
 
 g 1021 
 
 f| 833 
 
 ^: 348 
 
 Fa ^ 87 
 
 Ifl 401 
 
 tt277 
 
 If 530 
 
 ft 842 
 
 M 571, R. 182 
 
 Fan E 7 
 
 Feu iff 258, R. 121 
 
 7L 45 
 
 308 
 
 ^68 
 
 Ifl 474, R. 170. 
 
 IE 127 
 
 Fu \ 1 e 
 
 ^ 181 
 
 ^ 63 
 
 $ 821 
 
 PC 70 a 
 
 H 840 
 
 ^i 114, R. 88 
 
 Fang JH R. 22 
 
 ^ 155 
 
 i^ 54, R. 70 
 
 ft 178 
 
 BAN-ZAI-SAU 3- 7 6 l3l
 
 78 
 
 
 ALPHABETICAL INDEX 
 
 tic 
 
 276 
 
 M 862, R. 203 
 
 w 
 
 322 
 
 US 944 
 
 
 
 335 
 
 Heng ~f 299 
 
 fa 
 
 393 
 
 t 506 
 
 u 
 
 461 
 
 Heu ) 268. 
 
 s 
 
 514 
 
 fj| 569 a 
 
 H 
 
 ra 
 
 534 
 
 ^ 576 
 
 ?t 
 
 648 a 
 
 Hi H R. 123 
 
 Fu^Jj 
 
 849 
 
 Hi^ 111 
 
 FuJ| 
 
 551 
 
 ^ 357 
 
 5 
 
 648 
 
 1^ 663 
 
 Hai ^ 
 
 216 
 
 818 
 
 IF 
 
 610 
 
 ^ 853 
 
 Hang;^ 
 
 55 
 
 4 916 
 
 Han 7^ 
 
 R. 27 
 
 ^ 1003 
 
 & 
 
 356 
 
 1 1006 
 
 ^ 
 
 364 
 
 HiaT 26 
 
 
 
 444 
 
 M 638 
 
 II 
 
 756 
 
 Hiai 1000 
 
 Hau ^ 
 
 194 
 
 Hiang^ 396 
 
 ^ 
 
 935 
 
 561, R.. 186 
 
 ^ 
 
 520 a 
 
 fS] 280
 
 TO THE RADICALS AND PHONETICS. 
 
 79 
 
 1 
 
 827 
 
 Hiiie /C 126, 
 
 R. 116 
 
 m 
 
 913 
 
 JIIL 281, 
 
 R. 143 
 
 Hiau^ 
 
 115, R. 89 
 
 HiiienJ/J 130, 
 
 R.95 
 
 ^ 
 
 316 
 
 2 245 
 
 
 1 
 
 479 
 
 S 928 
 
 
 Hie JT 
 
 525, R. 181 
 
 Hiiin fi 951 
 
 
 _z&r+ 
 Zf^f 
 
 659 
 
 Hiung P 51 a 
 
 
 nl 
 
 972 
 
 IXJ 109 
 
 
 Hien Q 
 
 467 
 
 ^L 198 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 524 
 
 Ho ^ 285 
 
 
 ffel 
 
 832 
 
 ^? 626 
 
 
 Hieu ft 
 
 278 
 
 ^^ 596 
 
 
 Hin /ft 
 
 468 
 
 ^ 645 
 
 
 Hien 
 
 960 
 
 ^ 992 
 
 
 3K 
 
 987 
 
 Hu^ 73 
 
 
 El 
 
 1002 
 
 ^ 101, R. 63 
 
 II 
 
 1033 
 
 ^ 162 
 
 
 Hin/fjt 
 
 468 
 
 j^ 288 a 
 
 , R. 141 
 
 King Jf I) 
 
 222 
 
 $& 466 
 
 
 'ff 
 
 270, R. 144 
 
 jfe 288 a 
 
 ,487 
 
 ^ 
 
 416 
 
 SB 544 
 
 
 Hio ^ 
 
 905 
 
 M 769 

 
 80 
 
 ALPHABETICAL INDEX 
 
 Hujjft 
 
 770 
 
 Hwei X 906 
 
 
 1 
 
 784 
 
 i* 912 
 
 
 Hii^ 
 
 857 
 
 Hwo jJC 59, R. 86 
 
 Hung ^/^ 
 
 156 
 
 ^ 167, R. 
 
 115 
 
 7r* 
 
 321 a 
 
 ^ 430 
 
 
 'tj 
 
 562 
 
 H 951 
 
 
 Hwa ik 
 
 104 
 
 Hwun 476 
 
 
 m 
 
 428 
 
 HI 702 
 
 
 m 
 
 860 
 
 Jan ^ 302 a 
 
 
 Hwai f| 
 
 990 
 
 im 846 
 
 
 Hwan 7L 
 
 R. 46 
 
 Jen A 12, R. 9 
 
 ,10 
 
 H 
 
 552 
 
 J] 34 
 
 
 m 
 ii>j, 
 
 795 
 
 :3r 90a 
 
 
 Hwang ;% 
 M 
 
 217 
 574 
 
 -ft 203 
 
 if 282 
 
 
 31 
 
 699 
 
 S 33 2 
 
 
 M 
 
 824, R. 201 
 
 fi) 117a 
 
 
 Hwei $C 
 
 227 
 
 Jou ^ 545 
 
 
 # 
 
 244 a 
 
 Ji 120, R. 
 
 72 
 
 m 
 
 293 
 
 Jo ^ 587 
 
 
 5i 
 
 604 
 
 H 655 
 
 
 1 1 f 
 
 itVi^ 
 
 820 
 
 A 14 a, R. 
 
 11
 
 
 TO THE RADICALS AND PHONETICS. 81 
 
 $ 
 
 | R. no 
 
 I^ 622, R. IS!) 
 
 Jttjl 
 
 f 287 
 
 $: 679 
 
 / 
 
 * 636 
 
 ^ 628 
 
 Jui ^ 
 
 . 807 
 
 Ke Jji 694 a, R. 177 
 
 ^956 
 
 ^ 309 
 
 Jun |=| 
 
 831 
 
 ^ 504 
 
 Jung 3=f 
 
 694 
 
 Ke g5 649 
 
 ^ 
 
 224 
 
 Ken PC 253, R. 138 
 
 Jwan Jjj. 
 
 527 
 
 {if 485 
 
 Kai IP) 
 
 72 a 
 
 Keng ^ 228 
 
 Kan [J 
 
 16 b, R. 17 
 
 IE 321 
 
 
 
 20, R. 51 
 
 J^ 391 
 
 M 
 
 151, R. 99 
 
 jif 485 
 
 IX 
 
 653 
 
 Keu P 51, R. 30 
 
 I* 
 
 815 
 
 ^/ 98 a 
 
 g$ 
 
 884 
 
 If 635 
 
 $ 
 
 w 
 
 895 
 
 1* 643 
 
 ang |j| 
 
 489 
 
 ^ 709 
 
 M 
 
 721 
 
 Ki/L 9, R. 16 
 
 Kau ^ 
 
 2 
 
 H^ 32, R. V.) 
 
 ^ 
 
 241 
 
 Ki ^ 38 
 
 a. 
 t=j 
 
 342 
 
 3L R. 58 
 
 BAN-ZAI-SAU 4. 76 / 'J 2
 
 82 
 
 ALPHABETICAL INDEX 
 
 ~C 89 a, R. 84 
 
 j 955 
 
 ^97 
 
 Kia^JP 161 
 
 Jr 99 
 
 ^ 195 
 
 ^243 
 
 ^5 304 
 
 331 
 
 549 
 
 wf 408 
 
 ^ 609 
 
 5* 427 
 
 M 891 
 
 I|t 435 
 
 . FR 
 
 Kiai ^- 1 / 2 
 
 ^ 463 
 
 ^ 113 
 
 it>i> oo,v a 
 
 ^303 
 
 f| 567 
 
 ^ 570 
 
 ^tf 644 
 
 S? 902 
 
 M 657 a 
 
 Kiang ^ 271 
 
 ^ 664 
 
 ^ 399 
 
 S 706 
 
 ^g 759 
 
 $ 707 a 
 
 I 890 
 
 IE 776 
 
 Kiau3<f 214 
 
 7$ 856 
 
 S 845 
 
 f| 857 a 
 
 Kie y- 37 
 
 f^: 889 
 
 ^7 256 
 
 j&lj 901 a 
 
 | 350 a 
 
 1^ 907 
 
 S 521
 
 Kiun 
 
 669 
 
 809 
 
 98, R. 76 
 
 261 
 
 1 350 a 
 M, 366, R. 14 
 M 407 
 
 ^t W ] 
 532 
 
 547 
 
 608 
 
 688 
 
 725 
 
 946 
 Jg 961 
 3j 1004 
 Kieu JL 10 
 
 16 
 44 
 
 R. 179 
 325 
 
 TO THE RADICALS AND PHONETICS. 83 
 
 B 349 b, R. 134 
 ^ 469 
 H 594 a 
 
 rfi R. 50 
 
 Kin /p 99, R. 69 
 -4 110 
 
 478, R. 167 
 757 
 808 a 
 ^ 892 
 ||" 909 
 Kingfj 310 
 >R 397 
 
 5 713 
 
 fL 
 
 Kio 
 
 774 a 
 863 
 920 
 317 
 
 346, R. 148 
 581 a 
 J lf,R. 6
 
 84 
 
 
 ALPHABETICAL INDEX 
 
 I 
 
 lg 
 
 |i R. 159 
 
 w 
 
 630 a 
 
 ^J 169 
 
 M 
 
 810 
 
 @ 192 a 
 
 Kiuen :fe 
 
 72, R.94 
 
 ft 292 
 
 AX.--V 
 x;irr? 
 
 219 
 
 10 330 
 
 i? 
 
 453 
 
 & 441 
 
 Kiiin ^f 
 
 329 
 
 J0j 442 
 
 
 
 515 
 
 ^ 458 
 
 n 
 
 17 a, R. 13 
 
 H. 490 
 
 Kiung [nj 
 
 206 
 
 E 749 
 
 Hf 
 
 145 
 
 ^g 797 
 
 
 
 272 
 
 915 
 
 i 
 
 650 
 
 f 1023 
 
 1 
 
 1034 
 
 Kung 7f 21 a, R. 55 
 
 Ku^T 
 
 153 
 
 X 27, R. 48 
 
 SJ 
 
 R.207 
 
 ^ 31,R.57 
 
 
 
 338, R. 150 
 
 ^ 70 
 
 13 
 
 497 
 
 /^ 116 
 
 P 
 
 581 a 
 
 xH, 250 
 
 * 
 
 700, R. 188 
 
 ^t 251 
 
 Kii ^ 
 
 143 
 
 Kung ^ 384 
 
 " 
 
 144 
 
 M" 646
 
 TO THE RADICALS AND PHONETICS. 
 
 85 
 
 
 1 1039 
 
 Kwo [U 51 a, R 
 
 .31 
 
 Kwa 
 
 $i 172, R. 97 
 
 ^ 75; R. 
 
 tZ 
 
 
 77 197 
 
 ^492 
 
 
 
 ^T 236 
 
 |Hf 605 
 
 
 
 J|> 421 
 
 f P 727 
 
 
 Kwai 
 
 ^ 84 
 
 PI 794 
 
 
 
 iHj 605 
 
 S 924 
 
 
 Kwan 
 
 Hf 386 
 
 Kwun | 1 b, R. 
 
 2 
 
 
 M 781 
 
 H 377 
 
 
 
 H 1022 
 
 M 495 
 
 
 Kwang 
 
 H[ 223 
 
 HI 499 
 
 
 
 Jt 288 
 
 S 618 
 
 
 
 t 353 
 
 La J^fJ 535 
 
 
 
 Jt 966 
 
 H 980 
 
 
 Kwei 
 
 gtfa R- -clo 
 
 Lai ^ 409 
 
 
 
 zr 239 
 
 ffi 996 
 
 
 
 ^| 557 
 
 Lan H 995 
 
 
 
 %, 684, R. 194 
 
 MI 1009 
 
 
 Kwei 
 
 M 734 
 
 Lang ^P 624 
 
 
 
 ft 866 
 
 Lau ^ 244, R. 
 
 125 
 
 
 H 866 a 
 
 ^806 
 
 
 
 If 1020 
 
 . Le ^ 334 
 
 
 BAN-ZAI-SAU 4- 76 
 
 1 33
 
 86 
 
 ALPHABETICAL INDEX 
 
 
 Leu 
 
 257, R. 127 
 t 793 
 881 
 985 
 1037 a 
 761 
 789 
 
 Li yj 6, R. 19 
 jjf 128, R. 117 
 ppj R. 193 
 246 
 344 
 
 369, R. 166 
 462 
 
 rfc 
 ^ 724 
 
 736 
 f| 926 
 IS 970 
 fi 993 
 H 1026 
 Liau j 6 a 
 
 Liang 
 
 Lie 
 
 Lien 
 
 Lieu 
 
 811 
 
 300 
 
 431 
 
 229 
 
 746 
 
 875 
 
 1008 
 
 298 
 
 673 
 
 Lin IJJC 432 
 
 I 805 
 878 
 182 
 423 
 
 1040 
 Liuen W& 1024 
 Lo 3 877 
 M 1031 
 Lu ^ 422 
 
 722, R. 198
 
 TO THE RADICALS AND PHONETICS. 
 
 87 
 
 m 
 
 I 887, R. 197 
 
 ^ 349 b 
 
 M 
 
 f 865 
 
 H 597 
 
 
 F 917 
 
 | 949 a 
 
 3jj. 
 
 * 976 
 
 Me |f^ R. 199 
 
 Lii 
 
 i 375 
 
 M 773 a 
 
 $ 
 
 :569 
 
 Mei ^ 340 
 
 JS9 
 
 981 
 
 ,H 554 
 
 t^- 
 
 M 
 
 999 
 
 Men P^ 439, R. 169 
 
 Lun jfjj 
 
 480 
 
 _f 
 
 Men g JUL 4 ^5 
 
 Lung ^-f 
 
 315 
 
 ^ 623 
 
 Pi 
 
 835 
 
 1-4^- 
 
 ^ 958 
 
 s*3 
 
 n 
 
 989, R. 212 
 
 Mpn f l> 1 ^^ Q 
 
 O.UCU /^/^ ItJO d 
 
 Ma $1 
 
 642, R. 187 
 
 $ 286 
 
 ft 
 
 719, R. 200 
 
 ^541 
 
 1 1 i.| 
 
 
 
 Mai j=( 
 
 868 
 
 Mi *-* 1 h, R. 14 
 
 Man jUjl 
 
 758 
 
 /(t 220, R. 120 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 >\t 
 
 S 
 
 790 
 
 m 631 
 
 Mang ^ 
 
 307 
 
 inL OtJl a 
 
 n 
 
 561 
 
 ^ 708 
 
 Mau ^ 
 
 88, R.82 
 
 Hi 1025 
 
 ^ 
 
 R. 110 
 
 Miau ^ 589 
 
 {fp 
 
 175 
 
 ^ 594
 
 88 
 
 ALPHABETICAL INDEX 
 
 Mie j^ 
 
 982 
 
 i 
 
 776 d 
 
 Mien *** 
 
 R. 40 
 
 Na JP 
 
 333 
 
 f iTt 
 
 79 
 
 ^ 
 
 689 a 
 
 Si 
 
 R.205 
 
 Nai Tjf 
 
 8 
 
 % 
 
 347 
 
 ^ 
 
 414 
 
 if 
 
 526, R. 176 
 
 Nan |$J 
 
 543 
 
 Min J 
 
 159 
 
 II 
 
 1027 
 
 s 
 
 830 
 922 
 
 Nang If 
 Nau i 
 
 1038 
 585 
 
 MingM 
 
 tl tf 
 
 fl ri 
 
 206 a, R. 108 
 261 
 493 
 
 Nei |^ 
 
 Neng H 
 
 Ni/E 
 
 121, R. 114 
 692 
 157 
 
 M 
 
 627 
 
 F 
 
 208 
 
 S^r 
 
 266 
 
 fi 
 
 475 
 
 Mo ^C 
 
 135 
 
 Niau j% 
 
 775, R. 196 
 
 s 
 
 788 
 
 Nie @ 
 
 192 a 
 
 MU TK 
 
 80, R. 75 
 
 ^fc. 
 
 365 
 
 5 
 
 85 
 
 i 
 
 406 
 
 @ 
 
 R. 109 
 
 i 
 
 1018 
 
 n 
 
 : 187 
 
 Nien jfj 
 
 477 
 
 11 
 
 ! 422 
 
 Nieu ^p 
 
 90, R. 93 
 
 ^ 
 
 559 a 
 
 Ning ^. 
 
 931
 
 Nung H 925 
 
 Ngai 
 
 446 
 
 603 
 
 IS 819 
 M 994 
 Pa A 13, R. !> 
 
 137 
 
 ^869 
 Si 986 
 
 1036 
 
 RAN-ZAI-SAU 4- 
 
 P'ai 269 
 Pan 181 
 
 TO THE RADICALS AND PHONETICS. 
 
 No P 333. See 
 188 
 50, R. 38 
 
 Pang ^|J 339 
 491 
 ? 900 
 211 
 
 Ngaiigfff 107 
 741 
 908 
 66 
 Ngo ^ 345 
 
 89 
 
 Pau 1G8 
 ^578 
 
 983 
 
 179, R. 10G 
 
 230 
 
 77 182 b 
 ift 473 
 Pel ^ R. 105 
 
 138 
 
 367, R. 154 
 
 389 
 
 652 
 149 
 
 528 
 197],
 
 90 ALPHABETICAL INDEX 
 
 Peng J$ 460 
 
 S^ 817 
 
 Peu $f 389 
 
 Pi J 1 c 
 
 t H,R.21 
 IE 70 a 
 7E R. 103 
 ft 108, R. 81 
 
 132 
 
 170, R. 107 
 
 253 a 
 
 ^354 
 Pi S 498 
 
 498 a, R. 209 
 
 685 
 
 791 
 871 
 
 ... 898 
 
 Piau ^ R. 190 
 $ 418 
 
 J~C 7Pi9 
 xPC '**/(, 
 
 f&i Qfi7 
 
 u JD ' 
 
 m 812a 
 Pie y R 4 
 ^!) 371 
 Pien ~K 57 
 91 
 
 R. 165 
 185 
 666 
 I 573 
 933 
 M 1030 
 Pin ffn 262 
 * 878 
 932 
 
 ,,. 1001 
 Ping ^ 129 
 /" R. 16 
 200 
 133 
 146 
 368 
 452
 
 TO THE RADICALS AND PHONETICS. ( J 
 
 PO n R. 20 
 
 Seu ^ 675 
 
 ^ 312 
 
 A 16 a, R. 28 
 
 Pu f* 17, R. 25 
 
 ^t R. 35 
 
 ^\ 71 
 
 Si ty 42, R. 36 
 
 Jt R-66 
 
 M R.146. 
 
 % 92 
 
 H 247 
 
 Iffj 141 
 
 #f 433 
 
 $7 363 
 
 1 436 
 
 389 
 
 ^ 617a 
 
 H 869 
 
 ^ 656 
 
 Ri (Er ; m R. 7 
 
 1 676 
 
 M 232, R. 126. 
 
 H 762 
 
 If 238 
 
 >CLf ^" 
 
 $[ 470 
 
 ^773 
 
 it" 808 
 
 Si B 33 
 
 M 937 
 
 "g) 158 
 
 Sa 882 
 
 205 
 
 San fjfc 825 
 
 ^ 240 
 
 Sang ^ 691 
 
 ^ 287 b, R. 120 
 
 ^ 223 
 
 |g 600 
 
 S| 237 b 
 
 fijf 823 
 
 Sau |g 923 
 
 Siang|@ 538
 
 
 ALPHABETICAL INDEX 
 
 n 
 
 848 
 
 M: 716 
 
 & 
 
 1005 
 
 B& 00 / 
 
 5fc^ 834 
 
 Siau $ 
 
 18 a, R. 42 
 
 Siiin It} 264 
 
 ft 
 
 380 
 
 So^ 641 
 
 Sie /|P 
 
 311 
 
 I] 707 
 
 H 
 
 658 
 
 Su H 634 
 
 | 
 
 174b 
 
 If 711 
 
 ^ 
 
 964 
 
 $1' 750 
 
 1 
 
 1007 a 
 
 H 826 a 
 
 SI 
 
 1014 
 
 !fi 896 
 
 Sien/L 
 
 260 
 
 1^ 998 
 
 P 
 
 1012 
 
 $ 203 
 
 1 
 
 753 
 
 Su 7E 161 a 
 
 Sieu -73 
 
 343 
 
 ,$235 
 
 J! 
 
 730 
 
 ^^ Ooo 
 
 ft 
 
 776 b 
 
 ^M 847 
 
 Sin 7L 
 
 49, R. 61 
 
 W 936 
 
 & 
 
 R. 60 
 
 Sui S 733 
 
 $ 
 
 296, R. 160 
 
 S 883 
 
 P 
 
 829 
 
 M 910 
 
 Sing jjr 
 
 595 
 
 ^ 1)11) 
 
 Siuen EJJ 
 
 503 
 
 Sun J^; 66 1
 
 TO THE RADICALS AND PHONETICS. 
 
 93 
 
 Sung 7f 
 
 434 
 
 ^ 196 
 
 Sha \fy 
 
 295 
 
 ^ 398 
 
 Sa %\ 
 
 : 778 
 
 ft 540 
 
 10 
 
 165 
 
 % 780 
 
 Shan ^ 
 
 43, R. 59 
 
 IP 963 
 
 Ui 
 
 52, R. 46 
 
 Sheng^p 100 
 
 If 
 
 671 
 
 & 164, R. 100 
 
 p=t~ 
 
 804 
 
 S 886 
 
 H 
 
 809 b 
 
 Sheu g% 447 
 
 Sang fp[j 
 
 501 
 
 ^ R. 64 
 
 7>V 
 f^J 
 
 715 
 
 H* 516, R. 185 
 
 I 
 
 767 
 
 H 942 
 
 Shau J j? 
 
 123 
 
 Sh'i lj 239 
 
 She ^ 
 
 R. 139 
 
 5 247 
 
 s 
 
 262, R. 135 
 
 + 3, R. 33 
 
 ^ 
 
 481 
 
 i 28 a, R. 24 
 
 JW 
 
 681 
 
 f^ 28 b 
 
 ii 
 
 743 a 
 
 /* 33 a, R. 44 
 
 ^ 
 
 812 
 
 ft 106, R. 83 
 
 
 
 894 
 
 ff? 130 a 
 
 4 
 
 899 
 
 Jff 132 a, R. 113 
 
 ShenH' 
 
 R. 158 
 
 5 14 0, R. 112 
 
 BAN-ZAI-SAU S- 76 7 /,Vj
 
 ALPHABETICAL INDEX 
 
 ii: 152 
 
 fL 728 
 
 ^C R. 152 
 
 ^929 
 
 ^ 163 
 
 |$ 984 
 
 ^ 163 a, R, 111 
 
 S 1037 
 
 jSt R. 184 
 
 Shui ^fC R 85 
 
 2^ 225 
 
 Shun ^f 838 
 
 4 426 
 
 Shung 73-2 
 
 M 510 
 
 ShwaiJlf 621 
 
 /6 593 
 
 Shwang |J| 739 
 
 to 683 
 
 ^ 1007 
 
 H^ 697 
 
 ^ 1019a 
 
 Sho $j 630 
 
 Ta ^C 23, R. 37 
 
 $ 726 
 
 ^ 502 
 
 $ 750 
 
 fi 698 
 
 Shu 3c 103, R. 59 
 
 i 705 
 
 ;(( 148 
 
 ^ 837 
 
 ^ R. 202 
 
 i^S oo5 
 
 R R.208 
 
 ^ 65 a, R. 78 
 
 SI/ 177 
 
 Tai'H; 176 
 
 ^ 323 
 
 v^ 143 
 
 ;fe 484 
 
 t? 186 
 
 J& 718 
 
 ^ 440, R. 171
 
 TO THE RADICALS AND PHONETICS. 
 
 95 
 
 Ill 1^. 
 
 a 945 
 
 Ton - 1 - R. 8 
 
 ^ R. 78 
 
 ^ 53, R. 68 
 
 Tan Jj* 93 
 
 M R- 19 i 
 
 Jl 192 
 
 M 319, R. 151 
 
 fi 386 a 
 j- 
 
 j?C 604 a 
 
 jit 779 
 
 tfrl ^^7 
 Ti^ 174 
 |301 
 
 822 
 
 ^352 
 
 |l 867 
 
 t^ 507 
 
 M 879 
 
 M 672 
 
 H 99 a 
 
 Sf 714 
 
 TangJtf 617 
 ^ 786 
 
 ^ 807 a 
 S 948 
 
 ?I 798 
 
 Tie H 888 
 
 Is 914 
 
 ft 1037 a 
 
 R 1032 
 Tau 77 5, R. 18 
 
 Tien 51 201, R. 102 
 $ 403 
 
 i!) 415 
 
 rft- 500 
 
 % 465 
 
 S5 897 
 
 Teng $f 666 
 S 991 
 
 fil 1029 
 Ting T 4
 
 96 
 
 ALPHABETICAL INDEX 
 
 i 90b 
 
 j 565 
 
 SB R. 204 
 
 f j[ 802 
 
 51 341 
 
 Tung -<>> 173 
 
 % 382 
 
 |U 891 
 
 ^ 513 
 
 ^ 828 a 
 
 II 1037 b 
 
 JK 4 ^5 
 
 To 39 
 
 M 800 
 
 125 
 
 Twan ^ 572 
 
 l 263 
 
 f 584 
 
 ^P 265 
 
 W606 
 
 5c 336 
 
 "/[__t o4o a 
 
 Tsa {{< 50 b 
 
 QL 147 
 
 M522 
 
 ^ 362 
 
 Tu i 28, R. 32 
 
 | 1017 
 
 lH 419 
 
 Tsai yf^ 30 
 
 5^505 
 
 ll 242 
 
 & 511 
 
 5R 449 
 
 JH 832 a 
 
 ^ 607 
 
 Tui ^ 358 
 
 T'san ^ 780 
 
 ^B 654 
 
 Tsan 813 
 
 ^J 962 
 
 1 918 
 
 Fnn ^ 105 
 
 If 1028
 
 TO THE RADICALS AND PHONETICS. 
 
 97 
 
 Tsang 
 
 W 687 
 
 599 
 
 
 $& 938 
 
 1 701 
 
 Tsau 
 
 W R. 140 
 
 $: 616 
 
 
 ^ 290 a 
 
 |Sf 632 
 
 
 Hr 686 
 
 701 
 
 
 IpL 696, R. 140 
 
 'wd '"" 
 
 
 H 751 
 
 $ 754 
 
 
 %i-ii i-/ / /-> 
 X3 /bo 
 
 | 768 
 
 Tse 
 
 F^ 2a 
 
 H 851 
 
 , 
 
 PC 67 
 
 ^P 934, R. 210 
 
 
 ^ 210 
 
 ft 950 
 
 
 fffl204 
 
 Tsi ^ 36, R. 39 
 
 
 |f] 591 
 
 @ 176 a, R. 132 
 
 
 If 735 
 
 % 180 
 
 1 
 
 [$ 921 a 
 
 lit 191 
 
 Tseng ' 
 
 |^ 855 
 
 $ 209 
 
 Tseu 
 
 ^ 318, R. 156 
 
 ^ 221 
 
 z 
 
 ^ 
 
 ?| 519 
 
 ^249 
 
 Tsi- 
 
 t 2b 
 
 S" 518 
 
 3 
 
 ^ R. 104 
 
 8619 
 
 
 H 405 
 
 Tsiang ^ 118, R. 90 
 
 
 ^ 575 
 
 Hf 783 
 
 BAN-ZAI-SAU 5- 76
 
 98 
 
 ALPHABETICAL INDEX 
 
 Tsiau ^ 
 
 850 
 
 ^t 776 c 
 
 Tsie ~P 
 
 R. 26 
 
 ft 1019 
 
 ty 
 
 74 
 
 Tsiuen ^ 284 
 
 ffi 
 
 193 
 
 H* 574 a 
 
 ^ 
 
 388 
 
 $ 854 
 
 ll 
 
 943 
 
 ^ 904 
 
 ^>v 
 I?P 
 
 974 
 
 Tsiiin ^ 359 
 
 Tsien ^p 
 
 40 
 
 Tso j^ 136 
 
 fl 
 
 437 
 
 ^ 337 
 
 it 
 
 517 
 
 fi 785 
 
 ^f 
 
 911 
 
 Tsu j^ 376, R. 157 
 
 8S 
 
 1010 
 
 ^ 390 
 
 Tsieu ?T( 
 
 560 
 
 M 717 
 
 x_\ 
 
 581 
 
 Tsii ~Efr 417 
 
 Wt 
 
 803 
 
 |^ 941 
 
 Tsin g 
 
 328 
 
 Tsui ^ 796 
 
 ^ 
 
 633 
 
 ^ 859 
 
 SS 
 s 
 
 640 
 
 1 843 
 
 ^ 
 
 947 
 
 ft 864 
 
 la 
 
 988 
 
 T'sun ~^ 29, R. 41 
 
 Tsing 3^ 
 
 62 
 
 ^ 234 
 
 W 
 
 420, R. 174 
 
 A 115 a
 
 TO THE RADICALS AND PHONETICS. 
 
 99 
 
 Tsung ^ 381 
 
 J& ^3 
 
 I or 776 c 
 
 ^ 550, R. 1 78 
 
 $1 563 
 
 601 
 
 If 582 
 
 fi903 
 
 $.771 
 
 Wei fi 602 
 
 &J 77fi P 
 
 it>_>> U G 
 
 SJ" 760 
 
 JtJ 1017 a 
 
 ^ 839 
 
 Tswan H 1016 
 
 If 903 
 
 Wa^ R. 98 
 
 Wen 3^ 56, R. 67 
 
 ^ 612 
 
 M 704 
 
 Wan ^ 294 
 
 Weng ^ 690 
 
 ^L 46 
 
 Wu i[ 16 a 
 
 jli^ Q91 
 r3?l "^ * 
 
 7L22 
 
 Wang "[^ 18 
 
 ^ R. 71 
 
 ^ R.43 
 
 fp: R. 80 
 
 3E 65 
 
 4 1 89 
 
 W R. 122 
 
 ^/ 96 
 
 H 488 
 
 /JC 153 a 
 
 Woi ^ 134 
 
 ^2 305 
 
 Hi 267 
 
 U 306 
 
 14 349 
 
 ^378 
 
 fc 457 
 
 ^ 404
 
 ALPHABETICAL INDEX 
 
 n 
 
 471 
 
 1 678 
 
 ?# 
 
 546 
 
 H 930 
 
 a 
 
 548 
 
 Yen JE 141 a 
 
 ^ 
 
 680 
 
 ~f R. 53 
 
 & 
 
 844 
 
 Jt 34 a, R. 54 
 
 Ya !f 
 
 76, R. 92 
 
 # 184 
 
 5 
 
 424 
 
 ff 297, R. 149 
 
 Yai M 
 
 410 
 
 5| 350 
 
 Yang^; 
 
 200 
 
 T 400 
 
 
 
 218, R. 123 
 
 ^ 413 
 
 EEI 
 ^ 
 
 592 
 
 Jf 512 
 
 1 
 
 729 
 
 ^ 512 a 
 
 H 
 
 969 
 
 fi 533 
 
 Yau ^ 
 
 R. 52 
 
 M 939 
 
 ^: 
 
 91 
 
 jft 1035 
 
 3? 
 
 537 
 
 $f 568 
 
 ^ 
 
 662 
 
 ^ 579 
 
 ft 
 
 668 
 
 ^ 740 
 
 Yau^ 
 
 816 
 
 3ob QQ7 
 
 . ^v^ U<J i 
 
 Ye{H 
 
 35 
 
 Yeii X 15, R. 29. 
 
 ^ 
 
 394 
 
 j 50 a 
 
 1 
 
 542 
 
 ^G 69
 
 TO THE RADICALS AND PHONETICS. 
 
 ilil 
 
 57 189 
 
 ^ 360 
 
 $1 202 
 
 ^ 362 
 
 %% 287 a 
 fit 351 
 
 & 372, R. 163 
 ^ 385 
 
 H 324, & 164 
 
 gfc 737 
 
 7& 139 
 
 -A- 
 
 W ^31 
 
 2$ 494 
 
 fcf 509 
 
 jnL o89 
 
 5 971 
 
 ' i r 
 i 792 
 
 Yi ^ la, R. 1 
 
 M 744 
 
 (L 1, R. 5 
 
 ft 814 
 
 X 14 
 
 "7^7- /-ii~- 
 
 ^ 8/2 
 
 "^ 25, R. 56 
 
 ^ 880 
 
 fi 165 
 
 Jp: 927 
 
 if 279 
 
 If 952 
 
 W 208 
 
 Yin 5fc 58 
 
 3/5 212 
 
 ^ 81 a 
 
 ^ 213, R. 145 
 
 ^1 82 
 
 ^ 226 
 
 H 290 
 
 (5 248 
 ^ 289 
 
 3? 448 
 "H 508, R. 180 
 
 IK 536 
 
 8AN-ZAI-SAU 5- 76 7 ^
 
 102 
 
 ALPHABETICAL INDEX 
 
 JIJ 670 a 
 
 ^ 254, R. 1-2 
 
 ^ 710 
 
 ^ 355 
 
 Pi 764 
 
 J^ 392 
 
 if 949 
 
 |lf 395 
 
 Ying ^ 564 
 
 1^471 
 
 3$ 588 
 
 ^ 577 
 
 $ 614 
 
 iPt 580 
 
 jf| 874 
 
 fi 590 
 
 MR 959 
 
 $,598 
 
 1015 
 
 S 828 
 
 Yo -jj 472 a 
 
 ^ 731 
 
 ^K 954 
 
 H 953 
 
 jiffZ O*7O 
 
 ^^ y /o 
 
 ^ 973 
 
 ^ 1013, R. 214 
 
 f ft 772 
 
 Yii^f 21 
 
 Yiie Q R. 73 
 
 y 19 
 
 ^1 95, R. 74. 
 
 ^ 81 
 
 ^ 154 
 
 5 R. 96 
 
 Yuen 7C 61 
 
 PH R. 173 
 
 1 374 
 
 H R. 195 
 
 ^ * o o o 
 /^Q^ OoO 
 
 ^t: 252, R. 129 
 
 ^ 555 
 
 SB 253 a 
 
 M 637
 
 TO THE RADICALS 
 647 
 
 U 703 
 
 Yiin 
 
 64 
 
 Yung 
 
 94 
 
 131 
 
 167 a, R. 101 
 
 AND PHONETICS. 
 
 I 327 
 606 a 
 613 
 
 1-720 
 S 876 
 
 103 
 
 /WVSXAAA/
 
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 Ballad Society's Publications. Subscriptions Small paper, one 
 
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 1868. 
 
 1. BALLADS AND POEMS FROM MANUSCRIPTS. Vol. I. Part I. On the 
 
 Condition of England in the Reigns of Henry VIII. and Edward VI. (includ- 
 ing the state of the Clergy, Monks, and Friars), contains (besides a long 
 Introduction) the following poems, etc. : Now a Dayes, ab. 1 520 A.D. ; Vox 
 Populi Vox Dei, A.D. 1547-8; The Ruyn" of a Ream'; The Image of 
 Ypocresye, AD. 1533; Against the Blaspheming English Lutherans and the 
 Poisonous Dragon Luther; The Spoiling of the Abbeys; The Overthrowe 
 of the Abbeys, a Tale of Robin Hoode ; De Monasteriis Dirutis. Edited 
 by F. J. FUKNIVALL, M.A. Svo. 
 
 2. BALLADS FROM MANUSCRIPTS. Vol. II. Part I. The Poorfe Mans 
 Pittance. By RICHARD WILLIAMS. Contayninge three severall subjects : 
 (1.) The firste, the fall and complaynte of Anthonie Babington, whoe, with 
 others, weare executed for highe treason in the feildes nere lyncolns Inne, 
 in the yeare of owr lorde 1586. (2.) The seconde contaynes the life and 
 Deathe of Roberte, lorde Deverox, Earle of Essex : whoe was beheaded in 
 the towre of london on ash-wensdaye mornynge, Anno 1601. (3.) The 
 laste, Intituled " acclamatio patrie," contayninge the horrib[l]e treason that 
 weare pretended agaynste yoz<r MatVstie, to be donneonthe parliament howse 
 The seconde [third] yeare of yoe<r Matestt's Raygne [1605]. Edited by F. J. 
 FURNIVALL, M.A. Svo. (The Introductions, by Professor W. R. Morfill, 
 M.A., of Oriel Coll., Oxford, and the Index, are published in No. IQJ 
 
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 3. THE ROXBURGHE BALLADS. Part I. With short Notes by 
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 RUDOLPH BLIND and Mr. W. II. HOOPER, and engraved by Mr. J. H. 
 RIMBAULT and Mr. HOOPER. Svo.
 
 6 Linguistic Publications of Triibner Sf Co., 
 
 1870. 
 
 4. THE ROXBURGHE BALLADS. Vol.1. Part II. 
 
 1871. 
 
 5. THE ROXBURGHE BALLADS. Vol. I. Part III. With an Intro- 
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 6. CAPTAIN Cox, HIS BALLADS AND BOOKS ; or, ROBERT LANEHAM'S 
 Letter : Whearin part of the entertainment untoo the Queenz Majesty at 
 Killingworth Castl, in Warwik Sheer in this Soomerz Progress, 1575, is 
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 1872. 
 
 7. BALLADS FROM MANUSCRIPTS. Vol. I. Part II. Ballads on 
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 FUKNIVALL, M.A. With Forewords to the Volume, Notes, and an Index. 8vo. 
 
 8. THE ROXBURGHE BALLADS. Vol. II. Part I. 
 
 1873. 
 
 9. THE ROXBURGHE BALLADS. Vol. II. Part II. 
 
 10. BALLADS FROM MANUSCRIPTS. Vol. II. Part II. Containing 
 
 Ballads on Queen Elizabeth, Essex, Campion, Drake, Ealeigh, Frobisher, 
 "Warwick, and Bacon, "the Candlewick Ballads," Poems from the Jackson 
 MS., etc. Edited by W. R. MORFILL, Esq., M.A., with an Introduction 
 to No. 3. 
 
 1874. 
 
 11. LOVE- POEMS AND HUMOUROUS ONES, written at the end of a volume 
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 " Various Poems," and markt '^ 5 a '. Put forth by FREDERICK J. FURNIVALL. 
 
 12. THE ROXBURGHE BALLADS. Vol. II. Part III. 
 
 1875. 
 
 13. THE ROXBURGHE BALLADS. Vol. III. Part I. 
 
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 1. PANCHATANTRA iv. AND v. Edited, with Notes, by G. BUHLER, 
 
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 cloth, pp. 78. 5s. 
 
 Chalmers. THE SPECULATIONS ON METAPHYSICS, POLITY, AND MORALITY 
 OF " THE OLD PHILOSOPHER" LAU TSZE. Translated from the Chinese, with 
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 Charnock. LTJDUS PATRONYMICUS ; or, the Etymology of Curious Sur- 
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 8vo., pp. 182, cloth. 7s. &d. 
 
 Charnock. VERBA NOMINALIA ; or "Words derived from Proper Names. 
 By RICHARD STEPHEN CHARNOCK, Ph. Dr. F.S.A., etc. 8vo. pp. 326, cloth. 14*. 
 
 Charnock. THE PEOPLES OF TRANSYLVANIA. Founded on a Paper 
 read before THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, on the 1th of May, 
 1869. By RICHARD STEPHEN CHARNOCK, Ph.D., F.S. A., F.R.G.S. Demy 
 8vo. pp. 36, sewed. 1870. 2s. 6d. 
 
 Chaucer Society's Publications. Subscription, two guineas per annum. 
 
 1868. First Series. 
 CANTERBURY TALES. Part I. 
 
 I. The Prologue and Knight's Tale, in 6 parallel Texts (from the 6 MSS. 
 
 named below), together with Tables, showing the Groups of the Tales, 
 
 and their varying order in 38 MSS. of the Tales, and in the old 
 
 printed editions, and also Specimens from several MSS. of the 
 
 " Moveable Prologues" of the Canterbury Tales, The Shipman's 
 
 Prologue, and Franklin's Prologue, when moved from their right 
 
 places, and of the substitutes for them. 
 
 II. The Prologue and Knight's Tale from the Ellesmere MS. 
 
 III. , Hengwrt , 154. 
 
 Gg. 4. 27. 
 Oxford. 
 
 IV. , , , , Cambridge 
 
 V. , , , , Corpus 
 
 VI. , , , , Petwortb 
 
 VII. , , , , Lansdowne , 851. 
 
 Nos. II. to VII. are separate Texts of the 6-Text edition of the Canterbury 
 Tales, Part I. 
 
 1868. Second Series. 
 ON EARLY ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION, with especial reference to Shak- 
 
 spere and Chaucer, containing an investigation of the Correspondence of Writing 
 with Speech in England, from the Anglo-Saxon period to the present day, preceded 
 by a systematic notation of all spoken sounds, by means of the ordinary print- 
 ing types. Including a re-arrangement of Prof. F. J. Child's Memoirs on the 
 Language of Chaucer and Gower, and Reprints of the Rare Tracts by balesbury
 
 12 
 
 Linguistic Publications of Trubner <f Co., 
 
 Chaucer Society's Publications continued. 
 
 on English, 1547, and Welsh, 1567, and by Barcley on French, 1521. By 
 ALEXANDER J. ELLIS, F.R.S., etc., etc. Part I. On the Pronunciation of the 
 xivth, xvith, xvuth, and xvmth centuries. 
 
 2. ESSAYS ON CHAUCER; His Words and Works. Part I. 1. Ebert's 
 
 Review of Sandras's Etude sur Chaucer, considere comme Iniilateur des Troiiftres, 
 translated by J. W. Van Rees Hoets, M. A., Trinity Hall, Cambridge, and revised 
 by the Author. II. A Thirteenth Century Latin Treatise on the Chilindre: "For 
 by my chilindre it is prime of day " (Shipmannes Tale). Edited, with a Trans- 
 lation, by Mr. EDMUND BROCK, and illustrated by a Woodcut of the Instrument 
 from the Ashmole MS. 1522. 
 
 3. A TEMPORARY PREFACE to the Six-Text Edition of Chaucer's 
 
 Canterbury Tales. Part I. Attempting to show the true order of the Tales, and 
 the Days and Stages of the Pilgrimage, etc., etc. By F. J. FURNIVALL, Esq., 
 M.A., Trinity Hall, Cambridge. 
 
 1869. First Series. 
 
 VIU. The Miller's, Reeve's, Cook's, and Gamelyn's Tales : 
 IX. 
 X. 
 
 XI. 
 
 XII. 
 
 XIII. 
 
 Ellesmere MS. 
 Hcnjjwrt 
 Cambridge 
 Corpus 
 Petworth 
 Lansdowne 
 
 These are separate issues of the 6-Text Chaucer's Canterbury Talcs, Part II. 
 
 1869. Second Series. 
 
 4. ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION, with especial reference to Shakspere and 
 
 Chaucer. By ALEXANDER J. ELLIS, F.R.S. Part II. 
 
 1870. First Series. 
 
 XIV. CANTERBURY TALES. Part II. The Miller's, Reeve's, and Cook's 
 Tales, with an Appendix of the Spurious Tale of Gamelyn, in Six 
 parallel Texts. 
 
 1870. Second Series. 
 
 5. ON EARLY ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION, with especial reference to Shak- 
 
 spere and Chaucer. By A. J. ELLIS, F.R.S., F.S.A. Part III. Illustrations 
 on the Pronunciation of xivth and xvith Centuries. Chaucer, Gower, "NVycliffe, 
 Spenser, Shakespere, Salesbury, Barcley, Hart, Bullokar, Gill. Pronouncing 
 Vocabulary. 
 
 1871. First Series. 
 
 XV. The Man of Law's, Shipman's, and Prioress's Tales, with Chaucer's own 
 Tale of Sir Thopas, in 6 parallel Texts from the MSS. above named, 
 and 10 coloured drawings of Tellers of Tales, after the originals in the 
 Ellesmere MS. 
 
 XVI. The Man of Law's Tale, &c., &c. : Ellesmere MS. 
 XVII. ,, ,, Cambridge ,, 
 
 XVIII. ,, ,, ,, Corpus 
 
 XIX. The Shipman's, Prioress's, and Man of Law's Tales, from the Petworth MS. 
 XX. The Man of Law's Tales, from the Lansdowne MS. (each with woodcuts 
 
 of fourteen drawings of Tellers of Tales in the Ellesmere MS.) 
 XXI. A Parallel-Text edition of Chaucer's Minor Poems, Part I.: 'The 
 Dethe of Blaunche the Duchesse,' from Thynne's ed. of 1532, the 
 Fairfax MS. 16, and Tanner MS. 34b' ; 'the compleynt to Pite,' 'the 
 Parlament of Foules,' and 'the Compleynt of Mars,' each from six MSS. 
 XXII. Supplementary Parallel-Texts of Chaucer's Minor Poems, Part I., con- 
 taining ' The Parlament of Foules,' from three MSS. 
 
 XXIII. Odd Texts of Chaucer's Minor Poems, Part I , containing 1. two MS. 
 fragments of ' The Parlament of Foules ; ' 2. the two differing versions
 
 57 and 59, Ludgate Hill, London, E.C. 13 
 
 Chaucer Society's Publications continued. 
 
 of ' The Prologue to the Legende of Good Women,' arranged so as to 
 show their differences ; 3. an Appendix of Poems attributed to Chaucer, 
 I. 'The Balade of Pitee by Chauciers;' n. 'The Cronycle made by 
 Chaucer,' both from MSS. written by Shirley, Chaucer's contemporary. 
 XXIV. A One-Text Print of Chaucer's Minor Poems, being the best Text from 
 the Parallel-Text Edition, Part I., containing: 1. The Dethe of 
 Blaunche the Duchesse; 2. The Compleynt to Pite ; 3. The Parlament 
 of Foules; 4. The Compleynt of Mars; 5. The ABC, with its 
 original from De Guileville's Pel'rinage de la Vie humaine (edited 
 from the best Paris MSS. by M. Paul Meyer). 
 
 1871. Second Series, 
 
 6. TRIAL FOKE-WOKDS to my Parallel-Text edition of Chaucer's Minor 
 
 Poems for the Chaucer Society (with a try to set Chaucer's Works in their right 
 order of Time). By FREDK. J. FURNIVALL. Parti. (This Part brings out, 
 for the first time, Chaucer's long early but hopeless love.) 
 
 1872. First Series. 
 
 XXV. Chaucer's Tale of Melibe, the Monk's, Nun's Priest's, Doctor's, Par- 
 doner's, Wife of Bath's, Friar's, and Summoner's Tales, in 6 parallel 
 Texts from the MSS. above named, and with the remaining 13 coloured 
 drawings of Tellers of Tales, after the originals in the Ellesmere MS. 
 XXVI. The Wife's, Friar's, and Summoner's Tales, from the Ellesmere MS., with 
 
 9 woodcuts of Tale-Tellers. (Part IV.) 
 
 XXVII. The Wife's, Friar's, Summoner's, Monk's, and Nun's Priest's Tales, 
 from the Hengwrt MS., with 23 woodcuts of the Tellers of the Tales. 
 (Part III.) 
 XXVIII. The Wife's, Friar's, and Summoner's Tales, from the Cambridge MS., 
 
 with 9 woodcuts of Tale -Tellers. (Part IV.) 
 
 XXIX. A Treatise on the Astrolabe; otherwise called Bred and Mylk for 
 Children, addressed to his Son Lowys by Geoffrey Chaucer. Edited 
 by the Kev. WALTER W. SKEAT, M.A. 
 
 1872. Second Series. 
 
 7. ORIGINALS AND ANALOGUES of some of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. 
 
 Part 1. 1. The original of the Man of Law's Tale of Constance, from the 
 French Chronicle of Nicholas Trivet, Arundel MS. 56, ab. 1340 A.D., collated 
 with the later copy, ab. 1400, in the National Library at Stockholm ; copied and 
 edited with a trnslation, by Mr. EDMUND BROCK. 2. The Tale of "Merelaus 
 the Emperor," from the Early-English version of the Gtsta Romanorum in Harl. 
 MS. 7333; and 3 Part of Matthew Paris's Vita Offa Primi, both stories, 
 illustrating incidents in the Man of Law's Tale. 4. Two French Fabliaux like 
 the Reeve's Tale. 5. Two Latin Stories like the Friar's Tale. 
 
 1873. First Series. 
 
 XXX. The Six-Text Canterbury Tales, Part V., containing the Clerk's and 
 Merchant's Tales. 
 
 1873. Second Series. 
 
 8. Albertauo of Brescia's Liber Consilii et Consolationis, A.D. 1246 
 
 (the Latin source of the French original of Chaucer's Mclibe), edited from the 
 MSS. bv Dr. THOR SUNDBY. 
 
 1874. First Series. 
 
 XXXI. The Six-Text, Part VI., containing the Squire's and Franklin's Tales. 
 
 XXXII. to XXXVI. Large Parts of the separate issues of the Six MSS. 
 
 1874. Second Series. 
 
 9. Essays on Chaucer, his Words and "Works, Part II. : 3. John of 
 
 Hoveden's Fractica Chilindri, edited from the MS. with a translation, by Mr.
 
 14 Linguistic Publications of Trubner <f Co., 
 
 Chaucer Society's Publications continued. 
 
 E. BROCK. 4. Chaucer's use of the final -e, by JOSEPH PAYNE, Esq. 5. Mrs. 
 E. Barrett-Browning on Chaucer : being those parts of her review of the Book 
 of the Poets, 1842, which relate to him ; here reprinted by leave of Mr. Robert 
 Browning. 6. Professor Bernhard Ten-Brink's critical edition of Chaucer's 
 Compleynte to Pite. 
 
 1875. First Series. 
 XXXVIL, The Six-Text, Part VII., the Second Nun's, Canon's- Yeoman's, and 
 
 Manciple's Tales, with the Blank- Parson Link. 
 XXXVIII. to XLIII. Large Parts of the separate issues of the Six MSS. bringing 
 
 all up to the Parson's Tale. 
 
 XLIV. A detailed Comparison of the Troylns and Cryseyde with Boccaccio's 
 Filostrato, with a Translation of all Passages used by Chaucer, and 
 an Abstract of the Parts not used, by W. MICHAEL KOSSETTI, Esq., 
 and with a print of the Troylus from the Harleian MS. 3943. Part I. 
 XLV., XLVI. Ryme-Index to the Ellesmere MS. of the Canterbury Tales, 
 by HENRY CROMIE, Esq., M.A. Both in Koyal 4to for the Six-Text, 
 and in 8vo. for the separate Ellesmere MS. 
 
 1875. Second Series. 
 
 10. Originals and Analogues of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, Part II. 
 6. Alphonsus of Lincoln, a Story like the Prioress's Tale. 7. How Reynard 
 caught Chanticleer, the source of the Nun's -Priest's Tale. 8. Two Italian 
 Stories, and a Latin one, like the Pardoner's Tale. 9. The Tale of the Priest's 
 Bladder, a story like the Summoner's Talc, being ' Li dis de le Vescie a Prestre,' 
 par Jakes de Basiw. 10. Petrarch's Latin Tale of Griseldis (with Boccaccio's 
 Story from which it was re-told), the original of the Clerk's Tale. II. Five 
 Versions of a Pear-tree Story like that in the Merchant's Tale. 12. Four 
 Versions of The Life of Saint Cecilia, the original of the Second Nun's Tale. 
 
 11. Early English Pronunciation, with especial reference to Shak- 
 spere and Chaucer. By ALEXANDER J. ELLIS, Esq., F.R.S. Part IV. 
 
 12. Life Records of Chaucer. Part I., The Kobberies of Chaucer by 
 Richard Brerelay and others at Westminster, and at Hatcham, Surrey, on 
 Tuesday, Sept. 6, 1390, with some account of the Hobbers, from the Enrol- 
 ments in the Public Record Office. By WALFOKD D. SELBY, Esq., of the 
 Public Record Office. 
 
 13. THYNNE'S ANIMADVERSIONS (1599) ON SPEGHT'S Chaucer's Workes, 
 re-edited from the unique MS., by FKEDK. J. FURNIVALL, with fresh Lives of 
 William and Francis Thynne, and the only known fragment of The Pilgrim's 
 Tale. 
 
 Childers. A PALI-ENGLISH DICTIONARY:, with Sanskrit Equivalents, 
 and with numerous Quotations, Extracts, and References. Compiled by ROBERT 
 C^SAR CHILDERS, late of the Ceylon Civil Service. Imperial Hvo. Double 
 Columns. Part I. pp. 1-276. 24*. Part II., pp. 346. Complete in 1 Vol., 
 pp. xxii. and 622, cloth. 1875. 3 3s. 
 
 The first Pali Dictionary ever published. 
 
 Childers. A PALI GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. By ROBERT C. CHILDERS. 
 In \ vol. 8vo. cloth. [In preparation. 
 
 Childers. NOTES ON THE SINHALESE LANGUAGE. No. 1. On the 
 Formation of the Plural of Neuter Nouns. By It. C. CHILDERS. Demy 8vo. 
 sd., pp. 16. 1873. Is. 
 
 China Review; OR, NOTES AND QUERIES ON THE FAR EAST. Pub- 
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 Chintamon. A COMMENTARY ON THE TEXT OE THE BHAGAVAD-GITA ; 
 
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 Pante"; Akra (Accra), connected with Adangme ; Gold Coast, West Africa. 
 Enyiresi, Twi ne Nkran I Ehlisi, Otsui ke Ga 
 
 nsem - asekyere - nhoma. wiemoi - asisitSomu- wolo. 
 
 By the Rev. J. G. CHRISTAILER, Rev. C. W. LOCHER, Rev. J. ZIMMERMANN. 
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 MODERN GREEK. By N. CONTOPOULOS. 
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 13. SEINTE MARHERETE, J?E MEIDEN ANT MARTYR. Three Texts of ab. 
 
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 14. KYNG HORN, with fragments of Floriz and Blauncheflur, and the 
 
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 28. THE VISION OF WILLIAM CONCERNING PIERS PLOWMAN, together with 
 
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 30. PIERS, THE PLOUGHMAN'S CREDE (about 1394). Edited from the 
 
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 41. THE MINOR POEMS OF WILLIAM LAUDER, Playwright, Poet, and 
 
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 56. THE GEST HYSTORIALE OF THE DESTRUCTION OF TROY, translated 
 
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 1. THE ROMANCE OF WILLIAM OF PALERNE (otherwise known as the 
 
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 57 and 59, Ludgate Hill, London, E.G. 27 
 
 ALPHABETICAL IXDEX. 
 
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 Bagfs. Greek Ligatures. Modern Greek (Romaic) Syriac. 
 
 Burmese. Greek (Archaic). Mongolian. Tamil. 
 
 Canarese (or Carnataca). Gujerati(orGuzzeratte). Numidian. Telugu. 
 
 Chinese. Hieratic. OldSlavonic(orCyrillic). Tibetan. 
 
 Coptic. Hieroglyphics. Palmyrenian. Turkish. 
 
 Croato-Glagolitic. Hebrew. Persian. M'allachian. 
 
 Cufic. Hebrew (Archaic). Persian Cuneiform. Wendish (or Serbian). 
 
 Cyrillic (or Old Slavonic). Hebrew (Rabbinical). Phoenician. Zend. 
 
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