COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE 
 DAVIS, CALIFORNIA 
 
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JUDGING 
 FARM ANIMALS 
 
 BY 
 
 CHARLES S. PLUMB 
 
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 Professor of Animal Husbandry in the College of Agriculture 
 
 of the Ohio State University 
 Author of "Types and Breeds of Farm Animals," Etc. 
 
 ILLUSTRATED 
 
 NEW YORK 
 ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 
 
 LONDON 
 
 KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH TRUBNER & Co., LIMITED 
 1920 
 
ULC. 
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1916, 
 BY CHARLES S. PLUMB 
 
 .':/// Rights Reserved 
 [KKTKKI:D AT STATIONERS' IT ALT., LONDON", ENOT.AKD] 
 
 A6R1C. DEPT, 
 
 [Printed in U. S. A.] 
 
. 
 
 FOREWORD 
 
 T i FE study of animal form becomes an instinctive process 
 on the part cf most persons who take a natural interest 
 in farm live stock. The form and its suitability for specific 
 purposes is sure to cause discussion and argument, if but 
 two parties are interested. Thus do men think themselves 
 critics and judges of animals, even though their knowl- 
 edge is based on very limited experience. There are men, 
 however, who have grown up among flocks and herds, who, 
 during the years, have absorbed wisdom through experi- 
 ence, and have naturally become qualified to judge the 
 merits or demerits of certain kinds of animals with which 
 they are familiar. 
 
 Another class of men, lacking in experience, yet with 
 the stockman's instincts, seek information that will enable 
 them to judge animals intelligently, thereby better serv- 
 ing themselves and mankind. In the agricultural school 
 or college, this latter class may secure systematic instruc- 
 tion relative to the principles and practices of judging, 
 whereby they may become better qualified to pass on 
 the comparative merits of farm animals. This volume is 
 intended to serve the needs of the stockman, be he amateur 
 or professional, but more especially the student, who ap- 
 preciates his own limitations, and seeks for a more intelli- 
 gent conception of the relationship of form to function. 
 
 The subject of judging farm animals is, at the present 
 time, receiving much attention among animal husbandry 
 students in our agricultural schools and colleges. The 
 
vi FOREWORD 
 
 use of animals in the class room or laboratory, and the 
 practice of judging by students, is such a comparatively 
 new phase of education, that it seems appropriate here 
 to refer to its introduction. In 1891, the late John A. 
 Craig assumed the professorship in animal husbandry, at 
 Wisconsin University, and that year began giving class- 
 room instruction in live stock judging, which was, so far 
 as the writer is advised, the first attempt in this field. 
 In 1894 Professor Craig wrote 1 that this line of teaching, 
 though new, had been tried by him for three years, and 
 the surprising feature of it was the ease and pleasure 
 in imparting knowledge of this kind, with the animals 
 before the students, to analyze their points, as compared 
 with, the old method, which deadened the mind and in- 
 terest of the student. In 1892 a live stock judging con- 
 test was held in Wisconsin, when the students in the 
 College of Agriculture competed for a gold medal, offered 
 by Mr. R. B. Ogilvie, for the greatest proficiency in judg- 
 ing draft horses and mutton sheep. It was not long 
 before the importance of this class of instruction became 
 evident to agricultural educators, and courses in live 
 stock judging were introduced in various colleges, and 
 grew rapidly in popularity. In 1898 was held the first 
 intercollegiate live stock judging contest, which took place 
 at the Trans-Mississippi Exposition, at Omaha, Nebraska, 
 where seventeen students from the agricultural colleges of 
 Wisconsin, Michigan, Nebraska, Missouri, and Iowa par- 
 ticipated. In January, 1901, appeared the first text on 
 the subject of judging live stock, a most important contri- 
 bution to live stock literature, the work of Professor Craig. 
 
 i "Breeders' Gazette," April 18, 1894. 
 
FOREWORD vii 
 
 At. the present time departments of animal husbandry are 
 failures of all American agricultural colleges, and system- 
 atic courses in judging farm animals are given, in which 
 laboratory practice is an important feature. Not only 
 this, but thousands of young men have already received 
 instruction in this subject in our colleges, many of whom 
 are now actively engaged in farming, where animal hus- 
 bandry is a factor, requiring a knowledge of form and 
 function. 
 
 In the preparation of this volume, the author has had in 
 view a purpose, rather distinctive in itself, of discussing, 
 , systematically and with reasonable completeness, each great 
 class of animals as a separate part of an important whole. 
 In each class, the study of the individual, as based on the 
 scale of points, is followed by the comparative and group 
 method of judging, so that the man who lacks the college 
 opportunity, may find a text that will furnish under sepa- 
 rate heads, a systematic and comprehensive discussion of 
 the entire subject. If one is interested in but one class of 
 stock, as for example swine, the subject will be found so 
 arranged and discussed as to meet his special needs. Inas- 
 much as the arrangement of the text is consistent with the 
 method of presentation now most in use in educational in- 
 stitutions, this book should serve the purpose of the student 
 as well as the stockman afield. 
 
 The author has had occasion to quote from many au- 
 thorities, for which credit is given in the appropriate place. 
 It is hoped that the illustrations, largely from photographs 
 by the author, may add to the usefulness and efficiency of 
 the text. 
 
 CHARLES S. PLUMB. 
 
 Columbus, Ohio. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 Foreword v 
 
 PART I. FORM AND FUNCTION. 
 
 I. The Study of Form and Function 1 
 
 II. The Score Card and Its Use 15 
 
 PART II. THE HORSE. 
 
 III. Man and the Horse 26 
 
 IV. The Anatomy of the Horse . . . . 28 
 
 V. The Horse in Motion . * . . . . 48 
 
 VI. The Types and Classes of Horses . . 61 
 
 JUDGING THE DRAFT OR POWER TYPE OF HORSE 
 BY SCALE OF POINTS. 
 
 VII. The Comparative Study of Draft Horses . . 110 
 
 VIII. Judging Breeding Draft Horses 118 
 
 IX. Breeds of Draft Horses 123 
 
 \ \X. Judging Horses of Light Harness Type . . . . 130 
 
 \XI. Judging Horses of Heavy Harness Type . . . . 148 
 
 XII. Judging the Saddle J'ype of Horse 160 
 
 XIII. Pony Types . . . ' .&*&* ..*$ ^ 170 
 
 XIV. Judging Jacks and Jennets 175 
 
 XV. Judging the Mule 187 
 
 XVI. Unsoundness, Diseases and Defects in the Horse 196 
 
 PART III. JUDGING CATTLE. 
 
 XVTI. The Anatomy of the Ox . . 209 
 
 XA r I II. The Classification of Domestic Cattle 216 
 
 XIX. The Beef Carcass and Its Cuts 218 
 
 XX. Judging Beef Tyre of Cattle by Scale of Points 227 
 
 X XT. The Comparative Study of Beef Cattle . . . . 253 
 
 XXII. Judging Stocker or Feoder Cattle 257 
 
 ix 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 XXIII. Judging Beef Cattle Used for Breeding Pur- 
 
 poses .................. 2.")!) 
 
 XXIV. Descriptive Notes of the More Important Beef 
 
 Breeds ................ 265 
 
 XXV. Judging the Dairy Type of Cattle by Scale of 
 
 Points ................ 272 
 
 XXVI. The Comparative Study of Dairy Cattle . . 313 
 XXVII. Judging Dairy Type Bulls and Young Cattle . . 317 
 XXVIII. Descriptive Notes on the More Important Dairy 
 
 Breeds ................ 323 
 
 XXIX. Judging Dual-purpose Cattle ........ 350 
 
 XXX. Descriptive Notes on Dual-purpose Breeds of 
 
 Cattle ................ 355 
 
 PART IV. JUDGING SHEEP 
 
 XXXI. The Anatomy of the Sheep . . . . ...... 361 
 
 XXXII. How to Handle and Examine Sheep ...... 369 
 
 XXXIII. The Classification of Domestic Sheep . . . . 374 
 
 XXXIV. The Mutton Carcass and Its Cuts ...... 375 
 
 XXXV. Judging the Mutton Type of Sheep by the Scale 
 
 of Points .............. 380 
 
 XXXVI. The Comparative Study of Mutton Sheep . . . . 404 
 
 XXXVII. Judging Feeder Sheep ............ 410 
 
 XXXVIII. Judging the Merino of the American or Class 
 
 A Type ................ 412 
 
 XXXIX. Judging the Mutton Merino or Class C Type . . 420 
 
 XL. The Fleece and Its Examination . . .-. . . 426 
 
 XLI. Judging Breeding Sheep ....... -. . . 433 
 
 XLIL Descriptive Notes of the More Important Breeds 
 
 of Sheep ................ 439 
 
 XLIII. The Angora Goat .............. 463 
 
 XLIV. The Milch Goat .............. 466 
 
 PART V. JUDGING SWINE. 
 
 XLV. The Anatomy of the Hog .......... 473 
 
 XLVI. The Pork Carcass and Its Cuts ........ 479 
 
 XL VII. The Common Types of Swine ........ 484 
 
CONTENTS xi 
 
 CHAPTER PAE 
 
 XLVI11. Judging- the Lard Type of Swine by the Scale 
 
 of Points isii 
 
 XL1X. The Comparative Study of Swine "><)7 
 
 L. Descriptive Notes on the Lard Type Breeds 
 
 of Swine 511 
 
 LI. Judging the Bacon Type of Swine 531 
 
 LI I. Judging Breeding Swine 542 
 
 L1II. Descriptive Notes on the Bacon Type Breeds of 
 
 Swine 548 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Rules Governing Live Stock Judging Contests . . ">">.'! 
 
 Rules for Boys' Stock Judging Contests . . . . 558 
 Rules of Students' Contest in Judging Dairy 
 
 Cattle at National Dairy Show, 1916. . . . 560 
 
 Age Classification in the Show Ring 567 
 
JUDGING FARM ANIMALS. 
 
 PART I FORM AND FUNCTION. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE STUDY OF FORM AND FUNCTION. 
 
 The relationship of form to use in the animal is quite 
 apparent to the person of observant mind. Scientists uni- 
 versally recognize that wild animals are so constructed as 
 to be best adapted to the special environment in which 
 they are usually found. Our domestic animals are all 
 descended from the wild forms, by a process of evolution 
 that has taken place during many centuries. Each great 
 class or group, such as horses or cattle, for example, 
 subjected to domestication and the influences of man, has 
 gradually passed through important changes in form, 
 thereby better fitting the individual to the special uses of 
 man. The animal body is to a degree plastic and subject 
 to variation, and thus it is that largely through a process 
 of artificial selection and environment, we have such highly 
 developed examples of different types of farm animals. 
 This tendency of domestic animals to vary somewhat from 
 the parent type, has long been a subject of special study 
 by men interested in evolution and improvement. In fact 
 the constructive breeder has ever recognized that domestic 
 animals are subject to variation and improvement, and so 
 1ms nought, through successive generations, to produce re- 
 sults that should show the greatest perfection. Not only 
 may the animal form as a whole be classified in type, but 
 
2^ JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 the various parts of the body, have their special conforma- 
 tions 1 and values. The outline of an animal of the cattle 
 group, for example, clearly indicates whether or not he 
 belongs to the beef producing type. The separate mem- 
 bers and parts of the body also have distinctive and special 
 values of their own, as compared with similar parts in 
 cattle of another type. If the hindquarter is thick and 
 fleshy, producing meat to a marked degree ; if the back is 
 covered with a deep layer of flesh, these parts, viewed 
 separately, are as an open book to the experienced judge, 
 who knows the type of animal from whence they came. 
 His knowledge of animal form and function is such as to 
 impress clearly upon his mind that, in nature, there is 
 always a rational co-relationship between the parts, where- 
 by is produced a whole that is adapted to certain condi- 
 tions and uses. Cuvier, the great comparative anatomist, 
 claimed that 2 "all organized beings, in their structure, 
 form a complete system, of which the parts mutually cor- 
 respond and .conduce to the same definite action by a recip- 
 rocal reaction. Each of these parts cannot be changed 
 without the others changing also; and, by consequence, 
 each of these taken separately indicates and gives all the 
 rest." In the complete, naturally formed whole, we find 
 harmony of relationship in all the parts to each other. The 
 forms of our domestic animals, however, vary more or less, 
 both in perfection and efficiency of purpose. Remarkable 
 changes have taken place during the course of domesti- 
 cation, so that we find wide extremes between the wild, 
 ancestral parent, and the most highly developed product 
 of present day breeding. The contrast between the wild 
 hog and modern Berkshire, or shaggy Highland cattle 
 and the Holstein-Friesian of to-day, are striking illustra- 
 tions of wide differences in type. Undoubtedly we have 
 cases where the harmony of parts in the animal form seems 
 lacking, yet often this is more apparent than real. Stu- 
 
 1 Conformation is a word used to express the relationship of the various parts 
 to the whole. 
 
 2 On the Anatomy of Vertebrates. Richard Owen, 1866. Vol. I., p. 27. 
 
"Striking illustrations of wide differences in type." 
 
4 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 dents of heredity accept this view. This tendency of do- 
 mestic animals to vary somewhat from the parent type, 
 has long been a subject of special study by. the men in- 
 terested in evolution and improvement. Occasionally some 
 one comes forward with a criticism of accepted standards, 
 with the argument that a certain animal not representative 
 of the approved type, was a producer of large capacity, 
 therefore the type should not be a guide. The importance 
 of such criticism should not be overestimated. An odd 
 case here and there should not weigh heavily against the 
 cumulative experience and observation of the great mass 
 of breeders. Each breed has reached its present status of 
 importance and perfection, through the efforts of certain 
 breeders who have persistently sought to develop a con- 
 formation that in their judgment indicated within reason- 
 able bounds superior producing capacity. No man at all 
 familiar with the Thoroughbred, a very distinctive race 
 horse, would expect to find vital differences in the forms of 
 many individuals of this breed. The variations that did 
 exist would only affect in a minor degree the purpose for 
 which this breed is produced, namely speed. As to 
 whether a Thoroughbred, however, can run a mile in two 
 minutes or three, is dependent on the proportion and ad- 
 justment of minor parts, which may combine to make the 
 most perfect and rapid moving horsepower. Therefore the 
 work of the student, is to study the adjustment of the parts 
 to each other, and ascertain their relationship to the whole, 
 and their combined powers of production. 
 
 Beauty and balance of form may be very generally 
 regarded as associated with the most desirable sex character 
 and capacity to produce. In the opinion of the qualified 
 judge, a breeding male could not be beautiful, with a head 
 showing lack of character and masculinity. While men 
 differ somewhat in their measurements of beauty, whether 
 applied to the fine arts or to living animals, there is no 
 serious disagreement among them as to the main facts. 
 In the public show ring, where competition of a worthy 
 
THE STUDY OF FORM AND FUNCTION 5 
 
 character prevails, and where qualified judges preside, the 
 most beautiful and perfectly balanced animals find their 
 places in relative order of merit. In recent years the 
 criticism has been made, that dairy cattle judges have often 
 given preference to beauty rather than utility. This has 
 been applied especially to judges of Ayrshire and Jersey 
 i-iiillo and in a limited degree to judges of Clydesdale 
 horses. Refinement of form, beauty of head, and highly 
 developed fore udder, have been sought for in the Island 
 .Jersey and the Scotch bred Ayrshire. The criticism has 
 been made that the cows showing these characteristics in 
 the greatest perfection, are less profitable than some of 
 the plainer sort. This is perhaps true in a degree. How- 
 ever, there is no good reason why it should be so. The 
 great improvement that has resulted from years of careful 
 breeding, since the formative periods of the breeds, has 
 undoubtedly given important recognition to the relation- 
 ship of beauty to utility. This has been aptly brought out 
 by Mr. James M. Codman, a well-known Guernsey breeder, 
 who says: 3 "The most perfect utility is distinct from 
 beauty and is not synonymous with it. You may have the 
 two at the same time, but no process can make them the 
 same thing. Look at the early pictures of the scrawny, 
 misshapen cows of the Channel Islands, and contrast them 
 with the beauty developed to-day, and they have not lost 
 productive capacity probably gained in it. I think we 
 are indebted to the Jersey breeders on that island for show- 
 ing what could be done by the hand of man by selection in 
 adding beauty to utility. Guernsey breeders have accom- 
 plished Hie same result, though with a different idea in 
 view. Of course there are inferior animals still left; it is 
 to be hoped that it is only a question of time for them to 
 disappear." 
 
 Commenting editorially on a statement credited to Mr. 
 C. L. Hill, a noted Wisconsin Guernsey breeder and judge, 
 that he could see no reason why cows cannot be high-class 
 
 3 Guernsey Breeders' Sale List Bulletin, May, 1909. 
 
fi JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 producers and at the same time conform to the present day 
 show standards, Hoard's Dairyman says: 4 "One of the 
 reasons why the cow cannot be a good producer and still 
 conform to the show ring standard, is that there is no show 
 ring standard. No two judges will judge alike. Animals 
 that at one show ring receive first place, at another will 
 receive second or third place. We hear much talk about 
 
 Fig. 2. Dale, the Hereford. "It will not be a difficult task to bring for- 
 ward the names of many great sires and dams that judges have repeatedly 
 agreed upon as the best of their kind." 
 
 the ' beauty of form.' If judging were confined to that, 
 there would be much greater uniformity of judgment, yet 
 no two judges will agree upon what is really and truly 
 handsome. ' ' 
 
 Among the noted show animals of the different breeds 
 may be found, not only the world 's greatest prize winners, 
 but also the most beautiful specimens. It will not be a 
 
 * December 13, 1912. 
 
THE STUDY OF FORM AND FUNCTION 7 
 
 difficult task to bring forward the names of many great 
 sires and dams that judges have repeatedly agreed upon 
 as the best of their kind when exposed to the competition 
 of the show ring. Brilliant the Percheron, Darnley the 
 Clydesdale, Royal Danegelt the Hackney, Avondale the 
 Shorthorn, Dale the Hereford, Lucy 's Prince the Aberdeen- 
 Angus, Pedro the Jersey, Sarcastic Lad the Holstein-Frie- 
 sian, Island Champion the Guernsey, and Howie's Fizz- 
 away the Ayrshire, each won the highest honors in the 
 greatest shows, and were universally regarded as beautiful 
 specimens of the breed. Not only that, but each is a fam- 
 ous sire. To be sure there are many examples of animals 
 that have been shown, on which judges have disagreed in 
 their estimates. These as a rule, however, have not been 
 above justifiable criticism. However, most thinking men 
 will agree that beauty of form and utility are closely as- 
 sociated, and the lower the measure of beauty the less as 
 a rule may be anticipated in the producing capacity. 
 
 The efficient judge is a student of animal form and 
 function. Efficiency increases with careful observation and 
 study. However, no person can be really qualified for the 
 responsibilities of the official judge unless gifted with the 
 instinctive knowledge of the true stockman. That is to 
 say, one must naturally and quickly grasp the real merits 
 to be seen in the animal, irrespective of show ring prepara- 
 tion, or an attractive condition of flesh. Other things being 
 equal, the man who has a love for dumb animals, is very 
 much more likely to see the value in them, than the man 
 who lacks sympathetic sense. The desire to keep in contact 
 with the animal, to study its form and measure its use- 
 fulness, these are characteristics of the judge, be he a 
 college freshman, or a man crowned with years of experi- 
 ence as a breeder or judge. Among the boys who come as 
 students to the college of agriculture, and who are found 
 most frequently in and about the stables, taking every 
 chance to study the stock and absorb ideas from contact 
 with the herdsmen, will be found the most efficient judges 
 
JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Fig. 3. "One must naturally and quickly 
 grasp the real merits to be seen in the animal." 
 (Courtesy Ohio Agr. Exp. Station.) 
 
 of the future. Not 
 only this, but a 
 knowledge of the 
 bony and muscular 
 structures, and 
 their relationship, 
 of the limbs and 
 the effect of posi- 
 tion on production, 
 these and other 
 features of the ani- 
 mal body are rea- 
 sonably well under- 
 stood by the man 
 who is qualified to 
 pass in judg- 
 ment on domestic 
 animals. 
 
 The well-informed judge will be familiar with changes in 
 breed types or fashions. While all breeds have undergone 
 distinct changes and improvements, during the course of 
 time, in certain respects some of these changes have been 
 
 matters of fashion 
 
 rather than of eco- 
 nomic importance. 
 The decree of fash- 
 ion was largely re- 
 sponsible for the 
 short, dished head 
 so much desired 
 among Berkshire 
 breeders ; for the 
 cap of wool over 
 the head and face 
 of the Shropshire 
 
 ,. , Fig. 4. The same horse as Fig. 3, after being 
 
 high, Snort Knee fattened. (Courtesy Ohio Agr. Exp. Station.) 
 
THE STUDY OF FORM AND Fl'NCTIOX 9 
 
 action of the Hackney, and for the preponderance <!' 
 large white markings in the coat of hair of the Ayrshire. 
 Referring to this matter of style, Mr. W. J. Clarke, a 
 prominent sheep authority, well says : 5 ' * In these days 
 of rapid progress, fashion asserts her sway, even on 
 subjects pertaining to shepherding. The type of some 
 of our leading mutton breeds of sheep has undergone 
 
 Fig. 5. Holehouse White Bess, the Ayrshire. "The preponderance of large, 
 white markings in the coat of hair." (Courtesy Branford Farms.) 
 
 a decidedly marked change and great improvement 
 during the past ten years; therefore, it can easily be 
 understood why, to become a really expert judge of a 
 breed, it requires thought, observation, and the con- 
 stant handling and studying of a breed to thoroughly 
 understand the true type that fashion dictates as being the 
 correct one of to-day. Whilst in fat stock contests the mut- 
 
 5 Fitting Sheep for Show Ring and Market, 1900, p. 9. 
 
10 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 ton conformation of the animal is the leading consideration, 
 in breed contests the embellishments that must accompany 
 true mutton form in the make-up of a typical show animal, 
 must be given due consideration. ' ' 
 
 Some animals have serious defects that should be seen. 
 These may be natural or unnatural. One might regard a 
 short, steep pastern on a saddle horse, or a very poor front 
 udder on a cow, or a very long snout on a Berkshire boar, 
 as defects, yet of a natural sort that could not be classed 
 as a blemish. However, the horse afflicted with a bone 
 spavin, or the cow with an udder having a milkless quarter, 
 would certainly be charged with defects. These, in the 
 opinion of the critics, would amount to positive blemishes, 
 and seriously affect selling values. One of the problems 
 which confront the judge, is that of weighing up and giv- 
 ing proper estimate of defective characteristics. "While 
 animals with blemishes may be quickly set aside as un- 
 worthy of consideration, the judge may find it necessary 
 to give ratings to individuals with ill form or natural de- 
 fects. Exhibitors who are not over scrupulous, often try 
 to take advantage of an easygoing or superficial judge. 
 The fact is, all animals with known defects of importance 
 should be barred from the show ring. The methods in op- 
 eration in certain horse shows, of compelling exhibitors 
 to submit their horses to qualified veterinary inspection 
 to pass on their soundness before allowing them to compete 
 in the show ring, is a step in the right direction. The 
 work of the English Hackney Horse Society in this re- 
 spect, has been productive of great good. 
 
 Men become efficient judges by specializing rather than 
 otherwise. As a rule one finds much to do in becoming 
 proficient within a single type or breed. Those men who 
 are recognized as the best qualified judges, and who are 
 most in demand at the more important shows, either re- 
 strict themselves to one general type or to one breed. A man 
 may be an expert judge of dairy cattle, but he is not likely 
 to be equally good as a judge of beef type. Some exhibit- 
 
THE STUDY OF FORM AND FUNCTION H 
 
 ors believe that the breeds shown by them should be 
 judged only by practical breeders of these respective 
 breeds. Occasionally a breed association will urge fair or 
 live stock show officials to appoint a certain man for judge, 
 on account of his reputation as a breeder and judge of that 
 breed. Some stockmen are very reluctant to show, where 
 their exhibit is to be judged by one associated with another 
 breed. For example : a Poland China breeder does not 
 care to have his stock judged by a Berkshire man, neither 
 does an exhibitor of Percherons wish his stock to be rated 
 by a specialist in Clydesdales, and very few men showing 
 Merino sheep would care to have a Cotswold breeder 
 serve as judge on their fine wools. This represents a very 
 common opinion among professional stockmen. During 
 recent years, or since the animal husbandry departments 
 of our colleges have been established, instructors in this 
 field have in many cases been acceptable judges at live stock 
 shows. These instructors are, as a rule, free from preju- 
 dice, and are often regarded as capable of passing fairly 
 and intelligently on several different types and breeds. 
 However, such a specialist as a rule has a reputation for 
 proficiency in judging some one type or class, and does not 
 willingly officiate otherwise, unless under unusual cir- 
 cumstances. If then the demand is for the judge in the 
 special rather than the general field, it behooves the amateur 
 judge to concentrate his efforts to become a proficient 
 specialist. Contact with a breed on all possible occasions, 
 and cultivating the acquaintance and friendship of breed- 
 ers and herdsmen, will add greatly to a student's store of 
 knowledge and render him more and more efficient. If 
 one who is also gifted with a reasonably good judicial tem- 
 perament, will persistently adhere to this plan, he should 
 become in time a judge of signal ability and more than 
 local reputation. 
 
 The decision of the judge should be reached after care- 
 ful consideration, and should be final. He should be well 
 fortified in his reasons, and being so, should not feel doubt- 
 
12 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 ful about himself. Very naturally judges of live stock often 
 differ in their point of view ; but why should they not, as 
 long as judges are but human and not infallible ? It is no 
 uncommon occurrence for one judge of points of law to 
 reverse the decision of another judge. "We maintain vari- 
 ous grades of courts up to the United States Supreme Court, 
 in order that a previous judgment may be reconsidered. 
 Furthermore, it must be remembered that the decision of 
 the judge at a live stock show is simply his own, and is so 
 rendered. It would be a strange judge who thought his 
 each and every decision was to be approved by all the 
 critics. True, his work as a whole will meet with com- 
 mendation, if his judgment is good, but with the general 
 opportunity for difference of opinion in the show ring, a 
 judge should not be mentally disturbed if others see some 
 things from a different view-point. It may be desirable for 
 the judge to give public expression of his reasons for his 
 placings. In doing so, he has the opportunity to make it 
 
 Fig. 6. "His work, as a whole, will meet with commendation if his judg- 
 ment is good." 
 
THE STUDY OF FORM AND FUNCTION 13 
 
 clear to both exhibitor and spectator that he knows wlwl 
 he is about, and that his decisions are not based on guess- 
 work. This method is educational in value, and is to be 
 commended, and should be a feature of all shows where- 
 ever possible. The reasons for the judge's decisions are 
 usually listened to with much interest by the exhibitors 
 and visitors at the ring side. The only persons liable to 
 take exception to this method, are exhibitors who do not 
 feel satisfied with the decisions of the judge, and who do 
 not enjoy having attention directed to the defects which 
 may have been the cause of the subordinate position given 
 their animals. 
 
 Competent live stock critics or judges in a community 
 are an evidence of the presence of superior live stock there- 
 abouts. Qualified critics usually seek for superior rather 
 than inferior animals. One may be reasonably sure that 
 in a locality where many good herds and flocks are to be 
 found, will also be found a class of stockmen who dis- 
 criminate wisely in their selections. This being so, then 
 from an economic point of view, it is distinctly desirable 
 to have educated men in the community who will under- 
 stand the relationship of form to function, and who will 
 know how to apply their knowledge in a practical way. 
 This knowledge applied, will result in attractive herds, in 
 a community reputation of an enviable sort, and in fre- 
 quent visits of stockmen who will come to purchase and 
 who will pay superior rather than inferior prices. Such a 
 condition will surely cause prosperity, but it cannot be 
 accomplished excepting on the principle that superior 
 herds can only be produced by superior judges of animal 
 form and production. Hence, the worth of the educated 
 judge and his help to a community. 
 
 The demand for expert judges of live stock is very 
 widespread. There are thousands of local fairs in America 
 where animals are exhibited to be judged. There are 
 also large state fairs and live stock expositions, where se- 
 vere competitions commonly take place. The live stock in 
 
14 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 each of these shows should be passed upon by judges who 
 are well qualified to render intelligent and fair decisions. 
 Each year fair and live stock officials seek the services of 
 judges to do this work, and among the men employed will 
 be many who have received inspiration and instruction 
 while in the agricultural college. In recent years, breed 
 associations have seen fit to nominate certain men for pub- 
 lic service as judges, usually selecting those best known and 
 most familiar with the breeds in question. Two of the most 
 important associations holding live stock shows in Ameri- 
 ca, the International Live Stock Exposition, and the Na- 
 tional Dairy Show Association, appoint their judges on 
 the basis of breed association recommendations. It is no 
 doubt true, that each year sees increased care in the selec- 
 tion of judges, and a more efficient service rendered to our 
 live stock interest in the work they do. To meet the re- 
 quirements of this demand for qualified judges, should be 
 the ambition of every man who desires to serve in the 
 capacity of an expert judge. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE SCORE CARD AND ITS USE. 
 
 The scale of points is a systematic, logical, brief descrip- 
 tion of an ideal animal of a breed or type, in which the 
 several parts described are given numerical values, A 
 standard of excellence is another expression sometimes used 
 to designate scale of points; although there are standards 
 in which no points are made use of ; they are in fact simply 
 very brief official descriptions of certain breeds, in which 
 no measurements of values are given. Some of the British 
 breed associations use the standard of excellence, rather 
 than a scale of points. 
 
 The score card is a card on which values are registered 
 to the credit of an animal measured by the standard of a 
 scale of points. This scale is the one vital factor of the 
 score card. Therefore, when we speak of score card, we 
 always associate with it a definite scale of excellence rep- 
 resenting perfection, which is used for comparison with the 
 animal judged. 
 
 The earliest use of the scale of points was probably ap- 
 plied to Jersey cattle. In 1833 an agricultural and horti- 
 cultural society was organized on the Island of Jersey, one 
 of the Channel Islands off the coast of France. One of the 
 purposes of this organization was to improve the native 
 breed of cattle on Jersey. In discussions regarding methods 
 of improvement, the suggestion was made that it would 
 be highly desirable if some standard of excellence or 
 scale of points could be devised, that would serve as a 
 guide for the breeders on the island. Accordingly a com- 
 mittee was appointed to draw up a standard. The method 
 used was original and unique. It is said that 'the best two 
 bulls and the best two cows on the island were selected 
 to be used as models. One of each sex was regarded as 
 
 15 
 
16 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 perfect in the barrel and front parts, and the other in the 
 hindquarters. The best breeders and dealers on the island 
 were freely consulted, and on January 18, 1834, a scale 
 of points for bulls and another for cows, was adopted by 
 the Society. In view of its historical importance, this scale 
 of points as applied to one sex, is herewith reproduced. A 
 comparison with the more recent scale of points is of 
 interest. 
 
 ORIGINAL SCALE OF POINTS FOR JERSEY COWS AND 
 HEIFERS 
 
 1. Breed on male and female sides reputed for producing rich 
 
 and yellow butter 4 
 
 2. Head small, fine and tapering; eye full and lively; muzzle 
 
 fine and encircled with white; horns polished and a little 
 crumpled, tipped with black; ears small and of an orange 
 color within 8 
 
 3. Back straight from the withers to the setting-on of the tail; 
 
 chest deep, and nearly of line with the belly 4 
 
 4. Hide thin, movable, but not too loose, well covered with fine 
 
 and soft hair of good color 2 
 
 5. Barrel hooped and deep, well ribbed home, having but little 
 
 space between the ribs and hips; tail fine, hanging two 
 inches below the hock 3 
 
 6. Forelegs straight and fine; thighs full and long, close to- 
 
 gether when viewed from behind; hind legs short and 
 bones rather fine, hoofs small, hind legs not to cross in 
 walking 2 
 
 7. Udder full, well up behind; teats large and squarely placed, 
 
 being wide apart; milk veins large and swelling . . . . 4 
 
 Perfection for cows 27 
 
 Two points shall be deducted from the number required for per- 
 fection in heifers, as their udder and milk veins cannot be fully 
 developed. A heifer therefore will be considered perfect at 25 
 points. 
 
 The early scales of points, were found to be of much 
 service to the people. When cattle were judged they were 
 compared with the official scale of points. It is interest- 
 ing to note -that this standard contains in general the es- 
 sential features of the Jersey scale of points of the present 
 day. Naturally with use it was found that the standard 
 of excellence first adopted might be improved. According- 
 
THE SCORE CARD AND ITS USE 17 
 
 ly we find that the scales of points were revised a num- 
 ber of different times. In 1875 the total number of points 
 in the perfect animal was increased to 100, a standard for 
 perfection in common use to-day with all breeds. 
 
 The systematic arrangement of the scale of points for 
 the different types and breeds of animals, is considerably 
 improved over the score card of 1834. Now it is custom- 
 ary, first to consider the general appearance of an animal, 
 then follow with detailed study of the several important 
 parts, each of which is in turn separately studied and 
 measured. One hundred very generally represents the 
 total number of points used in the scale measuring up the 
 ideal or model animal. Thus a certain score card is di- 
 vided into the following five great parts: 
 
 Points 
 
 A. General appearance 30 
 
 B. Head and neck 8 
 
 C. Forequarters 12 
 
 D. Body 33 
 
 E. Hindquarters 17 
 
 Total 100 
 
 Each of these parts is sub-divided for more detailed 
 analysis. In the above, D, the body, is credited with 33 
 points, sub-divided as follows : 
 
 Points 
 
 Chest, deep, wide, large girth 4 
 
 Sides, deep, full, smooth, medium length 8 
 
 Back, broad, strongly arched, thickly and evenly cov- 
 ered * 9 
 
 Loin, wide, thick, strong 9 
 
 Belly, straight, smooth, firm 3 
 
 Total 33 
 
 The above is merely given as illustrative of how the 
 present day score card is constructed, irrespective of type 
 or breed. This is a logical method, whereby the student 
 or person using the scale of points, considers the animals 
 by the most simple and comprehensive system. This ar- 
 
18 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 rangement of the scale of points is the result of careful 
 study and use, and meets with the general approval of 
 present day students of animal form. If one will but com- 
 pare the first scale of points, on page 16, with that of the 
 dairy cow on page 275, the superior arrangement of the 
 one over the other will be clearly seen. 
 
 Breed standards are usually expressed through the 
 scale of points. Many breeds have standard official de- 
 scriptions, although most of the breeds of horses and beef 
 cattle have thus far adopted nothing of the kind. Such 
 great breeds as the Percheron, Clydesdale and Shorthorn, 
 have none. The breed score cards vary considerably in 
 make-up and style of expression. Many of them begin with 
 the head, and then in sequence, in more or less detail, 
 specify the conformation and character of each part from 
 front to rear. Especial emphasis is usually placed on that 
 feature regarded as of much importance in the breed, as 
 the udder and^ veins in Holstein-Friesian cattle, or wool 
 with Merino sheep, or the back and loin of the Poland- 
 China hog. 
 
 Conditions of disqualification of representatives of 
 certain breeds, are specified in connection with the scale of 
 points. These disqualifying clauses are especially intro- 
 duced as features of the scales of points of most breeds of 
 swine. For example, one of the Poland-China Associations 
 has published disqualification definitions as applied to 
 form, size, condition, score and pedigree. That for condi- 
 tion is as follows: "Excessive fatness; barrenness; de- 
 formed; seriously diseased; total blindness, caused by de- 
 fective eyes, or by reason of fat or loose and wrinkled skin 
 over the eyes." Disqualification should be applied to the 
 representative of any breed, that does not conform to the 
 established standard, or is defective in any particular. 
 
 The method of using the score card, whereby an animal 
 is compared with the ideal set forth in the scale of points, 
 should be the first lesson in a systematic study of judging. 
 Perhaps one of the simplest, shortest examples of a scale 
 
THE SCORE CARD AND ITS USE 
 
 19 
 
 Fig. 7. "Disqualification should be applied to the representative of any 
 breed that does not conform to the established standard, or i.s deject iff in 
 
 a/*.'/ particular.'' 
 
 of points, is that of the Shetland Pony, as adopted by the 
 American Shetland Pony Club, which is as follows: 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS FOR SHETLAND PONY. 
 
 POINTS SCORED 
 
 Perfect 
 
 Score 
 
 1. Constitution Constitution indicated by general 
 
 healthy appearance, perfect respiration, bright- 
 ness of eyes 10 
 
 2. Size Ponies over four years old, 42 inches and under 
 
 in height, two points to be deducted for every 
 inch over 42 inches up to 46 inches, fractional 
 portions to count as full inches . . 25 
 
 3. Head Head symmetrical, rather small and fine, wide 
 
 between eyes, ears short and erect 10 
 
 4. Body Barrel well rounded, back short and level, 
 
 deep chested, good breast, compact, "pony 
 build" 10 
 
 5. Legs Legs muscular, flat boned, hind legs not cow- 
 
 hocked or too crooked 25 
 
 G. Mane and tail Foretop, mane and tail heavy . . . . 10 
 7. Feet Good 10 
 
 Score of 
 Animal 
 Studied 
 
 Total. . .... 100 
 
20 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Under " Points Scored" it will be seen that there are 
 seven features of the animal to be considered, viz.: con- 
 stitution, size, head, body, legs, mane and tail, and feet. 
 Each of these features as found in the perfect animal is 
 given numerical value which the stockman refers to as 
 "points." The number 10 under the column "Perfect 
 Score" is the number of points credit given a pony of 
 perfect constitution. If the pony does not seem as 
 healthy or as vigorous as might be expected, or if the eyes 
 are lacking in brightness, then the animal cannot be given 
 full credit in this particular. Hence one should give such 
 a score as in his judgment would measure the constitution 
 of the pony being judged. Perhaps seven points would 
 fairly represent this, and so this figure should be placed in 
 the column headed "Score of Animal," opposite the ten 
 points for perfection. Thus one goes through the scale of 
 points, carefully comparing the animal under consideration 
 with the standard, giving a numerical measure of value to 
 each part, in systematic order, and placing each figure in 
 the column headed "Score of Animal." If in scoring a 
 pony, one came to the conclusion that each part was per- 
 fect, and could not be improved, then he should give the 
 full score in each case. This animal would then be credi- 
 ted with one hundred points, and be rated as perfect. But 
 we have no perfect ponies. The live stock critic can always 
 find some points for improvement. The ears may be a 
 trifle long, the back not quite level enough, or the feet too 
 flat. Thus the judge finds his reasons for less points than 
 100. After scoring, the column of figures which the judge 
 has made is added and placed in the line marked "total," 
 for comparison with the perfect total. A total of 90 would 
 be a high score, for very few animals measure up to such a 
 standard of excellence if given a careful, seasoned judg- 
 ment. 
 
 The value of the score card lesson largely lies in teach- 
 ing the beginner the location of the various parts and how 
 to study them by a logical, well established system. Those 
 
THE SCORE CARD AND ITS USE 21 
 
 score cards which describe and measure the parts and 
 characteristics of the types of animals, are as a rule more 
 systematic and better balanced than those applied to most 
 of the breeds. The scales of points of some breeds, as 
 established by breed associations, are open to severe criti- 
 cism. They lack in orderly arrangement, in clearness of 
 description, and in logical measure of value. Therefore it 
 will be a wise policy for young judges to begin score card 
 work with the scales of points applied to the types, such 
 as are in common use in agricultural schools and colleges, 
 an example of which is to be found on page 62. System- 
 atic judging is promoted by first considering the general 
 appearance, which involves the animal as a whole, includ- 
 ing height, weight, general form, quality, character and 
 temperament. After this the different parts, in proper 
 order, are carefully examined and rated. The detailed 
 study of head, next the neck, then the breast, and so on, 
 with their relations to each other, requires the measure- 
 incuts of the smaller details. This relationship of one part 
 to another, must be considered, that one may get a fair 
 idea of the strong and weak points in the conformation. 
 The relative values of the parts of the scale of points 
 are somewhat variable. The standard of excellence for a 
 breed has, in most cases, been drawn up by a committee of 
 men appointed for that purpose, by a breeders' associa- 
 tion, whose work has been endorsed and adopted by the 
 members of the same. As a rule the scale of points rep- 
 resents the work of well-known breeders, who are quite 
 familiar with the breed. Thus, through the scale, one 
 should obtain the most intelligent and comprehensive 
 analysis of the breed, in which the relative values of the 
 parts are set forth. The score card in this case will show 
 what parts are most highly valued, and which of least 
 importance. If we are using a score card for mutton 
 sheep, as applied to type rather than breed, su-ch as 
 is in common use in the classroom, it will be seen that 
 experts have endeavored to give essentially correct 
 
22 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 values to the different parts of the body. No mat- 
 ter what kind of score card we are using, in general, 
 appropriate recognition will be given to the different 
 parts, crediting each with a fair number of points. The 
 various breeds of live stock of similar type and charac- 
 ter place quite comparable values on similar more im- 
 portant parts. This may be illustrated in the case of 
 the dairy breeds of cattle, in which the udder, milk veins 
 and wells of the females are given many points, thus 
 indicating their great importance. If, however, meat pro- 
 duction is the primary consideration, then with either 
 types or breeds of the more distinctive meat animals, 
 greatest emphasis is placed on the development of back 
 and hindquarters, where the largest amount of valuable 
 meat is obtained. Further, in the composition of the 
 score card, the minor parts from the commercial point 
 of view, such as ear, nostril, tail or ankle, no matter how 
 important these may be in comprising the whole, are 
 measured up in small figures. 
 
 The use of figures in scoring animals is necessary to 
 furnish a basis for comparison with the ideal or standard. 
 Care should be used to grade on as simple and clear a basis 
 as possible. Figures as small as 1 or 2 are used as measures 
 of values in the standard but it is undesirable in scoring 
 an animal to introduce numbers that show too fine a measur- 
 ment. If 1 indicates a perfection then grades of .25 .50 
 or .75 might be used as measuring the value of the part 
 being judged. Surely .25 of one per cent is a small enough 
 estimate to express reasonably well a valuation of a part 
 that cannot possibly score over 1 point. Some persons 
 score as low as .1 of one per cent, but that is a very fine 
 measurement to apply and one difficult to justify. In scor- 
 ing, decimals are preferable, as common fractions do not 
 stand out in clear contrast for study, and the person scor- 
 ing should have his column of figures mathematically ar- 
 ranged, with the decimal points in line. Unless care is 
 used in this respect, the judge may mix his columns 'in 
 
THE SCORE CARD AND ITS USE 23 
 
 adding, which will result in an error in the total score. 
 After having scored an animal, the judge should always 
 add his column of figures, and to check his work for ac- 
 curacy, should add the column both up and down to see 
 that his figures agree. 
 
 The expression " Points Cut," in scoring, is sometimes 
 used. The official instruction to judges, working under the 
 rules of the American Poultry Association, provides for 
 marking down cuts when scoring. Some of the associa- 
 tions of expert judges of swine also use the cut system. 
 The method of applying the cut system is simple. If a 
 part in the standard or scale of points is credited with 
 10, and one thinks the animal worth only 7 in this respect, 
 then 3 is recorded as so many points taken off, or cut. This 
 is not right. The points cut should not be written down. 
 The philosophy of recording 7 instead of 3, is that 7 is a 
 basis of comparison with the standard, while 3 is a com- 
 parison with nothing. It may be easier to say "I'll cut 
 three points," but the real purpose of the score card is 
 one of comparison, and no comparison is implied when this 
 form is used. Therefore it is highly important to place 
 one's actual valuation for each part in proper place in the 
 column, that comparison of both the part and the whole 
 may be possible. In fact, unless we place figures represent- 
 ing value to the credit of an animal we do not give a proper 
 score. If we give a cut, this in turn must be taken from 
 the perfect score in order to give correct value. 
 
 The value of the score of an animal is relative and 
 should not be regarded too highly. Men of experience in 
 the use of the score card, very generally value it for its 
 importance in the elementary stages of judging live stock. 
 Through its use, the young judge is taught the location 
 and the relative values of the different parts of the animal. 
 The great criticism of the score card, is that a judge may 
 be unable to grade a living animal exactly the same at 
 different times. His figures cannot stand as final. To-day 
 we may score an animal 80 and to-morrow 75. The horse 
 
24 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 we scored yesterday may to-morrow come before us in better 
 form, with more action and expression, and therefore 
 measure up to a higher degree of excellence. We do not 
 know how to express in satisfactory figures certain things 
 we term character, expression, quality, etc. For many 
 years past efforts have been made to introduce the score 
 card as a medium for judging live stock at the shows, but 
 without success. In no case, perhaps, has the scale of points 
 been used in practical judging for an extended period of 
 time. Even poultry judges, who have adhered to the score 
 card more than any one else, are now quite generally dis- 
 carding its use. It may not be out of place to state here, 
 that some men who have been judges of acknowledged 
 ability, when required to officiate by score card methods, 
 have not done themselves or the animals they have passed 
 on, justice. One good illustration of this occurred in 1893 
 at the World's Columbian Exposition. A great show of 
 one breed was judged by the score card. Commenting on 
 the work of the judge, who in his time was regarded as well 
 qualified to pass on this breed, the following came from the 
 pen of a noted live stock critic, and is well worth considera- 
 tion in its relation to this much discussed subject. 1 "In 
 this connection the temptation to discuss the score card as 
 a show yard implement is strong. If it had been known 
 that the judge intended to use the card, it is questionable 
 if he would have been asked to do the work, for Chief Bu- 
 chanan has little use for this well-nigh obsolete fad. We 
 say well-nigh obsolete. So far as Western show yards are 
 concerned, it has not made its appearance in the cattle ring 
 for the past ten years. It is occasionally used in the East, 
 and so far as our observation extends, it is the most potent 
 cause of good men going wrong in awarding premiums. 
 Swine breeders caught the score card fever some few years 
 ago. They have recovered thoroughly from the attack. It 
 is a non-recurrent disease. Readers of the Gazette need 
 not have repeated to them the arguments which have driven 
 
 1 Breeders' Gazette, Sept. 6, 1893, p. 163. 
 
THE SCORE CARD AXD ITS USE 25 
 
 this system out of Western show yards. They need not 
 again be assured of the folly of attempting In apply mathe- 
 matics to the judging of life. They know that the tape and 
 square can measure inert matter; they equally understand 
 that animal form cannot be reckoned in figures as cord 
 wood or pig iron." 
 
 In spite of the above criticism, we must not lose 
 sight of the value of the scale of points as a standard, and 
 what it may teach. A limited number of score card lessons, 
 will usually suffice to introduce the subject of judging. It 
 is also important that the judge should be familiar with 
 the scale of points of any breed which he may be called to 
 pass upon in the show ring. A judge would hardly be 
 qualified to pass on a breed exhibit if he lacked knowledge 
 of the standard of excellence of that breed. 
 
PART II THE HORSE. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 MAN AND THE HORSE. 
 
 The relationship of man to the horse has long been very 
 intimate. The horse, since time immemorial, has occupied 
 a favorite place in the esteem of man. For centuries he 
 was the main source of transportation, both in peace and 
 war. "With the development of agriculture and the tilling 
 of the soil, the horse entered into a new field of usefulness. 
 In recent days the advent of the automobile and motor 
 truck seem to indicate a retirement of this animal to a 
 certain extent from the streets of our towns and cities. 
 Yet in spite of changed conditions, there is not likely to 
 be any material diminution in the necessity for the horse 
 as a vital factor in the conduct of farm operations. His 
 service in many ways is indispensable. Even in town it 
 will be impossible for many to make use of other form of 
 power in transporting loads. In a variety of ways man 
 will continue to rely upon, the horse, both for pleasure and 
 profit. If this animal is to be criticised as lacking in 
 efficiency, is it not highly important that those engaged 
 in the production and selection of the horse understand 
 his structure, purpose and adaptability? Such a com- 
 prehension must be based on a knowledge of the relation- 
 ship of internal to external structure, and of form to func- 
 tion. A knowledge of this relationship of form to func- 
 tion, coupled with reasonably good judgment, will materi- 
 ally assist one in measuring the personality and compara- 
 tive value of the horse under most conditions of examina- 
 tion. If " knowledge of the horse is an art/' to quote 
 
 26 
 
MAN AND THE HORSE 27 
 
 noted French authority, 1 "it is especially one which consists 
 in observing, comparing and judging according to positive 
 information. Besides, it is necessary, in order to reach 
 per lection, to have observed much, to have put to practice 
 11 mi faculty which makes the clinician, the connoisseur, and 
 the artist. It is when such an education is carried to a 
 considerable extent that we succeed in seizing at once what 
 good or defective qualifications the horse possesses, and 
 that it is possible to form a just conclusion by appreciat- 
 ing to what degree the good qualities exceed the bad." 
 
 1 The Exterior of the Horse. Goubaux & Barriere, 1904, p. 3. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. 
 
 The anatomy of the horse has been a fertile subject of 
 study by man, and a large amount of literature has been 
 published dealing with the structural characteristics of 
 this animal. In as much as it has been clearly demonstrated 
 that a close relationship exists between the internal struc- 
 ture and external conformation, it will be appropriate in 
 a study of form of the horse, first to direct attention to some 
 of those features of anatomy that have a special bearing 
 on his use and efficiency. The bony framework, the skele- 
 ton, supports and protects the softer body tissues, including 
 the muscles, which give beauty of form and furnish power. 
 Not only these, but intimately associated with them is a 
 nervous system that is of vital importance, which indicates 
 in no small degree the power to comprehend and perform. 
 
 The skeleton of the horse consists of 205 bones, which 
 may be grouped in three classes. These are long, as the 
 thigh; flat, as the shoulder blade; and short or irregular, 
 as in the foot or vertebrae Bone consists of cellular tis- 
 sue, -the cells of which have become more or less filled with 
 calcareous substance. In its early stage of development 
 the bone lacks mineral matter, consisting of fibrous tissue, 
 which is a kind of cartilage. With growth and age, this 
 cartilage becomes filled with lime and changes from a soft 
 to a hard condition. The quality of the bone is largely 
 influenced by the presence of mineral matter in it, obtained 
 from food and water. Bony tissue is referred to as hard 
 and compact or soft and spongy. Horses raised on dry 
 uplands are said to have harder, better feet and bone than 
 those from the lowlands. With the living animal, the bones 
 
 28 
 
THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE 
 
 29 
 
 are of importance for the following purposes: (a) to sup- 
 port weight; (&) to act as levers; (c) to reduce concussion. 
 The skull of the horse consists of eleven bones, and is 
 connected with the spinal column at the atlas joint. The 
 breadth of the forehead is occupied by a pair of frontal 
 bones, while just below, and extending to the nose are 
 nasal bones. "Few things," writes Youatt, 1 "more clearly 
 
 Fig. 8. The skeleton of the horse. "It has been clearly demonstrated 
 that a close relationship exists between the internal structure and ex- 
 ternal conformation." (Courtesy Dr. S. Sisson. From Anatomy of the 
 Domestic Animals.) 
 
 indicate the breed or blood of the horse than the form of 
 the frontal bones. Who has not remarked on the broad 
 angular forehead of the blood horse, giving him a beautiful 
 expression of intelligence and fire, the face gradually 
 tapering from the forehead to muzzle, contrasting it with 
 
 * The Horse, 1843, p. 71. 
 
30 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 the large face of the cart or dray horse, with the forehead 
 scarcely wider than the face. ' ' Above the eye on each side 
 are small so-called pits or depressions between the frontal 
 bones. With old age and emaciation, these pits sometimes 
 appear more depressed. The frontal bones consist of two 
 layers, giving considerable thickness to the skull. Between 
 these are cavities known as frontal sinuses, connecting with 
 the nasal passages. The skull is characterized by great 
 length beyond the eye, as compared with the portion back 
 of it. Prof. H. F. Osborn calls attention 2 to this long- 
 
 Fig. 9. The skull of tJie Horse. "The skull is charac^jjzed by great 
 length beyond the eye." Figs 1-6, molar teeth ; Figs. 11, 12, 13, incisors ; 
 G, canines. The jaws are slightly separated for sake of clearness. The 
 bone covering of the teeth is removed to show root extension. (Courtesy 
 Dr. S. Sisson. From Anatomy of the Domestic Animals.) 
 
 headedness as a very ancient character, and which he states 
 is for two purposes, first, to facilitate reaching the ground 
 with the row of incisor or cropping teeth, and second, and 
 no less important, to allow space in front of the eye sockets 
 for the great row of elongate grinding teeth, the marvellous 
 dental battery of the horse. The brain cavity is very small, 
 considering the size of this animal, and the brain has an 
 
 The Age of Mammals, 1910, p. 18. 
 
THE ANATOMY OF THE HOUSE 
 
 31 
 
 average weight of only 
 
 twenty-three ounces. This 
 
 is an interesting contrast 
 
 with the average weight of 
 
 the brain of a white man 
 
 which is about forty-nine 
 
 ounces. 
 The age of the horse is 
 
 usually estimated by an ex- 
 amination of the teeth. To 
 
 inspect these most easily, 
 
 grasp the upper jaw with 
 
 one hand, the lower with 
 
 the other, the thumbs being 
 
 inserted just back of the 
 
 fnont or incisor teeth. 
 
 ^Pressure from the lower 
 
 limid causes the horse to 
 
 drop the under jaw, so that 
 
 the teeth may be quite 
 
 easily examined. It re- 
 quires some experience in recognizing the age, which -may 
 
 be determined with reasonable accuracy in most cases, up 
 
 to eight years. After that there is some uncertainty. The 
 
 appearance of the teeth, and their age classification, is as 
 
 follows : 
 
 The colt teeth. 
 Seven or eight days 
 after birth two incisor 
 teeth appear at tho 
 front and middle of 
 both upper and lower 
 jaws. In the course 
 of five or six weeks, 
 two more teeth ap- 
 pear in each jaw, one 
 tooth coming on either 
 
 Pig. 10. Grasp the uppper jaw 
 with one hand and the lower with 
 the other. 
 
 Fig. 11. The colt teeth. "They are the 
 milk teeth." Figs. 11-18 reproduced from 
 "Beurtheilungslehre des Pferdes," 1859. 
 
32 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Fig. 12. Two and one-half years of age. 
 
 .side of the two al- 
 ready present. Some 
 time between the 
 sixth and ninth 
 month, two more ap- 
 pear, one by the side 
 of 'each onter tooth, 
 These six pairs are 
 called nippers. They 
 are the milk teeth. 
 
 and are only temporary. They are not all equally level with 
 one another at first, but in the course of twelve months or so 
 they become uniform on the surface. The outside of the 
 tooth is very hard, white enamel. This covers a hard, 
 ivory-like bone, at the center of which is a softer sub- 
 stance which more easily wears away, but is constantly 
 renewed. The ends of the teeth have a ridged cutting 
 surface, forming at the centers small depressions, or 
 ' l cups, ' ' by which the age is determined. The cups in the 
 central pair of nippers at first are wide and somewhat dark ; 
 in the second year, with use, they appear lighter in color, 
 and become smaller than those of the other four. Similar 
 changes follow in order in the other pairs. 
 
 At two and one-half to three years of age permanent 
 incisors or nippers appear. These teeth are larger than the 
 
 first ones, which 
 
 were small but 
 suited to the 
 mouth of the 
 colt. The first 
 or central pair 
 of temporary 
 teeth is pushed 
 out by the pair 
 of larger per- 
 manent ones. 
 
 At three and 
 one-half to four 
 
 
 Fig. 13. Three and one-half years of age. 
 
THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE 
 
 33 
 
 years of age, the second pair of nippers in each jaw of the 
 colt gives way to two larger, permanent teeth, so that the 
 four-year-old shows four pairs of permanent front teeth. 
 
 At four and one-half to five years of age the last pair 
 of the front teeth of the colt, in each jaw, is supplanted by 
 
 a pair of permanent 
 ones. At this age 
 what are called tusks 
 appear in the mouth 
 of the male ; they also 
 occur occasionally in 
 the mare. These tusks 
 have roundish points, 
 and there are two in 
 each jaw, one on a 
 
 %|?^ side, a short distance 
 
 back of the front teeth. 
 After the fifth year 
 jr the age of the horse is 
 
 determined by the ap- 
 pearance of the wear- 
 ing surface of the 
 
 teeth, each tooth when normal having its age surface. 
 At six years the cups of the two central teeth are worn off. 
 At seven years the second pair shows the worn surface. 
 At eight years all of the teeth have been worn about 
 level, and the mouth-mark loses its value. The six perma- 
 nent teeth in each jaw at first meet each other in vertical 
 position, the ends butting squarely against each other. As 
 age increases, however, the teeth gradually take a more in- 
 clined or slanting-out position in each jaw, so that they 
 come together at a sharper angle. The older teeth are also 
 more worn on the ends, and are longer than the younger 
 teeth. In a horse from 12 to 16 years of age the ends of 
 the teeth have become somewhat three-sided. 
 
 The spinal column of the horse consists of fifty-four 
 bones, or vertebrae. Seven of these, the cervical, are in 
 the neck; eighteen, the thoracic, are in the back; six, the 
 
 Fig. 14. Four years of age. 
 
JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Fig. 15. Five years of age. 
 
 Fig. 16. Six years of age. 
 
THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE 
 
 35 
 
 Fig. 17. Seven years of age. 
 
 lumbar, are in the 
 loins ; five are fused 
 into a single bone, 
 the sacrum, located 
 at the croup, and 
 about eighteen 
 comprise the coc- 
 cyx or tail bones. 
 The spinal cord 
 passes through all 
 these bones, except- 
 ing beyond the 
 fourth or fifth ver- 
 tebraB of the tail. 
 The thoracic verte- 
 brae have long projections or spines, which reach the highest 
 point at the top of the fourth and fifth vertebrae, forming 
 the withers. The line of the tops of the spines, gives a 
 curved outline to the backbone, which makes it impossible 
 for a horse to have a flat back, there being a necessary de- 
 pression from the withers to the back of the loin. 
 
 The ribs of the horse usually number eighteen on a 
 side, though there are sometimes nineteen. Eight of these 
 are true and ten 
 are false. By 
 means of carti- 
 lage at the lower 
 end, each true rib 
 is connected with 
 the breast bone. 
 The first false rib 
 connects by carti- 
 lage with the end 
 of the last true 
 one, and each 
 other false one is 
 attached to the Fig . is. Eight years of age. 
 
36 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 cartilage of the one before it, thus forming an indirect 
 connection of false with true ribs. The ribs not only pro- 
 tect the vital organs from injury, but are agents in ex- 
 panding and contracting the chest. 
 
 The sternum or breast bone of the horse suggests a 
 canoe in shape, and is located between the ends of the carti- 
 lages of the true ribs. The sternum furnishes important 
 attachment for muscles. 
 
 The shoulder blade of the horse is a long, broad, thin 
 bone, flat on the inner side, but with a ridge on the outside 
 that divides the muscles that act at the shoulder. The 
 point of the shoulder is opposite the lower ends of the first 
 and second ribs, and the blade extends back obliquely 
 upward to the seventh rib. 
 
 The humerus is a large, heavy bone, that at its upper 
 part fits into a socket at the point of the shoulder, extend- 
 ing obliquely backward about on a line with the depth of 
 the belly. One long bone, the radius, joins the lower end 
 of the humerus to form the "front" knee joint. A smaller 
 bone, the ulna, lies just back of the radius, projecting 
 decidedly above it to form the point of the elbow. At the 
 lower end of the radius, at the knee, are two rows of small 
 hard bones, back of which is another small bone, over which 
 passes the tendons of the fore leg. Below the knee is the 
 large metacarpal or cannon bone, about nine or ten inches 
 long, one of the strongest bones in the skeleton. Back of 
 this on each side are two small bones, known as splint bones ; 
 between is a groove, through which passes a ligament. At 
 its lower end the cannon bone joins with the two sessa- 
 moids and the fetlock bone (long pastern), forming the 
 fetlock joint. The pastern extends obliquely forward and 
 downward, forming an angle of about 45 degrees. Below 
 the fetlock bone is the pastern bone, and below this the 
 coffin bone. Behind the latter is a small, rather thin bone, 
 the navicular. The sessamoid and navicular bones act as 
 pulleys for a tendon which passes over this part. 
 
 The Hoof, which encloses the foot bones, is an appendage 
 
THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE 
 
 37 
 
 of the skin, comparable with the finger-nail. This consists 
 of three parts, (1) the wall, or all of the exterior of the 
 hoof to be seen when resting on the floor surface; (2) the 
 sole, which arches over much of the under side of the hoof, 
 excepting the space occupied by (3) the frog, which is a 
 wedge-shaped form of soft horn, extending from the cleft 
 at the back side of the 
 hoof, to a point well 
 beyond the center of 
 the sole. This back 
 side of the hoof is 
 known as the heel, to 
 which the frog is con- 
 nected at its basal ex- 
 tremities. On each 
 side of the frog, be- 
 tween this and the 
 sole, is a slight ridge, 
 the bar, which is a 
 continuation of the 
 hoof wall. The coro- 
 net is the top of the 
 hoof where this part 
 joins the pastern. 
 
 The pelvis of the 
 horse occupies a slop- 
 ing backward position 
 in the upper part of 
 the hindquarters, ar- 
 ticulating with the 
 
 sacrum. It appears as one bone, although really con- 
 sisting of two similar halves. The. outer projecting part 
 of the pelvis on each side is known as the point of the 
 hip, while the extreme rear end, the ischium, is commonly 
 termed the point of the 'buttock. A very large, heavy thigh 
 bone, the femur, has its upper end in a socket in the lower 
 part of the pelvis. This thigh bone extends forward, end- 
 
 Fig. 19. The digit of the horse, show- 
 ing surface relationship of bones and 
 joints : a, long pastern bone ; 6, short pas- 
 tern ; c, coffin bone ; d, cartilage ; e, na- 
 vicular bone ; h, cut-edge wall of hoof. 
 (Courtesy Dr. S. Sisson. From Anatomy 
 of the Domestic Animals.) 
 
38 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 ing in the prominent knee or stifle joint. On the front of 
 this" joint is the knee cap or patella, on which are fastened 
 muscles that operate the joint. At its lower end the thigh 
 proper joins the lower thigh or tibia, back of which is a 
 small bone, the fibula. The tibia extends obliquely back 
 
 and downward, connecting 
 by a groove-like arrange- 
 ment with a small, odd 
 shaped bone, the astragalus. 
 Back of this is a bone, the 
 os calcis, which projects up- 
 ward and backward, the 
 upper part of which forms 
 the point of the hock. Be- 
 low the hock are three 
 small, flattish, irregular 
 shaped bones, two in front 
 and one behind. The bones 
 of the hind leg, below the 
 hock, are much like those 
 below the knee in the front 
 leg. 
 
 Resemblances between 
 the bones of man and the 
 horse are set forth in an interesting manner by Captain M. 
 H. Hayes. 3 "The horse possesses no collar bone, conse- 
 quently there is no bony connection between his fore extrem- 
 ity and trunk. The humerus, elbow, and forearm are the 
 same in both, except that the ulna is complete in the horse 
 only in very rare instances. The knee of the horse corre- 
 sponds to the wrist of man. The five bones between our wrist 
 and the first row of knuckles are represented in the horse by 
 the cannon and splint bones. His fetlock is analogous to 
 the first row of knuckles of our hand. The long pastern 
 bone corresponds to the first bone of our middle finger; 
 the short one, to the second bone ; the pedal one to their 
 
 3 The Points of the Horse, London, 3d ed., 1904, p. 38. 
 
 Fig. 20. Right forehoof, ground 
 surface. 1, 2, the wall ; 3, angle' of 
 wall ; 4, bar ; 5, sole ; G, junction wall 
 and sole ; 7, apex frog ; 8, central 
 sulcus of frog ; 9, 9, sulci between 
 frog and bars ; 10, 10, bulbs of hoofs. 
 (Courtesy Dr. S. Sisson. From Anat- 
 omy of the Domestic Animals.) 
 
Fig. 21. Resemblances between the bones of man and the horse. From 
 photograph of skeletons prepared by Mr. S. H. Chubb. (Courtesy 
 American Museum of Natural History.) 
 
40 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 third bone, and the hoof to its nail. The navicular bone 
 has no counterpart in our frame. In the hind limb, the 
 stifle represents our knee; the tibia, the shin; the hock, 
 the ankle; the point of the hock, the heel; and so on. In 
 man, the fibula is a fully developed bone. We may thus 
 see that the horse is an animal that moves on the tips of 
 his fingers and toes ; and that he has only one complete and 
 functional toe to each leg." 
 
 The relationship of speed in the horse to the structure 
 of the skeleton is an important one. The prehistoric horse 
 possessed five toes instead of one on each foot. During 
 the process of evolution, the excess side toes disappeared, 
 leaving only the central one and two more or less developed 
 splints; the cannon bone also increased in length. Ac- 
 cording to Lydekker 4 this development to a one-toe basis, 
 with the accompanying splints, the elongation of the bones 
 of the lower part of the limb, the simplification and the 
 consolidation of the middle part, and the raising of the 
 knee and hock far above the level of the ground, so as to 
 cause the animal to walk on the tips of its single toes, are 
 the important features wherein the horse, as compared 
 with other animals, is adapted to high speed. At the 
 present day the horse is the only animal having a single 
 toed or monodactyle foot. A many toed, short boned limb, 
 would be unequal to the strain of carrying the body of such 
 a heavy animal at a high rate of speed over hard ground. 
 
 The muscles of the body consist of groups of fleshy fiber, 
 that under the influence of the nerves, have the power to 
 contract. Most of the muscles are attached to bone by 
 means of tough, hard, whitish cords, known as tendons. 
 Through direction from the brain, the nervous system 
 stimulates the muscle which at once contracts and thus 
 produces power. Muscles differ in length and strength, 
 short, thick ones being capable of producing greater strength 
 than long, slender ones. The tendons also differ in length 
 and degree of attachment to the bone. A muscle can con- 
 
 4 The Horse and its Relatives, London, 1912. p. 17. 
 
THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE 41 
 
 Fig. 22. Superficial muscles of the horse. "Muscles differ in length and 
 strength." (Courtesy Dr. S. Sisson. Reproduced from Anatomy of the 
 Domestic Animals.) 
 
 tract to about two thirds its ordinary length, if conditions 
 favor the same. The power of a muscle is in accordance 
 with its thickness, while its action is dependent on its 
 length. Comparatively the draft horse with a thick, short 
 muscle, moves slowly and in short powerful strides, while 
 the race horse, with long muscles possesses a longer stride 
 and covers ground more rapidly. Muscles of the same size 
 on different animals vary in strength, this being due to 
 heredity, food, condition, nervous power, etc. " Massive 
 muscles, ' ' says Hayes, 5 ' * compared to slight ones, have two 
 disadvantages, namely, they increase the weight which 
 is carried, both in muscle and bone ; and they necessitate 
 the possession of large joints, which from increased friction, 
 are not so easily bent and extended as smaller ones ; besides, 
 it has been proved that they do not respond as quickly to 
 nervous stimulus." Hayes makes the further interesting 
 observation that we may often note that race horses which 
 were very smart as two-year olds, lose their "form" after 
 that age without any assignable reason, excepting that as 
 
 6 Points of the Horse. M. H. Hayes, London, 3d ed., 1904, p. 29. 
 
42 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 they thickened they got slow. Muscles vary greatly in their 
 activity in the body, and naturally each plays its special 
 part. To illustrate, the muscle attached to the back of a 
 leg joint, being constantly used to flex or close the joint, 
 is active and tough, while the short, thick muscles in the 
 loins, are relatively but little used, and consequently lack 
 in toughness. Among the many muscles of the horse the 
 following are of special interest. The head is bent by the 
 muscles that extend from the lower jaw to the breast bone. 
 Another muscle from the poll to the withers regulates the 
 extension of the head. One heavy muscle, the complexus, 
 in the upper part of the neck, gives much of the shape to 
 this part. The most powerful muscle in the body extends 
 from the neck along the back to the sacrum and beyond, 
 and is closely attached to the backbone, pelvis and upper 
 part of the ribs, forming in fact most of the fleshy outline 
 of the back and loins. The shoulder blade is connected 
 with the body by a strong, fan-shaped muscle on its under 
 side, attached in front at the neck and behind at the ribs. 
 The blade moves forward or backward, according to con- 
 traction of the muscle. Another muscle on the outside of 
 the blade extends to the withers, head and neck, and assists 
 in moving the shoulder. One long muscle, extending from 
 the poll and neck to the humerus, moves the foreleg for- 
 ward. The freest action of shoulder and forelimb is as- 
 sociated with a long neck and prominent withers. A num- 
 ber of important muscles- and tendons assisting in regulat- 
 ing movements of the fore limb, are attached at the lower 
 part of shoulder and the leg below. In the quarters we 
 find powerful muscles for producing either force or speed. 
 One of the most important, the large croup muscle, extends 
 from the front of the pelvis around over the croup to the 
 upper part of the thigh bone. The large muscles on the 
 back of the thigh, lead from the under side of the pelvis 
 to the upper part of the tibia. The gaskin, the smaller 
 part of the thigh above the hock, has two important muscles 
 on its rear side. These start from the lower end of the 
 
THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE 43 
 
 upper thigh, one ending in a tendon at the. point of the 
 hock, the other extending from the hock as a tendon along 
 down the back of the leg to the fetlock bone. There are 
 many different muscles over the body that are intimately 
 related to the locomotion of the horse, the material injury 
 of any one of which would seriously affect the efficiency 
 of various others. 
 
 The digestive system of the horse consists of the mouth, 
 tongue, teeth, pharynx, oesophagus or gullet, stomach, large 
 and small intestines, pancreas, liver and spleen. The food 
 is taken into the mouth and with the aid of the tongue and 
 teeth, is broken and mixed with saliva, a digestive fluid. 
 The food is swallowed, and passes across the pharynx, a 
 small sac, about six inches long, and enters the oesophagus, 
 a tube 50 to 60 inches long, through which it moves into 
 the stomach. In this latter organ the food is churned and 
 mixed with water and digestive agents, especially gastric 
 juice and hydrochloric acid, this latter being especially 
 found in the stomach. From the stomach the food moves 
 into the small intestine, to be further acted on by digestive 
 agents, notably pancreatic juice secreted by the pancreas, 
 and bile from the liver. The stomach of the horse is com- 
 paratively small, its capacity ranging from two to four 
 gallons. According to Sisson 6 the size, form and position 
 of the stomach are subject to considerable variation. The 
 small size of the stomach explains the necessity of giving 
 light rations during working hours, with the heavier feed- 
 ing just before the greatest period of rest, such as at night. 
 The small intestine is about 70 feet long, and has a capacity 
 of about twelve gallons. Here the most active and efficient 
 work of digestion and assimilation takes place. The large 
 intestine is about 25 feet long, and extends from the small 
 intestine to the anus, from which point the solid excrement 
 is passed from the body. The intestines occupy the rear 
 part of the abdominal cavity, underneath and back of the 
 ribs. The liver of the horse covers much of the right side 
 
 6 Anatomy of the Domestic Animals. S. Sisson, Philadelphia, 1914, p. 417. 
 
44 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 of the abdominal cavity. It is the largest gland of the 
 body, weighing ten to twelve pounds, and extending from 
 within three or four inches of the floor of the abdominal 
 cavity, just above the elbow, to a level with the right kidney, 
 just below the loin. 
 
 The heart of the horse, located down in the left side 
 of the chest, is a hollow muscle that under average condi- 
 tions weighs about nine pounds, but may vary greatly in 
 size. Dr. Sisson states 7 that, ' ' as might be expected, race 
 horses have hearts which are larger than the average, both 
 
 Fig. 23. Viscera of mare : L, liver ; Ma, stomach, the posterior contour 
 being indicated by dotted line x ; Mi spleen ; IN, left kidney ; D, small in- 
 testine, partly removed ; IdC and IvC, large intestine ; H, bladder ; aa, bb', 
 heart ; M', rectum ; V, vagina. (Courtesy Dr. S. Sisson. From Anatomy 
 of the Domestic Animals.) 
 
 absolutely and relatively." Small horses show more ac- 
 tivity of heart action than large ones, with more rapid 
 pulsation. 
 
 The lungs of the horse occupy much of the upper chest 
 cavity, and average about seven and one-half pounds in 
 weight. The right lung weighs about half as much as the 
 left one. The size and capacity of the lungs are important. 
 Of two horses of equal size, the one having the larger lungs 
 
 7 Anatomy of the Domestic Animals, 1914, p. 620. 
 
THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE 45 
 
 will absorb the most oxygen into the body and cast off the 
 most impurities into the atmosphere. Thus the combina- 
 tion of strong heart and capacious lungs is most important. 
 
 The nervous system of the horse is centered in the brain 
 and spinal cord, from which it radiates throughout the 
 entire body. The spinal cord is from 76 to 78 inches long 
 and weighs eight and one-half to nine ounces, and is nearly 
 cylindrical. The brain weighs about 23 ounces, and is 
 divided into three parts, the medula oblongata, the cere- 
 brum and cerebellum. The cerebrum is located just below 
 the forehead and is the organ of thought or intelligence. 
 The cerebellum is a very small part of the brain, directly 
 back of the cerebrum, and as expressed by Hayes, "is the 
 organ of muscular sense. ' ' The medulla oblongata is simply 
 the connecting link between the brain proper and the spinal 
 cord. The entire nervous system is made up of certain 
 tissues that have the property of extreme irritability or 
 sensitiveness, especially as applied to external conditions. 
 It is the property of this system to act between these ex- 
 ternal influences and the inner ones of the body tissues. 
 Thus the nerves convey to the muscles and other organs 
 motor influences whereby movement of the animal body 
 takes place through contraction of the muscular tissues. 
 The amount of contraction which may take place will be 
 in proportion to the amount of stimulation of the nerves. 
 "With some animals the nervous system is more sensitive 
 than with others, even though apparently much alike 
 otherwise. Light horses, such as Thoroughbreds, are very 
 generally regarded as more nervous than the heavy draft, 
 and respond more actively to muscular stimulation. 
 
 The temperament of the horse relates to his nervous 
 and mental character, and may be regarded as of much 
 importance, bearing on his usefulness to man. When natu- 
 rally active and quick to move and think, the horse is said 
 to have a nervous temperament. The light weight horse 
 of the racing class possesses this temperament. "When 
 characteristically slow to move or act, the horse is said to 
 
46 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 have a phlegmatic or lymphatic temperament. The large 
 horses of draft class are usually regarded of this tempera- 
 ment. Horses vary much in temperament, but in their 
 relationship to man, naturally incline to service. If willing 
 to adjust himself to the work at hand, injecting sufficient 
 animation to produce the best of results, his temperament 
 
 Fig. 24. "The temperament is mainly indicated by the expression of the 
 eye, the carriage of the head and neck, and the disposition to act." 
 
 will be of the right kind. A nervous temperament, quick 
 to act, yet well balanced, and associated with reasonable 
 intelligence, best meets the requirements of the horseman. 
 A phlegmatic temperament, slow to move, uncertain as to 
 action, coupled with a dull mind, would find no advocate 
 among horse lovers. The temperament is mainly indicated 
 by the expression of the eye, the carriage of the head and 
 neck, and the disposition to act, as seen under the direc- 
 tion of either voice or hand. A lively yet pleasant eye, a 
 tendency to carry the ear erect or pointing forward, and 
 
THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE 47 
 
 a willingness to move steadily, and without fear or nervous 
 ness when spoken to, are all features of good tempera- 
 ment. 
 
 The disposition of the horse more specifically refers to 
 his spirit of mind, whether good or bad, etc. A kicker or 
 biter, or a balky horse, would be considered as having a 
 bad disposition, a quality as likely to occur with one tem- 
 perament as another. The disposition, as expressed in 
 obedience, is of great importance, for the usefulness of the 
 horse may quite depend on this quality of character. 
 " Among the good mental qualities of the horse/ 7 says 
 Count Cesaresco, 8 ' ' the most important is a good disposi- 
 tion, as by means of this the horse gives in to us immediate- 
 ly, resigns himself to obedience forthwith, ,and is controlled 
 by the aid of this feeling of obedience. The body or 
 mechanism of the horse renders us service if the horse's 
 mind directs it to do so. It is impossible to obtain service 
 from the body if the mind is unwilling to command it. A 
 good will or a good disposition is the first quality required 
 to obtain useful service from the horse, as in order to 
 render this service, he must be allowed freedom ; he cannot 
 do it like a galley slave, with the hands, whilst his feet are 
 fettered/' 
 
 8 The Psychology and Training of the Horse, 1906, p. 64. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 THE HORSE IN MOTION. 
 
 The horse is used by man for various purposes that 
 require movement as the prime factor. This ranges from 
 the slow and powerful walk of the draft horse to the swift 
 gallop of the light runner. In a horse standing at perfect 
 rest, we observe a large, heavy body or trunk, suspended 
 by the spine between four upright supports, the legs. When 
 the body of the horse is at rest, it is in balance or equi- 
 librium from a certain imaginary point within the body 
 where is located the center of gravity. The position of 
 center of gravity, according to Colin, a French authority, l 
 is at a point in the body which corresponds to the intersec- 
 tion of two lines, one vertical and one horizontal, that meet 
 slightly below the center of the chest cavity, on a line with 
 the back edge of the eighth rib. "It is clear," says Colin, 
 "that the position of the center of gravity and the distri- 
 bution of the body upon the members (legs), must vary 
 according to the conformation of animals, whose head, neck, 
 abdomen, and croup, present such diverse proportion.' 7 
 When the horse is in motion, and extends his head and 
 neck, he shifts his center of gravity forward. The im- 
 portant point in this connection is, that equilibrium be 
 maintained while in motion. This will be secured in the 
 greatest degree by a gravitation that does not reach the 
 ground, yet which, through shortness of leg, provides a 
 strong support and easy recovery of equilibrium. Locomo- 
 tion is only secured by the moving forward of the leg, thus 
 shifting what is known as the base of support below the 
 center of gravity. 
 
 1 The Exterior of the Horse. Goubaux & Barriere, 2d Am. ed., 1904, p. 5. 
 
 48 
 
THE HORSE IN MOTION 49 
 
 The joints of the horse naturally are main factors in 
 locomotion. These may be grouped in two classes, mov- 
 able and immovable. The two ends of the bone are held to- 
 gether by strong, hard, fibrous tissues, known as ligaments. 
 There are several kinds of ligaments, some being white and 
 inelastic and others yellow and elastic. The normal pur- 
 pose of the inelastic ligament is to keep the end of the bone 
 within its socket. Some joints have considerable play, while 
 others are quite immovable. The ordinary ball and socket 
 joint, as seen in the shoulder or hip, is a striking example 
 of the movable joint. The more shallow the socket, the 
 more extensive the possible movement of the limb. Hinge 
 joints which possess motion in but two directions, forward 
 and backward, occur at various points, especially in 
 the elbow and hock. The knee has three hinge joints, one 
 of which, between the arm and cannon, allows much motion. 
 When the knee is bent, or the leg folds on itself, we say it is 
 flexed, and when straightened out, it is extended. 
 
 The movements of the limbs and joints are made possi- 
 ble through the actions of levers, which are formed by the 
 bones and acted upon by the muscles, when stimulated by 
 the nerves. A lever is a rigid bar, either straight or curved, 
 which turns upon a fixed point, the fulcrum. At some point 
 on the lever is a weight, which may be moved by the appli- 
 cation of power at some other point. There are three 
 classes of levers. 
 
 The lever of the first class is seen in using a long bar 
 as a pry. One end is placed under the object to be moved, 
 which is the weight, while the bar rests a short distance 
 from the weight on a point, the fulcrum. If power is ap- 
 plied at the long end of the lever, by bearing down, the 
 point beyond the fulcrum comes up with its weight. In 
 the case of the horse, a lever of the first class is seen in the 
 extension of the limbs, as for example when kicking back 
 with the hind foot. In this case the muscle pulls back 
 over the point of the hock, furnishing the power; the ful- 
 
50 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 crum is the joint, and the weight is the foot which is being 
 lifted. 
 
 The lever of the second class is commonly illustrated 
 by the wheelbarrow. The fulcrum is where the wheel rests 
 on the ground, the barrow is the weight, and the arms of 
 the person lifting the handles provide the power. An 
 example of the lever of the second class in the horse, is to 
 be found in the hind leg, in moving the body forward. 
 Here the power is conveyed through the short leg bone, 
 the tibia ; the fulcrum is the point of the foot at the ground, 
 and the weight is at the hock joint. 
 
 The lever of the third class is seen in the man fishing 
 with a rod. The fulcrum is the end of the handle next the 
 body, the power is where the hand holds the rod and the 
 weight is in the fish at the end of the line. The lower jaw 
 of the horse illustrates this leverage. The fulcrum is at 
 the point where the lower jaw is attached to the upper, the 
 power is at the center of the jaw bone, and the weight at 
 the front teeth. Referring to the relations between the 
 power and weight in levers, Hayes says : 2 " The farther 
 the power is from the fulcrum, the greater will be the 
 mechanical advantage at which it will act ; and vice versa. 
 Thus, if one arm of a see-saw is longer than the other, a 
 comparatively light weight at the end of the former will 
 counterbalance a heavy one at the extremity of the latter. 
 Also, the longer an oar is inboard, as in an outrigger, the 
 greater will be the power which a rower will have. If we 
 apply this principle to the horse, we shall see that the longer 
 is the os calcis, the greater will be the mechanical ad- 
 vantage at which the muscles of the gaskin will act in kick- 
 ing or propelling the body forward. " Hayes further calls 
 attention to the fact that the nearer a force is at right 
 angles with its lever, the greater will be the mechanical 
 advantage. Making a concrete application of this he says : 
 "Acting on the principle just enunciated, the cart horse, 
 with the view of obtaining the utmost mechanical ad- 
 
 3 The Points of the Horso. M. H. Hayes, London, 3d Am. ed., 1904, p. 57. 
 
THE HORSE TN MOTION 
 
 51 
 
 vantage, when trying to draw a heavy load, will naturally 
 endeavor to move the levers of his limbs (when straighten- 
 ing them out) with the power as nearly as possible at right 
 angles to each respective lever. Hence he will obtain his 
 results by only slight bending of the joints, and conse- 
 quently his steps will be short. "We may see this action of 
 levers of the hind limbs well shown by the manner in which 
 he will crouch down behind when he makes a strong effort 
 with his hind legs, while exerting the forelegs but little, 
 as may occur when the roadway is slippery. The galloper, 
 on the contrary, will require the power of straightening 
 out his limbs to their utmost extent, and will thus obtain 
 speed at a lavish expenditure of muscular effort. This is 
 especially well shown in the action of the fetlock joint; 
 for if the pastern be long and sloping, the mechanical dis- 
 advantage will be great, but the gain in speed will be 
 equally large. If the pastern be upright, the fetlock will 
 work advantageously as far as the weight to be moved is 
 concerned, but it will contribute little to the attainment of 
 speed." The locomotion of the horse passes through vari- 
 ous degrees of speed from a walk to a gallop. Every 
 healthy horse must possess at least two classes of speed, 
 as for example, a walk and trot. The horse, however, has 
 the power of locomotion in a variety of forms that inti- 
 mately relate to service and value. The following defini- 
 tions and discussions relate to the horse in motion, and 
 should be understood by one who expects to qualify as a 
 judge of this animal. 
 
 The stride is the distance traversed from where the foot 
 leaves the ground until it again rests upon it. It is the 
 action of the individual leg, and therefore we may also 
 refer to the stride as the distance passed over by the limb 
 from the beginning of flexing when the foot is raised from 
 the ground, to the greatest extension following this move- 
 ment. In the stride, when the foot hits the ground, noise 
 will result on a hard surface, which is known as the beat, 
 a familiar sound in the concussion of horses' hoofs on hard 
 
52 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 pavements. Each of the legs has its own stride, and loco- 
 motion results when the four limbs engage in their natural 
 movement. The sequence or order of stride differs accord- 
 ing to the gait, which may be denned as the style of going 
 of the horse. Two strides may be taken at the same time, 
 two feet hitting the ground and giving beats at the same 
 moment, as in the case of the front and opposite hind foot 
 in the trot. The familiar rack (single-foot) illustrates the 
 strides occurring separately and rhythmically, one beat at 
 a time. The kind of gait is indicated by the time shown in 
 the beats, expressed in the separate strides taken to complete 
 the movement. Thus the experienced saddle horse critic, 
 hearing the beats of the hoofs of the horse under saddle on 
 a dark night, may recognize the gait without seeing the 
 horse. The length of stride differs greatly, being shortest 
 in a walk, yet even then naturally varying according to 
 conditions, such as size of horse, gait, length of leg, de- 
 gree of speed, etc. Abnormal conditions, such as lameness, 
 or character of shoe, also affect the length of stride. 
 Different weights or forms of shoes may materially change 
 the length of stride. The elevation of the stride is also quite 
 variable, and is affected by the gait, weight of the hoof or 
 shoe, the surface travelled over, etc. The height of stride 
 will be affected by the natural growth of hoof, if super- 
 fluous weight is not removed within due season. The true- 
 ness of stride or gait is of great importance and is impos- 
 sible if the legs and feet are not carried straight and true. 
 Referring to a true, or what may be termed a "square 
 gait,' 7 Jordan says, 3 "A square gait means nothing more 
 or less than an even and equal extension backward and 
 forward for all the four moving legs of the horse, with two 
 pairs of feet striking the ground at equal intervals of time 
 and distance during a given trial." Interference at the 
 ankle, crookedness of limb, as for example at the hock, will 
 affect the squareness or trueness of gait. The rapidity of 
 
 3 The Gait of the American Trotter and Pacer. Rudolph Jordan, Jr., New 
 York, 1910, p. 2. 
 
THE HORSE IN MOTION 
 
 53 
 
 stride relates to the time used in passing through the entire 
 movement of the limb. Speed or rapidity of stride is due 
 to various conditions, among which emphasis might be 
 placed on type and weight of horse, inheritance, energy, 
 gait, size and weight of foot, character of shoe, etc. ' * There 
 is an exact proportion between speed, length of toe and 
 energy/' says Jor- 
 dan, 4 * ' which might 
 well be expressed 
 by saying that the 
 longer the toe the 
 greater the amount 
 of energy neces- 
 sary to acquire the 
 same speed, and the 
 easier the leverage 
 at the toe, the less 
 will be the energy 
 required to main- 
 tain that speed. 
 Rapidity of action 
 or motion, it may 
 be argued, requires 
 as much and more 
 of that energy than the long, sweeping stride. ' ' 
 
 The gaits of the horse under natural conditions are, the 
 walk, trot, pace and gallop. However, methods of training 
 have produced variations from these that are recognized 
 gaits. A full comprehension of the modified gaits, whereby 
 one may recognize them readily, is not easily obtained, and 
 can only be secured through careful study and observation. 
 
 The walk is a slow four-beat gait, in which the limbs 
 move in sequence, one after the other. Usually a front foot 
 is raised first. The walk varies in style and character, and 
 Hayes has sub-divided it into five classes, as follows : 5 The 
 
 Fig. 25. "The walk is a slow, four-beat gait." 
 (Courtesy American Breeder.) 
 
 4 The Gait of the American Trotter and Pacer, 1910, p. 89. 
 
 B The Points of the Horse. M. H. Hayes, 3d ed., London, 1904. 
 
54 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 short stepping walk, in which the points of the hind feet 
 do not come as far forward as those of the forefeet of their 
 respective sides ; the ordinary walk, in which they more or 
 less cover them; the long striding walk, in which they go 
 clear in front of them; the high stepping walk, in which 
 the feet are raised off the ground higher than usual; and 
 the walk in heavy draft, in which the step is short as in heavy 
 pulling, a fore and hind limb working better together as 
 diagonals. The walk is not only a restful gait, but in 
 general draft operation is the one of first importance. 
 Therefore it should be active and strong, accomplishing a 
 maximum of progress for this class of speed. 
 
 The trot is a fast, two-beat gait, in which the diagonally 
 opposite limbs move together. The trotter is often referred 
 to as a diagonally gaited horse. The trot may be divided 
 into several sub-classes, dependent on the length and rapid- 
 ity of strides. Hayes gives three kinds of trot : slow, ordi- 
 
 Fig. 26. "The trot is a fast, two-beat gait, in which the diagonally 
 opposite limbs move together." (Courtesy Mr. S. L. Howe, British 
 Columbia.) 
 
THE HORSE IN MOTION 55 
 
 nary and fast, according to the stride and speed. Gay 
 also gives three kinds, 6 the fast stepping, high stepping and 
 saddle trot. These he defines as follows : * ' The fast stepping 
 trot, characterized by the length of stride and rapidity with 
 which the individual strides are taken and constituting the 
 gait of the harness race horse; the high stepping trot, 
 characterized by the height and elasticity of the stride, the 
 horse placing himself, going collectedly and marking each 
 step with extreme flexion, as represented in the harness 
 show horse; and the saddle trot, characterized by a square, 
 springy, collected and balanced stride, executed in perfect 
 rhythm, and with the utmost precision in order to secure 
 the comfort and security of the rider. The saddle trot is 
 distinct from the long, swinging stride of the trotter, also 
 the high, sometimes pounding, step of the actor, and should 
 reveal none of the roll or side motion of the lateral gait 
 into which saddle horses degenerate. " This gait is less 
 tiresome to the horse than are others involving speed beyond 
 the walk, for the reason that the body is best kept in equi- 
 librium in diagonal movement of the limbs. Of the rapid 
 gaits, the trot is the most universal and useful. 
 
 The pace, also known as the amble, is a fast, two-beat 
 gait, in which the legs on the same side move together in 
 unison. The pacer is also often termed the ' ' side wheeler. ' ' 
 This gait, which may be either natural or acquired, shows 
 wide variation in style of locomotion. Some horses pace 
 so wide as to make their gait very conspicuous and un- 
 attractive, while others possess a comparatively smooth and 
 level movement. The late Prof. John A. Craig, a great 
 lover of the light harness horse, has referred to this gait 
 in these interesting words : 7 " Horses pace in many ways, 
 some lurching, others shuffling and many more wobbling 
 in an unsightly manner; but, however they may go, they 
 are nearly all characterized by possessing speed. A level 
 
 The Principles and Practice of Live Stock Judging. Carl W. Gay, 1914, 
 p. 99. 
 
 7 Judging Live Stock, 6th ed., 1904, p. 20. 
 
56 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Fig. 27. ''The pace is a fast, two-beat gait, in which the legs on the 
 same side move together in unison." 
 
 and true pacer displays a sightly gait. In pacing level and 
 true the body remains steadier than in any other movement. 
 The legs move in harmony with the directness of a machine. 
 The nervy, machine-like pace peculiar to many of the fast 
 pacing animals is a study in the degree to which the mini- 
 mum of effort results in the maximum of speed. . . . As a 
 rule, the pace from the standpoint of the spectator is an 
 unsightly gait, but one that is usually thoroughly enjoyable 
 from the point of view of the driver." The pace and trot 
 are interchangeable gaits, and we find light harness horses 
 of note, that have racing records with each gait. Goubaux 
 and Barriere state 8 that certain colts, at first amblers 
 (pacers) will at a later period learn to trot, and reversely, 
 some horses primarily good trotters, amble towards the 
 decline of life, through fatigue and usage. The camel, 
 dromedary, and giraffe are natural amblers. Steepness of 
 croup, and a bent condition of the hocks, has often seemed 
 associated with the pacing gait, for in fact many of our 
 
 8 The Exterior of the Horse, 2d ed., Phil., 1904, p. 506. 
 
THE HORSE IN MOTION 57 
 
 most noted pacers have possessed this conformation. Great 
 speed attends this gait, it being regarded as about one 
 second faster on the race course than that of the trot. 
 
 The gallop is a fast, leaping three-beat gait. In this 
 case, the combined beat of diagonal feet occurs between two 
 successive beats of the other two feet. For a brief period 
 between strides the body is in the air, the feet all being 
 free from the ground. In this gait there is considerable 
 
 Fig. 28. "The gallop is a fast, leaping, three-beat gait." Skeleton of 
 famous Thoroughbred Sysonby at full speed. Prepared and mounted by 
 Mr. S. II. Chubb. (Courtesy American Museum of Natural History.) 
 
 wear on the fore foot which naturally leads, and the diago- 
 nal hind, which follows, consequently it is desirable to 
 change the lead of the members so as to afford them relief. 
 The gallop ranges from slow to fast, and in the latter case 
 may develop into a four-beat movement. This is the natural 
 gait of the horse when free from the restraints of man, 
 and it is also the gait of the Thoroughbred, or running 
 horse, the holder of the fastest records made by the horse. 
 The canter is a form of gallop, slow, deliberate, graceful 
 
58 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 and easy, in which, the weight is largely borne by the hind- 
 quarters, with the front limbs carried somewhat high. 
 " There is a vast difference, however," says GL G. Burton, 
 in an address to Kansas horse breeders, 9 t i between the 
 canter of a gaited saddler and the gallop of an unrestrained 
 horse, or the lope of a broncho. Any horse will lope or gal- 
 lop when pushed beyond his trotting or pacing speed, 
 but the gaited saddler goes from a walk, or even from a 
 standstill, into a graceful, enjoyable, hammock-like motion 
 which we call a canter. The term is inadequate to the 
 luxurious movement, but we must consider the thing and 
 not the name. His legs are never so well under him as 
 when in the canter and his neck is never so beautifully 
 arched. ' ' 
 
 The rack is a four-beat gait, each foot striking the 
 ground separately. This gait has been in times past popu- 
 larly known in America as the "single-foot" gait, a term 
 not now in favor and going out of use. This is not a natural 
 gait, being an evolution from the pace or amble, for it is 
 the result of special education, and is notably a feature of 
 the five-gaited saddle horse. It is a hard gait but it is 
 fascinating to the expert. Again quoting Mr. Burton, "he 
 must go at a tension and rack against the bit, and he must 
 get action from his hocks and shoulders as well as from his 
 knees. If he goes in form, he will carry a high head and a 
 high tail, arch his neck and hold a vertical face. He must 
 be pulled together and remain collected from start to finish. 
 If he goes in a pure, clear, bold rack, his feet make a four- 
 beat music the rhythm of which cannot be mistaken for 
 that of any other gait." 
 
 The running walk is, as the name implies, a gait which 
 represents the horse just passing from a walk into a faster 
 gait, closely resembling the rack. It is a slow, four-beat 
 gait, that is faster and easier than a flat-footed walk. It 
 is an easy locomotion, and when the horse is in full sympa- 
 thy with his work, he keeps time with his step by nodding 
 
 8 Farmers' Review, Aug. 29, 1900. 
 
THE HORSE IN MOTION 
 
 59 
 
 liis head and perhaps flopping his ears. This is a business 
 gait, in wliieh six or seven miles an hour is easily covered. 
 The, horse will journey from sixty to seventy-five miles a 
 day at the running walk without severe fatigue to him- 
 self or his rider. 
 
 The fox trot is a slow, short trot, similar to the run- 
 ning walk, but characterized by the hind legs assuming 
 a pacing movement. It is said to be a "loose-jointed" 
 motion not found in other gaits. Some horses adjust 
 themselves to this gait more easily than to the running 
 walk, which it resembles in being an easy, all day busi- 
 ness gait. 
 
 The jump, while a process of locomotion, is not a gait. 
 This movement consists in the raising of the fore feet, 
 and bringing the hind feet well under the body towards 
 the center of gravity. This is followed by a powerful 
 
 Fig. 29.' 
 
 'As the horse comes down, the front feet hit the ground first.' 
 (Courtesy Rider and Driver.) 
 
60 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 straightening out of the hind legs, in which the horse 
 propels himself over the obstacle he seeks to hurdle. In 
 this process the knees must be well bent, and the hind 
 legs carried up close to the body in passing over the 
 obstacle that the toes may not strike. As the horse comes 
 down, the front feet hit the ground first, after which he 
 rises to move on, the hind feet striking slightly in ad- 
 vance of the points of contact of the front feet. The jump- 
 er is a popular horse in Europe, especially in the military 
 service, and among the gentry who indulge in steeple chas- 
 ing, fox hunting, etc. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE TYPES AND CLASSES OP HORSES. 
 
 SINCE the day of the primeval horse, this animal during 
 the centuries has passed through a remarkable evolution. 
 The influence of climate, soil and other features of environ- 
 ment, and the breeding operations of man, has resulted in 
 the development of horses strikingly different in type, 
 character and purpose. At the present time it is assumed 
 that all horses may be classified into four distinct types or 
 groups. Within each of these types will be found sub- 
 types which combine the essential features of the type as 
 a whole, yet differing in certain details of size, conforma- 
 tion and character. The four types in question, which 
 will be considered in detail, are the following: (a) The 
 draft or power type ; ( & ) The light harness or speed type ; 
 (c) The heavy harness type; (d) . The saddle type. 
 
 JUDGING THE DRAFT OR POWER TYPE OF HORSE BY 
 SCALE OF POINTS. 
 
 The draft or power type of horse is more especially 
 needed on the farm and in trade, and in spite of the de- 
 velopment of the motor vehicle, this type of horse bids fair 
 to increase in importance. For this reason it is assigned 
 first consideration as a subject of study. Genuine draft 
 horses of merit are quite likely in future to gain in favor 
 on the farm and to be in active demand at remunerative 
 prices. The motor will no doubt grow in importance, but 
 on most farms and in short haul drayage work in the city, 
 the draft horse will continue to be the main reliance. 
 
 The following score card gives a standard scale of points 
 for a draft horse, and its character and application will 
 be considered in detail: 
 
 61 
 
62 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Fig. 30. The Points of the Draft Horse: 1, chin; 2, nostril; 4, nose; 
 5, face ; 6, forehead ; 7, eye ; 8, ear ; 9, lower jaw ; 10, throat-latch ; 11, 
 windpipe ; 12, crest ; 13, withers ; 14, shoulder ; 15, joint shoulder ; 16, 
 arm ; 17, elbow ; 18, forearm ; 19, knee ; 20, cannon ; 21, fetlock joint ; 22, 
 pastern ; 23, hoof ; 24, foreflank ; 25, heart girth ; 26, back ; 27, loin ; 28, 
 coupling ; 29, belly ; 30, hindflank ; 31, hip ; 32, croup ; 33, tail ; 34, but- 
 tocks ; 35, quarters ; 38, gaskin ; 39, hock. 
 
 SCORE CARD FOR DRAFT HORSES. 
 
 Standard of 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS Perfect 
 
 Score 
 Age Indicate the age after examining the teeth 
 
 A GENERAL APPEARANCE, 18 Points: 
 
 1. Height Estimated hands .... Actual hands 
 
 2. Weight 2,000 Ibs. a standard. Estimated weight 
 
 Actual weight 4 
 
 3. Form, broad, deep, massive, low set, well propor- 
 
 tioned 4 
 
 4. Substance, abundance of bone, broad joints, right 
 
 proportions 3 
 
 5. Quality, bone clean and hard, tendons and joints 
 
 well defined, skin and hair fine, features of 
 head clearly defined 4 
 
 6. Temperament, energetic; disposition good .. .. 3 
 
 Score of 
 Horse 
 Studied 
 
THE TYPES AND CLASSES OF HORSKS ft 
 
 Standard of Score of 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS Perfect Horse 
 
 Score Studied 
 B HEAD AND NECK, 7 Points: 
 
 7. Head, lean, in proportion to size, lower ,ja\v wide 
 
 angled 1 
 
 8. Muzzle, fine; lips thin, even and trim; nostrils large 1 
 
 9. Eyes, prominent, large, bright, clear I 
 
 10. Forehead, broad, full 1 
 
 11. Ears, medium size, pointed, set close 1 
 
 12. Neck, medium long, muscular, not thick, arched, 
 
 throat-latch clean; windpipe large 2 
 
 C FOREHAND, 25 Points: 
 
 13. Shoulders, sloping, smooth, extending well into back 'J .... 
 
 14. Arras, short, muscular, extending forward, elbow in 1 .... 
 
 15. Forearms, strongly muscled, wide, long 2 .... 
 
 1G. Knees, broad, deep, straight, strongly supported . . 2 .... 
 
 17. Cannons, short, wide, lean, tendons large, defined, set 
 
 well back 2 .... 
 
 18. Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, well supported . . 1 .... 
 
 19. Pasterns oblique, about 45, of moderate length, 
 
 strongly carried 3 .... 
 
 20. Feet, large, round, uniform, straight; bars strong; 
 
 sole concave, frog large and elastic; slope of 
 wall parallel to pastern ; heel wide, one-third 
 length of toe; horn dense, smooth 8 .... 
 
 21. Leg position, viewed from in front, a perpendicular 
 
 line dropped from the point of the shoulder 
 should divide the leg and foot into two lat- 
 eral halves ; a perpendicular line dropped from 
 the bony prominence on the shoulder blade 
 should pass through the center of the elbow 
 joint and meet the ground at the center of the 
 foot 4 .... 
 
 D BODY, 10 Points: 
 
 22. Withers, well defined and muscular 1 .... 
 
 23. Chest, deep, wide, low, large girth 2 .... 
 
 24. Back, short, broad, strongly supported 2 .... 
 
 25. Loin, short, wide, strongly coupled 2 .... 
 
 26. Bibs, long, well sprung, close 2 
 
 27. Flanks, low and full, showing low underline . . . . 1 .... 
 
 E HINDQUARTERS, 30 Points: 
 
 28. Hips, wide, smooth, muscular 2 
 
 29. Croup, long, wide, not markedly drooping, muscular 4 
 
 30. Tail, attached high, well carried 1 
 
 31. Thighs, muscular and deep, thick in the quarters; 
 
 stifles prominent, well set 
 
 32. Gaskins, wide, muscular 
 
 33. Hocks, straight, wide, deep, clean cut, point promi- 
 
 nent, well supported 6 
 
 34. Cannons, short, wide, flat, tendons large, set well 
 
 back . . . '. 2 
 
 35. Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong 1 .... 
 
64 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS 
 
 36. 
 
 Standard of Score of 
 
 Perfect Horse 
 
 Score Studied 
 Pasterns, oblique, medium length, smooth, strongly 
 
 carried, 
 
 37. Feet, large, round, uniform, straight; bars strong; 
 
 sole concave; frog large and elastic; slope of 
 wall parallel to pastern; heel wide and one- 
 third length toe ; horn dense, smooth 
 
 38. Leg position, viewed from the rear, a perpendicular 
 
 line dropped from the point of the buttock 
 should divide the leg and foot into lateral 
 halves; viewed from the side, this same line 
 should touch the point of the hock and meet 
 the foot surface a slight distance back of the 
 heel. A perpendicular line dropped from the 
 hip joint should meet the foot surface midway 
 between heel and toe 
 
 F ACTION, 10 Points: 
 
 39. Walk, straight, strong, elastic 
 
 40. Trot, strong, regular, free, easy 
 
 Total 
 
 100 
 
 Fig. 31. "The attendant will pose the horse at rest.' 
 (Courtesy American Agriculturist.) 
 
THE TYPES AND CLASSES OF HORSES 
 
 The general appearance of the horse may best be 
 measured up by inspecting him as he stands at rest, on a 
 slight incline, with the front feet a trifle higher than the 
 rear ones, or when he is in motion, either at walk or trot. 
 Therefore the judge should stand a convenient distance 
 away, and survey the 
 animal as a whole from 
 front, rear and side. 
 The attendant will pose 
 the horse at rest, or 
 move him at walk or 
 trot as desired. The 
 judge should see that the 
 horse is kept in a proper 
 position, supporting him- 
 self equally well on each 
 leg when at rest, other- 
 wise some incorrect ob- 
 servations are likely to 
 be made. In this exam- 
 ination for general ap- 
 pearance, the height, 
 weight, form, substance 
 
 and quality are to be considered simply as relating to the 
 animal as a whole. 
 
 The height of the draft horse. The height of the horse 
 is expressed in hands, four inches representing a hand, the 
 width across the widest part of the palm. Special sticks 
 with sliding projecting arms, and canes marked off in 
 inches are often used for measuring the height. The hand 
 itself is divided into four equal parts, and the height is 
 usually given in hands and inches, as for example 17% 
 or 17.5, the % representing a half a hand, or two inches. 
 To measure the height, the stick is placed in a vertical 
 position just back of the front feet, so that the projecting 
 right arm of the measuring stick will just touch the top 
 of the withers. An experienced horseman, knowing the 
 
 Fig. 32. "The stick is placed in a ver- 
 tical position just back of the front feet." 
 
66 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 height of his chin, stands against the shoulder, and esti- 
 mates the difference in inches between the elevation of the 
 withers and his chin, and so secures the desired informa- 
 tion. The height of the draft horse may be said to range 
 from 16 to 18 hands. The most desirable height will be 
 within 16 or 17 hands. This height should be the result 
 of depth of body, rather than length of leg. The height at 
 the withers should be at least equal to that at the croup, 
 though some authorities contend that from a draft point 
 of view the latter should not be so high as the former. 
 
 The weight of the draft horse ranges upward from 1,600 
 pounds, with 2,000 the weight desirable with the ideal 
 animal of this type in good condition. Yet a horse that 
 weighs 1,700 or 1,800 pounds is of large size, and may rep- 
 resent a very beautiful draft horse. Draft horses are also 
 divided into sub-classes, dependent on weight, a light draft 
 weighing 1,600 to 1JOQ pounds, medium draft 1,700 to 1,850, 
 and heavy draft from 1,850 pounds up. The condition of 
 the horse largely affects the weight, and by feeding one 
 may easily increase the weight two or three hundred pounds. 
 Consequently, we may consider that weight is usually re- 
 lated to height, the lighter weighing horses showing lower 
 scale of elevation. One would hardly expect to find a ton 
 horse standing as low as 16 hands. We should rather look 
 for such a horse to carry his great weight at an elevation 
 consistent with good form. Weight is a most important 
 feature of the draft type. When a heavy draft horse 
 moves his center of gravity forward, beyond his base of 
 support or footing, he brings his great weight up against 
 the collar with such power that the load is moved forward. 
 In hauling a heavy load, he would be unable to keep his 
 foothold and move forward, were it not for his body weight 
 which gives him the necessary purchase to overcome the 
 weight of his load. On a smooth roadway the horse of 
 heaviest weight furnishes the maximum of power, for here 
 conditions favor the least friction and effort. On a rough, 
 uneven surface, a lighter, more active horse may accom- 
 
THE TYPES AND CLASSES OF HORSES C7 
 
 plish the work with comparatively less effort than a heavy 
 one, for the animal must raise his body at each step, re- 
 sulting in much more labor than would be the case on a 
 smooth surface. This logically explains why heavy draft 
 horses are not so well suited to rough, hilly farming coun- 
 tries, as to those of more level character. In judging a 
 horse of draft type, it is important that he should possess 
 the necessary weight, and if not he should be scored ac- 
 cordingly. Other things being equal, the heavy draft horse 
 brings a price on the market rather comparable with his 
 weight. Craig has given an interesting example of this, 1 
 in which he shows that in 1893, from figures of sales of a 
 Chicago firm, there is a constant increase in prices from 
 the lighter to the heavier weights. In increasing from 1,400 
 to 1,800 pounds, the price increased about $100, an average 
 gain in value of 25 cents per pound. If the motor is to be 
 used extensively on the farm, and land plowed and culti- 
 vated by its use, its greatest service will be on the more 
 level, easily tilled areas. This will result in the draft 
 horse being most in demand on small farms and in loca- 
 tions where the land is uneven or hilly, and not suited to 
 motor cultivation. In such case it is quite probable that 
 a lighter weight draft horse, weighing 1,500 to 1,600 
 pounds, active, and well suited to rolling or rough land, 
 will be most in demand. 
 
 The form of the draft horse should be inspected from 
 various points of view, both at rest and in motion. From 
 the front or rear the body should appear broad or thick ; 
 viewed from one side it should show great depth. The 
 depth of body through the chest, and the length of the leg, 
 should be much the same, these proportions giving the ani- 
 mal what is termed a low set appearance, bringing his 
 weight comparatively close to the ground, thereby enabling 
 him to use it to the best advantage. A squareness of body- 
 form from all points, with massive size, indicates the nec- 
 essary weight through which power is secured. From a 
 
 1 Judging Live Stock. John A. Craig, 6th ed., 1904, p. 34. 
 
68 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 distance the form should appear in good proportions, no 
 one part being over or under developed. As the draft 
 horse is bred for power, he should possess a marked de- 
 velopment of short rather than long muscle, especially in 
 the neck, over the back, loins and croup, and on the legs 
 above knee and hock. If his frame is large enough, is well 
 balanced, and strongly muscled, he will furnish the require- 
 ments necessary for a true draft horse. The term "blocky," 
 as often applied to the draft horse, means that his form is 
 compact, that is broad, deep and short, rather than too 
 long, showing a comparatively square and heavy form from 
 which great power might be expected. 
 
 Substance in the horse refers to the amount and charac- 
 ter of the material of which the animal form is composed. 
 This especially applies in this case to size or scale. If we 
 compare two horses of the same type and general character 
 in which one exhibits a more desirable weight and heavi- 
 ness of outline than the other, with larger joints and bones 
 in the legs, we say this stronger bodied animal shows the 
 more substance of the two. It is quite common to refer to 
 the substance as shown in the size of bone. A horse with 
 too small a bone, as shown in the cannon, would be lacking 
 in substance. Therefore it is highly important to possess 
 substance without attaining any excess of development or 
 coarseness. If it could be measured in units of the same 
 class, that substance would be most desirable which indi- 
 cated the greatest degree of strength. Substance should 
 always be associated with quality, for substance without 
 quality would indicate weakness rather than strength 
 whether applied to muscle or bone. Therefore, in judging 
 the draft horse we emphasize substance as of great im- 
 portance. 
 
 Quality in the horse is manifested especially in the bone, 
 tendons, skin and hair, as well as in the general confor- 
 mation. Quality relates to the cellular structure of the 
 bone, flesh and hair, as well as to the finish or perfection 
 of the animal in part or whole. Quality is intended to 
 
THE TYPES AND CLASSES OF HORSES 
 
 69 
 
 indicate a degree of superiority, though of course we have 
 animals of poor as well as good quality. Quality is usually 
 an evidence of superior breeding, animals of inferior 
 quality as a rule inheriting the same from inferior ancestry. 
 With the horse, the bone is regarded as of great import- 
 ance. The composition and cellular structure of the bone 
 varies much. What is desirable is a hard, dense bone with 
 a strong, compact cellular structure, rather than a coarse, 
 porous and weak one. Unduly large joints and bone show 
 lack of quality and strength. The cannon bone is commonly 
 used as a measure of quality of bone and this should be flat, 
 deep and smooth. Horses with such bone and clean, well- 
 defined joints manifest superior quality and are capable of 
 
 Fig. 33. "The long hair or feather down the back of the cannon is 
 highly valued as an evidence of quality." 
 
70 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 far more work than where these features are lacking. The 
 tendons which lie back of the cannon bone, if clearly defined, 
 indicate quality and strength of limb. The character of skin 
 and hair is also an important indicator of quality. Minute 
 glands in the skin give off oil which keeps the skin soft 
 and elastic and furnishes the gloss to the hair. In case of 
 sickness these glands may not work and then the skin is 
 dry and harsh and the hair is lacking in lustre. On the 
 draft horse the skin is thicker than on a race horse, but even 
 then it is not nearly so thick as on beef cattle. It should 
 be mellow and elastic to the touch and should be covered 
 thickly with fine, lustrous hair. The horse that possesses 
 such a coat of hair is sure to possess all the essentials of 
 quality. The foretop, man,e and tail should be well sup- 
 plied with hair of both length and quality. On hairy 
 legged horses, notably the Clydesdale and Shire, the long 
 hair or ''feather" down the back of the cannon is highly 
 valued as an evidence of quality, and especially in its re- 
 lationship to the bone.. A feather long and fine in quality 
 is much admired. Quality is also manifested in the clearly 
 defined appearance of the head in particular. "When the 
 head shows a cleanly chiseled form, prominent, expressive 
 eyes, neat and well set ears, thin lips and good sized nos- 
 trils, quality is very apparent. Quality plays a most im- 
 portant part in the market place and show ring. For this 
 reason experienced horsemen give special attention to the 
 skin and coat of hair, feeding and grooming to secure the 
 best effect. The draft horse with quality will always com- 
 mand a much higher price than one otherwise equally good. 
 No horse of inferior quality should be given high rating by 
 a judge. 
 
 The temperament of the draft horse, as usually ap- 
 plied to domestic animals, refers to the relationship of the 
 nerves to the body and functional activity, and is discussed 
 elsewhere, on page 45. The temperament should be suited 
 to the draft type, with a reasonable degree of activity and 
 animation. Dullness, slowness and indifference are quite 
 
THE TYPES AND CLASSES OF HORSES 71 
 
 undesirable temperamental features. The disposition 
 should be good. Draft horses, as a rule, are of gentle dis- 
 position and not so prone to develop vicious habits as the 
 light harness horse. 
 
 The head of the draft horse is large, and in length is in 
 proportion to the length of body as I:2y 2 . Comparatively 
 speaking, the draft horse head is larger than that on the 
 smaller class animal. The head should be lean with little 
 superfluous flesh, and in proper proportion to the size of the 
 body. A fleshy head indicates a soft body. However, 
 there is not the bony prominence of head one sees on the 
 racing horse. Well developed muscles about the jaws, how- 
 ever, are regarded as a sign of strong constitution. The 
 lower jaw should be well angled, allowing ample room for 
 the larynx which lies between the separated bones of the 
 jaw. The front of the head or face varies considerably in 
 outline. Some horses have a straight profile, others a con- 
 cave or dished face, and still others a convex or Roman 
 face. Generally speaking the straight face is preferable, 
 the nasal passages thus being unobstructed, and the contour 
 generally most pleasing, though the Roman face is rather 
 common among draft horses, the Suffolk being noted for 
 this feature. 
 
 The muzzle of the draft horse should show a good 
 quality in thin rather than heavy lips, which should come 
 together evenly without one lip materially extending over 
 the other. The muzzle should be wide, square at the corners, 
 and deep enough to permit of easy feeding. A narrow, 
 small, pinched mouth is characteristic of a poor feeder. The 
 nostrils should be large, yet not dilated, unless following 
 marked exertion. The nostril is naturally somewhat oval 
 and apparently partially closed by a fold of skin on its 
 upper side. A large orifice naturally presupposes connec- 
 tion with well developed nasal tubes and strong breathing 
 capacity. 
 
 The eyes of the horse should be oval rather than round, 
 prominent, reasonably large, set wide apart and have thin, 
 
72 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Fig. 34. "The eye is generally regarded as an indicator of disposition." 
 
 smooth eyelids. In general the eye is located at a point 
 about one-third of the way between poll and muzzle. A 
 small eye is thought to indicate a sulky or mean disposi- 
 tion, and lack of courage. A large, mild eye, not set oblique- 
 ly, indicates a good temper. In fact the eye is generally 
 regarded as an indicator of disposition as well as evidence 
 of capacity to see. The color of the eye is due to the pig- 
 ment in the iris, the portion which immediately surrounds 
 the pupil. When the iris is colorless the eye appears to be 
 white with the peculiar "wall eye" or "watch eye" as a 
 result. The ordinary white of the eye is an outer coat, 
 which is covered more or less by the eyelids. When this 
 white is too conspicuous a bad disposition is indicated, in the 
 opinion of many horsemen. The white shows most when 
 the horse gives a rearward glance, and kickers especially 
 exhibit most white when just about to kick. 
 
 The forehead of the horse, if broad and very slightly 
 arched, indicates an intelligent and generous disposition. 
 As has already been shown (page 30), the brain of the 
 
THE TYPES AND CLASSES OF HORSES 73 
 
 horse is comparatively small, yet the shape and size of the 
 forehead is universally regarded as an important indicator 
 of intelligence and disposition. Hayes states 2 that "Col. 
 John Anderson, late Inspecting Veterinary Surgeon, Bom- 
 bay Army (than whom no better judge of a horse exists), 
 remarked to me many years ago, that a prominent forehead, 
 or rise between the eyes, is an indicator of a bad, or at least 
 of a wayward temper in a horse, which is a theory I have 
 seen verified in many instances/' In further discussing 
 the forehead, Hayes emphasizes a good width of forehead 
 between the eyes because it ' ' indicates, as a rule, free breath- 
 ing power and strong muscles of mastication ; for the bones 
 of that part (frontal bones) form a portion of the roof of 
 the chambers through which air passes on its way to the 
 lungs, and gives attachment to a powerful muscle which 
 aids in closing the jaws, and which is fixed in the large 
 depression that is just above the eyes." If a tendency to 
 fullness or prominence of forehead exists, it should be high 
 up, and just below the forehead band of the bridle. Nar- 
 rowness implies lack of intelligence, while a dished condi- 
 tion between the eyes suggests a similar mental quality. 
 
 The ears of the horse should be placed reasonably high 
 up yet with the attachments a trifle below the poll. The 
 ears should be pointed, of medium size, with much less 
 distance between their roots than between the outer edges 
 of the eye sockets. The ear is an important evidence of 
 quality. It should have a neat attachment to the head, 
 be thin of texture, and have a covering of fine hair on the 
 general surface, with long, silky hairs on the edge of the 
 outer orifice. There seems to be considerable difference 
 of opinion among prominent authorities on what is desir- 
 able in size, form and position of the ear. Goubaux and 
 Barriere state, 3 that horses having short ears are usually 
 energetic and courageous, and that "small ears diminish 
 the apparent size of the head, render the physiognomy 
 
 2 The Points of the Horse. M. H. Hayes, London, 3d ed., 1904, p. 194. 
 
 3 The Exterior of the Horse, 2d ed., 1904. 
 
74 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 more pleasant and ex- 
 pressive, and brighten 
 the eye. ' ' Hayes quotes 4 
 Carson, who states that 
 "there can be no 
 greater ornament than 
 long, fine, active look- 
 ing, upright, tolerably 
 close-set ears, with the 
 points a little inclined 
 toward each other. I 
 never saw a soft consti- 
 tutioned horse with 
 ears of this descrip- 
 tion. ' ' Fearnsley, writ- 
 ing of the ears, says, 5 
 "they ought not to be 
 too large, indeed they 
 can hardly be too 
 small." The carriage 
 of the ears indicates 
 
 ability of hearing and something of the disposition. 
 Horses more or less deaf tend to keep the ears point- 
 ing forward or to one side, as though listening for sounds. 
 Considerable play of the ears, or change of position, in- 
 dicates an active disposition and interest in what is taking 
 place about him. Ears rather constantly inclined to the 
 rear are generally regarded as indicating a mean disposi- 
 tion. Lop ears denote a stolid or sluggish temperament, and 
 not infrequently are a feature of old age. 
 
 The neck of the draft horse should be of moderate 
 length, muscular, yet not too thick, slightly arched, and 
 neatly attached to the head and shoulders. A moderate 
 length, with a tendency to shortness, is desirable in the 
 draft horse, for the muscles of the neck are called into use 
 
 Fig. 35. "The ear is an important evi- 
 dence of quality." 
 
 4 The Points of the Horse, 3d ed., 1904, p. 210. 
 
 6 Lessons in Horse Judging. William Fearnsley, London, 1879, p. 49. 
 
THE TYPES AND CLASSES OF HORSES 
 
 75 
 
 Fig. 3G. "The nock of the draft horse should be of moderate length, 
 muscular, yet not too thick, slightly arched and neatly attached to head 
 and shoulders." (Courtesy Illinois University.) 
 
 in the hauling of loads, and therefore should be thicker and 
 shorter than in the light harness or pleasure horse. Ex- 
 treme length is a weak muscular conformation, while too 
 short a neck does not allow sufficient freedom in use, nor 
 ease in grazing. Thinness of neck is not consistent with 
 strong muscling, yet a very thick neck suggests fat rather 
 than muscle. A slight crest or arch of neck adds to the 
 symmetry of outline, but when heavy indicates a develop- 
 ment of undesirable fat. A ewe neck or slight downward 
 curve from a straight top line, is not popular, and suggests 
 a lack of muscular form. ''The region of the neck," ac- 
 
76 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 cording to Goubaux and Barriere 6 ' ' should be examined 
 as to its form, direction or carriage, volume, length, mode 
 of attachment to the head, and its movements." The 
 heavy, muscular neck of the draft horse is important as an 
 aid in shifting the center of gravity forward and bringing 
 as much power into the collar as possible. The throat-latch, 
 that portion at the angle where the lower jaw and neck join, 
 should be neat and trim, showing no unnatural fullness 
 about the windpipe, suggestive of difficulty in respiration. 
 One should have no difficulty in feeling the windpipe, 
 which should be large and clearly defined. The neck should 
 fit into the shoulders with some curve on each side and with- 
 out any depression on top where joining the withers, thus 
 providing a snug and smooth resting place for the collar. 
 The carriage of the neck should be graceful and com- 
 paratively high, expressive of constitutional vigor and 
 spirit, and accompanied by a free movement of the fore- 
 limbs. A mane of good length is desirable since in summer 
 it provides important protection from flies. 
 
 The shoulders of the draft horse should slope fairly well 
 into the back, though not to so great a degree as in the race 
 horse. As a general principle, the more oblique the 
 shoulder, the easier it is for a horse to raise and move for- 
 ward his legs. In view of the fact, however, that the draft 
 horse is to walk rather than trot, a moderate degree of 
 obliqueness will afford sufficient ease of locomotion. Meas- 
 urements of Goubaux and Barriere have shown 7 an angle 
 of 65 to 70 degrees to be most desirable for draft purposes. 
 The stride accompanying the straight shoulder, however, 
 it must be remembered, is harder and brings more concus- 
 sion than in the case of the oblique shoulder. The heavy 
 draft horse with straight shoulders used on city pavements 
 has an inclination to foot trouble and especially side bones. 
 The shoulders should be wide, with ample space for strong, 
 muscular attachment, and the blade should be smoothly 
 
 The Exterior of the Horse, 2d ed., Philadelphia, 1904, p. 99. 
 ., p. 210. 
 
THE TYPES AND CLASSES OF HORSES 
 
 77 
 
 Fig. 37. "The more oblique the shoulder the 
 easier it is for the horse to raise and move for- 
 ward his legs." 
 
 covered. The top of 
 the shoulder should 
 be carried close 
 into the back, there- 
 by securing the 
 strongest muscular 
 connection. The 
 position of the 
 shoulder as relates 
 to the use of the 
 collar is especially 
 important with the 
 draft horse. It 
 must not only have 
 desirable slant, but 
 also a sufficient 
 ledge or front edge 
 
 along the base of the neck, to furnish a smooth and well 
 inclined surface on which the collar may rest. Any rough- 
 ness of shoulder and lack of muscle covering will furnish 
 conditions favorable to sore shoulders when the collar is 
 worn. 
 
 The arm of the draft horse is the comparatively short, 
 wide, muscular portion of the forehand through which lies 
 in a backward, slanting position the short, strong humerus 
 bone. This part of the forelimb should be a strong support 
 for the shoulder, extending well back and close in to the 
 body at its rear part. This places the leg sufficiently under 
 the body to give desirable position and action. If the rear 
 end of the arm lies out from the body the leg and foot will 
 turn inward to some extent, while if placed too close to the 
 body the leg and foot turn somewhat outward. Therefore 
 the arm should be so placed as not to affect the true placing 
 of the lower part of the leg. 
 
 The forearm of the horse is that portion of the leg 
 between the arm and knee, the muscles being laid over the 
 radius and ulna, the latter extending high behind, the top 
 
78 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 being the point of the elbow. It is important that the fore- 
 arm be long and strongly muscled. This portion of the 
 front leg varies, however, less in length than in width and 
 muscle covering. On the upper part the muscles should 
 be comparatively thick and wide, suggestive of power. The 
 forearm from a side view gradually narrows, the lower 
 portion taking on a flat, hard, muscular appearance. Viewed 
 from in front, the upper third of the forearm should ap- 
 pear thick and somewhat rounded out, tapering consider- 
 ably just above the knee. Any narrowness and lack of 
 muscling in the upper forearm is evidence of weak forma- 
 tion. The direction of the forearm should be straight, to 
 assure trueness of stride, as suggested in the preceding 
 paragraph. 
 
 The knee of the horse should be broad from a front 
 
 view and deep or wide as 
 viewed from one side, and 
 should show a straight direc- 
 tion. As viewed from in 
 front the knee is very slight- 
 ly drawn in in its lower 
 half. From a side view the 
 front of the knee is nearly 
 flat when most perfectly de- 
 veloped, but as a whole nar- 
 rows more or less in its lower 
 part, often considerably so. 
 The more the knee tapers in 
 below, the less support will 
 it have at this point, and the 
 weaker will be the conforma- 
 tion. The tendon at the 
 back part of the knee should 
 contribute to give depth and 
 strength. What is known 
 as "calf knee" is a posi- 
 
 Fig. 38. "Knee-sprung or over at ,. . ' . , Jl 
 
 the knees." tion in which the knee from 
 
THE TYPES AND CLASSKS OF HOHSKS 79 
 
 a side view inclines slightly inward, with the cannon 
 below rather inclining forward, in which case the 
 weight is supported by the back of the foot. Often 
 one sees horses in which the knees incline forward, 
 with the leg below inclining backward, giving a po- 
 sition known as "knee-sprung" or over at the knees, with 
 the weight carried more toward the toe. The calf knee is 
 due to a weakness of the tendons and ligaments of the knee, 
 while the knee-sprung condition is usually due to a con- 
 traction of the back tendons associated with work and age. 
 A knee-sprung horse tires and stumbles easily, therefore 
 any narrow or tied-in appearance of the knee is indicative 
 of weakness and inferior movement. Knees are sometimes 
 swelled or enlarged but are not often fleshy. The judge 
 should be exacting as to the clean, well-defined, healthy 
 condition of knee. 
 
 The cannon of the horse should be short, wide, flat and 
 lean, the tendons showing well behind. Emphasis is usually 
 placed on a short cannon, for here shortness of leg is se- 
 cured, and this is desirable, bringing the weight of the 
 horse as close to the ground as is consistent with maximum 
 power. The cannon should be wide so as to give a strong 
 support to the knee above. If it is not wide but shows a 
 narrow or tied-in appearance we have positive evidence 
 of weakness. A long cannon, much tied-in, indicates an 
 extremely weak, poor leg. Hayes states 8 that ' ' a thorough- 
 ly sound rule, which is borne out in practice as well as by 
 theory, is to judge the wear-resisting power of a foreleg by 
 the direction which the back tendons make with the cannon 
 bone, and not by its measurement below the knee, which is 
 worthless, unless the measurement round the fetlock is 
 taken into consideration. It is important to note the dif- 
 ference between a leg which is light below the knee, and 
 one which is tied-in below the knee. The latter is always 
 objectionable ; the former only when the body is too heavy 
 for the forelegs." Referring to this tied-in condition, 
 
 8 Points of the Horse, 3d ed., 1904, p. 286. 
 
80 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 
 Youatt says 9 t ' every horseman recognizes it as a most 
 serious defect. It is scarcely compatible with speed, and 
 most assuredly not with continuance. Such a horse cannot 
 be ridden far and fast without serious sprain of the back 
 sinews. The reason is plain. The pressure of the ring (a 
 
 ligament ring by 
 which the tendons 
 are held in place) 
 will produce a de- 
 gree of friction in- 
 consistent with the 
 free action of the 
 tendons ; more force 
 must therefore be 
 exerted in every 
 act of progression ; 
 and although the 
 muscles are power- 
 ful, and sufficiently 
 so for every ordi- 
 nary purpose, the 
 repetition of this extra exertion will tire and strain 
 
 them A more serious evil however, remains to be 
 
 stated. "When the back sinews, or tendons, are thus tied 
 down, they are placed in an oblique direction, in which the 
 power of the muscles is exerted with greater disadvantage. ' ' 
 The cannon should be flat and smooth, for any roughness 
 of the bone also indicates a defective condition. Hardness 
 of bone is especially sought here, for not only are the meta- 
 carpal bones of the cannon extremely hard and strong, but 
 the hardness, smoothness and size of the cannon serves as 
 an index of the general quality and condition of the entire 
 skeleton. The tendons which lie back of the bone should 
 be clearly denned and be strongly cord-like and should lie 
 quite parallel with the bone in front. The two back ten- 
 dons may be seen and felt without difficulty for they are 
 hard and cord-like in character, and should appear more 
 
 Fig. 39. "The cannon should be flat 
 and smooth." 
 
 8 The Horse, 1843, New York edition, n.d., p. 2( 
 
THE TYPES AND CLASSES OF HORSES 81 
 
 or less separated. However, they are less conspicuous on 
 the draft horse than on the more refined racer. The so- 
 called flatness of the cannon is due to these back tendons 
 rather than to the presence of a flat bone. In fact the bone 
 proper of the cannon is not flat at all, the main shaft being 
 semi-cylindrical with a broad, round edge in front. Rough- 
 ness of the cannon, especially on the inner side, is often to 
 be noted, due to small bony ridges or points known as 
 ' * splints. ' ' "While a smooth bone is desirable, a small, hard 
 elevation or two below the skin on the lower part of the 
 cMiuion is not usually important, these being in fact re- 
 mains of splint bones inherited from the prehistoric horse 
 rather than evidences of diseased bone. 
 
 The fetlock of the horse is the joint connected with the 
 lower end of the cannon. It is also often termed the pastern 
 joint. The fetlock should be wide, thick, flne and well di- 
 rected. Width is to be noted from a side view, and a wide 
 fetlock gives evidence of a strong tendon and ligament at- 
 tachment on the back side of this joint. Thickness is im- 
 portant to allow for plenty of space for tendon and liga- 
 ment to pass over the joint. A thin skin over the fetlock 
 shows quality and indicates a good condition of the joint. 
 Any thick or puffy appearance is undesirable. Scratches 
 and sores often occur on the fetlock, more especially when 
 the skin is thick or fleshy. The fetlock of the draft horse, 
 however, is covered with thicker skin and longer, heavier 
 hair than that of the light horse. The hair in this case is an 
 important index of quality of bone. The direction of the 
 fetlock should be straight, with no twist or turn to either 
 side, if it is to be associated with correct position. 
 
 The pastern of the horse, the connecting link between 
 fetlock and foot, in the draft horse should be of moderate 
 length, and strongly carried at an angle of about 45 de- 
 grees. The slope of the pastern is of special significance, 
 for it relieves concussion in the course of action, and best 
 distributes the force of the blow. "When the foot hits the 
 ground, as a rule the frog or center of the hoof and the 
 back part is struck first, after which the front part of the 
 
82 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 foot laps over to complete the contact. The long, springy 
 pastern permits a greater extension of limb, and a placing 
 of the foot with less concussion. The shorter and more 
 upright pastern, gives a harder and more stilted gait and 
 a greater tendency when in action, to contact the toe before 
 the frog or heel. There is some difference of opinion among 
 horsemen as to the length of pastern desirable in the draft 
 horse. Generally speaking, one of medium length is re- 
 garded as most desirable 
 for all conditions. The 
 Scotch, however, prefer a 
 long pastern. Dykes, in his 
 introduction in the Clydes- 
 dale Stud Book of Scot- 
 land, says : 10 "No doubt 
 the upright pastern suits 
 well the upright shoulder 
 and slow action of the 
 English draft horse, a con- 
 formation which can scarce- 
 ly be called the best for 
 any purpose ; but it will 
 not do in the Clydesdale, 
 which requires a pastern to 
 suit the formation of the 
 shoulder, and to confer the 
 necessary elasticity to coun- 
 teract the concussion caused 
 by his quick, firm step. 
 
 Short, upright pasterns always get worse with age 
 and feeding, and the action in due course of time 
 becomes impeded. A horse with an upright pastern 
 has little or no command of his foot, and literally walks 
 as on a crutch ; and if he has no power of his foot, he can- 
 not have much of his shoulder." Mr. Alex. Galbraith, long 
 intimately identified with the draft horse industry in 
 
 10 Vol. I., 2d ed., 1884, p. 51. 
 
 Fig. 40. "The long, springy pastern 
 permits a greater extension of limb." 
 
THE TYPES AND CLASSES OF HORSES 83 
 
 Scotland and America, and a recognized authority on the 
 Clydesdale, says n that the pasterns of the Clydesdale are 
 longer and much more oblique than in the other breeds, and 
 that the statement " pasterns like a Clydesdale/' is the 
 most complimentary allusion that can be made to the under- 
 pinning of any other kind of horse. Hayes says, 12 that 
 "we may accept as an axiom, the statement that the harder 
 the ground and the faster the work, the more sloping 
 should the pasterns be, in order to save the legs from inju- 
 rious effects of concussion. If the horse be required to 
 gallop over hard ground, the pasterns can hardly be too 
 oblique (supposing of course, that this condition has not 
 been brought about by injury) ; provided always that the 
 pastern bones are strong." Without question the farm 
 horse largely used on soft ground, does not require the 
 sloping pastern of the draft horse on the city pavement, 
 for reasons already given. The direction of the pastern is 
 generally given at from 40 to 45 degrees, but Goubaux and 
 Barriere state 13 that 60 degrees is preferable for the front 
 ones, 45 degrees constituting a marked "low jointedness." 
 Foot diseases are generally more common on horses with 
 upright pasterns than on those of greater slope. The 
 pasterns should be straight in direction because ill-placed 
 feet are, as a rule, due to the pasterns directing in or out. 
 The pastern should be smooth, and covered with fine skin 
 and hair as evidence of quality and good condition. 
 
 The feet of the horse are universally regarded as of 
 prime importance, hence, the oft quoted saying, "no feet, 
 no horse. " In general, the front feet should be large, 
 round, of uniform size and as viewed from in front should 
 point straight forward. Small feet do not have the neces- 
 sary base of support associated with draft weight. The 
 front feet are usually larger than those behind. Roundness 
 of outline of hoof is sought, although the curve is some- 
 
 " American Clydesdale Stud Book, Vol. X. 
 
 12 The Points of the Horse, 3d ed., 1904, p. 291. 
 
 13 The Exterior of the Horse, 2d ed., 1904, p. 304. 
 
84 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 what more marked on the out- 
 side of the hoof, the inner side 
 toward the rear having a trifle 
 less curve. "This shape," says 
 Craig, 14 "it will be easily seen, 
 not only gives a strong hold on 
 the ground, but it also decreases 
 the possibility of the inner edge 
 of the foot striking the opposite 
 leg or interfering. ' ' This round- 
 ness of form is to be seen by ex- 
 amining the feet from in front, 
 or picking them up and noting 
 the form from the under side. 
 To raise the front foot, slide the 
 thumb and forefinger of one 
 hand down alongside the can- 
 non, pressing tightly the ten- 
 dons, at the same time giving a 
 back and upward pull with the 
 other hand, grasping the front of 
 the fetlock. Usually the horse 
 will raise the foot without resistance and it then may be held 
 for inspection by supporting it in the hand. As viewed from 
 one side the hoofs should present an angle of about 50 de- 
 grees from coronet to toe, having a slope quite comparable 
 with the pastern and shoulder. Too upright a hoof gives a 
 hard gait and tends to foot difficulties. If the hoof is too 
 long the heel is thrown out of position, being closer to the 
 ground, and is thus subjected to a strain that causes weak- 
 ness or injury. From a side view, the length of heel should 
 measure about one-third the length of the front of hoof. 
 The exterior of the hoof should not flare out too widely, 
 for the coronet or hoof head should be round and of good 
 size in comparison with the bottom of the foot. Such a 
 foot suffers less from foot trouble than one with a small 
 
 Fig. 41. "The front feet 
 should be large, round, of uni- 
 form size, and as viewed from 
 in front, should point straight 
 forward." 
 
 "Judging Live Stock, Gth ed., 1904, p. 40. 
 
THE TYPES AND CLASSES OF HORSES 
 
 85 
 
 or constricted hoof head. When the foot is raised the under 
 side should present a slight arch with a well developed 
 frog, wide at its base, which just rests on the ground when 
 the foot drops to the surface. A flat foot lacks the desired 
 arch and is not easily trimmed by the smith ; it also bears 
 too much concussion at the low set heel. The frog consists 
 of elastic, fibrous material and serves as an important 
 buffer and protection against injury to sensitive tissues 
 and nerves within the foot and especially just above the 
 frog. A great weight rests on the bones and membranes 
 within the hoof, and in a measure these are protected by 
 a slight arch of sole and well developed frog. For this 
 reason the blacksmith should never disturb the frog, ex- 
 
 Fig. 42. "Usually the horse will raise the foot without resistance." 
 
JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Fig. 43. "As viewed from one side the hoofs 
 should present an angle of about 50 degrees 
 from coronet to toe." 
 
 away, and had its proper con- 
 tact with the pavement. The 
 bars of the foot, which, brace- 
 like, serve to keep the heel 
 well spread, should extend 
 from the corners of the heel, 
 and lie parallel with the frog, 
 in well developed ridges. 
 The hoof that lacks bars often- 
 times shows a narrow or con- 
 tracted heel. The bars should 
 never be cut away by the 
 smith. The horn of which 
 the hoof is composed, should 
 be very hard and free from 
 all seams or cracks. The hoof 
 consists of a multitude of 
 horny cells, closely packed 
 together, and its character 
 largely depends on local con- 
 ditions of keep. Referring 
 
 cepting to trim 
 away loose fibers 
 and keep it in as 
 natural condition 
 as possible. In the 
 days when the 
 Paris Omnibus 
 Company kept from 
 12,000 to 15,000 
 horses in their 
 stables, the horses 
 as a rule wore flat 
 shoes and especial 
 care was taken by 
 the management to 
 see that the frog 
 was not pared 
 
 Fig. 44. "A flat foot lacks the 
 desired arch." 
 
THE TYPES AND CLASSES OF HORSES 87 
 
 to this, Hayes states 15 that "the horn of the wall, 
 sole and frog should be thick, hard and tough, so as to 
 resist in an efficient manner the effect of wear. Moisture 
 has a well marked softening and weakening influence on 
 the horn, and consequently affects the form of the foot. "We 
 find that the drier the climate, the stronger is the horn of 
 horses there reared, the more upright the hoofs, and 
 the more concave are the soles. When the horn of the wall 
 and sole is weak, it cannot efficiently support the weight 
 thrown on the leg, and the foot will have a tendency to 
 become flat. The feet of horses bred in Australia, for in- 
 stance, are stronger than those produced in England, ow- 
 ing to the climate being drier. . . . The great trouble 
 with heavy cart horses in England is the weakness of their 
 hoofs, the horn of which, as a rule, is no.t nearly so strong 
 as that of well bred horses ; although the strain which falls 
 on it is much greater than that which tries the tenacity of 
 the horn of the feet of saddle horses Considering the 
 greater size of the muscles and bones of the draft animal, 
 we might expect the horn of his hoofs would be proportion- 
 ately stronger than that of the half bred. The fact that it 
 is not stronger, is a proof that English cart horses are de- 
 ficient in one of the most important points of usefulness. 
 Veterinary surgeons in practice in England and Scotland 
 tell us that the large majority (about nine-tenths) of cart 
 horses which come to them for treatment, are foot cases." 
 The horn of the hoof should be free from cracks and all 
 roughness. A dark color is quite generally preferred, many 
 believing a white hoof has less wearing resistance than a 
 dark one. There is really little evidence on that point. 
 Judges should examine the feet with great care, and dis- 
 criminate without hesitation where pronounced defects 
 occur. 
 
 The position of the front legs and feet should be such 
 as to result in the least effort when in motion, to secure 
 maximum results from a draft point of view. The subject 
 
 16 Points of the Horse, London, 3d ed., 1904, p. 299. 
 
88 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 
 Fig. 45. "A plumb line dropped from the 
 point of the shoulder." 
 
 of the attitudes of 
 the limbs has re- 
 ceived much study, 
 and authorities 
 seem quite agreed 
 on what these 
 should be. "When 
 standing at atten- 
 t i o n, in perfect 
 pose, the profile of 
 the face will be at 
 right angles with 
 the top of the neck, 
 and the weight will 
 be equally distrib- 
 uted on all four 
 limbs. To ascer- 
 tain if the limbs are in correct position from a front 
 point of view, a plumb line dropped from the point of the 
 shoulder should divide the leg through knee, cannon, pas- 
 tern and foot into two lateral halves. As a rule, the fore- 
 arms slope in very slightly while the cannons stand paral- 
 lel. From a side , . 
 
 view, a line 
 dropped from the 
 bony projection on 
 the shoulder blade 
 should pass 
 through the cen- 
 ter of the elbow 
 joint and meet the 
 ground at the cen- 
 ter of the foot. 
 When the horse is 
 viewed from in 
 front, and the 
 
 armpay fnn Fig> 46 ' " A line dropped from the bony pro- 
 jection of the shoulder blade." 
 
THE TYPES AND CLASSES OF HORSES 
 
 8'J 
 
 dose, the horse is ''knocked kneed"; if too widely 
 separated he is "bow legged" or "bow kneed"; if the 
 toes turn out he is "toe wide" or "base narrow," or 
 "splay footed/', and if the toes 
 turn in he is "toe narrow," or 
 "base wide," or "pigeon-toed." 
 A crooked leg is evidence of weak- 
 ness or defective gait. A splay 
 footed horse interferes, and a pigeon- 
 toed one "paddles" or "wings." 
 The terms calf-kneed and knee- 
 sprung have already been explained 
 (page 78). These various deficien- 
 cies of leg position are easily noticed, 
 and should not be ignored by the 
 judge. It must be remembered, 
 however, that the walk is the com- 
 mon gait of the draft horse, so that 
 the same importance is not to be at- 
 tached to the position of leg as 
 in the case of the speed horse. There 
 is much less likelihood of interfer- 
 ence from a draft horse, with his 
 
 Fig. 47. "If the toes 
 turn in he is toe narrow, 
 or base wide, or pigeon- 
 toed." 
 
 slow movement, than from a trotter, 
 
 even admitting the undesirability of 
 
 the position of leg in either case. This the judge must 
 
 take into consideration. 
 
 The body of the draft horse is a very important factor 
 for we must largely look to this portion of the whole for 
 the great weight desired. Therefore as he views the draft 
 horse the judge must be impressed in suitable degree with 
 his massive size as expressed in the body, otherwise the 
 animal lacks in draft character. This massiveness is es- 
 sential for the necessary weight to be thrown forward in 
 the collar when work is to be done. 
 
 The withers of the draft horse should be well defined 
 and muscular. As has already been explained, the withers 
 
90 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 are for the attachment of the muscles and suspensory liga- 
 ments connecting the head and neck. Other muscles also 
 connect withers and shoulders and back. Withers of promi- 
 nence, extending well into the back, therefore have a more 
 powerful muscular connection than they would have other- 
 wise. In the case of the draft horse it is important that the 
 withers be thick and muscular rather than thin. If the 
 shoulders are powerful and fittingly muscled, then the 
 withers will be in keeping. 
 
 The chest of the draft horse is that portion of the body 
 that lies between and immediately back of the shoulders, 
 between the withers and lower line of body. The breast 
 is that portion of the body which lies directly in front of 
 the chest, and below the neck. The chest should be deep, 
 wide, low and of large girth. Such a conformation indi- 
 cates a strong constitution with ample space for the vital 
 organs; it also is naturally associated with heavy weight. 
 With the horse depth of chest is really more important than 
 thickness, although these two features are associated. The 
 depth through the chest should be somewhat greater than 
 the distance from the under side of this part to the level of 
 the feet. While thickness is desirable, horsemen do not 
 wish too wide a horse, at least not like a fat steer, as fat 
 horses usually have inferior action, going too wide, the legs 
 being too far apart for the most powerful draft. Hayes 
 believes 16 there is no essential difference in the relative 
 thickness of chest in horses of the same depth. He at- 
 tributes the difference in thickness to the pectoral muscles 
 which lie between the humerus and the chest, and states 
 that "it is no rare occurrence to see horses that have been 
 once broad chested, become narrow in front when old and 
 worn out." He, however, agrees to the necessity of thick- 
 ness of chest with the draft horse, on account of his requir- 
 ing massive muscles. In discussing breast conformation, 
 Goubaux and Barriere comment as follows: 17 "Draft 
 
 16 The Points of the Horse, 3d ed., 1904, p. 244. 
 
 17 The Exterior of the Horse, 2d ed., 1P04, p. 146. 
 
THE TYPES AND CLASSES OF HORSES 91 
 
 horses can, without being defective, be very open in front. 
 The lateral oscillations of the center of gravity, being only 
 prejudicial to velocity, do not diminish the energy of his 
 efforts. His power depends upon his mass, and he demands, 
 therefore, firm and voluminous muscles. From this point of 
 view we may regard a wide breast as a point of great merit, 
 because it gives to the trunk the volume which is necessary 
 in order to overcome easily, but slowly, heavy resistance." 
 The prevailing opinion among American horsemen, how- 
 ever, is that the chest may be too thick, especially if the legs 
 are attached wide on the corners of the body. Such con- 
 formation places the legs too wide apart and results in a 
 weaker placement of the limbs than is consistent with maxi- 
 mum draft and the most uniform action. The depth of 
 chest should be somewhat greater than the distance from its 
 floor to the foot surface, for this means shortness of leg and 
 the location of the center of gravity at the most desirable 
 point. The breast should extend forward in distinctive de- 
 gree, having some prominence and width between the 
 shoulder points. 
 
 The back of the draft horse should be short, broad and 
 strongly supported. A short back is associated with the 
 closeness of the ribs that is related to strong muscular de- 
 velopment. There can be no likelihood of the back being 
 too broad. The back should be strongly supported, that is 
 the muscles and ligaments along the spine should be thick, 
 firm and strong, and hold the back well in place. The back 
 of the horse naturally inclines upwards toward the croup, 
 not being level. With age the ligaments and muscles often 
 relax and the back sags materially, indicating weakness. A 
 distinctive arching of the back at the loins goes by the name 
 of "roach back," and is not a desirable development. In 
 the case of the draft horse, when the back is in good condi- 
 tion and wide, a ridge of muscle may often be seen along 
 each side of the backbone. 
 
 The loin of the draft horse should be short, wide and 
 strongly muscled. This portion of the back, for that is 
 
92 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 really what it is, should be as short and wide as possible, 
 with a thick layer of firm muscle indicating great strength. 
 The length of loin is measured from the side, or the dis- 
 
 t a 11 c e from the 
 front of the hip to 
 the last rib, this 
 space being known 
 as the coupling. 
 The loin naturally 
 slopes off to some 
 extent from each 
 side of the back 
 bone, but for the 
 most powerful de- 
 velopment, this 
 part should be very 
 broad and with 
 slight slope. A 
 sharp crest at the 
 loins is a sign of 
 
 weakness. The kidneys lie beneath the loin, and horse- 
 men often pinch the loin along the center, to note the effect 
 on the horse. If the animal flinches slightly, it is assumed 
 the physical condition here is good, but if the animal resists 
 in a notable degree, it may indicate extreme nervousness, 
 or some unhealthy condition. A well muscled loin is usually 
 regarded as an evidence of soundness at this point. In the 
 case of the draft horse in good condition, the ridge of 
 muscle along each side of the spine is continued the length 
 of the loin. 
 
 The ribs of the horse should be long, well sprung, and 
 close together. Hayes discusses at some length the most de- 
 sirable features in the ribbing 18 and emphasizes three 
 things, viz.: convexity (roundness) behind the shoulders, 
 length, and inclination to the rear. In this discussion 
 
 "The Points of the Horse, 3d ed., 1904, p. 228. 
 
 Fig. 48. "This space being known as the 
 coupling." 
 
THE TYPES AND CLASSES OF HORSKS 93 
 
 Hayes takes issue with Youatt, who published a fallacy J9 
 concerning the conformation of the ribs that has been re- 
 peated by many English writers, namely, that the circular 
 chest could not expand, but every change of form would be 
 a diminution of capacity. Hayes states that "this state- 
 ment seems to be based on the supposition that the chest 
 expands and contracts by the ribs opening and closing in a 
 direction at right angles to the length of the body. Instead 
 of this being the case, the difference in capacity of the chest 
 is due to the fact of the ribs, which are inclined to the rear, 
 turning round towards the front on their upper and lower 
 ends, as on pivots, when air is drawn into the lungs, and 
 then revolving back again when the air is expelled from 
 them. We may here note that the air is expelled from the 
 lungs by the elastic recoil of the ribs, which takes place the 
 moment the muscles which drew the ribs forward become 
 relaxed. Youatt 's statement is altogether incorrect; for 
 the rounder the ribs are, other things being equal, the 
 greater will be the difference between the chest capacity 
 when the lungs are full, and its capacity when they are 
 comparatively empty." The feature of good length applies 
 rather to rotundity of fore rib, than to the distance between 
 the respective ends, although the ribs far back should be as 
 long and directed as much outward as possible, so as to 
 afford a broad attachment to the diaphragm. "If the last 
 rib be short, flat and but little inclined to the rear, the 
 animal will be 'slack in the loins' and certainly will not 
 have as good breathing power as he would if that rib was 
 long, l springing' well out from the side, and inclined so 
 much to the rear that there would be space only for the 
 ends of two or three fingers between it and the point of the 
 hip." In the case of the draft horse, the greater the arch 
 and length of rib, the more the space available for the de- 
 velopment of muscles and weight so significant a feature 
 of this type of animal. We get neither draft form nor 
 weight in the horse with flat, short rib and wide coupling. 
 
 "The Horse. By William Youatt, London, 1843, New York edition, p. 169. 
 
94 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 The arch of rib is best noted from in front or behind, while 
 its length and the coupling must be studied from the side. 
 
 The flanks of the horse should be low and full, showing 
 a low underline. If the fore ribs are well sprung, and the 
 back ones are long and well carried out, as set forth above, 
 then the flanks will be full and the under line carried rela- 
 tively low. The more nearly the line between front and 
 hind flank parallels the foot surface, the greater will be the 
 digestive capacity of the horse. Further, low, full develop- 
 ment of flank with the draft horse usually accompanies 
 the heavier weight. Hayes refers to the "hollow of the 
 flank," which he includes between the loins, point of hip 
 and the end of last back rib. This space, he states, should 
 be as small as possible. If it is hollowed out it indicates 
 bad health, weak constitution or being out of condition. 
 "When the hind flank is cut up high, such a horse is some- 
 times called "wasp waisted," or "tucked up/' and is gen- 
 erally considered as lacking in endurance. 
 
 The hindquarters of the horse are the great source of 
 driving power, for propulsion by the hind legs occurs 
 through the hip joint and pelvis. Care should be taken in 
 examining the hindquarters of strange horses, on account 
 of the liability of kicking. It is desirable first to survey the 
 hindquarters at a safe distance, such as ten feet from the 
 side or rear. It will be necessary to inspect the limbs with 
 care and this usually involves some handling. In this case, 
 the horse should be approached from the head or front 
 quarter. The word "whoa !" may be sharply spoken, after 
 which the hand may be passed lightly along the back, and 
 then over the croup and down the thigh and gaskin to the 
 hock and below if desired. 
 
 The hips of the draft horse should be wide, but in har- 
 mony with general body proportions, and smooth and 
 heavily muscled. The most power may be expected, other 
 things being equal, from a horse that is heavily muscled 
 over the hips. Rough or bare hips are evidences of weak- 
 ness. Horses that show extreme width between the hips, 
 vr ; th more or less roughness, "generally stand with their 
 
THE TYPES AND CLASSES OF IHWSKS ().-, 
 
 feet close together," says Gonne, 20 while those that are 
 wider through the barrel than between the hips, "generally 
 stand with their feet wide apart," and are usually good 
 goers. Inasmuch as great strength is the desired feature 
 of the draft horse, then the heavily muscled, well placed hip 
 is logically connected with powerful muscling below. Horses 
 in thin flesh may show considerable prominence of hips that 
 feeding might cover and change in a striking manner. 
 Therefore the condition may be considered as an important 
 factor in the smoothness and covering of hips. 
 
 Fig. 49. "We find much difference in the slope of the croup in 
 draft horses." 
 
 The croup of the draft horse represents a great and 
 powerful combination of muscles, extending from the hips 
 back to the end of the pelvis. To secure the most complete 
 muscular development the croup must be long, as seen from 
 one side, wide as viewed from behind and with attractive, 
 strong, yet sloping arch from hips to setting on of tail. We 
 
 80 Hints on the Horse. Capt. C. M. Gonne, London, 1906, p. 44. 
 
96 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 find much difference in the slope of the croup in draft 
 horses. A steep croup is very common, especially in those 
 coming- from continental Europe. This steepness, which 
 is seen best from a side view, is not looked on with favor by 
 the most discriminating horsemen. The horse with steep, 
 short croup lacks not only beauty of outline, but has less 
 length and thickness of muscle than does the horse with a 
 neatly arched, long conformation. This feature the judge 
 should emphasize, keeping in mind that the movement of 
 the load is directly connected with the extension of the hip 
 joint through the use of long, thick muscles at croup and 
 thigh. In the opinion of some, a steep croup is often re- 
 lated to a weak coupling and crooked hind legs. Hayes 
 notes 21 that the upper line of the croup, from the loins to 
 root of tail, should remain convex, a condition which is 
 more or less regular, "caused by the prominence of the 
 inner angle of the pelvis ; by the action of the muscles 
 which flex the back, and by the strength of the ligaments 
 which preserve the stability of this arch. We may note how 
 relaxation of these muscles will affect this state of convexity 
 if we pinch the loins of a horse, so as to make him crouch, 
 which he does by the contraction of the muscles that lie 
 on the top of the loins. When he crouches in this manner, 
 the upper line of the croup will tend to become straight. 
 Hence we may accept the conclusion, w r hich is freely borne 
 out in practice, that undue straightness of the upper line 
 of the croup indicates weakness of the part," 
 
 As viewed from the rear the croup should appear not 
 only wide but with a level tendency, rather than falling 
 sharply away on each side, as characterizes the narrow 
 croup. When in high condition, draft horses show a well 
 denned groove above the spine, which divides the croup 
 into two equal parts. From a rear view the croup on each 
 side of this groove should arch with a wide yet not high 
 curve, showing a broad, strong conformation rather than 
 a sharpness, that resembles the peaked roof of a house. 
 
 21 The Points of the Horse, 3d ed., 1904, p. 254. 
 
THE TYPES AND CLASSES OF HORSES 97 
 
 . HO. '"The hair of the tail should be reasonably fine, and the brush 
 should be thick and long." 
 
 The tail of the horse has its greatest use as a medium 
 for brushing off flies. Consequently it should have good 
 length to serve its purpose. Docking, which is more es- 
 pecially practiced in Europe, is the cutting off of a portion 
 of the fleshy part or the dock. This is a cruel practice, and 
 is prohibited by law in the United States. "Without a well 
 developed dock and brush, the horse has no means of pro- 
 tection from the bites of countless flies. The dock should 
 be comparatively short and muscular, and attached fairly 
 high, such an attachment usually being related to a long, 
 well carried croup. A high setting of the tail indicates a 
 comparatively level sacrum, a position associated with the 
 freest locomotion. A high carriage of tail also shows the 
 muscles of the dock to be active and strong. The hair of the 
 tail should be reasonably fine, and the brush should be thick 
 
^g JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 and long. In passing judgment on the tail the most im- 
 portant feature is that it be attached high, as related to 
 conformation of croup. 
 
 The thigh of the draft horse on its upper portion joins 
 the side of the croup, and at its lower end terminates in 
 front at the stifle joint. This portion of the hind leg is 
 comparatively short, but should be heavily muscled, es- 
 pecially on the inner side known as the quarter. A rear 
 view of the ideal draft horse thigh shows a very full, thick 
 muscle, while the side view gives a strongly rounded curve 
 from just below the tail setting to the lower thigh or gas- 
 kin. From the stifle joint in front which should be heavily 
 muscled, to the extreme point of the curve of thigh, there 
 should be good proportionate length. It is important that 
 the stifle joint should turn somewhat outward, so as to 
 allow free locomotion without rubbing the belly too close. 
 
 The gaskin of the draft horse, also known as the lower 
 thigh, extends from the stifle to the point of the hock. This 
 part for purposes of draft should be relatively shorter than 
 
 Fig. 51. "Terminates in front at the stifle joint.' 
 
THE TYPES AND CLASSES OF HORSES QQ 
 
 for speed. From a side view the muscles should appear 
 wide and prominent, while from the rear the outer part of 
 the gaskin should show thick, well rounded curves. The 
 inner part of the lower thigh curves slightly outward from 
 the quarter above. If the upper thighs are thick in the 
 quarters, then the lower ones will tend to curve outward, 
 showing considerable arch between, a desirable condition if 
 the lower parts are not too widely separated, otherwise ease 
 of locomotion would be affected. Commenting on this part 
 of the thigh, Youatt says: 22 "In proportion to the length 
 of the muscle is the degree of contraction of which it is 
 capable; and also in proportion to the contraction of the 
 muscle is the extent of motion in the limb; but it is still 
 more necessary that this part of the thigh should have con- 
 siderable muscle, in order that strength may be added to 
 such extent or compass of motion. Much endurance would 
 not be expected of a horse with a thin arm. A horse with 
 thin and lanky thighs will not possess the strength which 
 considerable exertion would sometimes require. ' ' Width of 
 gaskin is highly important for either speed or strength, and 
 this can only be secured by the os calcis or bone topping 
 the hock having ample length. 
 
 The hock of the draft horse is one of the largest and 
 most important joints in the body. As expressed by Gou- 
 baux and Barriere, 23 "functionally, it is, more than any 
 other, a region of dispersion of concussion as well as of 
 propulsion. It is upon this region that the efforts of the 
 extensor muscles which propel the body are concentrated; 
 it is on this point that the reactions of locomotion bear at 
 the moment when the body, moving with great velocity, 
 and projected forward, strikes the ground; finally, this is 
 the region, on which, in the act of rearing, all the weight 
 of the body presses down with such great force." As a 
 general description we may say that the hock should be 
 
 22 The Horse. William Youatt, 1843, p. 283. 
 
 215 The Exterior of the Horse. Translated by S. J. J. Harger, 2d ed., 1904, 
 p. 253. 
 
100 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 straight, wide, deep, clean- 
 cut, its point being promi- 
 nent, and the joint as a 
 whole well supported by a 
 wide cannon below. The 
 hock is not absolutely 
 straight, because in the leg 
 of correct form, the hock 
 faces out slightly; were this 
 not so, the leg when in mo- 
 tion would not clear the ab- 
 domen. The leg is frequent- 
 ly cow-hocked, facing widely 
 outward, with the point di- 
 rected inward, thus giving 
 an unattractive position, and 
 frequently is an evidence 
 with the draft horse of a 
 be thigh lacking in muscle. If 
 the front of the hock faces 
 inward th'e point directs out- 
 ward, giving a bow-legged, weak position, while the leg 
 in its forward movement presses the belly enough 
 to obstruct freedom of motion. Goubaux and Barriere, 
 commenting on the bow-legged hock, 24 state that it is 
 due, ordinarily, to the width of the thigh and the croup, 
 as well as to the development of the muscles, and that there 
 is nothing very unfortunate in this, especially as applied 
 to heavy draft horses and colts. As a matter of action, the 
 cow-hocked horse is the easiest mover. The hock sometimes 
 extends too much forward in its lower part, the cannon also 
 slanting more than it should in the same direction. This 
 results in a slight curve to this part, to which the name 
 "sickle hock" has been given. To note the straightness of 
 hock and trueness of movement, the judge should stand di- 
 rectly behind and have the horse led off in as direct a line 
 
 Tig. 52. "The hock should 
 straight, Avide, deep, clean-cut, 
 point being prominent." 
 
 its 
 
 24 The Exterior of the Horse, 2d ed., 1904, p. 461. 
 
THE TYPES AND CLASSES OF. HOBOES, 
 
 as possible toward a given point. The hock should be 
 wide, as viewed both from in front, and one side, and have 
 plenty of depth. Such a conformation provides room for 
 strong muscles and tendons to connect with this joint. 
 The hock of the draft horse should be sharply denned in its 
 various curves, free of all excess flesh or puffy condition. 
 It is a common sight with horses in high condition and lack- 
 ing exercise to have a fullness of hock, or what is often 
 termed "meaty" hocks. A side view should show this 
 joint hard and clean, notably hollow in its central face, 
 without evidence of swelling. The point of the hock should 
 be prominent, broad and firm, and neatly turned, indicat- 
 ing a strong connection of the back tendon in this most im- 
 portant joint. Occasionally the point of the hock will 
 appear puffed and fleshy. This is due to blows, and is 
 usually caused by the horse 
 kicking some hard obstacle 
 behind, after which the 
 points of the hock swell, re- 
 sulting in a "capped" con- 
 dition. This should never 
 appear upon an uninjured 
 horse. The lower part of 
 the hock, to be of maximum 
 strength, should be wide, so 
 that where merging with the 
 cannon below, there will be 
 no contraction in compari- 
 son with the cannon further 
 down. The hocks of the 
 draft horse are naturally 
 larger and more fleshy than 
 those of a smaller class, be- 
 ing a part of a massive ani- 
 mal. If the gaskin is wide, 
 and the hock is not tied in 
 below, the hock will be rela- 
 
 Fig. 53. "A slight curve to this 
 part, to which the name sickle hock 
 has been given." A curb is also 
 to be seen just below the point of 
 the hock. (See page 202.) 
 
;l$2t V;i } ; ,S^lX>GING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 tively large. The need of large size, perfect form 
 and soundness of hock, cannot be over emphasized, 
 for this joint, as already stated, is of vital importance 
 in moving the load. The horse settles himself snugly into 
 his collar, flexes the hind legs that is, moves them forward 
 and then begins an extension or unfolding of the hock 
 joint, that finally results in the extended, straightened hind 
 leg from toe to stifle, and proportionate forward motion of 
 horse and load. Therefore the necessity of great freedom 
 of movement and power in this joint. Judges should ex- 
 amine the hock with much care from rear, side and front. 
 A backward view between the forelegs will enable one to 
 observe the face of the hock better than from any other 
 position. But little handling of the hock is necessary, the 
 eye detecting most of the defects though the hands may 
 sometimes be used to advantage. 
 
 The hind cannons of the horse differ from those in 
 front, in being notably flatter. The metatarsal bone has 
 back of it the splint bones, which occupy the upper part of 
 the cannon on each side. Back of the splints are the ten- 
 dons, which stand out conspicuously on the hind leg, giv- 
 ing much depth. This part of the leg, aside from its flat- 
 ness, should possess qualities similar to those desired in the 
 front cannon. Hayes, in an interesting discussion 25 of the 
 comparative length of cannon bone in the hind leg, states 
 that the popular opinion that the length from hock to toe 
 is less than from hock to stifle is probably based on an 
 optical delusion. This he illustrates by showing pictures of 
 two sets of legs, one apparently with short and one with 
 long cannons. However, measurements by means of di- 
 viders, with the hock as the center, showed about the same 
 length. He ascribes this optical delusion as due to the fact 
 that the hock in one case is "straight/' giving the im- 
 pression it is better "let down," than in the other case, 
 where the hock is "bent" for "as the eye runs down the 
 limb, it will not be so abruptly arrested by the former, as 
 
 25 The Points of the Horse, 3d ed., 1904, p. 318. 
 
THE TYPES AND CLASSES OF HORSES 1Q3 
 
 by the latter kind of conformation." Horsemen generally 
 favor a short cannon on the hind leg as bearing evidence 
 of having greater relative strength than a long one, and 
 as a medium for bringing the weight of body closer to the 
 foot surface. Goubaux and Barriere 26 regard the short 
 cannon as less heavy, swinging more freely, unfolding it- 
 self more, "and not necessitating the same elevation of the 
 member above the ground to reach the limit of its move- 
 ments." It is important to note that the hind cannon of 
 the draft horse is relatively shorter, usually, than that on 
 the light class of horse. The position of the cannons should 
 be straight, at least fairly so. French authorities empha- 
 size the desirability of the hind cannons being perpendicu- 
 lar, but Hayes states that he has never seen a horse with 
 vertical cannons. The horse as a rule carries his hind legs 
 so that at best the cannons slope slightly forward, rather 
 than have a perpendicular position. The judge will hardly 
 be justified in discriminating against a cannon that has a 
 slight slope forward, if of a uniform and desirable width 
 throughout and free of blemishes. 
 
 The hind fetlock, as in the case of the front one, should 
 be wide, straight and strong. Sometimes this joint projects 
 forward to an unnatural degree, due to the bones in pastern 
 and fetlock growing somewhat out of position thus produc- 
 ing knuckling or a "cocked" ankle. Horses with rather 
 upright pasterns are most subject to this trouble. 
 
 The hind pastern of the draft horse usually closely 
 resembles those of the front legs, the same characteristics 
 being desired in each case. However, the hind pastern as 
 a rule, is less oblique than the one in front. A slope of from 
 45 to 50 degrees is desirable, for reasons already given on 
 page 83. 
 
 The hind feet of the horse are somewhat smaller than 
 the front ones, and not so round. This is almost universally 
 so. The hind foot also shows more slope of the hoof, and 
 also arch of sole, than does the front hoof. A round hoof 
 
 2(1 Tho Exterior of the Horsn, 2cl <>d., 1904, p. 285. 
 
104 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 of ample size with slope in harmony with that of the front 
 foot and not too high in the sole or narrow at the heel is 
 to be desired. A length of heel equal to about one-third 
 the length of the front of hoof will usually be about right. 
 It is noteworthy, however, that the hind foot suffers com- 
 paratively little 
 from disease, and 
 gives the horseman 
 far less concern 
 than does the front 
 foot. This is due 
 to the fact that the 
 hind feet suffer 
 much less from 
 concussion and 
 hard work than the 
 front ones. The 
 scale of points, in 
 recognition of this, 
 credits the perfect 
 front feet with 
 more points than 
 the hind. In the 
 early days of the 
 use of the score 
 card in this coun- 
 try, the author 
 drew up a scale of 
 points for draft 
 
 horses, and submitted it for criticism to a friend whose 
 business was buying and selling horses on a large 
 scale, and who was a most capable judge. His 
 view of the relative importance of front and hind feet was 
 such that he insisted that 10 points should be credited ^ the 
 front and two to the hind feet. This was the point of vie\ 
 of a practical horseman of large experience. He argued 
 that essentially all the trouble with the feet was located in 
 
 Fig. 54. "The hind feet of the horse are 
 somewhat smaller than the front ones, and not 
 so round." 
 
THE TYPES AND CLASSES OF HORSES 
 
 105 
 
 Fig. 55. "A plumb-line dropped from 
 the point of the buttock." 
 
 front, yet a 10 to 2 re- 
 lationship would, by 
 many, be considered 
 extreme. It is impor- 
 tant that the bone of the 
 hoof be smooth and 
 dense, indicating tough 
 material that will wear 
 well. 
 
 The correct attitude 
 of the hind leg of the 
 horse at rest is to be 
 seen when a plumb-line 
 dropped from the point 
 of the buttock divides 
 the leg and foot into two 
 lateral halves. Or, when 
 viewed from the side, 
 this same line touches 
 
 the point of the hock and meets the foot surface a short dis- 
 tance back of the heel. A perpendicular line dropped from 
 the hip joint should meet the foot surface midway between 
 heel and toe. Reference has already been made (page 100) 
 
 to the attitudes 
 
 i known as cow- 
 
 * ^ hocked and bow- 
 
 r-y '5iliV' legged. "When the 
 
 ^* K^'dl horse carries his 
 
 hind feet forward 
 of the vertical line 
 to a marked de- 
 gree, he is said to 
 be "under him- 
 self/' When this 
 is the natural pose, 
 it shortens the base 
 
 Fig. 56. "Meets the foot surface a short ,, A 
 
 distance back of the heel." <>f Support, and re- 
 
106 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 suits in undesirable fatigue of the muscles, tendons 
 and ligaments. Slowness of gait and forging are also 
 often associated with this attitude. If his legs extend be- 
 hind as though stretching, he is said to have a "camped" 
 or "stretched" position. This attitude gives a long base 
 of support with which is associated a tendency to slip back- 
 ward, bringing too much strain on the front limbs. Horses 
 that naturally camp also tend to weakness of back and slow 
 action. Grooms often stand their horses when on exhibi- 
 tion so that the front feet are on a slightly higher level 
 than the hind ones, which are stretched back to such an 
 extent as to detract from graceful and natural pose. One 
 is not far wrong in stating that when the legs come directly 
 down at each corner of the body without undue placement 
 of the feet away from these points, the legs are not far out 
 of correct position. Judges note with some care the posi- 
 tion assumed by the hind legs, discriminating especially 
 against bow-leggedness and cocked ankles. .Any extreme 
 position when at rest suggests inferior action when in mo- 
 tion, and the judge is justified in thus reasoning. 
 
 The action of the draft horse has a practical application 
 related to hauling heavy loads and going through neces- 
 sarily slow evolutions. Large frame and great weight will 
 not admit of hasty action on the part of the draft horse. 
 
 The walk of the drafter is of prime importance because 
 it is at this gait that most of his work is done. Therefore, 
 the walk should include three essential features, straight- 
 ness, power, and elasticity. When led directly away from 
 the judge, the horse should continue in a straight line, his 
 body inclining neither to right nor left, and the carriage of 
 each pair of legs on the same side of the body in much the 
 same vertical plane. Draft horses tend to "paddle" more 
 or less, throwing the feet outward when in action. This is 
 usually due to the horse being pigeon-toed, but may be 
 caused by improper shoeing, or condition of hoof. ' ' Wing- 
 ing" is an extreme degree of paddling. Heavy horses also 
 tend to cross their feet when in action, a movement known 
 
THE TYPES AND CLASSES OF HORSES 
 
 107 
 
 as' 'winding, ' 'and very undesirable. An unusual side motion 
 of the shoulders is known as "rolling" and is more especial- 
 ly found with draft horses with widely separated shoulders. 
 A horse that snaps his feet outside of the line he naturally 
 should/or knocks his ankles together, does so at the expense 
 of action. The walk of the draft horse should show evi- 
 dence of strength in the full sense. He should walk easily 
 and true, and by his carriage of limbs and muscling give 
 evidence of superior draft character. As the horse walks 
 by the judge presenting a side view the step should be 
 
 Fig. 57. "lie sli<ui1d walk easily and true." 
 
 long and powerful of stride rather than short and uncertain 
 in character. An elastic or snappy gait is of prime im- 
 portance. The horse that steps off quickly and clears his 
 feet well from the ground will do much more work than the 
 one that moves slowly and drags his toes, frequently stum- 
 bling. This characteristic of activity of walk is not empha- 
 sized as much as it should be. The Scotch place a premium 
 on this feature of the Clydesdale, which has resulted in 
 unusual freedom of action with this breed. The horse 
 that flexes his pasterns well at the walk, shows the bottoms 
 
108 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 of his feet with much clearness to the judge standing be- 
 hind. Further, as viewed from one side, the knee, hock and 
 fetlocks flex strongly, the foot swinging to carry the toe 
 well behind and slightly upward. 
 
 The draft horse at a trot should have a strong, regular, 
 easy gait. The trot is distinctly secondary to the walk, yet 
 
 Fig. 58. "The draft horse that trots well is usually a good walker." 
 
 the draft horse that trots well is usually a good walker. 
 The heavy horse moves off slowly as a rule though 
 with power. He often drags his feet more than he should 
 and shows evidence of awkwardness. High action should 
 not be expected, but rather a strong, regular, easy stride, 
 with the feet carried well off the ground. At the trot the 
 joints flex more than at the walk, and the feet are carried 
 somewhat higher. The judge should examine the horse, 
 both at walk and trot, having him led toward him and 
 away from him, thus enabling him best to study the true- 
 ness of action. From a side view one may best judge the 
 
THE TYPES AND CLASSES <)l 1IOKSKS 1Q9 
 
 flexing of the limbs and carriage of body while in motion. 
 If the action is true and snappy at the walk, then 110 un- 
 reasonable penalty should be placed against the horse that 
 lacked somewhat in speed, though of course, other things 
 being equal, the one that will trot most rapidly has the ad- 
 vantage. Age and training have much to do with the 
 character of draft horse action. Young, green colts do not 
 show to advantage. 
 
 Fig. 59. "From a side view one may best judge the flexing of the 
 limbs and carriage of body while in motion." 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 THE COMPARATIVE STUDY OF DRAFT HORSES. 
 
 IT is assumed that the student, through the use of the 
 score card, has become acquainted with the points and 
 general conformation of the draft horse. With this in- 
 strument he has attempted to analyze and measure the 
 value of the points of the individual. As a matter of 
 progress in the study of animal form it is necessary that 
 comparisons be drawn between individuals. If two horses 
 of the same type stand side by side it is entirely natural 
 to make at once a comparison between them. Two horses 
 are never mated up for a team by a discerning horseman 
 without comparing their relative merits, their adaptability 
 
 Fig. 60. "It is important that animals of approximately the same age 
 and class be grouped." 
 
 110 
 
COMPARATIVE STl'DV OF DRAFT IIOHSKS m 
 
 to each other, which should be the near and which the off 
 horse. In the show ring the comparative method, of neces- . 
 sity prevails, unless but one animal is shown in a class. In 
 the classroom a group of four horses makes a convenient 
 number for study. It is important that animals of ap- 
 proximately the same age and class be grouped. This 
 admits of a fairer basis of comparison if the type or breed, 
 height and general size and conformation are not mate- 
 rially different. Comparative judging is most unsatisfactory 
 when horses of essentially different type meet in a ring 
 in which uniformity of type is desired. It is true that, 
 for comparative reasons, it may be desirable on occasion 
 to use an animal of quite another sort for the purpose of 
 contrasting types or breeds, but in general, groups become 
 the most efficient mediums for judging work when uniform 
 in character. Color is not a necessary factor unless breed 
 study is under consideration. Draft type must be the prime 
 feature, if this is the subject of comparison. 
 
 A first step in judging a group of draft horses would 
 be to give them a general survey. It may be assumed that 
 they are standing in a row, their heads in line, awaiting 
 examination. The judge should slowly pass about the 
 group at sufficient distance to comprehend the general 
 character of the animals as a whole, noting uniformity of 
 type and character. In this inspection he will be im- 
 pressed by some individuals more than by others and will 
 quickly take note of features of special merit or demerit. 
 This general survey is then followed by individual inspec- 
 tion in which studied comparison is made between animals. 
 The ideal animal of the type or breed is in the mind of tho 
 judge and as he inspects the different individuals he com- 
 pares them not only with the ideal, but with each other. 
 One of the group must measure up to a greater degree of 
 merit than any of the others and this animal in due" time 
 is accorded first position. The horse placed second must 
 be lacking in merit, compared with the first, although the 
 difference between them may not be important. It is a 
 
H2 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 rare event for a judge to be unable to decide between two 
 animals for first place. For reasons satisfactory to himself 
 the judge places the horses in their relative order of merit. 
 In judging draft horses size and weight, in the opinion of 
 many, must be regarded as of first importance, after which 
 come various factors measured up in comparative values 
 as expressed by the score card. It is important in this 
 consideration not to emphasize too heavily in themselves 
 certain features, unless properly associated with other 
 factors of conformation whereby balance and merit are 
 secured. Notable defects, as, for example, a spavin, should 
 as a rule drop an animal out of serious consideration unless 
 perchance each animal in the ring was suffering from some 
 physical blemish. But if one is to emphasize strength of 
 loin, he should realize that it ought to be related to a strong 
 back and coupling and naturally powerful conformation. 
 Judges are usually critical of the feet of the horse and 
 some men at once place an animal low in the ring if the 
 feet do not measure up to a high standard. However, if 
 the feet are sound, yet of undesirable size or shape, there 
 may be enough good qualities in the horse to justify plac- 
 ing him comparatively high in the line. In comparative 
 work the judge should make his placings consistent and if 
 possible keep animals of the same type together. If there 
 is much variation in type, then one should seek to secure as 
 much balance and merit as possible high up in the line, 
 with a gradual lessening amount of merit as we approach 
 the foot of the line. It is pertinent here to quote from an 
 important editorial 1 on the balanced horse: "Frequently 
 it happens that some one or more characteristics about a 
 horse are unduly magnified in importance while some serious 
 faults are overlooked. Men are ever likely to ride a hobby 
 to death. . . . There are many admirers of horses whose 
 judgment is seriously warped, few who have a well-balanced 
 conception of what constitutes merit. One notices this 
 when several men examine the same horse at once. One 
 
 1 "The Breeders' Gazette," Vol. 68, November 4, 1915. 
 
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF DRAFT HORSES H3 
 
 may pay closest attention to the head, another to the feet, 
 and hocks, back, chest, flanks, bone and weight may receive 
 concern from others. It is true the horse of all-round 
 balanced merit of build and finish is rare, and so is the man 
 who can appreciate him when found. One can count on 
 the fingers of one hand the men in America who have 
 become famous for ability to pick out 'diamonds in the 
 rough ' among horses. Even those who can be counted on 
 consistently to rate* highly fitted horses in the show ring 
 are so scarce as to exasperate show officials. . . . Evidently 
 there is too little effort made to fix in mind an ideal, 
 balanced pattern of horse, and then adhere to it. ' ' 
 
 The weak and strong 1 features of horses under com- 
 parison, may be set forth in interesting and instructive 
 form, by means of a comparative card, of which the fol- 
 lowing is a sample: 
 
 DRAFT HORSE COMPARISON CARD. 
 Name of Judge Date Judged 
 
 1st 2d 3d 4th 
 
 POINTS TO JUDGE. Place Place Place Place 
 
 Weight A G B' D 
 
 Height B A C D 
 
 Quality A C B D 
 
 Substance .... C A D B 
 
 Head and neck A C B D 
 
 Forehand A B C D 
 
 Chest .. A G B D 
 
 Back A C D B 
 
 Eibs C A B D 
 
 Flanks AC B D 
 
 Croup A C D B 
 
 Thijrhs A C B D 
 
 Feet . . A C D B 
 
 Action A C B D 
 
 Placing A C B D 
 
114 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 This is only suggestive, for the judge may make up a com- 
 parative card, and on it indicate such features as he thinks 
 desirable. Each horse is given a number or letter, and 
 then is given a grade in each feature. The placing of a 
 group will depend very much on the number of times A 
 was credited with first place, B with second, etc. It is 
 necessary, however, that the judge give the same relative 
 importance to the points considered that they are credited 
 with in the scale of points. He need not do this numeri- 
 cally but in his final decision he must adjust his placings 
 so as to be consistent. This comparative card is simply to 
 place on record the judge's opinion of the relative merits 
 of certain points he desires to study as separate groups. 
 In a comparative study of a ring of horses they should 
 be examined in various ways. At rest, standing side by 
 side, the heads and necks, the forehands, the thickness of 
 body and placing of legs and front feet may be seen to 
 advantage from a front view. A rear view of the hind- 
 quarters lined up for comparison, facilitates the study of 
 thickness of body, muscling, leg position, etc. The horses 
 placed in single file, directly back of each other, furnish 
 excellent opportunity for important comparison, as for 
 
 
 
 Fig. 61. "The groups as a whole may first be paraded about the ring.' 
 
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF DRAFT HORSES n.-> 
 
 example, length and depth, balance and carriage. The 
 action of the horse must also be carefully inspected. The 
 groups as a whole may first be paraded about the ring 
 following in single file, after which individuals may be 
 tal^eii one at a time and the action studied and compared. 
 Each horse should be examined by the judge from the same 
 points of view, that his comparisons may be uniform. 
 
 Reasons for positions assigned a ring of horses may be 
 demanded from a judge at any time, and should be always 
 willingly given. In fact, a more instructive service would 
 be rendered at our shows if judges were to make a state- 
 ment to the ringside why awards are made as they are. 
 Modern methods of education in our schools and colleges 
 require the student to give the instructor his reasons for 
 making his decisions. In the various student judging con- 
 tests, such as at the International Live Stock Exposition 
 at Chicago, the National Dairy Show, and in state and 
 county competitions, the student is usually graded for his 
 placings and reasons for making the same. The students 
 are given a limited amount of time for placing the ring, 
 after which they are taken aside and allowed time for giv- 
 ing oral or written reasons. In the International Live 
 Stock Show judging contests, eighteen minutes are al- 
 lowed a contestant, "to make his observations, record his 
 placings, and write such memoranda as he may desire. " 
 Each contestant is later called before the judges and al- 
 lowed two minutes to give reasons for his placing of a 
 ring. At the National Dairy Show, written reasons are 
 required, the student being allowed fifteen minutes for 
 writing his reasons for placing a group. An example of 
 student method in giving written reasons, is herewith 
 offered, as perhaps suggestive and helpful to some not 
 entirely familiar with this work. This is an exact copy 
 from classroom work, written by one who had no thought 
 of its publication here. It is not perfect, but presents a 
 method of expression in placing a ring of four Percheroii 
 mares : 
 
116 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 "I placed D over A on type, conformation, quality 
 and action. D more nearly represents the ideal Percheron 
 mare type than A by virtue of her cleaner cut, breedier 
 head ; her stronger, better balanced top ; her greater roomi- 
 ness of middle ; her cleaner, denser bone, and larger, better 
 shaped feet. D shows more quality than A in her general 
 
 Fig. 02. Note the character of fronts on these horses and the 
 positions of legs and feet. 
 
 and 
 
 make-up, and gets away with more snap and length 
 trueness of stride. 
 
 "I placed A over B on conformation and action. A 
 shows more symmetry of form, has a more neatly turned 
 shoulder, has more depth and width of chest, a stronger 
 back and loin, a neater turn of croup, stands on heavier, 
 flatter, cleaner bone, and larger, better shaped feet. She 
 goes with a truer, more elastic stride. 
 
 ''I placed B over C on conformation, quality and action. 
 
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF DRAFT HORSES 117 
 
 B has a cleaner cut, breedier head ; more strength of back 
 and roominess of middle ; a longer, wider croup ; denser 
 bone, and stands on larger feet of better quality. B has 
 more length, strength and trueness of stride. C is plain 
 about the head, lacks strength of back, is too steep of 
 croup, has coarse bone, short, stubby pasterns, and lacks 
 ability to move." 
 
 The reasons given would have been stronger if more 
 comparative. Attention should have been directed to some 
 of the inferior characteristics of the one given place over 
 the other, emphasizing the point that even these were not 
 of enough importance to reduce the animal to subordinate 
 place. The student should show his ability to make com- 
 parative comment on weak as well as strong features. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 JUDGING BREEDING DRAFT HORSES. 
 
 THE judging of breeding horses requires consideration 
 of sex characteristics, and those features of conformation 
 essential in the animal used for reproduction. It requires 
 the highest degree of intelligence on the part of the judge 
 wisely to discriminate in selecting breeding animals. If 
 one is qualified to do this, there can be no doubt about his 
 ability to pass on geldings. 
 
 (A) JUDGING THE STALLION. 
 
 The sex character of the stallion is one of his conspicu- 
 ous features. His head is somewhat stronger and larger 
 than that of the mare, and his neck much heavier and 
 thicker, with some strength of arch. When the stallion is 
 in superior physical vigor and spirits, he tends to carry 
 head and neck high, and shows the self-assertion and 
 dominant quality of the masculine sex. He should show 
 marked strength of character in his head, for it expresses 
 much, whether bold and toplofty, or meek and droopy. 
 Some stallions have heads of an effeminate appearance, 
 or resemble the gelding in sexless character. Such heads 
 should be discriminated against by both judge and breeder. 
 One could not expect the best breeding results from a 
 feminine appearing sire. The neck should show some 
 length, rather than be short and steer-like, and be well laid 
 with powerful, long muscles. A strong development of hair 
 at the foretop and top of the neck, is also a feature of the 
 stallion, the hair tending to be coarse rather than fine. 
 The stallion should manifest in his head and especially 
 eyes, something of his character, not easy to define, yet 
 expressing personality, temperament, disposition, and sex- 
 
 118 
 
JUDGING BREEDING DRAFT HORSES H9 
 
 ual dominance. The sex character of the stallion is also 
 shown in his powerful development of bone and muscle, 
 and in his sexual organs. Even when of the same size as 
 the mare, his bone tends to be heavier, his muscles more 
 prominent and his frame more powerful. The sexual 
 organs should be perfectly developed, and the judge should 
 note that the scrotum consists of a double sac and promi- 
 nent enough to bear evidence of being on a breeding animal. 
 A stallion with a single testicle is known as a ridgling, and 
 is at least open to criticism in the show ring, though he 
 may not be a non-breeder. 
 
 The general body conformation of the stallion should 
 show closeness of coupling and strength of back, but plenty 
 of length of middle. Some persons favor much compact- 
 ness of body, but if properly coupled and the back strongly 
 sustained, then the body itself may have length to ad- 
 vantage. The shoulders of the stallion are also usually 
 somewhat heavier and more prominent than on a gelding 
 or mare, giving a thickness in front expressive of mascu- 
 linity and power. 
 
 The size of the stallion usually exceeds that of tbe.mare, 
 though not to a notable extent in many cases. However, 
 a draft stallion weighing 2,000 pounds, might be a satis- 
 factory size, while the female of the breed at 1,700 would 
 meet all requirements. It is not unreasonable to expect 
 the male to weigh three or four hundred pounds more than 
 the female. Most men desire comparatively large, rather 
 stretchy types of stallions, and,, these weigh distinctly 
 more than the low set, compact, chunky sort. This type of 
 stallion stands higher than the mares, and is larger and 
 coarser in every way. 
 
 The constitutional vigor of the stallion should also 
 receive consideration. This is shown in the strength and 
 character of the head, but is especially seen in the promi- 
 nence of breast and the depth and fullness of chest. The 
 degree of width of chest will depend upon the type, the 
 draft stallion showing more than the lighter sort, but this 
 
120 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 should not be extreme. It is important that the forerib 
 be well arched, but even more desirable that it be long, and 
 so account for a strong heart girth and full flank. Not 
 only this, but a long forerib is sure to be associated with 
 general depth of body, feeding capacity, and vitality. A 
 horse with shallow body and long legs cannot stand up 
 under work, and does not show the constitution that the 
 deeper bodied, lower set one does. Constitutional vigor 
 in the male, is regarded as of prime importance, and judges 
 should give it due recognition. 
 
 The temperament of the stallion will be shown in a 
 degree, according to his type, the heavy draft horse being 
 somewhat quieter and more phlegmatic than the lighter 
 type. In general however, when not overworked, the stal- 
 lion shows an animated, aggressive character, with evi- 
 dence of much reserve nervous force. If overworked, he 
 loses much of his fire and ambition. In the city of Paris 
 there are thousands of draft stallions stolidly pulling away 
 at enormous loads, quiet and indifferent as to what is going 
 on about them, giving little evidence of the naturally bold 
 temperament of the sex. The stallion should be active 
 
 Fig. 63. "In the city of Paris there are thousands of draft stallions 
 stolidly pulling away at enormous loads." 
 
JUDGING BREEDING DRAFT HORSES 
 
 121 
 
 and alert, yet not nervous and irritable. His disposition 
 is usually good, but he will bear watching for he may be 
 unnecessarily playful with either teeth or feet. 
 
 (B) JUDGING THE MARE. 
 
 The sex character of the mare is seen in a smaller and 
 more refined head than has the stallion, and a more slender, 
 less muscular neck. The beautiful, symmetrical propor- 
 
 Fiu. 64. "The beautiful, symmetrical proportion of head ; the mild, quiet, 
 inquiring eyes, and the delicate, attentive ears, give strong evidence of 
 feminine and maternal qualities." 
 
 tions of head; the mild, quiet, inquiring eyes; and the 
 delicate attentive ears, give strong evidence of feminine 
 and maternal qualities. If the stallion is bold and inde- 
 pendent, the mare is both shy and friendly. The udder of 
 the mare is small, consisting of a double gland and two 
 teats. This is not conspicuous, excepting while nursing the 
 foal. It is desirable that the judge note the size of the 
 udder and teats. If nursing, the udders should be well 
 extended between the thighs, and carry two good sized teats. 
 
122 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 The conformation of the mare is narrower all through 
 than in the stallion. The shoulders are comparatively 
 light, the withers narrow, the breast and chest less thick 
 than with the male, and the body long and deep. At ma- 
 turity, the belly of the mare often shows considerable 
 roundness and downward curve, features associated with 
 reproduction. While her back should be well sustained, 
 she should show a long line and great capacity between the 
 front and hind flanks. The limbs of the mare often dis- 
 play delicacy of outline and refinement of bone. 
 
 The constitutional vigor of the mare as with the stal- 
 lion, is shown in the active, alert character of head and eye, 
 in the depth and prominence of breast, the width and 
 strength of back, and the length, depth and capacity of 
 body. There are really no essential differences, excepting 
 in degree, in the various features which guide one in deter- 
 mining constitutional vigor, in either mare or stallion. 
 
 The temperament of the mare is less active as a rule 
 than in case of the stallion. She is not self-assertive, 
 but not necessarily lacking in interest in things about her. 
 Her disposition may be quite variable, though she is not 
 likely to be as aggressive as the stallion. The temperament 
 in most cases is more notable from the standpoint of type 
 than sex. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 BREEDS OF DRAFT HORSES. 
 
 PURE bred draft horses are rapidly growing in favor in 
 America. In fact, horses of true draft class very generally 
 show pronounced breed character. This is naturally due to 
 the use of pure bred sires of the draft breeds. Brief de- 
 scriptions are herewith given of the more important char- 
 acteristics of each important draft breed. No scales of 
 points have thus far been adopted by any of the official 
 associations registering pure bred draft horses. 
 
 The Percheron horse originated in northwestern France, 
 in La Perche district. The Percheron is a medium sized 
 draft breed, though many individuals attain great scale. 
 Mature stallions weigh from 1,700 to 2,000 pounds, and 
 mature mares from 1,500 to 1,800 pounds. The height 
 commonly ranges from 16 to 17 hands. The color is usually 
 gray of some shade, or black. In recent years black has 
 grown greatty in popularity, both in France and America. 
 Bay or brown colors occur but are quite uncommon, and 
 are not regarded as distinguishing characteristics of the 
 breed. Percherons possess certain distinctive and common 
 features. The head is breedy in character, of prominent 
 eye and open countenance, suggesting a dash of Oriental 
 blood. The neck is long and powerful, and though the back 
 is broad and well carried, the body quite often lacks depth 
 in comparison with the Shire or Belgian. The croup, while 
 wide and powerfully muscled, naturally tends to some 
 steepness. The legs are strong of bone and should be quite 
 free of long hair about the fetlocks. Percheron feet are 
 usually of superior dark texture and of excellent size and 
 
 123 
 
124 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Fig. 65. Percheron mare Hysope. Champion International Live Stock 
 Exposition, 1912. (From photograph by Hildebrand.) 
 
 form. This is one of the most active of draft breeds, yet 
 withal quiet and steady under the collar. The readiness 
 of the Percheron to respond to the driver, its capacity to 
 endure work, its freedom from long hairs on the legs, and 
 excellent feet, are factors that have largely contributed 
 to the great popularity of this breed in America, where it 
 far outnumbers all other draft breeds combined. 
 
BREEDS OF DRAFT HORSES 
 
 125 
 
 The Belgian horse originated in Belgium, where it lias 
 been bred for several centuries. This is a very compact, wide, 
 deep, short-legged kind of draft horse. In Belgium one 
 sees three types of this breed the larger type, common in 
 Flanders, shows more length and is more upstanding than 
 the medium type of Brabant or the smaller sort of Arden- 
 nais. American importers have brought the larger or 
 
 Fig. GO. A Belgian mare. (Courtesy American Agriculturist.) 
 
 medium type to this country. "Weights of from 1,600 to 
 2,000 pounds, and even more for the larger stallions are 
 acceptable, with a height of about 16 hands. Chestnut is 
 the most popular color, though brown of various shades, 
 and roans, are quite common. Compactness and muscu- 
 larity are Belgian attributes, and so the neck appears short 
 and thick; the body wide, deep and closely coupled; the 
 croup often steep, and the legs commonly short. Bel- 
 gians are frequently somewhat refined in bone for weight 
 
126 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 of body, and are free from long hair. The feet tend to be 
 small, and lacking in fulness at hoof-head and heel, 
 though these deficiencies are being gradually reduced. 
 The Belgian is notable among draft horses for its activity, 
 and the ability to move freely at a trot. Horses of this breed 
 have been raised in Belgium in close touch with the family 
 and so are very docile and easily handled. 
 
 The Clydesdale horse is named after the Clyde district 
 in southwestern Scotland, where this horse has been known 
 since about 1715. The Clydesdale is a medium sized draft 
 animal, the mature stallions weighing 1,800 to 2,000 pounds, 
 the mares 1,600 to 1,700. A height of about 16y 2 hands 
 meets with approval. The color is usually a bay or brown, 
 with white on the face and on the legs below knee and hock. 
 
 Fig. 67. Clydesdale stallion 
 
 photograph.) 
 
 (From a Scotch 
 
BREEDS OF DRAFT HORSES 
 
 127 
 
 
 Fig. 68. "The Shire is a larger and more massive breed than the 
 Clydesdale." 
 
 White, however, may occasionally extend beyond these 
 points. Chestnut, black, and gray are colors that occur 
 occasionally with this breed. There are certain features 
 quite distinctive of this breed. Clydesdale men emphasize 
 the long, sloping shoulder; the broad, long, comparatively 
 level croup ; the superior hair and bone, especially as seen 
 in the legs, and the strong, superior movement of knee and 
 hock. The Scotchman believes his horse has the best of 
 feet and legs, and when either walking or trotting, his 
 action is the best of any of the draft breeds. Large, round 
 feet, often white, are characteristic, though there is a ten- 
 dency to flat-footedness. Long, flowing hairs are set in 
 the back of the legs below knee and hock. The body 
 of the Clydesdale frequently lacks massiveness and depth, 
 
128 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 and this horse therefore often appears light of middle 
 or short of rib, and consequently somewhat upstanding. 
 The criticism which this lack of massiveness has caused, 
 is resulting in substantial breed improvement in this regard. 
 The Shire horse is an English breed of much the same 
 general character as the Clydesdale. It has been bred for 
 
 
 Pig. 69. "The round, full form of body gave this horse in its native 
 home the name of Suffolk Punch." 
 
 many years in England, and is as popular with the English 
 as the Clydesdale is with the Scotch. The Shire has hairy 
 legs like the Clyde. The color is usually bay or brown, with 
 white markings, as with the Clydesdale. However, black, 
 roan, chestnut or gray are not unusual colors. The Shire 
 is a larger and more massive breed than the Clydesdale, 
 with wider back and deeper, heavier body. In this breed 
 we find our heaviest draft horse, with stallions: weighing 
 
BREEDS OF DRAFT HORSES 129 
 
 1,800 to 2,200 pounds or more, and the mares 1,700 to 1,900 
 pounds. A height of 17 hands is acceptable. A large head, 
 with a tendency to Roman nose, great scale and massive 
 body are features of a superior Shire. The shoulders and 
 pasterns tend to undesirable straightness ; the bone is fre- 
 quently heavy; and the feet large and inclined to be flat. 
 Formerly the Shire was regarded as coarse, heavy and 
 slow in movement, and lacking in good action. In recent 
 years English breeders have done much to improve them, 
 and the criticisms of slow movement and coarseness are 
 not as generally true to-day as they once were. 
 
 The Suffolk horse is a breed that originated long ago in 
 Suffolk county, on the east coast of England. Few horses 
 of this breed are found in America. The color is chestnut, 
 varying from light to dark. The size is medium, stallions 
 commonly weighing 1,800 to 1,900 pounds, and standing 
 16 to 17 hands high. It is characterized by a distinctly 
 Roman face ; crested neck ; a very wide, deep-ribbed, com- 
 pact body ; and short, clean legs. The round, full form of 
 body gave this horse in its native home the name of Suffolk 
 Punch, a term not so commonly used to-day. The hocks 
 have been somewhat criticized as lacking in depth, and the 
 feet have also been faulted for being too small and shelly. 
 In their native Suffolk, one sees fine specimens of this breed, 
 where they are regarded as very superior draft horses for 
 farm work. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 JUDGING HORSES OF LIGHT HARNESS TYPE. 
 
 IN the discussion of the draft horse in the preceding 
 pages, many things are considered in some detail, that have 
 a general application to all types of horses, and need not 
 be taken up again. Therefore, it is highly desirable that 
 the reader first familiarize himself with the subject of 
 judging draft horses. Emphasis will be placed in the 
 following pages on those features that have special applica- 
 tion to the type under consideration. In comparison the 
 light harness horse is much smaller than the draft horse, 
 and is narrower and less inclined to fleshiness. He is bred 
 for speed and rapid gait, consequently he should not be 
 encumbered with unnecessary weight. The light harness 
 
 Fi. 70. "The light harness horse is much smaller than the draft 
 horse, and is narrower and less inclined to fleshiness." (Reproduced from 
 photoffraph by Schreiber & Sons.) 
 
 130 
 
JUDGING HORSES OF LIGHT HARNESS TYPE 131 
 
 type, however, as seen in the American roadster, trotter or 
 pacer, varies greatly in size and conformation. This is due 
 to the lack of systematic breeding within this class, and the 
 mating of animals of widely different blood lines and con- 
 formation. The discussion following is meant to apply to 
 a type of the light harness horse, bred for driving and speed, 
 that is of medium size and meets the demands of American 
 horsemen. What is known as the "Standard Bred" is 
 another name for this same type. 
 
 JUDGING LIGHT HARNESS TYPE OF HORSE BY SCALE 
 OF POINTS. 
 
 The height of the light harness horse usually ranges 
 from 15!/4 to 16 hands, though it may vary even more than 
 this. A height from 15T/4 to 15% may be considered most 
 desirable. 
 
 The weight of the light harness horse varies even more 
 than the height. In general 1,100 pounds may be regarded 
 with favor. However, stallions outweigh mares as a rule 
 and 1,100 to 1,250 pounds for the former, and 900 to 1,100 
 for the latter, are satisfying ranges of weight. In judging 
 a class, most men would discriminate against undersize, 
 though excessive weight and grossness would be equally 
 
 bad/ 
 
 SCORE CARD FOR LIGHT HARNESS HORSES. 
 
 Standard of Score of 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS Perfect Horse 
 
 Score Studied 
 A GENERAL APPEARANCE, 12 Points: 
 
 1. Height estimated hands Actual hands 
 
 2. Weight, 1,200 Ibs. for stallion, 1,000 Ibs. for mare. . 
 
 Estimated weight 
 
 Actual weight 
 
 ?,. Form, long, deep, muscular, angular -1 
 
 4. Quality, general refinement and finish shown in 
 
 clearly defined features of head, bone, and 
 joints, prominent tendons and fine skin and 
 hair 4 
 
 5. Temperament, active, docile, disposition good . . . 4 
 B HEAD AND NECK, 8 Points: 
 
 (!. Head in good proportions, clear cut, straight face, 
 
 line, angle lower jaw wide . . . . . .. 2 
 
 7. Forehead, broad, full . . 1 
 
 8. Eyes, prominent, large, clear, bright . . I 
 
132 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Standard of Score of 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS Perfect Horse 
 
 tSeiore Studied 
 
 9. Muzzle, fine, lips thin and even, teeth sound, nos- 
 trils large 1 .... 
 
 10. Ears, medium size, fine, pointed, set close, carried 
 
 alert 1 
 
 11. Neck, long, lean, slightly arched, throat-latch fine, 
 
 windpipe large 
 
 C FOREHAND, 24 Points: 
 
 12. Shoulders, long, oblique, light, smooth 2 
 
 13. Arms, short, muscular, carried well forward . . . . 1 
 
 14. Forearms, long, wide, muscular 2 
 
 15. Knees, straight, wide, deep, clean, strongly sup- 
 
 ported 
 
 16. Cannons, short, wide, tendons prominent and well 
 
 set back 2 
 
 17. Fetlocks, wide, straight, tendons well back . . . . 2 
 
 18. Pasterns, long, oblique (angle about 45), smooth, 
 
 strong 
 
 19. Feet, medium size, even, round, straight ; slope par- 
 
 allel to pastern; sole concave; bars strong; 
 %rog large, elastic; heel wide, full, 1-3 length 
 of toe ; horn dense, smooth 6 
 
 20. Legs, properly placed, according to description in 
 
 draft horse score card 4 .... 
 
 D BODY, 10 Points: 
 
 21. Withers, high, narrow, extending well back . . . . 1 .... 
 
 22. Chest, medium width, deep 2 .... 
 
 23. Bibs, long, moderately sprung, close 2 .... 
 
 24. Back, straight, short, broad, strong 2 .... 
 
 25. Loin, short, broad, strong 2 
 
 26. Flanks, deep, full, long, low underline 1 .... 
 
 E HINDQUARTERS, 27 Points: 
 
 27. Hips, wide-spaced, smooth, level 2 .... 
 
 28. Croup, long, wide, smooth, level tendency . . . . 2 .... 
 
 29. Tail, attached high, well carried 1 .... 
 
 30. Thighs, long, muscular; stifles prominent, well set . . 2 .... 
 
 31. Gaskins, long, broad, muscular 2 .... 
 
 32. Hocks, straight, wide, deep, clean cut, point promi- 
 
 nent, well supported 5 .... 
 
 33. Cannons, short, wide, flat, clean, tendons well de- 
 
 fined, set well back 2 .... 
 
 34. Fetlocks, wide, straight, tendons well back . . . . 1 .... 
 
 35. Pasterns, long, not so oblique as in front (about 
 
 50), strong . . 2 .... 
 
 36. Feet, medium size, even, round, straight; slope par- 
 
 allel to pastern; sole concave; bars strong; 
 frog large, elastic; heel wide, full, 1-3 length 
 toe; horn dense 4 .... 
 
 37. Legs, properly placed, according to definition in 
 
 draft horse score card 4 .... 
 
 F ACTION, 19 Points: 
 
 38. Walk, long, free stride 5 
 
 39. Trot, long, straight, regular, rapid, easy stride . . 14 
 
 Total . . 100 
 
JUDGING HORSES OF LIGHT HARNESS TYPE 133 
 
 The general form of the light harness horse should be 
 comparatively long, narrow and deep, with a muscular 
 appearance, and a tendency to angularity. The muscles 
 and joints incline to prominence, and the ribs are more or 
 
 Fig. 71. "A horse of this type, with thickness of form, could not be 
 
 exported to produce the greatest speed." 
 
 less noticeable. A horse of this type with thickness of form, 
 could not be expected to produce the greatest speed. 
 
 The quality of the light harness horse is shown in the 
 general refinement of parts, the head and limbs being small, 
 and free from coarseness. The lines of the head are well 
 defined, the ears small and thin, the skin is also thin, and 
 the hair fine and silky. The bone is comparatively small, 
 and the joints are quite lean. The leanness of leg enables 
 one often to see the tendons very easily. The appearance 
 
134 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 of veins on the surface of face, shoulders, lower part of 
 body, and upper part of limbs, are expressive of quality 
 and superior breeding. So also the prominent, delicate 
 nostril is a sign of quality. 
 
 The temperament of the light harness horse is natu- 
 rally nervous, indicating the desire for action. Of an active 
 type, he is well fitted for speed and motion. If sleepy and 
 dull, a vital quality of the type is lacking. Too lively tem- 
 perament is undesirable, but the horse should manifest an 
 interest in his surroundings, and express animation to a 
 degree indicating both intelligence and potent muscular 
 activity. In disposition, we find wide extremes among light 
 harness horses, due to differences in inheritance. In gen- 
 eral horses of this class are of good disposition and not 
 given to biting, kicking or other meanness to any unusual 
 
 degree. The judge is justified 
 in attaching importance to 
 disposition as closely related 
 to temperament, and as dis- 
 tinctive of the type. 
 
 The head of the light har- 
 ness horse should be lean and 
 shapely, the profile showing 
 quite straight from ears to 
 nose. Craig makes the obser- 
 vation 1 that in scanning the 
 photographs of a great num- 
 ber of trotters, " nearly all 
 stallions have slight Roman 
 noses while most of the mares 
 have slightly dished faces, a 
 distinction which seems to be 
 characteristic of the sexes." 
 A very prominent Roman 
 nose he regards as indicative 
 
 Fig. 72. "The profile showing 
 quite straight from ears to nose." 
 
 1 Judging Live Stock, 6th ed., 1904, p. 2L 
 
JUDGING HORSES OF LIGHT HARNESS TYPE 135 
 
 of a self-willed disposition. The more distinctive features 
 of the head of this type of horse, is marked leanness, with 
 veins often showing- prominently under the skin. A coarse, 
 meaty head is highly objectionable, and should be discrimi- 
 nated against by the judge. Sensitive, well-defined nostrils, 
 and thin, even lips are found among the best examples of 
 this type. 
 
 The neck of the light harness horse is essentially long, 
 lean and muscular. Often the stallions show but little crest! 
 The neck should be carried gracefully, and raised enough 
 to support the head as becomes a horse of vigor. The speed 
 horse naturally possesses a long neck, and as the type ap- 
 proaches draft rather than speed form, the 'neck shortens 
 and thickens. The proper length of neck is assumed to be 
 that which enables the horse to graze easily. Flexibility 
 
 Fig. 73. "The long, flexible neck is a striking feature of conformation.' 
 
136 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 of neck is essential in the speed horse, and to secure this, 
 there must be ample length and muscularity without any 
 undesirable thickness. Hayes states 1 * that "when 'clever- 
 ness' is essential to a horse, he should have a flexible neck, 
 and should be able to bend and extend it with utmost fa- 
 cility, so as to use his head and neck as balancing pole for 
 preserving the equilibrium of his body." Patrons of the 
 race track who are interested in the horse, are well aware 
 that the long, flexible neck is a striking feature of con- 
 formation. It is desirable, for good conformation, to have 
 a top line of neck with a very slight arch, but not enough 
 to be conspicuous, excepting among stallions. Ewe necks 
 are not uncommon among light harness horses, but this 
 conformation is neither beautiful nor muscular. Hayes, in 
 referring to this kind of neck 2 with light harness horses, 
 states that it seems to be no detriment to speed, but that it 
 might affect his handiness, by depriving his rider or driver, 
 to some extent, of command of him, and by causing his 
 head to be brought into a direction which might prevent 
 him seeing clearly where he is going. According to Gou- 
 baux and Barriere, 3 ' ' The neck is called straight or pyra- 
 midal, when its borders are rectilinear, and its lateral faces 
 nearly plane or but slightly rounded, according to the age, 
 the sex, the volume of the muscles, etc., of the animal. The 
 head is then well supported and well directed." Such a 
 type of neck applies especially to the light harness horse. 
 The shoulders of the light harness horse should be 
 long and especially oblique or sloping, for the reason that 
 the horse with a long, oblique, light shoulder is able to 
 raise his fore limb and advance it more easily than with 
 a more upright or straight shoulder. Obliqueness in itself, 
 however, is no guarantee of speed, for we know that deer 
 and antelope, the shoulders of which incline to be upright, 
 are very rapid travelers. However, in the artificial con- 
 
 l!X The Points of the Horse, 3d ed., 1904, p. 221. 
 2 The Points of the Horse, 3d ed., 1904, p. 224. 
 s The Exterior of the Horse, 2d ed., 1904, p. 99. 
 
JUDGING HORSES OF LIGHT HARNESS TYPE 137 
 
 ditions of bearing burdens and the experience of training, 
 the horse with the light, oblique blade has less concussion 
 of fore limb and is able to stand long and severe effort 
 better than the horse with upright blade. Thickness or 
 fullness of shoulder in its upper part, especially about the 
 withers, is very undesirable. A combination of lightness 
 and obliqueness secures the most perfect action. Hayes 
 states that he has seen many sprinters with upright shoul- 
 ders, but he has never seen a genuine stayer, such as Or- 
 monde, St. Gatien, or Eobert the Devil, with that kind of 
 conformation. There is no controversy among light horse 
 critics as to the significance and value of the light, oblique 
 shoulder. Among draft horsemen, however, there is more 
 tolerance for the upright position. The light harness judge 
 should emphasize this matter of desirable shoulder con- 
 formation. 
 
 The arms and forearms of the light harness horse should 
 be reasonably muscular. The heavy muscularity of the 
 draft horse is not looked for, but a wide, firm covering here 
 is desirable. In producing great speed, it is necessary that 
 the muscles back of the forearm be strongly developed, as 
 they are brought into active play in raising the foreleg. 
 
 The knees of the light harness horse should possess the 
 same desirable qualities to be found in the draft horse, 
 though the conformation will be less gross and more 
 sharply defined. 
 
 The cannons of the light harness horse are rarely fleshy, 
 being simply the combination of bone, tendon, ligament 
 and skin, with flesh or muscle reduced to a minimum. A 
 short, clean, smooth cannon, with the tendons carried well 
 back, and parallel with the bone, are prime features of the 
 horse with rapid gait. Roughness of bone is easily noted 
 in this type, and is an evidence of weakness. Long cannon 
 bones are undesirable, for they lack the strength of the 
 shorter ones. Further, as a rule, the horse of greatest 
 speed-producing power has a short rather than long can- 
 non. Horse critics often emphasize the point that the 
 
138 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Fig. 74. "On the light type of horse the bone and tendons are usually 
 seen without difficulty." The noted trotter The Harvester. 
 
 cannon bones should be hard and of superior substance. 
 It is not easy to determine the quality of the bone except- 
 ing in a relative way, as for example, by smoothness and 
 proportions of the part. The application of the hands 
 should show the bone itself very clean and smooth, with the 
 back tendons prominent and a complete freedom from 
 puffiness, soft tissue or roughness. On the light type of 
 horse the bone and tendon are usually seen without diffi- 
 culty and handling is not necessary. Emphasis should be 
 placed on the tendons being parallel with the bone, and the 
 upper part of cannon presenting a strong depth from front 
 to rear, entirely free from a tied-in appearance just below 
 the knee. 
 
 The pasterns of the light harness horse should be long, 
 smooth and strong, being carried at an angle of about 45 
 
JUDGING HORSES OF LIGHT HARNESS TYPE 139 
 
 degrees. The shoulder and pastern have much work in 
 common, and if the speed is great, or the work severe, the 
 pastern will bear up under it best, if long, strong, and 
 springy. Severe concussion will not be so likely to occur 
 with such a pastern. If short and stubby, the gait will be 
 hard and slow, and foot trouble may very likely result. 
 It will be well to note here, however, that on soft ground 
 conditions are more favorable for the short, less oblique 
 pastern. On the hard American race track and ordinary 
 highway, the long, oblique pastern results in a minimum 
 concussion. The long pastern allows for greater movement 
 of the fetlock joint, an essential if speed is desired. It is 
 important that the pastern should not be too sloping, as 
 occasionally occurs, with the fetlock extending back of the 
 foot to a marked degree. This is a defect due to a weaken- 
 ing of the tendons and ligaments above. 
 
 The foot of the light harness horse does not differ from 
 that of the draft horse, excepting in degree. Besides being 
 smaller, it no doubt has a tougher hoof than that of the 
 heavier horse, and consequently is less inclined to wear 
 away and take on bad form. The feet should be of medium 
 size, good mates in both size and shape ; be wide at the heel 
 and not too low set at this point, and have well developed 
 frog, and strong bars. The length of heel should be about 
 one-third the length of the front of the hoof. Such a foot 
 withstands the severe concussion of heavy driving, and en- 
 ables the horse to do his work without discomfort as far as 
 the feet are concerned. The judge is not likely to over- 
 estimate the importance of the feet, and if he turns a horso 
 down for defective under-pinning, his work will be com- 
 mended by critics, rather than otherwise. 
 
 The position of the front legs of the light harness horse 
 when at rest, is correctly described under the discussion of 
 the draft horse, on page 88. 
 
 The body of the light harness horse differs from that 
 of the draft horse, in being smaller and having a greater 
 relative depth than breadth. As viewed from in front or 
 
Fig. 75. "As viewed from in front or behind, one is 
 impressed with a degree of narrowness of body. Width 
 is undesirable from a speed point of view." 
 
JUDGING HORSES OF LIGHT HARNESS TYPE 141 
 
 behind, one is impressed with a degree of narrowness of 
 body. Width is undesirable from a speed point of view, 
 and no great race horses have been notably wide. Hayes 
 states that he is convinced that no race horse can be too 
 narrow in front, for the width of frontage is essentially 
 that of the body. Persons familiar with the trotter or 
 pacer, recognize that while the body may show plenty of 
 capacity for the various organs, this capacity is seen in 
 depth rather than in width. The high elevation of the 
 withers, and their lean, long appearance, add to the gen- 
 eral effect of depth of body. So also a rib formation 
 showing ample length, yet only moderate spring or arch, 
 is in harmony with the desired conformation. The back 
 of the race horse should be short and strong, for the 
 longer it is, the weaker will be the muscular connection 
 essential in speed production. So also should the loin be 
 short, broad and thick, indicating strength. 
 
 The hindquarters of the light harness horse often stand 
 at a slightly higher elevation than the forequarters at the 
 withers, and have a lean and somewhat angular appear- 
 ance. The hips should be less fleshed over than in the draft 
 horse. The croup should be long and muscular, and tend 
 to be level from between the hips to setting on of tail. 
 Steepness of croup is quite common among light harness 
 horses, especially pacers, a side view showing a marked 
 slope. In the case of the trotter the croup is carried 
 higher and in better form. Hayes states 4 that, "to have 
 the point of the buttock placed high and projecting well 
 to the rear is a great beauty, which may be seen in some 
 Thoroughbreds and in high-caste Arabs." The gaskin 
 should be long, broad and muscular. Differing from the 
 draft horse, length and strength of gaskin muscle are es- 
 sential if speed is to be secured, for by these only can 
 increase of motion be obtained up to the end of the stride. 
 The stifle joint should be fairly high, and face outward 
 enough to permit freedom of motion. The hock of the light 
 
 4 Points of the Horse, p. 311. 
 
142 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 harness horse lacks the fleshy tendency of the draft horse, 
 is leaner and more sharply denned. This joint, if superior 
 speed is to be attained, must be right in conformation and 
 position. The hock should be straight and open enough to 
 allow the cannon bone to hold a vertical line. A leg of 
 such conformation has maximum power of extension in 
 producing high class speed. It is not an uncommon sight 
 however, to see race horses possessing great speed, with 
 curved hocks especially pacers that, when at rest, show 
 the cannons placed slightly forward and beneath the 
 
 
 Fig. 76. "The croup should be long and muscular, and tend to be level 
 from between the hips to setting on of tail." 
 
 body. Jay-eye-See was a good example of this sort. Never- 
 theless, such a hock does not admit extreme extension. 
 This being so, the judge should emphasize the importance of 
 the straight hock and properly placed cannon. The leg 
 below the hock should be free of all fleshiness, and show 
 superior quality. The hind pasterns, it is to be noted, are 
 somewhat more upright than those in front, but not enough 
 so usually, to cause injurious concussion or affect speed. 
 
JUDGING HORSES OF LIGHT 1IAHXKSS TVPK 143 
 
 The hind feet, as explained elsewhere (page 103), arc not 
 so round as the front ones, while the sides are straighter, 
 the heel higher, and the frog narrower. 
 
 The action of the light harness horse is one of its most 
 important features, for without excellence in this regard 
 he becomes distinctly inferior in importance. The walk 
 should meet all the requirements of correct action al- 
 ready described. Further, the walk should be free and 
 easy, the feet being picked up with snap and placed 
 
 Fig. 77. "The action of the light harness horse is one of its most im- 
 portant features." (Courtesy The Horse Review.) 
 
 back on the ground with decision, with no tendency to 
 stumble or drag the toes. When standing behind the horse, 
 the flexing of the joints should clearly show the glisten of 
 the shoes as the horse walks away. The trot or pace, how- 
 ever, rather than the walk, is the especial feature valued 
 in the light harness horse. High knee action is not sought, 
 but rather the long stride, in which the forward and back- 
 ward reaches are carried to maximum efficiency. In other 
 words, extreme extension is associated with great speed. 
 Therefore, as the judge stands at one side and watches the 
 light harness horse pass by, the relationship of flexing to 
 
144 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 extension should be noted and emphasis placed on the lat- 
 ter. The knee will be carried high, the hock will not show 
 excess of motion, and the feet will move no higher above 
 the ground than is necessary to secure freedom of motion. 
 "While similar extension may be expected in the pace, the 
 peculiarities of gait make it unreasonable for the judge to 
 expect such harmony of motion as is usually found in the 
 trotter. One should not be too critical of swaying or lurch- 
 ing, if the necessary speed is attained. In commenting on 
 
 Fig. 78. "The relationship of flexing to extension should be noted." 
 
 the light harness horse, at either trot or pace, Jordan says, 5 
 "the average or standard gait of either should result in 
 the greatest symmetry of action, together with the greatest 
 economy of energy and the greatest speed. It is true that 
 there will always be horses that have their own way of 
 going apparently, and this may be due to a peculiar de- 
 velopment and conformation. Their defects are often en- 
 tirely offset by muscular and structural compensations. In 
 all such cases, however, the locomotion must be along lines 
 of directness and symmetry, otherwise there would always 
 
 6 The Gait of the American Trotter and Pacer. Rudolph Jordan, Jr., 
 1910, p. 86. 
 
JUDGING HORSES OF LIGHT HARNESS TYPE 145 
 
 be a lack of balance and of speed. " If the gait is in a 
 measure rough, there must be sufficient balance to over- 
 come all irregularities, if maximum speed is to be 
 attained. 
 
 The Standard-bred horse is what is commonly known as 
 the American trotter or pacer. There is lack of uniformity 
 of breed character, such as is found in the Hackney, due 
 to mating animals of different types and blood lines. Many 
 people refuse to recognize the Standard bred as a breed, 
 
 Fig. 79. The Harvester and Ed. Geers. ("The Standard Bred Horse.") 
 
 although under present conditions it is necessary to re- 
 gard it as such. There is a wide variation in size and type, 
 ranging from minimum horse height to 16 hands or more, 
 and weighing up to 1,400 pounds. A height of 15% hands, 
 and weight of 1,000 pounds for the mare, and 1,200 pounds 
 for the stallion, are quite approved. The color varies great- 
 ly, with bay most common. Referring to the gait, Gay 
 
146 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 states 6 that, "the way of going is most characteristic. 
 Whether at trot or pace, the gait is distinguished by the 
 length and rapidity of the individual strides, and the level, 
 true, frictionless manner in which they are executed. Fur- 
 thermore, the instinct to trot is well marked/' He further 
 says that, ''Undersized and ill-shaped individuals with ewe 
 necks, goose-rumps, bent or rounded hocks and tied-in can- 
 nons are too common." As this is the typical harness 
 horse it will be unnecessary to go into further descriptive 
 details than those outlined in the preceding pages. 
 
 Trotting and pacing standards are established by the 
 American Trotting Register Association. When an animal 
 meets the requirements set forth below, it shall be accepted 
 as a standard bred trotter or pacer as the case may be : 
 
 (A) THE TROTTING STANDARD. 
 
 progeny of a registered standard trotting horse 
 and a registered standard trotting mare. 
 
 2 A stallion sired by a registered standard trotting 
 horse, provided his dam and grandam were sired by regis- 
 tered standard trotting horses and he himself has a trot- 
 ting record of 2 :30 and is the sire of three trotters with 
 records of 2:30, from different mares. 
 
 3 A mare whose sire is a registered standard trotting 
 horse, and whose dam and grandam were sired by registered 
 standard trotting horses, provided she herself has a trotting 
 record of 2 :30, or is the dam of one trotter with a record of 
 2 :30. 
 
 4 A mare sired by a registered standard trotting horse, 
 provided she is the dam of two trotters with records of 2 :30. 
 
 5 A mare sired by a registered standard trotting horse, 
 provided her first, second, and third dams are each sired 
 by a registered standard trotting horse. 
 
 Principles and Practice of Judging Live Stock, 1914, p. 160. 
 
.irnGTXG HORSES OF LIGHT HARNESS TYPE 147 
 (B) THE PACING STANDARD. 
 
 1 The progeny of a registered standard pacing horse 
 and ? registered standard paeing mare. 
 
 2 A stallion sired by a registered standard pacing horse 
 (provided his dam and grandam were sired by registered 
 standard pacing horses, and he himself has a pacing record 
 of 2:25), and is the sire of three pacers with records of 
 2 :25, from different mares. 
 
 3 A mare whose sire is a registered standard pacing 
 horse and whose dam and grandam were sired by regis- 
 tered standard pacing horses, provided she herself has a 
 pacing record of 2 -.25, or is the dam of one pacer with a 
 record of 2:25. 
 
 4 A mare sired by a registered standard pacing horse, 
 provided she is the dam of two pacers with records of 2 :25. 
 
 5 A mare sired by a registered standard pacing horse, 
 provided her first, second and third dams are each sired 
 by a registered standard pacing horse. 
 
 6 The progeny of a registered standard trotting horse 
 out of a registered standard pacing mare, or of a registered 
 standard pacing horse out of a registered standard trottirig 
 mare. 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 
 JUDGING HORSES OF HEAVY HARNESS TYPE. 
 
 THE heavy harness type of horse is also commonly re- 
 ferred to as the coach or carriage horse. This type is more 
 particularly classified on the basis of size, conformation 
 and action, rather than on breed lines. For example, we 
 have certain breeds, such as the Hackney, French Coach, 
 and German Coach, that are recognized as belonging to 
 the heavy harness class. Nevertheless we find within these 
 breeds types that may be classified otherwise. So also 
 among horses of light harness breeding, fine examples of 
 heavy harness type may be found. In fact some of the 
 most beautiful examples of heavy harness horses have been 
 
 Fig. 80. "A horse with most of the essentials of light harness type, but 
 with more weight and smoothness of conformation, and more stately knee 
 and hock action." (Courtesy Mr. S. L. Howe, British Columbia.) 
 
 148 
 
HORSES OF HEAVY HARNESS TYPE 149 
 
 of trotting horse blood lines. Further, within what is re- 
 garded as the heavy harness group, may be found sub- 
 classes, based largely on size, action and purpose. Thus we 
 have the coach, park, cob and run-about sub-classes. The 
 general discussion, as relates to the scale of points, will 
 apply to the coach horse as best representing this type. 
 In view of the fact that the heavy harness type has be- 
 come of minor importance both in America and Europe, 
 owing to its being largely supplanted by the automobile, 
 but brief consideration will here be given this type. Fur- 
 ther, if one will picture a horse with most of the essentials 
 of light harness type, but with more weight and smoothness 
 of conformation, and more stately knee and hock action, 
 he will comprehend much of what is desired in the heavy 
 harness type. 
 
 RE CAED FOE HEAVY HAENESS HOESE. 
 
 Standard of Score of 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS Perfect Horse 
 
 Score Studied 
 A GENERAL APPEARANCE, 12 Points: 
 
 1. Height, estimated hands Actual hands . . . . .... 
 
 2. Weight, 1,350 Ibs. for stallions, 1,200 Ibs. for 
 
 mares. Estimated weight Actual weight 
 
 3. Form, close, full made, smooth, symmetrical, stylish 4 
 
 4. Quality, general refinement and finish shown in 
 
 clearly defined features of head, bone and 
 joints, prominent tendons, and fine skin and 
 hair 4 
 
 5. Temperament, proud, stylish, mannerly, disposition 
 
 good 4 
 
 B HEAD AND NECK, 8 Points: 
 
 6. Head, in good proportions, clean-cut, straight face 
 
 line, angle lower jaw wide 2 
 
 7. Forehead, broad, full 1 
 
 8. Eyes, prominent, large, clear, bright 1 
 
 9. Muzzle, fine, lips thin and even, teeth sound, nostrils 
 
 large 1 
 
 10. Ears, medium size, fine, pointed, set close, carried 
 
 alert 1 
 
 11. Neck, long, lofty carriage, high crest, throat-latch 
 
 fine, windpipe large 2 
 
150 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Standard of Score of 
 SCALE OF POINTS Perfect Horse 
 
 Score Studied 
 C FOREHAND, 24 Points: 
 
 12. Shoulders, long, oblique, smooth 
 
 13. Arms, short, muscular, carried well forward . . . . 1 
 
 14. Forearms, long, wide, muscular 
 
 15. Knees, straight, wide, deep, clean, strongly sup- 
 
 ported 
 
 16. Cannons, short, wide, tendons prominent, set well 
 
 back 2 
 
 17. Fetlocks, wide, straight, tendons set well back . . '2 
 
 18. Pasterns, long, oblique (angle about 45), smooth, 
 
 strong '" 
 
 19. Feet, medium size, even, round, straight, slope 
 
 parallel to pastern; sole concave; bars strong; 
 frog large, elastic; heel wide and full, !-:> 
 length toe; horn dense and smooth . . . . 6 .... 
 
 20. Legs, properly placed, according to description in 
 
 draft horse score card 4 .... 
 
 D BODY, 10 Points: 
 
 21. Withers, high, narrow, extending well back . . . . 1 .... 
 
 22. Chest, deep, girth large . . . . 2 .... 
 
 23. Bibs, long, well sprung, close 2 .... 
 
 24. Back, straight, short, broad, strong 2 .... 
 
 25. Loin, short, broad, strong 2 .... 
 
 26. Flanks, deep, full, long low underline 1 .... 
 
 E HINDQUARTERS, 20 Points: 
 
 27. Hips, wide spaced, smooth, round 2 
 
 28. Croup, long, wide, round, smooth, level tendency . . 2 .... 
 
 29. Tail, attached high, well carried 2 .... 
 
 30. Thighs, long, full, muscular; stifles prominent, well 
 
 set 2 
 
 31. Gaskins, long, broad, muscular 2 .... 
 
 32. Hocks, straight, wide, deep, clean-cut, point promi- 
 
 nent, well supported 5 
 
 33. Cannons, short, wide, flat, clean tendons, well de- 
 
 fined, set well back 2 .... 
 
 34. Fetlocks, wide, straight, tendons well back . . . . 2 .... 
 
 35. Pasterns, long, not so oblique as in front (about 
 
 50), strong 3 .... 
 
 36. Feet, medium size, even, round, straight; slope 
 
 parallel to pastern; sole concave; bars strong; 
 frog large, elastic; heel wide, full, 1-3 length 
 toe; horn dense, smooth 4 .... 
 
 37. Legs, properly placed, according to description in 
 
 draft horse score card 4 
 
 F ACTION, 16 Points: 
 
 38. Walk, straight, snappy, balanced 6 
 
 39. Trot, in line, bold, flashy, strong flexion of knees 
 
 and hocks, balanced, regular 10 
 
 Total . 100 
 
HORSES OF HEAVY HARNESS TYPE 
 
 151 
 
 The general appearance of a heavy harness horse, win -n 
 in good condition, shows smooth, graceful body lines, with 
 a general fullness in all the parts. The height should be 
 about 16 hands and the weight from 1,100 to 1,250 pounds 
 for geldings or mares. Stallions will usually range from 
 1,250 to 1,550, according to breed. In quality the coacher 
 should be superior, showing the best of feet, bone and hair. 
 Action of the very best, high and strong at both knees and 
 hock, is important, while graceful carriage is equally es- 
 sential. In general appearance the best type of coach 
 
 Fig. M. "Showing much of symmotry and style." 
 
 horse shows a long, arching neck, round full body, long 
 level croup, high carriage of tail, and what- is known as a 
 1 ' coachy ' ' or " trappy ' ' action. The coach horse is expected 
 to travel about eight miles an hour at a trot. It is used 
 mainly about large towns or cities^ and attached to a 
 brougham or ordinary coach. Coach horses are more com- 
 monly driven as pairs or fours. In dealing with the indi- 
 vidual points, one will notice that the score cards of each 
 type resemble one another in various particulars, both in 
 description and values. 
 
152 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 The form of the heavy harness horse should be rather 
 compact, full and well smoothed over in all the parts, and 
 showing much of symmetry and style. There should be 
 just enough of condition to give a well turned effect. 
 
 Quality in the heavy harness horse is regarded as of 
 much importance. General refinement and finish must be 
 apparent, for coarseness is a serious defect in this kind of 
 horse, and affects values in a marked degree. Therefore the 
 features of the head should be clearly defined, and the 
 joints, bones and tendons show quality. 
 
 The temperament of the heavy harness horse should 
 appear active, yet well under control, as seen in an ani- 
 mated, proud carriage of head, associated with the best of 
 manners, both at rest and in action. Such a temperament 
 shows more restraint than in the case of the light harness 
 horse, yet does not lack in nervous force. 
 
 The neck of the heavy harness horse should be long, 
 of lofty carriage, with some arch, and merge smoothly with 
 head and shoulders. A certain degree of fullness of neck, 
 trim in outline, combined with length and arch, are quite 
 characteristic of this type. A heavy harness horse, with 
 such a neck, should need little assistance from the check, 
 to present a bold and lofty front. A short, thick neck 
 should meet with disfavor on the part of the judge. 
 
 The shoulders of the heavy harness type should be long, 
 oblique and smoothly laid in. Such conformation not only 
 plays its part in furnishing correct action, but also meets 
 the demand of the critic for attractive lines. A rough, 
 straight, prominent shoulder produces a hard gait and a 
 most undesirable appearance. 
 
 The body of the heavy harness horse exhibits a round- 
 ness and fullness of outline much more marked than in 
 the case of the light harness type. There is more thickness 
 of body, with depressions filled in and points smoothed over, 
 thus giving an appearance of condition and finish that is 
 very attractive. The withers are carried high, and extend 
 back well, but are somewhat thicker and more heavily 
 
HORSES OF HEAVY HARNESS TYPE 
 
 153 
 
 muscled than with the light trotter or pacer. The chest 
 girth must be full and the flanks low and well filled out. 
 The hindquarters of the heavy harness horse have 
 marked characteristics when of correct conformation. The 
 hips are smooth and neatly placed; the croup long, wide 
 and nearly level; the tail is attached high, and is often 
 carried with a stylish arch which gives a jaunty effect. 
 
 Fig. 82. "The knees flexed strongly and the movement one of balance and 
 energy." (Courtesy Mr. S. L. Howe, British Columbia.) 
 
 While the depressed croup with the light harness type is 
 quite common, and is not always viewed with disfavor, a 
 steep croup with the heavy harness type is generally re- 
 garded as highly undesirable. The thighs of the coach 
 horse possess a certain degree of plumpness, in keeping with 
 the general smoothness of body, while the gaskins are also 
 relatively thick, in keeping with the character of thighs. 
 Judges should emphasize especially the importance of the 
 
154 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Fig. 83. "While this method of movement is most showy and stylish, 
 it is not serviceable action for a road horse." (Courtesy Mr. S. L. Howe, 
 British Columbia.) 
 
 above features, as essentials in conformation of this type: 
 The action of the heavy harness horse is of prime im- 
 portance. The walk should be perfectly straight, the feet 
 carried in a direct line, the knees flexed strongly, and the 
 movement one of balance and energy. At the trot the knees 
 and hocks should be carried very high, giving a gait expres- 
 sive of much motion. There is less extension of limbs than 
 with trotter or pacer, the reach being shorter. In this high 
 action of the front legs there is a gradual, well balanced 
 movement, and as the limbs unfold, the feet follow as it were 
 the arc of a circle. Such a horse is known as a high-stepper, 
 and his action, as already mentioned, is often termed 
 "trappy" or "coachy." In discussing the high-stepper in 
 action, the late Prof. John A. Craig well says, 1 "The 
 peculiarity of this action consists in lifting the knees in- 
 ordinately high and flexing the hocks so that they come 
 close to the body and keep the legs well under it. From 
 
 1 Judging Live Stock, 6th ed., 1904, p. 16. 
 
HORSES OF HEAVY HARNESS TYPE l.V) 
 
 the standpoint of action alone, the higher the knees and the 
 hocks are lifted, the more valuable is the horse, provided the 
 lype and other features more common are equally satisfac- 
 tory. The feet must be thrown forward without any dish- 
 ing on either side, and the hocks must pass each other close 
 and in line with the forward movement. It is easy to under- 
 stand that while this method of movement is the most showy 
 and stylish, it is not serviceable action for a road horse. 
 The front legs soon succumb to the heavy concussion they 
 would be called upon to stand under heavy driving. But 
 tills action is sought only in the horse that is used for drives 
 about the city where style is paramount to speed and 
 stamina. While it is recognized that the high-stepper 
 should have as many as possible of the other qualities of 
 excellence in addition to high action, yet all others are con- 
 sidered of minor value among horses of this class. 'All- 
 around action only to be considered,' is the current phrase 
 in the prize lists that provide classes for competition 
 among the high-steppers, which means a combination of 
 shoulder, knee and hock action." Judges should carefully 
 study the action from the three points of vantage, front, 
 rear and side, and place a proper premium on all these 
 
 Fig. 84. "Such horses are now infrequent, though they are still to be seen 
 at the horse shows." (Courtesy The Pictorial News.) 
 
156 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS' 
 
 phases. Prior to the introduction of the automobile, coach 
 horses with action of the above type, arrayed in heavy har- 
 ness, attached to a showy and heavy coach or carriage, was 
 a common sight in and about every important city in 
 Europe and America. Such horses are now infrequent, 
 though they are still to be seen at the horse shows to some 
 extent, exhibited by a limited clientage of interested horse- 
 men. 
 
 The Park horse is a coach horse of the smaller class, in 
 which is found typical heavy harness conformation and a 
 very flashy style of action. This sub-class represents the 
 finest of the smaller coach horses, weighing 1,000 to 1,150 
 pounds, and standing from 15 to 15% hands high. The 
 action of the Park horse should be extremely high, with the 
 best of balance, and the limbs moving in perfect rhythm. 
 Such horses are uncommon, and in times past have been in 
 strong demand. Park horses are commonly driven singly, 
 or in pairs, and occasionally in fours. They are attached 
 to light pleasure vehicles, such as phaetons, gigs, park drags 
 and Victorias. 
 
 The Cob horse is a small, compact animal, a sub-class of 
 heavy harness type, just a degree too large to be classed as 
 a pony. His full, compact form has come to be known as 
 "cobby," which term expresses his general conformation. 
 He stands from 14^4 to 15^4 hands high, and weighs 900 
 to 1,100 pounds. The Cob has a very smart gait, with high 
 action and a fair amount of reach. In England and "Wales 
 one sees many of these horses, especially "Welch Cobs, that 
 show great speed and endurance on country roads. They 
 are commonly hitched singly to comparatively heavy carts, 
 which they draw with apparent ease. They are also used 
 on light broughams or phaetons. 
 
 The Runabout horse combines features of conformation 
 of a small, heavy harness horse, with more of the action of 
 the light harness horse. In fact he is classed by some 
 authorities as a light harness horse, and by others as a 
 heavy harness type. This horse stands from 14% to 
 
HORSES OF HEAVY HARNESS TYPE 157 
 
 hands high, and weighs 900 to 1,050 pounds. He is not 
 quite so stocky as the Cob, and also lacks his trappy action. 
 This is a handy small driver, adapted to a variety of con- 
 ditions, easily handled, and valued on the market at a 
 modest price. 
 
 The Hackney horse had its early development in eastern 
 
 Fig. 85. Hackney stallion, "Gentleman John," a famous champion. (Photo 
 by Schreiber & Sons.) 
 
 England, especially the counties of Suffolk and Norfolk. 
 Hackneys are to-day common in England, but hardly so 
 in America. It is a breed that varies much in size, ranging 
 from a pony to a good-sized carriage horse. "Whether pony 
 or full-sized horse, Hackney characteristics are very dis- 
 tinctive. The standard horse of the breed stands about 
 15!/2 hands high. The color is commonly some shade of 
 chestnut, with bays and browns not uncommon. A Hack- 
 
158 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 ney of good type has a well proportioned, attractive head, 
 of breedy character ; a long, arching neck ; a strong, short 
 back and well turned rib ; long, wide, level croup, and full, 
 rounded thighs; short, clean-cut legs and good feet. The 
 Hackney is famous for his high-stepping gait, which is 
 often very pronounced, the flexing of knee and hock being 
 carried to an extreme. The popularity of this heavy har- 
 ness horse is due to its flash action. A high carriage of the 
 knee, and short extension of the leg results in an abrupt- 
 ness of concussion that is anything but the poetry of mo- 
 tion, and punishes the feet in an undesirable degree. 
 
 Fig. 86. French Coach stallion, "Decorateur." (Photo by E. H. Mickle.) 
 
 The French Coach horse originated in France, where it 
 is known as the Demi-Sang (Half -Blood). French Coach 
 horses have gone much out of favor in America, and but 
 few are to be seen in this country. They are usually bay, 
 brown or chestnut, although there are other colors. They 
 
HORSES OF II 
 
 HARNESS TYPE 
 
 159 
 
 stand about 16 hands high and weigh from 1,200 to 1,400 
 pounds. These horses are much like other typical carriage; 
 horses in style and appearance, though their action is not 
 so high and short as the Hackney. 
 
 Fig. 87. German Coach Horse. (Courtesy American Agriculturist.) 
 
 The German Coach horse originated in northwestern 
 Germany, in the Oldenburg and Hanover provinces. This 
 is the largest of the heavy harness breeds, standing from 
 16 to 16i/o hands, and the stallions frequently weighing 
 about 1,500 pounds. Bay, brown, or black are the common 
 colors, especially the two former. This is a breed of some 
 grossness, being heavy of bone and joint, and lacking in 
 action, as compared with the Hackney. Horses of this 
 breed are not popular in America. 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 JUDGING THE SADDLE TYPE OF HORSE. 
 
 Type and character with the saddle horse varies con- 
 siderably according to breeding. The Thoroughbred is the 
 oldest pure bred saddle horse other than the Arab, and 
 while comparatively little used to-day in America, it is very 
 common in certain European countries, especially Great 
 Britain. A class of horses, known as Hunters, quite vari- 
 able in type and breeding, are also extensively used for the 
 saddle in Europe. In fact light horses are commonly used 
 for the saddle in various parts of the world, that vary 
 greatly in ancestry, and more or less in type. So it may 
 be assumed that there is not the uniformity of type with 
 the saddle horse that some might think. In the United 
 States a distinct breed, known as the American Saddle horse, 
 with a strong foundation of Thoroughbred blood, has been 
 developed and improved to a high standard of excellence. 
 The widespread distribution of this breed in America, its 
 pre-eminence for the saddle, and its well established type, 
 justifies using it as the standard for special study of saddle 
 horse conformation. 
 
 SCORE CARD FOR SADDLE HORSE OF AMERICAN TYPE. 
 
 Standard of Score of 
 SCALE OF POINTS Perfect Horse 
 
 Score Studied 
 A GENERAL APPEARANCE, 12 Points: 
 
 1. Height, Estimated hands Actual hands . . . . .... 
 
 2. Weight, 1,050 to 1,150 pounds 
 
 3. Form, close but not full made, deep but not broad 
 
 symmetrical 
 
 4. Quality, bone clean, dense, fine, yet indicating sub 
 
 stance; tendons and joints sharply defined 
 
 hide and hair fine ; general refinement, finish . 
 5. Temperament, active, disposition good, intelligent. 
 
 160 
 
THE SADDLE TYPE OF HOHSK 161 
 
 Standard of Score of 
 
 SCALE OP POINTS Perfect Horse- 
 
 Score Studied 
 B HEAD AND NECK, 8 Points: 
 
 6. Head, size and dimensions in proportion, clear-cut 
 
 features, straight face line, wide angle in lower 
 
 jaw 1 .... 
 
 7. Forehead, broad, full 1 .... 
 
 8. Eyes, prominent orbit, large, full, bright, clear, lid 
 
 thin, even curvature 1 .... 
 
 9. Muzzle, fine, nostrils large, lips thin, trim, even . . 1 .... 
 
 10. Ears, medium si/c, pointed, set close, carried alert 1 .... 
 
 11. Neck long, simple, well crested, not carried too high, 
 
 throttle well cut out, head well set on . . . . 3 .... 
 
 C FOREHAND, 22 Points: 
 
 12. Shoulders, very long, sloping yet muscular . . . . 3 .... 
 
 13. Arms, short, muscular, carried well forward . . . . 1 .... 
 
 14. Forearms, long, broad, muscular 1 .... 
 
 15. Knees, straight, wide, deep, strongly supported . . 2 .... 
 
 16. Cannons, short, broad, flat; tendons sharply defined, 
 
 set well back 2 .... 
 
 17. Fetlocks wide; tendons well back, straight, well 
 
 supported .... 
 
 18. Pasterns, long, oblique (45), smooth, strong .. 2 .... 
 
 19. Feet, large, round, uniform, straight, slope of wall 
 
 parallel to slope of pastern; sole concave; bars 
 strong; frog large, elastic; heels wide, full, 1-3 
 height length of toe; horn dense, smooth, dark 
 color 5 .... 
 
 20. Legs, properly placed, according to description in 
 
 draft horse score card 4 .... 
 
 D BODY, 12 Points: 
 
 21. Withers, high, muscular, well finished at top, ex- 
 
 tending well into back 3 .... 
 
 22. Chest, medium width, deep 2 .... 
 
 23. Bibs, well sprung, long, close 2 .... 
 
 24. Back, short, straight, strong, broad 2 .... 
 
 25. Loin, short, broad, muscular, strongly coupled . . 2 .... 
 
 26. Flanks, deep, full, long, low underline 1 
 
 E HINDQUARTERS, 31 Points: 
 
 27. Hips, broad, round, smooth 2 
 
 28. Croup, long, level, round, smooth 2 .... 
 
 29. Tail, set high, well carried 2 .... 
 
 30. Thighs, full, muscular 2 .... 
 
 31. Stifles, broad, full, muscular 2 .... 
 
 32. Gaskins, broad, muscular. 2 .... 
 
 33. Hocks, straight, wide, point prominent, deep, clean- 
 
 cut, smooth, well supported . . 5 .... 
 
 34. Cannons, short, broad, flat, tendons sharply defined, 
 
 set well back .... 
 
 35. Fetlocks, wide, tendons well back, straight, well 
 
 supported 2 .... 
 
 36. Pasterns, long, oblique (50), smooth, strong .. 2 .... 
 
162 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 SCALE OP POINTS 
 
 37. Feet, not quite 
 
 Standard of 
 Perfect 
 Score 
 so large as in front, not quite so 
 
 Score of 
 Horse 
 Studied 
 
 round, otherwise comparable ........ 
 
 ,'?8. Legs, properly placed, according to description in 
 
 draft horse score card .......... 
 
 'ACTION, 15 Points: 
 ;!9. Walk, rapid, flat footed, in line ........ 
 
 10. Trot, free, springy, square; going well off hocks; not 
 
 extreme knee fold ............ 
 
 41. Canter, slow, collected, either lead, no cross canter 
 
 Total . . 100 
 
 Fig. 88. "Stylish carriage is also highly characteristic of this type." 
 {From photograph by courtesy American Breeder.) 
 
 A study of the saddle horse scale of points, 1 shows a. very 
 close relationship to that for the light harness horse. The 
 differences are slight, and are not entirely of conformation. 
 In size and height there is no essential difference. In form 
 the saddle horse is not so angular as the light harness horse, 
 being smoother turned and more symmetrical. Quality is 
 an important feature of the saddler, more emphasis being 
 assigned to it than with other light types of horses. Stylish 
 
 1 Adapted from Principles and Practices of Live Stock Judging Carl W 
 Gay, 1914, p. 72. 
 
THE SADDLE TYPE OF HORSE 163 
 
 carriage is also highly characteristic of this type. Shows 
 of gaited saddlers in Kentucky and Missouri, where large 
 classes come together, are exhibitions of quality, style and 
 finish beyond compare. 
 
 The neck is a rather distinctive feature, being long, 
 supple and slightly arched, and carried neither high nor low, 
 yet with distinct grace. A sensitive relationship exists 
 between the mouth, neck and reins. A long, supple neck 
 between the rider's reins, furnishes in the process of guid- 
 ance a more flexible connecting link between mouth and 
 hand, than a short, stiff neck. Three points are given to 
 the neck of the saddle horse as compared with two for the 
 light harness horse. 
 
 The shoulders of the saddle horse should be long and 
 sloping, yet muscular. The long, oblique shoulder is a 
 necessity, to secure an easy gait, and saddle horse authori- 
 ties emphasize its importance, and three points instead of 
 two, as with the light harness type, are assigned this part 
 in the scale of points. 
 
 The body of the saddle horse should be moderately short, 
 deep and not too wide. It should be nicely turned, 
 strongly carried, and free of sag of back and weakness of 
 loins. There has been some tendency with the American 
 saddle horse to a lower carriage of back than is altogether 
 desirable. A neat yet not wide arch of rib is important in 
 a good saddle back, but sag of back is quite undesirable 
 inasmuch as this part of the horse must be able to sustain 
 a weight of at least 160 pounds. 
 
 The croup of the saddle horse is one of its noteworthy 
 features. As expressed in the scale of points, it should be 
 long, level, round and smooth. The long, strong muscling 
 of the hindquarters bespeaks a well supported back, and 
 is related to a leg development behind that indicates power- 
 ful action, and the capacity to get over the ground with 
 ease. A side view shows the croup carried out with slight 
 downward curve, or having what is often termed a level 
 carriage. From the rear the croup is neatly rounded over 
 
164 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 the sides, being free 
 of the squareness 
 seen on draft 
 horses. The judge 
 should place a 
 proper emphasis on 
 the conformation 
 of the croup. 
 
 The tail of the 
 saddle horse is at- 
 tached and carried 
 high in the case of 
 the American type, 
 it being one of the 
 attractive features 
 of the breed. While 
 the docked saddle 
 horse in Europe 
 is a common sight, 
 length of tail is 
 
 Fig. 89. "In the American Saddle horse a 
 full length of tail is regarded as an attraction." 
 (From photo by courtesy American Breeder.) 
 
 T. 
 
 Fig. 90. "The gaited sa 
 sesses five different gaits." 
 Breeder.) 
 
 in the American saddle horse a full 
 regarded as an attraction rather than 
 otherwise. Carried 
 with a slight arch 
 at its setting, it 
 hangs behind in 
 what is known as 
 ( i flowing ' ' form, an 
 evidence of breed- 
 ing, and an attrac- 
 tive part of a beau- 
 tiful horse. 
 
 The action of the 
 saddle horse is, in 
 truth, its most im- 
 p or tan t feature. 
 The American sad- 
 dle horse is also re- 
 ferred to sometimes 
 
 (Courtesy American 
 
THE SADDLE TYPE OF HORSE 
 
 165 
 
 as the "gaited saddle horse/' for the reason that 
 it possesses five different gaits, namely: (a) walk; 
 (b) running walk or fox trot, or slow pace; (c) trot; 
 (d) canter; (e) rack. These several gaits have already 
 been described on pages 48-60. There are some special 
 features valued in this type of saddle horse. The action 
 should be frank and easy, with a minimum of friction con- 
 nected with it. A 
 superior horse of 
 this type that is 
 well trained, will 
 not mix his gaits, 
 but will keep them 
 properly separated. 
 On signal from his 
 rider he changes 
 from one gait to 
 another, otherwise 
 remaining con- 
 stant. A graceful, 
 easy, sure move- 
 ment of the limbs, 
 with not too much 
 knee or hock action 
 is desired, with a 
 certain springy character universally admired in this 
 horse. Nevertheless, one sees saddlers that possess con- 
 siderable action, that as combination horses under 
 saddle or in harness make an attractive show. How- 
 ever, the high-stepping character of the Hackney is 
 but of place here. The official definition 2 of the five- 
 gaited horse, specifies that he ' * should go the running walk, 
 fox trot or slow pace, smoothly and equal to six miles an 
 hour; rack easily without being forced, with speed equal 
 to twelve miles an hour, must stand quietly, back readily, 
 
 2 Show Ring Classification. American Saddle Horse Breeders' Association, 
 Adopted April, 1910. 
 
 Fig. 91. "Not too much knee or hock action is 
 desired." (Courtesy American Breeder.) 
 
166 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Fig. 92. "One sees saddlers that possess consid- 
 erable action." (Courtesy American Breeder.) 
 
 and canter. This 
 horse lacks the uni- 
 formity of breed- 
 ing of the five- 
 gaited horse, for 
 he may be of 
 Thoroughbred, 
 Hunter, or Ameri- 
 can saddle horse 
 ancestry. He may 
 closely resemble the 
 five-gaited in type, 
 or vary consider- 
 ably from it. Ae- 
 cording to the 
 American Saddle 
 Horse Breeders ' 
 Association, the 
 three-gaited horse 
 should g o plain 
 
 and lead with either 
 foot in a canter 
 from a halt." Stu- 
 dents of the saddle 
 horse are also offi- 
 c i a 1 1 y informed 
 that "high rate of 
 speed and racing 
 is forbidden." 
 
 The three-gaited 
 saddle horse, also 
 known as the 
 " plain - gaited 
 horse," possesses 
 but three gaits, 
 namely, walk, trot 
 
 Fig. 93. American Saddle horse "Edna Mae," 
 a noted show mare. Mr. Matt S. Cohen up. 
 (Courtesy American Agriculturist.) 
 
THE SADDLE TYPE OF HORSE 167 
 
 walk, briskly and with speed equal to four miles an 
 hour; canter reasonably high and gentle, trot steadily, 
 straight and true; action enough to be attractive; well 
 balanced and with speed equal to twelve miles an 
 hour." 
 
 The American Saddle Horse is a product resulting orig- 
 inally from the use of Thoroughbred stallions on the com- 
 mon mares of Virginia and Kentucky. From this early 
 ancestry, dating back to the importation in 1832 of the 
 Thoroughbred horse Hedgeford, has been evolved the 
 American saddle horse breed. Hedgeford sired a stallion 
 named Denmark, foaled in 1839, that is officially credited 
 with being the foundation sire of this breed. The American 
 saddle horse of standard character stands about 15iX> hands 
 high, and weighs from 950 to 1,050 pounds. His color is 
 commonly bay, brown or chestnut. This horse has been 
 bred to a degree that exhibits much style and finish. The 
 head is refined in feature and shows much character ; the 
 neck is long and supple and beautifully arched; the body 
 moderately long, round, and well turned; the croup long 
 and level; the tail set high and proudly carried. The legs 
 show superior bone and muscling, and the pasterns are 
 long and springy. One finds in this horse at his best, a 
 combination of symmetry and balance of form, and grace- 
 ful, easy action of a very high degree.. 
 
 The Thoroughbred horse originated in England. It is 
 not only the oldest of British breeds, but the purest in 
 ancestry. For these reasons the Thoroughbred reproduces 
 with unusual uniformity. The more common colors are 
 bay, brown and chestnut, but black, gray and roan also 
 occur. The height is not remarkably variable, 151/2 hands 
 meeting with favor. While the weight is variable, between 
 900 and 1,050 pounds is a satisfactory range. In conforma- 
 tion we find the essential features of the light harness horse, 
 but with certain characteristics distinctive of this breed. 
 The head should be lean and fine, and very breedy in char- 
 acter ; the neck is usually long and thin ; the shoulders are 
 
168 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 very long and slope well into the back; the croup is long 
 and wide and more level than with the trotter or pacer. 
 The foreleg should be muscular and strong in arm and 
 long and wide in the forearm. The hindquarter of the 
 Thoroughbred is long, level, strongly muscled and exhibits 
 great driving power. The pasterns are long and springy, 
 and the bone and feet of excellent texture. Compared with 
 
 Fig. 1)4. A Thoroughbred horse, champion at Virginia State Fair. 
 
 the American trotter, the Thoroughbred is longer of neck, 
 body and limbs, has a straighter carriage of hind legs, 
 stands somewhat higher behind, and displays a greater 
 uniformity of breed character and quality. Aside from a 
 walk, his natural gait is a gallop, in which he excels all 
 other horses. He also has great capacity for high jumping. 
 In temperament the Thoroughbred is very nervous and 
 
THE SADDLE TYPE OF HORSE 169 
 
 mettlesome, oftentimes being impetuous to a degree and 
 hard to control. Among the more common deficiencies of 
 the breed is too slack and rangy a form, and too great length 
 of leg, resulting in what is known as a "weed" in Great 
 Britain. 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 PONY TYPES. 
 
 PONIES vary greatly in conformation, yet the fact that 
 they are diminutive horses, classifies them as ponies, any- 
 thing under 1414 hands (57 inches) being usually regarded 
 as such. There are many breeds of ponies, but of those 
 known in America the Shetland is the only one at all com- 
 mon among the so-called improved breeds. This, in its 
 best form, is a miniature heavy harness horse with a strong 
 tendency to draft character. The Welch and Hackney 
 ponies are of the heavy harness type, with very pronounced 
 high action. The Arabian is a pony of the American saddle 
 horse type, without its extreme characteristics. 
 
 The judging of the Shetland pony is usually based on 
 the standard or scale of points of the American Shetland 
 Pony Club, which is as follows: 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS FOB SHETLAND PONY. 
 
 \ Points 
 ^ Constitution indicated by general healthy appearance, perfect respira- 
 tion, brightness of eyes 10 
 
 Size Ponies over four years old, 42 inches and under in height; two 
 points to be deducted for every inch over 42 inches up to 46 inches, 
 fractional portions to count as full inches 25 
 
 Head, symmetrical, rather small and fine, wide between eyes, ears short 
 
 and erect 10 
 
 Body Barrel well rounded, back short and level, deep chested, good 
 
 breast, compact, "pony build" 10 
 
 Legs, muscular, flat boned, hind legs not cow-hocked or too crooked . . 25 
 
 Mane and tail Foretop, mane and tail heavy 10 
 
 Feet, good 10 
 
 Total 100 
 
 170 
 
PONY TYPES 171 
 
 This score card is not ideal and needs revising, but thus 
 far it is the only official standard in use. It will be noted 
 that emphasis is placed on size and legs, each of these fea- 
 tures scoring twenty-five points. Size is certainly a very 
 important factor, and as a rule the smaller sized pony 
 meets with most approval. The legs of the pony should be 
 muscular and assume positions to conform to the standard 
 expressed in the scale of points of the draft horse. Judges 
 should discriminate especially against crooked hocks. A 
 neatly turned foot, of good size, wide and high at the heel 
 is desirable. Quality should be emphasized by the Shet- 
 land pony judge, and an abundance of fine hair should 
 cover the body. In cool weather this coat will be shaggy 
 and rough in appearance, a characteristic of the Shetland. 
 The thick, heavy coat of hair is a great protection to this 
 pony during the wintry months. 
 
 The modern type of Shetland pony differs somewhat 
 from that of years ago, when drafty conformation was 
 carried to an extreme. Now more real grace of- form, 
 quality and action is demanded. Referring to the subject 
 of type, a well-known British authority thus discusses the 
 Shetland: 1 "At present, things are somewhat in a transi- 
 tion stage, which causes confusion in the minds of some 
 people as to what is the correct type. "When the show 
 career of the sheltie first commenced, the best paying de- 
 mand was undoubtedly for the pits, and the aim was to get 
 the biggest possible bulk as near the ground as possible, 
 while symmetry and true action had to take a secondary 
 place. Fortunately for the breed, however, the advent of 
 the foreign demand has created a higher standard. Beauty 
 of shape and smart, well carried head counts for more than 
 it used to, and true, close and springy action is deemed 
 essential. Occasionally, however, when a judge full of the 
 old traditions officiates, the prizes will go to ponies with 
 huge bodies on abnormally short legs, suggestive of moles, 
 
 1 Ponies and All About Them. Frank T. Barton, London, 1911, p. 218. 
 
172 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Fig. 95. "The modern type of Shetland Pony differs somewhat from that of 
 years ago, when drafty conformation was carried to an extreme." 
 
 and no doubt most valuable to drag a hutch in the low 
 galleries of a coal mine, but absolutely unsuited for a 
 child's saddle pony. At the very next show, perhaps^ the 
 opposite type gets the preference, which naturally creates 
 confusion in the minds of those who are not fully con- 
 versant with the show history of the breed." Judges of 
 Shetlands should take note of the fact that good form 
 requires that they be shown in full growth of hair on 
 body, mane and foretop, and with natural length of tail. 
 The Shetland is used both under saddle, and in harness 
 hitched to pony cart or appropriate four-wheeled vehicle. 
 The Welch pony type varies to a considerable degree. 
 So much so that the Welch Pony and Cob Society, in order 
 
PONY TYPES 
 
 173 
 
 to set at rest more or less controversy on this subject, classi- 
 fied these ponies into four groups or sections, A, B, C, D. 
 In section A, part one, ponies must not exceed 12 hands 
 high, show Thoroughbred type and not be docked or have 
 mane or foretop close cut, while in part two, they may 
 range up to 121/2 hands, and be more " cobby" of conforma- 
 tion, and be docked or hog-maned. In section B the rules 
 allow heights from 12y hands to 131/4 hands ; in section C 
 from 1314 to 141/0 hands, while in D there is no height 
 limit. The larger animals of this breed standing 141/2 
 hands or more, are known as cobs. Barton has attempted 
 to emphasize some of the more essential features of a 
 "typical Welch pony/' which are as follows: A small, 
 clean-cut head, wide between the eyes, and muzzle tapering 
 and free from bluntness. Small, well placed ears, thin in 
 their cartilage, and carried close and erect, together with 
 full eyes, constitute points of beauty in the region of the 
 
 Fig. 96. A Welsh pony. 
 
174 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 head. The set-on and carriage of the head is equally im- 
 portant. The Thoroughbred type of neck is better than 
 one too short or too thick. A short coupled, strong back 
 and loins, with long, fine, compact quarters, a deep girtli 
 and fine shoulders, are requisite features. Particular at- 
 tention should be paid to the limbs, and above all to the 
 
 action. The latter 
 should be quick, 
 free and straight 
 from the shoulder, 
 the knees and hocks 
 well flexed with 
 straight and pow- 
 erful leverage of 
 the hocks well un- 
 der the body. There 
 should be such 
 bending of the 
 knees and hocks 
 as will not sacri- 
 fice pace and 
 power. 
 
 The Hackney pony type is distinctly a small heavy 
 harness horse, of pure Hackney ancestry, but standing 141^ 
 or less hands high. The most exacting standards of heavy 
 horse conformation are required of this pony, that has been 
 termed an "equine bantam." In the case of this type, 
 style and action are given great prominence, surpassing 
 that of all other ponies. The high, trappy gait is found 
 here in the extreme, and judges should strongly emphasize 
 its importance, both at walk and trot. The action should 
 be true and rhythmical, the knees and hocks carried high, 
 but the limbs extended in only moderate degree, without the 
 long reach associated with the greatest speed. Good man- 
 ners are an important qualification of the Hackney pony, 
 and should be considered by the judge. Hackney ponies 
 are universally shown docked. 
 
 Fig. 97. "The Hackney pony type is distinctly a 
 small, heavy harness horse." 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 JUDGING JACKS AND JENNETS. 
 
 THE jack is the male of the ass, and the jennet is the 
 female. It cannot be said that they are common in America, 
 excepting in certain sections, where the jack rather than 
 the jennet is especially valued. The jack is used for breed- 
 ing to mares, the resulting progeny of which is the mule. 
 There is no special object in mating jack to jennet in 
 America, except it be with the final purpose of producing 
 high class jacks to be used in producing mules. The use 
 of the jack in this connection is rather widespread, but is 
 more especially limited to the southern United States. Mis- 
 souri, Kentucky and Tennessee have special distinction for 
 the production of jacks, jennets and mules. 
 
 SCORE CARD FOR THE JACK, CATALONIAN OR 
 AMERICAN TYPE. 
 
 Standard of Score of 
 SCALE OF POINTS Perfect Jack 
 
 Score Studied 
 A GENERAL APPEARANCE, 18 Points; 
 
 1. Height, at maturity, 15 to 16 hands 4 
 
 2. Weight, at maturity, 1,050 to 1,150 pounds . . . . 4 
 
 3. Form, broad, deep, symmetrical, smooth 4 .... 
 
 4. Quality, bone large, clean, strong; hair fine, abundant 4 
 
 5. Temperament, active ; disposition good 2 .... 
 
 B HEAD AND NECK, 11 Points: 
 
 6. Head, well proportioned, strong of frame, nose 
 
 slightly Roman . . , 4 
 
 7. Forehead, broad, full 1 .... 
 
 8. Eyes, of good size, prominent, clear 1 
 
 9. Muzzle, broad, yet fine and lips thin and even ; nos- 
 
 trils large 1 
 
 10. Ears, long (33 inches or more between tips at ma- 
 
 turity), pointed, not too wide set apart, alert . . 2 
 
 11. Neck, long, muscled, throat-latch defined, head well 
 
 set on 2 .... 
 
 175 
 
176 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Standard of Score of 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS Perfect Jack 
 
 Scored Studied 
 C FOREHAND, 21 Points: 
 
 12. Shoulders, oblique, smooth 2 .... 
 
 13. Arms, short, wide, muscular, well set 2 .... 
 
 14. Forearm, long, wide, heavily muscled 2 .... 
 
 15. Knees, wide, deep, strong, well supported . . . . 2 .... 
 
 16. Cannons, short, wide, clean; tendons defined . . . . 2 .... 
 
 17. Fetlocks, wide, straight, clean 1 .... 
 
 18. Pasterns, sloping (about 45), strong, clean . . . . 2 .... 
 
 19. Feet, large, round, uniform; slope of wall parallel 
 
 to slope pastern; sole concave; bars strong; 
 frog prominent, elastic ; heel wide, high ; horn 
 dense 8 .... 
 
 D BODY, 13 Points: 
 
 20. Withers, well defined, smooth, muscular 2 
 
 21. Chest, wide, deep, girth large 3 
 
 22. Ribs, well sprung, long, close 3 
 
 23. Back, short, well carried, muscular 2 
 
 24. Loin, short, wide, thickly muscled 2 
 
 25. Flanks, low, well filled out; underline l^ng, low .. 1 
 
 E HINDQUARTERS, 27 Points: 
 
 26. Hips, smooth, well covered 
 
 27. Croup, Iciig, wide, not steep, muscular 3 
 
 28. Thighs, thick, deep, muscular, .not too close . . . . '> 
 
 29. Stifles, wide, well muscled, prominent, clean. ... 2 
 
 30. Gaskins, long, wide, muscular 3 
 
 31. Hocks, straight, wide, large, strong, not meaty, 
 
 clean cut, well set 3 
 
 32. Cannons, short, wide, clean; tendons well d;v1n,d . . 
 
 33. Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, clean 1 
 
 34. Pasterns, sloping (about 50), straight, clean, show- 
 
 ing no knuckling 2 
 
 35. Feet, medium size, uniform, straight, slope wall 
 
 parallel to slope pastern; sole concave; bars 
 strong ; frog prominent, elastic ; heel wide, 
 high ; horn dense, smooth 6 
 
 F ACTION, 10 Points: 
 
 36. Walk, straight, stride long, elastic ,"> 
 
 37. Trot, straight, long, free, regular, snappy .... 5 
 
 Total points 100 .... 
 
 The general appearance of the jack largely depends upon 
 the breed and ancestry. There are considerable variations 
 in size, color and other characteristics that breeders value. 
 There has been in the past much lack of uniformity in the 
 jacks used by American breeders, and many inferior indi- 
 viduals have been in service. In general, the jack should 
 have a conformation very closely related to that of the 
 horse, excepting in certain details. The striking differ- 
 
JUDGING JACKS AND JENNETS 177 
 
 Fig. 98. "In general the jack should have a conformation very closely 
 related to that of the horse." Show jack, Dr. Pettus, weighing 1,100 Ibs. 
 (Photo by courtesy Kentucky Agr. Exp. Station.) 
 
 ences are seen in the large head and prominent, long ears ; 
 in the mane and tail lacking in hair ; in the narrow, short 
 hindquarters, and in the long, coarse hair covering the 
 body. To be considered more in detail, from the judges 
 point of view, the following factors are to be kept in mind : 
 
 The height of the jack should range from 15 to 16 hands, 
 with 15VL> hands a popular height. At one time there was 
 greater demand for tall jacks than at present. The tall 
 jack is too likely to sire a leggy mule. 
 
 The weight of the jack should range at maturity from 
 900 to 1,200 pounds, with 1,050 to 1,150 as nearest ideal. 
 The above heights and weights combine to produce a size, 
 
178 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 which if mated to draft mares will produce the most desir- 
 able type of draft mule. Referring to fashioning the Ameri- 
 can jack, Anderson of Kentucky calls attention 1 to the fact 
 that the small mule is not demanded excepting to work in 
 the mines. The trade demands mules of size, well formed, 
 with good flesh and coat. The -jacks capable of siring such 
 are from 15 to 16 hands in height and weigh from 1,000 
 to 1,150 pounds. 
 
 The form of the jack should 
 be broad, deep, symmetrical 
 and smooth. Commenting on 
 the form as compared with that 
 of the horse, Curtis of North 
 Carolina, 2 states that "the 
 shoulders are not as sloping, 
 the ribs usually not as well 
 sprung, the hindquarters not 
 as well developed or muscled, 
 and there is not as much 
 definition, quality or refine- 
 ment in the bones and joints. 
 There is a general lack of 
 smoothness and co-ordination 
 of parts, although this is usu- 
 ally more apparent in the 
 head, neck and hindquar- 
 ters. ' ' The judge should seek 
 for as much balance of form 
 
 as possible, without wide variation from good conformation 
 in any part. 
 
 Quality in the jack is of prime importance, and more 
 and more stress is laid on the same. The bone should be 
 large, but clean and strong. The hair covering should be 
 abundant and fine. The French breeders of the Poitou 
 jack make much of a long, thick, fine coat of hair, regarding 
 
 Fig. 99. "There is a general 
 lack of smoothness and co-ordina- 
 1 ion of the parts." 
 
 1 "Breeders' Gazette," April 2, 1914. W. S. Anderson. 
 
 2 Fundamentals of Live Stock Judging, 1915, p. 183. 
 
JUDGING JACKS AND JENNETS 
 
 179 
 
 it as a most important evidence of quality. The jack natur- 
 ally carries a thick, long coat, and any lack in this respect 
 is undesirable. 
 
 The temperament of the jack is phlegmatic and he is 
 quiet to the extreme, in comparison with the horse. He 
 moves about se- 
 dately and exhib- 
 its a most stable 
 temperament. In 
 disposition the jack 
 is also mild and 
 quiet, with few bad 
 habits. 
 
 The head of the 
 jack is notable for 
 its comparatively, 
 large size, lack of 
 refinement and fine 
 proportions, and 
 long, large, rather 
 coarse, hairy ears. 
 The ears at matur- 
 ity should show at 
 least 33 inches be- 
 tween the extended 
 tips. They should 
 be pointed and car- 
 ried erect in alert 
 form. The head of 
 the jack is rather 
 deep from upper 
 to under side, and 
 the nose has a Roman curvature which adds to the heaviness 
 of appearance. 
 
 The forehand of the jack inclines to be somewhat erect 
 in the shoulder, the knee is large, the bone of the leg is 
 heavy and strong, and the feet are comparatively smaller 
 
 Fig. 100. "The ears at maturity should show at 
 least 33 inches between the extended tips." 
 
180 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 than with the horse. Hooper and Anderson state 3 that 
 the cannon bone should be 8 to 9% inches in circumference, 
 and specify that a jack 15% hands high, weighing 1,150 
 pounds, should measure not less than 9 inches below the 
 knee, and 9i/> inches are better. The feet incline to be 
 smaller and narrower than with the horse, the sole higher 
 and more arched. A large, shapely foot is greatly to be 
 desired. Probably the high arched sole contributes much 
 to the surefootedness of this animal when on steep mountain 
 pathways and roads. 
 
 The body of the jack is narrow, and lacks depth of rib. 
 Therefore the judge should place a premium on ample 
 width and depth of body, indicative of weight and draft 
 form. Hooper and Anderson recommend girth measure- 
 ment of from 68 to 72 inches about the chest and 66 to 70 
 inches about the loin and flank. Measurements given by 
 them of a two-year old jack, weighing 1,000 pounds, show 
 66 inches front girth and 72 inches hind girth. This was 
 an "extra high class " jack that sold for $1,500. The hind 
 flank naturally tends to be high, and it is important that 
 this part be so carried that the underline will be long and 
 low, indicative of feeding capacity and weight. 
 
 The hindquarters of the jack naturally tend to be short 
 and steep at the croup, and much more defective in con- 
 formation than in the horse. It is important that the croup 
 be long and wide, and carried as nearly level as possible, 
 but at the best, this will not compare with the well-turned 
 croup on a horse. The thighs also frequently lack in 
 thickness of muscle, and pare off into the gaskins, to pro- 
 duce what is sometimes termed a cat-hammed effect, which 
 is not at all ideal. The hocks are often crooked and there 
 is a tendency for them to stand somewhat close together, 
 with the feet so placed, that the toes point widely out. 
 There is also an inclinaion for the ass to stand with the 
 hind legs extending too far behind. The legs should come 
 
 3 Bulletin 176, Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station, Nov. 30, 1913. 
 I. Jack Stock of Kentucky. 
 
JUDGING JACKS AND JENNETS 
 
 181 
 
 down true and be well car- 
 ried. The hind legs appear 
 heavy for the size of the 
 animal and the joints 
 frequently seem, coarse. 
 Hooper and Anderson 
 state 4 that "the hock 
 should be from 18 to 21 
 inches in circumference, 
 while the gaskin should 
 measure close to 16 inches, 
 and the measurement of 
 rear cannon should ap- 
 proximate 10 inches in cir- 
 cumference. ' ' The hind 
 feet are smaller than the 
 front ones, and somewhat 
 steeper and narrower. The 
 hind legs of the jack are 
 not marked with "chest- 
 nuts/' as in the case of the 
 horse. 
 
 The action of the jack is 
 slow and not impressive. 
 No very great emphasis is 
 
 placed on this feature by most jack breeders. The fact is 
 that action is relatively as important with a jack as with a 
 stallion, and he should be given reasonable consideration 
 as to his trueness of stride and freedom of action. There- 
 fore the judge should study the gait of the jack as he would 
 that of the horse, though not emphasizing its importance in 
 the same degree. 
 
 A description of a show jack is given 5 by Mr. L. M. 
 Monsees, a noted Missouri breeder, in answer to a cor- 
 respondent desiring a description of such an animaL "A 
 
 4 Bulletin 176, Kentucky Ag. Ex. Station. 
 c Breeders' Gazette, March 2, 1910, p. 548. 
 
 Fig. 101. "The hocks are often 
 crooked and tliere is a tendency for 
 them to stand somewhat close to- 
 gether." 
 
182 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 show jack should be black with white marking, 15.2 to 16 
 hands tall, standard measure, and weigh from 950 to 1,200 
 pounds. He should have good length of body, good straight 
 back (or nearly so), well sprung rib, good underline and 
 good heart and flank measure, which should be about equal. 
 He should have a good set of legs and feet ; the foreleg 
 should be large in the arm and taper gradually to the foot, 
 and the hind legs should be wide and strong in the stifle, 
 also tapering to the foot, with wide flat hock and wide flat 
 bone from hock to ankle. The jack should have a good 
 long neck, well set in the shoulders and upward inclined 
 so he can get his head up like a high-styled horse. The 
 head should be long and bony with good eye bones and good 
 heavy jaw. The head should be straight or a little Roman. 
 The ears should be long, thin and keen, well set on the 
 head, and should be held up with style and vim. The jack 
 should have good action at the walk and trot, carrying his 
 feet well under the body and carrying the head high. He 
 should step along the same in the trot as in the walk." 
 Hooper and Anderson give the measurements of a "splendid 
 jack," which are in keeping with the above description. 
 This is a six-year old, weighing 1,155 pounds, standing 15 
 hands I 1 /? inches, that has won many championships in 
 Kentucky, and sold for $1,800. He is slightly calf -kneed 
 and crooked in the hocks. 
 
 Inches Inches 
 
 Tip to tip of ears . . . . 33 Girth at hind flank . . 72 
 
 Width between eyes . . 9 Girth of arm 1G 1 /, 
 
 Length of face (poll to Girth of knee 16 
 
 end of upper lip) . . 33 Girth of front cannon. . 9% 
 
 Girth of jaw and face . . 40 Girth of hind cannon . . 10 1 /., 
 
 Girth of neck. . .. .. 42 Girth of hock 19 
 
 Girth at fore flank .. 70 Total body length. . .. 84 
 
 The Catalonian jack is a breed from Catalonia, in north- 
 eastern Spain. It is a black or brown breed, the former 
 color predominating, with light points at muzzle, eyes and 
 belly. The average height is about 15 hands, although a 
 
JUDGING JACKS AND JF.NNETS 183 
 
 range from 14 to 16 hands occurs. This is the principal 
 breed used in America for mule breeding, being popular 
 on account of its style, beauty and action. The head shows 
 considerable refinement, the lines being well defined. The 
 large ears are generally carried erect and with animation. 
 The quality of the Catalonian is one of its striking fea- 
 
 Fig. 102. Catalonian jack, "Antar, Jr.," 217. First prize at World's 
 Columbian Exposition, 1893. 
 
 tures, the hair being thick and short, and the bone somewhat 
 refined but strong. It is a tough, wiry type, maturing early. 
 The Andalusian jack is a native of Andalusia, in southern 
 Spain. The prevailing color is gray, with rare examples 
 of black. Jacks stand from 14^ to IS 1 /^ hands, and some- 
 times higher. The head is of large size and yet not coarse. 
 The quality and size of bone and general substance are 
 excellent. In general, the Andalusian gives evidence of 
 
184 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 style and quality. It has never been a popular breed in 
 America, largely on account of its color, although many 
 of these jacks have been imported to this country. 
 
 The Maltese jack comes from the island of Malta in the 
 Mediterranean Sea. His color is either brown or black. 
 In size it is one of the smaller breeds, rarely exceeding a 
 
 Fig. 103. A prize-winning jennet at Virginia State Fair. 
 
 height of 14% hands. The head is well proportioned, with 
 sharp, upright ears of good quality. The Maltese jack has 
 a reputation for much life and vigor, but its small size and 
 refinement has made it unpopular in America. 
 
 The Majorca jack is a native of an island of this name in 
 the Mediterranean Sea off the coast of Spain. This is one 
 of the largest breeds of asses, having a drafty form, stand- 
 
JUDGING JACKS AND JENNKTS 
 
 IS.") 
 
 ing about 15-V hands high with head and cars of conspicu- 
 ous size, and possessing heavy bone. There is lack of style 
 and a sluggishness of action that has made unpopular the 
 introduction of the breed to America. These jacks are par- 
 ticularly valued in Spain for siring artillery mules. 
 The Poitou jack has been bred for centuries in western 
 
 Fig. 104. A Poitou jack exhibited at Paris Horse Show, 
 has a remarkable coat of hair." 
 
 'The Poitou 
 
 France, near the Bay of Biscay. This is the largest and 
 most powerful of the breeds of asses. The prevailing color 
 is black with light points, though grays occasionally occur, 
 but are not registered in France. While distinctly a draft 
 type, the Poitou does not stand especially high, probably 
 rarely exceeding 15 hands, but being rather low set, deep 
 bodied and very heavy of bone. The head is unusually 
 large, and the ears of great size. The neck is thick and 
 
18 6 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 powerful, the chest broad, and the knee and hock joints 
 large like a draft horse. The Poitou has a remarkable coat 
 of hair, being fine, long, ragged and matted, the French 
 breeder emphasizing the coat as evidence of quality and 
 merit. But few jacks of this breed have been brought to 
 America, but those that have been have met with a reason- 
 able amount of favor. 
 
CHAPTER XV. 
 
 JUDGING THE MULE. 
 
 THE mule varies greatly in size and type owing to the 
 wide difference in these features of the parents. There- 
 fore on market, mules are classified according to size, char- 
 acter and use. The most highly valued mule is of draft 
 mare parentage, and shows large size and fair quality. The 
 present consideration will relate to the larger, more drafty 
 
 Fit?. 105. "The most highly valued mule is of draft mare parentage." 
 (Photo by courtesy Illinois Agr. Exp. Station.) 
 
 187 
 
188 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 type of this animal. The mule in the northern United 
 States is regarded simply as a beast of burden, but many 
 farmers in the South drive them to buggies or light vehicles, 
 for pleasure or business, as occasion requires. The mule 
 trots at a fair speed and in a day will travel a long distance. 
 
 SCORE CAED FOR THE MULE. 
 
 X 
 
 Standard of Score of 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS Perfect Mule 
 
 Score Studied 
 A GENERAL APPEARANCE, 16 Points: 
 
 1. Height, Estimated hands Actual hands . . . . .... 
 
 2. Weight. Score according to age and type .... 4 ... 
 
 3. Form, broad, deep, compact, smooth, symmetrical. . 4 .... 
 
 4. Quality, refined head and ears, fine hair, clean bone, 
 
 tendons defined 4 .... 
 
 5. Temperament, active, disposition good 4 .... 
 
 B HEAD AND NECK, 7 Points: 
 
 6. Head, in good proportion, clear cut features, ten- 
 
 dency to Roman nose 1 .... 
 
 7. Forehead, broad, full 1 .... 
 
 8. Eyes, full, bright, clear 1 .... 
 
 9. Muzzle, broad, yet fine, nostrils large, lips thin and 
 
 even 1 .... 
 
 10. Ears, large, long, pointed, fine, well set, carried alert 1 .... 
 
 11. Neck, long, muscular, throat-latch defined, head well 
 
 set on 2 .... 
 
 C FOREHAND, 24 Points: 
 
 12. Shoulders, long, sloping, smooth, muscular . . . . 2 .... 
 
 13. Arm, short, muscular, elbow in 2 .... 
 
 14. Forearm, long, wide, muscular 2 .... 
 
 15. Knees, straight, wide, deep, well supported . . . . 2 .... 
 
 16. Cannons, short, broad, flat, tendons well back, 
 
 straight, well supported 2 .... 
 
 17. Fetlocks, wide, tendons well back, straight, well 
 
 supported ' 2 .... 
 
 18. Pasterns, moderate length, oblique, smooth, strong 2 .... 
 
 19. Beet, medium size, uniform, straight, slope of wall 
 
 parallel to slope of pastern ; sole concave ; bars 
 strong; frog prominent, elastic; heels wide, 
 high; horn dense, smooth 6 .... 
 
 20. Legs, properly placed, according to description in 
 
 draft horse score card 4 .... 
 
 D BODY, 11 Points: 
 
 21. Withers, well defined,' smooth and muscular . . . . 2 .... 
 
 22. Chest, deep, wide 2 
 
 23. Ribs, long, well sprung, close 2 .... 
 
 24. Back, short, straight, broad, strong 2 .... 
 
 25. Loin, short, wide, heavily muscled 2 
 
 26. Flanks, deep, full ; long, low underline 1 .... 
 
JUDGING THE MULE 
 
 189 
 
 .ilar 
 
 Standard of Score of 
 Perfect Mule 
 Score Studied 
 
 2 .... 
 
 lot too close . . 
 
 1 .... 
 
 2 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS 
 
 E HINDQUARTERS, 32 Points: 
 
 27. Hips, wide, level, smooth, muscular.. 
 
 28. Croup, long, level, muscular 
 
 29. Tail, attached high, well carried 
 
 30. Thighs, thick, deep, muscular, not too cl 
 
 31. Stifles, broad, thick, strong 
 
 32. Gaskins, long, wide, muscular 
 
 33. Hocks, straight, wide, point prominent, dec]), clean 
 
 cut, smooth, well supported 
 
 34. Cannons, short, broad, flat, tendons prominent an<! 
 
 set well back 
 
 35. Fetlocks, wide, straight, tendons well back 
 
 36. Pasterns, medium length, oblique (about 55), 
 
 smooth, strong 
 
 37. Feet, medium size, uniform, straight, slope wall par- 
 
 allel to pastern; sole concave; bars strong; fi-crc 
 prominent, elastic; heel wide, high; horn den 
 
 38. Legs, properly placed, according to description in 
 
 draft horse score card 
 
 Y ACTION, 10 Points: 
 
 39. Walk, straight, stride long, active 
 
 40. Trot, straight, long, free, regular, snappy stride . . 
 
 Total 100 .... 
 
 The general conformation of the mule should closely 
 resemble that of the horse, and judges will be influenced 
 accordingly in their decisions. The peculiarities of the 
 
 Fig. 106. "The general conformation of the mule should 
 closely resemble that of the horse." 
 
190 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 mule are mainly shown in the disposition, voice, ears, tail 
 and feet, otherwise this animal may not materially differ 
 from the dam. 
 
 The height of the mule varies greatly, ranging from 12% 
 hands for those used in mines, up to 17 hands for big 
 draft mules. A desirable range of height for the larger 
 type is from 15% to 16% hands. 
 
 The weight of the mule of the larger sort ranges from 
 1,200 to 1,500 pounds, though much heavier weights than 
 the latter are recorded, but are quite the exception. 
 
 The form of the mule should be broad, deep, compact, 
 
 Fig. 107. "The mule is less square at the corners of the body than 
 the horse, and is usually narrower all through." 
 
 with a comparatively large chest, short back, arid full 
 flanks. The mule is less square at the corners of the body 
 than the horse, and is usually narrower all through. Yet, 
 as has been stated before, what is desired is a conforma- 
 tion approaching as nearly as possible draft horse form. 
 Quality in the mule has an important bearing on its 
 value.. Fine, hard bones; neat, strong joints; a lean, well 
 made head ; and fine, abundant hair are much desired. Too 
 
JUDGING THE MULE 1!)1 
 
 heavy and coarse bone, and coarseness about the head, are 
 features that frequently prevail with draft mules, and the 
 judge should discriminate against them. 
 
 The temperament of the mule should be active and en- 
 ergetic. The natural tendency is to be quiet and dull. 
 The patience for which this animal is famous is simply 
 an expression of its quiet temperament and docile habits. 
 The disposition of the mule has been much misrepresented, 
 for, in fact, it is not naturally vicious, though often 
 obstinate. Men used to handling both mules and horses 
 regard the former as having the more steady and reliable 
 disposition of the two. 
 
 The head of the mule should be of good size yet not 
 coarse, free of fleshiness, clean-cut and giving evidence 
 of quality. A Roman nose is a characteristic feature, 
 though it should not be too pronounced. Such a nose indi- 
 cates strength of character. The ears should be longer and 
 larger than on the horse, pointed, and more nearly resem- 
 bling those of the sire, the jack, than those of the mother, 
 the mare. The ears should show refinement and not be 
 set too wide apart at the corners of the head, thus giving a 
 neat, shapely top. ' ' The ears should be long, thin and tap- 
 ering to the points," says Mr. J. W. Jones, 1 a well-known 
 judge, "presenting a rather folding appearance about the 
 middle, and should be set on the head erect." 
 
 The hindquarters of the mule frequently lack good con- 
 formation. The hips may be too low set, the croup steep, the 
 thighs thin and the hocks crooked. A steep croup and 
 crooked legs are familiar sights, and judges will find it 
 necessary to discriminate sharply against this sort. The 
 muscular thigh is a necessity if draft power is to be ob- 
 tained, while the same argument obtains for the mule as 
 for the horse, in a correct placing and carriage of the 
 limbs. As bone is highly valued in the mule, the hind legs 
 should show this in superior degree. The feet of the mule 
 are peculiar in being relatively small, the hoofs tending 
 
 1 American Jack Stock Stud Book, Vol. 5, 1906, p. 10. 
 
192 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 to be long and high at the heel, with the frog set in a rather 
 high cup. Large size of hoof is emphasized, but even then 
 a draft mule will have a small foot compared with a draft 
 horse, being longer and narrower. The hoof should 
 be smooth and very dense. Oftentimes the hoofs are con- 
 tracted, resulting in defective feet. Large, roomy feet are 
 naturally free of this defect. 
 
 The action of the mule is not usually emphasized in the 
 market, so long as no lameness is present. However, it is 
 very important that not only the walk should be active 
 and of the sort that gets over the ground quickly, but the 
 trot also should be straight, free, regular and rapid. There 
 is just as much argument in behalf of such action with a 
 work mule as a work horse. Judges should give careful 
 attention to the action, and note that the legs are used to 
 give the very best results. In the North, where the mule is 
 driven almost exclusively at the walk, this gait would na- 
 turally receive special attention, but in the South, where 
 the mules are commonly used under the saddle or hitched 
 to a carriage, the trot is of equal importance with the 
 walk, and should be so considered. Knee action is not so 
 pronounced with the mule as the horse, and much emphasis 
 should not be attached to it. 
 
 The market classes of mules vary slightly, according to 
 local conditions. St. Louis is the greatest mule market, 
 though large numbers are handled in Chicago, Kansas City, 
 Louisville, and New Orleans. Mr. R. C. Obrecht has given 
 one classification, 2 comprising the following groups: min- 
 ing, cotton, sugar, farm and draft. Mr. John Grant of 
 the Kansas City yards, states 3 that "the principal classes 
 of mules known to the market are : cotton, lumber, railroad, 
 sugar, farm, levee, city and miners'." The author has 
 arranged the following classification, which will have a 
 fairly general application. The mules in each class are 
 graded with some elasticity from choice to inferior. 
 
 2 Market Classes and Grades of Horses and Mules. Bull. 122, 111. Ag. Exp. 
 Station, 1908. 
 
 3 National Stockman and Farmer, Oct. 12, 1905, 
 
JUDGING THE MULE 
 
 193 
 
 Fig. 108. "Plantation mules represent a certain class suited to farm work." 
 
 Plantation mules represent a certain class suited to farm 
 work, especially in the South. They may be divided into 
 two sub-classes, sugar and cotton mules. These are the 
 larger, better class mules on the market. Sugar mules 
 stand from 16 to 16 ] /2 hands high, and weigh from 1,100 
 to 1,400 pounds. These are breedy looking, show quality 
 and finish, and have strong bone. They especially show 
 refinement of head and neck. Cotton mules stand from 
 13V 2 to 15y 2 hands high and weigh 900 to 1,100 pounds. 
 They are not of such uniformly high quality as sugar 
 mules, ranging from light to medium in bone, though they 
 must show smooth finish. They have small, neat heads, and 
 attractive conformation. Cotton mules are very common 
 in the Southwest. Curtis says 4 ' ' this type of mule is of still 
 
 4 The Fundamentals of Live Stock Judging and Selection. R. S. Curtis, 
 Philadelphia, 1915, p. 210. 
 
194 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Fig. 109. "Draft mules are large, heavy- 
 boned mules that carry more weight than any 
 other class." 
 
 lighter build than 
 the surface mining 
 mule. The body is 
 inclined to be some- 
 what rangy, the 
 bone small, and the 
 body upstanding. 
 The quality should 
 be uniform and of 
 about the same 
 standard as that 
 possessed by the 
 mining mule, the 
 difference being in 
 favor of the lat- 
 ter." 
 
 Draft mules are 
 large, heavy-boned 
 mules, that carry 
 more weight than 
 any other class. 
 They are often di- 
 vided into two sub- 
 classes, viz., lum- 
 ber and railroad 
 mules. Mules of 
 draft class should 
 be large, their 
 bodies deep and 
 closely coupled, the 
 backs short and 
 strong, the croup 
 not too drooping, 
 thighs and gaskins 
 heavily muscled, 
 bone heavy, and 
 
JUDGING THE MULE !<);> 
 
 the feet large. Mules for lumber camps should stand 
 as high and weigh as heavy as this class calls for, but they 
 do not show as much quality and style as do some others. 
 Railroad mules are slightly lighter than lumber mules, but 
 possess more quality and style. 
 
 Mine mules are of two kinds, known as pitters and 
 surface mules, and range from 11 to 15i^> hands high, and 
 weigh from 650 to 1,225 pounds. They should have deep, 
 compact bodies, heavy bone, short legs and large feet. The 
 smaller ones are used in the mines, and the larger ones 
 on the surface. 
 
 Farm mules represent a class lacking somewhat in uni- 
 formity that are used for agricultural purposes in the 
 central states. Mules of this class represent inferior plan- 
 tation or draft mules, that are plain looking and thin in 
 flesh, though with good constitution, bone and feet. 
 
CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 UNSOUNDNESS, DISEASES AND DEFECTS IN THE 
 
 HORSE. 
 
 THE subject of unsoundness in the horse is regarded an 
 of great importance. Many unsound horses are purchased 
 by people who think them sound. Then when these pur- 
 chasers attempt to sell they find great depreciation in value. 
 Therefore, if one is to be a capable judge of a horse, he 
 should have a fair ability to identify well-defined cases of 
 some of the more common unsoundnesses. This identifi- 
 cation is not always easy. Some forms of unsoundness are 
 not clearly apparent until well established. If the respira- 
 tion is not good, some form of work, such as trotting or 
 hauling a load will bring out this fact. In the sale markets 
 horses are hitched to wagons with brakes, against which 
 they are caused to make a considerable exertion while mov- 
 ing along. Judges in the public show ring are not re- 
 quired to pass on the matter of unsoundness. That is the 
 duty of an official veterinarian. The English Hackney 
 Horse Society has for many years provided official veterin- 
 ary examination of all horses of that breed entered at their 
 annual London show. All horses showing well-defined un- 
 soundness are barred from exhibition. This method of 
 procedure, which might well be imitated at many of our 
 American shows, has resulted in weeding out from compe- 
 tition many horses that were unsound, that should not come 
 up for competition with sound individuals. In well de- 
 fined cases of unsoundness the judge can hardly avoid dis- 
 criminating against the animal affected. It is of vital im- 
 portance, however, that there be no doubt about the un- 
 soundness in question. 
 
 196 
 
DEFECTS IN THE HORSE 197 
 
 Lameness is due to various causes and is seen under a 
 variety of conditions. No matter what the cause, lameness 
 will stand as a defect, if not an evidence of unsoundness, 
 and will seriously affect either selling value, or rating in a 
 show ring. In fact it would not be good judgment to place 
 a lame horse in the show ring, because the judge would 
 be obliged to regard him as out of serious competition. It 
 is important that a judge should be able to detect lameness 
 and recognize the specific region of trouble, and the cause 
 or causes. In an important discussion of lameness 1 as 
 quoted in the following paragraphs, Dr. Frederick B. Had- 
 ley gives information that should be reasonably familiar 
 to all qualified judges of horses : ' ' Lameness has been de- 
 fined as any irregularity in gait. It is the most serious 
 impediment that may befall a horse because of its frequent 
 occurrence. From a diagnostic point of view, it is neces- 
 sary to distinguish between a 'swinging leg lameness ' in 
 which the pain emanates from the shoulder or the hip, and 
 a 'supporting leg lameness/ in which the lesion is in the 
 knee, hock or lower part of the leg. 
 
 "To detect lameness, the examiner ought to observe the 
 animal at rest. In severe cases he may recognize that pain 
 exists by the horse pointing, frequently raising the affected 
 limb or placing the affected part in an unnatural position 
 for relief. Next, the animal should be trotted past, away 
 from, and toward the observer. The attendant must not 
 take too short a hold on the halter shank, as it would inter- 
 fere with free movements. The head and hips are to be 
 closely watched at this time, as their movements are a re- 
 liable guide in locating the seat of lameness. 
 
 "If lame in the right foreleg, for example, the head will 
 'nod' or 'bob' when the left or sound foot is planted on 
 the ground, while the head jerks up at the moment the right 
 or lame foot touches the ground. 
 
 "When lameness exists in both forelegs the action is 
 stiff and stilty, the natural stride is shortened, and the feet 
 
 *The Horse in Health and Disease, 1915, p. 192. 
 
198 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 are raised but little from the ground. Almost always the 
 
 hind legs are picked up higher than normally, the shoulders 
 
 seem to be stiff, and the head is carried higher than usual. 
 
 "Lameness behind may be noted by a dropping of the 
 
 Fig. 110. "To detect lameness, the examiner ought to observe the animal 
 at rest. In severe cases he may recognize that pain exists by the horse 
 pointing." (Photo by courtesy College Veterinary Medicine, Ohio State 
 University.) 
 
 hip opposite to the one in which soreness exists when the 
 horse is trotted from the observer. 
 
 "Should there be lameness in both hind legs the stride 
 is shortened and the gait awkward, the forelegs are not 
 advanced in front of the body and are raised higher than 
 usual, and the head is lowered. It is difficult or impossible 
 to back a horse lame in both hind legs. 
 
 ' ' Horses lame in both fore and hind legs show a waddling 
 gait behind that may be mistaken for loin or croup lame- 
 
DEFECTS IN THE HORSE 199 
 
 ness. This peculiar motion is simply due to the fact that 
 the hind legs are unduly advanced under the body for 
 their own relief or that of the front legs. 
 
 "Shoulder lameness is shown at the time the leg is ad- 
 vanced, for then pain is felt. It is a typical swinging-leg 
 lameness and the toe is dragged. Many horse owners be- 
 lieve that this form of lameness is very common, but it 
 really is quite rare. 
 
 "In the majority of cases it is not very difficult to de- 
 tect the limb in which lameness exists, but experience and 
 keen insight are required to locate the exact seat of the 
 trouble. Remember that the largest percentage of lame- 
 nesses are located below the knee and hock, and that the 
 foot is involved much oftener than any other part. If the 
 existence of a spavin is suspected, give the horse the 
 'spavin test.' Palpation (feeling) for the exact location 
 of the soreness is a valuable aid in diagnosis, but care should 
 be taken to distinguish between flinching due to nervous- 
 ness and that due to inflammatory soreness. The presence 
 of one or more of the cardinal symptoms of inflammation 
 are reliable guides in the diagnosis of lameness. By placing 
 the lame leg in a normal position and carefully comparing 
 it with the sound leg for anatomic changes, a more accurate 
 diagnosis can be made. . . . 
 
 "Unscrupulous dealers practice certain tricks to cover 
 up lameness. Among the common ones are the use of a curb 
 bit and a close hold on the leading rein to keep the head 
 raised and to prevent 'nodding.' By paring down the 
 sound foot to the 'quick' and replacing the shoe so as to 
 make both feet tender, a horse slightly lame may be made 
 to appear normal." 
 
 Heaves is an unsoundness of the lungs, in which the thin 
 air sacs break down and lose their normal contracting 
 power. Heaves is often caused by dusty food, but any 
 bulky or indigestible food that presses on the diaphragm 
 may cause this trouble. At first a peculiar cough is de- 
 veloped. Later on, after the disease is well established, the 
 
200 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 respiration becomes very difficult. The horse inhales na- 
 turally but has difficulty in exhaling. ' ' This, ' ? writes Had- 
 ley, 2 "requires the patient to make a special effort to force 
 out the air. As a result, there occurs a 'double pumping 
 action' of the flanks with two expulsive efforts instead of 
 one. This produces the so-called ' heave-line ' seen along the 
 flanks of affected horses. Disguised cases can be detected, 
 or tests can be carried out by feeding all the dusty hay the 
 horse will eat, then giving plenty of water and driving him 
 briskly." 
 
 Roaring is a disease in which the horse breathes noisily. 
 The larynx is affected, but not the lungs. This is a paralysis 
 of the nerves and muscles of the parts, which results in a 
 whistle-like noise or roar when inhal- 
 ing. Roaring is manifested during ex- 
 ertion, yet a horse may be a roarer and 
 be driven some distance without becom- 
 ing especially noisy. The disease is he- 
 reditary, and animals suffering from it 
 should be disqualified for breeding pur- 
 poses. This malady may be cured in 
 a large per cent of cases by surgical 
 operation. 
 
 Bone spavin, often referred to as 
 spavin, is found on the inner side and 
 front of the hock joint. The spavin 
 usually occurs on the lower part of the 
 joint, and when especially low down it 
 is known as a "low or jack spavin." 
 The joint surfaces may also become 
 enlarged, forming a "blind spavin," 
 showing no enlargement, but accom- 
 panied by severe lameness. Spavin is 
 caused by a strain or injury and con- 
 sists of accumulations of bony matter 
 at the joint. This is usually shown 
 
 8 The Horse in Health and Disease. F. B. Hadley, Philadelphia, 1915. 
 
 Fig. 111.' 'Bone 
 spavin is found on the 
 inner side and front of 
 the hock joint." (Photo 
 by courtesy College 
 Veterinary Medicine, 
 Ohio State University. ) 
 
DEFECTS IX THE HORSE 
 
 201 
 
 in a thickening of the part, 
 as compared with the sound 
 hock. The occurrence of the 
 spavin is most easily seen by 
 standing directly back of the 
 horse ; it may also be seen 
 from the front by looking 
 back between the forelegs. 
 The gait of a badly spavined 
 horse shows a pronounced 
 lameness. The affected leg 
 shows some hitch in action, 
 and the weight is heavily 
 thrown on the sound leg, re- 
 sulting in some depression 
 of the hip on that side. The 
 occurrence of the bone 
 spavin may be determined 
 by the following method: 
 Grasp the lower end of the 
 cannon bone and flex the 
 joint as much as possible, 
 keeping the leg in this posi- 
 tion a minute or two. Then 
 
 release the leg, and have the animal driven away at a trot, 
 the examiner standing behind the line of movement. In 
 case of spavin, the characteristic lameness of this disease 
 will be apparent. Bone spavin is regarded as a serious un- 
 soundness, and greatly damages the sale value of a horse. 
 It is more prevalent with light rather than heavy horses. 
 
 Bog" spavin is a puffy swelling on the front and inside 
 of the hock joint. It is due to an inflammation of the 
 synovial sac of the joint from which results the production 
 of an abnormal amount of synovial fluid. When well de- 
 veloped this spavin is clearly seen, and feels soft to the 
 pressure of the fingers. It does not usually cause lame- 
 ness, though it may. The bog spavin is most common on 
 
 Fig. 112. "Bog spavin is a puffy 
 swelling on the front and inside of 
 the hock joint." This right leg also 
 has a well-marked thoroughpin. 
 (Photo by courtesy College Veter- 
 inary Medicine, Ohio State Uni- 
 versity.) 
 
202 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 draft horses and especially those having fleshy or meaty 
 hocks. 
 
 Thoroughpin is intimately associated with bog spavin, 
 and is found in the thinnest part of the hock at its rear 
 part. When the synovial sac is greatly enlarged, the fluid 
 extends into this thin part of the hock, where we usually 
 expect to find graceful outlines with marked depression. If 
 a thoroughpin occurs, a swelling will be noticeable on each 
 side of the hock at this point. Heavy draft horses often 
 show puffy hocks, and this condition the dealers are in- 
 clined to regard as unimportant. However, the hocks of 
 heavy horses should be carefully examined for this puffy 
 condition, as bogs and thoroughpins are unsoundnesses. 
 Lameness may not result, but the value of the horse is 
 depreciated. 
 
 Curb is also an unsoundness of the hock, and is seen in 
 a swelling or bulging out of the back side of the lower part 
 of the joint. "When sound, the back of the hock slightly 
 below the point has rather a perpendicular or straight edge. 
 If there is a curb, by standing on one side, one will notice 
 an outward curve, instead of a straight line. Hocks that 
 do not have pronounced curbs, yet that tend to round out 
 at this point, are said to have a curby conformation. The 
 curb is caused by strains or injury to the ligament, tendon 
 or skin of this part of the hock. If ligament or tendon 
 is seriously affected, lameness will result. The curb is 
 regarded with disfavor by horsemen, and is the cause of 
 much comment. 
 
 Sidebone is found on the rear part of the foot, especially 
 the front one, on the wing of the coffin bone, at the crown 
 or top of the hoof. It is due to hardening of the cartilages, 
 whereby they take on a bony character, which when seri- 
 ously developed causes lameness. In well-defined cases 
 the sidebones appear as hard projections just beneath the 
 skin, and can be plainly seen or felt. In the early stages 
 sidebones are not easily discovered, and one may buy a 
 horse appearing sound, that in a short time will show this 
 
DEFECTS IN THE HORSE 
 
 203 
 
 trouble. Draft horses, especially those with long feet and 
 high heel are most predisposed to have this disease. Ac- 
 cording to Gay, 3 "sidebones are most common on the outer 
 quarters of wide-fronted draft horses, because such horses 
 are inclined to be 'toe nar- 
 row, ' which brings the outer 
 quarter nearer to the center 
 of weight bearing, thereby 
 imposing weight and wear 
 which should be borne by 
 the other quarter." Horses 
 driven on pavement or hard 
 roads are much more given 
 to sidebones than those work- 
 ing most of their time on the 
 farm, or on soft ground. 
 Lameness may not be evi- 
 dent, even where very pro- 
 nounced cases of sidebones 
 occur, yet this disease is 
 classed as an unsoundness 
 and seriously affects selling 
 values. Horse dealers and 
 judges have given much 
 more emphasis to this sub- 
 ject since the beginning of 
 the twentieth century, than 
 prior to this period. It is 
 difficult to find heavy draft horses, used on pavements, that 
 are entirely free from this unsoundness. 
 
 Ringbone is a bony deposit which encircles the pastern 
 bones, especially those of the front legs. On old horses 
 this bony enlargement sometimes becomes quite prominent. 
 Ringbone may be due to hard work, strains or bruises, and 
 may cause serious lameness. 
 
 Splint is a bony projection or roughness usually found 
 
 3 Productive Horse Husbandry, Philadelphia, 1914, p. 149. 
 
 Fig. 113. "Sidebone is found on 
 the rear part of the foot, especially 
 the front one, on the wing of the cof- 
 fin bone, at the crown or top of the 
 hoof." (Photo by courtesy College 
 Veterinary Medicine, Ohio State 
 University.) 
 
204 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 
 I 
 
 on the inside of the foreleg 
 below the knee and associated 
 with the splint bone which lies 
 close to the cannon. Hadley 
 states 4 that "the splint is 
 found in about 70 per cent of 
 all adult horses; in 93 per 
 cent of these it is said to occur 
 on the inner side." Hadley 
 also classifies splints as either 
 single or double, and states 
 that the so-called "pegged" 
 splint, is & form in which the 
 growth extends across the 
 
 Fig. 114. "Ringbone is a bony 
 deposit which encircles the pastern 
 bones, especially those of the front 
 legs." (Photo by courtesy College 
 Veterinary Medicine, Ohio State 
 University.) 
 
 posterior surface of the meta- 
 carpus, and interferes with 
 the play of the suspensory 
 ligament. As a rule splints 
 are not regarded as unsound- 
 ness, but simply as blemishes, 
 and they are rarely the cause 
 of lameness. Splints may 
 often be easily seen by stand- 
 ing in front and looking at 
 the inside of the legs. Neither 
 the horse dealer or the judge 
 
 Fig. 115. "Splint is a bony pro- 
 jection or roughness usually found 
 on the inside of the foreleg, below 
 the knee." (Photo by courtesy 
 College Veterinary Medicine, Ohio 
 State University.) 
 
 as a rule emphasizes the importance of the splint. 
 
 *The Horse in Health and Disease. Frederick B. Hadley, 1915, p. 207. 
 
DEFECTS IN THE HORSE 205 
 
 Quarter-crack or sand-crack is a splitting or cracking 
 of the horny part of the hoof, usually of the front foot. 
 This crack may be due to one of several things, such as 
 dryness of hoof, brittle horn, improper shoeing, heavy 
 shoes, etc. The crack begins at the crown of the hoof, and 
 extends downward, and may occupy the length of the hoof. 
 Sometimes it is necessary to put metal clamps over the 
 cracks. This trouble may develop enough to break through 
 the lower part of the foot and cause serious trouble and 
 lameness. Toe-crack is similar to quarter-crack, and usu- 
 ally occurs on the hind foot, and in the front part. 
 
 Founder, or laminitis, is an unsoundness of the feet, due 
 to congestion of blood between the delicate laminae or layers 
 within the hoof. It is usually found in the front feet. It 
 is caused by a variety of conditions, such as overfeeding, 
 overwork, exposure, lack of exercise resulting in retarded 
 circulation in the feet, etc. Intense pain results. The 
 horse when standing, attempts to take as much weight 
 from the front feet as possible. He tends to place the 
 front feet somewhat forward, shoves the hind feet well 
 under the body, thus endeavoring to relieve the front pres- 
 sure. A horse thus affected moves with difficulty and will 
 refuse to back. If well established, founder is incurable 
 and causes the horse much lameness. The more perfect the 
 foot, the less is the liability to founder. A very flat foot, 
 or one with high hoof walls or a foot that is contracted, is 
 liable to be affected with this disease. 
 
 Navicular disease is an inflammation of a chronic char- 
 acter that occurs in the foot, affecting the navicular bone 
 and its related parts. It occurs most frequently with 
 harness horses, and especially those with great knee action. 
 Usually but one forefoot suffers from the disease, which is 
 caused by concussion or shock to the affected parts. The 
 early stages of the disease are not commonly noticed. At- 
 tention is first directed to the " pointing" of the foot, which 
 is extended forward, the weight resting on the toe. As the 
 disease progresses lameness is noticed, which increases with 
 
206 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 the use of the horse. In the early stages the lameness may 
 be intermittent, the horse having spells of going lame, then 
 appearing sound for a time, again lame, etc. But as the 
 disease develops, lameness finally becomes permanent. Few 
 cases of this disease recover. 
 
 Cocked ankle or knuckling, is a partial dislocation of the 
 pastern or fetlock joint, in which case the pastern becomes 
 more perpendicular than usual, throwing the joint forward 
 out of natural position. This is not always an unsoundness, 
 but is a defect, in that it causes stumbling and clumsy 
 action. 
 
 A Quittor is a running wound, comparable with the fis- 
 tula, and is located at the hoof head. It is due to injury 
 to the inner structure of the hoof, such as might come from 
 a bruise, nail prick, injury to the frog, etc. There is swell- 
 ing, heat and pain at the seat of the trouble, associated with 
 pronounced lameness. Openings will occur at the hoof 
 head, where pus may escape. 
 
 Thrush, is due to the horn in and about the frog becoming 
 soft and porous, permitting infection. If the horse stands 
 in a damp stable, or under moist and unsanitary conditions, 
 thrush may occur. Dark pus of an offensive character 
 exudes about the frog. This is not an unsoundness, but is 
 a diseased condition that is quite common, and easily cured 
 in a sanitary stable where the affected parts are pared away 
 and disinfectants applied. 
 
 Capped hock is a puffed-out condition at the point of 
 the hock, and is usually due to a blow against this part. 
 Horses that are shipped under close quarters often kick 
 and so cause capped hocks. The point of the hock accumu- 
 lates some fluid and, by treatment, this may in many cases 
 be absorbed and the hock take on a normal character. 
 Often, however, severe cases are incurable. A capped hock 
 is a blemish, rather than an unsoundness. 
 
 Fistula is an abscess of more or less depth at the withers. 
 Swelling of the part, accompanied by fever, and the exuda- 
 tion of pus occurs. Some cases of fistula are very deep- 
 
DEFECTS IN THE HORSE 
 
 207 
 
 seated, burrowing into 
 the muscles of the 
 shoulder and affect- 
 ing the bone. It may 
 usually be cured by 
 long and patient 
 treatment, but the 
 disease is a decided 
 unsoundness while it 
 lasts. 
 
 Poll evil is a swell- 
 ing at the top of the 
 neck directly behind 
 the ears, and is usu- 
 ally caused by a 
 bruise. The swelling 
 affects the region over 
 the first vertebra?. 
 This is an unsound- 
 ness that may be cured 
 by expert veterinary 
 service. 
 
 Defective eyesight 
 
 is not an uncommon affection with the horse, and is not 
 always easily determined. However, if the lens or cornea 
 become darkened and opaque so that sight is affected, this 
 defect may be easily noticed. 
 
 Fig. 116. "Capped hock is a puffed-out 
 condition at the joint of the hock." Note 
 near hock. This horse also has a contracted 
 tendon in same leg. (Photo by courtesy 
 College Veterinary Medicine, Ohio State Uni- 
 versity.) 
 
PART III JUDGING CATTLE. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 THE ANATOMY OF THE OX. 
 
 A study of the anatomy of the ox, even in quite an 
 elementary degree, will add much to one's efficiency as a 
 judge of cattle. The bony structure, the distribution of the 
 muscles, the character and uses of the vital and digestive 
 organs, have a most important bearing on the relationship 
 of form to function. 
 
 The skeleton of the ox is lower set and somewhat longer 
 than is that of the horse. The skull consists of eight bones, 
 with the frontal one the largest and most important. This 
 occupies the upper half of the skull, and the horns are 
 extensions of what might be termed its corners. It is 
 larger and stronger with the bull than the cow. The 
 spinal column consists of about fifty bones, of which five 
 are united in one piece, the sacrum, and 18 to 20 are in 
 the coccyx or tail. An interesting feature of the spine is 
 that its upper points rise to form a line along most of 
 the back that is very nearly straight, which accounts for 
 the level back to be seen on cattle. The deeper covering 
 of flesh over the spine occurs along that portion of the 
 back where the spinal processes are shortest. "The spinous 
 processes of the anterior bones of the back constituting 
 the withers/' says Youatt, 1 "are stronger, but not so long 
 as in the horse. While a very slight curve should mark the 
 situation of the withers, the irregularity of the processes 
 of the bones should never be visible. The less the curve 
 the better, and no decided hollow behind should point out 
 
 1 Cattle, 1860, p. 372. 
 
 209 
 
210 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 the place where the withers terminate, and the more level 
 surface of the back commences. This is a departure from 
 good conformation for which nothing can compensate. It 
 not only takes away so much substance from the spot on 
 which good flesh and fat should be thickly laid, but it 
 generally shows an indisposition to accumulate flesh and fat 
 in the right places." The ribs on the ox number thirteen 
 pairs, and according to Sisson, 2 they are in general longer, 
 wider, flatter, less curved and less regular in form than 
 in the horse. They have a more horizontal extension from 
 the spine than do those of the horse, thus providing large 
 chest capacity above as well as below. The sternum is 
 wider, flatter and relatively longer than in the horse. The 
 shoulder blade is in a degree triangular, with a prominent 
 projection on its outer face, which furnishes strong mus- 
 cular attachment. The long leg bones are shorter and 
 heavier than with the horse. The pelvis has a somewhat 
 level carriage, but with an upward curve of its rear 
 part or ischium points, more commonly known as pin 
 bones. The ox is a two-toed or cloven-hoofed animal. 
 Lydekker states 3 that two of the toes in each limb, cor- 
 responding in the forelimb to the third and fourth fingers 
 of the human hand, and in the hind limb to the third and 
 fourth toes of the human foot, form a symmetrical pair 
 on either side of a vertical line drawn between them. In 
 most cases these two toes or hoofs are flanked, as in the ox, 
 by a smaller pair representing the human second and fourth 
 fingers and toes. This division of the foot is extended 
 through the pastern joint, to the point where the shank 
 bone meets this joint. Such a division of the foot has its 
 disadvantages, for it is a weaker formation, making strained 
 feet much more possible than in the case of the single 
 hoof of the horse. In the space between the toes, filth also 
 accumulates, thus promoting lameness and disease, espe- 
 cially what is termed ' ' foul foot. ' ' 
 
 2 The Anatomy of the Domestic Animals, 1914, p. 130. 
 
 3 The Ox and its Kindred, 1912, p. 12. 
 
THE ANATOMY OF THE OX 211 
 
 The external muscular development of the ox is in 
 
 harmony with what might be expected in economic meat 
 production. The neck is made up of several long, strong 
 muscles. One powerful muscle extends from back of the 
 ears to the rib below the shoulder point, and as Youatt 
 says, 4 "however thin and deer-like we may wish the neck 
 of a favorite ox to be at the setting on of the head, we look 
 for plenty of muscle at the bottom of it, or we shall have 
 neither strength nor substance in any part of the animal. ' ' 
 The form of the upper part of the neck is due to the large 
 muscle covering this part and extending back over the 
 withers. The widest muscle of the back extends from the 
 shoulder along the side and over the back. This muscle 
 takes on considerable fat, especially behind the shoul- 
 ders. A thick muscle lies beneath the lower part of the 
 shoulder connecting the brisket and floor of the chest. 
 Another large and fairly thick muscle covers the lower 
 half of the rear part of the body, giving important sup- 
 port for the great weight of this region. On the hind- 
 quarter are several thick, meaty muscles. One of these 
 lies about the hip and pelvis. The thigh is covered by a 
 very thick muscle, which extends from the point of the 
 hip and stifle over much of the upper leg, being overlapped 
 at the rear of the hindquarter by a double muscle. On 
 the thickness of the thigh muscles depends largely the 
 type, whether beef or dairy, and whether the animal has 
 been fattened or not. From a beef point of view, these 
 thigh muscles cannot be either too thick or long. 
 
 The heart of the ox weighs about five and one-half 
 pounds, and is slightly longer and less broad at its base 
 than that of the horse. It is situated on the left side at 
 the bottom of the chest cavity. 
 
 The lungs of the ox weigh about seven and one-half 
 pounds, the right one weighing about half as much more 
 than the left one. The lungs lie between the front ribs 
 in the upper part of the chest. 
 
 4 Cattle, 1860, p. 339. 
 
212 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 The liver of the ox weighs from ten to twelve pounds, 
 and lies on the right side, being partly covered by the 
 lung. The liver extends diagonally from near the lower 
 end of the sixth rib, to and beyond the thirteenth rib just 
 below the spinal column. 
 
 The kidneys of the ox weigh twenty to twenty-five 
 ounces. These are located just below the vertebrae at the 
 loin. Sisson states 5 that "in the young calf the kidneys 
 are symmetrically placed, but with the development of the 
 stomach, when the rumen is full, it pushes the left kidney 
 backward to a position on the right side, behind and at a. 
 
 Fig. 118. The viscera .of the ox in position on the right side of the body. 
 (By courtesy of Dr. S. Sisson, from The Anatomy of the Domestic Animals.) 
 
 lower level than the right kidney. The kidneys have 
 about twenty lobes on the outer surface, and the space 
 between these ordinarily fills with fat. 
 
 The stomach of the ox is composed of four parts, the 
 rumen or paunch, the reticulum or honeycomb, the omasum 
 or manyplies, and the abomasum or true stomach. This 
 whole organ occupies nearly three-fourths of the abdominal 
 cavity. The capacity depends on the size of the animal, 
 but Sisson gives thirty to forty gallons as the capacity of 
 
 6 Anatomy of Domestic Animals, 1914, p. 565. 
 
THE ANATOMY OF THE OX 213 
 
 medium-sized animals, with 
 a maximum of sixty for large 
 ones. The rumen is the largest 
 division of the stomach, 
 making about 80 per cent of 
 the whole, the recticulum 5 
 per cent, and the other divi- 
 sions about 7 or 8 per cent 
 
 po p Ti 
 
 . _ Fig. 119. The stomach of the ox. 
 
 The intestines 01 the OX (Courtesy Orange Judd Company.) 
 
 are of two classes, large and 
 
 small. The small intestine connects with the true stomach, 
 and is about 130 feet long. The large intestine is about 
 thirty-five feet long, and is a continuation from the smaller 
 intestine to the anus or vent. These organs occupy the 
 rear part of the abdomen, the small intestine being situ- 
 ated below the large one. 
 
 An indication of the age of the ox is to be found in the 
 number of rings about the base of the horn, or in the 
 number and character of the front teeth. The horn, as 
 has been stated, is an outgrowth from the frontal bone. 
 When an ox reaches the age of three years, one ring is 
 usually to be seen about the base of the horn. The fourth 
 year a second ring appears, with one each year following, 
 until the animal is six or seven years old. Thus, by adding 
 two years to the number of rings visible, many have as- 
 sumed they could state the age of an ox. This method, 
 however, is hardly certain or satisfactory, for the rings 
 are not always well defined, and at best this estimate can 
 only be applied in case of the cow. The rings appear 
 later on the bull, at either four or five years, and in view 
 of the constant usage of the horns by the male, they are 
 largely rubbed off. Youatt states 6 also that, "if a heifer 
 goes to a bull when she is a two-year old, or a little before 
 that time, there is an immediate change in the horn, and 
 the first ring appears, so that a real three-year old would 
 
 Cattle, 1860, p. 280. 
 
214 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 carry the mark of a four-year old. Sometimes the two 
 horns on the same animal show different numbers of rings. 
 Further, if the horn has been filed and rubbed down, as 
 with show animals, some of the oldest rings may become so 
 indistinct as to be difficult of observation. Therefore, it 
 may be concluded that the horn is not a very accurate 
 guide to determine the age of the ox. 
 
 The teeth as an indication of the age of the ox are a 
 fairly accurate g'uide for perhaps the first six years of the 
 animal's life. The mouth of the ox, with all the teeth in 
 place, has eight incisors on the front of the lower jaw, and 
 six molar or cheek teeth in the back of each upper and 
 lower jaw, a total of thirty-two. As in the case of the 
 sheep, the front upper jaw of the ox is supplied with a 
 tough pad, against which the lower front teeth touch in 
 slanting position. The front teeth serve for indicating the 
 age. The calf at birth or a few days later, shows two 
 teeth. Within two weeks two more teeth have appeared, 
 one on each side of the first pair. Two more follow these, 
 perhaps, the third week, and within a month or even less, 
 eight temporary or milk teeth occupy the front of the 
 lower jaw. These temporary teeth wear down gradually, 
 beginning with the central pair. At three months the six 
 central teeth will be worn off somewhat, and at four months 
 the entire eight will show a reduced surface. From this 
 time on, the teeth go through a process of reduction from 
 the central pair outward, becoming smaller and more and 
 more triangular with shorter crowns and increased space 
 between each pair of teeth. At about one year of age 
 there are four small triangular teeth in the center, with 
 two ordinary milk teeth on each side of these. At eighteen 
 months or thereabouts, all eight teeth are small, with tri- 
 angular tops, and distinctly separated from each other. 
 Finally, between eighteen months and two years, the first 
 pair of milk teeth disappear, and a pair of larger and 
 permanent ones take their place. During the period of 
 two to two and one-half years, the pair of milk teeth next 
 
THE ANATOMY OF THE OX 215 
 
 the permanent pair disappear, and a permanent pair 
 come in their places. About three years of age the third 
 pair comes in, one on each side of the four, and finally at 
 three and one-half to four years of age, the corner milk 
 teeth are supplanted by permanent incisors. Thus it can 
 be assumed that two of these new teeth indicate about a 
 yearling, four a two-year old, six a three-year old and eight 
 a three- to four-year old. Some consider six teeth as a 
 sign of a four-year old and eight as a five-year old. There 
 is some variation in the appearance of these permanent in- 
 cisors, due to feeding and condition. Cattle mature earlier 
 to-day than they did fifty years ago, and no doubt this 
 characteristic also influences an earlier appearance of the 
 teeth. At six years the teeth are in most perfect form, but 
 a little flattened on top, and with the central pair show- 
 ing dark lines in the center. From now on the age can only 
 be guessed at. The teeth gradually wear down, and change 
 to a more slanting position. Various conditions affect the 
 teeth and their importance as indicating age. Those used 
 the most for grazing will show the greatest wear. At 
 seven years the dark lines in all the teeth are yet more 
 visible, and at eight especially so in the central ones. At 
 nine the middle two begin to show reduced size, and at 
 ten the four central ones are smaller than the others. Thus 
 the teeth wear off from central to outer pair, so that often 
 one will see cows fifteen years old or older that have no teeth 
 excepting small stumps, or no incisors at all. 
 
CHAPTER XVIII. 
 THE CLASSIFICATION OF DOMESTIC CATTLE. 
 
 THE different kinds of domestic cattle, as a matter of 
 convenience, may be classified into three distinct types, 
 according- to their conformation. We may find examples 
 of each type within single breeds, or among a collection 
 of animals of no special breeding. The fact that type and 
 function are closely related, has naturally caused cattle 
 breeders to endeavor to produce animals of definite type and 
 character. Therefore, as a result of breeding, there has 
 been produced a well recognized beef type, in which meat 
 production is the important factor ; also a dairy type, with 
 milk production the essential ; and a third type, the dual 
 purpose, with both beef and milk regarded as perhaps 
 equally important. In each breed of cattle, as a rule, we 
 recognize but one type for its standard, although there are 
 striking exceptions. A good example is the case of the 
 Shorthorn breed, in which both beef and dual-purpose type 
 animals receive special recognition. The fact is that one 
 will find within any one breed examples of wide variation 
 in type, some dairy animals being meaty and some beef ani- 
 mals lean and of dairy form. So it may be said, that it is not 
 always easy to decide whether an animal should be classed 
 as of one type or another. It is simple enough for a quali- 
 fied judge to decide in which group to place good examples 
 of type ; the difficulty lies in classifying those animals that 
 are not good examples, and so belong perhaps as much in one 
 group as another. To illustrate, two judges were examin- 
 ing a cow which one regarded as a dual-purpose animal. 
 The other insisted that, from his point of view, she 
 was of the dairy type. The fact is, in a milking Short- 
 horn show, she would have passed as of dual-purpose type, 
 
 216 
 
THE CLASSIFICATION OF IX ).M KSTFC CATTI.K -J17 
 
 but undoubtedly she would not have been seriously criti- 
 cized for type in a show of grade dairy animals. This is 
 not unreasonable. It would not be difficult to find good ex- 
 amples of dual-purpose heifers, somewhat thick and smooth 
 soon after calving, that after milking six months would 
 clearly seem of dairy type. The condition in this case 
 largely affected the classification of type. It is import a u1 
 to understand, however, that the three types above re- 
 ferred to are generally recognized, and that good examples 
 of each are clearly distinct and different from each other 
 in conformation. 
 
 Sub-types of cattle may be defined as minor variations 
 within a type. In recent years stockmen have come to talk 
 much about type, so that within a breed we hear comment 
 on this or that type. This reference is largely due to a cer- 
 tain line of breeding, wherein quite distinctive differences 
 have developed. Shorthorn breeders speak of the Scotch 
 type or Bates type, one being more compact and blockier 
 than the other, yet each within the one type. Jersey breed- 
 ers refer to the American and the Island types, the former 
 being plainer of head, rather larger framed, and with less 
 symmetry of udder than the latter, yet each is of the dairy 
 type. These are simple examples to demonstrate that the 
 word type is often used to refer to one class within another. 
 The more experienced the judge or breeder, the more at- 
 tention he is likely to give to these minor distinctions, 
 which he really classifies into sub-types. These character- 
 istics do not interest the feeder or the man engaged in 
 handling grade cattle, and are emphasized only by the 
 breeder of pure-bred stock. 
 
CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 THE BEEF CARCASS AND ITS CUTS. 
 
 The final purpose of the beef animal is to furnish meat 
 for human consumption. This being so, it is important 
 that the animal have a conformation that with suitable 
 feeding will yield cuts of meat of a high degree of excel- 
 lence. No matter what age or stage of development, if 
 of the proper conformation, the live animal as a rule may 
 be so fed as to produce a prime carcass of meat at slaughter. 
 
 The physical and chemical character of meat has an im- 
 portant relationship to animal production. Meat consists 
 of a combination of muscular fibers, more or less asso- 
 ciated with fat. If a piece of lean meat is boiled, it may 
 easily be torn into stringy pieces of muscle fibers. These 
 vary in length, according to the muscle or class of animal, 
 and they also differ in strength or toughness, according to 
 age and use. Age and work tend to make the meat fiber 
 hard and dense. This explains why the meat of the back, 
 where little used, is more tender than that of the thick leg 
 muscle, which is much used. These fibers make up the 
 lean meat of the body. However, they have more or less 
 fine particles of fat distributed among them. When de- 
 veloped to a noticeable extent, these unite into little groups 
 of fat distributed through lean meat, giving it what is 
 called a "marbled" appearance, a condition found in well- 
 fattened animals. Meat that has fat particles well dis- 
 tributed among the fibers, when cooked, should be su- 
 perior in flavor and tenderness, due to the softening effect 
 of the fat. When beef animals are well fattened, they also 
 store layers of pure fat over much of the outer part of 
 the body, just below the skin, especially over the breast, 
 
 218 
 
Fig. 120. The two sides of a beef carcass. 1, shank ; 2, round ; .".. 
 rump ; 4a-45, loin end : 4c, pin bone loin ; 5, rib ; 6. chuck ; 7, flank : 
 S. plate: 9, brisket: 10. front shank. (Photo by courtesy Drs. Hobbs 
 and Brumley, Ohio State University.) 
 
220 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 ribs, back and hindquarters. Fat also commonly accumu- 
 lates more or less between the groups of prominent muscles, 
 and on the intestines, kidneys, etc. It is important that 
 this layer-fat be smoothly and not too heavily laid over the 
 different parts, in order that the carcass may be cut up 
 with not too great a proportion of fat to lean, or in other 
 words too much waste. Hall and Bmmett give 1 the fol- 
 lowing amounts of lean, visible fat and bone in the hind 
 and forequarters of beef: 
 
 PART or CARCASS Per cent. Per cent. Per cent, 
 
 lean visible fat bone 
 
 Hindquarter 54.42 34.55 10.71 
 
 Forequarter 59.12 26.69 13.73 
 
 Experiments by Lawes and Gilbert on the composition 
 of the body of the ox 2 show the half -fat animal to contain 
 the following, expressed in per cents : water 51.5 ; dry mat- 
 ter 40.3; protein (lean meat) 16.6; fat 19.1, and ash 4.66. 
 
 The dressed carcass of beef, and the relationship of this 
 to the live animal, should be understood by the judge. It 
 is important to estimate reasonably well how an animal 
 will dress out in killing, and what will be the nature and 
 value of the meat cuts. The market pays its highest price 
 for the carcass that will dress out at slaughter with the 
 least waste, and that will cut up into the greatest per- 
 centage of parts which command the best prices. 
 
 The per cent of carcass to live weight in fat cattle varies 
 from 55 to 70 per cent, though more extreme figures are 
 occasionally recorded. Ordinarily, the fatter an animal, 
 the less water the body will contain, and the greater the 
 per cent of dressed meat. Young cattle usually dress out 
 with more waste than do older ones. Numerous slaughter 
 tests of beef cattle reported by Henry, 3 quoted from British 
 and American sources, show the per cent of dressed meat 
 
 1 Bulletin 158, Illinois Agr. Experiment Station, 1912, p. 145. 
 
 2 Journal Royal Agr. Society of England, 1898. 
 
 3 Feeds and Feeding, 1910, pp. 323, 329. 
 
THE BEEF CARCASS AND ITS CUTS 221 
 
 to live weight to vary from 63.9 to 69.38 per cent. A 
 common grade of cattle would be very likely to show less 
 than 60 per cent dressed meat under ordinary conditions 
 of feeding, while a good grade, well fattened, should yield 
 at least 65 per cent. 
 
 The influence of the breed on the carcass is shown in 
 several ways. In a recognized beef breed, such as the 
 Aberdeen Angus, the carcass is thicker in its structure, 
 with the fat distributed among and over the muscles in the 
 most desirable way. Cattle of other than the beef type 
 yield a thinner kind of carcass, deficient in the distribution 
 of fat about the muscles, but with an excess of fat about 
 the intestines and kidneys. Such carcasses cut up into a 
 maximum of low-priced parts. For this reason the butcher 
 prefers to purchase examples of the beef breeds, because 
 from them he will secure the greatest percentage of what 
 the market demands, and will also suffer less loss in offal. 
 
 Carcass beef refers to that which is the direct product 
 from the slaughter houses before being divided into the 
 smaller wholesale parts. The entire carcass, split through 
 the length of the spine, furnishes two sides of beef. Each 
 side is divided, usually between the twelfth and thirteenth 
 ribs, thus forming a fore and hindquarter. The fore- 
 quarter weighs about 52 per cent and the hindquarter 48 
 per cent of the entire side. "When a side of beef is thick 
 enough fleshed to be cut up in the retail trade, and sold 
 over the butcher's block, it is known as " block beef" or 
 "side beef." If not thick enough in muscle and fat, the 
 carcass is used in a class of trade where only a part of it 
 is sold over the block, in which case it is termed a ' ' cutter, ' ' 
 and is cut up for the low-priced customers. The side of 
 the carcass of beef is cut into important smaller parts. For 
 the purpose of mental calculations as to the cutting value 
 per pound of side-beef, says Hall, 4 "a carcass is regarded 
 as consisting of four parts which are approximately equal 
 
 * Market Classes and Grades of Meat. Louis D. Hall, Bulletin 147, 111. Agr. 
 Exp. Station, 1910. 
 
222 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 in weight, viz., (1) loins and ribs, (2) rounds, (3) chucks, 
 and (4) plates, flanks, shanks and suet. They are here 
 arranged in their relative order of market value. The 
 hindquarter is regarded as consisting of 50 per cent round, 
 35 loin, and 15 flank and suet; the forequarter 50 per 
 cent chuck, 20 rib, and 30 plate and shank. These propor- 
 tions and cuts especially apply to Chicago standards. Car- 
 casses are cut in some eastern markets, and in Europe, 
 so as to 3 7 ield somewhat different results. 
 
 The loin includes from the end of the hindquarter, with 
 
 Fig. 121. A piece from the loin the porterhouse. 
 Haskett, Ohio State University.) 
 
 (Photo by F. H. 
 
 its one rib, to a line extending from the middle of the 
 sacrum to a point an inch or two above the stifle joint. 
 This piece includes what are recognized as the choicest cuts, 
 the porterhouse and sirloin, which accounts for its having 
 first rank as to price. The tenderloin muscle also lies on 
 the underside of this cut. There are several grades of 
 loins. The best, No. 1, Hall states, "must have a full, 
 well-rounded shape, a complete covering of white fat, the 
 thickness of which is in proper proportion to the lean and 
 bright, firm, fine-grained, well-marbled flesh." A No. 1 
 loin weighs from 50 to 85 pounds. 
 
THE BEEF CARCASS AND ITS CUTS 'j-j;; 
 
 The rib piece is cut from the Ion-quarter so as to in- 
 clude ribs from six to twelve, or seven in all. This cut 
 contains the choicest roasting pieces. Ribs differ in thick- 
 ness and condition, and so are graded on much the same 
 basis as the loin. The size and character of the "eye" of 
 red meat, where the rib and backbone join, furnish evidence 
 
 Fig. 122. "The rib piece is cut from the forequarter so as to include 
 ribs from six to twelve." (Photo by Mr. F. II. Haskett, Ohio State 
 University.) 
 
 of the value of this piece. No. 1 ribs should also have a 
 covering of about one-half inch fat. An average-sized, full 
 rib piece weighs from 30 to 50 pounds. 
 
 The round is the leg end of the hindquarter, after the 
 loin is removed. This is the largest muscle in the carcass, 
 and derives its name from its more or less round form in 
 certain stages of cutting. This part contains a large per 
 cent of lean meat, and is one of the tougher cuts, owing 
 to the great use of this muscle. The meat from this part 
 is of medium price, but owing to the small per cent of bone 
 
224 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 and fat, it is one of the most economical pieces to pur- 
 chase. About 20 per cent, of the upper part of the round 
 is the rump, which is used for roasts of grade inferior to 
 ribs ; 60 per cent is buttock, the round part, which is com- 
 monly sliced for steak ; and 20 per cent at the lower or hock 
 end is shank, and is used for boiling, Hamburger steak, etc. 
 No. 1 rounds should be plump, well covered with smooth 
 
 Fig. 123. The, round. "This is the largest muscle in the carcass, and 
 derives its name from its more or less round form in certain stages ot 
 cutting." (Photo by F. H. Haskett, Ohio State University.) 
 
 white fat, and cut into bright, firm, fine-grained meat. An 
 average first grade round will weigh 75 to 110 pounds. 
 
 The chuck piece includes the five front ribs, the shoulder 
 and neck. "When trimmed, the neck, the brisket and lower 
 ends of ribs (from which the plate is obtained) are re- 
 moved. The chuck, to be of first grade, must be thick, of 
 full outline, and show good color and grain of flesh. Only 
 a moderate amount of fat is looked for on this piece, and 
 
THE BEEF CARCASS AND ITS CUTS 225 
 
 it should be thickest at the rib end. Roast, steaks and 
 boiling pieces come from this part. The thicker the chuck, 
 the more available it becomes for roast cuts. The best 
 grades of average size chucks weigh 75 to 110 pounds. 
 
 The plate piece is the lower part of the forequarter, in- 
 cluding the ends of the ribs and the brisket. Thickness and 
 a proper admixture of fat and lean, with not too heavy bone, 
 is necessary for the best grades of plates. This cut is used 
 for corned beef, stews, beef rolls, etc. No. 1 average weight 
 plates range from 40 to 80 pounds. 
 
 The flank piece is a small strip, free of bone, weighing 
 15 to 20 pounds, that is, trimmed from the lower edge of 
 the hindquarter, in narrow wedge-shaped form. 
 
 The shank piece is a short section of either front or hind 
 leg, including the hindquarter at and just above the hock 
 joint, and the leg part proper, of the forequarter. The 
 shanks weigh from 10 to 20 pounds, and are used mostly 
 for boiling pieces, and represent the cheapest cut in the 
 carcass. 
 
 Grading- the carcass of beef is an important feature of 
 the meat trade. All carcasses may be classified into four 
 groups, viz., steers, heifers, cows, bulls and stags. The 
 carcasses are graded within each class, based on the follow- 
 ing essentials, viz., form, thickness, finish, quality, sound- 
 ness and weight. The important points connected with this 
 grading, as relates to judging beef type are as follows : 5 
 
 Form of beef carcass refers to the general outlines and 
 proportions. Ideal conformation consists of compactness, 
 i.e.,, good width in proportion to length ; short shanks and 
 neck ; and full rounds, loin and ribs. Form is associated 
 more or less closely with a proper degree of thickness, and 
 is also partially dependent upon the covering or finish of 
 carcass. 
 
 Thickness of beef carcass refers to the amount of lean 
 flesh it carries. Thick-meated loin and ribs, and full, com- 
 pact rounds and chucks are essential. "Built like a cart 
 
 5 Bulletin 147, Illinois Agr. Experiment Station, July, 1910. 
 
226 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 horse" describes the fleshing demanded in high-grade car- 
 casses. There is a clear distinction between thickness due 
 to fatness and that due to muscular flesh. 
 
 Finish of beef carcass refers to the amount and distri- 
 bution of fat on the carcass, and to the quality of flesh 
 so far as it depends upon the degree of fatness. This 
 corresponds to condition in the live animal. Perfect finish 
 involves a smooth covering of firm white fat over the en- 
 tire carcass, with the greatest depth along the back, a 
 covering of white brittle fat on medium-sized kidneys, and 
 a lining of fat in flakes or rolls on the inner surface of ribs. 
 The depth of fat along the back should range from one- 
 fourth inch on 500-pound carcasses to three-fourths inch 
 on those of 900 pounds. The condition of the rounds and 
 shanks will show the last degree of finish. The fat must 
 not be excessive at any point, especially over loin and ribs, 
 as this indicates either an overdone condition or a tendency 
 toward a thick, crusty covering, without good marbling. 
 
 Quality of beef carcass especially relates to size, color 
 and softness of bone, smoothness and grain of flesh, color 
 and general appearance of carcass, and freedom from 
 coarseness. Quality depends chiefly on smoothness, grain 
 and color. Rough, uneven flesh detracts from the appear- 
 ance and usefulness of the beef. Coarse-grained, stringy, 
 fibrous flesh is usually an indication of poor breeding, ad- 
 vanced age or improper nourishment. Grain and firmness 
 are lacking in immature beef. That which is very young 
 seldom has "substance" or marbling, and is high in per 
 cent of water. The quality of bone is judged from the 
 chine, breastbone and ribs. The bones should be as 
 small as consistent with weight of carcass. They are also 
 an important indication of age. The fat should have a 
 clear white, color, and the flesh a bright, rich red. A fiery 
 red carcass indicates that the blood was poorly drained. 
 Very yellow fat is an indication of Jersey or Guernsey 
 blood. 
 
CHAPTER XX. 
 
 JUDGING BEEF TYPE OF CATTLE BY SCALE OF 
 
 POINTS. 
 
 Method in judging the beef animal is of prime im- 
 portance, and the scale of points indicates the course of 
 observation. In British shows it is quite customary to 
 start the judging by walking the cattle about a ring, with 
 the judge in the center to make observations as the animals 
 pass by. In America we use this method but little, doing 
 most of the examination with the cattle in standing posture. 
 One can more fairly measure the merits of an animal if 
 given critical examination both at rest and walking. Under 
 the walk the harmony of proportions and adjustment of 
 parts are more clearly seen than they would be otherwise. 
 When at rest the animal should stand on all fours with 
 equal ease, each leg being in good position, so that the back 
 and top lines show to best advantage. The order of usual 
 
 Fig. 124. "When at rest the animal should stand on all fours with equal 
 ease, each leg being in good position." 
 
 227 
 
228 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 procedure is to make a general examination of the animals 
 from a distance, slowly passing around and surveying them 
 from various points of vantage. Next comes a careful 
 inspection, beginning at the head, gradually working back 
 to the hindquarters, considering each part in order, as 
 detailed in the following scale of points for a fat steer. 
 
 SCORE CARD FOR BEEF CATTLE OR STEER. 
 
 Standard of Score of 
 SCALE OF POINTS Perfect Cattle 
 
 Score Studied 
 
 A GENERAL 'APPEARANCE, 38 Points: /' 
 
 Weight, score according to age. At 12 months 850 / 
 
 !bs., at 24 months 1,250 Ibs., at 30 months 1,500 / 
 
 Ibs 8 . ./ . 
 
 Form, broad, deep, compact, low set, top and underline 
 
 straight 10 .... 
 
 Quality, fine bone, mellow, elastic hide, soft and silky 
 
 hair 10 
 
 Condition, deep, even covering of smooth, firm flesh, 
 
 the cod and flank indicating finish . . . . . . 10 
 
 B HEAD AND NECK, 7 Points: 
 
 Muzzle, broad, mouth large, nostrils large 1 
 
 Eyes, large and bright, with placid expression . . . . 1 
 Face, short, wide, . slightly dished; cheeks fleshy; jaw 
 
 strong 1 
 
 Forehead, broad, full 1 
 
 Ears, medium size, not coarse, well set 1 
 
 Neck, thick, short, throat clean, blending well with 
 
 shoulders 2 
 
 C FOREQUARTERS, 9 Points : 
 
 Shoulder vein, full and smooth 2 
 
 Shoulders, well set, compact on top, smoothly covered 
 
 with flesh 3 
 
 Breast, wide and full, brisket extending forward, with 
 
 little dewlap 2 
 
 Legs, straight, short; arm full; shank fine, smooth; 
 
 toes pointing directly forward 2 
 
 D BODY, 31 Points: 
 
 Chest, deep, wide, girth large, crops full 5 
 
 Back, broad, level, thickly and smoothly fleshed. ... 8 
 
 Loin, broad, thick 8 
 
 Ribs, long, well arched, thickly and smoothly fleshed . . 8 
 Flanks, deep, full, underline straight from front to rear 2 
 E HINDQUARTERS, 15 Points: 
 
 Hips, smoothly covered, not wide apart nor prominent 1 
 Bump, long, wide, level, free of patchiness, tail-head 
 
 smooth 4 
 
 Thighs, thick, broad, deep, full 4 
 
 Twist, deep, full 4 
 
 Legs, well placed, short; hocks straight; shank fine 
 
 and smooth, toes pointing straight ahead . . . . 2 
 
 Total . 100 
 
JUDGING BEEF TYPE OF CATTLE 
 
 229 
 
 The general appearance of the beef animal includes its 
 size, weight, form, quality and condition. These several 
 features have a general application to the entire animal, 
 and are given first consideration. It is natural and logical 
 to thus take measurement of the animal as a whole, follow- 
 ing this by a study of the parts in detail. 
 
 Size and weight are two features that naturally are 
 closely associated. The demand, to-day, for meat-producing 
 
 Fig. 125. The Points of a Beef Animal. 
 
 animals, is for both size and weight. The practical breeder 
 emphasizes size. He seeks a beef animal with enough scale 
 or frame to have a certain weight at a given age. There- 
 fore, it must be conceded that if an animal has enough 
 weight for its age, it must have sufficient size. It is an 
 interesting fact, however, that in Great Britain in times 
 past, beef animals have not as a rule been weighed when 
 sold on the market, as in America, but have been measured 
 instead. In this case size was the prime factor, measure- 
 ments of length and girth of body enabling one to figure 
 
2 30 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 out weights on a fairly satisfactory basis. The weight of 
 'beef cattle fitted for the butcher will naturally depend on 
 age and duration of feeding. Breed also has an influence 
 here, for the larger beef breeds, like the Shorthorn, attain 
 a given weight somewhat earlier than do smaller breeds. 
 If well nourished from birth, weights of 850 pounds at 12 
 months, 1,250 pounds at 24 months, or 1,500 pounds at 30 
 months, might be regarded as standards. A large per cent- 
 age of the animals on the market, however, do not attain 
 these weights, being under, rather than over size. Judges 
 generally discriminate against under-weight animals, and 
 give special attention to this subject. All fat cattle exhib- 
 ited at the International Live Stock Exposition are weighed 
 the day prior to showing and these weights, and also the 
 ages, are clearly indicated on large cards on the men 
 holding the animals in the ring. Each experienced exhib- 
 itor desires to bring forward sufficient weight for age to 
 satisfy the judge. Other things being equal, a steer weigh- 
 ing 1,000 pounds that should weigh 1,250, might well be 
 scored off 50 per cent on this feature. The fact is, the 250 
 pounds shortage in weight expresses a more serious lack 
 here than the score card indicates, because it represents an 
 unnecessary cost in production. 
 
 The general form of the beef animal, as viewed from in 
 front, side or rear, should be blocky or square in outline. 
 Some of the old writers on beef cattle form, dating back 
 over a century, have compared the body with the rectangle, 
 as viewed from one side, or with the square, as seen from in 
 front or the rear. Such comparison naturally applies only 
 to the bodv proper, leaving head, neck and legs out of 
 consideration. The modern standard of form is essen- 
 tially the same, though more emphasis perhaps is placed 
 on compactness. As one surveys the animal from a dis- 
 tance, he is impressed with the thickness of form all through, 
 and a depth of body much in excess of length of leg, the 
 entire frame being covered with a thick, firm, smooth cov- 
 ering of flesh. Long neck and legs cannot be part of 
 
JUDGING BEEF TYPE OF CATTLE 231 
 
 good beef conformation. The low set body is an absolutely 
 necessary feature of correct beef form. In this study of 
 general form, the opposite lines of back and belly should 
 be fairly parallel, and a similar application may be made 
 of the side lines as viewed from the ends or above. 
 
 Quality in the beef animal is indicated by fineness of 
 bone, a mellow elastic hide, soft silky hair, and refined de- 
 velopment of certain parts, such as head, ears and joints. 
 Any unnecessary heaviness or weight of bone, means too 
 much loss at slaughter as well as later loss in the retail 
 meat trade. It is rarely that the bone is subject to criti- 
 cism for being too fine, but rather the opposite. The soft, 
 mellow hide is one of the most important indications of the 
 profitable feeder. Through the hide are distributed the 
 fine capillaries that convey the nutritive material of the 
 food in the blood and deposit it where needed over the 
 body. If the hide is hard and unyielding, the capillaries 
 do not serve their purpose to best advantage. Grasped 
 between thumb and fingers, the skin of desirable char- 
 acter feels mellow, somewhat thick and unctuous or fatty 
 to the touch, and is elastic, pulling easily from the body, 
 especially back of the shoulders and along the sides. Such 
 a skin gives what the stockman terms a "sappy" look to 
 the animal, indicating a thriving condition. If the hide 
 holds tight to the body where it should be loose, if it is 
 thick and hard, or thin and "dry and papery" as it is 
 termed, then the qualities of the desirable feeder are lack- 
 ing. The physical condition of the animal naturally af- 
 fects the skin, and sickness may cause harshness and un- 
 yielding character. The hide is in greatest perfection under 
 conditions of absolute health and when the body has felt 
 the influence of good feeding. The beef animal should have 
 a skin of moderate thickness, but not too heavy. Beef 
 cattlemen prefer a hide that inclines to be thick, rather 
 than thin, for the latter is not associated with the thickest 
 laying on of flesh. Another important point in favor of 
 the thicker type of hide is the protection it gives the 
 
232 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 animal in winter under conditions of exposure. The Here- 
 ford, famous as a beef breed, has a notable quality and 
 thickness of hide which, without doubt, has played an im- 
 portant part in the value of these cattle on the range. 
 The hair is also an important indicator of quality. It 
 should be fine and soft, and if the animal is in good condi- 
 tion, there will often be a lustre or sheen to the hair, indi- 
 cating quality of a 
 high degree. It is 
 not unusual to see 
 an animal in the 
 show ring, where 
 the coat of hair re- 
 flects light to such 
 a striking extent as 
 to make the indi- 
 vidual conspicuous 
 among his compan- 
 ions. In this case 
 there is always 
 a combination of 
 mellow skin and 
 fine, lustrous hair. 
 While this desirable 
 condition is af- 
 fected more or less by certain feeds, such as oil meal for 
 example, it could not be produced without quality of marked 
 degree, naturally occurring in both skin and hair. Fine- 
 ness of hair is associated with thickness of coat also. The 
 greater the number of hairs on a square inch of skin, the 
 thicker and finer will be the coat. The naturally thick, 
 fine covering of hair on the Hereford or Galloway breeds 
 furnish much warmth and protection in winter, as has al- 
 ready been indicated. The length and coarseness of the 
 hair differs according to location on the body. It is finest 
 and shortest about the f orequarters and over the sides, and 
 is coarsest and longest on the upper part of head, along the 
 
 Fig. 126. "Grasped between thumb and fin- 
 gers, the skin of desirable character feels mel- 
 low." 
 
JUDGING BEEF TYPE OF CATTLE 
 
 233 
 
 top of the neck and about the thighs. Among the beef 
 breeds, notably Hereford and Galloway, one often sees two 
 classes of hair on the body, a very thick, fine coat lying 
 beneath a much longer and more open one. This thick 
 "mossy undercoat," as it is often termed, being somewhat 
 oily, easily turns the heaviest rains, and serves an important 
 purpose in keeping the animal dry when exposed to winter 
 
 Fig. 127. "One often sees two classes of hair on the body, a very thick, 
 fine coat lying beneath a much longer and more open one." 
 
 storms. The hair is also an indicator of health. If dry 
 and harsh, curling back at its tips, forming what is known 
 as a "staring coat," it is evident that the animal is not 
 doing well, or is not in healthy condition. Cattle suffering 
 from tuberculosis, in advanced stage, show this staring, 
 lustreless coat of hair. Therefore, the degree of thrift or 
 health is easily seen by the qualified judge, as he glances 
 
234 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Fig. 128. "With the fingers close together, 
 the judge passes the hand over the parts where 
 one should find a smooth, thick, firm covering of 
 flesh." 
 
 over the animal be- 
 fore him. The coat 
 may be too fine, in- 
 dicating lack of 
 constitution, but 
 this is not at all 
 frequent. Quality 
 is also manifested 
 in the size of head 
 and ear, and the 
 coarseness of 
 joints. The head 
 that is large and 
 heavy in compari- 
 s o n to size of 
 body, indicates 
 
 lack of quality. Big joints suggest heavy bone and 
 too great a per cent of offal to dressed meat at slaughter. 
 Large, heavy horns also indicate coarseness. Quality is 
 one of the most important features in the animal, and it 
 perhaps has more influence on the price paid for fat cattle, 
 than any other one thing considered by the buyer. There- 
 fore, the judge 
 should attach much 
 importance to qual- 
 ity, scoring down 
 severely if coarse- 
 ness predominates. 
 The term "con- 
 dition, ' ' as applied 
 to fat animals, re- 
 fers to the degree 
 and character of 
 fat or covering of 
 flesh over the body. 
 The judge deter- 
 mines the condi- 
 
 Fig. 129. "Cattle in high condition frequently 
 have rolls of hard fat on the ribs." 
 
JUDGING BEEF TYPE OF CATTLE 235 
 
 tion by observation, partly by means of the eye, and partly 
 through the sense of touch, or by "handling," as it is 
 termed. In the latter method, with the fingers close together, 
 the judge passes the hand over the parts where one should 
 find a smooth, thick, firm covering of flesh. The center of 
 back along over the spine, the shoulders and rib-covering are 
 lightly pressed upon with the tips of the fingers, by which 
 means the depth of flesh, its firmness and uniformity of 
 covering are easily determined. Often bare spots occur, 
 with little flesh over the bone. An animal may be in good 
 condition, ready for slaughter, yet bare on the shoulder. 
 Or the back may be well covered its entire length, yet the 
 lower part of the ribs be more or less bare. Cattle in high 
 condition frequently have rolls of hard fat on the ribs, 
 back and rump, especially at the end of the latter, on 
 each side of the tail head, which in consequence takes on a 
 " patchy," or lumpy appearance. A dimple or tie in the 
 center of the back, due to a short ligament connecting skin 
 and backbone, is frequently associated with high condi- 
 tion. This dimple, rolls of fat, and bareness of covering, 
 all combine to produce a carcass that will not dress out to 
 the greatest advantage. In the modern show ring, the con- 
 dition demanded is a smooth, uniform distribution of deep, 
 firm flesh, with no roughness at any point, and that will 
 furnish cuts the exterior of which will be well laid with 
 flesh. If an animal is in high condition and over-fat, then 
 the flesh is soft and tallowy, and will show waste and too 
 great a percentage of fat in the carcass. The degree of con- 
 dition or finish is indicated by the thickness of the hind 
 flank when grasped in the hand, by the amount of fat 
 about the root of the tongue, as seen back of the jaw, and 
 by the fullness or fatness of th*e cod l of the steer. The 
 butcher often feels of the covering over the pin bones or 
 ends of rump, for a co-relationship seems to exist between 
 this covering and the general condition. In scoring con- 
 dition, one might discount 20 per cent for an animal 
 
 1 The scrotum or testicle of the male ox. 
 
236 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Fig. 130. "The degree of condition or finish is indicated by the thickness 
 of the hind flank when grasped in the hand." 
 
 that is in too high flesh, or the same amount if there is a 
 lack of condition. Inexperienced judges are quite liable 
 to favor the heavier covering of flesh and approve where ex- 
 perience would say fleshing had been carried too far. 
 
 The subject of handling 1 referred to in the preceding 
 paragraphs en quality and condition, has long been con- 
 sidered an important feature of the work of the cattle 
 judge. As long ago as 1767 the following advice on this 
 subject, not out of place here, was given: 2 "When you 
 see your beast, in the general shape and composure of his 
 body, shew most fair and beautiful, each member being 
 comely, and each bone covered so as a perfect shape re- 
 quires, you may then judge the beast to be well fed ; espe- 
 cially when you see his huckle bones round, and not sharp ; 
 his ribs smooth, and not rough; his flanks full, his nach 
 
 2 The Complete Grazier, 2d ed., London, 1767, p. 29. 
 
JUDGING BEEF TYPE OF CATTLE 
 
 237 
 
 thick, and his cod round. When you perceive this, you may 
 handle him, and feeling him upon the nethermost ribs, if 
 you perceive the skin loose and soft under your hand, you 
 may be assured that the beast is well fed outwardly, that is, 
 upon the bones. You may then lay your hands upon his 
 round huckle bones, and if they feel soft, round and plump, 
 you may be assured that the beast is well fed both inwardly, 
 and outwardly, that is, both in flesh and tallow. Then you 
 may handle him at the setting-on of his tail, and if that 
 feels big, thick, full and soft, it is a true sign that the 
 beast is very well fed outwardly. Then handle his nach 
 bones, which are on both sides the setting-on of his tail, 
 and if they feel soft and loose, that is a sign also of his 
 being well fed. Lastly, you may handle his cod, if it be an 
 ox, and the navel, if it be a cow; and if they feel thick, 
 round, soft, large and plump, it is a certain sign that the 
 beast is well tallowed within. When any of these parts 
 
 Fig. 131. "Then handle his nach bones, which are on 
 both sides the setting-on of the tail." 
 
238 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 or members handle contrary to the rules above given, you 
 may then make a contrary judgment." The use of the 
 hands in examining animals being judged, is highly im- 
 portant, at least in determining the depth and condition 
 of the flesh. However, from a modern view-point, judges 
 often handle to an unnecessary degree, and the tendency 
 now is to use the hands as little as possible consistent with 
 arriving at sound judgment. 
 
 The head of the beef animal, in general, should appear 
 comparatively short and broad, as this represents the head 
 conformation of the good feeder. Such a head is correlated 
 to the short neck, wide back, deep body and short legs. 
 The muzzle should be broad and wide, with a mouth of good 
 feeding capacity. The narrow, pinched mouth will be found 
 among animals with narrow heads giving evidence of lack 
 in constitution. The animal with wide, capacious muzzle 
 and muscular lips, when on pasture grazes more easily, 
 manipulates the tongue more freely, and secures food more 
 readily than would be possible with a smaller, less expansive 
 mouth. If the muzzle is broad, then the nostrils are more 
 
 likely to be large, 
 an important point, 
 as these are the 
 gateways through 
 which free and full 
 admission of .air to 
 the lungs is .se- 
 cured. The eyes 
 should be fairly 
 prominent and 
 placid of expres- 
 sion, indicating the 
 quiet feeder. Many 
 people prefer to 
 see the whites of 
 
 Fig. 132. "The head of the beef animal, in ^he 6V6S clear and 
 general, should appear comparatively short and ,, 
 
 broad." as free as possible 
 
JUDGING BEEF TYPE OF CATTLE 239 
 
 of brown or yellow tints. A clear, placid eye indicates 
 quiet temperament and a disposition to fatten easily. 
 The face of the beef animal should be reasonably broad 
 in proportion to its length. It is, this part, lying 
 between muzzle and eyes, where shortness of head is espe- 
 cially to be desired, for the length here largely influences 
 the strength of jaw. If the face is long and narrow, two 
 weaknesses will be apparent, first, the nasal tubes extend- 
 ing from the nostrils will be smaller, thus restricting free- 
 dom of respiration, and second, the jaw will be long and 
 weak, a feature of many inferior feeders. A face that 
 from a side view seems slightly depressed just below the 
 eyes, or "dished" as cattlemen express it, has long been 
 regarded with favor, especially if short and wide, for this 
 is considered a strong conformation. The cheeks on each 
 side of the face should be wide, smooth and fleshy, indicat- 
 ing a strong jaw. The underside of the lower jaw should 
 be widely spread at its base, an evidence of strength, as 
 well as supplying ample room for the tongue. The fore- 
 head should be broad and full, features associated with 
 intelligence and pleasant disposition. The narrow fore- 
 head is likely to be found on a narrow, long head, a char- 
 acteristic of the narrow, long-bodied animal. Width of 
 forehead should be especially strong just over the eyes, 
 with a very gradual narrowing from here to the horns, 
 though in case of a polled beast, the forehead narrows 
 quite rapidly to a well-defined point. The upper part of 
 forehead or poll should have a thick covering of long, 
 coarse hair. This is much more apparent on some breeds 
 than others, and more conspicuous on the male than the 
 female. Ears of medium size, well pointed and neatly 
 attached to the head, meet with greatest favor. Large, 
 heavy ears, coarse at the attachment to the head, indicate 
 a general coarseness. Too small, delicate ears, on the con- 
 trary, denote over refinement. A thick covering of fine hair 
 is desirable on the ear, with long, silky hairs adorning the 
 edges and bordering the outer ear cavity. In the well- 
 
240 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 balanced head, the ears will be placed so that when erect, 
 their tips will hardly extend above the poll. It is not 
 unusual for ears to be attached so high on the head as to 
 injure the harmony of proportions. This is especially to 
 be noticed with polled cattle. Cattle naturally carry the 
 ears about half erect and pointing forward. If naturally 
 carried in a depressed position, there is evidence of bad dis- 
 position or ill health. Occasionally the horns interfere with 
 a natural carriage of ear. Horns are considered a disad- 
 vantage by many, and, in fact, under conditions of domesti- 
 cation, serve 110 special economic purpose. They, however, 
 are an important indicator of breed character, and furnish 
 some evidence as to age and quality. From a breed char- 
 acter standpoint, the horn is quite important. There is a 
 very pronounced difference in the shape, curvature and 
 color of the horns of the Hereford and Shorthorn. The 
 exhibitor who brings into the show ring a dehorned ani- 
 mal of recognized breed, places himself at a disadvantage 
 in thus presenting a head robbed of a part of its distinctive 
 breed character. 
 
 The neck of the beef animal should be short and thick. 
 The head should be neatly attached, with no excess of skin 
 or fullness about the jaw. In its lower part, the neck 
 should widen out and blend with much smoothness into 
 the shoulder. In its carriage, the neck should have 
 a top line that very slightly rises from withers to base 
 of poll. Males should have necks with some crest and 
 thickening of the top muscles, but even this need not in- 
 terfere with a level carriage of neck. Some animals na- 
 turally elevate the neck more than others, and this is often 
 referred to as a stylish carriage. Bulls have thick, strong 
 necks that are more or less arched. Youatt states 3 that 
 ' ' a little of the arched form of neck is no detriment either 
 to his appearance or his actual value, although common con- 
 sent seems to have determined that the line from the horns 
 to the withers should scarcely deviate from the back. The 
 
 3 Cattle, I860, p. 344. 
 
JUDGING BEEF TYPE OF CATTLE 241 
 
 neck of the beef animal being for meat production, it should 
 be wide rather than narrow on top, for the thin neck is 
 quite sure to be a feature of the narrow type of animal." 
 In scoring the neck, excess of length is sufficiently objec- 
 tionable to justify scoring down fairly well. A neck that 
 is too thick and meaty is hardly a serious fault. 
 
 The forequarters of the beef animal should present a 
 smoothly laid, flesh-covered shoulder and wide, full bosom. 
 What is termed the shoulder vein by some people, and the 
 neck vein by others, is the place where the shoulder and 
 neck join, just in front of the point of the shoulder. In a 
 good example of a fat animal, it is difficult to decide where 
 the neck ends and the shoulder begins, so smooth and deep 
 is the covering of flesh here and so slight is the curve of 
 flesh from shoulder to neck. Usually, however, there is 
 some depression just in front of the shoulder, the neck 
 lacking naturally in thickness, so that even fattening may 
 not produce the desired smoothness. The shoulder of the 
 beef animal should incline well into the back. Along the 
 length of the shoulder blade is a ridge which furnishes at- 
 tachment for the muscles covering this great bone. The 
 more erect the blade, and the more prominent this ridge, 
 the less will be the covering of flesh possible over this part. 
 When the shoulder is "well laid" as it is termed, one can 
 feel little evidence of the bone below, when passing the 
 hand over the shoulder of an animal in good condition. 
 But if the shoulder is not well laid, then there will be prom- 
 inence of shoulder top at what is termed the withers, with 
 more or less roughness over the shoulder. It is also common 
 to find animals in condition with a slight bareness at some 
 place on the shoulder. It is not unusual for otherwise ex- 
 cellent show steers to lack in this particular respect. If the 
 tops of the blades along the back line are widely separated, 
 it may be taken for granted that the shoulders have too 
 much prominence, and, therefore, will lack in covering. 
 The character of the shoulder is a very important feature 
 of beef cattle, and has been given careful attention by many 
 
242 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 r 
 
 Fig. 133. "When the shoulder is 'well-laid,' as 
 it is termed, one can feel little evidence of the 
 bone below." 
 
 breeders. The 
 Hereford breed of 
 cattle is noted for 
 its beautiful, 
 smooth and well- 
 laid shoulder, dis- 
 tinctly surpassing 
 other beef breeds 
 in this respect. In 
 judging the shoul- 
 der, it will be well 
 to keep in mind 
 the importance of 
 this part as a dis- 
 tinctive feature of 
 beef conformation, 
 and the great ne- 
 cessity of having it well laid and smoothly covered. 
 The breast of the beef animal should be wide and full, 
 with the brisket wide and of fair prominence. To see 
 the breast well, one must stand in front so as to note the 
 placing of neck between the shoulders, and the width of 
 chest. If the neck is thick and blends into the shoulders 
 right, then the breast will present both width and fullness. 
 The brisket extends forward between the legs, merging 
 with the lower juncture of the neck. This part should be 
 wide, with a distinct groove on its lower side. The brisket 
 occasionally, with mature animals in high condition, pro- 
 jects in front of the legs in a very prominent and undesir- 
 able style, and may be only 12 or 15 inches from the ground. 
 A neatly rounded upward carriage of this part is prefer- 
 able, giving evidence of flesh production, and to some ex- 
 tent, vigorous constitution. Youatt makes considerable and 
 interesting comment on the brisket. He states 4 that ' ' it 
 has been considered as a part of the anterior wall of the 
 chest, and as a proof of depth and capacity. This is alto- 
 
 4 Cattle, 1860, p. 370. 
 
JUDGING BEEF TYPE OF CATTLE 243 
 
 Fig. 134. "The brisket extends forward between the legs." 
 
 gether erroneous. It is a mere appendix to the chest. It 
 is a projection of substance, partly muscular, but more 
 cellular and fatty, from the anterior and movable division 
 or head of the sternum, extending sometimes 12 to 20 inches 
 in front of it, and dipping downward nearly or quite as 
 much. It is no proof of depth of chest. It is found in 
 great size in all the improved cattle, varying in size in 
 different breeds, and in different cattle of the same breed ; 
 and it was always looked for and valued in the better speci- 
 mens of the old cattle. It is very probable that this may 
 be carried too far. An enormously projecting brisket may 
 evince a more than usual tendency to fatten; but not in- 
 frequently a tendency to accumulate that fat irregularly 
 to have it too much in patches, and not spread equally 
 over the frame. The brisket should be prominent as well 
 as deep; perhaps on one account more prominent than 
 
244 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 deep, for it will then be more likely, either before or by 
 the time it arrives at the posterior border of the elbow 
 or forearm, to have subsided to the thickness of the fatty 
 and other substance naturally covering the sternum. One 
 defect, but not of half the consequence which it is generally 
 supposed to be, would then be avoided the apparent di- 
 minution of the chest at the girthing place, or immediately 
 behind the elbows." Along the lower side of the neck, 
 often extending to the brisket, is a line of skin known as 
 the dewlap. This varies greatly in prominence. It is 
 sometimes seen on Herefords in a marked degree, adding 
 greatly to the depth of neck, and most undesirably so. 
 This characteristic is highly developed on certain breeds 
 of cattle in southern Europe, that are coarse and far in- 
 ferior to the British breeds. The dewlap is simply super- 
 fluous skin, and its presence is a distinct disadvantage, and 
 when of excess development an indication of coarseness. 
 
 The front legs of the beef animal should be placed wide 
 apart, and should be short and straight. A wide placing 
 of the legs provides room for the full chest, indicative of 
 strong constitution. Shortness of leg is desirable, as this 
 part gives us the cheaper meat. A short leg is also asso- 
 ciated with depth of body as a rule, an important requisite 
 in a good feeder. The upper part of the leg above the knee, 
 is known as the arm. This should be notably wide at its 
 connection with the shoulder, and gradually taper to the 
 knee, which should be strong and wide as viewed from the 
 side. As this is the part of the leg furnishing the most 
 meat, it should show as much width and muscular char- 
 acter as possible. The leg of cattle from knee to ankle is 
 known as the shank. This is essentially bone and ligaments, 
 covered with skin, having but small food value, hence the 
 shank may well be much shorter than the arm above. In 
 fact, the shortness of leg is usually dependent upon the 
 shortness of the shank. Further, a fine, smooth bone, and 
 medium-sized joints in the leg, furnish important evidence 
 of quality, as already discussed on this subject. The feet 
 
JUDGING BEEF TYPE OF CATTLE 245 
 
 should be well placed, the toes being of medium length and 
 pointing forward. The natural curves of the leg joints 
 tend to direct the toes outward, but the wider the spread 
 of the feet, the more the arm will be thrown in against the 
 chest, thus crowding that part. Therefore, it may be con- 
 sidered that there is a direct relationship between the 
 position of the feet and the width of chest. The hoofs 
 should be of medium length, so as to give the animal level, 
 true footing. If the hoofs grow too long the toe points 
 will turn up and the heels will come down, and give a 
 weak position to the legs. It seems strange that such should 
 be the case, but it is true that occasionally one will see ani- 
 mals in the show ring with such abnormally long hoofs as 
 to reflect on their care. Judges should discriminate against 
 such animals. 
 
 The body of the beef animal, giving evidence as it does 
 of constitution, digestive capacity and high-priced cuts, is 
 credited with a maximum number of points on the score 
 card. The chest should be deep and wide, thus providing 
 ample room for the vital organs the heart and lungs. 
 The chest, as measured back of the shoulders, should show 
 a strong heart girth. In a cross section of this part, a 
 much greater curve is found on the lower side of the chest 
 than over the top, but the latter should have as much width 
 as possible. Just back of the shoulders, over the upper 
 part of chest, but below the back line, are the crops. Here 
 is usually to be found some depression, which is associated 
 with thickness of chest and the capacity to carry flesh. The 
 model beef animal will be full and strong of heart girth, 
 show almost no perceptible falling away at the crops, and 
 be covered here with a smooth, firm layer of flesh. This 
 kind of conformation is much sought by intelligent cattle- 
 men, who recognize that it is associated with the best 
 feeders, and most vigorous animals, which, when fattened, 
 are most in demand on the market. The judge will be 
 justified in placing a premium on chest character. The 
 back of the beef animal should be wide and level, and be 
 
JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Fig. 135. "Just back of the shoulders, over the upper part of the chest, but 
 below the back line, are the crops." 
 
 smoothly, uniformly and deeply covered with flesh. Width, 
 of back adds to its strength and capacity for carrying flesh. 
 A level carriage of back is also regarded as evidence of 
 strength, although cattle buyers care little whether the back 
 is level or not, so long as it has plenty of width and a 
 smooth covering of flesh. The back of young, immature 
 animals should be well carried, and the judge should expect 
 more from them in this regard, than from older cattle 
 where sagging of the back may be due to age, pregnancy, 
 or heaviness of belly. The first essential in any event, is a 
 smooth, deep, uniform covering of flesh, indicated to the 
 touch as the fingers gently press along down the spine and 
 test for thickness and quality. The part most likely to be 
 bare is over the shoulders at the withers. The longer, 
 higher rising bones of the spine, located at this part of 
 
JUDGING BEEF TYPE OF CATTLE 
 
 247 
 
 Fig. 136. "The back of the beef animal should 
 be wide and level." 
 
 the back, are not 
 fleshed over so 
 deeply or readily 
 as over the remain- 
 der of the back. 
 The loin is the mus- 
 cular portion of 
 the back that lies 
 just in front of the 
 hips. It should be 
 broad and thick, 
 and give evidence 
 of ample strength. 
 Any depression 
 here is undesirable, 
 indicating physical 
 weakness, the kid- 
 neys being located 
 
 directly below the loin. A very slight arch across the loin, 
 so that not the slightest depression will be possible just in 
 front of a line between the hips, is highly desirable. The 
 
 loin being the part 
 of the back from 
 which the highest 
 priced meat is se- 
 cured, should log- 
 ically be as broad 
 and heavy-fleshed 
 as possible. 
 
 The ribs should 
 be long and widely 
 arched. A combi- 
 nation of length 
 and arch gives a 
 capacious middle, 
 with ample room 
 
 Tig. 137. "The loin is the muscular portion of , , , , 
 
 the back that lies just in front of the hips." >* heart and JungS. 
 
248 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 If the rib is not well arched, or ' ' well sprung, ' ' as the stock- 
 man expresses it, then the back will be narrow, and lack the 
 width necessary to secure the best of cuts. The spring of rib 
 should come well out to the line of hips, which will insure a 
 wide loin and back. Flatness of rib and depression behind 
 the shoulders indicates, as a rule, lack of constitution. It is 
 not necessarily always so, however. Some animals having 
 long ribs as viewed from the side, show deep middles and 
 large digestive capacity, but when viewed from front or 
 rear, present a decided narrowness of back due to flatness 
 of rib. When the rib is both short and flat, then we have 
 a most undesirable conformation, the type that brings the 
 low price for its class. It is highly essential that the ribs 
 be smoothly and deeply covered with flesh. As previously 
 stated, the lower part of the ribs may be bare, though the 
 back be well covered. The judge should pass his hands 
 over the ribs and feel the covering, noting its depth, firm- 
 ness .and smoothness, and the way it is packed in between 
 the ribs. Beef cattle should be close-ribbed, that is, the 
 spaces between them should be as close as possible, thereby 
 
 Fig. 138. Note the difference in depth of body and digestive capacity of 
 these two beef steers that are of exactly the same age. 
 
JUDGING BFKF TYl'K OF (' ATTI.K 2|g 
 
 giving tin 1 compact frame. In scoring the ribs, the judge 
 should emphasize the necessity of length, hut from a 
 butcher's point of view a wide, well covered back is more 
 important, for here he gets his valuable cuts, rather than 
 lower down on the ribs. So in the show ring, the wide, 
 well-covered back should receive more credit than the long 
 rib without the desired arch. The flanks also are indicators 
 of constitution, capacity and condition. The full front 
 flank, without depression back of the arm, is associated 
 with a wide, strong lower chest, and good constitution. 
 The rear flank that is well let down, or deep, as it is some- 
 times called, goes with depth of body and feeding capacity. 
 Shallow bodied, short ribbed animals are always high in the 
 rear flank. From a side view, the lower line of body from 
 front to rear flank should be quite low and straight. This, 
 of course, is not possible always with old animals, that 
 develop some paunchiness, even though well filled in the 
 flanks. The hind flank of beef cattle thickens and takes 
 on fat as feeding progresses and, as has already been observ- 
 ed, is an indicator of condition or finish. Fat cattle, when 
 walking, show a bulging fullness in the hind flank, indi- 
 cative of finish that is easily seen by the experienced stock- 
 man. 
 
 The hindquarters of the beef animal represent a very 
 important meat-producing part of the body, for here we 
 find the greatest percentage of meat to bone to be found 
 in the carcass. Therefore, beef cattlemen usually take 
 special interest in the conformation of this part. The hips 
 of the beef animal, sometimes called " hooks " or "huckle" 
 bones, should be of good size, though not too angular and 
 prominent. Youatt states 5 that "without being ragged 
 (rough or angular), they should be large, round rather 
 than wide, and presenting, when handled, plenty of muscle 
 and fat. ' ' They should be well placed in the back, and on 
 the line of a strong arch of ribs. The ideal condition is to 
 have them smoothly covered with flesh. If they are too 
 
 6 Cattle, 1860, p. 12. 
 
JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 wide apart, and angular, this will be quite unlikely, and 
 further, will give evidence of coarseness. The rump should 
 be long, wide and level. We view the length by standing 
 at one side, and from this view-point also note whether it 
 extends in level form from hips to end of body. One of 
 the common defects of the rump is to droop from the hips 
 back, thereby reducing the flesh-carrying capacity of the 
 
 hindquarter. Many 
 judges give scant 
 consideration t o 
 droopy rumped 
 animals, very cor- 
 rectly regarding 
 this as bad confor- 
 mation, and sadly 
 marring true ani- 
 mal beauty. As 
 one views the rump 
 from the rear, it 
 should taper but 
 gradually from 
 
 J 
 
 Fig. 139. "The rump should be Ions, wide 
 and level. We view the length by standing at 
 one side." 
 
 hips to point of 
 rump, being of 
 good width be- 
 tween the pin bones or points of the ischium. The na- 
 tural tendency is for the rump to slope away on each side 
 from the spine, but this should be only to a slight extent. 
 The more sloping the rump in any respect, the less its 
 meat-carrying capacity. In other words, the longer, wider 
 and more level the rump, the greater the yield of meat on 
 the pelvis. The covering of flesh over the rump should 
 be smooth, without any roughness or patches of fat, a fre- 
 quent defect of this part. Many fat cattle have heavy 
 lumps on the ends of the rump, on each side of the pin 
 bones. In fact, evidence of condition soon manifests itself 
 here. Feeders of show stock often find their cattle accumu- 
 lating such lumps of tallow on the rump as seriously to 
 
JUDGING BEEF TYPE OF CATTLE 
 
 251 
 
 affect their value for competition in these days 
 smoothness of fleshing is so much emphasized. The wise 
 judge will discriminate against undue roughness of rump 
 covering. The tail head or attachment of tail to body, 
 should be on the general level line of back, and not too 
 prominent nor rough. If the rump itself is level, the tail 
 attachment will probably be satisfactory. Frequently a 
 nick or dent is seen 
 in the spine on the 
 rump, or where it 
 may unite with the 
 tail head. This 
 does not add to the 
 beauty of this part, 
 but in itself is no 
 serious defect, and 
 should have little 
 bearing on the de- 
 cision of a judge, 
 unless competition 
 is close. The thigh 
 of the beef animal 
 should be broad, 
 thick, deep and 
 full. From a side 
 view the breadth 
 
 is noted, while from the rear we note its thickness, 
 its depth from top to bottom, and its general plump 
 and meaty character. The outline of the thigh along its 
 rear side should show quite a straight drop from the end 
 of the rump downward, thus giving evidence of continuous 
 breadth to the top of the lower thigh, which should be short 
 but strongly muscular. The distance from the hip to the 
 point where the thigh curves in to form the lower thigh 
 should be comparatively long. A long, broad, thick upper 
 1high, in good condition, will yield a heavy weight of one 
 of the more valuable parts of the carcass. These several 
 
 Fig. 140. Note the difference in thickness 
 and depth of thighs iu these two steers of equal 
 age. 
 
252 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 factors should be carefully kept in mind by the judge, for, 
 from the butcher 's point of view, a well-covered back and 
 heavy-fleshed hindquarter are of first importance in beef 
 production. The twist is the part of the hindquarter where 
 the upper and lower thighs blend together, forming a curve 
 on the inside that should be very strongly defined. The 
 
 more pronounced the curve, 
 the thicker fleshed will be the 
 thigh just above this point. 
 It is desirable to have the 
 thighs as plump as possible 
 from top to bottom, but we 
 may find hindquarters nar- 
 rower at the top, and thick 
 and full below, yet with strong 
 twists. It is not unusual to 
 find Aberdeen Angus cattle of 
 such conformation. On the 
 contrary, the Hereford has a 
 natural tendency for a full 
 development high up on the 
 thigh, with a paring away of 
 the lower thigh, and lack of 
 fullness of twist. It is equal- 
 ly important that the thigh be 
 fully fleshed above and below. 
 
 The legs should be well placed and short, the same argument 
 as to position of legs and feet applying to the hind as to 
 front limbs. If the hocks are straight, and point directly back, 
 with four or five inches of space between, the toes will point 
 forward, in good form, and ample room for thickness of thigh 
 will exist. When the hocks crowd close together, the toes point 
 outward, and the thighs lack in thickness. Neither should 
 the legs be carried too far beneath the body, as viewed from 
 the side. The legs as a whole will assume a very true and 
 satisfactory position, if a plumb line dropped from the 
 point of the rump touches the point of hock and falls 
 nearly parallel with the back side of the shank bone. 
 
 Fig. 141. "The twist is the 
 part of the hindquarter where the 
 upper and lower thighs bend to- 
 gether, forming a curve on the in- 
 side." 
 
CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 THE COMPARATIVE STUDY OF BEEF CATTLE. 
 
 THE judging of cattle by means of the score card is espe- 
 cially applied to the single individual. As a rule the card 
 is used in this way only, although occasionally two animals 
 are scored in a comparative way, the judge examining the 
 same features in order with each animal, and scoring the 
 same. This, however, is a slow process and is neither satis- 
 factory or practical in comparative judging. If not in the 
 regular show yard, a ring of four animals makes a con- 
 venient group for comparative study. These should be of 
 similar age and character, such as yearling steers, for ex- 
 ample, and preferably of much the same breed type. The 
 judge should examine them as they stand in line for in- 
 spection, but also as they pass before or about him at the 
 walk. Following the plan of the scale of points, the cattle 
 should first be examined as to their general appearance, in 
 which case the weight, form, quality and condition are con- 
 sidered, and each animal is compared with the others. The 
 judge receives certain impressions in this first general ex- 
 amination, that will influence him in his final placings. He 
 stands some distance away, and compares the animals in a 
 comprehensive way that is not possible at closer range. 
 He walks about the group, surveying and comparing at 
 different angles, for this is necessary if the work is to be 
 carefully done. The question the judge asks himself all 
 the time is, how near does each animal measure up to the 
 ideal of the scale of points? "Weight he recognizes as of 
 distinct importance, considering age, but beauty of form 
 is essential, for in it are included the most important fea- 
 tures sought after by the butcher. If, then, the animals 
 are compared as to general form, they can hardly be ranked 
 in order until they are compared as to quality and condi- 
 
 253 
 
254 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 lion and their readiness for the block. One animal might 
 have a form of excellent balance, but be so thin in flesh, if 
 fat animals are up for comparison, as not to be entitled 
 to as high rank as others in better condition for killing. 
 A detailed examination and comparison is necessary, fol- 
 lowing the more general one. It is desirable, in the case 
 of cattle for slaughter, to go over each animal carefully, 
 comparing those parts the butcher most emphasizes and 
 values. Therefore, a study of the backs, as to width and 
 depth of covering, and a comparison of hindquarters, as to 
 flesh-carrying capacity and thickness and depth of con- 
 formation is essential. In the show ring where competi- 
 tion is severe, such as at the International Live Stock Ex- 
 position, it is impossible to win with a fat steer that is 
 open to serious criticism of back or hindquarter. Plain- 
 ness of head and shoulder might be overlooked to some 
 extent, but not of the more essential parts from the 
 butcher's standpoint. The covering of flesh as to smooth- 
 ness, depth and firmness, will also receive much careful 
 attention, and when the cattle are at last placed in their 
 relative order of merit, it will be found that condition has 
 had a very important part in the placing. No set rule can 
 be applied as to which animal should be placed first. It 
 may be comparatively easy to select out the one entitled 
 to first rank, and perhaps no trouble at all to locate the 
 most inferior individual, but second and third places are 
 frequently difficult to decide. The second animal must 
 be compared with the first, and for well-defined reasons 
 given its place, but so also this second placing over the 
 third must be satisfactorily made. Certainly, as one goes 
 down the line, after making the placings, each individual 
 in order of rank should show more actual merit and fewer 
 defects than the one next below in the line. Interesting 
 and profitable comparative study of certain parts may be 
 made. For example, the heads and necks may be compared 
 and ranked in order of merit. So, in the same way, other 
 parts may be specially compared, as the bodies, hind- 
 
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF liUKK CATTLE 'J.V, 
 
 quarters, condition or quality. An analysis of this sorl, 
 px's farther than is usual in most comparative judging, 
 but results in a more thorough comparison than is possible 
 by usual methods, and is well worth doing when time and 
 conditions justify. In the regular show ring, when herds 
 are shown in competition, judges frequently re-group them. 
 Each exhibitor's herd is placed in a single file, so that ani- 
 mals of the same sex and age may be easily compared. For 
 
 Fig. 142. "Interesting and profitable comparative study of certain parts 
 may be made. For example, the heads and necks may be compared and 
 ranked in order of merit." 
 
 example, if four herds of five cattle each, consisting of bull, 
 cow three years old or over, two-year heifer, yearling heifer, 
 and heifer calf were brought in the ring, each herd should, 
 as a rule, be arranged by itself, with the animals lined 
 up side by side. The opportunity for examination may be 
 greatly improved if the judge requires them to be arranged 
 so that each bull will be side by side, and the same for the 
 female of each class, thus permitting close comparison. In 
 a herd contest of this sort, the judge must first take into 
 consideration the general uniformity of the animals in a 
 herd, and their closeness to the approved type. Some ex- 
 hibitors have an impression that the winnings of an exhib- 
 itor in the classes should regulate the winnings of the 
 
056 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 herds, but this is not necessarily so at all. A first pri/e 
 animal in class might have hackbut little competition in 
 one case, yet be distinctly inferior to a third prize animal 
 of another class, that had secured this position in strong 
 competition. Therefore, it really resolves itself into plac- 
 ing the herds so that they are arranged in order of merit 
 as a whole, including uniformity and type as vital factors. 
 
 The reasons for placing beef cattle in the ring may be 
 given orally or in writing. For some years, in the students ' 
 judging contests at the International Live Stock Ex- 
 position, written reasons were ^iven, and later these were 
 discarded for oral reasons. In either case it is highly im- 
 portant that the reasons be given briefly and to the point. 
 The following may serve as an example of written reasons, 
 as applied to a ring of four steers used in the classroom. 
 
 "I placed D first, because in general beef conformation 
 he meets the requirements more fully than A, my second 
 choice. D is wider and thicker over the loins than A, and 
 also is longer, wider and more nearly square in the hind- 
 quarters. D is hardly so attractive as A in head and 
 shoulders, yet his firm, smooth, mellow fleshing and fine 
 handling quality indicate him to be the most profitable 
 killer in the ring. His entire make-up and covering of flesh 
 is the sort the butcher wants. I placed A over C, because 
 the former comes closer to correct type, being very com- 
 pact and low set, and much neater in head, neck and 
 shoulders than C. A is especially stronger and thicker 
 fleshed over the loin, at which place C is somewhat de- 
 ficient. While C surpasses A in the length, width and 
 carriage of rump, he is inferior to the latter in his cover- 
 ing of lower ribs and thickness of quarters and develop- 
 ment of twist. A is very neat in his middle piece, while C 
 inclines somewhat to paunchiness, which promises too much 
 waste in killing. I placed B last because he is not a good 
 type of butcher 's beast, being too long and upstanding, lack- 
 ing condition, and showing too much coarseness ail over.'* 
 
CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 JUDGING STOCKER OR FEEDER CATTLE. 
 
 STOCKERS or feeders represent a class of cattle that are 
 thin in flesh, yet possess the essential factors which, with 
 time and feed, will produce the high-class beef animal. That 
 which has thus far been described of beef cattle, relates 
 to the finished condition, whether for butcher or show 
 ring. It is highly essential that the cattleman or judge 
 should be able to select thin animals that will feed out 
 satisfactorily. In fact it requires far more discrimination 
 to judge thin cattle than it does those that are finished. 
 However, the same essential features are found in stockers 
 and feeders that are found in the others, excepting for 
 differences in size and in lack of condition. Stockers are 
 young cattle, and are regarded as in the calf class, while 
 feeders are more mature, and are the sort used in the feed 
 lot for immediate feeding and fattening. Men rarely buy 
 feeders that weigh under 800 pounds, although some fancy 
 
 Fig. 143. "Feeders are more mature and are the sort used in the feed 
 lot." (Photo by courtesy Ohio Agr. Exp. Station.) 
 
 257 
 
258 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 stuff is occasionally put on feed that weighs around 500 
 pounds, being turned off to the packer at about twelve 
 months, weighing around 800 pounds. It is quite a com- 
 mon custom, however, to select feeders eighteen months 
 old or older, and weighing from 900 to 1,000 pounds. In 
 judging feeders, certain features should be emphasized, and 
 for reasons already given. Breed character and quality are 
 highly important. The best fat cattle of to-day on the 
 market appear the equals of pure breds in external char- 
 acteristics, arid they are the leading prize-winners in the 
 feeder contests at the shows. The general form should be 
 of the blocky type, low set, wide on top, deep in the flanks 
 and supported on short legs. The head should be short, 
 with all the requisites of the good feeder, a most important 
 point in this kind of cattle. Shortness of neck, thickness 
 of chest with ample space between the forelegs, a deep body 
 or long rib, a wide, long, level rump, and thick, deep thighs, 
 are features to be sought for in the thin animal. Rough- 
 ness of shoulder, depressed or saggy back, and prominent 
 hips and.tailhead are objectionable. Emphasize quality, 
 as shown in the mellow, elastic, fairly thick hide, the heavy, 
 fine coat of hair, and moderate size of bone. The general 
 quality of the animal is seen in his breed character, while his 
 handling quality is especially to be found in the hide and 
 coat of hair. From either side or end point of view, one 
 notes the desirable or undesirable characteristics, just as 
 in the animal in condition. But it must be remembered 
 in judging thin cattle, that a well-made frame is absolutely 
 necessary, if a high-class, finished product is ultimately to 
 come from it. 
 
CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 JUDGING BEEF CATTLE USED FOR BREEDING 
 PURPOSES. 
 
 THE beef animal, for breeding purposes, should possess 
 all the desirable features of conformation found in the non- 
 brrcding animal that is to yield a maximum of returns over 
 the block. Comparison of a prime steer and a superior 
 type of breeding bull, will show a close resemblance between 
 them in form and quality. The breeding animal, however, 
 must possess certain characteristics of importance. These 
 are the distinctive features of sex, constitutional vigor, size, 
 an inheritance of natural fleshing, and breed character. 
 Judges will differ somewhat in their relative estimate of 
 values of these characteristics. The following discussion, 
 however, gives first consideration to sex. 
 
 (A) JUDGING BEEF BULLS. 
 
 Sex character in the beef bull is manifested in the size 
 and character of head, in the thickness of neck and frontal 
 development, the sexual organs, and temperament. The 
 head of the bull should meet all the requirements of the 
 good feeder, but what is most important, it should be strong 
 and dominant in expression, with full forehead, expressive 
 eyes, strong but not coarse horns, and a thick covering of 
 hair over the upper portion of head. Such a head, proudly 
 carried, speaks for the dominant sire and constitutional 
 vigor, most essential features of the male. The testimony of 
 generations of great stockmen emphasizes the fundamental 
 importance of the head as showing sex and indicating breed 
 ing capacity. We are told l that Thomas Bates was so ira- 
 
 ] Shorthorn Cattle. Alvin H. Sanders, 1900, p. 86. 
 
 259 
 
260 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Pig. 144. "Such a head, proudly carried, 
 speaks for the dominant sire and constitutional 
 vigor." (Photo by courtesy Mr. J. C. Allen, 
 Purdue University.) 
 
 pressed by the 
 head of Belvedere 
 (1706), as seen by 
 him when exposed 
 through a stable 
 window, that he 
 determined to pur- 
 chase him, which 
 he did. Bates was 
 one of the great 
 breeders of history, 
 and Belvedere was 
 one of the great 
 sires used in the 
 herd a t Kirklev- 
 ington. "What the 
 intelligent breeder 
 desires in the bull 's 
 head, the equally 
 
 wise judge must require in the show ring. Heads lacking 
 masculinity, of steery character ; or long and narrow, show- 
 ing weak constitution ; or coarse and heavy, too big for the 
 body, should be discriminated against. The neck of the bull 
 should be strong and masculine, distinctive of the sex, with 
 a thickness and arch on top not possessed by the steer or 
 cow. Breeders differ in their views as to degree of arch of 
 neck, some preferring less than others. A thick, high arch 
 is unnecessary; one of moderate degree suffices to denote 
 masculinity, and yet furnishes no unnecessary amount of 
 cheap meat. The entire front development of the neck, 
 breast, shoulders and chest should show the massive and 
 masculine in superior degree. So also should the hind- 
 quarters appear strong and stocky. The scrotum or testi- 
 cles male sexual organs should be well developed, ajid 
 the presence of two glands of equal size should be apparent 
 in this sac. The absence of one of these glands, while not 
 necessarily indicating a non-breeder, is looked upon with 
 
JUDGING BREEDING BEEF CATTLE 261 
 
 distinct disfavor, and should rule an animal from the show 
 ring as defective. The temperament df the bull is also 
 quite distinctive of sex character. Through it he shows the 
 power of self-assertion, as the natural leader of the herd, 
 and his carriage should be bold and masculine, rather than 
 mild and sexless like the steer. The constitutional vigor 
 of the bull, as has already been expressed, is shown in the 
 head and neck. However, the arch and depth of forerib, 
 and fullness of breast and chest, are regarded as of first 
 importance in indicating constitution, for reasons already 
 given. Stylish, erect carriage of head and neck, usually 
 expresses strength of constitution, while a low, indifferent 
 attitude of head and neck indicate lack of vigor or poor 
 health. Sex character and constitution are essentially of 
 equal importance, for a male lacking either of these would 
 be considered inferior. Size in the bull, or weight at ma- 
 turity, should be considerably in excess of that of the 
 female. Very large size is not essential, and often means 
 coarseness. Undersize is a serious objection, because the 
 small bull, though meeting all other requirements but size, 
 is liable to sire animals that will never reach standard 
 weights. While the present day demands considerable size 
 in breeding stock, most breeders prefer bulls of medium 
 size, possessing much quality. A beef bull weighing 2,200 
 pounds at maturity, not in high condition, might be con- 
 sidered of satisfactory weight. The inheritance of natural 
 flesh-carrying quality is of special importance. The bull 
 in good breeding condition, that has a frame smoothly 
 covered with a natural layer of mellow flesh, may be ex- 
 pected to transmit this quality to his offspring. Further, 
 such a covering, consisting largely of smoothly laid-on 
 muscle, readily takes on fat and reaches a high degree 
 of condition. The tendency in the beef show ring is to 
 bring in breeding cattle in high condition. This is unfor- 
 tunate, as it is often at the expense of procreative power 
 after the show season is over. The breeding bull should 
 not carry the high condition of the steer, yet should show 
 
262 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 enough fleshing to satisfy reasonable show ring require- 
 ments. Breed characteristics are an essential feature of 
 the modern sire. There is no argument in behalf of the 
 use of grade or cross-bred sires, therefore, the bull should 
 possess all the important characteristics of the breed he 
 represents. Each of the beef breeds, in its more perfect 
 development, meets the requirements of superior meat pro- 
 duction, but the presence of certain color markings of hair, 
 and details of conformation, distinguishing features of 
 the breed, and evidences of the right kind of ancestry are 
 also demanded. The presence of these features in the bull 
 will furnish important evidence of his possible power of 
 transmitting these desirable qualities to his offspring. 
 
 (B) JUDGING BEEF COWS. 
 
 The sex character of the beef cow is especially seen in 
 the head, neck, form of body and udder. The head should 
 be distinctly feminine, lacking the size and burly character 
 of the bull. The face is more refined, the forehead not so 
 broad, the eyes milder, and the horns smaller and more 
 refined. In fact, refinement of head, with neatness of con- 
 tour, are essential features. The neck should be short and 
 of moderate thickness, showing plenty of beef character, 
 yet lacking the heaviness of the bull and the thickness of 
 the steer. The neck is an important indicator of feminine 
 character, and judges look with disfavor upon a cow with 
 this part heavy and masculine. The neck should blend 
 nicely into well-laid shoulders, but the cow should not carry 
 so much squareness or fullness of breast and shoulders as 
 the bull. The space between the forelegs is less, the arms 
 are not so broad and powerful, and the shoulders are of 
 lighter build than with the bull. Great depth of chest and 
 strong spring of forerib is sought after. The udder of the 
 beef cow is not expected to produce as much milk as the 
 dairy cow, but it should show both size and capacity. It 
 should be nicely extended in front and behind, have a mel- 
 
JUDGING BREEDING BEEF CATTLE 
 
 263 
 
 low, elastic consistency, and show four well-placed teats of 
 sufficient size to be easily grasped in the hands. Small 
 udders, showing a fleshy character, are distinctly undesir- 
 able. In passing on breeding cows of the beef type, judges 
 do not place enough importance on the udder and the part it 
 plays in the successful development of the herd. The best 
 British Shorthorn breeders of to-day give special attention 
 
 Fig. 145. "The beef cow should produce an ample supply of milk for nurs- 
 ing her offspring." (Photo by courtesy Frank Adler.) 
 
 to the development of the udder, believing, like Thomas; 
 Bates, that the beef cow should produce an ample supply 
 of milk for nursing her offspring. For further information 
 on the udder and milk secretion see pages 298 to 300. The 
 sex character of the female is shown in considerable length 
 of body and depth of rib, this type of body having ca- 
 pacity for reproduction. The maternal is distinctly ap- 
 parent in the head, neck and body of the breeding females, 
 a feminine quality that is absolutely lacking in the male 
 or unsexed animal. The size of the cow should tend to be 
 
264 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 large rather than small. Breeders prefer large cows of 
 quality, mated to medium-sized bulls. A weight of 1,600 
 pounds for a mature cow will satisfy most breeders and 
 judges. The small or undersized female should be dis- 
 criminated against, because scale and weight, with quality, 
 are associated with the most satisfactory and profitable 
 results of reproduction. The presence of breed type or 
 character is important in the cow, though not so much so 
 as in the case of the male. If the pure-bred female is 
 under consideration, then the judge must attach great im- 
 portance to breed characteristics. Prepotency, as funda- 
 mental in breed development, cannot be maintained unless 
 breed characteristics are emphasized and promoted by the 
 breeder, and the judge in the show ring. Therefore, as 
 in the case of the bull the judge should give proper recog- 
 nition to breed type and character when judging pure- 
 bred females. 
 
CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE NOTES OF THE MORE IMPORTANT 
 BEEF BREEDS. 
 
 The Shorthorn breed of cattle originated in northeastern 
 England, in the counties of Durham and York. In gen- 
 eral this is regarded as a beef breed, although certain 
 tribes especially given to milk production are regarded as 
 dual-purpose, and termed dairy or milking Shorthorns. 
 The color is variable, being either red, white, or red and 
 white in spots, or roan, the latter being a commingling of 
 red and white hair without forming solid color. In size 
 this is one of the large breeds, mature bulls weigh 1,800 
 to 2,200 pounds, and even more, with 2,000 a desirable 
 standard. Cows at maturity should weigh in ordinary flesh 
 1,400 to 1,500 pounds. Assuming the Shorthorn to be a 
 good representative of the beef type, it has certain long 
 recognized characteristics. The horns are waxy yellow in 
 color, comparatively small and short, curving in at the 
 tips. The muzzle should be flesh-colored, though smutty 
 or dark muzzles are not uncommon, but are objectionable. 
 The shoulders tend to be somewhat prominent and bare, 
 and frequently a deficiency back of the shoulders is to be 
 seen. Yet in most cases the rib is widely sprung, and the 
 body shows ample thickness and depth. The hindquarters 
 are conspicuous for their thickness and fullness of rump 
 and thigh. Shorthorns are easy keepers, fatten easily, and 
 tend to get patchy about the sides and tail head. The 
 females of this breed produce milk more abundantly than 
 those of other beef breeds. In fact, the females of the 
 so-called milking Shorthorn tribes often have large udders 
 which yield heavily. It is not remarkable for a milking 
 
 265 
 
266 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Fig. 146. Shorthorn bull, "Ringmaster," 307899. A great show bull and 
 sire. (Photo by courtesy The Farmer.) 
 
 Shorthorn to produce 8,000 to 10,000 pounds of milk in a 
 year. There is no .official score card for this breed. Tem- 
 peramentally, Shorthorns are very quiet and domestic. 
 
 The Polled Durham breed of cattle is a hornless Short- 
 horn. Originally coming from two sources of ancestry, yet 
 in each case essentially of Shorthorn blood, the lines of 
 Polled Durham breeding of to-day trace back to pure-bred, 
 hornless Shorthorns. Therefore, the distinctive character- 
 istics of the Polled Durham are those of a Shorthorn with 
 polled head. 
 
 The Hereford breed of cattle originated in Herefordshire, 
 England. It is a very old breed, and is essentially the only 
 one kept in that English county. It is distinctively a beef 
 breed. The main body color is red, ranging from light to 
 dark shade, with white face. Solid white markings usu- 
 ally occur on the legs about the ankles, the lower part of 
 belly, brisket and neck, top of neck, withers, and brush of 
 
THE MORE IMPORTANT BEEF BREEDS 
 
 267 
 
 tail. Red hair often occurs about the eyes, especially with 
 some families. This is one of the large beef breeds, com- 
 p;i ruble in size with the Shorthorn. Mature bulls often 
 weigh 2,200 pounds, and females 1,500 pounds or more. 
 Some very large bulls of this breed have been recorded. 
 Typical Herefords are distinctly beefy in character and 
 short of head, with waxy yellow horns, which come from 
 the head at right angles, and curve forward and down- 
 ward. Horns also frequently curve upward at the tips, 
 especially with the females. The shoulder blade, as a rule, is 
 well laid in, thus forming a beautiful, smooth, nicely 
 fleshed shoulder, a distinctive characteristic of this breed. 
 The hindquarters naturally tend to be somewhat peaked 
 at the rump, and thin of thigh. During the past fifteen 
 or twenty years, however, these deficiencies have been 
 greatly improved, so that Herefords with wide rumps and 
 thick thighs are becoming common. This breed fattens 
 easily and rapidly, and tends to be more or less patchy, 
 especially along the ribs and about the rump. Dimples 
 not infrequently occur in the back. The coat of hair is usu- 
 ally very thick, with a distinct curly character in winter. 
 
 Fig. 147. Hereford bull, "Diplomat" (Imp.). 
 
268 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 In temperament the Hereford is naturally high-spirited 
 and very active and better adapted to large pastures and 
 the range than more restricted conditions. This breed has 
 no equal for grazing on extensive ranges. In general, the 
 Hereford is inferior in milk production and rarely shows 
 an udder of superior form. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS FOR HEREFORD CATTLE. 
 
 (Adopted by the American Hereford Cattle Breeders' Association.) 
 
 Points 
 
 Color Medium, deep, rich red, with white head, breast, belly, crest, 
 
 switch and ankles 5 
 
 Objections: White back of crop, Jiiffh on flank, or too high on legs. 
 
 Head Forehead broad and prominent ; face short, slightly tapering 
 toward nose; muzzle full; nostrils wide and open; eyes large and 
 expressive; ears of medium size, well set and well covered with hair; 
 horns of medium size, even color, coming from head at right angles, 
 set on level with crops, back and tail head, curving forward and 
 downward 8 
 
 Throat Clean, without any excessive development of loose flesh or fat 
 
 underneath 2 
 
 Neck Short, neat, spreading out to meet shoulders, with full neck vein, 
 free from loose skin. (Males: neck muscular, with full crest ac- 
 cording to age) 2 
 
 Shoulders Straight, round, full, smooth and well covered; top of shoul- 
 der blades slightly below vertebra, good width on top 6 
 
 Chest Wide, deep, round and full just back of shoulders 6 
 
 Brisket Deep and wide, moderately projecting, free from flabbiness . . 2 
 
 Hibs Well sprung from backbone, close together, long and arched, car- 
 rying the full width of shoulders and deeply and smoothly covered 8 
 
 Back and Loin Broad, straight and heavily covered from crops to hooks; 
 
 hooks moderately wide and well covered 10 
 
 Bump Long, wide, smooth and well covered, carrying width in propor- 
 tion to width of back and hooks, joining smoothly into quarters . . . . 5 
 
 Quarters Long, straight, muscular, full, deep, and thick 4 
 
 Thigh and twist Full and thick, carried well down to hocks 3 
 
 Tail Tail head level with line of back, tail dropping at right angles to 
 
 back line 1 
 
 Underline Straight, flanks deep and full 3 
 
 Legs Short, straight and squarely placed, perpendicular both from side 
 
 and end view; forearm muscular, bones strong and clean .... . . 6 
 
 Flesh Deep, firm, smooth, uniformly covering all parts and free from 
 
 patchiness 8 
 
 Skin Of moderate thickness, mellow, pliable and loose, abundantly cov- 
 ered with long, thick, silky hair 6 
 
 General appearance Vigorous, compact and symmetrical. Bulls mascu- 
 line and possessing an abundance of quality and predominant breed- 
 ing characteristics. Females matronly, roomy, smooth, showing qual- 
 ity and feminine appearance throughout 10 
 
 Weight Age and condition to be considered 5 
 
 Total. . ..100 
 
THE MORE IMPORTANT BEEF BREEDS 
 
 269 
 
 The Aberdeen-Angus breed of cattle originated in north- 
 eastern Scotland, especially in the counties of Aberdeen, 
 Kincardine, and Forfar. It is a pure black, hornless breed 
 of distinctly beef type. Occasionally a red specimen, of 
 Aberdeen- Angus occurs, but these are not used for breed- 
 ing purposes. A slight amount of white on the under side 
 back of the navel is allowable, especially with the females, 
 though distinctly objected to with the bulls. The Aberdeen- 
 
 Fig. 148. Aberdeen-Angus bull, champion at Highland and Agricultural 
 Society of Scotland Show. 
 
 Angus, for size, is in the same class with Shorthorn and 
 Hereford, though averaging slightly less in weight. Mature 
 bulls in fair flesh, usually weigh around 2,000 pounds, and 
 cows about 1,400 pounds. Good examples of the breed 
 have short, wide heads, indicating good feeders, with polls 
 coming to a neat point. These cattle are inclined to be 
 prominent of shoulder and only moderately wide of back, 
 the loin being narrower and more rounding than on Short- 
 horn or Hereford. The depth of rib is excellent, and the 
 
270 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 body which tends to cylindrical form, as a rule shows large 
 digestive capacity. The rump is frequently pared off on 
 each side, and the tail head prominent, but the thighs are 
 thick and heavily fleshed. The fleshing is very smooth and 
 unsurpassed in character. The coat of hair is not so long 
 and curly as with the Hereford, being ordinarily of a 
 straight, smooth character. There are some excellent 
 milkers in this breed, though there is much variation in 
 
 Fig. 149. Galloway steer, breed champion at International Livestock 
 
 Exposition. 
 
 this respect. The temperament as a rule is rather nervous, 
 and not so domestic as the Shorthorn. 
 
 The Galloway breed of cattle originated in southwestern 
 Scotland in Galloway. This is a black, polled breed, and 
 quite comparable with the Aberdeen-Angus, but hardly so 
 compact nor does it fatten so easily. The head is some- 
 what longer than that of the Aberdeen- Angus, the poll is 
 not so sharp, and the ears are set a bit farther back than 
 with other breeds, and point upward and forward. Gallo- 
 
THE MORE IMPORTANT BEEF BREEDS 271 
 
 ways are frequently lacking in spring of rib, and incline 
 to length and slackness of back and prominence of tail- 
 head. They are also more leggy than the Aberdeen-Angus. 
 This is a beef breed of medium size, bulls weighing usually 
 1,800 to 1,900 pounds, and mature cows 1,200 to 1,400 
 pounds. These cattle fatten slowly. In temperament the 
 Galloway is inclined to be somewhat nervous and restless. 
 The breed is especially adapted to range conditions. A 
 striking feature of this breed is the coat of hair, which has 
 two lengths, one thick and short, the other long and more 
 curly. In winter these cattle present a very curly, shaggy 
 appearance. Galloway hides are highly valued for rugs 
 and overcoats. 
 
CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 JUDGING THE DAIRY TYPE OF CATTLE 
 BY SCALE OF POINTS. 
 
 The evolution of the dairy cow undoubtedly dates back 
 many years. The breeding of cows for the dairy has been 
 conducted for some centuries in Holland. Cows noted for 
 milk production were taken to England from that country 
 long ago. Early English writings in referring to cattle, 
 have however made scant reference to the dairy cow, beef 
 production being the main consideration. In one notable 
 English agricultural book, 1 published in 1767, rules are 
 given to be observed in buying cattle. "If cows for the 
 pail," says the author, "let them also be young, high of 
 stature, and long bodied, with large and round belly, large, 
 fair, and smooth horns, a broad, smooth forehead, udders 
 white, not fleshy, but large and lank, with four teats and no 
 more." 
 
 The importance of dairy cattle type as associated with 
 milk production, received special attention among Ayrshire 
 breeders as early as 1811, when Aiton referred to details 
 of conformation. 2 Later on William Harley, in 1829, in a 
 work on a dairy system 3 emphasized thin shoulders and 
 large, broad hindquarters on the dairy cow. In 1834 the 
 introduction on the Island of Jersey of the first scale of 
 points, attracted serious attention to dairy cow conforma- 
 tion and its improvement. In 1853 a prize essay in Scot- 
 land 4 dealing with the details of type, described the shoul- 
 ders as thin on top, and the forequarters as thin in front 
 
 1 The Complete Grazier, 2d edition. 
 
 2 A Survey of Ayrshire, Glasgow, 1811. 
 
 3 The Harleian Dairy System. 
 
 * Transactions Highland and Agricultural Society, 1866-7, p. 106. 
 
 272 
 
JUDGING THE DAIRY TYPE OF CATTLE 
 
 273 
 
 Fig. 150. The Point* of a Dairy Cow, as reproduced upon Ormsby Jane 
 Segis Aaggie 150948, champion Holstein-Friesian cow. As a senior four- 
 year old, she has a seven-day record of 44.4 Ibs. butter. (Photo by 
 courtesy American Agriculturist.) 
 
 and gradually increasing in depth and thickness backward. 
 Later, in 1875, Sturtevant Bros, of Massachusetts, in dis- 
 cussing Ayrshire cattle form, 5 stated that "in the dairy 
 breeds, and in most animals particularly adapted to milk 
 giving, there is a tendency toward accumulation of a 
 larger part of the weight of the animal in the rearmost 
 half. ... As judged by a side view or from above, there is a 
 certain wedge form. . . . This form becomes more strongly 
 marked with age when the animal has been abundantly 
 supplied with food. The yearling and two-years' old may 
 have parallel rather than diverging lines on the side view." 
 In 1875 the American Jersey Cattle Club adopted the scale 
 of points, the first of its kind officially introduced to Amer- 
 ica. The introduction of the practice of livestock judging 
 
 B The Dairy Cow: A Monograph on the Ayrshire Breed of Cattle, Boston, 
 1875. 
 
274 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 in the agricultural colleges early in the nineties, put into 
 systematic operation lessons in judging dairy cattle by the 
 score card, emphasizing dairy cow type. 
 
 The function of the dairy cow is primarily to produce 
 milk, which process is inseparably associated with repro- 
 duction. The cow that is a non-breeder soon dries off and 
 has no further value excepting for meat. The production 
 of milk as a first essential, is recognized as antagonistic 
 to the development of flesh, and vice versa. It is true that 
 examples may be found of cows that are beefy of type, that 
 yield large milk flows, but these are the exception and not 
 the rule. Long continued experience on the part of prac- 
 tical breeders and dairy cattle students, has conclusively 
 demonstrated that milk is produced at the expense of flesh. 
 Generations of breeding in certain lines of heredity have 
 resulted in a great development of this function of milk 
 secretion, so that to-day we find many thousands of cows 
 producing remarkable annual yields of milk, that twenty- 
 five years ago would have been considered impossible. 
 
 Method in judging the dairy cow follows the arrange- 
 ment of the scale of points, taking into consideration gen- 
 eral appearance first, following this by detailed examination 
 in order from head to hindquarters. The judge views the 
 dairy animal at rest and in motion, on the same general 
 plan as with the beef animal, but does not handle except- 
 ing in a limited degree. The skin and udder are the only 
 parts that require the attention of the hands, the rest of 
 the examination being conducted by the eye. Some judges 
 handle the spinal column and feel the width and spac- 
 ing of the ribs. Dairy cattle judges, however, do not 
 handle thin cattle as much as do those passing on beef 
 cattle. In European shows of dairy cattle attended by the 
 author, some of which were very large, the judges did not 
 handle the udder at all. One well-known judge, who has 
 passed on many important dairy cattle exhibits in America, 
 scarcely touches the udder, while most judges in this coun- 
 
JUDGING THE DAIRY TYPE OF CATTLE 
 
 SCORE CARD FOR A DAIRY COW. 
 
 Standard of Score of 
 SCALE OF POINTS Perfect Cow 
 
 Score Judged 
 A GENERAL APPEARANCE, 19 Points: 
 
 Weight, Estimated Actual 
 
 Form, suggesting wedge shape from side, front or top 8 .... 
 
 Quality, skin mellow and pliable, secretions abundant, 
 
 yellow; hair fine, abundant; bone fine 8 .... 
 
 Temperament, active, disposition gentle 3 .... 
 
 ]', HEAD AND NECK, 7 Points: 
 
 Muzzle, broad, nostrils large 1 .... 
 
 Eyes, large, mild, bright 1 .... 
 
 Face, lean, of medium length, jaw strong 1 .... 
 
 Forehead, broad, slightly dished 1 .... 
 
 Ears, medium size, well set, of fine texture 1 
 
 Neck, long, lean, neatly attached to head and shoul- 
 ders ; light dewlap 2 .... 
 
 (' FOREQUARTERS, 9 Points: 
 
 Withers, thin and lean 3 .... 
 
 Shoulders, light, oblique, not fleshy 4 .... 
 
 Legs, short, straight, shank fine, fi><>t well placed . . 2 .... 
 
 D BODY, 20 Points: 
 
 Chest, deep, girth large, wide below, crops not deeply 
 
 depressed f f 6 .... 
 
 Back, lean, strong, vertebraa well defined 4 .... 
 
 Loin, broad, level, strong 4 .... 
 
 Ribs, long, well sprung below, giving large belly ca- 
 pacity 5 .... 
 
 Flanks, thin and deep 1 .... 
 
 E HINDQUARTERS, 13 Points: 
 
 Hips, wide apart, not lower than spine 1 
 
 Rump, long, wide, comparatively level, pin bones wide 
 
 apart 5 .... 
 
 Tail, long, fine, with good switch 1 .... 
 
 Thighs, long, thin, widely separated 4 
 
 Legs, short, straight, shank fine, carried well apart . . 2 .... 
 
 F MAMMARY DEVELOPMENT, 32 Points: 
 
 Udder: form, large, long, the rear part attached high, 
 front part extended well forward, quarters uni- 
 form, not deeply grooved, level on bottom . . . . 10 .... 
 
 Udder: quality, smooth and mellow to pressure, f-kin 
 
 elastic and soft, hair silky 10 .... 
 
 Teats, of convenient size, widely separated and evenly 
 
 placed . . . . 4 .... 
 
 Milk veins, large, long, tortuous, branching . . . . 6 .... 
 
 Milk wells, large and easily located 2 .... 
 
 Total points 100 .... 
 
276 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 try give it a critical inspection. The dairy cow. as a milk- 
 ing machine, requires a more detailed examination than does 
 the animal engaged in beef production. The udder, milk 
 veins and wells require careful investigation, as most im- 
 portant features of conformation. 
 
 The general appearance of the dairy cow includes her 
 weight or size, the form as a whole, her quality and tempera- 
 ment. These features the judge may study as he examines 
 the cattle at some distance, taking in the entire animal at 
 rest and walk. As a dairy animal, she should impress one 
 as lean of flesh, somewhat angular of frame, the front part 
 of the body narrow, widening toward the rear into large, 
 capacious hindquarters. This lean, angular form, heavier 
 behind than in front, represents the wedge shape, which is 
 in striding contrast to the blocky conformation of the beef- 
 producing animal. 
 
 The weight or size of the dairy cow is quite dependent 
 on her breeding. If she represents a pure line of ancestry, 
 then her weight will depend on the breed. A weight of 
 900 pounds would meet all requirements in case of a 
 Jersey, while in a Holstein-Friesian this would be entirely 
 too light. With acceptable weights ranging from 600 
 pounds with the Dexter to 1,800 pounds with the Holstein- 
 Friesian, it is not desirable to establish a fixed standard 
 for a general score card. It is desirable, however, for the 
 judge to estimate the weight of the animal scored, making 
 record of this, and weighing later, if convenient. One agri- 
 cultural college states on its score card that the dairy cow 
 should not weigh less than 800 pounds, but in the case of 
 the Dexter cow, some of the finest examples of the breed, 
 with remarkable mammary development, have weighed 
 much less than this. Other college score cards entirely ig- 
 nore weight. Standard weights of Jersey cows range from 
 800 to 1,000 pounds; the Holstein-Friesian must weigh at 
 least 1,000 pounds at full age, and score at least 75 points 
 to enter the advanced registry; the Ayrshire must weigh 
 not less than 1,000 pounds, while 1,050 has been used as a 
 
JUDGING THE DAIRY TYPE OF CATTLE 
 
 277 
 
 Guernsey standard. These weights will be helpful guides 
 to judges under certain show ring conditions. 
 
 The form or type of the dairy cow is one of her most 
 distinguishing features, as has already been indicated. 
 This form, for the use of a better term, is called wedge- 
 shaped, and an ideal example of a dairy cow shows a triple 
 wedge, namely, from side, front and top. This wedge is 
 
 HI i 
 
 f 
 
 Fig. 151. "It will be noted that in an assumed continuation of these 
 lines a sufficient distance beyond the head, they would meet at a common 
 point." 
 
 thus explained : first, if the upper and under lines of the 
 animal, including the udder, be viewed from one side, it 
 will be noted that in an assumed continuation of these lines 
 a sufficient distance beyond the head, they would meet at a 
 common point. In other words, the body narrows, wedge- 
 like, from rear to front. In fact, the dairy cow stands from 
 half an inch to an inch and a half lower in front than she 
 does at the hips. Second, when standing directly in front 
 of the cow, it will be noted that, were the space between 
 
278 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 the points of the shoulders and the withers above enclosed 
 in straight lines, the outline would be of wedge-like form. 
 Or, if one will stand close to the shoulder and look down, 
 he will note this same wedge in the combination of withers 
 and front ribs. Third, another wedge may be obtained by 
 
 standing behind 
 the cow and view- 
 ing the top of the 
 back. In this case 
 the point of the 
 wedge is at the 
 withers, and its 
 
 r widest part the 
 
 space between the 
 points of the hips. 
 ]M The fact is, the en- 
 
 ^NMJH^r tire body suggests 
 
 F\| s \f*f*J & wedge in the 
 
 widening from 
 front to hindquar- 
 ters. Gay has sug- 
 gested 6 a fourth 
 wedge, with the 
 rump for the base, 
 and the light 
 thighs, " concave 
 from both side and 
 rear view/' forming lines inclining downward and in- 
 ward, wedge-like. These various suggested wedges, sim- 
 ply emphasize two features of the dairy cow, a 
 lean, muscular condition, and an angular conforma- 
 tion. This wedge form is merely relative, having the 
 beef form for comparison. The true dairy cow is lean and 
 angular, therefore, she is wedge-shaped, a conformation as- 
 sociated with milk production. The true beef cow is fleshy 
 and smooth of outline, therefore, her form approaches a 
 
 Fig. 152. "It will be noted that, were the 
 space between the points of the shoulders and 
 the withers above enclosed in straight lines, 
 the outline would be of wedge-like form." 
 
 fl The Principles and Practice of Judging Liive Stock, 1914, p. 204. 
 
JUDGING THE DAIRY TYPE OF CATTLE 
 
 279 
 
 parallelogram, a conformation associated with beef produc- 
 tion. Emphasis should be made here of the fact that, 
 under certain conditions, such as immaturity or being in 
 flesh while dry, dairy cattle do not always show the same 
 type that they will 
 later on. As stated 
 by Sturtevant in 
 1875 (p. 273), the 
 yearling and two- 
 year olds may have 
 parallel rather 
 than diverging 
 lines on the side 
 view. "While judges 
 of dairy cattle in 
 making their plac- 
 ings, usually give 
 preference to 
 young cattle of 
 wedge form, this is 
 not always so. Oc- 
 casionally one sees 
 a beautiful heifer, 
 with most attrac- 
 tive mammary de- 
 velopment, that is 
 somewhat thick in 
 front, and fleshy 
 all over, simply be- 
 cause her calf fat has not been milked off. In three 
 months such a heifer may possess a very typical wedge- 
 shaped conformation. There is more or less dis- 
 cussion in the agricultural press and among dairy 
 cattlemen, on the relationship of form to function, in 
 which there naturally is diversity of opinion. However, 
 the judge must keep in mind that without ideals and stan- 
 dards, it will be as utterly impossible to arrive anywhere in 
 
 Fig. 153. "The point of the wedge is at the 
 withers, and its widest part the space between 
 the points of the hips." 
 
280 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 placing a ring of animals, as it would be to reach a harbor 
 on a vessel without a steering gear. Type is merely an 
 indicator, based on average results secured from a large 
 number of individuals, but in itself is no guarantee of 
 production. 
 
 Quality in the dairy cow is indicated by the skin, oily 
 secretions, hair, bone, joints and ears. The skin should be 
 thinner than with the beef cow, but equally mellow and 
 perhaps more pliable. If grasped along the ribs, especially 
 in front, it will often ' l handle like a mole-skin, ' ' filling the 
 hand with a soft and pliable mass. The secretions of the 
 dairy animal are shown in the oil or grease to be found 
 within the ears, and in tne skin, especially on the udder, 
 the inner thighs and end of tail. This oil is usually yellow 
 in color, and is a product of the sebaceous glands in the 
 skin. Dairy cattlemen attach especial significance to this 
 
 |i 
 
 1 
 
 
 Fig. 154. "If grasped along the ribs, especially In front, it will often 
 'handle like a mole-skin,' filling the hand with a soft and pliahle mass." 
 
JUDGING THE DAIRY TYPE OF CATTLE 281 
 
 oily secretion and 1o the color of the skin, horns and hoot's. 
 A notably yellow tint is assumed to indicate that the milk 
 and butter fat will be more yellow than where this color 
 is lacking. In the scale of points adopted in 1899 by the 
 American Guernsey Cattle Club, 7 15 points are allowed to 
 indicate color of milk, as seen in "skin, deep yellow in ear, 
 on end of bone of tail, at base of horns and body gener- 
 ally, hoofs amber-colored." This yellow color is unques- 
 tionably important evidence as to the color of the butter 
 fat, especially with Channel Island cattle, though not so 
 much so with the Dutch breeds. Oily secretion is also an 
 indicator of condition of health, for when lacking, the skin 
 will usually be dry and hold tight to the ribs, and the hair 
 will be staring and lacking in lustre, evidences of ill health. 
 Usually an examination of the inside of ears, the sides of 
 the udder, the color of teats, and the skin about the vulva 
 just beneath the tail at the end of the rump, will suffice 
 to determine the matter of color. Handling the skin will give 
 evidence as to the activity of the secretions, though this is 
 not necessary with the experienced judge. The hair should 
 be fine and abundant. Long, fine hairs usually occur along 
 the edges of the ears, while the udder is covered with short, 
 silky hair. The entire hair covering, excepting along the 
 top of the neck and poll, and on the tail, should lie close 
 to the skin, rather than be erect and staring. The hair 
 should also have a sheen or glisten under favorable con- 
 ditions of light, showing attractive evidence of quality and 
 healthy condition. The ~bone of the dairy animal should be 
 fine, indicative of quality, just as with beef animals, and 
 for the added reason that coarseness of bone is generally 
 associated with inferior milk production. Large joints and 
 heaviness of shoulder are evidence of coarseness, as are also 
 large, heavy ears set high on the head. Quality is one of 
 the most important factors to be considered in judging 
 dairy cattle, and should be so regarded. - 
 
 7 A committee of the club was appointed in 1915 to draw up a new scale of 
 points, which had not appeared up to the going to press of these pages. 
 
282 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 The temperament of the dairy cow lias received much 
 attention in the United States since about 1890. Ex-Gov- 
 W. D. Hoard of Wisconsin, noted as a dairy authority, 
 probably was the first person to direct attention to this 
 subject. 8 In 1886 he first discussed this subject in a lecture 
 on ' ' Nervous and dairy temperament in cattle. ' ' He termed 
 it a "predisposing tendency in the animal to convert its 
 food either into milk or flesh/' and that temperament 
 pertaining to dairy cattle was called "dairy temperament." 
 He classed lean cattle of the dairy type as nervous, and 
 cattle of the beef type as phlegmatic, and referring to the 
 former said: "Here you see the open expression of the 
 barrel, you have the lean, bony outline of the nervous tem- 
 perament. Dairy breeders breed for the enlargement of 
 the dairy temperament." This is defined as "a strong, 
 powerful, nervous machinery and not excitation." Van 
 Pelt states 9 that "the term nervous temperament means 
 the inherent propensity to work, to eat food, digest it and 
 convert every available ounce of it not required for main- 
 tenance into milk products, and does not imply the cow is 
 nervous in the generally accepted meaning of the term, 
 nor does it mean that she is excitable." The dairy tem- 
 perament, as has already been indicated, is especially seen 
 in the lean conformation of body. It is also supposed to be 
 expressed in the broad, full forehead, in the large, prom- 
 inent backbone, and in the mild yet active eye. The brain 
 is the center of nervous force. A narrow, small forehead 
 is assumed to indicate a smaller brain than does a large one< 
 The nervous force radiates throughout the body by means 
 of the spinal cord passing from the brain through the back- 
 bone or spine. Prominence of spine would imply a good de- 
 velopment of spinal cord and consequently much nervous 
 force. The large, prominent, active eye gives evidence of an 
 active, nervous temperament. These are the various reasons 
 assigned for emphasizing temperament. From a scientific 
 
 8 The Dairy Temperament in Cows, Bull. No. 5, Wis. Farm. Inst., 1891, p. 83. 
 8 Cow Demonstration, Hugh G. Van Pelt, 1911, p. 35. 
 
JUDGING THE DAIRY TYPE OF CATTLE 283 
 
 Fig. 155. "Prominence of spine would imply a good development of 
 spinal cord, and consequently much nervous force." 
 
 point of view we have no evidence to demonstrate that 
 either temperament or disposition among cattle is affected 
 by much other than environment, and it may seriously be 
 questioned if there be any essential difference in actual 
 temperament, as based on type or conformation. Dairy 
 cattle judges, however, generally emphasize the so-called 
 temperament and will, no doubt, do so for some time to 
 come. Disposition, as an independent feature, is intended 
 to apply to certain mental qualities, such as quiet and 
 kindly, or irritable and cross, or whether an animal is a 
 kicker or hooker, etc. Therefore, in judging temperament, 
 the conformation must largely be the guide, while disposi- 
 tion will be manifested, partly in the eye, and partly in 
 the movements and attitudes of body. 
 
 The head and neck of the dairy cow show a much more 
 lean make-up than occurs with the beef animal. The head 
 should be lean as a whole, but while beef cattlemen gen- 
 
284 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 erally prefer a short type of head, those breeding dairy 
 cattle prefer one of medium length in fact some, as in 
 case of the Dutch, favor considerable length. The muzzle 
 should be broad, and the mouth and nostrils of good size, 
 for reasons already discussed under beef cattle type. The 
 eyes should be large, mild, yet alert, and give evidence of a 
 good disposition and an active temperament. The eye 
 among some dairy cattle, notably some Jerseys, is too prom- 
 inent and termed by many a "pop eye." In this case 
 the eye almost projects from its socket, and is far from 
 attractive. Prominence up to a certain extent is highly 
 desirable, but beyond that meets with distinct disfavor. 
 The face should be lean and of medium length. One sees 
 long faces among dairy cows, especially the Holstein-Frie- 
 sian, but this is objectionable, for this conformation indi- 
 cates a poorer feeder, and a weaker jaw, than does a more 
 moderate length. The bridge of the nose and the upper 
 part of the face should be straight. A Roman nose is not 
 regarded with favor. Light veins on the face are regarded 
 as desirable, and are features emphasized in both Ayrshire 
 and Holstein Friesian scales of points. They have no 
 special significance, unless indicating quality. The lower 
 jaw should be strong and have ample width at its base, 
 thereby indicating the good feeder. The forehead of the 
 dairy cow should be broad and slightly depressed or dished 
 between the eyes. This depression is considered to add to 
 the graceful contour of the head. It is much more marked 
 with some breeds than others, being especially noticeable in 
 the Jersey. The ears should be of medium size, and some- 
 what thinner than with beef cattle. They are character- 
 ized by a general coat of thin hair over the body of the 
 ear, with long, fine hairs along the edges of the openings. 
 Fine veins are often seen on the ears of the highly bred 
 dairy cow, while the skin on the inside of the ear shows more 
 or less of a yellow, oily secretion. The shade of yellow varies 
 from light to dark or orange, and offers evidence of the 
 degree of richness in yellow color of the butter fat. The 
 
JUDGING THE DAIRY TYPE OF CATTLE 
 
 ears should be placed so that the tips, when elevated, wiJI 
 not project above the top of the head. Horns are not neces- 
 sarily a feature of the head of the dairy cow, excepting as 
 a breed character. They differ greatly among the breeds of 
 cattle as to length and size. The modern type of Ayrshire 
 cow carries a long, and very strong horn at its base, while 
 the Jersey cow usually has a short and comparatively small 
 one. In itself the 
 horn is assumed to 
 indicate quality as 
 shown in its size 
 and texture, and in 
 its color, as sug- 
 gest i n g relation- 
 ship to color of 
 butter fat. Horns 
 that are large and 
 coarse at the head 
 give evidence of 
 general coarseness, 
 and are looked 
 upon with disfavor 
 by most judges. 
 The neck of the 
 
 dairy cow should be lean and long as prime essentials 
 of dairy conformation. Further, it should be neatly at- 
 tached to both head and shoulders. The comparatively thin 
 edge of the top of the neck should smoothly merge into 
 the withers. The base of the neck should fit neatly at the 
 shoulders. Frequently the neck joins the shoulders with 
 a sharp corner on each side, giving not only a rough but a 
 weak attachment. Extreme depth of neck and dewlap is 
 undesirable, as indicating coarseness. Only a slight amount 
 of dewlap should be seen, although some Brown Swiss cows 
 carry this edge of skin to a marked degree. 
 
 The f orequarters of the dairy cow as the narrow point of 
 a wedge form, should be light of conformation. Here we 
 
 Fig. 156. "The neck of the dairy cow 
 should be lean and long." 
 
286 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 have one of the most striking features of dairy type, quite 
 the opposite o^Jiat found in the beef animal. The withers 
 should be sharp, though the degree will depend upon the 
 breed influence and conditions. Judges very generally seek 
 for thin, lean withers, though undoubtedly in times past 
 too great emphasis has been placed on their sharpness. 
 This part, however, should be quite free of flesh, as this is 
 antagonistic to dairy development. Shoulders that are well 
 
 
 Fig. 157. "Only a slight amount of dewlap should be seen." 
 
 laid in, sloping smoothly into the back, and quite free of 
 surplus flesh, are necessary to secure the wedge form and 
 dairy type. Coarseness of the shoulder point is marked if 
 this part of the body is rough and heavy. Sometimes the 
 points of the shoulders are rather wide apart, appearing 
 almost as a deformity. This seems to occur with old cows, 
 usually those that are superior milkers, and is caused by a 
 relaxation of the muscles and ligaments connecting the 
 shoulders and front ribs. In passing on a condition of this 
 kind, the judge should be more influenced by the age and 
 general physical condition of the animal, than by the un- 
 
JUDGING T1IK DAIRY TYPE OF CATTLE 
 
 2S7 
 
 usual spread between shoulder points and forelegs. In 
 itself it is evidenee of weakness and the Mdge would be 
 justified in so ruling, but it need not be regarded as serioiLs 
 enough to cause severe discrimination. The /r^/.s- should 
 be short and carried comparatively straight, and wide 
 enough apart to give evidence of good constitution. Too 
 many dairy cows stand with their legs quite close together, 
 
 Fig. 158. "The chest of the dairy cow should be deep, yet not as wide 
 through, comparatively, as the beef cow." 
 
 evidencing too narrow a chest. The positions of legs and 
 feet of the dairy animal should be carried the same as the 
 beef type, as described on page 245. 
 
 The body of the dairy cow is often referred to by stock- 
 men as the barrel or middle piece. As a whole, it differs 
 from the beef animal, in lacking flesh and possessing more 
 length and perhaps wider spacing between the vertebrae and 
 ribs. The chest of the dairy cow should be deep, yet not as 
 
288 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 wide through, comparatively, as the beef cow. The floor 
 of the chest should be well rounded out and somewhat 
 strong in its thickness, yet with a lean, refined brisket ex- 
 tending slightly beyond the legs. A cross section of the 
 chest, from the chine or backbone just back of the withers 
 and shoulders, will show an outline comparable with that 
 of an egg with the large end down. If the shoulders are 
 neatly placed and the chest is not too flat of rib, the crops 
 will be fairly filled. Ordinarily, weak crops and close 
 spacing between shoulder points give evidence of poor chest 
 capacity. Depth of chest is of great importance if vigorous 
 constitution and good feeding capacity is sought. The 
 back of the dairy cow should be lean, and strongly carried, 
 with well-defined spines or vertebrae, furnishing important 
 evidence relating to conformation. Guernsey breeders are 
 taught 10 to look for a ' ' backbone rising well between shoul- 
 der blades ; large, rugged spinal processes, indicating good 
 development of the spinal cord." The points of the spine 
 from between the shoulders almost to the beginning of the 
 loin, are long, and unless too much covered with flesh, are 
 easily felt. This prominence of backbone, and so-called 
 openness of spine, are regarded as important accompani- 
 ments of dairy type, as well as nervous temperament. There 
 is no evidence, however, to show that the spinal cord of the 
 dairy cow is any different from that of the beef cow. The 
 main factor is that lack of flesh is necessarily related to 
 heavy milk production. The back should be strong and 
 show little sag. Old dairy cows often have marked depres- 
 sion or weakness of back. Dairy cattle judges are not as 
 critical as beef cattlemen in judging the way the back is 
 supported, for the reason that it is impossible to get a per- 
 fectly level back on cattle, unless by the aid of flesh, which, 
 of course, is undesirable with the dairy type. Young ani- 
 mals, however, that have not been milked should show a 
 comparatively level and strongly supported back. The loin 
 
 10 Scale of points adopted by American Guernsey Cattle Club, December 13, 
 1899. 
 
JUDGING THE DAIRY TYPE OF CATTLE 289 
 
 should be broad and not depressed in front of the hip. A 
 width that does not show any sharp contraction just in 
 front of the hips should be sought. Lack of flesh over the 
 loin is often responsible for a falling away here. A firm, 
 strong development of the muscle over the loin is not an- 
 tagonistic to dairy conformation. The judge is justified 
 in discriminating against a weak, depressed loin. The rib s 
 should be long and well sprung below, thereby giving large 
 capacity for feeding and reproduction. It will be noticed 
 that, largely due to lack of flesh covering, the ribs of the 
 dairy animal do not show so much level extension from 
 the spine, before curving downward, as do the ribs of beef 
 cattle. However, the ribs should have an increasing curve 
 outward and downward, expressing the wedge conformation 
 in front, yet associated with much depth and abdominal 
 capacity all through. Length of body is a feature of the 
 dairy cow, and this is associated with some openness of 
 space between the ribs, especially those nearest the hind- 
 quarter. The last two or three ribs are often separated so 
 that one may easily insert the fingers between with a free- 
 dom not possible with beef cattle. The flanks, both in front 
 and behind should be full and deep. There has been some 
 difference of opinion among judges on the character of flank 
 development, especially behind, and both high and low 
 flanks have been advocated. A deep, full front flank is 
 indicative of strong heart girth and outlines the curve of 
 the lower part of chest. A deep hind flank will be associ- 
 ated with a capacious body and deep rib, and if thin in 
 flesh, is most consistent with dairy type. On the contrary, 
 the high flank is a feature of the shallow body and 
 denotes a poor feeder. The navel, the point on the belly 
 where the umbilicus or cord of the calf connected with 
 the mother before birth, at one time was regarded as 
 evidence of constitutional vigor. Ex.-Gov. W. D. 
 Hoard of Wisconsin first advanced the argument that 
 a large navel indicated a strong attachment of the calf 
 to the dam before birth, resulting in vigorous offspring. 
 
290 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Fig. 159. "A deep hind flank will be associated with a capacious 
 body and deep rib." 
 
 This theory was for some time advocated, and has been em- 
 phasized on some score cards. The Guernsey scale of 
 points, in the formation of which Governor Hoard no doubt 
 had much influence, states that ' ' constitution is best indicated 
 by a full development at the navel, and strong abdominal 
 walls, showing that the animal when in a prenatal state was 
 abundantly nourished by the mother through a well-devel- 
 oped umbilical cord." This is an interesting theory, which 
 apparently is made little use of to-day, and concerning the 
 actual merits of which no exact information has been con- 
 tributed to the public. Wing states n that careful observa- 
 tion has shown that the size of the umbilicus is more of a 
 breed than an individual characteristic. 
 
 The hindquarters of the dairy cow have a special im- 
 portance in the estimation of the dairyman, because the 
 conformation of this part is a vital factor in milk produc- 
 tion. A superior mammary development is not likely to 
 
 31 The Dairy Herd. 
 54, 1913, p. 55. 
 
 Henry II. Wing, Cornell Reading Course, Vol. 3, No. 
 
JUDGING THE DAIRY TYPE OF CATTLE 291 
 
 occur unless the hindquarters are of superior shape and 
 proportions. The hips of the cow should be wide apart and 
 at least as high as the spine. Width between the hips indi- 
 cates a wide pelvis, which is highly essential as relating to 
 parturition. The narrow pelvis suggests serious difficulty 
 in giving birth to the calf. Comparatively, the hips seem 
 more prominent with dairy than beef cows, due no doubt 
 to the lack of flesh covering. Width between the hips is 
 naturally associated with the wedge type of the dairy cow. 
 The rump, as in the case of the beef cow, should be long, 
 wide and comparatively level, but should lack the heavy 
 covering of flesh. A tendency to lay on flesh over the rump 
 is looked upon with distinct disfavor by dairy cattle critics. 
 One feature of the rump has been much discussed, and that 
 is what is known as the pelvic arch. This is especially no- 
 ticeable in the large size and prominence of the backbone 
 beginning just back of the hips. Viewed from either the 
 side or rear, a slight elevation of this part is noticeable. 
 This arching is assumed to indicate a spacious opening 
 
 Fig. 160. "The rump, as in the case of the beef cow, should be long." 
 
292 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 through the pelvis below, important when giving birth to 
 young, while the prominence of backbone presupposes a 
 "good development of the spinal cord," according to the 
 Guernsey scale of points. These are both theories, not sup- 
 ported by any actual evidence, and too much emphasis 
 should not be placed on their importance. Some years ago 
 
 Fig. 161. "A wide rump, however, from hips to pin bones is 
 very essential." 
 
 the late Dr. Leonard Pearson, long Dean of University of 
 Pennsylvania Veterinary College, in conversation with the 
 writer relative to the pelvic arch, stated that as Pennsyl- 
 vania State Veterinarian he had conducted many post 
 mortem examinations on dairy cows. He was much inter- 
 ested in the pelvic arch theory, but found absolutely no 
 evidence to support it, cows with high arches oftentimes 
 having much smaller pelvic space below than did cows with 
 
JUDGING THE DAIRY TYPE OF CATTLE 
 
 293 
 
 insignificant pelvic arches. A wide rump, however, from 
 hips to pin bones is very essential. A wide spacing be- 
 tween the pin bones is especially important, otherwise, as 
 cattlemen know, the calf may be delivered with great diffi- 
 culty. A peaked rump, pin bones close together, with sharp 
 sloping toward both the rear and sides, makes an extremely 
 bad conformation, justifying severe action on the part of 
 the judge. Such a rump is not only bad from a physiologi- 
 
 Fig. 162. "The tail proper turning a square angle just above the 
 pin bones." 
 
 cal point of view, as affecting maternity, but is also associ- 
 ated with limited udder room below. The tail not only 
 gives balance and proportion to the cow, but serves as a 
 valuable aid in fighting flies. It also serves as an indi- 
 cator of quality. The tail head should be neatly attached 
 on a level with the end of the spine, the tail proper turn- 
 ing a square angle just above the pin bones, and reaching 
 to the point of hocks. The brush should contain plenty of 
 long hair and reach nearly to the level of the feet. Flies 
 bite and irritate the thin-skinned dairy cow far more than 
 the beef animal, hence the importance of a long tail as a 
 
294 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 means of protection. The bone of the tail should also 
 be fine, an indication of quality. The thighs of the 
 dairy cow should be long, thin and widely separated, 
 
 quite - in contrast 
 with the thighs of 
 the beef ani- 
 mal. As one 
 views the thighs 
 from one side they 
 should make a pro- 
 nounced sweep in 
 toward the body 
 and then turn out 
 to end the curve at 
 the point of hock. 
 From a rear view 
 the thighs high up 
 are separated with 
 but little curve, 
 this being most 
 marked on the 
 lower thigh and 
 reaching the hock. 
 The thighs must 
 not only be thin, 
 but must be well 
 separated, if space 
 
 for a capacious udder is to be had. A thick, fleshy thigh is 
 inconsistent with dairy cow conformation, and the judge 
 should keep this point in mind. The hind legs should be 
 short, straight, and carried well apart. It is necessary for 
 the legs to be carried well apart, to allow ample room for 
 the udder. If the legs touch at the points of the hocks, 
 the feet and toes point outward, and the thighs are carried 
 closer together than they should be, thus crowding the 
 udder. This is a very common defect of dairy cows. In 
 this position the udder, if large, is naturally pushed for- 
 
 Fig. 163. "From a rear view the thighs high 
 up are separated with but little curve." 
 
JUDGING THE DAIRY TYPE OF CATTLE 29.J 
 
 ward. This close carriage of the hocks and legs has given 
 rise to the expression ' * cow-hocked, ' ' which is anything but 
 a compliment. One rarely sees the thighs and hocks too 
 widely separated. The correct position of the hind legs, 
 from either side or rear view, is the same as that of the beef 
 animal, excepting that space in one type is needed for beef, 
 and in the other for the udder. When the cow or bull 
 walks, the hind legs should be carried forward in direct 
 line, without crossing or swaying, an objection referred to 
 in the first Jersey scale of points. 
 
 The mammary development of the cow, when milk pro- 
 duction is the principal object sought, becomes a subject 
 of vital importance to the dairy cattleman. He realizes 
 that, in capacity and actual value, there is a wide range of 
 difference between the ordinary beef cow that simply nurses 
 a calf, and the highly bred cow of dairy type that may 
 produce twenty thousand or more pounds of milk in a year. 
 Each animal has the same physical structure. Why does 
 one produce so much more than the other f This is due to 
 various factors, among others, ancestry along milk-produc- 
 ing lines, the nervous, digestive and circulatory systems, 
 and the general conformation, or relationship of one part 
 to another. Inasmuch as the judge must be a student of 
 the relationship of form to function, a brief reference to 
 some of the factors bearing on milk production will be 
 appropriate at this point. 
 
 The process of digestion begins with the mouth, the 
 food passing from this into the stomach and then on into 
 the intestines. At various stages of the movement of the 
 food, digestive fluids are mixed with it, so that it gradually 
 becomes more and more reduced and ready for use in the 
 body. 
 
 The blood as a factor in milk production is very im- 
 portant, for milk is produced from blood during its move- 
 ment through the udder. Blood nourishes the body tissue, 
 furnishes material for the secretions, and supplies life-giv- 
 ing oxygen. Blood is 81 per cent water and 19 per cent 
 
296 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 solids. It is mainly composed of a sticky fluid called plasma, 
 in which are distributed immense numbers of corpuscles, 
 two-thirds of which are red, the remainder being white. 
 The red color in blood is due to a substance known as 
 haemoglobin, which absorbs oxygen from the air in the 
 
 Fig. 164. "The circulatory system of the animal consists of the heart 
 and the arteries, capillaries and veins, through which the blood moves." The 
 arteries (white) conduct the blood from the heart to the udder. The veins 
 (black) are channels by which the blood returns to the heart through the 
 udder. This cow is Imp. Castlemain's Nancy 2d, a noted Ayrshire owned 
 by Penshurst Farm. 
 
 lungs, using it in reducing the food so that it can be applied 
 to the building up of the body tissue. 
 
 The circulatory system of the animal consists of the 
 heart and the arteries, capillaries and veins through which 
 the blood moves. There is also a much smaller system, the 
 lymphatic, which contains a colorless fluid, the lymph. The 
 heart, a hollow, muscular organ, acts both as a suction and 
 force pump, keeping the blood circulating through the body. 
 
JUDGING THE DAIRY TYPE OF CATTLE 297 
 
 The arteries conduct blood from the heart to the tissues. 
 They arise from a common trunk, the aorta, which divides 
 and subdivides like the branches of a tree. The arteries 
 are very elastic, and contract and expand. The capillaries 
 are extremely fine tubes in the body tissue, terminating in 
 the arteries, which absorb part of the nutrients of the food 
 into the blood. The veins are channels by which the blood 
 returns to the heart. They are arranged like the arteries, 
 but are usually of larger 'capacity. The nutrients of the 
 food are taken up in the process of digestion, mainly in the 
 intestines, the inner coatings of which .are lined with 
 minute . finger-like projections of microscopic size, called 
 villi. In the center of each of these villi is a vessel, the 
 lacteal, which connects with the lymphatic system. Sur- 
 rounding the lacteal is a network of capillaries which con- 
 nect with the blood system. Here, in the villi, nutrients of 
 the food are separated. The proteids, carbohydrates and 
 salts, are taken up by the capillaries, while the fat of the 
 food, emulsified, is taken up by the lacteals. The contents 
 of the capillaries move on through the portal vein to the 
 liver, and thence on to the right side of the heart, while 
 the contents of the lacteals find their way into a long lym- 
 phatic tube beneath the backbone, which leads to what is 
 known as the thoracic duct, a large lymphatic vessel, which 
 opens into a big vein close to the first rib, which in turn 
 leads into the heart. From here the blood is forced to the 
 lungs to come in contact with air, and be oxydized, after 
 which it passes into the left side of the heart, from which 
 place it is distributed by means of the arteries to the 
 tissues throughout the body. The large artery, the aorta, 
 leads from the top of the heart along beneath the spine, 
 subdividing just below the hips. From here the arteries 
 extend on and down into the udder, one passing along by 
 the thigh bone (femur) and another to the extreme rear, 
 where, with considerable division and running together, 
 they continue on into and through the udder tissue. The 
 veins of the mammary glands converge at the base of the 
 
298 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 udder. After leaving the udder the veins pass along on 
 the surface of the belly until they disappear through open- 
 ings known as "milk wells" in the belly wall, and connect 
 with other veins leading to the heart. 
 
 The physical composition of the udder has an important 
 relationship to form and production. It consists of two 
 glands which lie horizontally side by side, separated by a 
 layer of tissue which assists in supporting them. These 
 
 glands are distinctly separate 
 from each other. This may be 
 noted by examining the under 
 side of the udder, where the 
 groove separating them is to be 
 seen. Each gland ordinarily has 
 two teats. Through the medium 
 of a teat milk is drawn from 
 what is usually termed a ' * quar- 
 ter " of the udder. As the glands 
 are independent of each other, 
 so also are the quarters. This 
 Dr. Bitting clearly proved at 
 Purdue University Experiment 
 Station, when he injected dif- 
 ferent colored liquid tallow in 
 adjoining quarters, showing that 
 blue never passed over into red, 
 or vice versa. A cross section of 
 the two quarters always showed 
 a clear mark of separation be- 
 tween them. This independence 
 of the quarters is often demon- 
 strated, in a practical way, by 
 
 the dairyman who, for some reasons, draws bloody milk 
 from one quarter, while from the adjoining one of the 
 same side apparently perfect milk is drawn. Cows also 
 suffer from garget in one quarter, while the other three 
 milk freely and appear perfectly healthy. This gland con- 
 
 Fig. 165. "Dissecting an ud- 
 der we find that it is somewhat 
 spongy of texture, pinkish- 
 white in color, and full of many 
 holes or canals, much like a 
 sponge." (Courtesy Dr. S. Sis- 
 son. From The Anatomy of the 
 Domestic Animals, 1914, p. 608. ) 
 
JUDGING THE DAIRY TYPE OF CATTLE _>!).) 
 
 sists of a fleshy framework, filled with secreting tissue. 
 Dissecting an udder we find that it is somewhat spongy of 
 texture, pinkish-white in color, and full of many holes or 
 canals, much like a sponge. When cut more or less, milk 
 escapes from the incision. Above each teat is a cavity 
 known as the milk cistern or milk reservoir, from which 
 the milk is drawn through the teats. At the lower end of 
 each teat, a small muscle (the sphincter) encircles the out- 
 let with enough force, ordinarily, to prevent the escape of 
 milk unless the milking operation is on. 
 
 The process of milk secretion may be briefly described 
 as follows : Each gland of the udder is composed of a 
 quantity of structures known as lobes, lobules and alveoli. 
 These may be compared to a bunch of grapes, the lobe rep- 
 resenting the bunch, the lobule one grape and the alveoli 
 smaller glands or ducts within the one fruit. The alveoli 
 are exceedingly small arid can be seen only under a micro- 
 scope of high magnifying power. Two processes, says 
 Smith, 12 from whom the author freely quotes, contribute 
 to the formation of milk. In one, the cells lining the al- 
 veoli of the gland are shed bodily, and from the fat of the 
 milk, while in the other water, protein, salts, etc., are formed 
 from the lymph in the gland by the ordinary process of 
 secretion. The gland of an animal that has never been 
 pregnant contains much smaller and less numerous alveoli 
 than a secreting gland. The alveoli of the non-pregnant 
 animal are found to be packed with small, rounded cells of 
 very slow growth. When the animal becomes pregnant the 
 gland enlarges, the alveoli increase in number, but remain 
 packed with the cells until parturition approaches or occurs. 
 The solid masses of cells are now cast off, and leave behind 
 them alveoli lined with a single layer of secretory epithe- 
 lium, the function of which is to produce the milk. The 
 shedding of the mass of cells which originally occupied the 
 alveoli, supplies the colostrum or first milk. The cells in 
 the active gland are loaded with material, much of it being 
 
 12 A Manual of Veterinary Physiology, 4th <!.. London, 1912, p. 726. 
 
300 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 fat, and these cells break off, leaving behind them the parent 
 cell, containing a nucleus from which another cell grows. 
 Thus the formation of fat in milk is really a process of 
 cell secretion. The proteins, sugar and salts in milk, are 
 secreted in the ordinary way from the blood, or rather the 
 lymph, circulating in the gland, the cells lining the alve- 
 oli being active in the matter. That these substances are 
 really produced by the cell is supported by the fact that 
 neither caseinogen nor milk sugar exist in any other tissue 
 of the body. The secretion of the alveoli finds its way 
 through outlets into the lobules, and from these into the 
 lobes, and thence into the smaller orifices seen in the udder 
 when cut open, from which it is conveyed into the milk 
 cistern. It has been supposed that the secretion of milk 
 is influenced by the nervous system, but there is no ex- 
 perimental evidence which places this beyond doubt. How- 
 ever, the action of the blood vessels is affected by the ac- 
 tivity of the nerves. The greater the capacity of the 
 arteries and veins of the udder, the larger the milk secre- 
 tion will be. According to R. Meade Smith: 13 "as far as 
 we know, the mammary secretion is dependent upon the 
 amount of blood passing through the glands. Changes in the 
 general blood pressure, by modifying the blood supply of the 
 mammary gland, also influence the amount of milk secreted. ' ' 
 The form of the udder requires consideration in de- 
 tail. In the arrangements of some scales of points, 
 the front and rear parts of the udder are separately de- 
 scribed and assigned separate values. The udder should 
 be large, according to the age and condition of the cow. 
 In the mature animal, in full flow of milk, size is naturally, 
 though not necessarily, associated with heavy milk yield. 
 If the mammary development as a whole is good, then large 
 size is a distinctly desirable feature. The udder should 
 be long, extending high up behind between the thighs, and 
 carried well forward along the belly, with the under side 
 or "floor" as it is often termed, flat or level. Present day 
 
 18 Physiology of Domestic Animals, 1890, p. 631. 
 
JUDGING THE DAIRY TYPE OF CATTLE 
 
 301 
 
 Fig. 166. "The udder should be long, extend- 
 ing high up behind between the thighs, and car- 
 ried well forward along the belly." 
 
 judges prefer this 
 long type of udder 
 to the deeper or 
 more pendant one. 
 The long udder is 
 strongly supported 
 by its muscular at- 
 tachment, while the 
 pendant one is 
 weaker of form, 
 and shows the ten- 
 dency to breaking 
 down that goes 
 with age. The hori- 
 zontally long udder also furnishes a more convenient form 
 for the milker to approach with his pail. While it does 
 not follow that the long udder may produce more milk, 
 or even as much, as the pendant form, evidence secured 
 by the author years ago 14 demonstrated that length of this 
 gland is only se- 
 cured through the 
 development of the 
 forequarter of the 
 udder. The nat- 
 ural tendency is 
 for the hindquar- 
 ter to extend well 
 up behind, and the 
 higher the better. 
 The forequarter is 
 often short, show- 
 ing little extension. 
 Frequently the ud- 
 der is What might Fi - l<Vr. "Tho pendant one is w.-nkor of 
 , -iPi form and shows the tendency to breaking down 
 
 be termed funnel- that goes with ag<' 
 
 w The Udder of the Cow, Bulletin C2, October, 1896, Purdue Univ. Agr. Exp. 
 Station. 
 
302 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 shaped, the forequarter being short and tilting sharply up- 
 ward. Often the forequarter appears distinctly elevated 
 above the rear quarter. Experiments have shown that the 
 hindquarters usually yield considerably more milk than the 
 forequarters, and that the longer and more fully the latter 
 are developed the more closely they approach the former in 
 milk yield. In other words, the yielding capacity of the 
 udder is increased by extending the forequarter. This has 
 been, in a way, recognized by some scales of points. The 
 
 Fig. 168. "The forequarter is often short." 
 
 American Jersey Cattle Club, in its official scale of points, 
 for example, credits ten points to the fore udder and six 
 to the rear udder, thereby putting a prejnium on improv- 
 ing the part that most needs development. The judge ob- 
 tains his idea of the length and form of udder by viewing 
 it from the side, but he should carefully compare the sides 
 and see that they are well balanced. It is not unusual to 
 find an udder that is attractive on one side, and apparently 
 
JUDGING THE DAIRY TYPE OF CATTLE 
 
 303 
 
 Fig. 169. An udder with 
 throe teats a very unusual 
 condition. 
 
 tinctly thicker than 
 those behind. This is 
 also suggested by the 
 distance between the op- 
 posite hind teats and the 
 opposite front ones. The 
 more closely the thighs 
 are placed, the thinner 
 will be the hindquarters. 
 Not infrequently one 
 sees an udder, low in its 
 rear attachment, be- 
 tween thighs so close to- 
 gether that the udder 
 as a whole is crowded 
 forward with a consid- 
 erable tilt of the lower 
 side. The form of the 
 
 perfect, while the other side 
 shows a quarter not in equally 
 good form with its opposite, 
 making a shorter and more un- 
 shapely gland. Uniformity in 
 size and shape of quarters 
 should be emphasized by the 
 judge. The udder as a whole 
 should be fairly thick, assum- 
 ing that, other things being 
 equal, the thick udder has 
 more capacity than the 'thin 
 one. The natural form of the 
 udder is to be narrower behind 
 than in front another wedge 
 the forequarters being dis- 
 
 Fig. 170. "The udder as a whole 
 should be fairly thick." 
 
304 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 udder has involved more or less discussion, in which the 
 show udder has been compared disadvantageous!;^ with the 
 so-called commercial one. Many cows having ' large ad- 
 vanced registry records have possessed udders that 
 were not of show ring form, which, in the opinion of some, 
 demonstrates that show ring standards are impracticable. 
 The fact remains, however, that we must have standards 
 in conformation, and that as a rule, the cow of milk produc- 
 ing lines, with an ideal udder in form, will make the more 
 creditable showing at the pail. 
 
 The quality of the udder is manifested in several ways. 
 It should be smooth and mellow to the touch. Udders 
 differ in their internal character and texture. The proper 
 time to examine the quality is after the milk has been 
 drawn. Then, when taken between the hands one feels 
 something of the inner texture. The udder differs in 
 mellowness very materially. If made up largely of fleshy 
 framework, it is known as a fleshy or meaty udder, and 
 
 Fig. 171. "When taken between the hands one feels something of the 
 inner texture." 
 
JUDGING THE DAIRY TYPE OF CATTLE 
 
 305 
 
 lacks more than it should in secreting tissue. Such an 
 udder does not secrete as freely as it should, and when 
 milked out its form may be but slightly changed. When 
 secreting tissue is very abundant, the udder is more mellow 
 and elastic, and 
 when the milk is 
 drawn, the gland 
 shrinks greatly, 
 sometimes appear- 
 ing as a thin, skin- 
 enclosed sac. 
 Fleshy udders yield 
 a much smaller flow 
 than elastic ones, 
 but usually test 
 higher in butter 
 fat. They are not, 
 as a rule, regarded 
 with favor. The 
 udder that, after 
 milking, ' ' shrinks 
 away to nothing" 
 shows the best 
 quality and largest 
 production. R e - 
 moval of the milk 
 also leaves the 
 gland in condition 
 
 Fig. 172. "The skin enclosing the udder should 
 be very elastic." 
 
 to inspect it for "knots" or small 
 tumors. It is not remarkable to feel lumps of this sort lo- 
 cated among the gland tissue, that will not be detected un- 
 less the empty udder is handled. The skin enclosing the 
 udder should be very elastic, and covered with, short, fine, 
 silky hair. The elasticity of the skin and udder are dis- 
 tinct evidences of quality. The more elastic the skin, the 
 greater the expanding capacity of the milk-filled udder. 
 A judge is always justified in requiring the milking out of 
 an udder that is full, that he may give it thorough exarnin- 
 
son 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 ation. The character of the competition, however, will af- 
 fect the requirements of the judge in this regard. It is 
 customary to milk out in the older cow classes, when com- 
 petition is close. 
 
 The teats are simply the medium for drawing off the 
 milk. They should be perfect, having good openings, 
 through which no leakage will occur. They should be of 
 convenient size to grasp in the hands three to four inches 
 
 Fig. 173. "They should be of convenient size to grasp in the hands.' 
 
 long, should hang perpendicularly, and be located far 
 enough apart to grasp, without the hands interfering with 
 each other. The front teats are naturally somewhat larger 
 than the back ones. The Ayrshire scale of points specifies 
 as follows, and more in detail regarding the teats than does 
 that for any other breed : 15 " Evenly placed, distance apart 
 from side to side equal to half the breadth of udder, from 
 back to front equal to one-third the length ; length 2i/> to 
 
 15 Uniform scale of points adopted by the United States and Canadian Ayrshire 
 Breeders' Associations, 1906. 
 
JUDGING THE DAIRY TYPE OF CATTLE 307 
 
 3% inches, thickness in keeping with length, hanging per- 
 pendicular and not tapering." The teats of the cow vary 
 greatly in form and position. They range from short, 
 small ones, very hard to grasp, rather often seen on Ayr- 
 shire and Jersey, to long, big ones, especially seen on 
 Holstein and Red Polled cattle, that more than fill the 
 largest hand. Such teats are undesirable enough for hand 
 milking, but the growing use of the milking machine adds 
 to the necessity of having cylindrical teats of medium size, 
 well suited either to hands or the cups of the machine. 
 Another undesirable feature of the teat is enlargement of 
 its upper part, caused by a weakening of the wall of the 
 udder above. Judges should give more attention to the 
 character and usefulness of the teats, discriminating espe- 
 cially against those that are short or defective. The pres- 
 ence of extra teats that are small and unproductive some- 
 times occurs. These have been assumed to indicate su- 
 perior mammary development, but we have no evidence to 
 that effect. Some breeders remove these extra teats, cut- 
 ting them off during calf age before they assume too great 
 a size. Cows with sore teats that cannot be handled by the 
 judge, should not be shown. On several occasions the author 
 has seen cows in the show ring, the teats and udders of 
 which were affected with cow pox. Such cases should be 
 barred from the show grounds. 
 
 The milk veins, as has previously been stated, convey 
 the blood from the udder along the belly toward the heart. 
 Not much is actually known regarding the relationship of 
 these veins to milk production. Some years ago Dr. King, 
 of Maine, stated that the size of the vein was not a true indica- 
 tion of its blood-carrying capacity, some veins having thicker 
 walls than others, and the blood flow being more rapid in 
 some cows than others. More recently, Prof. R. R. Graves, 
 of the Oregon Experiment Station, has been conducting 
 experiments on the relation of the vein to milk flow. In 
 a letter to the author, of June 2, 1916, he states that he 
 tied the veins of a Holstein cow producing about 45 pounds 
 
308 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Fig. 174. "The milk veins convey the blood from the udder along the 
 belly toward the heart." (From photo Castlemain's Nancy 4th, an 
 Ayrshire owned by Penshurst Farms.) 
 
 of milk a day. "Excepting for a slight shock at the first, 
 this cow has apparently suffered no ill effects, and ,is in 
 good condition, and is producing well at the present time, ' ' 
 after having the veins tied for three months. It has been 
 generally assumed by dairy cattle critics, that the larger, 
 the longer and more tortuous (twisted or crooked) the veins, 
 the greater the producing capacity of the cow. In other 
 words, the heaviest milkers may be expected to have the 
 greatest vein development. Van Pelt, well known as a 
 dairy cattle judge, writes: 16 "I have never seen an ex- 
 tremely good cow whose system of mammary veins and 
 wells was not extremely well developed, and I have never 
 seen a really poor cow with a great mammary system. It 
 has been my pleasure to examine such cows as Colantha 
 4th 's Johanna, Jacoba Irene, Dairymaid of Pinehurst and 
 Financial Countess, and without exception their veining is 
 
 16 Cow Demonstration. Hugh G. Van Pelt, 1911, p. 51. 
 
JUDGING THE DAIRY TYPE OF CATTLE 
 
 309 
 
 tremendous. ' ' The udder secreting a great amount of milk 
 has been assumed to have a strong passage of blood through 
 it, and the large veins have been supposed to be associated 
 with such a flow. This, perhaps, is not entirely true, and 
 the information secured by Professor Graves justifies us in 
 suspending judgment on this little-understood subject. The 
 veins of young animals, however, are smaller than those of 
 old ones, and are less conspicuous. Two veins are com- 
 monly seen along the belly, one on each side and one longer 
 than the other. Often a third and shorter vein occurs be- 
 tween these. In uncommon cases other veins branch off, 
 or a large number of small ones cover the intervening 
 space on the belly between the udder and navel, sometimes 
 causing a varicose effect. It is not unusual also to see 
 small veins on the outside of the udder, a condition seem- 
 ingly associated with heavy milking. The length and size 
 of the veins vary considerably. Ordinarily the longest vein 
 extends about half way the length of the belly, but in rare 
 cases may occupy the entire distance and disappear at the 
 
 Fig. 175. "The length and size of the veins vary considerably." 
 
310 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 front flank or under the shoulder blade. The diameter of 
 the main milk veins approximates a half inch, occasionally 
 reaching one inch and showing prominently along 
 the belly. To examine the milk veins well, it is necessary 
 for the judge to lower his head to a point where he can 
 easily see the entire belly. In the. opinion of most judges, 
 the producing capacity of the cow will usually be consid- 
 
 Fig. 176. "Sometimes these wells are big enough to receive the end of a 
 good-sized finger." 
 
 erably influenced by the vein development, even though the 
 judge may lack the facts to support his theory. 
 
 The milk wells are the orifices or holes in the belly wall 
 through which the larger veins disappear. Sometimes these 
 wells are big enough to receive the end of a good-sized 
 finger. Large wells usually accompany large veins. We 
 know nothing of the true significance of the relationship of 
 size of well to production, though large wells are assumed 
 to be evidence of heavy milking capacity, being associated 
 
JUDGING THE DAIRY TYPE OF CATTLE 
 
 311 
 
 with strong blood circulation. It is usually easy to locate 
 the wells at the ends of the two more important veins, but 
 the minor ones are not so easily found. Most of the present 
 day scales of points applied to dairy cows include reference 
 
 to the size of the 
 milk well. 
 
 The escutcheon 
 theory, according 
 to the official 
 French report, 17 
 ' ' is founded on the 
 arrangement or 
 disposition of the 
 hair, in a space 
 commencing at the 
 upper extremity of 
 the vulva, and de- 
 scendingto the 
 roots of the teats, 
 winding as it de- 
 scends, covering the 
 inner and hind 
 parts of the thigh. 
 It is from the ar- 
 rangement of the 
 hair in this space 
 that the deductions 
 are made as to the quantity, duration and quality 
 of the milk." This theory was originated by a 
 Frenchman named Guenon who, in 1828, requested 
 the Academy of Bordeaux to investigate his theory, 
 which was done, but not until 1837. Guenon divided all 
 cows into ten classes or families, and each of these into three 
 sizes, large, medium, small. The cows in each class, depend- 
 ing on size, were grouped into six orders, according to the 
 
 Fig. 177. "The surface of the escutcheon Is 
 distinguished by its upward growing hair." 
 
 17 A Treatise on Milch Cows, by M. Francis Guenon, translated by N. P. 
 Trivt, New York, 1856, p. 5. 
 
312 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 escutcheon. The author of this theory thus describes it : 18 
 ."The surface of the escutcheon is distinguished by its up- 
 ward growing hair, which takes a direction opposite to 
 that which covers the other parts of the skin. The hair of 
 the escutcheon is also distinguished by its tint, which is 
 duller than that of the other hair. The escutcheon starts 
 from the middle of the four teats, a part of its hair extend- 
 ing forward under the belly, in the direction of the navel, 
 while the other part, beginning a little above the hocks, 
 spreads as far as the middle of the hinder surface of the 
 thighs, ascending on the udder and in some classes running 
 up as high as the top of the vulva. The form or pattern 
 of the escutcheon indicates the class to which the animal 
 belongs, while the extent of surface covered by it denotes 
 the milk-giving capacity. This extent, varying in decreas- 
 ing proportion, gives rise to several orders, in which I 
 range the members of each class. The fineness of the hair 
 of the escutcheon, and the color of the skin, indicate the 
 quantity and quality of the milk. ... In all the classes and 
 orders, the escutcheon is the sole indicator of the internal 
 capacity of the udder, so that if the escutcheon is large, 
 we can pronounce without hesitation that the internal reser- 
 voir is large, and the yield of milk will be abundant, while, 
 if the escutcheon be small, the reservoir is small, and the 
 yield of milk will be small." Guenon also describes a 
 special growth of the hair which he termed "feathers," 
 of which there are two kinds, ascending and descending. 
 These he classifies into seven groups, five of which occur 
 on the escutcheon and two outside of it. This system in- 
 cludes an escutcheon classification for bulls. This theory, 
 which was so widely discussed and advocated many years 
 ago, is practically discarded to-day, notwithstanding the 
 fact that the Ayrshire, Guernsey and Holstein-Friesian 
 scales of points each recognize the escutcheon. It will 
 be difficult to assign value to this theory so long as high- 
 class producing cows show escutcheons of low order. 
 
 18 Guenon on Milch Cows, translated by T. J. Hand, New York, 1883, p. 28. 
 
CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 THE COMPARATIVE STUDY OF DAIRY CATTLE. 
 
 FOLLOWING the use of the score card, as applied to the 
 individual, comes a study of two or more animals in com- 
 parison. As has already been indicated, in reference to 
 horses and beef cattle, the score card may be used for this 
 purpose in a very limited way. The scoring method is then 
 
 Fig. 178. "An interesting and instructive study may result.' 
 313 
 
314 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 succeeded by the less tedious and more common plan of 
 comparing the animals in a group. In the case of dairy 
 cattle, emphasis is naturally placed on the features for 
 which this class of stock is bred and valued. Animals of 
 the same general age and period of lactation are compared. 
 A similar method of inspection is applied as with 
 beef cattle. An interesting and instructive study may re- 
 sult by comparing certain features or characteristics as 
 found in each animal of the group, in which the strong and 
 weak points of each will be graded into either first, second, 
 third or fourth place. The following comparison card is 
 suggested, each animal to be identified by a letter of the 
 alphabet. 
 
 DAIRY CATTLE COMPARISON CARD 
 
 Name of Judge Date Judged 
 
 Class of Cattle . . 
 
 First Second Third Fourth 
 Place Place Place Place 
 
 FEATUEES TO JUDGE 
 
 Form or type 
 
 Quality . . .... 
 
 Temperament 
 
 Head and neck 
 
 Forequarters 
 
 Constitution . . . . 
 
 Body 
 
 Bump 
 
 Thighs 
 
 Udder 
 
 Teats 
 
 Veins 
 
 Breed character 
 
 Placing 
 
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF DAIRY CATTLE ;;ir, 
 
 The placing of a group of animals will largely depend 
 on the number of times A was credited with first place, 
 B with second, etc. However, the judge must attach the 
 same relative importance to the features in this comparison 
 card that they receive on the regular score card, excepting 
 that of breed character, for which special provision must 
 be made. If cow A were given first place under form, head 
 and neck, body, rump, thighs and udder, she would cer- 
 tainly have an advantage over any one of the others, for 
 
 Fig. 179. "His work as judge should show consistency in his placings." 
 
 these are first essentials in a dairy cow, involving two- 
 thirds of the scale of points. Thus the placing of each, 
 cow will depend materially upon what she might score. 
 The final rank of each animal is placed at the bottom of the 
 card, after the credits assigned are decided upon. Under 
 usual conditions of the show ring, the animals are exam- 
 ined and placed in their order of merit. When the judge 
 makes his placings, he must have clearly in mind the merits 
 and demerits of each animal. His work as judge should 
 show consistency in his placings, in his adherence to type 
 
316 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 and to the apparent efficiency of the animal as a producer. 
 Without desired type, however, and some other important 
 features, strong mammary development will often place 
 an animal high up in the competition, and with the en- 
 dorsement of the critics. That is a, recognition of the busi- 
 ness end of the cow that requires most careful judgment, 
 otherwise animals with serious weaknesses that should 
 never receive a high placing, may stand above others pos- 
 sessing qualities and characteristics of greater importance. 
 
CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 JUDGING DAIRY TYPE BULLS AND 
 YOUNG CATTLE. 
 
 (A) DAIRY TYPE BULLS. 
 
 Sex character in the dairy bull, as in the beef type, is 
 especially noticeable in head, neck and shoulders, and in 
 the temperament. The lack of flesh, however, gives a leaner, 
 sharper definition of the head, and less thick, though perhaps 
 a longer neck ; and a more or less bare and prominent shoul- 
 der. The neck of the mature bull should show considerable 
 crest and muscular development, the dairy bull often carry- 
 ing his masculine character to an extreme. The shoulders 
 should not show the refinement of the cow, but should be 
 heavier, with wider withers and more smoothness over the 
 top. Roughness of shoulder is often seen in dairy bulls, 
 which is emphasized by the lack of flesh. The temperament 
 is also an evidence of sex character, as seen in the activity 
 of disposition, with a tendency to nervousness and self- 
 assertion far more marked than with beef bulls. The dis- 
 position is often ugly after reaching maturity, so that great 
 care needs to be taken in handling males. The rudimentary 
 teats are special sex characters of the bull. These are lo- 
 cated, two on a side, just in front of the scrotum. These 
 teats vary much in length and position, and when well de- 
 veloped a slight amount of milky fluid may be squeezed 
 from them. They may be an inch in length, or scarcely 
 more than fleshy scars. Years ago long rudimentaries were 
 regarded as indicating that a bull would sire daughters that 
 should have good-sized teats, associated with strong milk- 
 giving properties. That theory seems to have been gen- 
 erally exploded, and, for want of a better one, it has been 
 
 317 
 
318 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Fig. 180. "The sex character of the dairy bull is especially noticeable in 
 head, neck and shoulders." Jersey bull, Julia's Majesty. 
 
 assumed that the location of the rudimentaries will indi- 
 cate the transmission of the placing of teats on the daugh- 
 ters. Bulls vary greatly in the placing of these rudiment- 
 ary teats, some being attached on the same level and widely 
 separated, while with others they are close together, with 
 the fore teat high above the rear one. No information 
 other than popular opinion justifies drawing any conclu- 
 sions on the significance of the rudimentaries. However, 
 the American Guernsey Cattle Club gives the following 
 special distinction l to these features of male anatomy : 
 "We consider that a well-balanced and well-shaped udder 
 in the cow is largely due to the way the rudimentary teats 
 are placed on the sire. If they are crowded close together, 
 the result is likely to be narrow-pointed udders. If they 
 are placed well apart, of good size, and well forward of 
 the scrotum, the effect, we think, will be to influence 
 
 1 Scale of points adopted in 1899. 
 
DAIHY TYPK IH'U.S AND VOINO CATT1.K ;;i<j 
 
 largely flu- production of well-shaped udders in Ihe result- 
 ing heifers, and counteract the tendency to ill-shaped udders 
 inherited from dams deficient in this respect." The veins 
 of the bull are also evidences of sex character. These are 
 small, are usually two in number, and extend along on 1he 
 belly, covering much the same relative location as on the 
 cow, and disappear through openings in the belly wall. 
 Judges usually examine the veins and wells on. the bull, 
 and regard them as giving evidence of dairy character. 
 Such veins are also to be seen on bulls of the beef type. 
 Constitutional vigor in the dairy bull should have special 
 emphasis. This will be indicated by the depth of chest, 
 rather than thickness, with the foreribs well arched below. 
 The squareness and fullness of front of the beef bull should 
 not occur with the dairy type. However, a close placing 
 of the front legs, with the knees nearly together, indicates 
 undesirable narrowness of the floor of the chest. If the 
 front flank is deep and full, the legs will stand wide enough 
 apart. An active, alert carriage of head and neck, promi- 
 nent eye, a strong muzzle, a widely developed forehead, a 
 capacious middle, and mellow, elastic skin, are other im- 
 portant evidences of constitutional vigor the judges should 
 emphasize. 
 
 Size with the dairy bull varies considerably with the 
 breed. Medium size meets with most favor. Size or weight 
 should not be secured by a fleshy condition, which is dis- 
 tinctly objectionable. In judging, large size, when free 
 from coarseness, should meet with favor as compared with 
 small size, even though characterized by good form and 
 quality. 
 
 The general form of the dairy bull is shown in length, 
 depth and angularity, rather than in a short, thick, smooth 
 form. As one views him from one side, he appears com- 
 paratively long of outline, especially in neck and body, with 
 appreciable depth of rib. From in front the withers and 
 chine or top of front ribs appear narrow. From the rear 
 the hips should not appear too wide apart, though with a 
 
320 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 fair degree of prominence, while the hindquarter should 
 be lean and muscular, with very little twist, and the thighs 
 divided nearly if not quite to the vulva. A fleshy rump 
 and thigh is distinctively objectionable. Angularity of 
 form, or freedom from a tendency to lay on flesh is most 
 important. Classes of mature dairy bulls vary more in 
 type than occurs with any other farm animals, so that with 
 some breeds, notably the Guernsey and Holstein-Friesian, 
 
 V * 
 
 
 Fig. 181. "The general form of the dairy bull is shown in length, depth 
 and angularity." (From photo Holstein Friesian bull, Sir Beets Cornu- 
 copia Netherland 38460, owned by W. S. Moscript.) 
 
 judges find individuals varying vridely from accepted stan- 
 dards. Such mixtures furnish difficult work for the judge, 
 and unless he has a well-defined standard of type in mind, 
 he will be likely to render unsatisfactory decisions, both to 
 himself and to all others. In view of the fact that the 
 world over, among intelligent breeders, there is a recognized 
 relationship of form to function, then both breeders and 
 judges, of necessity, must place a premium on this relation- 
 ship, -if breed improvement is to continue. 
 
DAIRY TYPE BULLS AND YOUNG CATTLK 
 
 321 
 
 (B) JUDGING YOUNG DAIRY CATTLE. 
 
 Undeveloped animals of the dairy type differ iu appear- 
 ance, previous to lactation, according to the way they have 
 been fed. Often they carry their calf fat and appear 
 smooth-fleshed and much thicker over the shoulders and 
 about the hindquarters than they will with maturity. For 
 that reason too much emphasis should not be placed on the 
 fineness of withers, or the carrying of more flesh than 
 might be thought desirable. Certain things, however, 
 
 i 
 
 flf 
 
 
 Fig. 182. "Heifers should show udders with much pliability of skin." 
 
 should be as important in the young as in the mature animal, 
 especially the general form indicating as it does consti- 
 tution, digestive capacity, and quality the head, and the 
 hindquarters. Long, level, wide rumps and comparatively 
 thin thighs should be insisted on. Constitution, as shown 
 in heart girth and f orerib development ; digestive capacity, 
 as evidenced by a deep middle piece; and quality as em- 
 phasized in sappy, mellow hide, and fine hair, are essentials. 
 No calf lacking in any one of these three features should 
 
322 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 be placed high in competition. Heifers should show udders 
 with much pliability of skin, having teats of good size, 
 placed well apart and on the same level. Udders that hang 
 tight to the belly, with teats close together, and the front 
 pair elevated materially above the rear two, promise a re- 
 stricted or unshapely development. In judging heifer 
 calves, the mammary development should receive critical 
 inspection. One of the most attractive features of a young 
 heifer, occasionally seen, is a maternal character in the 
 expression of face and the general bearing of head and neck, 
 suggestive of the mature cow. In a comparable way, young 
 bulls sometimes show a combination of sex character and 
 style suggestive of the mature male. Young bulls, however, 
 vary much in the development of sex character, as shown 
 in head and neck. The head should possess the desirable 
 qualities of conformation and expression. Crest and thick- 
 ness of neck come with maturity. The scrotum of the male 
 should be perfectly developed, showing two glands of uni- 
 form size. Until further definite information becomes 
 available, the character of the rudimentaries on the calf 
 should not seriously influence the judge in his placings, 
 though one might favor having them placed well apart and 
 in front of the scrotum. 
 
CHAPTER XXVTII. 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE NOTES ON THE MORE IMPORTANT 
 DAIRY BREEDS. 
 
 The Jersey breed of cattle originated on the Island of 
 Jersey in the English Channel, near the coast of France. 
 These cattle are commonly referred to as fawn-colored, as 
 they resemble the grayish-brown color characteristic of the 
 
 Fig. 183. "White markings on Jerseys are not rare." (From photo of 
 Successful Queen 278743. having record of 13.088 Ibs. milk and 803 Ihs. 
 butter in a year. Owned by Hood Farm. Photo by Hildebrand.) 
 
 323 
 
324 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 common deer. Various shades of fawn, however, are recog- 
 nized, such as yellow, red, brown, mulberry, silver, etc. 
 White markings on Jerseys are not rare, although not 
 popular with many breeders. The hair about the muzzle, 
 along over the backbone, and inside the legs, is often a 
 creamy or grayish white color. The Jersey is distinctly a 
 dairy breed, and in its most approved form is of ideal 
 
 Fig. 184. Jersey bull, Raleigh's Fairy Boy, a well-known champion of 
 Island breeding, owned by C. I. Hudson. 
 
 dairy type. Popular weights at maturity are 1,250 to 1,400 
 pounds for the bulls, and 850 to 900 for the cows. Ameri- 
 can families tend to be somewhat larger and coarser than 
 those of Island breeding. The head should be moderately 
 short and dished, the horns of a waxy or amber-yellow color, 
 and crumpled, turning by graceful curve until the points 
 are directed somewhat inward. The horns are dark at the 
 tips. The withers are often quite refined, the shoulders 
 somewhat prominent, the thighs thin, and the limbs neat 
 and showing much refinement of bone. The ideal udder 
 
THE MORE IMPORTANT DAIRY BREEDS 325 
 
 is carried well forward, as well as high up behind. The 
 teats are frequently somewhat small and short. Many 
 American bred cows have udders with more or less abbrevi- 
 ated fronts. The skin is commonly thin, mellow and elas- 
 tic, and shows a rich yellow secretion, especially in the 
 ears, and on vulva, udder and thigh. The most striking 
 features in the appearance of the Jersey are the color, the 
 wedge form, the short, dished face, the prominent, beauti- 
 ful eye, the fine bone, and the deer-like character of the 
 
 Fig. 185. Sophie 19th of Hood Farm on the right, and Lass 38th of Hood 
 
 Farm on left. 
 
 young calves. Jerseys are not large milkers, though yield- 
 ing well for their size. Up to February 29, 1916, the 5,244 
 Jerseys in the register of merit averaged 7,792 pounds of 
 milk. Many cows of the breed have produced 10,000 pounds 
 each within a year. The largest milk record for this period, 
 up to January 1, 1916, was that of 19,695 pounds made by 
 the cow Passport 219742. Jersey milk usually contains 
 4 J /2 to 5 per cent fat, and from it the choicest grade of 
 butter is made. Sophie 19th of Hood Farm 189748, has to 
 her credit the largest yield of milk fat in a year, viz., 
 999.14 pounds. The males are naturally of a nervous dis- 
 position, while the females are quiet and domestic. 
 
326 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS FOR JERSEY BULL. 
 
 (Adopted by the American Jersey Cattle Club, May 7, 1913.) 
 HEAD, 10 Points: Counts 
 
 A Broad, medium length; face dished; narrow be- 
 tween horns; horns medium in size and in- 
 curving ................. 5 
 
 B Muzzle, broad; nostrils open; eyes full and bold; 
 entire expression one of vigor, resolution and 
 masculinity ................ 5 
 
 I7ECK, 7 Points: 
 
 Medium length, with full crest at maturity; clean at 
 
 throat .................. 7 
 
 BODY, 57 Points: 
 
 A Shoulders full and strong, good distance through 
 
 from point to point, with well-defined withers; 
 
 chest deep and full between and just back of 
 
 forelegs ................ 15 
 
 B Barrel, long, of good depth and breadth, with 
 
 strong,, rounded, well-sprung ribs ...... 15 
 
 C Back, straight and strong .......... 5 
 
 D Bump, of good length and proportion to size of 
 
 body, and level from hip-bones to rump-bones . . 7 
 E Loins, broad and strong; hips rounded, and of 
 
 medium width compared with female . . . . 7 
 F Thighs, rather flat, well cut up behind, high arched 
 
 flank .................. 3 
 
 G Legs, proportionate to size and of fine quality, well 
 
 apart, with good feet, and not to weave or cross 
 
 in walking ................ 5 
 
 RUDIMENTARY TEATS, 2 Points: 
 
 Well placed .................. 2 
 
 HIDE, 2 Points: 
 
 Loose and mellow ................ 2 
 
 T'AIL, 2 Points: 
 
 Thin, long, reaching the hock, with good switch, not 
 
 coarse or high at setting-on ........ 2 
 
 SIZE, 5 Points: 
 
 Mature bulls, 1,200 to 1,500 pounds ........ 5 
 
 GENERAL APPEARANCE, 15 Points: 
 
 Thoroughly masculine in character, with a harmonious 
 blending of the parts to each other; thoroughly 
 robust, and such an animal as in a herd of wild 
 cattle would likely become master of the herd by 
 the law of natural selection and survival of the 
 fittest .................. IS 
 
 Total . . . . 100 
 
THE MORE IMPORTANT DAIRY BREEDS 30? 
 
 FOE JERSEY COW. 
 
 (Adopted by Ihc American Jersey Cattle Club, May 7, 1913.) 
 
 DAIEY TEMPERAMENT AND CONSTITUTION. 
 HEAD, 7 Points: Counts 
 
 A Medium size, lean; face dished; broad between eyes; 
 
 horns medium size, incurving 3 
 
 B Eyes full and placid; ears medium size, fine, carried 
 alert ; muzzle broad, with wide-open nostrils 
 
 and muscular lips; jaw strong 4 
 
 NECK, 4 Points: 
 
 Thin, rather long, with clean throat, neatly joined to 
 
 head and shoulders 4 
 
 BODY, 37 Points: 
 
 A Shoulders light, good distance through from point to 
 point, but thin at withers; chest deep and full 
 
 between and just back of forelegs 5 
 
 B Ribs amply sprung and wide apart, giving wedge 
 shape, with deep, large abdomen, firmly held up, 
 
 with strong muscular development 10 
 
 C Back straight and strong, with prominent spinal pro- 
 cesses; loins broad and strong . . . . . . . 5 
 
 D Rump long to tail-setting, and level from hip-bones 
 
 to rump-bones 6 
 
 K Hip-bones high and wide apart 3 
 
 I- 1 Thighs flat and wide apart, giving ample room 
 
 for udder '' 
 
 <i Legs proportionate to size and of fine quality, well 
 apart, with good feet, and not to weave or cross 
 
 in walking 
 
 H Hide loose and mellow 2 
 
 T Tail thin, long, with good switch, not coarse at 
 
 setting-on 1 
 
 MAMMARY DEVELOPMENT. 
 UDDER, 26 Points: 
 
 A Large size, flexible and not fleshy . . 6 
 
 B Broad, level or spherical, not deeply cut between 
 
 teats 4 
 
 C Fore udder full and well rounded, running well for- 
 ward of front teats .10 
 
 D Rear udder well rounded, and well out and up 
 
 behind 6 
 
 TEATS, 8 Points: 
 
 Of good and uniform length and size, regularly and 
 
 squarely placed s 
 
 MILK-VEINS, 4 Points: 
 
 Large, long, tortuous and elastic, entering large and 
 
 numerous orifices ' 
 
 SIZE, 4 Points: 
 
 Mature cows, 800 to 1,000 pounds I 
 
 GENERAL APPEARANCE, 10 Points: 
 
 A symmetrical balancing of all the parts, and a propor- 
 tion of parts to each other, depending on size of 
 animal, with the general appearance of a high- 
 class animal, with capacity for food and produc- 
 tiveness at pail 10 
 
 Total . 100 
 
328 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 The Holstein-Friesian breed of cattle originated in Hol- 
 land, where it has been bred for centuries. The charac- 
 teristic color of this breed is black and white, in solid spots 
 of each color. A popular combination consists of slightly 
 more white than black. Occasionally one will see cattle 
 of this breed that are nearly all white. Red and white 
 calves are dropped in American herds at rare intervals, 
 but in Holland there are a few herds of this color combina- 
 
 Fig. 186. Holstein-Friesian bull, Rag Apple Korndyke 8th, sold for 
 $25,000. Owned by Oliver Cabana, Jr. (Photo by courtesy American 
 Agriculturist.) 
 
 tion. This is a large breed, and mature bulls weigh usu- 
 ally 1,800 to 2,000 pounds, and cows 1,250 to 1,400 pounds. 
 There is considerable variation in type of this breed, rang- 
 ing from true dairy to that of real beef conformation. This 
 variation is pronounced among both bulls and cows. A 
 ring of aged Holstein-Friesian bulls shows marked differ- 
 ence in character. One may easily .find here three types, 
 dairy, beef and dual-purpose, though the beef type is not 
 
THE MORE IMPORTANT DAIRY BREEDS ;rj!) 
 
 abundant. The more popular style is the dairy type, but with 
 somewhat more thickness of thighs and smoothness of flesh- 
 ing. The most striking features of this breed are the large 
 size, black-and-white spotted color and big udder. The 
 heads incline to be somewhat long and narrow, and the 
 
 Fi. 187. IIolstein-Friesian female. Lady Pontiac Johanna. Has a 
 three-year-old record of 41.81 Ibs. butter in seven days. (Photo by 
 courtesy American Agriculturist.) 
 
 horns seem small for so large a body, the rump is long and 
 frequently steep, and the thighs are large and in many 
 cases tend to be thick and beefy. The udder is a notable 
 feature, on some cows attaining great size and capacity. In 
 conformation it is pendant, instead of being long and close 
 to the belly. This breed is notable for its milk-producing 
 capacity. The records of 2,387 cows with official yearly 
 
330 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 tests up to January 1, 1916, showed an average of 14,493.9 
 pounds of milk. The largest official yearly milk yield for 
 a cow of the breed is that of Tilly Alcartra, produc- 
 ing 30,451.4 pounds. Holstein-Friesian milk tests 3 to 
 3y 2 per cent fat. The average number of pounds of fat 
 produced in one year by the 2,387 cows referred to above 
 was 495.91, the greatest official yield of fat by any one cow 
 of the breed in a year being 1,205 pounds, by Duchess 
 Skylark Ormsby 124514. The disposition of the males in- 
 clines to nervousness and irritability, but the cows are very 
 quiet and placid. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS FOR HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN BULL. 
 
 (Adopted by Holstein-Friesian Association of America.) 
 
 The ratings in parenthesis relate entirely to the method of application agreed 
 upon by the. Inspectors, in order to secure uniformity of work. The abbrevia- 
 tions are as follows: vs, very slight; s, slight; m, marked; vm, very marked; 
 o, extreme. 
 
 PARTS DESCRIPTION ^oSf* 
 
 Head Showing full vigor; elegant in contour. (Discredit, 
 
 vs %, s 14, m %, vm %, e 1.) 2 
 
 Forehead Broad between the eyes; dishing. (Discredit, 
 
 vs %, s %, m y 2 , vm %, e 1.) 2 
 
 Face Of medium length; clean and trim, especially under 
 the eyes; the bridge of the nose straight. (Discredit, 
 s Vs, m 14, e %.) 2 
 
 Muzzle Broad with strong lips. (Discredit, s %, m ^4, 
 
 e %.) 1 
 
 Ears Of medium size ; of fine texture ; the hair plentiful and 
 soft; the secretions oily and abundant. (Discredit, m 
 %, e %.) 1 
 
 Eyes Large, full, mild, bright. (Discredit, s %, m 14, 
 
 e Y 2 .) 2 
 
 Horns Short; of medium size at base, gradually diminish- 
 ing toward tips ; oval ; inclining forward, moderately 
 curved inward; of fine texture, in appearance waxy. 
 (Discredit, m %, e %.) 1 
 
 Neck Long; finely crested (if the animal is mature) ; fine 
 and clean at juncture with the head ; nearly free from 
 dewlap; strongly and smoothly joined to shoulders. 
 (Discredit, vs %, s %, m %, vm %, e 1.) 5 
 
 Shoulders Of medium height; of medium thickness, and 
 smoothly rounded at tops; broad and full at sides; 
 smooth over front. (Discredit, vs %, s *4, m l /2, vm 
 %, e 1.) 4 
 
THE MORE IMPORTANT DAIRY BREEDS 331 
 
 PARTS DESCRIPTION Sco 
 
 Chest Deep and low; well filled and smooth in the brisket; 
 broad between the forearms: full in the foreflanks | or 
 through at the heart.] (Discredit, vs 1 A, s y 2 , m 1, 
 vm 1%, e 2.) .................. 7 
 
 Crops -Comparatively full; nearly level with the shoulders. 
 
 (Discredit, vs ] ,4, s y 2 , in 1, vm l l / 2 , e 2.) ...... 4 
 
 Chine Strong; straight, broadly developed, with open verte- 
 
 brae. (Discredit, vs %, s V4, m y 2 , vm %, e 1.) . . . . G 
 
 Barrel Long; well rounded; with large abdomen; strongly 
 and trimly held up. (Discredit, vs *4 , s y 2 , m 1, vm 
 l l / 2 , e 2.) .................... 7 
 
 loin and Hips Broad; level or nearly level between hook- 
 bones; level and strong laterally; spreading out from the 
 chine broadly and nearly level; the hook-bones fairly 
 prominent. (Discredit, vs %, s 1 /4, m l / 2 , vm %, e 1.) 7 
 
 Hump Long; broad; high; nearly level laterally; compara- 
 tively full above the thurl; carried out straight to drop- 
 ping of tail. (Discredit, vs Vs, s %, m l / 2 , vm %, e 1.) 7 
 
 Thurl High; broad. (Discredit, vs %, s i/ 2 , m 1, vm l l / 2 , 
 
 e 2.) .................... 4 
 
 Quarters Deep; broad; straight behind; wide and full at 
 sides; open in the twist. (Discredit, vs %, s 1 /4, na y 2 , 
 vm %, e 1.) .................. f> 
 
 Flanks Deep ; full. (Discredit, vs y s , s % , m Vz, vm % , e 1. ) 2 
 
 Legs Comparatively short; clean and nearly straight; wide 
 apart; firmly and squarely set under the body; arms 
 wide, strong and tapering ; feet of medium size, round, 
 solid and deep. (Discredit, vs %, s %, m }, vm %, 
 el.) .................... 5 
 
 Tail Large at base, the setting well back; tapering finely 
 to switch; the end of bone reaching to hocks or below; 
 the switch full. (Discredit, s %, ni y^, e y 2 .) . . . . 2 
 
 Hair and Handling Hair healthful in appearance; fine, soft 
 and furry; skin of medium thickness and loose; mellow 
 under the hand; the secretions oily, abundant and of a 
 rich brown or yellow color. (Discredit, vs l /, s l / 2 , m 
 1, vm \y 2 , e 2.) ........ '. ....... 10 
 
 Mammary Veins Large ; full ; entering large orifices ; double 
 extension; with special development, such as forks, 
 branches, connections, etc. (Discredit, vs ^4, s %, 
 m 1, vm 1V 2 , e 2.) ................ 10 
 
 Rudimentary Teats Large; well placed. (Discredit, vs %, 
 
 s *4, m y 2 , vm %, e 1.) .............. 2 
 
 Escutcheon Largest; finest. (Discredit, vs J4, s 1, m 2, 
 
 vm 3, e 4.) .................. 2 
 
 *General Vigor For deficiency Inspectors shall discredit 
 from the total received not to exceed eight points. 
 (Discredit, vs 1, s 2, m 3, vm 5, e 8.) .......... 
 
 *Creneral Symmetry and Fineness For deficiency Inspectors 
 shall discredit from the total received not to exceed 
 eight points. (Discredit, vs 1, s 2, m 3, vm 5, e 8.) . . 
 *General Style and Bearing For deficiency Inspectors shall 
 discredit from the total received not to exceed eight 
 points. (Discredit, vs 1, s 2, m 3, vm 5, e 8.) ...... 
 
332 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 PARTS DESCRIPTION 
 
 *Credits for Offspring A bull shall be credited one point in 
 excess of what he is otherwise entitled to, for each 
 and every animal of which he is sire actually entered in 
 the Advanced Register, not to exceed ten in number. . 
 
 * In scaling for the Advanced Register, defects caused 
 solely by age, or by accident, or by disease not heredi- 
 tary, shall not be considered. But in scaling for the 
 show ring, such defects shall be considered and duly 
 discredited 
 
 *A bull that in the judgment of the Inspector will 
 not reach, at full age and in good flesh, 1,800 Ibs., live 
 weight, shall be disqualified for entry in the Advanced 
 Register 
 
 * No bull shall be received to the Advanced Register, 
 that with all credits due him will not scale, in the judg- 
 ment of the Inspector, at east 80 points. (See amend- 
 ment to Rule IV., an exception to these requirements.) 
 
 Perfection .................. 100 
 
 Total discredit . . 
 
 Net score. 
 
 * Not now in use by Advanced Register, but of great value as an aid in 
 judging cattle. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS FOR HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN COW. 
 
 (Adopted by Holstein-Friesian Association of America.) 
 
 The ratings in parenthesis relate entirely to the method of application 
 agreed upon by the Inspectors, in order to secure uniformity of work. The 
 abbreviations are as follows: vs, very slight; s, slight; m, marked; vm, very 
 marked; e, extreme. 
 
 PARTS DESCRIPTION 
 
 Head Decidedly feminine in appearance; fine in contour. 
 
 (Discredit, vs %, s %, m %, vm %, e 1.) .. .. 2 
 
 Forehead Broad between the eyes; dishing. (Discredit, vs 
 
 Vs, s %, m y 2 , vm &, e 1) 2 
 
 Face Of medium length ; clean and trim especially under 
 the eyes, showing facial veins; the bridge of the nose 
 straight. (Discredit, s %, m %, e J4.) 2 
 
 Muzzle Broad with strong lips (Discredit, s %, m 1 / 4, 
 
 e y 2 .) . . 1 
 
 Ears Of medium size; of fine texture; the hair plentiful 
 and soft; the secretions oily and abundant. (Dis- 
 credit, m y a , e %.) 1 
 
 Eyes Large; full; mild; bright. (Discredit, s Vs, m %, 
 
 e %.) 'J 
 
 Horns Small; tapering finely toward the tips; set moder- 
 ately narrow at base; oval; inclining forward; well 
 bent inward; of fine texture; in appearance waxy. 
 (Discredit, m %, e %.) 1 
 
THE MORE IMPORTANT DAIRY BREEDS 333 
 
 PARTS DESCRIPTION 
 
 Neck Long; fine and clean at juncture with the head; 
 free from dewlap; evenly and smoothly joined to 
 shoulders. (Discredit, vs %, s %, m l /2, vm fa, e 1.) 4 
 
 Shoulders Slightly lower than the hips; fine and even 
 over tops; moderately broad and full at sides. (Dis- 
 credit, vs %, s %, m %, vm %, e 1.) ...... 3 
 
 Chest Of moderate depth and lowness; smooth and mod- 
 erately full in the brisket; full in the foreflanks 
 (or through the heart). (Discredit, vs %, a l /2, m 1, 
 vm 1V 2 , e 2.) ................ 6 
 
 Crops Moderately full. (Discredit, vs 1 /4, s J4, m fa, 
 
 vm iy 2 , e 2.) ................ 2 
 
 Chine Straight; strong; broadly developed, with open 
 
 vertebrce. (Discredit, vs %, s %, m %, vm %, e 1.) 6 
 
 Barrel Long ; of wedge shape ; well rounded ; with a large 
 abdomen, trimly held up (in judging the last item 
 age must be considered). (Discredit, vs %, s %, 
 m J / 2 , vm %, e 1.) .............. 7 
 
 Loin and Hips Broad; level or nearly level between the 
 hook-bones; level and strong laterally; spreading 
 from chine broadly and nearly level; hook-bones 
 fairly prominent. (Discredit, vs %, s %, m y 2 , 
 vm %, e 1.) ................ 6 
 
 Bump Long; high; broad with roomy pelvis; nearly level 
 laterally; comparatively full above the thurl; carried 
 out straight to dropping of tail. (Discredit, vs %, 
 s i/4, m ^2, vm %, e 1.) .............. 6 
 
 Thurl High; broad. (Discredit, vs %, s %, m 1, vm 1%, 
 
 e 2.) .................... 3 
 
 Quarters Deep; straight behind; twist filled with devel- 
 opment of udder; wide and moderately full at the 
 sides. (Discredit, vs %, s 1 A, m %, vm %, e 1.) 4 
 
 Flanks Deep; comparatively full. (Discredit, vs %, 
 
 s %, m l / 2 , vm fa, e 1.) ............ 2 
 
 Legs Comparatively short; clean and nearly straight; 
 wide apart; firmly and squarely set under the body; 
 feet of medium size, round, solid and deep. (Dis- 
 credit, vs %, s 14, m %, vm %, e 1.) ...... 4 
 
 Tail Large at base, the setting well back ; tapering finely 
 to switch ; the end of the bone reaching to hocks or 
 below; the switch full. (Discredit, s %, m %, e %.) 2 
 
 Hair and Handling Hair healthful in appearance; fine, 
 soft and furry ; the skin of medium thickness and 
 loose; mellow under the hand; the secretions oily, 
 abundant and of a rich brown or yellow color. (Dis- 
 credit, vs 1 / 4, s Vz, m 1, vm l l / 2 , e 2.) ...... 8 
 
 Mammary Veins Very large; very crooked (age must be 
 taken into consideration in judging of size and crook- 
 edness) ; entering very large or numerous orifices; 
 double extension; with special developments, such as 
 branches, connections, etc. (Discredit, vs %, s %, 
 m 1, vm l*/2, e 2.) .............. 10 
 
 Udder Very capacious; very flexible; quarters even; 
 nearly filling the space in the rear below the twist, 
 extending well forward in the front; broad and well 
 held up. (Discredit, vs K, s V 2 , m 1, vm 1^, e 2.) 12 
 
334 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 PARTS DESCRIPTION 
 
 Teats Well formed, wide apart, plumb and of convenient 
 
 size. (Discredit, vs %, s ^, m 1, vm IJ^, e 2.) . . 
 Escutcheon Largest; finest. (Discredit, vs-y 2 , s 1, m 2, 
 
 vm 3, e 4.) .................. 
 
 *General Vigor For deficiency Inspectors shall discredit 
 
 from the total received not to exceed eight points. 
 
 (Discredit, vs 1, s 2, m 3, vm 5, e 8.) 
 *General Symmetry and Fineness For deficiency Inspec- 
 
 tors shall discredit from the total received not to 
 
 exceed eight points. (Discredit, vs 1, s %, m 3, 
 
 vm 5, e 8.) ...... . . ... 
 
 *General Style and Bearing For deficiency, Inspectors 
 shall discredit from the total received not to exceed 
 eight points. (Discredit, vs 1, s H, m 3, vm 5, e 8.) 
 
 *Credits for Excess of Requirement in Production. 
 A cow shall be credited one point in excess of what 
 she is otherwise entitled to, for each and every 8 
 per cent that her milk or butter record exceeds the 
 minimum requirement. 
 
 *In scaling for the Advanced Register, defects 
 caused solely by age, or by accident, or by disease 
 not hereditary, shall not be considered. But in scal- 
 ing for the show ring, such defects shall be consid- 
 ered and duly discredited 
 
 *A cow that, in the judgment of the Inspector, will 
 not reach at full age, in milking condition and ordin- 
 ary flesh, 1,000 Ibs., live weight, shall be disqualified 
 for entry in the Advanced Register ......... 
 
 *No cow shall be received to the Advanced Regis- 
 ter that, with all credits due her, will not scale, in 
 the judgment of the Inspector, at least 75 points. 
 (See in last paragraph of Rule VI an exception to 
 these requirements.) 
 
 Perfection 100 
 
 Total discredit . . 
 
 Net score . 
 
 * Not now in use by Advanced Register, but of great value as an aid in 
 judging cattle. 
 
 The Guernsey breed of cattle originated on the Island of 
 Guernsey off the coast of France, nearby Jersey. Like the 
 latter, it is an old breed. Guernsey cattle resemble Jerseys, 
 but are usually yellowish or reddish fawn in color. White 
 spots are very common. They are somewhat larger than 
 the Jerseys, mature bulls weighing about 1,500 pounds and 
 
THK MORE IMPORTANT DAIRY BREEDS 
 
 335 
 
 cows 1,050 pounds or ,so. Guernseys are often rather pl;iin 
 of head and rough of shoulder and appear coarser than 
 the Jersey. The aged males vary in type fully as much as 
 do the Holstein-Friesian males, and often incline to a thick, 
 fleshy conformation not admired by students of dairy form. 
 The skin is noted for its soft, mellow, elastic quality, and 
 yellow color, especially in the ear and about the vulva, 
 thighs and udder. The horns also show much yellow color- 
 ing. Of 4,719 cows in the advanced register up to April 
 30, 1916, the average yield was 8,806 pounds. The largest 
 
 Fig. 188.- 
 
 Juernsey hull. "Galaxy's Sequel, noted as a sire of 
 advanced registry cows." 
 
 official milk yield for a Guernsey cow in a year, was 24,008 
 pounds by Murne Cowan 19597. Guernsey milk tests rich 
 in fat, often exceeding 5 per cent, and the fat globules carry 
 so high a yellow tint as not to require butter coloring at any 
 time. The average yield of fat produced by the 4,719 cows 
 noted above was 437.45 pounds, the largest record of 1,098.18 
 pounds being by Murne Cowan 19597. Guernsey butter 
 ranks as of the best class. In temperament the Guernsey 
 male is perhaps somewhat quieter than its Jersey cousin, 
 though the cows do not materially differ. 
 
336 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Fig. 189. Guernsey cow, "May Rilma 22761, with record of 1,073 Ibs. 
 butter fat in one year." (Photo by courtesy American Agriculturist.) 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS FOR GUERNSEY BULL. 
 
 (Adopted by the American Guernsey Cattle Club, December 13, 1899.) 
 SCALE OF POINTS Points 
 
 DAIRY TEMPERAMENT, CONSTITUTION, 38 Points: 
 
 Clean cut, lean face; strong sinewy jaw; wide muzzle 
 with wide-open nostrils; full, bright eye with quiet 
 and gentle expression; forehead long and broad. . 5 
 
 Long masculine neck with strong juncture to head ; clean 
 throat. Backbone rising well between shoulder 
 blades; large rugged spinal processes, indicating 
 good development of the spinal cord 5 
 
 Pelvis arching and wide; rump long; wide, strong 
 structure of spine at setting of tail. Long, thin 
 tail with good switch. Thin, incurving thighs . . 5 
 
 Ribs amply and fully sprung and wide apart, giving 
 
 an open relaxed conformation ; thin, arching flank . . 5 
 
 Abdomen large and deep, with strong muscular and 
 navel development, indicative of capacity and 
 vitality 15 
 
 Hide firm yet loose, with an oily feeling and texture, 
 
 but not thick 3 
 
 DAIRY PREPOTENCY, 15 Points: 
 
 As shown by having a great deal of vigor, style, alert- 
 ness, and resolute appearance 15 
 
THE MORE IMPORTANT DAIRY BREEDS 337 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS Points 
 
 RUDIMENT ARIES AND MILK VEINS, 10 Points: 
 
 Rudimentaries of good size, squarely and broadly placed 
 in front of and free from scrotum. Milk vein* 
 
 prominent 10 
 
 INDICATING COLOR OF MILK IN OFFSPRING, 15 Points: 
 Skin deep yellow in ear, on end of bone of tail, at base 
 
 of horns and body generally; hoofs amber colored. . 15 
 
 SYMMETRY AND SIZE, 22 Points: 
 
 Color of hair, a shade of fawn with white markings. 
 
 Cream-colored nose. Horns amber-colored, curving 
 
 and not coarse 8 
 
 Size for the Breed: Mature bulls four years old or 
 
 over, about 1,500 Ibs 4 
 
 General appearance as indicative of the power to beget 
 
 animals of strong dairy qualities 10 
 
 Total 100 
 
 FOR GUERNSEY COW. 
 
 DAIRY TEMPERAMENT, CONSTITUTION, 38 Points: 
 
 Clean cut, lean face, strong, sinewy jaw; wide muzzle 
 with wide-open nostrils; full, bright eye with quiet 
 and gentle expression; forehead long and broad.. 5 
 
 Long, thin neck with strong juncture to lu>ad ; clt an 
 throat. Backbone rising well between shoulder 
 blades; large rugged spinal processes, indicating 
 good development of the spinal cord 5 
 
 Pelvis, arching and wide; rump long, wide; strong struc- 
 ture of spine at setting-on of tail. Long thin tail 
 with good switch. Thin incurving thighs . . . . 5 
 
 Ribs amply and fully sprung and wide apart, giving an 
 
 open, relaxed conformation ; thin arching flanks . . 5 
 
 Abdomen large and deep, with strong muscular and 
 navel development, indicative of capacity and 
 vitality 1 ."> 
 
 Hide firm yet loose, with an oily feeling and texture, 
 
 but not thick ^ 
 
 MILKING MARKS DENOTING QUANTITY OF FLOW, 
 10 Points: 
 
 Escutcheon wide on thighs; high and broad, with thigh 
 
 ovals 2 
 
 Milk veins long, crooked, branching and prominent, 
 
 with large or deep wells 8 
 
 UDDER FORMATION, 26 Points: 
 
 Udder full in front 8 
 
 Udder full and well up behind 8 
 
 Udder of large size and capacity * 
 
 Teats well apart, squarely placed, and of good and <-v< 11 
 
 size <> 
 
 INDICATING COLOR OF MILK, 15 Points: 
 
 Skin deep yellow in ear, on end of bone of tail, at base 
 of horns, on udder, teats and body generally. Hoof, 
 amber colored.. . 15 * 
 
338 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS Points 
 
 DENOTING QUALITY OF FLOW, 
 
 but not too meaty 6 
 
 MILKING MARKS 
 6 Points: 
 
 Udder showing plenty of substan 
 SYMMETRY AND SIZE, 5 Points: 
 
 Color of hair a shade of fawn, with white markings. 
 Cream colored nose. Horns amber colored, small, 
 
 curved, and not coarse 
 
 Size for the Breed Mature cows, four years old or 
 over, about 1.050 Ibs. 
 
 100 
 
 The Ayrshire breed of cattle has its native home in south- 
 western Scotland, with the county of Ayr as a center. The 
 color is a combination of red, brown and white markings, 
 with white predominating as a color fad. The size of the 
 Ayrshire is about medium and at maturity standard 
 weights will approximate 1,500 pounds for the bull and 
 1,100 for the cows. This is recognized as a distinct dairy 
 type breed, but the inclination is to be a trifle smooth-fleshed 
 rather than angular like the Jersey. The very striking 
 
 >Fig. 190.-=-Ayrshire bull, "Bargenoch Bonnie Scotland, a famous 
 bull of the breed." 
 
THE MORE IMPORTANT DAIRY BREEDS 339 
 
 Fig. 191. Ayrshire cow, "Midland Nellie IV.," a prize-winner at the 
 Highland and Agricultural Society Show of Scotland. 
 
 features of the breed are the head, with its rather long, 
 large and erect horns, the color of hair, the capacious body 
 and beautiful, shapely udder. From a show point of view 
 the Ayrshire udder is more uniformly developed than that 
 of any other breed, but in Scotland there is considerable 
 criticism that beauty of form and small teats have sup- 
 planted a less shapely but more valuable udder, from the 
 standpoint of production. The skin of the Ayrshire in- 
 clines to be somewhat thick and lacking in mellowness in 
 comparison with some other breeds. Cows of this breed 
 produce very good yields of milk. For the year ending 
 December 31, 1915, there was produced an average of 9,406 
 pounds of milk by 1,938 cows in advanced registry tests; 
 tho largest official year's record being 25,329 pounds by 
 Oarclaugh May Mischief 27944. The milk is just average 
 in fat content, testing about 3^ to 3% per cent. Lily of 
 Willowmoor 22269, the most famous cow of the breed, pro- 
 duced 955.56 pounds of fat in a year. She also has a five- 
 
340 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 years' record of 84,991 pounds of milk and 3,362.35 pounds 
 of fat. Ayrshires are fairly quiet of temperament, espe- 
 cially the cows, but the bulls incline to show considerable 
 nervous character. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS FOE AYRSHIRE BULL. 
 
 (Adopted by United States and Canadian Ayrshire Breeders' 
 Associations, 1906.) 
 
 Standard of 
 SCALE OF POINTS Perfect 
 
 Score 
 HEAD, 16 Points: 
 
 Forehead, broad and clearly denned 2 
 
 Horns, strong at base, set wide apart, inclining 
 
 upward t > 1 
 
 Face, of medium length, clean cut, showing facial 
 
 veins 2 
 
 Muzzle, broad and strong, without coarseness . . . . 1 
 
 Nostrils, large and open 2 
 
 Jaws, wide at the base and strong 1 
 
 Eyes, moderately large, full and bright 3 
 
 Ears of medium size and fine, carried alert . . . . 1 
 
 Expression, full of vigor, resolution and masculinity 3 
 
 NECK, 10 Points: 
 
 Of medium length, somewhat arched, large and 
 strong in the muscles on top, inclined to flatness 
 on sides, enlarging symmetrically toward the 
 shoulders, throat clean and free from loose 
 skin 10 
 
 FOEEQUAETEES, 15 Points: 
 
 Shoulders, strong, smoothly blending into body with 
 good distance through from point to point and 
 fine on top 3 
 
 Chest, low, deep and full between back and forelegs 8 
 
 Brisket, deep, not too prominent and with very little 
 
 dewlap 2 
 
 Legs and feet: legs well apart, straight and short, 
 shanks fine and smooth, joints firm; feet of 
 medium size, round, solid and deep 2 
 
 BODY, 18 Points: 
 
 Back, short and straight, chine strongly developed 
 
 and open jointed 5 
 
 Loin, broad, strong and level 4 
 
 Eibs, long, broad, strong, well sprung and wide 
 
 apart 4 
 
 Abdomen, large and deep, trimly held up with mus- 
 cular development 4 
 
 Flank, thin and arching 1 
 
THE MORE IMPORTANT DAIRY BREEDS 341 
 
 Standard of 
 SCALE OF POINTS Perfect 
 
 Score 
 HINDQUARTERS, 16 Points: 
 
 Rump, level, long from hooks to pin bones . . . . 5 
 Hooks, medium distance apart, proportionately nar- 
 rower than in female, not rising above the level 
 
 of the back 2 
 
 Pin bones, high, wide apart . . . ; 2 
 
 Thighs, thin, long and wide apart . . " 4 
 
 Tail, fine, long and set on level with back . . . . 1 
 Legs and feet: legs straight, set well apart, shanks 
 fine and smooth; feet medium size, round, solid 
 
 and deep, not to cross in walking 2 
 
 SCROTUM, 3 Points: 
 
 Well developed and strongly carried 3 
 
 RUDIMENT ARIES, VEINS, ETC., 4 Points: 
 
 Teats, of uniform size, squarely placed, wide apart 
 and free from scrotum ; veins long, large, tor- 
 tuous, with extensions entering large orifices; 
 escutcheon pronounced and covering a large 
 
 surface 4 
 
 Color, 3 Points: 
 
 Red of any shade, brown, or these with white; 
 mahogany and white; each color distinctly 
 
 defined 3 
 
 COVERING, 6 Points: 
 
 Skin, medium thickness, mellow and elastic . . . . 3 
 
 Hair, soft and fine . . . . 2 
 
 Secretions, oily, of rich brown or yellow color . . 1 
 STYLE, 5 Points: 
 
 Active, vigorous, showing strong masculine charac- 
 ter, temperament inclined to nervousness, but 
 
 not irritable or vicious 5 
 
 WEIGHT: 4 Points: 
 
 At maturity not less than 1,500 pounds 4 
 
 Total 100 
 
 FOR AYRSHIRE COW. 
 
 Standard of 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS Perfect 
 
 Score 
 HEAD, 10 Points: 
 
 Forehead, broad and clearly defined 1 
 
 Horns, wide set on and inclining upward 1 
 
 Face, of medium length, slightly dished, clean cut, 
 
 showing veins 2 
 
 Muzzle, broad and strong without coarseness, nos- 
 trils large 1 
 
 Jaws, wide at the base and strong 1 
 
 Eyes, full and bright with placid expression . . . . 3 
 Ears, of medium size and fine, carried alert . . . . 1 
 NECK, 3 Points: 
 
 Fine throughout, throat clean, neatly joined to head 
 and shoulders, of good length, moderately thin, 
 nearly free from loose skin, elegant in bearing. . 3 
 
342 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Standard of 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS Perfect 
 
 Score 
 TOREQUARTERS, 10 Points: 
 
 Shoulders, light, good distance through from point 
 to point, but sharp at withers, smoothly blend- 
 ing into body . . .... 2 
 
 Chest, low, deep and full between and back of fore- 
 
 ' legs 6 
 
 Brisket, light 1 
 
 Legs and feet: legs straight and short, well apart, 
 shanks fine and smooth, joints firm; feet 
 
 medium size, round, solid and deep 1 
 
 BODY, 13 Points: 
 
 Back, strong and straight, chine lean, sharp and 
 
 open-jointed 4 
 
 Loin, broad, strong and level 2 
 
 Ribs, long, broad, wide apart and well sprung . . H 
 Abdomen, capacious, deep, firmly held up with 
 
 strong muscular development '? 
 
 Flank, thin and arching 1 
 
 HINDQUARTERS, 11 Points: 
 
 Rump, wide, level and long from hooks to pin 
 
 bones, a reasonable pelvic arch allowed . . . . 3 
 Hooks, wide apart and not projecting above back 
 
 nor unduly over-laid with fat 2 
 
 Pin bones, high and wide apart 1 
 
 Thighs, thin, long and wide apart 2 
 
 Tail, long, fine, set on a level with the back . . . . 1 
 Legs and feet: legs strong, short, straight when 
 viewed from behind and set well apart ; shanks 
 fine and smooth, joints firm; feet medium size, 
 
 round, solid and deep 2 
 
 UDDER, 22 Points: 
 
 Long, wide, deep, but not pendulous, nor fleshy; 
 firmly attached to the body, extending well up 
 behind and far forward: quarters even; sole 
 nearly level and not indented between teats, 
 udder veins well developed and plainly visible. . 22 
 
 TEATS, 8 Points: 
 
 Evenly placed, distance apart from side to side equal 
 to half the breadth of udder, from back to 
 front equal to one-third the length; length 2 54 
 to S 1 /^ inches, thickness in keeping with length, 
 h.anging perpendicular and not tapering . . . . 8 
 
 MAMMARY VEINS, 5 Points: 
 
 Large, long, tortuous, branching and entering large 
 
 orifices r > 
 
 ESCUTCHEON, 2 Points: 
 
 Distinctly defined, spreading over thighs and ex- 
 tending well upward 
 
 COLOR, 2 Points: 
 
 Red of any shade, brown, or these with white; ma- 
 hogany and white, or white ; each color dis- 
 tinctly defined. (Brindle markings allowed but 
 not desirable.) 2 
 
THE MORE IMPORTANT DAIRY BREEDS 
 
 343 
 
 SCALK OF POINTS 
 
 COVERING, 6 Points: 
 
 Skin, of medium thickness, mellow and elastic 
 
 Hair, soft and fine 
 
 Secretions, oily, of rich brown or yellow color 
 
 Standard of 
 Perfect 
 Score 
 
 3 
 2 
 1 
 
 STYLE, 4 Points: 
 
 Alert, vigorous, showing strong character; tempera- 
 ment inclined to nervousness, but still docile . . 4 
 
 WEIGHT AT MATURITY, not l-s th.-in l.miO Ibs 4 
 
 Total points loo 
 
 The Dutch Belted breed of cattle originated in Holland, 
 and is of very old ancestry. It is a dairy type of cattle, 
 and especially noted for its black color, marked off by white 
 stripe or blanket of varying width which encircles the body 
 between the hips and shoulders. This color marking gives 
 the breed a very striking appearance when a number of 
 
 I 
 
 Fig. 192, Dutch Belted cow, champion at New York State Fair. 
 by courtesy American Agriculturist.) 
 
 (Photo 
 
344 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 animals are grouped on a pasture. In size, the Dutch 
 Belted is comparable with the Ayrshire rather than the Hol- 
 stein-Friesian, mature males weighing around 1,500 pounds, 
 and cows 1,100 to 1,200 pounds. The horns tend to be 
 small, the withers refined, and the thighs spare. The udder 
 is rarely impressive in size and form, and the cows of the 
 breed thus far have made few records of importance. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS FOR DUTCH BELTED CATTLE. 
 
 (Adopted by American Dutch Belted Cattle Association.) 
 
 Points 
 
 Body Color black, with a clearly denned continuous white belt. The 
 belt to be of medium width beginning behind the shoulders and ex- 
 tending nearly to the hips 8 
 
 Head Comparatively long and somewhat dishing; broad between the 
 
 eyes; poll prominent; muzzle fine; dark tongue 6 
 
 Eyes Black, full, mild. Horns long compared with their diameter . . 4 
 Neck Fine, and moderately thin, and should harmonize in symmetry 
 
 with the head and shoulders 6 
 
 Shoulders Fine at the top, becoming deep and broad as they extend 
 
 backward and downward, with a low chest 4 
 
 Barrel Large and deep with well-developed abdomen; ribs well-rounded 
 
 and free from fat 10 
 
 Hips Broad, and chine level with full loin 10 
 
 Bump High, long, broad 6 
 
 Hindquarters Long and deep, rear line incurving. Tail long, slim, taper- 
 ing to a full switch 8 
 
 Legs Short, clean, standing well apart 3 
 
 Udder Large, well developed front and rear. Teats of convenient size 
 and wide apart; mammary veins large, long and crooked, entering 
 
 large orifices 20 
 
 Escutcheon 2 
 
 Hair Fine and soft; skin of moderate thickness, of a rich dark or yel- 
 low color 3 
 
 Disposition Quiet, free from excessive fat . . . . 4 
 
 General condition and apparent constitution 6 
 
 Perfection 1"0 
 
 Scale of Points for Bulls. 
 
 The scale of points for males shall be the same as those given for females, 
 except that the udder shall be omitted and the bull credited 10 points for size 
 and widespread placing of rudimentary teats, and 10 additional points for 
 perfection of belt. 
 
 The Kerry breed of cattle has its native home in south- 
 west Ireland, where it has been known for a long period of 
 time. It is a distinctly black dairy breed, and should have 
 no white markings, unless about the udder and underline, 
 and then only in a small way. Bulls should not have any 
 
THK MORE IMPORTANT DAIRY BREEDS 
 
 345 
 
 white hairs on the body. The size is comparable with a 
 small Jersey, as bulls should not exceed 1,000 pounds in 
 weight and the cows 900 pounds; the latter frequently 
 weighing 750 to 800 pounds. The distinctive character- 
 istics of these cattle are the color, size and head character, 
 the latter being plain of face, with somewhat long, upward- 
 turning horns, which often spread out and back at the tips. 
 
 Fig. 193. A Kerry cow, prominent as a prize-winner in England, 
 by courtesy Lady Greenall of Walton Hall, England.) 
 
 (Photo 
 
 The udder is plain in front, but is usually mellow and has 
 medium-sized teats. These cattle have not been officially 
 tested, but in various herds show records around 5,000 to 
 6,000 pounds for the better cows. The milk tests about 
 4 per cent fat. In temperament these cattle are somewhat 
 nervous and active. They are also very hardy. Their skin 
 is thick and heavily coated with. hair. 
 
JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS FOR KERRY CATTLE. 
 
 (Adopted by the English Kerry and Dexter Cattle Society.) 
 
 Bull 
 
 (leneral formation and character 
 
 Head, horns and hair 
 
 Quality and touch 
 
 Color 
 
 Points 
 
 Total 
 
 100 
 
 Cow 
 
 Points 
 30 
 
 General formation and character, head, horns, hair 
 Udder: Size, shape, situation of teats, milk veins, es- 
 cutcheon, etc . . . . 40 
 
 Quality and touch i 10 
 
 Color 20 
 
 Total . . ., 100 . 
 
 The Dexter breed of cattle is of Irish origin, perhaps an 
 offshoot from the Kerry. This is the smallest breed of 
 British origin, the bulls at maturity often weighing 600 
 to 700 pounds, and the cows about 500 pounds. Extreme 
 
 Fig. 194. Dexter cow, "Harley Coy," a noted prize-winner in Ireland 
 and England. 
 
THE MORE IMPORTANT DAIRY BREED-, 347 
 
 size is 900 pounds for the males and 800 for the fonales. 
 The color should be black or red, with no white u/aiess a 
 slight amount upon the udder, scrotum, or brush rf tail. 
 In conformation this is a dual-purpose breed as produced 
 in Europe, and a special class is provided at British shows 
 for fat steers of this small si/e, where very choice little 
 carcasses are exhibited. The tendency is to shortness, thick- 
 ness, and depth of body. The typ,e of head is short, and 
 crowned with a heavy horn of upstanding form. The cows 
 often have large udders and produce excellent yields of 
 about 4 per cent milk. A record of 5,000 pounds of milk 
 is not remarkable, and one English Dexter is reported as 
 producing about 12,000 pounds of milk in a year. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS FOR DEXTER CATTLE. 
 
 (Adopted Ly the English Kerry and Dt-xter Cattle Society.; 
 
 Bull 
 
 Points 
 
 General formation and character LM 
 
 Head, horns and hair ..... 25 -* 
 
 Quality and touch 1^0 
 
 Color 30 
 
 Total v . 100 
 
 Cow 
 
 joints 
 
 Head, neck and horns '. 15 
 
 .liody, top line, underline, ribs, setting-on of tail, short- 
 ness of leg, etc 25 
 
 Udder 40 
 
 Quality and touch 10 
 
 Color 10 
 
 Total 100 
 
 The French Canadian breed of cattle has been produced 
 in Quebec, Canada, for perhaps 200 years. It is a dis- 
 tinctly dairy type breed. The color is black or black-fawn, 
 with light markings about the muzzle and along over the 
 spine. This is one of the small breeds, comparable with the 
 small type Jersey. The form is quite angular and notably 
 
348 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Fig. 195. A French-Canadian cow. First prize at Virginia State Fair. 
 
 spare of condition. The head is rather plain, with moder- 
 ate-sized, incurving horns. The milk-producing capacity 
 of the cows is rated at about 5,000 pounds as a standard. 
 The milk tests slightly above 4 per cent fat. The skin is 
 mellow and is notable for its rich yellow color. 
 
 The Brown Swiss breed of cattle originated in Switzer- 
 land. It has been officially declared a dairy type by the 
 American Brown Swiss Cattle Association, but the Swiss 
 breeders give it the recognition customarily accorded dual- 
 purpose cattle. The color is usually a dark brown, with 
 mealy or creamy coloring of hair about the muzzle, the 
 udder, inside the legs, and sometimes along over the back- 
 bone. The horns have very dark tips, and the hoofs are 
 black. The tongue and flesh at nose should be very dark, 
 approaching black. This is a large breed, and mature bulls 
 weigh 1,800 to 2,000 pounds, and cows 1,300 to 1,400 pounds. 
 The conformation is essentially that of the dual-purpose 
 
THE MORE IMPORTANT DAIRY BREEDS 
 
 349 
 
 type, the body being thick all through, the withers and back 
 somewhat wide, and the thighs fleshy. Aside from color, 
 some of the more characteristic features of the breed are, 
 a somewhat heavy head, a deep neck with an unusual prom- 
 inence of dewlap, heavy shoulders, sloping rump, thick 
 thighs, and heavy joints and bone. As might be expected 
 with cattle of this type the udder, which often lacks front 
 extension, is of but moderate size. In milk production, 
 Brown Swiss cattle make a fair showing, and 5,000 to 6,000 
 pounds a year are regarded as standard yields. The aver- 
 age of 134 cows in official yearly tests in the United States 
 is 10,606Vo pounds, with the largest yield, 19,461 pounds 
 by College Bravura 2d. Brown Swiss milk is of standard 
 quality, testing about 3.5 per cent fat. The average annual 
 butter fat production of the 134 cows noted above was 425 
 pounds. Temperamentally, cattle of this breed are quiet 
 and easily handled. They are of secondary, rank in beef 
 production. 
 
 Fig. 196. Brown Swiss cow, "Kronkdale." first in class at Lucerne, 
 Switzerland, 1911. 
 
CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 JUDGING DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE. 
 
 The term dual-purpose cattle is to-day understood to rep- 
 resent a type that will- yield well of both beef and milk. 
 It is a comparatively recent application as a substitute for 
 the common expression long in use of " general purpose." 
 There are to-day several breeds of cattle that represent the 
 dual-purpose type, of which the Red Polled and Devon are 
 best known in America. There are also what are known as 
 milking or dairy Shorthorns, that are commonly regarded 
 as dual-purpose cattle. The fact is, cattle of beef-producing 
 character, that are also valued for dairy purposes, are quite 
 common in Europe, - Tlje '&lgjlft^ as 
 
 ^ ^miTk" "producer in England, ' while on the continent of 
 Europe, the cattle are essentially dual-purpose, though not 
 always known as such. Dual-purpose classification and pro- 
 motion is a comparatively recent one in America, notwith- 
 standing the fact that a century ago Devon cattle were 
 highly regarded in New England for the several pur- 
 poses of beef, milk and labor. 
 
 The dual-purpose idea is not equally clear in the minds 
 of all its advocates. One of the most noted breeders of 
 milking Shorthorns in England informed the writer that 
 he desired as beefy a cow as possible, yet with highly de- 
 veloped udder and large milking capacity. In the eastern 
 United States the milking side of the animal is emphasized, 
 at the expense of flesh, while in the west the reverse is 1 lie- 
 case. At the Pan-American Exposition at Buffalo in 1901, 
 when eastern and western Devon herds met, this difference 
 in type was very marked. This variation has been seen 
 repeatedly in the case of Red Polled cattle in American 
 show rings, in which wide extremes have prevailed, ranging 
 
 350 
 
JUDGING DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 
 
 351 
 
 from animals of decidedly beefy type with inferior mam- 
 mary development, to those of essentially moderate beef 
 type, with strong mammary development. From a scientific 
 point of view, based on the law of correlation, it may be 
 argued with reason that flesh is produced at the expense 
 of milk, or vice versa. Therefore, to be a true dual-purpose 
 
 Fig. 197. "Lou Waterloo," a choice example of a milking Shorthorn. 
 
 cow, there should be a production of both flesh and milk 
 up to at least a certain point, the beef development in keep- 
 ing with beef type, and the udder conformation and milk 
 secretion, comparable with that in a resonably good cow 
 of dairy type. Gay states l that "it is perfectly reason- 
 able to expect from one individual the production of milk 
 to the extent of one-half the normal in dairy cows, and the 
 production of a carcass of beef at least 50 per cent as 
 valuable and one-half as economically produced as in the 
 
 1 Principles and Practice of Judging Live Stock, 1914, p. 214. 
 
352 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 case of a typical beef steer. This is all that should be at- 
 tempted and apparently all that can be accomplished in 
 the perfection of the dual-purpose cow. ' ' Special advocates 
 of this type of cattle, however, would no doubt take issue 
 with the proposition that only half as much milk should 
 be produced as is normal in dairy cows. In their 1907 
 sale catalog, Innis and May, breeders of milking Shorthorns, 
 state that * ' the whole herd of mature cows, six years old or 
 over, have made average yearly milk records of 9,170.5 
 pounds." One year at Tring Park, England, 54 milking 
 Shorthorns averaged 6,658 pounds of milk, and 44 Red 
 Polled cows averaged 6,174 pounds, yields considerably in 
 excess of 50 per cent normal production in dairy cows. 
 Dual-purpose advocates also emphasize the value of the 
 calf for veal as compared with progeny from dairy cows. 
 "Without question, superior examples of dual-purpose ani- 
 mals in type and ancestry, will return yields, either in 
 beef or milk, on better than a 50 per cent basis, -but just 
 how much better is not known. The natural tendency of 
 this type is for a comparatively short period of lactation, 
 this being. followed by a disposition to lay on flesh. 
 
 The dual-purpose type, as generally recognized, repre- 
 sents an animal of modified beef form. This modification 
 is especially seen in somewhat more length and thinness of 
 neck, narrowness of withers, extreme length of body from 
 shoulders to hips, and lack of thickness in the thighs. 
 Either males or females seem to be more upstanding and 
 have more length or stretch, than in case of the true beef type. 
 The cow should carry an udder fairly representative of that 
 of the dairy type. The judge must keep these features in mind, 
 in passing on dual-purpose cattle, but he will make no mis- 
 take in giving preference to cows of distinct beef conforma- 
 tion, provided they show commendable udder development. 
 In 1914, at the show of the Royal Agricultural Society of 
 England at Shrewsbury, in the milking Shorthorn class, 
 consisting of 40 cows, first and second places were awarded 
 to animals that were more of beef type than otherwise, but 
 
JUDGING DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 353 
 
 having beautiful large udders. These same cows would not 
 have looked out of place in a standard Shorthorn cow 
 class, yet the two judges regarded them as the best dual- 
 purpose animals in the ring, and their judgment met very 
 general approval. At the International Live Stock Exposi- 
 tion at Chicago, in the milking Shorthorn classes, the most 
 successful winning cows have shown considerable size and 
 beefy character, and yet have had large udders. The judge 
 must not be misled to favor the so-called dual-purpose 
 type, where dairy conformation and lack of flesh prevail. 
 The frame should be smoothly covered with flesh, yet not 
 fat, exemplifying beef type and its possibilities. The ten- 
 dency of dual-purpose bulls is to be too short and compact. 
 Some of the finest examples of this type of bulls, that were 
 notable sires, showed great length, were only medium thick 
 of withers and thighs, and had somewhat too much length 
 of leg. 
 
 Scales of points for dual-purpose type cattle may be 
 found in those for bulls and cows adopted in 1907 by the 
 Eed Polled Cattle Club of America. From these the fol- 
 lowing quotations are made, in order to set forth certain 
 features of the official standards relative to this type: 
 
 Cow. 
 
 Points 
 
 Head, of medium length, etc 6 
 
 Neck, of medium length, clean cut and straight from head to top of 
 
 shoulder, with inclination to arch when fattened, and often showing 
 
 folds of loose skin underneath when in milking form 3 
 
 Shoulder, of medium thickness and smoothly laid 6 
 
 Chest, broad and deep, brisket prominent 10 
 
 Back and ribs: back medium long, moderately wide, spring of ribs 
 
 starting from backbone giving a rounding appearance, with ribs flat 
 
 and fairly wide apart 14 
 
 Hips, wide, well covered 3 
 
 Quarters, of good length, thighs wide, roomy, not too meaty 6 
 
 Legs, short, straight 3 
 
 Fore udder, full and flexible, reaching well forward, extending down 
 
 level with hind udder 10 
 
 Hind udder, full and well up behind 10 
 
 Teats, well placed, wide apart, and of reasonably good size 4 
 
 Milk veins, of medium size, full, flexible, extending well forward, milk 
 
 wells of medium size 6 
 
 General description Medium wedge form, low set, top and bottom 
 
 lines straight except at flank, weight 1,300 to 1,500 Ibs. when 
 
 mature. 
 
354 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Bull. 
 
 Points 
 
 Head, wide, strong and masculine, relatively short, etc 12 
 
 Neck, of medium length, full crest, of good thickness 5 
 
 Shoulder, of medium thickness and smoothly laid . . . . 8 
 
 Chest, broad and deep, brisket prominent 12 
 
 Back and ribs: back, medium long, with spring of ribs from backbone 
 
 giving rounding appearance, with ribs flat and fairly wide apart . . 14 
 
 Hips, wide, well covered 3 
 
 Quarters of good length, thighs wide and moderately full, deep . . . . C 
 
 Legs, short, straight . . . . 3 
 
 Rudimentaries, large, wide apart and placed well forward 12 
 
 Position of rudimentaries 6 
 
 General Description Strong, impressive, low set and of good carriage, 
 
 weight 1,800 to 2,000 Ibs., when mature arid finished. 
 
 Special features of these scales of points that apply to 
 the dual-purpose type, are the emphasis on the word 
 " medium" as applied to length and thickness of various 
 parts, the character of back and ribs, and the large number 
 of points credited to mammary development. The judge 
 should note especially that the scale of points for the cow 
 contains nearly as many points credited to the udder, etc., 
 as is recognized in some of the official dairy cattle score 
 cards a rather striking evidence of recognition of milk 
 production in this type. 
 
 In judging cattle of the dual-purpose type, it is highly 
 important to keep the essentials of conformation well in 
 mind, and assign animals to their places according to the 
 way they measure up to the more or less elastic standards 
 of this class. 
 
CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE NOTES ON DUAL-PURPOSE BREEDS 
 OF CATTLE. 
 
 The Red Polled breed of cattle comes from the counties 
 of Norfolk and Suffolk in eastern England. It is a true 
 dual-purpose type, and is advocated as such by its breeders. 
 However, we find great extremes within the breed, ranging 
 from those of dairy to a distinct beef type. This condition 
 applies equally in England and America. The color is a 
 pure red, varying from light to dark, a medium shade 
 being most common. The size of mature Red Polled cattle 
 is about medium, bulls ranging from 1,800 to 2,000 pounds, 
 and cows from 1,250 to 1,300 pounds.. The general con- 
 formation is dual-purpose, as described under that type. 
 Red Polled cattle are frequently somewhat upstanding. 
 
 Fig. 198. Red Polled cow, "Jean DuLuth Pear," the first cow of the? 
 breed to produce over 600 Ibs. of fat in a year. (Photo by courtesy 
 Jean DuLuth Farm.) - 
 
 355 
 
356 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 The head inclines to some straightness of face, and is polled. 
 The shoulders tend to be prominent, the withers are only 
 moderately broad, and the udder is often very poor in 
 front development, with large teats. In milk production, 
 cows of this breed have made excellent records, 5,000 to 
 6,000 pounds being a fair standard. The best record made 
 by a cow of this breed is that of Jean DuLuth Beauty 31725, 
 that for the year ending January 11, 1916 produced 20,- 
 280.6 pounds of milk. The quality of Eed Polled milk is 
 about standard, testing about 3.75 per cent fat. Jean 
 DuLuth Beauty produced 891.58 pounds of fat in her 365- 
 day test. Cattle of this breed are somewhat more nervous 
 of temperament than are Shorthorns or our more common 
 breeds. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS FOR RED POLLED CATTLE. 
 
 (Adopted by the Red Polled Cattle Club of America.) 
 
 Cow. 
 
 Points 
 
 Disqualifications 'Scurs, or any evidence whatever of a horny growth on 
 the head. Any white spots on body above lower line or brush of tail. 
 
 Color Any shade of red. The switch of tail and udder may be white 
 with some white running forward to the naval. Nose of a clear 
 flesh color. Interior of ears should be of a yellowish, waxy color 2 
 Objections: An extreme dark or an extreme light red is not desirable. 
 A cloudy nose or one with dark spots. 
 
 Head Of medium length, wide between the eyes, sloping gradually from 
 above eyes to poll, The poll well denned and prominent, with a 
 sharp dip behind it in center of head. Ears of medium size and 
 well carried. Eyes prominent; face well dished between the eyes. 
 
 Muzzle wide, with large nostrils 6 
 
 Objections: A roundness or flat appearance of the pott. Head too long 
 and narrow. 
 
 Neck Of medium length, clean cut, and straight from head to top of 
 shoulder, with inclination to arch when fattened, and may show folds 
 of loose skin underneath when in milking form 3 
 
 Shoulder Of medium thickness and smoothly laid, coming up level with 
 
 line of back 6 
 
 Objections: Shoulder too prominent, giving the appearance of weak- 
 ness in heart girth, shoulder protruding above line of back. 
 
 Chest Broad and deep, insuring constitution. Brisket prominent and 
 
 coming well forward 10 
 
 Back and ribs Back medium long, straight and level from withers to 
 setting-on of tail, moderately wide, with spring of ribs starting from 
 the backbone, giving a rounding appearance, with ribs flat and fairly 
 
 wide apart 14 
 
 Objections: Front ribs too straight, causing depression back of shoul- 
 ders. Drop in back or loin below the top line. 
 
DUAL-PURPOSE BREEDS OF CATTLE 357 
 
 Points 
 
 Hips Wide, rounding over the hooks, and well covered 3 
 
 Quarters Of good length, full, rounding and level; thighs wide, roomy 
 
 and not too meaty 6 
 
 Objections: Prominent hooks and sunken quarters. 
 Tail Tail head strong and setting well forward, long and tapering to 
 
 a full switch 2 
 
 Legs Short, straight, squarely placed, medium bone 3 
 
 Objections: Hocks crooked; legs placed too close together. 
 Fore udder Full, flexible, reaching well forward, extending down level 
 
 with hind udder 10 
 
 Hind udder Full and well up behind 10 
 
 Teats Well placed, wide apart and of reasonably good size 4 
 
 Objections: Lack of development, especially in forward udder. Udder 
 too deep, "bottle -shaped," and teats too close together. Teats un- 
 evenly placed and either too large or too small. 
 Milk veins Of medium size, full, flexible, extending well forward, well 
 
 retained within the body; milk wells of medium size 6 
 
 Hide Loose, mellow, flexible, inclined to thickness, with a good full coat 
 
 of soft hair . . 5 
 
 Objections: Thin, papery skin or wiry hair. 
 Condition Healthy, moderate to liberal flesh, evenly laid on; glossy 
 
 coat; animal presented in full bloom 10 
 
 Total 100 
 
 Bull. 
 
 Note In the standard for the bull, the description applied to color, chest, 
 back and ribs, hips, tail, legs, hide and condition, and disqualifications, are 
 the same as those for the cow, and the same points are accorded in each 
 case, excepting the chest, where 12 are given the bull instead of 10. All 
 other descriptions differ from those applied to the cow, and so are herewith 
 specified. 
 
 Points 
 
 Head Wide, strong and masculine, relatively short. Poll stronger and 
 less prominent than in a cow. Ears of medium size and well carried; 
 
 eyes prominent ; muzzle wide with large nostrils 12 
 
 Objections: Long, narrow or lacking in masculine character. 
 Neck Of medium length, full crest, of good thickness, strong, of mas- 
 culine appearance 5 
 
 Shoulder -Of medium thickness and smoothly laid, coming up level with 
 
 line of back ,. , . . . 8 
 
 Objections: Shoulder too prominent, giving the appearance of weakness 
 
 in heart girth, shoulder protruding above line of back. 
 
 Quarters Of good length, full rounding and level; thighs wide and mod- 
 erately full, deep 6 
 
 Objections: Prominent hocks and sunken quarters. 
 
 Kudimentaries Large, wide apart and placed well forward 12 
 
 Position of rudimentaries 6 
 
 Objections: Rudimentaries placed back on scrotum, or placed too close 
 
 together, indicating tendency to transmit badly formed udders. 
 General Description Strong, impressive, low set, and of good carriage. 
 Weight 1,800 pounds to 2,000 pounds when mature and finished. 
 
 The Devon breed of cattle originated in Devonshire, in 
 southwest England, and is a very ancient one. There are 
 
358 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 two types, those of North Devon, favoring beef form, and 
 those of south Devon, with greater tendency to milk pro- 
 duction. This breed, at one time prominent in America, 
 has nearly disappeared, being rarely seen or heard from. 
 The color is red, ranging from light to dark. The size may 
 be regarded as medium, though in America the opinion 
 has prevailed that Devons lack in size. Standard weights 
 
 Tig. 199. Devon cow, "Nettle Top," grand champion at Lewis and Clark 
 
 Exposition. 
 
 are 1,500 to 2,000 pounds for mature males, and 1,200 to 
 1,300 for cows. The very distinctive features of the Devon 
 are a lean, shapely head, crowned with a slender, rather 
 long, graceful, upturned horn of waxy color, and dark 
 tipped. The body is of blocky form, and the limbs are usu- 
 ally slender and show much quality. In milk production, 
 cows of dairy or dual-purpose type produce fair yields, 
 
DUAL-PURPOSE BREEDS OF CATTLE 359 
 
 but those of beef type make poor records. The milk tests 
 about 4.y 2 P er cen t fat, and is rated of excellent quality. 
 This is a very active breed, and has been highly regarded 
 in times past in the eastern United States for oxen. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS FOE DEVON CATTLE. 
 
 (Adopted by the American Devon Cattle Club.) 
 Bull. 
 
 Points 
 
 Head Masculine, full and broad, tapering toward the nose, which 
 should be flesh colored; nostrils high and open, muzzle broad; eyes 
 full and placid and surrounded with flesh-colored ring; ears of medium 
 size and thickness; horns medium size, growing at right angles from 
 the head, or slightly elevated, waxy at the base, tipped with a darker 
 
 shade 10 
 
 Cheeks Full and broad at root of tongue ; throat clean 2 
 
 Neck Of medium length and muscular, widening from the head to the 
 
 shoulders and strongly set on 4 
 
 Shoulders Fine, flat, sloping, and well fleshed ; arms strong, with firm 
 
 joints 6 
 
 Chest Deep, broad, and somewhat circular 10 
 
 Ribs Well sprung from the backbone, nicely arched, deep, with flanks 
 
 fully developed 10 
 
 Back Straight and level from the withers to the setting on of the tail; 
 loin broad and full; hips and rump of medium width and on a level 
 
 with the back 20 
 
 Hindquarters Deep, thick and square 12 
 
 Tail Well set on at a right angle with the back, tapering, with a switch 
 
 of white or roan hair and reaching the hocks 2 
 
 Legs Short, straight and squarely placed when viewed from behind, not 
 
 to cross or sweep in walking; hoof well formed 4 
 
 Skin Moderately thick and mellow, covered with an abundant coat of 
 rich hair of red color; no white spot admissible, unless around the 
 
 purse 8 
 
 Size Minimum weight at three, years of age 1,400 pounds 4 
 
 General Appearance As indicated by stylish and quick movement, form, 
 constitution, and vigor, and the underline as nearly as possible 
 parallel with the line of the back 8 
 
 Total 100 
 
 Cow. 
 
 Head Moderately long, with a broad indented forehead, tapering con- 
 siderably toward the nostrils; the nose of a flesh color, nostrils 
 high and open; the jaws clean; the eyes bright, lively and prominent 
 and surrounded by a flesh-colored ring; throat clean; ears thin; the 
 expression gentle and intelligent; horns matching, spreading, and 
 gracefully turned up, of a waxy color, tipped with a darker shade 8 
 
 Neck Upper line short, fine at head, widening and deep at withers and 
 
 strongly set to the shoulders 4 
 
 Shoulder Fine, flat and sloping, with strong arms and firm joints . . . . 4 
 
 Ohest Deep, broad, and somewhat circular in character g 
 
360 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Points 
 Bibs Well sprung from the back bone, nicely arched, deep, with flanks 
 
 fully developed 8 
 
 Back Straight and level from the withers to the setting on of the tail; 
 
 loin broad and full; hips and rump of medium width, and on a 
 
 level with the back 16 
 
 Hindquarters Deep, thick and square 8 
 
 Udder Not fleshy, coming well forward in line with the belly and well 
 
 up behind; teats moderately large, and squarely placed 20 
 
 Tail Well set on at right angle with back, tapering, with a switch of 
 
 white or roan hair, and reaching the hocks . . 2 
 
 Legs Straight, squarely placed when viewed from behind, not to cross 
 
 or sweep in walking; hoof well formed 4 
 
 Skin Moderately thick and mellow, covered with an abundant coat of 
 
 rich hair of red color; no white spot admissible, except the udder 8 
 
 Size Minimum weight at three years of age 1,000 pounds 2 
 
 General appearance As indicated by stylish and quick movement, form, 
 
 constitution and vigor, and the underline as nearly as possible parallel 
 
 with the line of the back 8 
 
 Total.. . 100 
 
PART IV JUDGING SHEEP. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI. 
 
 THE ANATOMY OP THE SHEEP. 
 
 A study of the anatomy of the sheep, and that of the ox, 
 shows a close resemblance between them. In the size and 
 skin covering are the most marked differences, otherwise 
 these two great classes of animals have much in common. 
 Lydekker states 1 that the features by which sheep are dis- 
 'tinguished from oxen or cattle are as follows: "In the first 
 place, sheep as a whole are smaller animals than oxen, al- 
 though the largest sheep, such as the Central Asian Argali, 
 is considerably bigger than the anoa or dwarf buffalo of 
 Celebes, the smallest member of the ox group. Then, again, 
 they usually carry their heads higher, and considerably 
 elevated above the line of the back. In place, too, of the 
 broad, naked, moist, undivided muzzle of the oxen, sheep 
 have a vertically cleft, narrow snout completely covered 
 with short hair, except on the margins of the nostrils and 
 lips. Very generally there is a small sub-orbital face gland, 
 situated in a shallow depression in the lachrymal bone of the 
 skull, and frequently known as the tear-gland or larmier. 
 Sheep also differ from living oxen in that when horns 
 are developed in the females, as is usually the case among 
 the wild species, they are very much smaller than those 
 of the males, from which they generally also differ consider- 
 ably in shape. " 
 
 The skeleton of the sheep, notwithstanding its resem- 
 blance to that of the ox, has certain interesting features. 
 Considerable variation exists in the number of bones in the 
 
 1 The Sheep and Its Cousins, 1912, p. 12. 
 
 361 
 
362 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 spines of different races of sheep. According to Sissoii 2 
 there are commonly seven cervical vertebrae, thirteen tho- 
 racic and six lumbar vertebrae. The sacrum usually consists 
 of four parts, and the bones in the coccyx, at the end of 
 the spinal column, vary from three, in short-tailed sheep, 
 to twenty-four or more. There are usually thirteen pairs 
 of ribs, but fourteen are not uncommon. The ribs are nar- 
 rower, and the front ones are more strongly curved, than 
 is the case with the ox. The skulls of sheep and ox are 
 quite similar, but the former is more pointed at each end, 
 with the frontal bones at the eye rather prominent. It is 
 this small size of the end of the skull, at the muzzle, that 
 enables the sheep to graze so close to the ground. Lydekker 
 states 3 that, "the skulls of tame sheep differ from those 
 of their wild relatives when specimens with the same ap* 
 proximate basal length are compared by the smaller di- 
 ameter of the socket of the eye, the abortion of the auditory 
 bulla 4 at the base of the skull, and the much smaller ca- 
 pacity of the brain chamber. It has been shown, for 
 instance, that whereas in the wild mouflon the brain capac- 
 ity ranges from 130 to 170 cubic centimeters, with a mean 
 of 140 cubic centimeters, in domesticated sheep, having 
 skulls of the same average size, the mean brain capacity is 
 only from 110 to 120 cubic centimeters. These differences are 
 due, of course, to the more or less protected conditions under 
 which domesticated sheep pass their existence, thereby re- 
 ducing the need of acuteness in the senses of hearing, sight 
 and smell." The humerus or large bone of the arm is 
 relatively longer and more slender than it is with the ox, 
 and the same applies to the bones of the forearm. The 
 ischium, or what is often called the pin bone, at the end of 
 the pelvis on each side of the tail, according to Sisson, 5 
 slopes downward and backward, and forms a much larger 
 angle than in the case of the ox. This may account in part 
 
 2 The Anatomy of the Domestic Animals, 1914, p. 156. 
 
 3 Sheep and Its Cousins, p. 21. 
 
 * A prominence below the opening of the ear in the skull of many animal 
 6 Ibid., p. 160. 
 
THE ANATOMY OF THE SHEEP 363 
 
 for the droopy rump so often seen in Merino sheep. The 
 floor of the pelvic cavity is wider and shallower in compari- 
 son with the ox. The long bones of the hind legs, as in the 
 case of the front legs, are relatively slender for their 
 length. 
 
 The teeth of the sheep are found in the back part of the 
 upper and lower jaws, and in the front part of the lower 
 jaw. The front part of the upper jaw consists of a tough 
 fibrous pad, against which the lower front teeth, the incisors, 
 press, when the sheep is grazing. When the lamb is born, 
 usually there is a pair of small teeth in the center of the front 
 of the lower jaw. Very shortly two more appear, in two 
 weeks after birth two more come in, and by the time the lamb 
 is three or four weeks old there are eight small milk or 
 deciduous teeth in position. Twelve small molar teeth also 
 appear. When a sheep has come into maturity, at two years, 
 it has thirty-two permanent teeth, consisting of twenty-four 
 molars, 12 in each jaw, and eight incisors. 
 
 The age of a sheep may be determined up to a certain 
 extent, by means of the number and character of the teeth. 
 It is an easy matter to examine the teeth of the sheep, re- 
 quiring skill and quiet patience, rather than force. The 
 method is as follows: One hand should be placed over the 
 back of the head, thereby holding and steadying it, while 
 the end of the jaw of the sheep should rest in the upturned 
 palm of the other hand. Then the lips may be gently parted 
 with the thumb and forefinger, showing the incisor teeth. 
 If this is done quietly the sheep will struggle but little, but 
 if much force is exercised by finger and thumb, the sheep 
 will be likely to resist stoutly. When the lamb is about 
 twelve months old, two teeth appear in the front jaw and 
 force out the central pair of milk teeth. These are large, 
 prominent incisors, with broad crowns, and are known as 
 yearling teeth. The appearance of the permanent teeth is in- 
 fluenced more or less by breed inheritance and by the condi- 
 tions under which the animals have been kept as lambs. When 
 lambs are fed for show, and are kept in high condition, the 
 
364 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 permanent teeth are hastened in development. To the 
 contrary, neglect or starvation, retards development. One 
 well-known handler of sheep, Mr. Frank Kleinheinz, states 6 
 that he has seen rare cases where sheep did not change the 
 first pair of teeth until they were eighteen and in one case 
 nineteen months old. In this instance, shortly after the 
 first change oc- 
 curred, the second 
 took place, yet long 
 before the sheep 
 was two years old. 
 "When the .sheep is 
 about twenty-four 
 months old, two 
 more large incisors 
 appear, one on 
 each side of the 
 yearling teeth, 
 pushing out the 
 two milk teeth in 
 the way. The pres- 
 ence of four large 
 incisors and four 
 small ones, indi- 
 cates that the sheep 
 is a two-year old. 
 At about thirty- 
 six months of age, 
 two more large in- 
 cisors appear, one 
 
 on each side of the second permanent pair, indicating 
 the animal to be a three-year old. Finally, at about 
 forty-eight months of age, the last pair appears, all the 
 milk teeth have been shed, and eight strong incisors indicate 
 the sheep to be four years of age. The central teeth are 
 always somewhat the largest, and as they are the oldest, 
 
 6 Sheep Management, 1911, p. 29. 
 
 Fig. 200. "Then the lips may be gently 
 parted with the thumb and forefinger, showing 
 the incisor teeth." 
 
THE ANATOMY OF THE SHEEP 365 
 
 we find that it is at this point that the crowns wear down with 
 age and first break away. It is impossible to determine the 
 age of a sheep with certainty after it has obtained a full 
 mouth of teeth. Two things, however, serve as a guide, one 
 the wearing away of the incisors from the center toward the 
 outside pair, and the other the grinding down and wearing 
 off the crowns of the teeth, until with some old sheep one 
 finds only short stumps left in the lower jaw. With increase 
 of years, the front teeth also gradually incline, losing much 
 of their original erect position. Experienced buyers of 
 sheep, whenever necessary " mouth," that is examine the 
 teeth of animals purchased, to be sure that the teeth are 
 in good order, instead of broken or missing. 
 
 The digestive organs of the sheep, excepting for size 
 and capacity, are essentially like those of the ox. The 
 stomach is compound, consisting of four parts, the rumen 
 or paunch, the reticulum or honeycomb, the manyplies and 
 the abomasum. The four stomachs of the sheep will hold 
 about thirty-one quarts, of which the paunch holds about 
 twenty-five, while the manyplies holds the least, or only 
 about one quart. The small intestines are about eighty-six 
 feet long, and the large ones about twenty-one feet long, 
 and hold respectively nine and one-half quarts and six 
 quarts each. In connection with the digestive operations 
 of the sheep, it is important to note that this animal com- 
 pletely reduces all seeds and other food to a common mass 
 of solid excrement. No other domestic animal so thoroughly 
 disintegrates the food. Seed may pass through the diges- 
 tive tract of cattle, and germinate afterward, but not so 
 with seeds passing through sheep ; they are completely des- 
 troyed. This explains in part why sheep are so valuable in 
 ridding land of weeds. 
 
 The organs of reproduction of the sheep are similar to 
 those of cattle, but on a comparatively smaller scale. The 
 ram as he attains yearling form, should show a strong scro- 
 tum or sac containing two equal-sized, clearly defined 
 glands. The scrotum should not be either small and held 
 
366 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 close to the body, or long and heavy, nearly touching the 
 ground, as sometimes occurs, but should be of medium size, 
 lean and well defined. The udder of the female lies closely 
 in front of the thighs, and consists of two glands, and two 
 teats. It is important that the udder be well supported 
 from above, the glands of equal size, and the teats not too 
 large and in perfect condition. The female sheep, the ewe, 
 usually bears one young, frequently she has twins, and 
 cases are on record of ewes having five lambs at one birth. 
 This feature of reproduction largely depends upon breed 
 and race, some breeds being much more fecund than others. 
 
 The skin of the domestic sheep is ordinarily covered with 
 wool, and is not to be seen excepting about the nose, ears, 
 armpits and udder. Below the surface of wool it is more 
 or less pink and delicate. The skin, however, differs some- 
 what in color, ranging from bright pink to a light bluish 
 shade, with various tints between. Small oil secreting 
 glands occur in the skin, assisting in keeping it in healthy 
 condition, and also supplying oil for the wool. This oil 
 differs from other animal fats, in containing a large per- 
 centage of potash, which makes it easily dissolvable in 
 water. Thus it was in early days that the shepherd washed 
 his sheep in the running water of the brook, the mixture 
 of oil and dirt being more or less washed off, according to 
 the thoroughness of the washing. 
 
 The fleece or wool of the sheep consists of fibers that are 
 closely related to hair in structure. Each of these grows in 
 the skin from a tubular cavity called a hair bulb. The wool 
 fiber consists of a hollow or cored center, surrounded by a 
 hard cellular wall, on the exterior of which are a great num- 
 ber of little scales, which overlap each other like shingles on 
 the roof of a house, forming the outside of the fiber. These 
 scales have enough prominence at their ends, to catch and 
 interlock with those on adjoining fibers, thus forming a 
 felting process, which gives the great value to wool in cloth 
 making. The scales 011 hair, however, are so small and so 
 closely attached to the surface of the fiber, that felting is 
 
TIIK ANATOMY OF THE SIIKKP ;}(>7 
 
 difficult. Cotted wool, where the fibers of the fleece on the 
 sheep are closely fastened together so that they can be 
 separated only with great difficulty, is an example of 
 natural felting or interlocking of scales, usually due to 
 sickness and a lack of oil in the fleece. The fleece of sheep 
 on certain limestone lands, especially the Highlands of 
 England and Scotland, is frequently cotted. The scales 
 vary some in size and shape, the Merino having the smallest 
 and the long wooled breeds the largest. The scales are easily 
 seen under a microscope, and especially so if the fiber is 
 treated two or three minutes with a weak solution of caustic 
 potash. The scales in more or less degree reflect light when 
 exposed, giving a special lustre, that on the large breeds-, 
 such as the Cotswold, is highly valued. Scales that have a 
 high lustre, give very choice results from the most delicate 
 dyeing operations. In the tropics wool is least developed on 
 the sheep, while in temperate or cold regions, the body is 
 most completely covered by the wool. Naturally, under 
 conditions of domestication, wool production has reached a 
 high degree of development, sheep of the Merino family 
 producing it to the extreme. Cases are on record of Merino 
 fleeces weighing one-third of the total body weight, and 
 single fleeces weighing over 40 pounds for a year's growth 
 have been removed. There is much difference in the wool 
 fiber, ranging from that which is comparatively coarse and 
 straight, to that which is very fine and considerably crimped 
 or serrated. As a rule, the thicker the wool fibers over a 
 given skin surface, the finer it will be in quality. Sheep or- 
 dinarily are free of wool about the face, ears, armpits, udder 
 and legs. Exception to this, however, occurs in the case of 
 certain breeds, as for example the Merino and Shropshire, 
 where the face, ears and legs are more or less wooled. 
 
 The foot glands of the sheep are a feature peculiar to this 
 class of domestic animals. A small opening or hole, at the 
 point in front of the foot, where the toes begin to separate, 
 leads into a narrow duct, which expands into a gland. This 
 gland occupies space between the bones just above the heel, 
 
368 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 and secretes a clear semi-fluid substance. R. I. Pocock 
 states 7 that secretion with Asiatic wild sheep is pleasant 
 of scent, like taffy, slightly infused with acetic acid. 
 Lydekker assumes 8 that the secretion of these foot glands, 
 by scenting the ground or herbage over which the sheep 
 have passed, aids, doubtless, in enabling the members of a 
 scattered flock to ascertain the whereabouts of their fellows. 
 The unpleasant smell of domesticated sheep, so different 
 from the sweet aroma of cattle and many kinds of antelopes, 
 may be in part due to the secretion of these glands. 
 
 7 Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1910, p. 859. 
 
 8 The Sheep and Its Cousins, 1912, p. 19. 
 
CHAPTER XXXII. 
 
 HOW TO HANDLE AND EXAMINE SHEEP. 
 
 IN view of the fact that the sheep has a covering of wool 
 over its body most of the time, it is necessary that this 
 animal be examined by a different method from that used 
 with other farm stock. Furthermore, because the sheep is 
 naturally rather timid, it must be held and handled in a 
 way that will cause as little fear and resistance on its part 
 as possible. 
 
 To catch and hold a sheep properly for examination, 
 approach it as quietly as possible, so as to cause no fright, 
 and grasp the right hind leg with the hand high up near 
 the flank. Then move quickly along the left side of the 
 sheep, holding the right hand so as to be able to press the 
 animal against you, at the same time slipping the left hand 
 beneath the jaw or neck, with the fingers extended to fur- 
 nish a close hold at one of these parts. With the sheep at 
 rest, in position for examination, one should hold the lower 
 jaw or neck with the left hand, and control the rear part 
 by the use of the right hand laid quietly at some point near 
 the right side, far back, near hip or rump. Thus one may 
 hold a sheep with least exertion and under best control. 
 Ordinarily, also, one may simply hold the sheep at the head, 
 placing the left hand under the jaw and the right hand on 
 the back of the head. The hand should never grasp the 
 wool, for nothing causes a sheep to struggle more than pull- 
 ing the wool. It is not an uncommon thing to see men seize 
 the wool at the back or neck and begin to struggle with the 
 sheep, a method that succeeds admirably in frightening the 
 animal and causing unnecessary trouble. Sheep that have 
 never been handled will resist much more than those that 
 
 309 
 
370 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 
 
 
 are used to handling. Sheep of some breeds also, especially 
 of the mountain sorts, naturally resist handling more than 
 do the larger, more phlegmatic lowland breeds. It may 
 also be noted here that some men are naturally much better 
 adapted to hold and handle sheep than are others. With them 
 the sheep seem quiet and unfrightened. It is through 
 
 gentleness and 
 quiet manners that 
 such men succeed 
 so well. The writer 
 has been interested 
 to note that, in both 
 Europe and Amer- 
 ica, shepherds of 
 experience are most 
 quiet and gentle 
 in dealing with 
 their sheep, and 
 have little difficul- 
 ty in doing with 
 them as they wish. 
 Persons holding 
 sheep for examina- 
 tion, should make 
 themselves as in- 
 conspicuous as possible. For that reason, if the time occu- 
 pied is not too great, it is desirable for the person holding 
 the sheep to kneel on one knee, so as to come down more on 
 a level with the animal he is showing, and with the purpose 
 of letting the judge see as much of the sheep and as little 
 of the man as possible. 
 
 The use of the hands in judging a sheep is made neces- 
 sary in a very special way. The body of the animal is cov- 
 ered with wool, perhaps four inches thick in places. It is 
 important, not only that the wool be examined, but also 
 that the conformation below the layer of wool be deter- 
 mined. This latter can be ascertained only by the aid of 
 
 Fig. 201. "One may simply hold the sheep at 
 the head, placing the left hand under the jaw 
 and the right hand on the back of the head." 
 
HOW TO HANDLE AND EXAMINE SHEEP 371 
 
 4 
 
 i^re 
 
 the hands. The fingers are extended, but kept close to- 
 
 gether, and then the hand is pressed down upon the part 
 
 to be felt. The object in keeping the fingers close together, 
 
 is twofold. First, one does not make numerous holes in the 
 
 fleece, as he would in sticking separate fingers into the wool, 
 
 thereby making openings in which chaff and dirt may lodge. 
 
 Further, by pressing down on the wool, with the fingers 
 
 united to form one __ 
 
 big finger as it 
 
 were, the judge 
 
 may easily feel the 
 
 outline of the form 
 
 below. By holding 
 
 the ends of the 
 
 f i n g e rs together, 
 
 one is able to feel 
 
 over a section of 
 
 the body, as with a 
 
 sensitive i n s t r u- 
 
 ment, thus deter- 
 
 mining, as would 
 
 not be possible 
 
 otherwise, the char- 
 
 acter of covering 
 
 of fleece and flesh, 
 
 and the curves and outlines of the body. Sometimes one 
 
 hand is used, sometimes two, but the man who knows his 
 
 business never musses the fleece, and when he is done, it is 
 
 in as good form as before. 
 
 The covering of fleece on the sheep varies greatly, even 
 on the same animal, in length, thickness, quality, etc. One 
 cannot judge with any certainty as to the character of 
 either fleece or body, without a systematic examination by 
 hand and eye. Under ordinary field conditions a sheep will 
 appear quite different from one under show ring con- 
 ditions, with the fleece trimmed by the shears, and blocked 
 out. As one passes among the fitted sheep on the show 
 
 Fig. 202. "The fingers are extended, but 
 kept close together, and then the hand is 
 pressed down upon the part to be felt." 
 
372 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 grounds, he is likely to see many animals, especially in the 
 large exhibits, that appear models of perfection. However, 
 the judge passing over them finds beneath the beautiful 
 surface of fleece, various conditions that the shepherd, by 
 the use of his shears, has carefully hidden from the super- 
 ficial observer. Where the back droops or there is slack- 
 ness behind the shoulder, he has left sufficient length of 
 wool to give fullness of outline, and if there is peakediiess 
 
 Fig. 203. "Under show ring conditions, with the fleece trimmed by the 
 shears and blocked out." (Photo by courtesy American Agriculturist.) 
 
 behind, the shears square up the wool so as to make the 
 hindquarters appear thick and full. Thus defects, some- 
 times serious, are covered, and unfortunately, oftentimes at 
 the expense of the inexperienced. Hence the use of the 
 hands, as a necessity in finding out how things lie beneath 
 the surface. This special use of the shears is limited 
 to the mutton breeds. The exhibitors of the fine 
 
HOW TO HANDLE AND EXAMINE SHEEP 373 
 
 wooled sheep give a first consideration to fleece, and pay 
 nominal attention to the mutton form, excepting those of the 
 dual purpose class. However, there are many very beauti- 
 ful and highly developed sheep, the result of the breeders 
 art, and without doubt a large per cent of the animals shown 
 are trimmed and fitted with the purpose of simply showing 
 them in their greatest perfection. 
 
CHAPTER XXXIII. 
 
 THE CLASSIFICATION OF DOMESTIC SHEEP. 
 
 Sheep may be classified in two different ways, one accord- 
 ing to conformation, and the other based on the character 
 of the fleece borne by the animal. It is quite customary to 
 classify sheep in two types, the mutton and Merino, but 
 this in itself is not enough. It will be more correct to have 
 three types, comparable in conformation with the grouping 
 of cattle, viz.: 
 
 (a) Mutton type, comparable with the beef type. 
 
 (6) Merino, of class A type, comparable with dairy 
 type. 
 
 (c) Delaine Merino, or dual purpose type. 
 
 The classification, according to fleece, may be made as 
 follows : 
 
 (a) The fine wool, sometimes termed the short wool, in- 
 cluding all the Merino families, and such as produce a wool 
 fiber of the finest and best quality. 
 
 (b) The middle wool including all recognized mutton 
 breeds, producing a fleece usually three to four inches long, 
 of medium fineness and quality. 
 
 (c) The long" wool, produced by the larger breeds as a 
 rule, having coarse, open fleeces, often seven or eight inches 
 long. 
 
 In view of the great growth in interest in sheep as sources 
 of meat, rather than wool, the first classification given above 
 will be considered as the more important and common one. 
 
 374 
 
CHAPTER XXXIV. 
 
 THE MUTTON CARCASS AND ITS CUTS. 
 
 THE mutton sheep, though a producer of wool, is prima- 
 rily bred and fed with meat as the main object in view. The 
 fleece, of course, is important, and its value is carefully con- 
 sidered by the flock master, but mutton is the first consider- 
 ation. This being so, then those characteristics necessary 
 in a good mutton sheep must be found in the young lambs 
 beside their dams ; in the feeder sheep in the market ready 
 for fattening; in these same feeder sheep fed and finished 
 for the block ; and in the breeding ram and ewe from which 
 our supply of mutton is to be obtained. The feeder when 
 purchasing his sheep, considers quality of fleece much less 
 than quantity. His purpose is to secure stock for feeding 
 that will come back to market either as prime lambs or fat 
 sheep. The price brought in the market is largely in- 
 fluenced by the carcass outcome. 
 
 If one is to be a qualified judge of a mutton sheep, it is 
 necessary that he understand the carcass conformation, and 
 the common method of cutting it up for consumption. It is 
 also of importance to know the relative values of the several 
 parts. 
 
 The method of cutting up the carcass of mutton applies 
 with little variation in different communities. The entire 
 dressed carcass lacks the head, and may or may not have 
 the feet up to the ankle joints. The first step in cutting is 
 to divide the carcass into two halves, either by splitting 
 through the length of backbone with a cleaver, or dividing 
 with the saw. In some markets, where roasting pieces from 
 
 375 
 
Fig. 204. "The first step in cutting is to divide the carcass into two 
 
 halves." 1, leg of mutton; 2, loin; 3, ribs; 4, plate; 5, shoulder and 
 
 breast. (Photo by courtesy College of Veterinary Medicine, Ohio State 
 University.) 
 
 376 
 
THE MUTTON CARCASS AND ITS CUTS 
 
 377 
 
 the width of the back are desired, the carcass is not cut 
 through lengthwise as described, instead, the carcass is 
 cut into two parts, by dividing between the twelfth and 
 thirteenth ribs. The part next to the hind leg is known as 
 the saddle, while the other part, the front portion, is termed 
 the rack. Many country butchers divide the carcass into 
 
 Fig. 205. Mutton chops. A, ribs ; B, loin. 
 
 two parts, as first described, and then either cut the part 
 between hindquarter and shoulder into chops, or into roast 
 pieces, as the trade may demand. 
 
 The saddle of mutton, strictly speaking, consists of the 
 loin portion of the back, from the point of the hip, up to 
 and including the thirteenth, and sometimes the twelfth rib. 
 This section weighs about 48 per cent of the entire carcass, 
 
378 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 the forepart Or rack weighing about 52 per cent of the 
 whole. This is not a saddle, unless consisting of the entire 
 piece on both sides of the backbone, from which in a 
 measure it takes its name from its resemblance to a saddle. 
 This is one of the choicest parts of the carcass, and should 
 be broad, thick fleshed and smooth. In America, as a rule, 
 the saddle part is divided into halves, and used as a roasting 
 piece, or made into chops. The loin chops carry a great 
 deal of fat, but are very tender and palatable. 
 
 The leg of mutton usually consists of the entire leg up to 
 a point just above the tail. This is one of the highest-priced 
 parts, because of the fact that here one secures the largest 
 per cent of high class meat. Consequently, it is important 
 that the leg be thick and meaty, full in all its outlines, that 
 the cuts may be as thick as possible. A short, thick leg is 
 most to be desired. The lower part of the leg is chopped 
 off just above the hock. 
 
 The rack is comparable with the f orequarter of beef. The 
 butcher either cuts this part into rib chops up to the shoul- 
 der, or divides it into roasting pieces. Usually the shoulder 
 is cut off between the third and fourth ribs, and the neck is 
 then taken off where it joins the shoulder. The lower part 
 of the rack consists of breast and a thin strip at the ends of 
 the ribs, which is used for stewing. If the rack piece includes 
 ten ribs, it is called the short rack. This piece may com- 
 mand the highest price in the carcass, even exceeding the 
 leg, though the logic of the situation is not obvious. This 
 part should be broad and smooth over the top, and well 
 covered with flesh, and showing no coarseness or waste. The 
 shoulder does not rank high in value, but if thickly covered 
 with flesh, makes a good roasting piece, with the blade re- 
 moved. 
 
 The relative values of the mutton and lamb carcass cuts 
 are clearly set forth in the following table, as given by 
 Prof. H. E. Allen of Purdue University. 1 
 
 1 Live Stock Judging for Beginners, Circular 29, Purdue University, Agri- 
 cultural Experiment Station, 1911, p. 98. 
 
THE MUTTON CARCASS AND ITS CUTS ; 
 
 WHOLESALE MUTTON AND LAMB CUTS. 
 
 NAMKS OF WHOLESALE Per cent Wholesale Per cent 
 
 CITS CUTS weight price per value 
 
 carcass pound <-;iiv;iss 
 
 ...Legs 30.36 131/4 cts. 43.10 
 
 Loin 21.43 8% " 18.97 
 
 Kark Hotel or short rack .. 14.28 12*4 " . 18.76 
 
 Stew (chuck and breast) 33.9., 5*4 " 19.11 
 
 These figures are based on Chicago standards, with prices 
 of 1911. While these percentages of parts of carcass will 
 not be exactly the same in all markets, and prices will vary 
 according to supply and demand, the figures bring out in 
 fair degree the relative importance and values of the cuts. 
 
CHAPTER XXXV. 
 
 JUDGING THE MUTTON TYPE OF SHEEP BY 
 THE SCALE OF POINTS. 
 
 The systematic examination of a sheep to be scored 
 
 requires following the plan of the score card. It is custom- 
 ary to determine first the age by examining the mouth, as 
 has already been described. The sheep is then, given a 
 general examination, both with eye and hand. Following 
 this comes the more detailed inspection, working from the 
 head to the hindquarters. One should use the hands with 
 
 Fig. 206. The Points of the Sheep. 
 
 380 
 
JUDGING THE MUTTON TYPE OF SHEEP 
 
 381 
 
 Fig. 207. "To comprehend properly the animal as a whole, first inspect 
 from a distance." 
 
 care and patience, so as to determine as accurately as pos- 
 sible the conformation of body and covering of flesh below 
 the layer of wool. This may be quite easy in spring after 
 shearing, but much more difficult with ten months of thick 
 fleece over the body. The score card on the next page is 
 suitable for scoring a fat sheep. 
 
 The general appearance of the fat wether will show 
 much the same conformation as that of the fat steer. The 
 characteristic features will be the blocky form, well covered 
 with flesh, with the neck, belly and legs developed no more 
 than necessary to maintain appropriate balance of parts, 
 and suggesting minimum waste in killing. To comprehend 
 
382 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 SCORE CARD FOR FAT SHEEP OR WETHER. 
 
 Standard of Score of 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS Perfect Sheep 
 
 Score Studied 
 
 Age How many permanent incisors 
 
 A GENERAL APPEARANCE, 34 Points: 
 
 Weight, score according to age G 
 
 Form, low set, medium long, broad, deep, symmet- 
 rical 10 
 
 Quality, hair and wool fine, bone neat, skin healthy, 
 
 features refined 8 
 
 Condition, deep, even covering of firm flesh in valuable 
 parts. Note condition of dock, purse and flank, 
 as showing ripeness 10 
 
 B HEAD AND NECK, 7 Points: 
 
 Muzzle, fine, lips thin, mouth and nostrils of good 
 
 size 1 .... 
 
 Eyes, large, bright, placid 1 .... 
 
 Face, short, features well defined 1 .... 
 
 Forehead, broad and full 1 .... 
 
 Ears, fine, carried alert 1 .... 
 
 Neck, thick, short, smooth, blending nicely at 
 
 shoulder 2 .... 
 
 FOREQUARTERS, 7 Points: 
 
 Shoulders, smooth, compact on top, nicely covered 
 
 with flesh 4 .... 
 
 Brisket, thick and prominent, extending in front of 
 
 legs 2 .... 
 
 Legs, straight, short, strong, wide apart, shank fine, 
 
 feet well placed 1 .... 
 
 D BODY, 27 Points: 
 
 Chest, wide, deep, comparatively large girth . . . . 5 .... 
 
 Back, level, medium long, wide, smoothly fleshed . . 8 .... 
 
 Loin, broad, long, thick fleshed 9 .... 
 
 Ribs, well sprung, long, close together, smoothly 
 
 covered 3 .... 
 
 Flanks, low, thick, furnishing straight underlines . . 2 .... 
 
 E HINDQUARTERS, 16 Points: 
 
 Hips, smooth, level, medium wide apart 2 .... 
 
 Rump, long, level, wide to tail-head, smoothly 
 
 fleshed 5 
 
 Thighs, thickly and fully fleshed 5 
 
 Twist, plump, deep, wide angled 3 .... 
 
 Legs, straight, short, strong, shank fine 1 .... 
 
 F WOOL, 9 Points: 
 
 Quality, fine, soft, uniform over body 3 .... 
 
 Quantity, dense, even, of fair length for age . . . . 3 .... 
 
 Condition, bright, clean, sound, moderate amount 
 
 oil. ... 3 
 
 Total points 100 
 
JUDGING THE MUTTON TYPE OF SHKKP 383 
 
 Fig. 208. "The judge comes to the front of 
 the sheep, by the left shoulder, and grasps the 
 neck in his right hand and feels its thickness." 
 
 properly 1lic ntn- 
 mal as a whole, 
 first inspect from 
 a distance, as for 
 example ten or 
 twelve feet away. 
 Begin the examin- 
 ation from in 
 front, facing the 
 head, a n d then 
 slowly walk about 
 the animal, noting 
 the matter of pro- 
 portion, closeness 
 to ground, quality 
 and general char- 
 acter. 
 The weight of the fat sheep is a matter of importance. 
 
 The large, heavy mutton is not popular, and the American 
 
 market prefers the 
 
 more handy weights 
 
 approximating 8 
 
 pounds for a lamb 
 
 and 140 pounds for 
 
 yearling wethers. 
 
 Heavy sheep at one 
 
 time were popular 
 
 when large joints 
 
 were in favor, but 
 
 the present day 
 
 market seeks early 
 
 maturity, not too 
 
 much fat, and small 
 
 cuts. However, the 
 
 English still use the 
 
 laro'C "joints of mut- Fig. 200. "The left hand may be lowered 
 
 to the brisket, where the width here may be 
 ton, but even in determined." 
 
384 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Great Britain the lighter weight is getting to be more and 
 more favored. In scoring weight, one should not discriminate 
 severely against fat mutton of the larger mutton breeds, 
 unless over-fat and unnecessarily large. If in prime con- 
 dition, though weighing 175 pounds or more, a wether might 
 
 . 
 
 Fig. 210. "In this position one may judge the depth of body through 
 
 the heart." 
 
 be scored off 20 per cent, while if over-fat and undesirable 
 as a killer, he might be scored off 50 per cent. "Weight of 
 130 to 140 pounds should score perfect. 
 
 The form of the mutton sheep has already been looked 
 over at a distance, before determining the matter of weight. 
 It now requires a closer inspection. The judge comes to 
 
JUDGING THE MUTTON TYPE OF SHKKT 
 
 385 
 
 Fig. 211. "Feel with the right hand along 
 the center of the back, from over the shoulders 
 to root of tail." 
 
 ered to the "brisket, where the width 
 mined. "While the left hand is here, the 
 over the shoulders, 
 so that in this posi- 
 tion one may judge 
 the depth of body 
 through the heart. 
 C h a n g in g one 's 
 position, with the 
 back toward the 
 hindquarters, the 
 h a n d s may be 
 pressed on each 
 side the body, be- 
 ginning just back 
 of the shoulders, 
 near the top, feel- 
 ing gradually on 
 each side down to 
 
 the front of the 
 sheep, by the left 
 shoulder, and 
 grasps the neck in 
 his right hand, and 
 feels its thickness 
 and attachment to 
 body and head. 
 Then with botli 
 hands he presses 
 down on each side 
 of the neck, using 
 his finger-tips to 
 feel the union of 
 the neck with the 
 shoulders. Having 
 done this, the left 
 hand may be low- 
 here may be deter- 
 right may be placed 
 
 Fig. 212. "With the hands along each side at 
 the shoulders." 
 
386 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Fig. 213. "The space between the hands here 
 indicates the width of back." 
 
 the front flank, 
 thus estimating the 
 fullness behind the 
 shoulder and in 
 flank. Next feel 
 with the right hand 
 along the center of 
 the back, from over 
 the shoulders to 
 the root of tail, 
 thereby ascertain- 
 ing the carriage 
 and covering of 
 back. Then move 
 forward again, 
 commencing this 
 time with the 
 
 hands along each side, at the shoulders, gradually moving 
 backward, examining for the spring of rib, and thickness 
 and covering of body, until the end of the rump is reached. 
 The hands move along the back toward the rump until 
 the loin is reached. The space between the hands 
 here indicates the width of back. After feeling the 
 width of loin, the hands naturally drop back to the hips, 
 and beyond to the tail-head, to determine the width between 
 these and their covering. One may also stand back of the 
 sheep and press with the hands at different points on the 
 thighs, to get an idea of the width and general thickness 
 at this point. The length and level carriage of the rump 
 is seen b;y standing opposite this part, and measuring with 
 the hands the distance between the hip and end of rump. 
 The depth from the end of rump to the point below where 
 the quarters join may be determined by pressing these two 
 parts between the hands. The general width of the hind 
 end may be observed by pressing against the outsides of the 
 thighs with the flattened hands. Finally, the leg of mutton 
 receives consideration, including the hind flank. The leg 
 
JUDGING THE MUTTON TYPE OF SHEEP 
 
 387 
 
 in its thickest part is grasped by the two hands, and its 
 general outlines determined. By this method of examina- 
 tion with the hands, the judge is enabled to get a fair idea 
 of the general proportions and covering of flesh. No effort 
 at deception in trimming and fixing up the fleece can have 
 much value, where the form is carefully examined with the 
 hands. Such an examination shows whether or not sym- 
 metry prevails, an important feature of correct form. An 
 animal with long neck, narrow chest, short ribs and peaked 
 hind end, would show neither symmetry of form, nor a 
 body that would meet the butcher's requirements for a 
 high-class carcass. 
 
 Quality in the mutton sheep, is especially indicated by 
 fineness of bone, hair and wool. From the killing point of 
 view, perhaps the bone offers the most important evidence, 
 for if it is small and strong, it serves every purpose, yet 
 
 Fig. 214 "The hands naturally drop back to the hips, and beyond to the 
 tail-head, to determine the width between these and their covering." 
 
388 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Fig. 215. "Measuring with the hands the dis- 
 tance between the hip and end of rump." 
 
 examples of moun- 
 tain breeds of 
 sheep have rough 
 hair on the thighs, 
 a feature breeders 
 are endeavoring to 
 eradicate. An im- 
 portant evidence of 
 quality, and easily 
 seen, when pres- 
 ent, is strong breed 
 character, as shown 
 in the head. No 
 choice example of a 
 breed is likely to 
 show coarseness. 
 Some score cards 
 emphasize the color 
 and character of 
 
 causes as little 
 waste as possible 
 in the carcass. 
 Large, coarse bone, 
 to the contrary, 
 furnishes too great 
 a waste in killing. 
 The hair on the 
 face and legs, when 
 fine, also indicates 
 superior quality. 
 Coarseness of 
 either hair or wool 
 should be discrimi- 
 nated against. A 
 heavy, wrinkly skin 
 is evidence of 
 coarseness. Some 
 
 Fig. 216. "The depth from the end of the 
 rump to the point below where the quarters 
 join may be determined." 
 
JUDGING THE MUTTON TYPE OF SHEEP 339 
 
 Fig. 217. "The leg in its thickest part is grasped by the 
 two hands." 
 
 the skin, but as a rule, no satisfactory examination 
 of the skin can be made, excepting for color, when 
 a heavy fleece is carried. Further, it is doubtful 
 if the color of the skin, when healthy, is an indica- 
 tion of quality. Some breeds, such as the Cheviot and 
 Merino, are noted for their pink skins, while some other 
 breeds incline to a bluish or mottled blue-pink, which in- 
 vites criticism from the skin critic. Yet these bluish colored 
 skins are as common as pink ones on good feeders. Large, 
 heavy ears are indicators of coarseness, especially if carried 
 in a dull, sluggish style. Perhaps in the stockyards, among 
 buyers, quality is regarded as most important. Other 
 things being equal, the sheep with the most quality will 
 dress out with the least waste, which means the most profit 
 to the buyer. 
 
390 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Condition in the mutton sheep, refers to the degree of 
 fatness of the animal. No other farm animal carries in its 
 carcass so great a percentage of fat as does the sheep in 
 high condition, even surpassing the hog in this respect. 
 Lawes and Gilbert, in their studies of the composition of 
 animal bodies, 1 showed that 45.8 per cent of an extra-fat 
 sheep was fat, while even a half -fat old sheep carried 23.5 
 per cent fat. This for the entire animal. Their figures 
 showed 55.1 per cent fat in the carcass of an extra-fat sheep, 
 as compared with 49.5 per cent in a fat pig. The present 
 day demand is for a firm-fleshed carcass, with only a mod- 
 erate amount of condition. As one handles the sheep, and 
 feels for condition, the response to the touch should be 
 firm and smooth, with evidence to show that the flesh is 
 evenly distributed over the frame. Craig states 2 that 
 the fattening process seems to extend from the inside of the 
 sheep, and becomes first manifest at the tail, after which it 
 appears along the back, then over the shoulder to the neck, 
 from which it seems to extend down the sides and over the 
 breast in front. There are six especial points where the 
 judge carefully examines for condition, about the tail-head 
 or dock, along the middle of the back, the neck, flank, breast 
 and purse. In these places he feels with care, looking for 
 plumpness yet firmness of condition. When in too high a 
 condition, or as we say overdone, sometimes the fat slips 
 down from along the top of the front ribs, producing a 
 flattish bevel at the top, and giving a roundness at the lower 
 sides of the chest which is not natural. In well-defined cases 
 of this sort, one may place the hand below the layer of 
 slipped fat at the flanks and shake it like jelly. Yet all cases 
 of shaky sides do not represent "slipping," and the inex- 
 perienced judge, feeling about the front flanks, sometimes 
 thinks he has a case of slipped fat, when it is simply high 
 condition in its natural position. Smoothness and uniform- 
 ity of condition, are most important factors in the opinion 
 
 1 Journal Royal Agricultural Society of England, 1898. 
 
 2 Judging Live Stock. John A. Craig, Sixth Edition, 1904, p. 112. 
 
JUDGING THE MUTTON TYPE OF SHEEP 391 
 
 of the discriminating judge. He passes his hands along over 
 the backbone, to note whether it is smoothly and evenly 
 covered, or whether there are bare spots. It is quite liable 
 to be bare over the shoulders and a dimple or tie is often 
 found in the middle of the back. The sheep in right con- 
 dition will often show a shallow groove over the spine, from 
 tail to withers, with no hard, bare spots along this line. It 
 is not at all uncommon for animals in high condition to 
 have rolls of fat on the sides or back, or patches of fat about 
 the end of the rump. Sheep thus affected are discriminated 
 against by buyers, and judges pass them by in the ring for 
 the smooth sort that show the least waste in killing. The 
 fact is, no animal shows so much waste as the over-condition- 
 ed sheep, with a very restricted demand for the excess fat. 
 The important thing in judging, is to note the fleshing and 
 the way it covers the frame. It is rarely that the animal is 
 equally well covered, some parts being bare and hard to the 
 touch, while others are nicely laid in under a cover of flesh. 
 As a first principle, the judge should place a premium on 
 the covering being firm, smooth and thick over the more 
 valuable cuts, such as the back and leg of mutton. There 
 may be some bareness about the shoulder without much 
 affecting values, but on the top and rear end, the condition 
 should bespeak desirable, high-priced cuts. In judging, 
 emphasize two things, first, uniform smoothness, of the cov- 
 ering of flesh, and second, its firmness to the touch. It is 
 better to have a sheep not fat enough, rather than too fat, 
 and the scoring by the judge should be guided accordingly. 
 Further, if there is some bareness in front, but with the 
 back and legs behind nicely covered, do not grade too low ; 
 a good carcass is probably in hand. 
 
 The head and neck of the mutton sheep should each be 
 short, as characteristic of meat-producing animals. These 
 two parts in harmonious relation to each other, always 
 favorably impress the intelligent feeder or butcher. The 
 head as a whole should not only be short, but also broad 
 
392 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 through the eyes, and with graceful outlines with the parts 
 clearly denned. 
 
 The muzzle, which includes mouth and nostrils, should be 
 of good size, with capacity for feeding well. Thin, yet 
 strong lips are important, for the sheep uses them constantly 
 to assist in drawing in herbage while grazing or feeding on 
 the light roughage best suited to it. Comparatively large 
 nostrils, as associated with the organs of respiration, give 
 evidence of full breathing capacity. 
 
 The eyes of the sheep in some cases are bold and promi- 
 nent, while with others they are hidden by wool to such a 
 degree that sight is interfered with. A large, placid, yet 
 bright eye, placed attractively in reasonably prominent 
 sockets will give evidence of alert character. The whites of 
 the eye should be easily seen. Softie shepherds prefer eyes 
 with clear whites, with little dark coloring or veining, be- 
 lieving such eyes go with the best feeders. A bloodshot eye 
 may indicate a poor physical condition, and is objectionable 
 in any great degree. 
 
 The face of the sheep, as has already been indicated, 
 should be short. This gives a strong jaw, a feature of the 
 best feeder. Well denned features of the face give evidence 
 of quality and good breeding. The face below the eyes 
 should be broad, furnishing ample room for the respiratory 
 canals in the lower part of the skull. 
 
 The forehead of the sheep should be broad and well 
 rounded out. The broad forehead gives, evidence of intel- 
 ligence. It is also necessarily a feature of the short, wide 
 head of the best feeders. A narrow forehead, lacking 
 prominence, would rather indicate a lower degree of intel- 
 ligence, and perhaps undesirable disposition. 
 
 The ears of the sheep vary considerably in size and shape, 
 according to breed or blood lines. Some breeds have short 
 and rather small ears, as for example the Southdown, while 
 in other breeds they are long and prominent. A first neces- 
 sity in the ear is quality, the attachment to the head being 
 neat and well placed, and the texture of the ear relatively 
 
JUDGING THE MUTTON TYPE OF SHEEP 393 
 
 Fig. 218. "The f>ars of snoop vary considerably in size 1 and shape." 
 
 thin and with no evidence of coarseness. Further, the ear 
 should be an index of disposition and interest in things, and 
 where not interfered with by wool or horn, should be car- 
 ried rather erect most of the time. A droopy, heavy ear 
 indicates something of a dull temperament, and perhaps 
 a poor feeder. One likes to see an animated carriage of the 
 ear on the sheep, just as much as on the horse, and for the 
 same reason. 
 
 The neck of the mutton sheep, as has been said, should 
 be short and thick, this conformation combining meat pro- 
 duction and strength. To examine the neck, grasp it with 
 one hand where it joins the head, and feel for thickness at 
 this point* Then standing against the side of the sheep, 
 facing the front, press with each hand against the neck in 
 its lower part, and note its character and the way it joins the 
 body at the shoulders. The neck should be full here, and 
 neatly blend into the shoulders at the point just in front, 
 which is called the shoulder vein or neck vein. Depression 
 
394 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 in front of the shoulders, or thinness of the neck, indicates 
 an unevenly fleshed and thin-conditioned beast. 
 
 The forequarters of the sheep consist of the shoulders, 
 brisket and legs. In the mutton type a roundness and full- 
 ness in this part, above the legs proper, is highly essential 
 for good conformation. The character of the f orequarter to 
 some degree determines in what type or class a sheep may be 
 placed. 
 
 The shoulder of the mutton sheep, while not a high- 
 priced cut, is regarded with favor by many. When well 
 laid in and covered with a thick layer of flesh, it furnishes 
 a fairly good, cheap roasting piece, especially if the blade is 
 taken out. In examining the shoulders with each hand, feel 
 for a smooth compact covering on top, with the points of the 
 blades fairly close together. The shoulder itself should be 
 neatly covered in all its parts, and especially over the points, 
 which frequently are somewhat prominent. A heavy 
 shoulder point is inconsistent with the best mutton confor- 
 mation. Four points are credited to this part under ideal 
 condition, but a large per cent of the animals will probably 
 score three or less. 
 
 The brisket of the mutton sheep should project somewhat 
 in front of the legs, and have a width that will indicate a 
 large chest capacity. The brisket is an important indicator 
 of constitution. Note in judging, while standing facing the 
 front quarters, that the brisket is wide, with a well-rounded, 
 plump outline, slightly grooved on its underside. The best 
 examples of mutton sheep show much fullness of breast and 
 withers, excellent indicators of mutton character and vigor. 
 Some judges prefer to examine the brisket by placing the 
 sheep on its rump with the brisket facing upward, whereby 
 its rear part may be seen to advantage. 
 
 The front legs of the mutton sheep should be straight, 
 short, and carried strong and well apart. Many sheep 
 from a front view, show prominent curves inward at the 
 knee joints. This is a bad conformation, because it is as- 
 sociated with a narrow or wedge-shaped chest. The legs 
 
JUDGING THE MUTTON TYPE OF SHEEP 395 
 
 should come down as straight as possible on each side, and 
 if this is the case, then they will stand wide apart, and allow 
 ample chest room between. Long legs are decidedly objec- 
 tionable because they indicate unnecessary waste in killing. 
 Further, they frequently accompany poor constitution. 
 Short legs furnish a minimum waste, and are characteristic 
 features associated with strong constitution. The bone of the 
 leg should be fine and lack all roughness, giving evidence of 
 little waste at slaughter. Attention should be directed to 
 the feet, to see that the toes are well carried, and point 
 directly forward. From the butcher's point of view this is 
 not so important, but if we consider the shipper or producer, 
 correct conformation with the ability to walk well, insuring 
 delivery to market in good shape, is of unquestionable im- 
 portance. While only one point is given to the legs in the 
 scale of points, if they are of distinctly defective carriage, 
 they should be scored off from 25 to 50 per cent according 
 to conditions. 
 
 Fig. 219. "Long legs are decidedly objectionable because they indicate 
 unnecessary waste in killing. Further, they frequently accompany poor 
 constitution." 
 
396 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 The body of the mutton sheep, furnishing as it does the 
 highest-priced meat, is given a maximum credit of twenty- 
 seven points in the ideal animal. Expert judges usually 
 give very critical inspection to this section of the body, 
 for a sheep would not be a creditable example of mutton 
 type if lacking in the middle piece, where the high-priced 
 cuts are found. The body may be best examined by stand- 
 ing directly back of the animal, so that the hands may be 
 freely used on the back, sides and flank. 
 
 The chest of the sheep represents the entire section of 
 the body as measured just back of the shoulders. The girth 
 here should be comparatively large, with wide rather than 
 narrow curves at top and bottom of the chest. As the vital 
 organs, the heart and lungs are located within the chest, 
 it is at once apparent that a wide, deep chest capacity should 
 be associated with large, strong vital organs. A narrow, 
 shallow, flat-ribbed chest, is always regarded as evidence of 
 weak constitution. Emphasis should be placed on the front 
 ribs having sufficient arch to allow great fullness in heart 
 girth, rather than having a depression back of the shoulders, 
 for in this lies the difference between a good chest and a 
 poor one. A narrow-chested animal also rarely carries the 
 wealth of flesh to be found in the one with full chest. Score 
 the narrow chest severely. 
 
 The back of the mutton sheep should first of all be wide 
 and of medium length. A long back usually is loose jointed 
 and does not carry its weight well. The back should pre- 
 ferably be level, as characteristic of vigor and constitution, 
 though the butcher cares little about this, if there is wide, 
 thick covering of firm flesh. The backbone should be so 
 covered with flesh that no amount of handling will reveal 
 to the touch the ends of the spines or a hard, bare back. A 
 shallow groove along over the spine, once before referred to, 
 indicates the easy feeder and desirable butcher beast. If the 
 back is unevenly fleshed, score more severely than if lack- 
 ing in thickness of uniform covering. If over-fat and soft 
 of flesh, the score should be low. Here in the back is where 
 
JUDGING THE MUTTON TYPE OF SHEEP 397 
 
 one usually finds the most striking evidence of the too-fat 
 animal, and where excess fat is most objectionable on ac- 
 count of the high percentage of waste in the cuts of this 
 part. A rib roast or chop from here, at best, shows a large 
 per cent of bone and fat to lean tissue. Many people value 
 this part on account of the superior quality of the meat, but 
 others object to buying it, on account of the waste. Hence 
 the necessity of this part having no superfluous fleshing. 
 
 The loin of the mutton sheep should combine breadth, 
 length and thickness. With this conformation we secure a 
 strong constitution, the thick muscles protecting the kidneys 
 below, and at the same time we secure the desirable thick- 
 ness of loin chop or roast. "While not commanding quite 
 as high a price as the rib part, the fact is the loin furnishes 
 the very choicest of cut, with much less waste than in the 
 ribs. In judging this part, seek for some rounding up and 
 fullness here, and regard any depression as evidence of weak 
 conformation, with not enough thickness of loin covering. 
 Nine points are credited to the perfect loin, as reference to 
 the scale of points will show, thus emphasizing the impor- 
 tance of this part. 
 
 The ribs of the mutton sheep, in correct conformation, 
 show a wide arch on top, with an associated length such as 
 provides a body of depth and great digestive capacity. Arch 
 and length of rib are absolutely necessary in the sheep that 
 is to be a good feeder. The ribs should be smoothly and 
 thickly covered with flesh, and this desirable covering can 
 be best secured on the kind of ribs described. When the 
 body is not paunchy, that is, having no excess of belly, then 
 if of sufficient thickness and depth, we get the greatest pos- 
 sible weight, a very essential point. If arch of rib is lack- 
 ing, then the high-priced cuts are narrower and con- 
 sequently less valuable. 
 
 The flanks of the mutton sheep serve as a measure of the 
 digestive capacity and condition of the animal. If the flank 
 is low, furnishing a straight underline, then usually the 
 body is deep, which fact can easily be noted by standing 
 
398 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 away a few feet, and taking a side view. Thus we have an 
 indication of digestive capacity. The flank, as has already 
 been stated, furnishes evidence of condition. By grasping 
 the flank in the hand, one may note whether it is thick and 
 full, indicating a degree of fatness, or whether it is thin, 
 evidencing the animal to be in lean flesh. When walking, 
 the sheep in high condition often shows something of a 
 bulge or roll at the hind flanks, though this is not always 
 so apparent with sheep, as they have considerable amount 
 of wool at this place. A thin, high flank in a fat sheep 
 may justly be scored off 25 to 50 per cent. 
 
 The hindquarters of the mutton sheep have always been 
 rated as of high value, and in the British trade probably 
 this part has been given a first consideration. Certain it is 
 that the British flockmaster has emphasized a thick, meaty 
 hindquarter to a far greater degree than has been the case 
 in America, in recognition of the fact that the thickest and 
 meatiest cuts come from this part. The fact is, about 45 
 per cent of the carcass, as is shown on page 377, is found 
 in the hindquarter. 
 
 The hips of the mutton sheep in good flesh should be 
 smoothly covered with flesh, and have a fair width between. 
 The hips of wethers are somewhat closer together than are 
 those of ewes, but the more important thing is that they 
 be well covered. 
 
 The rump of the mutton sheep, if we are to have a 
 maximum amount of flesh, must be long, level and wide. As 
 one stands at some distance on the side, and surveys the 
 rump, it should appear in much the same level from hips 
 to tail-head. A common defect is for the rump to be steep 
 or "droopy/' as it is often termed. The more droopy the 
 rump, the shorter will be the leg of mutton in its most 
 valuable part. When viewed from behind, the rump should 
 appear comparatively level and wide on each side of the 
 backbone, with its outer boundary quite in line with the 
 points of the hips. Sloping rumps are far too common. 
 When the rump is both steep and narrow, we have the 
 
JUDGING THE MUTTOX TYPE OF S11KKP ;;<)<) 
 
 "peaked" rump, a very objectionable conformation, with 
 the minimum amount of flesh at the top of the leg. But 
 if the rump combines length, levelness and width, then there 
 will be a maximum amount of flesh at this part. The jiidnv 
 should carefully examine the rump, and see that its shape 
 is of the desirable sort, and not due to the shears of the shep- 
 herd. It is a simple matter to make the examination with 
 the hands, as one stands directly back of the animal. De- 
 mand not only a correct conformation, but also a smooth, 
 firm, thick fleshing over this part. 
 
 The thighs of the mutton sheep should be thickly fleshed 
 as may be shown by firmly grasping the leg between the 
 thumb and fingers in each hand, placing one hand in front 
 of the thick part of the thigh, high up, and the other on the 
 hind part. The general thickness and covering of muscle 
 may thus be easily determined. The fleshing sjiould come 
 down low toward the hock, so as to yield as much meat as 
 possible, both on inside and outside of the thigh. Mutton 
 conformation demands the fullest measure of flesh at this 
 place. 
 
 The twist is the point where the thick, fleshy part of the 
 upper thigh curves sharply to blend with the narrower part 
 of the thigh below on its inner side. One grasps the thigh 
 at the twist with either right or left hand, and feels up 
 into the muscle, when examining the leg of mutton. A 
 rear view of a good example of a newly shorn mutton sheep, 
 will show a wide curve on the inside of each thigh, with a 
 low down fleshing filling in the space at the top of the 
 curves. The thinner and more slender the leg, the less evi- 
 dent the twist, and the higher up the attachment between. 
 A very marked twist guarantees a wide, thick-fleshed sheep 
 in its rear end. 
 
 The hind legs of the mutton sheep should be straight, 
 short and strong, for the same reasons given regarding the 
 front legs. However, the hind legs have the hock joint, and 
 the sheep has quite a tendency to bring the points of the 
 hocks together. When this occurs, the space between the 
 
400 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 legs of mutton is reduced, from which we may expect a 
 narrower hind end than it would be if the legs were widely 
 carried. If the sheep hocks in, then the toes will point out. 
 A space of three to five inches between the hocks, under 
 natural conditions, will give a satisfactory position for the 
 legs from a rear point of view. From a side view, the legs 
 from hock to ankle should stand quite vertical, with the 
 
 Fig. 220. "One grasps the thigh at the twist with either right or left 
 hand, and feels up into the muscle, when examining the leg of mutton." 
 
 point of the hock just in line with the point of the rump. 
 The legs are frequently carried too much beneath the body, 
 while some sheep carry the legs too far back, with the hocks 
 noticeably beyond the rump. Either of these positions is 
 to be criticized as lacking in strength. The bone of the leg 
 should be free of all coarseness, giving evidence of dressing 
 out with little waste. The toes should point directly for- 
 
JUDGING THE MUTTON TYPE OF SHEEP 
 
 401 
 
 ward, being level and true on the hoof, and supporting a 
 pastern that is neither too long nor too sloping. 
 
 Wool on the mutton sheep, as has already been stated, is 
 usually of secondary importance to flesh production. The 
 score card gives a total of nine points to the wool. If a 
 mutton sheep is being judged as a butcher's beast at a 
 great fat stock show, the judge gives comparatively little 
 attention to the amount and covering of wool, but if the 
 animal is to be judged as a breeding sheep, then more con- 
 sideration is given to this point. Very brief reference will, 
 therefore, be given to the wool at this time, this subject be- 
 ing discussed in detail under Merino type, to which the 
 reader is referred on page 426. Three factors of impor- 
 tance must be considered in this connection, namely, 
 quality, xquantity and condition. 
 
 The quality of the wool on the mutton sheep is an in- 
 dication of the quality of the sheep as a whole. A fine, soft 
 fleece, uniform in 
 character over 
 much of the body, 
 is desirable. Yet 
 this fineness is only 
 comparative. The 
 long-wooled sheep 
 of the mutton type, 
 naturally carry a 
 coarser fiber than 
 the smaller, me- 
 dium-wooled sheep. 
 In each case, re- 
 finement of wool 
 fiber is desired 
 rather than coarse- 
 ness, for generally 
 speaking, we may 
 
 assume that the Fi ^ 221. "To study the quality, part the 
 
 , . , wool at several points, especially on the neck, 
 liner WOOled animal shoulder, middle of side and thigh." 
 
402 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Fig. 222. "He easily sees the length when 
 parts the fleece." 
 
 he 
 
 will dress out with 
 less waste. Another 
 - evidence of quality 
 is a crimpy condi- 
 tion of the wool, 
 with fine, wavy or 
 serrated lines like 
 the teeth of a saw. 
 Crimp gives elas- 
 ticity to the wool, 
 which is a valuable 
 quality. In the 
 fleeces of the large, 
 long-wooled sheep, 
 the crimp is in 
 long waves rather 
 
 than serrations, while with the smaller sheep of the 
 middle wool type, there is a short, fine crimp. The fineness 
 of the fiber is more or less affected by the thickness of the 
 wool over the body, the thicker it is, the finer it will be. 
 To study the quality part the wool at several points, 
 especially on the neck, shoulder, middle of side and thigh, 
 and note comparative fineness, crimp and softness, the lat- 
 ter feature be'ing determined by pressure under the fingers. 
 The quantity of wool produced by the mutton sheep 
 impresses the sheep buyer, especially the butcher, more than 
 the quality. Then he seeks for two things especially, length 
 and density. He easily sees the length when he parts the 
 fleece, and the density he judges by grasping the wool, and 
 determining if it covers the body thickly, indicating a heavy 
 fleece. What the buyer wishes is a heavy weighing fleece, 
 and this cannot be secured unless it has length and is dense 
 or thickly placed over the body. These features should 
 obtain over the sheep in general, and so it is necessary to 
 critically inspect the length and density of covering on 
 different parts of the body. Bareness of belly and legs in- 
 dicates light weight fleece. Also a fleece that easily parts in 
 
JUDGING THE MFTTOX TYPE OF SHEEP 403 
 
 its locks, opening gaps toward the skin in which chaff and 
 dirt readily catch, gives evidence of lack of density and 
 weighing lighter than would be the case otherwise. A dense 
 fierce is more easily kept clean than one that is open, a 
 matter of importance. 
 
 The condition of the wool of the mutton sheep relates 
 to its color, lustre, freedom from foreign matter, and amount 
 and character of oil, or what the shepherd terms grease or 
 yolk. When the wool is parted, and is examined from the ex- 
 terior of the fleece, down to the skin, it should show a bright, 
 clean, soft appearance. Some fleeces, especially the long 
 wools, show a glisten or lustre, that adds to its value in cer- 
 tain markets. In a good quality of fleece we also find more or 
 less oil, which gives brightness and life to the fiber, making 
 it stronger and more elastic than it would be if harsh and 
 dry. A heavy secretion of oil, however, is objectionable, 
 owing to the resulting shrinkage in scouring. Usually ex- 
 cessive oil is indicated by the presence of greasy dirt on the 
 exterior of the fleece, manifest to the eye in color, or by the 
 extent the hands become oily. A dirty fleece, with more or 
 less chaff and foreign matter, is undesirable. In scoring the 
 fleece of the mutton sheep, it is not necessary to cut down 
 the points severely. A 20 to 30 per cent pruning 
 from jthe standard, is a fair amount, though the lack of 
 weight or presence of dirt might justify even more severity. 
 
CHAPTER XXXYI. 
 
 THE COMPARATIVE STUDY OF MUTTON SHEEP. 
 
 AFTER the score card has been used a number of times on 
 individual sheep, to familiarize one in this work, then the 
 next step should be to compare two or more sheep of the 
 same class. The use of the score card may be made in this 
 comparison, by placing two sheep side by side, going over 
 the same parts of each animal in regular order, filling out 
 the score in the process. Thus a numerical score may be 
 made, with each part up for comparison in its turn. The 
 method of judging involved in this Case, is simply that of 
 score card work, but where more than one animal is in- 
 volved, it is also comparative. The greater the number of 
 animals to be scored in comparative judging, the more 
 tedious the process, due to the amount of time necessary to 
 estimate and record values on the cards. Following this, 
 considerable time will be necessary to figure up the different 
 scores, and then perhaps make some readjustments in satis- 
 fying oneself for a final judgment. 
 
 Comparative judging of mutton sheep in pens of three 
 to five individuals, without the use of the score card, offers 
 the most satisfactory method of studying these animals. It 
 is customary for each animal to be held, so that the sheep 
 shall stand in line, side by side. There should be space 
 enough between the animals to permit free movement on 
 the part of the judge. He should first walk about and view 
 the group from a distance that will permit satisfactory 
 general comparison. One should walk in front of the sheep, 
 to compare heads, shoulders, breasts and legs, and thenjpass 
 to the rear to compare the backs, rumps, thighs and posi- 
 tions of legs. The sheep may at this time be placed in 
 
 404 
 
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF MUTTON SHEEP 405 
 
 single file, one behind another, so that a comparative side 
 view will be available, showing the animals in profile. This 
 view gives one a nice comparison of length of neck, back 
 line, length and depth of body, length and carriage of rump, 
 and length and placing of legs. This is a preliminary study 
 of general appearance up to this point. The judge should 
 now begin a careful examination of each individual in the 
 
 
 Pig. 223. "One should walk in front of the sheep, to compare heads, 
 shoulders, breasts and legs.'' 
 
 group, beginning at the head, and systematically going over 
 it as directed in the process of scoring. In making this 
 examination, the hands should assist the eye, so that any 
 possible use of the shears will not affect one's accuracy of 
 judgment. The strong and weak points of each sheep 
 should be manifest to the judge, so that he may be en- 
 abled to come to a decision as to how they shall be placed 
 in regular order of merit. These sheep being of the mutton 
 type, emphasis must be placed on weight, condition, quality, 
 
406 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 compactness of form, breadth of back, thickness of hind- 
 quarter, depth of body, shortness of neck and legs, and 
 character of fleece. If examined as fat sheep, then condition, 
 necessarily, is of prime importance. Each animal must be 
 studied and a mental comparison made with one that scores 
 100 per cent. As the butcher's block is the measure of 
 
 Fig. 224. "One must be careful not to give high plaeings to animals that 
 seriously lack balance." 
 
 value in the case of the fat sheep, it is important that the 
 judge should not allow points of secondary value to affect 
 his judgment on essentials. The judge in the show ring, after 
 sufficient examination, in case of considerable competition, 
 often draws from the line those that he regards of merit, 
 not occupying his attention with the remainder. The few 
 drawn out are then lined up as a separate group, and the 
 
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF MUTTON SHEEP 407 
 
 judge begins to place them somewhat in order of merit. 
 Where competition is severe, various comparisons and shifts 
 of place may be made, before the judge completes his task. 
 One must be careful not to give high placing to animals 
 that seriously lack balance, because such decisions may 
 involve a serious criticism of judgment. It is a good plan 
 to compare in detail the more important points seriously 
 affecting a decision. Compare the backs and their cover- 
 ing, as a special study, then compare rumps and legs of 
 mutton, in like way, and thus critically weigh up those 
 parts of greatest value, that they may have their true 
 rating. Such comparative study of the parts is very 
 helpful in aiding one to a sound decision, if there is any 
 doubt in making the placings. 
 
 One may make up a comparative score card, after the 
 following manner, in order to give a rating to comparable 
 parts on different animals. 
 
 FAT SHEEP COMPARISON CARD. 
 Name of Judge Date Judged . 
 
 First Second Third Fourth 
 l>()INrs T<) - llTI)(iE Place Place Place Place 
 
 Size 
 
 Condition 
 
 Quality .... .... .... 
 
 Head and neck .... .... .... 
 
 Breast .... .... .... 
 
 Shoulder . . . . .... .... .... 
 
 Chest 
 
 Back 
 
 Rib 
 
 Loin .... .... .... 
 
 Rump .... .... .... 
 
 Leg of mutton .... .... .... 
 
 Legs .... .... .... 
 
 Fleece 
 
 Placing .... .... .... 
 
408 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Each animal is given a number or letter, and the judge 
 gives to the features of each kind compared, ratings in one, 
 two, three order. For example, in comparing condition, he 
 might give C first place, A second, D third and B fourth. 
 In this manner he would systematically make certain com- 
 parisons. He would not necessarily give first place to the 
 animal having the most first placings, unless the more vital 
 factors, such as condition, quality, back, and leg of mutton, 
 would justify such a placing. This method of comparison 
 is extremely interesting, and while not usually suited to the 
 work of the professional judge, whose time is limited, it is 
 especially instructive in the case of students. 
 
 Reasons for making comparative placings of mutton 
 sheep. Professional judges give reasons or not as they de- 
 sire, in connection with their placings. Students, however, 
 judging under instructors, are expected to give logical rea- 
 sons for their placings. If one is to give written reasons, 
 usually fifteen or twenty minutes is allowed for this pur- 
 pose, while only about three minutes are allowed for oral 
 reasons. In either case the student is to state briefly in a 
 systematic way the main reasons influencing his decision. 
 As illustrative of student judging, the following is given as 
 an example of written reasons by a well-known animal hus- 
 bandry teacher, who submitted them in class work to the 
 author when competing for a place on the students' Inter- 
 national Live Stock Judging Team. Four Southdown ewes 
 were judged, and this paper furnishes a good example of 
 reasons in written form. 
 
 "Reasons for placing No. 797 first are that she is the low- 
 est set, broadest, deepest and blockiest ewe in the ring. She 
 is especially commendable for her superior breadth through- 
 out and also for her depth of twist and plump leg of mutton. 
 Her loin is the widest in the lot. She nearest approaches 
 the meaty type desired in the Southdown, and with it all 
 she possesses as much quality as any in the ring. Her flesh 
 is the most uniformly carried of any of the four. She is 
 open to some criticism for a slight lack of strength of back 
 
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF MUTTON SHEEP 409 
 
 and for a fleece that lacks density. She might show a little 
 more style also, but this is a small deficiency. In view of 
 her greater excellence of form, type, evenness of covering, 
 symmetry and smoothness' throughout and in spite of the 
 minor defects noted above she rightly deserves first posi- 
 tion. 
 
 * * Reasons for placing No. 803 second, are, that she is the 
 nearest approach to 797 of the remaining three. She is not 
 so low set, so deep bodied, nor so broad of body nor of loin, 
 as is No. 797. She possesses more style and a stronger back 
 than the ewe placed first, and also a darker colored face, 
 No. 797 being too light in the face. Her deficiencies in form 
 keep her in second place, also her flesh is less evenly carried. 
 
 "Reasons for placing No. 798 third are that although 
 easily superior to No. 810, she is too rough, lacks compact- 
 ness, is narrow of loin, has an uneven covering of flesh, and 
 lacks plumpness at shoulder vein to get above the third 
 position. 
 
 "Reasons for placing No. 810 last. She is upstanding, 
 lacks depth and breadth, has a pinched hind end, is cut up 
 badly in the twist, is deficient in leg of mutton, is slack in 
 the chest and does not show Southdown type, having a 
 coarse head, wooled like a Shropshire." 
 
 A criticism may be made of these reasons, in some lack of 
 system, and for directing too much attention to the deficien- 
 cies of the second, third and fourth placings, rather than 
 emphasizing the advantage the second placing has over the 
 third, and the third over the fourth. However, for a state- 
 ment to be prepared without notes in fifteen minutes, it 
 conveys substantial reasons for placings, and is a good 
 example of student work. 
 
CHAPTER XXXVII. 
 
 JUDGING FEEDER SHEEP. 
 
 FEEDER sheep are those that are purchased in thin flesh, 
 to be fed and finished as fat mutton. When classed as 
 prime feeders, they furnish fine examples of mutton sheep. 
 However, nearly all of the feeder sheep in the large markets 
 are from the western ranges, and they contain considerable 
 blood that is not representative of what has been described 
 as mutton type. Therefore, when one is purchasing feeder 
 sheep, he should bear in mind that he is selecting what is 
 to be finished off, when fat, into a high class mutton type. 
 The feeder sheep should possess certain essentials if the 
 desired finish is to be secured. 
 
 The conformation of the feeder sheep should show a 
 wide, short head and neck; full chest; strong, wide back 
 and loin ; long, level rump ; wide leg of mutton, and com- 
 paratively short legs. At time of purchase this sheep will 
 have a strong frame, full in its points, but lean of flesh. 
 A deep middle, showing digestive capacity, is highly im- 
 portant. This frame is finally to be smoothed over and 
 rounded out with flesh, presenting quite a different appear- 
 ance from that seen in the same sheep four months before. 
 In selecting this feeder, one must not lose sight of the es- 
 sentials required in a fat animal. In judging this class, 
 place a premium on size with quality, consistent with 
 market demands. Look for a low-set type of lamb, broad 
 and deep, of medium length, and showing strong consti- 
 tution. The lamb of medium length promises more in the 
 way of early maturity than either the long or abnormally 
 short-bodied one. The former often feeds somewhat slowly, 
 while the latter has a conformation that lacks the stretch 
 that goes with the more responsive, profitable feeder. It 
 
 410 
 
JUDGING FEEDER SHEEP 411 
 
 is desirable to keep condition in mind, but the important 
 thing is to secure feeders that are not too thin, and will 
 respond to feed readily. Uniformity in the character of 
 feeder sheep is important, for it should show the influence 
 of improved blood as expressed in quality and conforma- 
 tion. Sheep of uniform type and character fetch a higher 
 price when finished than does a mixed lot showing varia- 
 tion in character and breeding. The wool on feeder sheep 
 should meet the necessary requirements as to quality, but 
 the quantity and condition will naturally be affected by 
 feeding. 
 
CHARTER XXXVIII. 
 
 JUDGING THE MERINO OF THE AMERICAN OR 
 CLASS A TYPE. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF MERINO SHEEP. 
 
 A classification of Merino sheep according to type, was 
 
 first made public in 1893 at the World's Columbian Expo- 
 sition. This classification was based on the form of body, 
 the prevalence of folds in the skin, and the character of 
 fleece. Class A is a muscular type, tending to be narrow 
 of body, with heavy wrinkles or folds at neck, breast, hind 
 flank, hip and tail-head, and oftentimes minor folds on the 
 side and extending well up on the back. Class B is a 
 stronger, larger sheep, with more mutton form, and carry- 
 ing folds about the neck and breast, and to a slight extent 
 about the hindquarters. Class C, in its ideal form, is a 
 smooth-bodied mutton type, with no folds. However, one 
 frequently sees Class C sheep at the shows, with one or two 
 folds at the neck. The fleece is shortest in Class A and 
 
 Fig. 225. The three classes of Merino sheep : A on right, B in center, and 
 
 C on left. 
 
 412 
 
THE MERINO OF THE AMERICAN TYPE 
 
 413 
 
 longest in Class C, while the densest, heaviest fleeces have 
 been ]) rod need by Class A sheep. Classes A and B so 
 closely approach each other in appearance, when we con- 
 sider variation within the class, that at the more important 
 shows, where these Merino classes are recognized, examples 
 
 Fig. 226. A Type Merino ram, "Don's Champion," owned by the late J. P. 
 Ray of New York. (Photo by courtesy American Agriculturist.) 
 
 of each may be in the same ring. In a similar manner, 
 sheep of B and C classes sometimes are found in the same 
 ring. If a judge knows his business, he sees that the sheep 
 out of their class are sent back to their pens. 
 
 The Merino of Class A type, very generally called the 
 American Merino, is not common to-day in America. For 
 fully three-fourths of a century wrinkly Merinos were the 
 rule and not the exception in this country. However, mut- 
 
414 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 ton character has been steadily growing in favor, with a 
 constantly increasing prejudice against the lean, muscular 
 sheep, covered with folds, so difficult to shear. Conse- 
 quently at the present day, Merinos of the A type are 
 rarely seen, and are in very limited demand. For this 
 reason but brief consideration is given this type. 
 
 A scale of points for the American Merino, generally 
 satisfactory in character, does not seem to exist. A number 
 of Merino sheep associations have published scales of points 
 for sheep of this type, but they have not been logically ar- 
 ranged and made no satisfactory measure of values. There- 
 fore, the author has drawn up the scale of points on page 415 
 as applicable to the American or Class A Merino. This, 
 as here presented, has been submitted to some of the best- 
 known and most intelligent breeders of this type of sheep 
 in America. 
 
 The distinctive characteristics of the American Merino 
 include a number of features limited to this type. The body 
 is lean and muscular, sharp over the withers, narrow of 
 back from a mutton standpoint, ribs lacking in arch, and 
 hindquarters long, but tending to be narrow and droopy, 
 with long, lean thighs. The legs tend to come close together 
 at knee and hock, with the toes pointing out. The body is 
 densely covered with the finest grade of wool, excepting 
 on the lower part of the face and muzzle, and parts of legs, 
 where a fine, silky, white hair occurs. Folds or wrinkles in 
 the skin of nose, neck, brisket, shoulders, flanks, sides, rump 
 and thighs, give this type of Merino a very striking appear- 
 ance, either with or without the fleece. Expert judges of 
 American Merinoes rarely examine the form other than by 
 use of the eye. The hand is used only to feel of the fleece, to 
 part the locks and to note the various conditions associ- 
 ated with the wool. In judging, no attention is paid to 
 mutton condition, excepting as indicating vigorous condi- 
 tion of health, which the judge notes in the healthy, pink 
 condition of skin as he examines the fleece. The weight 
 of the ram rarely attains 150 pounds at maturity, but this 
 
THE MERINO OF THE AMERICAN TYPE 415 
 
 SCORE CARD FOR AMERICAN MERINO. 
 
 Standard of Score of 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS Perfect Sheep 
 
 Score Studied 
 
 Age Number of permanent incisors .... 
 
 A GENERAL APPEARANCE, 16 Points: 
 
 Weight, score according to age, mature males !."><) 
 
 Ibs., females 100 Ibs 2 .... 
 
 Form, low set, deep bodied, symmetrical, with folds 
 
 on neck, shoulders, flanks, rump, thighs . . .... 
 
 Quality, bone and wool fine, skin pink 8 .... 
 
 II HEAD AND NECK, 7 Points: 
 
 Muzzle, broad, wrinkled, lips thin, mouth and nos- 
 trils good size 1 .... 
 
 Eyes, large, bright, placid, not enclosed by folds . . 1 .... 
 
 Pace, short, features well denned 1 .... 
 
 Forehead, broad and full 1 .... 
 
 Ears, small, fine, covered with fine white hair . . . . 1 .... 
 
 Neck, short above, long below, strong, with promi- 
 nent folds '2 .... 
 
 C FOREQUARTERS, 9 Points: 
 
 Shoulders, sloping well into.bac.k, not rough, broad, 
 
 with folds _! .... 
 
 Breast, of medium width, deep, showing plenty con- 
 stitution :; .... 
 
 Brisket, carried well forward, with stiong fold or 
 
 apron 2 .... 
 
 Legs and feet: straight legs, well carried, toes short 
 
 and of good shape with level soles . . . . 2 .... 
 
 1) BODY, 20 Points: 
 
 Chest, deep, medium wide, comparatively large girth ."> .... 
 
 Back, level, long, medium wide . . :; .... 
 
 Loin, broad, long and not sagged :; .... 
 
 Ribs, arched only moderately deep, close together . . 3 
 
 Flanks, low, giving low, level underline 1 
 
 I : HINDQUARTERS, 10 Points: 
 
 Hips, smooth, not too widely separated 1 .... 
 
 Rump, long, level, wide, carrying light folds . . . . 4 .... 
 
 Thighs, long, muscular, with horizontal folds. . . . 3 .... 
 
 Legs and. feet: legs carried straight, hocks not close, 
 shanks vertical, toes short, and of good shape, 
 
 with level soles 2 
 
 F FLEECE, 43 Points: 
 
 Folds or wrinkles, very manifest on neck, brisket, 
 
 shoulders, flanks, lower sides, rump, thighs.. 10 .... 
 
 Quality, fiber very fine and crimped, uniform in 
 diameter, free of hair or gare on folds, belly 
 or legs 10 .... 
 
 Density, close covering all over body, armpits, belly 
 and legs well wooled, the fleece compact to the 
 hand 10 .... 
 
 Length, xiniform over body, 2i/ inches for twelve 
 
 months' growth . . 7 .... 
 
 Oil, grease or yolk, abundant, light colored, evenly 
 
 distributed, and not gathered in spots . . . . 4 .... 
 
 Condition, clean, soft, free of foreign matter. . . . 2 .... 
 
 Total points 100 
 
416 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 standard is desirable. The larger type of rams, with qual- 
 ity and constitution meet with most favor. The form should 
 be low set, with a depth of body indicating ample feeding 
 capacity, and symmetrical in proportions. The head should 
 
 be quite covered 
 
 with a heavy cap 
 of wool, excepting 
 for a space half- 
 way up from nos- 
 trils to eye, which 
 is covered with 
 fine, silky hair. The 
 head covering 
 should be compact 
 and uniform in 
 character of wool. 
 Most Merino rams 
 have heavy horns, 
 which twist around 
 
 Fig. 227. "The head should be quite covered 
 
 with a heavy cap of wool." about one ana one- 
 
 half times in cork- 
 screw form, with the tips pointing forward. The 
 ewes are free of horns, while polled rams are not rare. 
 The Merino head crowned with a fine pair of well-set, widely 
 turned horns, rooted in a heavy cap of wool, the muzzle 
 broad and slightly arched, and covered with silky hair 
 raised in slight wrinkles, presents a strong and dignified 
 appearance. The eyes are often quite hidden by the fleece, 
 and frequently small folds of skin so encroach on the eyes 
 that it is necessary to cut them away that the sight be not 
 obstructed. The ears should be small and covered with 
 ' * furry hair, ' ' and should be rather widely separated. The 
 back of the American Merino often appears narrow and 
 lacking in level carriage. Narrow, peaked rumps are also 
 very common with this type, these seeming to be associated 
 with crooked hind legs that touch at the hocks and turn out 
 widely at the toes. 
 
THE MERINO OF THE AMERICAN TYPE 417 
 
 The folds on the American Merino are most highly devel- 
 oped on the lamb, and with age some of these are more or 
 less outgrown. A lamb that appears to be of the A type, 
 at maturity, may belong in the B class. According to an 
 expert breeder l the prevailing fashion is to have from 
 three to five heavy folds on the neck, not large on the 
 upper, but large on the under side; two or three short folds 
 on and immediately back of each elbow or arm ; fine, thick 
 
 Fig. 228. "The folds on the American Merino are most highly developed." 
 
 wrinkles running down the sides, but not extending over 
 the back. "Wrinkles occur across the hips, sometimes from 
 the tail in the direction of the stifle, and sometimes at right 
 angles with them. Folds occur around the tail to give it a 
 wide appearance, and also across the thigh, adding to the 
 depth of flank. These large folds are indications of heavy 
 fleeces. The modern tendency is away from the heavy 
 folds of twenty years ago, yet in spite of that, the best 
 
 1 Special report on the History and Present Condition of the Sheep Industry 
 in the United States, 1892, p. 315. 
 
418 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 examples of American Merinoes show the folds in striking 
 degree. 
 
 The Merino of the B type class, as has already been ex- 
 plained, carries folds at the neck and breast, and to some 
 extent at the hindquarters. B type sheep are larger than 
 those of the A type, are thicker and show more mutton 
 form, and have a longer and somewhat coarser wool staple. 
 
 Fig. 229. "These large folds are indications of heavy fleeces." 
 
 In this type the value of mutton form is given some consid- 
 eration. Further, in order to secure a heavy-weighing fleece 
 of desirable length on a Merino with mutton tendency, it is 
 recognized that more or less folds are essential. The per- 
 fectly smooth C type sheep, that naturally has a somewhat 
 open fleece, will not meet this requirement. Rams of the 
 B type are the ones most commonly used in Merino flocks 
 of to-day, and mated with the ewes of smooth body and 
 
THE MERINO OF THE AMERICAN TYPE 419 
 
 mutton form, they play an important part in improving 
 the wool-producing- value of the flock, without necessarily 
 reducing the mutton value. As the folds are evidence of 
 compactness of fleece, so we must recognize the necessity 
 of at least some folds in the stud flock if the average Me- 
 rino fleece is to be maintained on a high standard. There- 
 fore, in the B type sheep, we must possess a combination 
 of the most valuable fleece features of the A type with the 
 size and mutton qualities of the C type. 
 
CHAPTER XXXIX. 
 
 JUDGING THE MUTTON MERINO OR CLASS TYPE. 
 
 The modern trend in breeding Merino sheep, is to pro- 
 duce the smooth-bodied type, free of folds, excepting in 
 slight degree on the neck. Years ago Merino breeders, 
 especially in eastern Ohio and western Pennsylvania, rec- 
 ognized that they must produce a type of sheep that would 
 have mutton as well as wool values. In consequence of 
 this feeling, breeders began to select breeding stock that 
 was rather free of folds, with a tendency to carry consid- 
 erable flesh. This resulted in establishing what is generally 
 known as the Delaine Merino. It is the common type of 
 smooth-bodied Merino seen in America, and, while produc- 
 ing a fine or Merino wool, also makes a most excellent 
 carcass. While not technically a Delaine, the Rambouillet 
 is to all intents and purposes of this class. In fact, on one 
 occasion at the Ohio State Fair, several Rambouillet ewes 
 of German breeding were exhibited in a Delaine class by 
 one of the best-known American Rambouillet breeders. 
 This was not entirely satisfactory to all concerned, but that 
 such a thing were possible shows that the Rambouillet 
 breeder expected his sheep to be judged on a Delaine basis. 
 A world movement toward the smooth-bodied, Delaine type 
 of fine-wooled sheep is now taking place, for two very dis- 
 tinct reasons, one being the greatly increased demand for 
 mutton as well as fleece, the other the difficulty in shear- 
 ing sheep of the A type with heavy folds. Even in Aus- 
 tralia, long the home of the wrinkly Merino of extreme de- 
 velopment, the class C sheep is coming into great popu- 
 larity. 
 
 420 
 
MERINO OF CLASS C TYPE 421 
 
 A scale of points for the Delaine Merino, or Class C 
 type, applies to what might be termed the dual-purpose 
 sheep. In conformation the Class C type lacks the extreme 
 thickness and heavy fleshing of the mutton type, but we find 
 a fleece much superior in quality to that of the mutton 
 breeds. In discussing the following scale of points, in view 
 of the detailed consideration of conformation given the mut- 
 ton type, only the essentials of dual-purpose form will be re- 
 ferred to here. The subject of fleece, however, justifies 
 discussion in some detail. 
 
 SCORE CARD FOR DELAINE OR C TYPE MERINO. 
 
 Standard of Score of 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS Perfect Sheep 
 
 Score Studied 
 
 Age Number of permanent incisors .... 
 
 A GENERAL APPEARANCE, 24 Points: 
 
 Weight, score according to age. Mature rams 150 
 
 Ibs., ewes 125 Ibs 3 .... 
 
 Porm, low, compact, symmetrical, uniformly covered 
 
 with flesh 7 .... 
 
 Quality, bone and wool fine, skin pink and healthy 7 .... 
 
 Condition, even covering of firm flesh, of moderate 
 
 thickness 7 .... 
 
 B HEAD AND NECK, 7 Points: 
 
 Muzzle, broad; mouth and nostrils good size; lips 
 
 thin 1 
 
 Eyes, bright, of good size, placid 1 
 
 Face, short, broad between eyes 1 
 
 Forehead, broad 1 
 
 Ears, medium to small, set wide apart, covered with 
 
 silky hair 1 
 
 Neck, short on top, long below, smoothly attached 2 
 
 C FOREQUARTERS, 12 Points: 
 
 Shoulders, well placed 2 
 
 Breast, deep and medium thick 5 
 
 Brisket, carried well forward, with some breadth 
 
 and fold or apron 2 
 
 Legs, straight, short, strong, well set, arm full, 
 shank smooth, feet of good horn, and pointing 
 straight forward 3 
 
 D BODY, 15 Points: 
 
 Chest, broad, deep, full behind shoulders . . . . 5 
 
 Back, straight and medium wide 3 
 
 Loin, strong and muscular 3 
 
 Ribs, well sprung and deep 3 
 
 Flanks, low, making straight underline 1 
 
422 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Standard of Score of 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS Perfect Sheep 
 
 Score Studied 
 E HINDQUARTERS, 13 Points: 
 
 Hips, smooth, not too wide apart .... 
 
 Rump, long, level, moderately wide 5 .... 
 
 Thighs, muscular to plumpness 3 .... 
 
 Legs, straight, short, strong, stifle full; feet of good 
 
 horn, and pointing straight forward .. .. 3 .... 
 
 F WOOL, 29 Points: 
 
 Quality, staple fine, with close and uniform crimp, 
 
 free of weak fiber, hair or gare 10 .... 
 
 Density, compact all over body 7 .... 
 
 Length of staple uniform, at least 2 a /& inches for 
 
 twelve months 7 .... 
 
 Condition, rich and soft in handling, with moderate 
 amount of well distributed oil ; free of foreign 
 matter 5 .... 
 
 Total points 100 .... 
 
 The general appearance of the Class C Merino is that 
 of a sheep lacking the thickness of mutton type, slightly 
 longer of leg and neck, with a compact fleece free of folds, 
 excepting in slight degree about the neck. The tendency 
 is to endeavor to secure as thick and low set a form as pos- 
 sible, and some sheep of this class have been shown that 
 closely resembled Southdown or Shropshire in general 
 form. The judges as a rule look with much favor on such 
 conformation. The condition, when prime, should show a 
 moderate and uniform thickness of firm flesh, not carried 
 to an extreme. The popularity of the C type as a killer, 
 is due to the more moderate amount of external fat with 
 less waste of this material than prevails with mutton sheep. 
 The judge, however, should emphasize smoothness, firmness 
 and uniformity of fleshing. 
 
 The head and neck of the Class C Merino present less 
 thickness and shortness as a rule than are shown by the 
 mutton type. The head should show the same character- 
 istics, however, desired in the mutton sheep, but the neck 
 may not be so short and thick. Judges will naturally favor 
 the short and muscular neck that is smoothly blended at 
 the shoulders. The one or two folds often seen on the 
 
MERINO OF CLASS C TYPE 
 
 423 
 
 Fig. 230. "Some sheep of the Class (C) have been shown that closely 
 resemble Southdown or Shropshire in general form." 
 
 neck make this part appear longer than it really is. Two 
 folds are objectionable in the wether, but in the breeding 
 ram these furnish evidence of possible transmission of the 
 heavy fleece, and so should not be discriminated against. 
 The forequarters of the Class C Merino frequently show 
 prominence of shoulder, narrowness of breast and too much 
 length of leg. The shoulders should be well placed, sloping 
 nicely to the back and being smoothly covered with a mod- 
 erate thickness of flesh. A reasonable fullness or thickness 
 of breast and brisket, with some prominence to each, should 
 be sought. A large fold or apron covers the brisket and 
 gives it prominence. Excess of fold here is not associated 
 with strong mutton conformation. The legs should be fairly 
 wide apart and straight, the toes pointing directly forward. 
 
424 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Often the knees come quite close together, with the feet 
 widely separated and pointing out, a very weak position. 
 The body of the Class C Merino presents more round- 
 ness or curve on the upper part of rib than the mutton 
 sheep, with corresponding lack of width of back. This con- 
 formation is essentially a dual-purpose feature. If the rib 
 carries sufficient spring and depth, the chest will show the 
 
 Fig. 231. "A large fold or apron covers the brisket and gives it 
 prominence." 
 
 requisite fullness, and the body as a whole will exhibit 
 ample digestive capacity. A fullness at front and hind 
 flank should be sought and is highly desirable, as evidence 
 both of capacity and of constitution. The fleshing over the 
 frame will be less than on the true mutton form and, as 
 a rule, will not present the depth of covering that is found 
 in the thicker fleshed sort. 
 
 The hindquarters of the Class C Merino lack the square- 
 ness most characteristic of mutton form. The rump should 
 be long, moderately wide and level. The thighs usually 
 
MERINO OF CLASS C TYPE 
 
 are muscular rather than thick and fleshy, and with a 
 medium depth or fullness of twist. While the leg of 
 mutton produced here is quite acceptable in the trade, it 
 does not furnish the depth of cut that is found in the ideal 
 mutton type, the bone being less heavily fleshed on every 
 side. This being characteristic of the type, it is not rea- 
 
 m 
 
 Fig. 232. "The hindquarters of the Class C Merino (on the left) lack the 
 squareness most characteristic of the mutton form." 
 
 sonable for the judge to expect the thickest mutton con- 
 formation in this regard. The conformation of the hind 
 legs of the C type is not so frequently bad as with A 
 type, but Merino-like, they naturally tend to hock in and 
 toe out. The judge should emphasize a proper placing of 
 legs and feet, either from rear or side view, as essential 
 in mutton conformation. The closer the hocks come to- 
 gether, the thinner the thighs as a rule, and the less de- 
 veloped the twist. 
 
CHAPTER XL. 
 
 THE FLEECE AND ITS EXAMINATION. 
 
 The quality of wool fiber is shown in its degree of fine- 
 ness, in its crimp, its uniformity through the fleece, and its 
 freedom from kemp or gare. Wool differs greatly in its 
 fineness, of which Hawkesworth gives twelve different de- 
 grees. 1 The finest grades are produced by the Merino, and 
 measurements have been made by various persons showing 
 a diameter of fiber of over one two-thousandths (%ooo) f 
 an inch. However, a diameter of one-thousandth of an 
 inch is fine. The fiber of the long wool such as Cotswold, 
 that measures a diameter of one four-hundredth of an inch, 
 
 represents the 
 coarsest grade. The 
 wool on the- same 
 sluvp varies in de- 
 gree of fineness. 
 The finest wool is 
 found over the 
 shoulder and side, 
 and the coarsest 
 over the hindquar- 
 ter, especially the 
 thigh, and on the 
 belly. 
 
 The fleece refers 
 to the entire cover- 
 ing of wool on the 
 sheep and this con- 
 sists of locks or 
 
 Fig. 233. "The finest wool is found over the ,, 
 
 shoulder and side." groups Ol 
 
 1 Australian Sheep and Wool, 1906, p. 218. 
 
 426 
 
THE FLEECE AND ITS EXAMINATION 
 
 427 
 
 that naturally separate by breaks in the fleece. To examine 
 the degree of fineness, one should begin at the side of the 
 neck, and inspect the fleece, separating to the skin the locks 
 at various points, so that the fiber can be easily compared 
 and studied. The judge should look for a fleece uniform in 
 quality with as lit- 
 tle variation as pos- 
 sible in fineness, 
 with no great dif- 
 ference between the 
 front and hind- 
 quarter wool. Soft- 
 ness is a valued 
 feature. A wool is 
 said to be soft when 
 it has a smooth and 
 yielding touch to 
 the hand. This is 
 a characteristic of 
 the fleece as a 
 whole, rather than 
 of a single fiber. 
 
 "When the climate is both moist and bracing, wools have a 
 better, softer touch, than where produced in a dry and 
 trying climate. 
 
 The crimp of wool is the name applied to the serration 
 of the fiber. Perhaps the common saw-tooth shape illus- 
 trates this. The crimp, however, varies from the close, sharp 
 wave in the Merino, to the long, wavy one seen in the long 
 wool breeds. Hawkesworth states 2 that "in superior Me- 
 rino wool there are 24 to 30 crimps to the inch, and some- 
 times more. In the English breeds, the Southdown, which 
 is the finest, contains 14 to 18 crimps per inch; medium 
 wool from 11 to 14, while the long, coarse Lincoln staple 
 has but two or three serrations to the inch/' Crimp is an 
 especially striking feature of Merino wool, and is a true 
 
 3 Australian Sheep and Wool, 1906, p. 219. 
 
 Fig. 234. "The coarsest over the hindquarter, 
 especially the thigh and belly." 
 
428 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 indication of quality. Crimp is also associated with great 
 elasticity. Therefore, in judging the Merino, one should 
 give due recognition to the presence of crimp as an impor- 
 tant feature of quality. Oftentimes crimp is so pronounced 
 that it is manifest on the exterior of the fleece, although it 
 is always seen best by parting the locks. 
 
 Kemp or gare are animal fibers found in wool that are 
 distinctly objectionable to the woolen cloth trade. Kemp 
 is a hard, coarse hair that is found much more in some 
 sheep than others, and more on one part of the body than 
 another. Being a hard hair, kemp will not take dyes as 
 will wool, so that when in the cloth, it lacks the color and 
 character necessary for uniform coloring of fabric. Kemp 
 is most often found about the head or thighs, and may be 
 either white or black in color. A kempy fleece is very ob- 
 jectionable. The term gare has been used more or less by 
 American sheep men, but no doubt many have had kemp 
 in mind as the same thing. Hawkesworth defines 3 kemp 
 as a hard, very brittle, opaque hair, resembling a piece of 
 common cotton thread, while gare possesses a glossy, 
 straight surface, and is devoid of softness, elasticity and 
 crimpiness. 
 
 The density of fleece relates to the abundance of the 
 wool over the body. There is much difference in density 
 of fleece in sheep of the different breeds, and also among 
 individuals. From a breed point of view the Merino has 
 much the densest fleece, with the long wools the least dense. 
 On a square inch of Merino skin may be found 60,000 wool 
 fibers, which indicates a very dense fleece. The density is 
 manifested by the closeness with which the locks are packed 
 together, and the compact feeling to the touch when the 
 hand grasps the fleece. A dense fleece does not allow for- 
 eign matter to gather easily between the locks, a distinct 
 argument in favor of density. The most important argu- 
 ment in behalf of this characteristic, however, is its rela- 
 tionship to heavy yield of wool, for the greater the density, 
 
 3 Australian Sheep and Wool, 1906, p. 237. 
 
E FLEECE AND ITS TOAMINATION 
 
 429 
 
 other things being equal, the heavier the yield. If the 
 wool opens freely, it shows lack of density. One quickly 
 notices differences in density by the grasp of the hand of 
 the fleece of different sheep, and, even by the eye, one may 
 
 Fig. 235. "One quickly notices the differences in density by tbe grasp of 
 the hand of the fleece of different sheep." 
 
 note the much greater prevalence of open locks in the tops 
 of some sheep than in others. 
 
 Length of fleece or staple varies according to type or 
 breed of sheep, and also as to the portion of the body on 
 which it is produced. The Merino has a short fleece, and 
 two and one-half inches is quite a standard length for a 
 year's growth. Sheep of the medium wool class, such as 
 the Shropshire, easily produce a length of three or four 
 
430 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Fig. 236. "The fleece of the long wool breeds 
 often exceeds six inches in twelve months' 
 growth." 
 
 inches, while the fleece of the long wool breeds often ex- 
 
 ceeds six inches in 
 
 twelve months' 
 growth. It is quite 
 important that the 
 staple be uniform 
 in length, although 
 in the vicinity of 
 the shoulder the 
 wool is quite the 
 longest of the en- 
 tire fleece. 
 
 The oil or yolk. 
 Associated with the 
 root of the wool 
 fiber are minute oil 
 glands. From these 
 the oil passes to 
 
 the base of the fiber, and then works up along over the 
 scales until it reaches the end, lubricating and softening 
 the wool. Some sheep, such as the American Merino, pro- 
 duce a great deal of oil, which accumulates on the outside of 
 the fleece, where, when mixed with dust and dirt, it appears 
 almost as a dirty, black, gummy blanket. There is consid- 
 erable difference in the amount and character of this oil. 
 It should be rather colorless, but is frequently of creamy 
 or greenish tint. However, the relationship of color to 
 value is at present unknown. It is more abundant on the 
 fine wool breeds, which may scour off 60 per cent ^r a ore 
 oil and dirt, than on those with more open and Coarse 
 fleece, which may shrink only 25 per cent in scour- 
 ing. It is also found more on the front than on the hind 
 part of the body. If the fibers are uniformly oiled, there 
 is no danger of their becoming entangled or cotted. Some- 
 times oil gathers in flakes within the fleece, which is unde- 
 sirable, as indicating uneven strength of fiber. The oil 
 in the fleece is important, as imparting durability, softness 
 
THE FLEECE AND ITS EXAMINATION 431 
 
 and brilliancy. A considerable amount of oil is highly de- 
 sirable in fine-wooled fleeces, and the point has been made 4 
 that profitable fleece cannot be raised without a hirgr 
 amount of oil, that it promotes the growth of the wool, 
 and that those who have tried to dispense with it or ma- 
 terially reduce it in their flocks, have met with serious loss 
 of wool and a deterioration of strength, fineness and even- 
 ness of fleece. A deficiency of oil causes the staple to be 
 dry, harsh and weak, and the tendency will be to thinness 
 and coarseness of fiber. In view of these facts, it is im- 
 portant to emphasize an abundance of oil, especially with 
 the fine wool classes. Even with the mutton type the judge 
 should seek for an abundant and uniform distribution of 
 oil through the fleece. 
 
 The condition of the wool refers to the amount, char- 
 acter and distribution of the oil in the fleece, and the way 
 the wool responds when taken in the hand. Condition 
 also relates to the presence of foreign matter, such as chaff, 
 seeds, etc., and also kemp or gare. Some have used the term 
 "purity" as expressing the general condition and character 
 of fleece. 
 
 An examination of the fleece should be made system- 
 atically. Commencing at the head, and gradually working 
 toward the hindquarters, the judge should part the fleece 
 on the neck, shoulder, side, thigh, and note its quality, 
 length, density, presence of oil and condition. This is 
 easily done by standing at one side of the animal and ex- 
 amining the fleece along the opposite side. In case of breed- 
 ing sheep having wool over the forehead, then this part 
 should be examined to note the character of head covering. 
 At this point very coarse wool, or even hair, is often found, 
 especially at the more central point. The back wool may 
 be examined, but this should be done with much care, as 
 it is quite desirable to keep this covering closed as much as 
 possible, to avoid establishing openings for chaff, etc. Care- 
 
 * Special Report on the History and Present Condition of the Sheep Industry 
 of the United States, 1892, p. 314. 
 
432 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Fig. 237. "Careful inspection should be made over the belly and about the 
 armpits, and along the inside of the legs." 
 
 ful inspection should be made over the belly and about 
 the armpits, and along the inside of the legs, especially to 
 note the extent and quality of covering. Merino breeders 
 attach more importance to this underside inspection than 
 do owners of mutton sheep. During the entire process of 
 examination, break the fleece apart to the skin only be- 
 tween natural locks, using little force. There is no good 
 excuse for breaking apart an individual lock. It is a 
 matter of importance to examine the fleece without crushing 
 or flattening it out any more than is necessary for thorough 
 inspection. 
 
CHAPTER XLI. 
 
 JUDGING BREEDING SHEEP. 
 
 IN the consideration of the form and function of the 
 sheep, up to this point but little reference has been made 
 to breeding animals. Within a certain breed or class, there 
 are many things in common among non-breeding and breed- 
 ing stock. However, the latter possess certain sexual char- 
 acteristics and features that are peculiar to breeding ani- 
 mals, and which breeders universally recognize as of vital 
 importance. Therefore, while judging breeding stock, it 
 is necessary to have these things in mind. Judges may 
 differ somewhat in their estimates of relative values, but 
 all will agree on the necessity of recognition of certain 
 features as requiring special emphasis in selecting or judg- 
 ing breeding animals. Each sex must receive special con- 
 sideration, for males and females cannot be consistently 
 judged in the same class. 
 
 (A) JUDGING THE RAM. 
 
 The sex character of the ram is of the first importance. 
 This is especially seen in the head, neck, withers, sexual 
 organs, fleece and general conformation. The head should 
 be comparatively large, short, strong and wide over the 
 nose, broad and full at the forehead, and in case of the 
 horned breeds, with large, strong horns of excellent quality. 
 One of the most distinctive features of the male is the thick- 
 ness of nose, with a slightly arched or Roman character. 
 Frequently slight wrinkles are found here ; in fact this is 
 a requisite character of the Merino male. This is not so 
 marked in the young males, becoming more and more ap- 
 parent with maturity. The ears of the males are also 
 larger and thicker than on females or non-breeding sheep. 
 The ram should carry his head in bold, upstanding fashion, 
 
 433 
 
434 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 as becoming a herd leader, with his sex plainly manifested. 
 A ram lacking in this respect should be severely discrimi- 
 nated against by the judge. Too much coarseness of head is 
 to be avoided, as suggesting a coarse type of sire. The 
 neck should be strong and muscular, with some thickness 
 on top. A grasp of the neck r where joining head and 
 shoulders, will reveal to the hand the sexual character 
 there. A strong neck should join bold and somewhat prom- 
 
 Fig. 238. "The head should be comparatively large, short, strong and 
 wide over the nose, broad and full at the forehead." 
 
 inent withers, these two indicating strength of constitution. 
 More prominence of withers is expected with rams of Me- 
 rino breeding than the mutton class, but even here this 
 character should be somewhat prominent, though when in 
 condition, smoothly covered. The testicles of the ram 
 should consist of a pair of glands uniformly developed and 
 strongly held within what is commonly known as the purse 
 or sac. It is important that the purse have some contrac- 
 tion of skin above the glands, and that it be well defined, 
 
JUDGING BREEDING SHEEP 435 
 
 with a minimum of condition. A thick, fat neck of the tes- 
 ticles is uually associated with fatty degeneration. A fat 
 purse also suggests sterility, and is a common char- 
 acteristic of non-breeding rams. The fleece of the ram 
 should be somewhat coarse or "strong," as expressed 
 by the wool man. A relatively fine fleece on the ram 
 may indicate deficiency of constitution or femininity. 
 The general conformation of the ram shows fullness and 
 boldness in front as a whole, with masculinity the predom- 
 inating feature. The sex character is also very manifest 
 in the temperament, many rams being combative and given 
 to a free use of the head in the attempt to master other 
 males in the flock. Merino rams are especially given to 
 butting, and frequently require special treatment to keep 
 them under control, such as blindfolding or placing in sep- 
 arate pens. 
 
 The breeding capacity of the ram is of great importance. 
 He should possess the various necessary qualities of sex, 
 but, more, should have a strength of back and depth of 
 body that will be transmitted to all progeny intended for 
 breeding purposes. This quality is not easily determined 
 and, in fact, must be largely estimated. 
 
 The size of the ram should depend upon breed and class. 
 Quality is very essential. Considerable size is popular with 
 many, but is not a necessity. One of the most noted 
 breeders in England informed the writer that the greatest 
 success in breeding in his flock had come from the smaller 
 rather than the larger rams. Hawkesworth gives prefer- 
 ence to a "big good one" over a "little good one," but con- 
 siders a ram of intermediate size will generally prove the 
 most satisfactory sire. 1 In judging, extremes in size may 
 be regarded with disfavor, other things being equal. A 
 large, coarse ram, however, is subject to more criticism 
 than is one somewhat under size, yet showing much quality. 
 
 The form of the ram has already been referred to under 
 the heading of special sex characters. In general, the ram 
 
 1 Australian Sheep and Wool, 1906, p. 135. 
 
436 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 should show a frame of the best sort, supported on strong 
 limbs and feet. This is an evidence of vigor and should 
 be associated with a deep, full heart girth and a prominent 
 brisket, features indicating strong constitution. The ram 
 should be short-coupled and, if of the mutton type, tend 
 to compactness of form rather than too much length. 
 There is also a sense of the massive in the male that does 
 not prevail in the female, the various parts being developed 
 on a stronger and heavier scale. A ram with a conforma- 
 tion lacking this masculine character would not prove an 
 attractive sort for a sire. 
 
 Breed character in the ram is of paramount importance. 
 In this day of improved breeds there is no excuse for 
 using anything but a pure bred ram. The judge should 
 emphasize breed character as seen in the various features 
 to be found in good individuals of a breed. It is most im- 
 portant that one be familiar with these characteristics. 
 The striking differences in the heads of the Merino, Shrop- 
 shire, Cotswold or Cheviot show the need of familiarity 
 with each, if the judge is to be capable of passing in judg- 
 ment. In selecting a sire, or in passing on a ring of sires, 
 preference should be given to such as show the most true- 
 ness to breed type. 
 
 (B) JUDGING THE EWE. 
 
 The sex character of the ewe is especially seen in the 
 head, neck and breast, and udder. The head is much 
 smaller and more refined than in case of the ram. The 
 muzzle and nose should be free of thickness and coarseness, 
 although a Roman type of nose prevails in some breeds 
 and is no evidence of coarseness. The eyes are smaller and 
 more placid than with the male, and the forehead shows 
 the refinement of the sex. The neck is more slender, lacks 
 in thickness on its upper side, and is not so strongly muscled 
 as a whole. The chest cavity of the female lacks the spread 
 of the male, with the associated width of brisket and 
 withers and heaviness of shoulder. The udder of the ewe 
 
JUDGING BREEDING SHEEP 
 
 437 
 
 consists of two glands, side by side, each of which has one 
 teat. These glands should be of equal size and in normal 
 condition. The udder should be closely attached at the 
 belly, and should not be very pendant, even during lacta- 
 tion. 
 
 The breeding capacity of the ewe is manifested in the 
 depth and spring of rib, in the length and position of rump, 
 and development of udder. The breeding ewe should have 
 considerable depth of body, and the udder should be well 
 developed and in perfect condition. Length of body is also 
 an indication of breeding capacity, the short, close-coupled 
 ewe lacking in this respect. 
 
 The size of the ewe in most favor varies from medium 
 to large, associated with plenty of quality. The tendency 
 among present day breeders is to call for size, especially 
 in the female. Large, symmetrical, matronly looking ewes, 
 with quality, always command a premium, and the judge 
 should give them preference. The undersized ewe is 
 usually an unsatisfactory breeder and is far too common in 
 the flock. 
 
 Fig. 239. "Large, symmetrical, matronly looking ewes, with quality, 
 always command a premium." Southdown ewe and her seven months' old 
 lamb. 
 
438 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 The form of the ewe has been likened to a dairy cow. 
 The withers are somewhat narrow, the chest is deep, yet 
 hardly thick, the back of moderate thickness, the loin strong, 
 the rump long, level, wide and the entire body deep and 
 relatively capacious, showing both digestive and breeding 
 capacity. A ewe with the wide, square, compact form of 
 a wether, is less likely to make a good suckling ewe than 
 the one described. The quality of milk production, essen- 
 tial in a breeding ewe, is indicated in this long, deep form, 
 and the well-developed udder. 
 
 The breed characteristics of the ewe should be consid- 
 ered when judging breeding stock, but if grade animals are 
 being passed upon then the subject is not so important as 
 in the case of the ram. The pure bred ewe should show 
 breed character quite in keeping with the standard, and 
 should be judged accordingly. Even with the grade ewe, 
 there is more evidence of profit in the one showing plenty 
 of improved blood than in the one of nondescript char- 
 acter. Other things being equal, grade ewes showing con- 
 siderable breed character will command a higher price than 
 will those lacking in this respect. Trueness to type of 
 breed, then, may be regarded as an important factor in 
 making awards in judging pure breds, while, in the grade, 
 a reasonable degree of consideration should be given to im- 
 proved blood. 
 
CHAPTER XLII. 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE NOTES OF THE MORE IMPORTANT 
 BREEDS OF SHEEP. 
 
 THE various breeds of sheep, of which, there are many, 
 may be classified in general according to their character of 
 fleece and their relationship to mutton production. The 
 ordinary classification has already been explained on page 
 374. The following descriptions are intended to set forth 
 the more distinctive characteristics of the various breeds, 
 without going into unnecessary detail. The standard and 
 scale of points, being official information on the subject, 
 are, when possible, made a part of each breed description. 
 
 The Southdown breed of sheep was first developed in 
 southeast England, in Sussex county. It is one of the old- 
 est and best-known breeds. The face, ears and legs are 
 very dark reddish-brown in color, with a tendency to gray- 
 ish brown on the face. In size South downs rank as medium, 
 though many mutton breeders think them too small. Ma- 
 ture rams will no doubt average about 175 pounds, and 
 the ewes about 185 pounds. In conformation, specimens 
 of this breed represent the highest ideals in mutton form, 
 being short of head and neck, wide of breast and back, 
 thick and full in leg of mutton, deep of body, short of leg, 
 and generally compact of body. This is a hornless breed, 
 and the -head tends to be short and wide. The ears are 
 small and covered with short wool or silky hair. The flesh 
 covering is usually smooth and of superior quality. The 
 yield of fleece is somewhat light ; five pounds might be 
 regarded as a fair average, with a length of staple of about 
 two and one-half inches, and of medium quality. The two 
 important criticisms of the breed are lack of size, and the 
 light weight of fleece. 
 
 439 
 
440 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Fig. 240. Southdown ram, champion at Louisiana Purchase Exposition, 
 St. Louis, 11)04. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS FOE SOUTHDOWN SHEEP. 
 
 (Adopted by American Southdown Sheep Association.) 
 
 Points 
 
 Head Medium in size and hornless, fine, carried well up, the forehead 
 or face well covered with wool, especially between the ears and on 
 the cheeks, and in the ewe slightly dished 
 
 Lips and under jaw Fine and thin 
 
 Ears Rather small, tolerably wide apart, covered with fine hair, and 
 carried with a lively back-and-forth movement 
 
 Eyes Full and bright 
 
 Face A uniform tint of brown, or gray, or mouse color 
 
 Neck Short, fine at the head, but nicely tapering, and broad and 
 straight on top at the shoulders 
 
 Shoulders Broad and full, smoothly joining the neck with the back . . 
 
 Breast Wide, deep and projecting well forward, the forelegs standing 
 wide apart 
 
 Back Back and loin broad and straight from shoulders to rump . . . . 
 
 Ribs Well arched, extending far backward, the last projecting more 
 than the others 
 
 Bump Broad, square and full, with tail well set up 
 
 Hips Wide, with little space between them and last ribs 
 
 Thighs Full and wgll let down in twist, the legs standing well apart . . 
 
 Limbs Short and fine in bone, and in color to agree with face . . . . 
 
MORE IMPORTANT BREEDS OF SHEEP 441 
 
 Points 
 
 Forelegs Well wooled and carrying mutton to the knees, but free from 
 
 meat below 2 
 
 Hindlegs Well filled with mutton, and wooled to the hocks; neat and 
 
 clean below 2 
 
 Belly Straight and covered with wool, the flank extending so as to form 
 
 a line parallel with the back or top line 5 
 
 Fleece Compact, the whole body well covered with moderately long and 
 
 close wool, white in color, carrying some yolk 12 
 
 Form Throughout smooth and symmetrical, with no coarseness in any 
 
 part 9 
 
 General appearance Spirited and attractive, with a determined look, a 
 
 proud and firm step, indicating constitutional vigor and breeding 8 
 
 Total . . 
 
 The Shropshire breed of sheep originated in the counties 
 of Shropshire and Stafford, in western England. This is 
 a hornless breed of the medium wool class. The color of 
 the hair of face, ears and legs is a dark brown, often ap- 
 
 Fig. 241. Shropshire ram. "His Imperial Majesty," breed champion Ohio 
 State Fair, 1911. (Photo by courtesy American Agriculturist.) 
 
442 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 preaching black. In size, the Shropshire is somewhat 
 larger than the Southdown, mature rams weighing 200 
 pounds and ewes 150 to 160 pounds. The better specimens 
 of the breed are characterized by certain distinctive features. 
 The head is covered with a heavy cap of wool, extending 
 near to the nostrils as with a Merino. This feature is more 
 pronounced than with other mutton breeds. The ears tend 
 to be short and broad, and covered with fine hair, or short, 
 curly wool. The legs should be wooled to the ankle joints, 
 and in case of lambs, the wooling should be very, marked. 
 The form is distinctly mutton in type, though not so wide of 
 back and short of leg as the Southdown. The fleece com- 
 bines length, compactness, fineness of staple, and general 
 quality to a degree superior to that of any other mutton 
 breed. In good specimens the shoulder wool, at twelve 
 months is about three and one-half inches long, the fleece as 
 a whole weighing about eight pounds. The skin of the 
 Shropshire is not always uniformly pink in color, there 
 being a tendency to bluish spots on the natural pink. The 
 great popularity of the breed is due to its combining mut- 
 ton and wool qualities and unusual fecundity. It is the 
 most universally bred of any of the mutton breeds. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS FOR SHROPSHIRE SHEEP. 
 
 (Adopted by the American Shropshire Sheep Breeders' Association.) 
 
 Points 
 
 General appearance Attractive, indicating breeding and quality, with 
 stylish carriage, and a symmetrical form covered with a dense 
 fleece 25 
 
 Constitution Robust, as indicated by width and depth of chest, strength 
 
 and formation of neck, and by bold, active movement 10 
 
 Size In breeding condition when fully matured, rams should weigh not 
 less than 180 to 225 pounds, and ewes not less than 125 to 170 
 pounds 10 
 
 Fleece and skin Fleece of good length, dense, elastic to touch, medium 
 fine, free from black fiber, slightly crimped, with evenness of texture 
 throughout; scrotum of rams well covered with wool. Skin light 
 cherry color, free from dark spots 15 
 
 Body Well proportioned, with shoulders well placed, fitting smoothly 
 upon the chest, which should be deep and wide, broad and straight 
 back; thick loins well covered with firm flesh; hindquarters well 
 finished ; twist deep and full 20 
 
MORE IMPORTANT BREEDS OF SHEEP 
 
 1 i:i 
 
 Points 
 
 Head and neck Head short, broad between the ears and eyes, bold 
 and masculine in rams, without horns, well covered with wool, ears 
 short and erect, eyes bright, color of face and ears dark brown. 
 Neck of medium length, strong and muscular (especially in rams), 
 symmetrically joined to head and shoulders. Rams with horns or 
 
 stubs are disqualified as heads of flocks . . . . 15 
 
 Legs Well set apart, broad, short, straight, color dark brown, and well 
 
 wooled; pasterns strong and upright 5 
 
 Total 
 
 100 
 
 The Oxford Down breed of sheep originated in Oxford- 
 shire, in southern England, dating back to 1833. This 
 breed, in its improved form, resembles the Shropshire. It 
 is hornless and of the medium wool class. The color, as 
 
 Pig. 242. Oxford Down ram owned by G. W. Heskett of Ohio. 
 
 shown in the hair of head, ears, and legs, is a dark brown. 
 Years ago gray faces occurred, but at present the demand 
 is for dark color, though a touch of gray may occur on the 
 bridge of the nose. In size the Oxford Down is one of the 
 large breeds, and mature rams should weigh, when in good 
 
444 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 flesh, 275 pounds or more, and ewes close to 200 pounds. 
 In form, the Oxford Down shows considerable width and 
 depth of body, with a fair leg of mutton. The wool does 
 not usually cover the head much below the forehead, though 
 the tendency is to breed to wool more heavily on the head. 
 The ears are comparatively large and generally free of 
 wool, and are much more conspicuous than in the South- 
 down or Shropshire. The legs, also, are not as a rule much 
 wooled below knees and hocks. The skin is frequently 
 bluish pink or mottled in color, rather than of uniform 
 pink. The fleece -combines length of staple and weight in a 
 superior degree, but inclines to be somewhat open, with ten- 
 dency to a coarse fiber. A year's growth of fleece should 
 weigh 10 pounds or more, and show a length at the shoulder 
 of about four inches. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS FOR OXFORD DOWN SHEEP. 
 
 (Adopted by the American Oxford Down Sheep Breeders' Association.) 
 
 Points 
 BREED TYPE, 30 Points: 
 
 Form Of a good general appearance, made by a well-balanced con- 
 formation, free from coarseness in any part, and showing good 
 
 style both at rest and in motion 15 
 
 Head Of moderate length and width between the ears and between 
 the eyes, and well covered with wool over poll and down to the 
 eyes. Color of face an even dark gray or brown, either with or 
 
 without gray spot on tip of nose 6 
 
 Bams When fully matured and in good condition rams should weigh 
 250 to 350 pounds. Ewes When fully matured and in good 
 
 condition, ewes should weigh 180 to 275 pounds 5 
 
 Ears Medium size, not too thick and of an even brown or dark 
 
 gray color . . 2 
 
 Legs Short, strong in bone, flat, and of even dark gray or brown 
 
 color, placed squarely under the body and well apart 2 
 
 CONSTITUTION, 25 Points: 
 
 Heart Girth Large and wide and full in the chest 10 
 
 Movement Must be bold and vigorous 5 
 
 Eyes Bold, prominent and bright 4 
 
 Skin Bright pink in color 3 
 
 Neck Strong and muscular in rams and well set on in both sexes . . 3 
 MUTTON FORM AND QUALITY, 30 Points: 
 
 Shoulders, back, loin and rump Wide and straight on top from base 
 
 of neck to tail 35 
 
 Shoulders and thighs Full and well meated both inside and outside 5 
 Flanks Well filled and strong so as to make the lower lines of the 
 
 body as straight as possible, and side lines straight or rather full . . 4 
 Carcass Evenly covered with good, well marbled meat 6 
 
MORE IMPORTANT BREEDS OF SHEEP 
 
 445 
 
 WOOL, 15 Points: 
 
 Fleece Of moderate length, close and of even quality, covering the 
 
 whole carcass well, and free from black patches upon the body, 
 
 neck or head . 15 
 
 Total 
 
 100 
 
 The Hampshire breed of sheep originated in Hampshire, 
 in southern England. This is a large, hornless breed. The 
 color of the hair on head, ears and legs is a very dark 
 
 Fig. 243. Hampshire ram, champion at Ohio State Fair. 
 
 brown, almost black in shade. In size the Hampshire ranks 
 among the largest medium wool breeds, mature rams weigh- 
 ing about 250 pounds and ewes from 175 to 200 pounds. 
 Among the most distinctive characteristics of individuals of 
 the breed are the following: the head is somewhat large, 
 with a tendency to Roman nose ; the ears are large, bare of 
 wool, conspicuous, and often of droopy carriage ; the wool 
 extends but a slight distance over the forehead, so that the 
 
446 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 very dark markings of head and ears give a striking per- 
 sonality. The frame of the animal is large and long, and 
 the limbs show heavy bone in comparison with Southdown 
 or Shropshire. The fleece is long, fairly compact, and of 
 the coarser medium wool character, ranging about four 
 inches in length and having a weight for twelve months' 
 growth of about eight pounds. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS FOR HAMPSHIRE DOWN SHEEP. 
 
 (Adopted by the American Hampshire Down Sheep Breeders' Association.) 
 
 Standard of Excellence. 
 
 HEAD AND LEGS: 
 
 Head Moderately large, but not coarse, well covered with wool on fore- 
 
 head and cheeks. 
 Nostrils Wide. 
 
 Color (Head and legs) : Dark brown or black. 
 Eyes Prominent and lustrous. 
 
 Ears Moderately long and thin, and dark brown or black color. 
 Legs Well under outside of body, straight, with good size of bone; black. 
 
 NECK, SHOULDERS AND CHEST: 
 
 Neck A regular taper from shoulders to head, without any hollow in front 
 
 of shoulders, set high up on body. 
 
 Shoulders Sloping, full, and not higher than the line of back and neck. 
 Chest Deep and full in the heart place, with breast prominent and full. 
 BODY: 
 
 Back Straight, with full spring of rib. 
 
 Loin Wide and straight, without depression in front of hips. 
 
 Quarters Long from hips to end of rump, without sloping, and deep 
 
 in thigh. Broad in hips and rump, with full harns. Inside of thighs 
 
 full. 
 
 Scale of Points. 
 
 Head Size and shape 
 Ears and eyes 
 Color 
 
 Points 
 5 
 3 
 5 
 
 Legs and feet 
 
 2 
 
 Neck . . 
 
 5 
 
 Shoulders 
 
 10 
 
 Chest and breast 
 Body Back and loin 
 
 15 
 15 
 
 Rib 
 Quarters Length 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 Width 
 Twist 
 
 10 
 5 
 
 Wool Forehead and cheeks 
 
 
 Belly well covered 
 
 3 
 
 Quality 
 
 5 
 
 Total ................ . 100 
 
MORE IMPORTANT BREEDS OF SHKK1' 447 
 
 The Dorset Horn breed of sheep has its native home in 
 Dorset and Somerset counties, in southern England. It is, 
 as indicated by its name, a horned breed of sheep, and is 
 of the medium wool class. The color of the hair of head, 
 ears and legs is white. The horns are the striking char- 
 acteristic of this breed, those on the mature rams curving 
 
 Fig. 244. Dorset Horn ram, owned by Tranquility Farm, New Jersey 
 champion at Ohio State Fair. 
 
 backward and around spirally, being of large size, while 
 those of the female, which are comparatively small, curve 
 outward, down and slightly forward, with the tips rising 
 about level with or slightly above the eyes. This is a 
 medium-sized breed, mature males weighing about 225 
 pounds, and females about 165 pounds. The neck and 
 body of the Dorset Horn tend to be somewhat long, and 
 
448 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 the spring of rib is frequently not as strong as it should be. 
 The fleece is one of the weak features of this breed, lacking 
 under ordinary condition in length, compactness, weight 
 and quality. Mature rams shear about nine and the ewes 
 about six pounds of wool. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS FOB DORSET HORNED SHEEP. 
 
 (Adopted by the American Dorset Horned Sheep Breeders' Association.) 
 
 Points 
 Head Neat, face white, nostrils large, well covered on crown and under 
 
 jaw with wool 5 
 
 Horns Small and gracefully curving forward, rather close to jaw . . 5 
 
 Eyes Prominent and bright 2 
 
 Ears Medium size, covered with short white hair 2 
 
 Neck Short, symmetrical, strongly set on shoulders, gradually tapering 
 
 to junction of head 5 
 
 Shoulders Broad and full, joining neck forward, and chine backward, 
 
 with no depression at either point (important) 15 
 
 Brisket Wide and full, forward, chest full and deep 8 
 
 Foreflank Quite full, showing little depression behind shoulder . . . . 8 
 Back and loin Wide and straight, from which ribs should spring with a 
 
 fine, circular arch . . 10 
 
 Quarters Wide and full, with mutton extending down to hocks . . . . 10 
 
 Belly Straight on under line 3 
 
 Fleece Medium grade, of even quality presenting a smooth surface and 
 
 extending over belly and well down on legs 12 
 
 General conformation Of the mutton type, body moderately long; short, 
 stout legs, squarely placed under body ; skin pink ; appearance at- 
 tractive 15 
 
 Total . 100 
 
 The Cheviot breed of sheep originated among the Cheviot 
 hills of the border country between England and Scotland, 
 though known as a Scotch breed. It is a medium wooled 
 sheep, and quite generally hornless, although horns occa- 
 sionally occur on the males. The color is entirely white, 
 excepting the bare flesh at the nostrils, which should be 
 blue black, although this part is frequently mottled in 
 color. The more popular and common color of the hoofs 
 is black. In size the Cheviot is medium, mature rams 
 
MORE IMPORTANT BREEDS OF SHEEP 449 
 
 weighing in good condition about 200 pounds, and the 
 ewes from 140 to 160 pounds. This breed is characterized 
 by the following distinctive features. The head and ears 
 should be free of wool, and covered with a hard, white, 
 glossy hair. Red or sandy hair occasionally appears, but 
 is very objectionable. Small black spots also sometimes 
 occur on the long, thin, erect ears, and on the head, but are 
 growing in disfavor. A Roman nose is common on the 
 rams, and on some ewes. The eye is prominent and bold. 
 
 Fig. 24H. Pon of Cheviot rams of J. R. C. Smith, Mowhaugh, Scotland. 
 
 The body frequently lacks in thickness, and tends to nar- 
 rowness of chest, withers and back, compared with the 
 Southdown. The skin is very generally of a bright pink 
 color. The fleece is of medium length, lacks in compactness, 
 and is often somewhat coarse about the thighs. A twelve 
 months' fleece on a mature ram weighs about nine pounds, 
 while seven pounds is a fair weight for an improved ewe. 
 The Cheviot is notable for its style and grace of carriage, 
 being one of the most beautiful of breeds. It is very 
 nervous and active of temperament. 
 
450 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS FOR CHEVIOT SHEEP. 
 
 (Adopted by the American Cheviot Sheep Society.) 
 
 Points 
 
 General conformation and quality Deep and full breast and large through 
 chest. Back wide and straight with well sprung, deep ribs. Legs 
 well placed and leg of mutton full and thick. Body well fleshed, 
 skin pink with no blue or dark coloring. Fleece compact and 
 medium fine. Bone strong and fine. General appearance graceful, 
 symmetrical, active 20 
 
 Size In good flesh, when fully matured, a 24-months' old ram should 
 
 weigh not less than 225 pounds and a ewe not less than 150 pounds 10 
 
 Head Should be medium short and broad with ample breadth between 
 the eyes. Ears should be of medium length and usually erect when at 
 repose. Head covered with clear white hairs, extending from nostrils 
 to back of poll. Ridge of head from between eyes to nostrils 
 straight or slightly arched with females and more strongly arched 
 or Roman with rams. Color of tip of nose black 15 
 
 Body Well proportioned, having notable depth, with thickness on top 
 and at flanks. Loins should be very broad and thick, shoulders 
 should set well back and be smoothly covered, and crops be full and 
 well arched. The rump should be long, broad and level . . . . 20 
 
 Legs Should be short, well set apart and be covered with clean white 
 hair, with no wool below hocks and knees. The hind legs should be 
 flat and deep below hocks. Pasterns should be strong and not show 
 weakness, supporting the body well 10 
 
 Feet Symmetrical, squarely placed when in repose and hoofs black in 
 ^ color 5 
 
 Fleece Should cover the body completely to behind the poll and ears, 
 and down to knees and hocks. Under part of the body should be 
 well covered. In mature animals should be not less than three inches 
 long foi* annual growth, and be compact and of medium wool class. 
 Rams should shear at least 12 pounds and ewes eight pounds when 
 in mature form, to be desirable representatives of the breed . . . . 20 
 
 Total 100 
 
 Objections: Scurs on the head; black spots on the head; flesh colored or 
 spotted skin about the nostrils; hair about the thighs or kemp on the 
 body, reddish or sandy hair on head or legs; lack of wool on under 
 part of body. Disqualifications: All male lambs shall be ineligible to 
 registration if having scurs or horns exceeding one inch in length. 
 
 I 
 
 The Suffolk breed of sheep originated in southeastern 
 England, especially in Suffolk county. It is a hornless, 
 medium wool breed. It is a very striking sheep in appear- 
 ance, on account of its black head, ears and legs. In size, 
 the Suffolk ranks above medium, being somewhat larger 
 than the Shropshire. The ram usually has a Roman nose. 
 The ears are large and tend to horizontal carriage. This 
 
MORE IMPORTANT BREEDS OF SHKKP 
 
 451 
 
 is a distinctive mutton breed, and is broad-fronted, wide, 
 of back, thick in the hindquarter, and short of leg. The 
 fleece is medium in length and compactness, and the staple 
 of fair quality. Wool does not usually cover the head, 
 ears, or legs below knee and hock. There are very few of 
 these sheep in America, but in England they are regarded 
 with favor for their excellent mutton character. 
 
 Tig. 246. Suffolk ram, first and champion at Royal Agricultural 
 Society Show of England, 1914. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS FOR SUFFOLK SHEEP. 
 
 (Adopted by the American Suffolk Flock Registry Association.) 
 
 Points 
 
 General appearance Pleasing outline, good carriage, and symmetry of 
 
 development 7 
 
 General form Large in size; inclined to he long in hody; medium 
 strength of bone; somewhat cylindrical in shape, and straight above, 
 below and in the rear 
 
 Head Medium in size, inclining to be long and covered with fine, short, 
 glossy black hair to the junction with the neck; a small quantity 
 of clean white wool on the forehead is not objected to; muzzle 
 moderately fine, especially in ewes; eyes bright and full; ears of 
 medium length and fineness 
 
 1". 
 
 15 
 
452 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Points 
 
 Neck Moderately long and well set, and blending well with the body, 
 
 with some crest in the rams 5 
 
 Forequarters Well developed; breast wide, deep and full; brisket broad; 
 chest capacious, with good heart girth; shoulders broad, oblique and 
 Avell filled in the neck vein and crops; withers broad; arm well de- 
 veloped , . 15 
 
 Earrel Roomy; back straight, broad and well fleshed throughout its 
 entire length; ribs well sprung and moderately deep; fore and hind 
 flanks full and deep 10 
 
 Hindquarters Long, deep and full; tail, broad and well set up; buttock 
 
 broad; twist full; thigh broad and full 15 
 
 Feet and legs Straight, of medium length with flat bone ; bare of wool 
 
 below knee and hock, glossy black in color, and set well apart . . 8 
 
 Fleece Moderately short, with close, fine, lustrous fiber, and without 
 tendency to mat or felt together, or to shade into dark or gray 
 wool or hair, especially about the neck or tail. The fleece should 
 cover the whole body except the head and the legs below the knee 
 and hock; and the skin underneath it should be fair, soft and of a 
 pink -color 10 
 
 Total 100 
 
 The Tunis breed of sheep comes from ancestry tracing 
 back to an importation from Tunis to America, in 1799. 
 Tunis sheep have not been bred extensively in America, 
 and lack uniformity of character. It is a hornless, medium 
 wool breed. The color marks are variable. Some sheep 
 have reddish-brown heads, ears and legs, while with others 
 the colors are mottled brown and white, especially of head 
 and ear. The ears are large, broad and pendulous, and 
 covered with fine hair. In size, the Tunis is of the smaller 
 class of mutton sheep, rams at maturity weighing 150 
 pounds or more, and ewes 120 pounds. A peculiarity of 
 this sheep is its broad tail. At maturity it may measure 
 five inches or more in width, and maintains this breadth 
 for a length of six or eight inches from the tail-head. The 
 lambs are usually docked, so that the naturally conspicuous 
 character of tail is not seen, though the rump on this ac- 
 count is more full and heavier than with our other breeds. 
 The neck inclines to be long, but the body as a whole is of 
 fair mutton form. There is also a tendency to be somewhat 
 leggy. The fleece is of excellent quality, being fine, soft 
 and fairly compact, and averages about three inches in 
 
MORE IMPORTANT BREEDS OF SHEEP 453 
 
 Fig. 247. Tunis ram, "Oon. McPherson" 1619, a noted sire of the breed. 
 (Photo by courtesy The American Sheep Breeder.) 
 
 length. The fleece varies in color, and reddish fibers fre- 
 quently occur among the white staple. The lambs when 
 dropped are of various colors : white, red, tawny, mottled, 
 but with age the fleece loses much of its mottled appearance. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS FOR TUNIS SHEEP. 
 
 (Adopted by American Tunis Sheep Breeders' Association.) 
 
 Points 
 
 Blood Imported from Tunis, or having a perfect line of ancestors ex- 
 tending back to the flock owned and bred by Judge Richard Peters, 
 of Belmont, near Philadelphia, who received the first pair from Tunis 
 in 1799, and bred them pure for more than 20 years 20 
 
 Constitution Healthful countenance, lively look, head erect, deep chest, 
 ribs well arched, round body with good length. Strong, straight back; 
 muscles fine and firm 15 
 
 Fleece Medium length, medium quality, medium quantity, color tinc- 
 tured with gray, never pure white. Evenness throughout . . . . 10 
 
454 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Points 
 
 Covering Body and neck well covered with wool. Legs bare or slightly 
 
 covered; face free from wool and covered with fine hair 10 
 
 Form and tail Body straight, broad, well proportioned. Small bone ; 
 breast wide and prominent in front. Tail the little end should be 
 docked, leaving the fleshy part fan-shaped, or tapering; five to ten 
 inches broad, six or eight inches long, and well covered with wool 12 
 
 Head and ears Head small and hornless, tapering to end of nose ; face 
 and nose clean, in color brown and white. Ears broad, thin, pen- 
 dulous, covered with fine hair; in color brown to light fawn . . . . 10 
 
 Neck Medium in length, well placed on shoulders ; small and tapering 5 
 
 Legs Short. In color brown and white; slightly wooled not objec- 
 tionable . . 6 
 
 Size In fair condition, when fully matured, rams should weigh 150 
 
 pounds and upward; ewes, 120 pounds and upward 6 
 
 General appearance Good carriage ; head well up ; quick, elastic move- 
 ments, showing symmetry of form and uniformity of character 
 throughout . . . . 6 
 
 Total 100 
 
 The Leicester breed of sheep originated in Leicestershire, 
 central England, being one of the older British breeds. It 
 is a hornless, distinctly white-faced breed. The head is a 
 notable feature of this breed. The nose is more or less 
 arching, the eye prominent, frequently a light tuft of wool 
 extends over the poll. Hard white hairs cover the face. 
 There is a bluish tint to the skin on the head. Black spots 
 also occur in a slight way on both head and ears. The 
 flesh at lips and nostrils should be black. The thin, long 
 ears, which are covered with white hair, are directed back- 
 ward and show much activity. The appearance of head, and 
 its animated, stylish carriage, quite suggests the Cheviot. 
 The Leicester is one of the larger breeds, and mature rams 
 will weigh from 225 to 250 pounds, and ewes from 175 to 
 200 pounds. The neck is short and not, as a rule, much 
 elevated. The body is wide of bosom, broad of back, and 
 the hindquarters often tend to narrowness. Leicesters, as 
 viewed from above, seem unusually wide, but from one side, 
 give evidence of lack of depth of rib. The legs which are 
 free of wool from knee and hock to the toes, impress one 
 as being somewhat long and fine of bone. The fleece is of 
 the long wool class, being quite curly, somewhat open, and 
 
MORE IMPORTANT BREEDS OF SHEEP 
 
 455 
 
 Fig. 248. Leicester sheep on pasture in Ireland. 
 
 averaging about six inches in length, and weighing about 
 nine or ten pounds. In the border country of England and 
 Scotland has been developed a type known as the Border 
 Leicester. This has a bolder carriage and style of head, and 
 is quite free of wool on the poll. The face af the Border 
 Leicester is a clear white. In carcass the latter is larger 
 and longer, the belly is not quite so full in outline, being 
 carried rather more lightly. The border sheep is also some- 
 what more leggy than the older type. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS FOE LEICESTER SHEEP. 
 
 (Adopted by American Leicester Sheep Breeders' Association.) 
 
 Points 
 Head Long, moderately small, tapering toward the muzzle; white and 
 
 well covered with hair; lips and nostrils black 6 
 
 Nose Somewhat narrow, almost straight in ewes, and slightly Roman 
 
 in rams 2 
 
 Face Having a wedge-shaped appearance, well covered with fine white 
 
 hairs .-. 2 
 
456 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Points 
 Ears Thin, rather long, mobile and directed backward; a black speck 
 
 on face and ears not uncommon . . . . 2 
 
 Eyes Large and prominent 4 
 
 Neck Strong and moderately short, level with the back and broad at 
 
 the base where it leaves the chest, gradually tapering toward the 
 
 head, being fine where head and neck join; neck straight from chest, 
 
 showing a straight line from rump to poll 6 
 
 Breast Deep, broad and full '8 
 
 Shoulders Upright, wide across the top, giving good thickness through 
 
 the heart 6 
 
 Chest Well filled behind the shoulder, with large girth 6 
 
 Back Broad and well fleshed, ribs well sprung, loins wide, hips level, 
 
 quarters straight and long 12 
 
 Barrel Round, well ribbed home, straight lines above and below . . . . 10 
 Legs of moderate length, fairly large and wide apart, with strong flat 
 
 bone, covered with white hair; brown hair or spots objectionable 6 
 
 Flesh Firm, springy pelt ; pink skin . . .... 8 
 
 Fleece Fine, uniform and round in staple, curly, with good bright 
 
 luster, and no dark hairs or kemp, belly well covered . . . 10 
 
 Carcass Rectangular, legs well set on, hocks straight, pasterns good, 
 
 with neat feet, good general appearance 12 
 
 Total 100 
 
 The Cotswold breed of sheep originated in central south- 
 western England, in Gloucestershire. It is one of the very 
 old long wool breeds. The head is one of the striking fea- 
 tures, being hornless, and usually white, although gray or 
 brown frequently occurs. The tendency to a distinct Eoman 
 nose exists, especially with rams, and the nostrils are dark 
 in color. Curls or locks drop over the forehead, these 
 sometimes covering much of the face, especially on show 
 sheep where they have been protected. The ears are some- 
 what large and coarse, are covered with fine hair, and 
 heavily carried, quite in contrast with the Leicester. In 
 size this is a large breed, mature rams weighing 250 to 
 275 pounds and ewes 200 to 225 pounds. This sheep has a 
 very wide body, especially in front, and strong spring of 
 rib. There is a tendency to narrowness behind. The legs 
 are long, but heavy in bone, in comparison with the Leices- 
 ter. In fact, this is a grosser type of sheep in general. 
 The fleece consists of large, lustrous, curly locks, while those 
 on the Leicester are of a finer type. The fleece averages 
 about eight inches long at twelve months, and weighs about 
 10 pounds. 
 
MORE IMPORTANT BREEDS OF SHEEP 
 
 457 
 
 Fig. 249. Cotswold ram. first in class at Louisiana Purchase Exposition, 
 St. Louis, 1904. (Photo by courtesy American Agriculturist.) 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS FOB COTSWOLD SHEEP. 
 
 (Adopted by American Cotswold Registry Association.) 
 
 Bam. 
 
 Points 
 
 Head Not too fine, moderately small and broad between the eyes and 
 nostrils, but without a short, thick, appearance, and in young ani- 
 mals well covered on the crown with long, lustrous wool . . . . 8 
 Face Either white or slightly mixed with gray, or white dappled with 
 
 brown 4 
 
 Nostrils Wide and expanded; nose dark 1 
 
 Eyes Prominent, but mild looking 2 
 
 Ears Broad, long, moderately thin and covered with short hair . . . . 4 
 Collar Full from breast and shoulders, tapering gradually all the way 
 to where the neck and head join. The neck should be short, thick 
 and strong, indicating constitutional vigor, and free from coarse and 
 
 loose skin 
 
 Shoulders Broad and full, and at the same time joined so gradually to the 
 collar forward and chine backward as not to leave the least hollow 
 in either place . . . . 8 
 
458 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Points 
 Forelegs The mutton on the arm or fore thigh .should come quite to the 
 
 knee. Leg upright with heavy bone, being clear from superfluous 
 
 skin, with wool to fetlock, and may be mixed with gray . . . . 1 
 Breast Broad and well forward, keeping the legs wide apart, girth or 
 
 chest full and deep 10 
 
 Fore flank Quite full, not showing hollow behind the shoulders 5 
 
 Back and loin Broad, flat and straight, from which the ribs must spring 
 
 with a fine circular arch ]'.> 
 
 Belly Straight on underline . . . , 3 
 
 Quarters Long and full, with mutton quite down to the hock . . . . G 
 
 Hock Should stand neither in or out 2 
 
 Twist Or junction inside the thighs; deep, wide and full, which, with 
 
 a broad breast, will keep the legs open and upright 5 
 
 Fleece The whole body should be covered with long lustrous wool . . 18 
 
 Total 100 
 
 Ewe. 
 
 The standard and scale for the ewe is identical with that of the ram, 
 
 excepting in the following particulars: 
 
 Points 
 
 Head Moderately fine, broad between the eyes and nostrils, but without 
 a short, thick appearance, and well covered on crown with long, 
 lustrous wool . . 8 
 
 Collar Full from breast and shoulders, tapering gradually all the way to 
 whore the neck and head join. The neck should be fine and graceful 
 and free from coarse or loose skin 5 
 
 Fore flank Same standard as for ram, but points 5 
 
 Belly Same standard as for ram, but points 3 
 
 The Lincoln breed of sheep originated in Lincolnshire, 
 in eastern England, and is a very old breed of the hornless, 
 long-wooled sort. The prevailing color of face, ears and 
 legs is white, but gray shading frequently occurs on the 
 nose. This is one of the largest of breeds, mature rams 
 averaging, in good flesh, 275 pounds, and ewes about 250 
 pounds. Characteristic features of the Lincoln are a large, 
 white-faced head, slightly capped with wool ; dotted or mot- 
 tled ears ; a wide breast, broad back and general thickness ; 
 strong limbs and heavy bone ; and a coarse, long, curly, 
 lustrous wool. The fleece may attain an average length 
 of about eight inches and weigh approximately 15 pounds. 
 The locks on the Lincoln have a larger, coarser curl than 
 on the Leicester. 
 
MORE IMPORTANT BREEDS OF SHEEP 
 
 459 
 
 Fig. 250. Lincoln ram "Dowsby 350 Guineas," first prize, Royal Agri- 
 cultural Society of England Show. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS FOR LINCOLN SHEEP. 
 
 (Adopted by American Lincoln Sheep Breeders' Association.) 
 
 Points 
 Constitution Body deep, back wide and straight; wide and full in thigh; 
 
 bright, large eyes; skin soft and of a pink color 
 
 Size Mature rams not less than 250 poundsi, when in good condition. 
 
 Matured ewes not less than 200 pounds 10 
 
 Appearance Good carriage and symmetry of form 10 
 
 Body Well proportioned, good bone and length; broad hindquarters; 
 
 legs standing well apart ; breast wide and deep 
 
 Head Should be covered with wool to the ears; tuft on forehead; eyes 
 
 expressive ; ears fair length ; dotted or mottled in color . . . . 10 
 
 Neck Medium length ; good muscle ; well set on body 5 
 
 Less Broad and well set apart; good shape; color white, but some 
 
 black spots do not disqualify ; wooled to the knees 10 
 
 Fleece Of good even length and quality over body; not less than 8 inches 
 
 long for one year's growth 10 
 
 Quality of wool Rather fine, long wool; strong, lustrous fiber; no ten- 
 dency to cot 5 
 
 Total.. 10 
 
 25 
 
 15 
 
460 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 The Bomney Marsh breed of sheep originated on the 
 low-lying meadows of county Kent, in eastern England. 
 This is a pure white, hornless breed. On these lowlands 
 Eomneys are said to be comparatively free from foot-rot. 
 The head is covered with hard, white hair up to the forehead, 
 which is tufted over with short wool. The nose has a Roman 
 tendency and the nostrils are black in color. The muzzle 
 
 Fig. 251. Romney Marsh ram, a winner at the Royal Agricultural Society 
 of England Show. (Photo by courtesy American Sheep Breeder.) 
 
 has a bluish tint. The ears are of a medium size, and more or 
 less covered with wool. In size, the mature rams weigh 
 about 200 pounds, and the ewes 140 to 160 pounds. This 
 breed has been improved considerably in recent years, and 
 to-day is a fairly thick, compact type of sheep, with con- 
 siderable width of back and depth of rib, and carrying a 
 heavy leg of mutton. The fleece is of the long wool class 
 
MORE IMPORTANT BREEDS OF SHEEP 461 
 
 of the finer sort, somewhat open, and weighs about eight 
 pounds under average conditions. There are but a few 
 of these sheep in America, an effort having been made, 
 however, in recent years to introduce them on the western 
 range. 
 
 The American Merino (or Spanish Merino) is a sheep of 
 Spanish ancestry, the characteristics of which are set forth 
 in the discussion of the Class A Merino, which is the same 
 thing. There are various families of these sheep, but they 
 all possess the same general features, and their blood is 
 more or less intermingled. 
 
 The Delaine Merino is of American breeding, but de- 
 scended from sheep imported from Spain early in the nine- 
 
 FJg. 252. Rambouillet ram "Altamont," champion at the International 
 Live Stock Exposition, 1905. (Photo by courtesy Mr. George Truesdell.) 
 
402 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 teenth century. Delaine Merinoes may be either of Class B 
 or C type, the descriptions of which have already been given 
 in detail. 
 
 The Rambouillet breed of sheep is a Merino of the De- 
 laine type, but of French ancestry. The differences be- 
 tween the Rambouillet and Class C Merino in color mark- 
 ings, conformation, size and fleece are very slight. In 
 fact, the blood of the French Merino in times past has been 
 mingled more or less with the Delaine. During recent 
 years of breeding, the Rambouillet has been bred to some- 
 what greater size, but even then the difference is not always 
 marked. The Rambouillet rams will average about 185 
 pounds at maturity, and the ewes 150 pounds or slightly 
 more. The fleece at one year of age is usually three inches 
 long, of fine, soft quality, carrying a moderate amount of 
 oil, and weighing about fifteen pounds as taken from ma- 
 ture rams, and ten pounds from ewes. Rambouillet sheep 
 vary considerably in type, ranging from Class B to Class C 
 in form and fleece character. At the Ohio State Fair, 
 Rambouillet sheep have been exhibited in two general 
 classes, B and C, on the same general basis that Merino 
 sheep are given these two type classifications. 
 
CHAPTER XLIII. 
 
 THE ANGORA GOAT. 
 
 The native home of the Angora goat is the province of 
 Angora, in Asia Minor, some 200 miles south by southeast 
 from Constantinople.. Many years ago some goats were 
 brought to America under the name of Cashmere, that are 
 now known to have been true Angoras. 
 
 The characteristics of the Angora goat, of the more im- 
 proved type, are as follows : The color is pure white. The 
 Angora is somewhat smaller than the common short-haired 
 goat, the bucks weighing from 60 to 100 pounds, and the 
 does about 50 pounds. The two most striking features of 
 this goat are the head and the fleece. The head is fine, 
 the forehead being comparatively broad, the eyes bright 
 and fairly prominent, and the muzzle broad. The grayish, 
 flat-like horns are somewhat heavy on the male, and turn 
 back and twist outward and backward for 18 to 20 inches, 
 the tips being widely separated. The horns on the doe 
 show little twist, rise upward and then turn back, being 
 comparatively small. The thin, pointed ears average six 
 to eight inches in length, and about two in width, and are 
 what might be termed semi-pendant. The head should be 
 carried erect and with vigor. The body tends to be round, 
 and deep of rib, with comparatively level back. Width of 
 chest is emphasized as evidence of constitution. Angoras 
 frequently show narrow, droopy rumps, a very undesirable 
 conformation which judges should severely discriminate 
 against. Shortness of leg, strong bone, and well carried 
 pasterns are much to be desired. The short stub of tail 
 is usually carried rather erect. The usual color of the skin 
 is a bright pink. 
 
 463 
 
464 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 The fleece of the Angora, commonly known as Mohair 
 in the market, is a class of hair differing from wool in having 
 no exterior scales of importance. The fleece is pure white 
 under natural conditions, and covers the entire body ex- 
 cepting the face, which is usually covered with hard, white 
 hair between the lower part of the forehead and nostrils. 
 
 Fig. 253. Angora goat, "Lazarus," a noted champion. (Photo by courtesy 
 American Sheep Breeder.) 
 
 In fact, there are two classes of hair on the Angora, one 
 that is short and kempy, lying close to the skin, and the 
 other the mohair which occurs in wavy curls over the body, 
 attaining a length of about ten inches after a year's 
 growth. The locks should have their corkscrew-like curls 
 carried up close to the body. A wavy staple without much 
 
THE ANGORA GOAT 465 
 
 curl is an evidence of coarseness. The fleece has a beautiful 
 lustre which gives to mohair cloth its attractive silky 
 character. This quality of lustre is one of the important 
 features of the fleece. A pure-bred Angora of good breed- 
 ing in a year will produce a fleece that will usually weigh 
 five or six pounds, inferior individuals shearing about half 
 that weight. In judging the Angora, special attention 
 should be given to uniformity in fineness and length of 
 staple, and to the prevalence of kemp, which is regarded 
 as highly undesirable. Kemp, either white or gray, is quite 
 common among Angoras, and seriously injures the value 
 of the fleece. 
 
 The following very unique standard and scale of points 
 gives no descriptive matter, but enables the judge to classify 
 certain features within three grades of merit, viz.: "extra 
 good," credited with 20 points; "good," credited with 14; 
 and "medium" credited with 8. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS FOE THE ANGORA GOAT. 
 
 (AilopUMl by the American Angora (Joat Association.) 
 
 Extra 
 
 Good Good Medium 
 
 Points Points Points 
 
 Fineness and lustre of fleece 20 14 8 
 
 Quantity of fleece 20 14 8 
 
 Freedom from kemp 20 14 8 
 
 Size of bone, breadth and depth of carcass 20 14 8 
 
 Constitution and form 20 14 8 
 
 Total . 100 70 40 
 
CHAPTER XLIV. 
 
 THE MILCH GOAT. 
 
 THE goat is widely used over the world as a source of milk 
 supply among the poorer people. Over much of continental 
 Europe Milch goats are a common sight in the market and 
 about the homes of people of limited means. There are 
 numerous breeds or kinds of goats used for this purpose, 
 but some are much greater producers of milk than are 
 others. 
 
 The judging of Milch goats at the present day, accord- 
 ing to Pegler, 1 is largely based on a consideration of the 
 following features, in the order given: (1) milking quali- 
 ties; (2) size and shape; (3) quality and condition; (4) 
 color and markings. 
 
 The milking quali- 
 ties of the goat are 
 manifested in the 
 appearance of the 
 udder, and the rela- 
 tionship of its size, 
 form and quality to 
 the period of lacta- 
 tion. The form of 
 the udder as viewed 
 from behind should 
 be wide and deep, 
 pressing close 
 against the thighs. 
 The goat udder is 
 
 Fig. 254. "The milking qualities of the goat distinctly pendant, 
 are manifested in the appearance of the udder." , , ' J^ 
 
 (Photo by courtesy Orange Judd Company.) and has but two 
 
 1 The Book of the Goat. H. S. Holmes Pegler. Fourth edition. London, 
 1910, p. 276. 
 
THK MILCH GOAT 407 
 
 teats, so from a side view one should not empha- 
 size length as in the case of a cow. The udder 
 should be comparatively large, but of superior qual- 
 ity, and this cannot be determined oftentimes without 
 first milking the goat. The udder should not be fleshy, but 
 should be mellow and elastic, and free from hardness or 
 lumps of any kind. The teats should be considered in re- 
 gard to their size, form, position on the udder and conveni- 
 
 ng. 255. "Much the same conformation is sought as is found in the 
 
 dairy cow.'' 
 
 ence of handling. They should be of comparatively large 
 size, long, cylindrical, and not too wedge-shaped. The teats 
 should be neatly suspended at the bottom of the udder, 
 so that they may be conveniently grasped and the goat 
 milked from the rear. Superfluous teats are undesirable, 
 as they are in the way, and if they yield milk, this is an 
 injury rather than a benefit. The ease with which the goat 
 
468 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 milks is an important matter and this cannot be determined 
 unless the judge performs the operation. With some ani- 
 mals the milk flows freely, while it is drawn from others 
 with difficulty. 
 
 The size and shape of the Milch goat naturally have an 
 important relationship to production. Pegler states that 
 size carries but little recommendation, and that no judge 
 
 worthy the name 
 would think of plac- 
 ing a tall, leggy 
 goat, shallow of 
 frame and with a 
 small udder over an- 
 other, little more 
 than half its height 
 perhaps, showing a 
 good shape and a 
 large bag. "Size is 
 a quality affecting 
 kids and goatlings 
 rather than full- 
 grown goats, but as 
 we encourage it in 
 these immature ani- 
 mals we cannot alto- 
 gether ignore it when the same animals become fully de- 
 veloped. ' ' Much the same conformation is sought as is found 
 in the dairy cow. The type and style of head depends some- 
 what on the breed, but it should show much quality, be wide 
 at the forehead, and gracefully taper to the muzzle, Avith 
 preferably no beard. The neck should be slender ; the chest 
 wide ; the withers sharp ; the back long and level ; the body 
 deep ; the hip bones wide apart ; the rump long, wide and 
 level ; the thighs thin and widely arched between ; the legs 
 short and well carried. The goat naturally tends to have 
 a droopy and peaked rump, and the judge should discrim- 
 
 Fig. 256. "The goat naturally tends to hnvo a 
 droopy and peaked rump." 
 
THE MILCH GOAT 
 
 469 
 
 inate severely against this defect. "If there is a point on 
 which judges are apt to give exercise to their fancy/' says 
 Pegler, "it is in regard to horns. There is no doubt that 
 most breeders, whether acting as judges or buyers, give 
 preference (other points being about equal) to a goat with- 
 out horns ; but if these ornaments, as some consider them, 
 are present, they should undoubtedly be small and slender 
 rather than coarse and heavy. Sharp-pointed horns rising 
 
 Fig. 257. A Saanen goat on pasture in Switzerland. 
 
 perpendicularly from the head, are decidedly objectionable 
 from a practical point of view, as they are unquestionably 
 in some degree dangerous. The best shaped, in the writer's 
 opinion, are those which lie close to the head, curving back 
 like the horns in some sheep." 
 
 Quality and condition with the Milch goat are important 
 factors, especially quality. This is shown in neatness of 
 form, fineness of bone, in a close, glossy coat of soft, fine 
 
470 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 hair, and in a thin, mellow hide. Quality has an important 
 influence in securing success where real merit is concerned. 
 Condition indicates the degree of flesh and bloom, and this 
 will, of necessity, influence the judge more or less. It does 
 not, however, affect the intrinsic merit of an animal. Other 
 
 Fig. 258. Toggenburg buck "Crown Prince." (Photo by 
 courtesy Prof. F. K. Cooke of Illinois.) 
 
 things being equal, the animal showing the best condition 
 should receive preference. 
 
 The color and markings of Milch goats have very little 
 bearing upon the exhibits, unless in a special breed class. 
 Excepting with certain Swiss breeds, goats are not usually 
 judged from a breed point of view. Color is purely a mat- 
 ter of taste or fancy. 
 
THi; MILCH GOAT 
 
 471 
 
 The Saanen breed of Milch goats comes from the valley 
 of that name in Switzerland, though widely distributed in 
 that country to-day. It is the largest Swiss breed, is pure 
 white or creamy white in color, and usually hornless. It is 
 very attractive, having breedy looking heads, slender 
 necks, full chest;-!, sharp withers, strong backs, deep 
 bodies, and fairly wide and level rumps, and large udders 
 
 
 
 Fiji. 259. Toggenburg milch goat. (Photo by courtesy Mr. Will C. Clos.) 
 
 carried high. There are many excellent milkers of this 
 breed. Thompson gives a record of ten Saanen goats that 
 made annual records of from 423 to 951 quarts. 
 
 The Toggenburg breed of Milch goats is a native of 
 the Toggenburg valley, in Switzerland. This goat is a 
 medium brown in color, with a white band passing along 
 down each side of the face from eyes to mouth. The breed 
 is usually hornless. The head is broad of forehead, has 
 
472 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 some dish of face, and the ears are of moderate size and 
 usually carried erect. The males have a coarse beard and 
 are rather more free of offensive odor than male goats of 
 other breeds. Toggenburgs differ in character of coat of hair, 
 some animals having rough, long coats, others short ones, 
 and still others, coats of a medium character. The udder 
 seems capable of great capacity. When full it is carried 
 high between the legs and has large, long teats. Many of 
 these goats produce from four to five quarts of milk a day, 
 while the best yield as high as seven quarts. 
 
PART V. JUDGING SWINE. 
 
 CHAPTER XLV. 
 
 THE ANATOMY OF THE HOG. 
 
 The skeleton of the hog" is characterized by certain in- 
 teresting features. The skull varies considerably in length 
 and profile, that of the wild boar being long and slanting, 
 while some domestic breeds have very short skulls with a 
 deeply concave face. The frontal bone rises from the 
 center of the face into a high crest, while at the opposite 
 end, at the snout, between the nostrils, is a small prenasal 
 bone shaped like a three-sided prism. Perhaps the most 
 striking feature of the skeleton is the skull. Youatt makes 
 the following interesting reference to it and its special 
 purpose : J 
 
 * ' A very slight comparison of the face of this animal with 
 that of any other will prove that strength is the object in 
 view; strength toward the inferior part of the bone. In 
 point of fact, the snout of the hog is his spade, with which 
 in his natural state, he digs and grubs in the ground for 
 roots, earth nuts, worms, etc. And to render his implement 
 more perfect, an extra bone is added to the nasal bone. 
 This one is short and trificial and placed directly before 
 the nasal bones, with which, and with the edges of the an- 
 terior maxillary, it is connected by strong ligaments, car- 
 tilages and muscles. This bone has been termed the spade 
 bone, snout bone, and by some writers the vomer, from its 
 supposed resemblance to a plowshare. By it and its carti- 
 laginous attachments is the snout rendered strong as well 
 
 i The Pig, 1847, p. 78. 
 
 473 
 
474 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 as flexible, and far more efficient than it could otherwise be ; 
 and the hog often contrives to give both farmers and gar- 
 deners very unpleasant proofs of its efficiency by plowing 
 up deep furrows in newly sown fields and grubbing up 
 the soil in all directions in search of his living and dead 
 food." 
 
 There are six short, wide and powerful cervical ver- 
 tebra?, 14 or 15 thoracic vertebrae, and six or seven lumbar 
 vertebrae The sacrum usually consists of four vertebra? 
 which, with age, become fused together, and there are from 
 20 to 26 vertebrae in the coccyx. There are 14 or 15 pairs 
 of ribs which have a strong curve in the improved breeds. 
 The thorax is longer and more barrel-shaped than in horse 
 or cattle. The shoulder blade (scapula) is quite wide and 
 has a considerable bony prominence on its face. The prin- 
 cipal leg bones are comparatively short and strong. The 
 bones of the feet, that is the metacarpal and metatarsal 
 bones, are in four sets. The hog stands on the two larger 
 central toes, while two smaller ones, known by stockmen 
 as the ' ' dew claws, ' ' are behind and slightly elevated above 
 the level of the middle toes. 
 
 The teeth of the hog number 44, there being in each jaw 
 14 molars, six incisors and two canines. The molars in- 
 crease in size from front to rear. The incisors are small 
 and have a very slanting position in the lower jaw. The 
 upper incisors are somewhat curved. The canine teeth 
 are curved and long, mature boars having tusks that are 
 very powerful and sharp. The lower canines in the boar 
 sometimes reach a length of eight inches or more. 
 
 Determining the age of swine by means of the teeth is 
 not easy, neither is it necessary under ordinary conditions. 
 In fact the mouth of the hog is less easily examined than is 
 that of other domestic animals. If one wishes to examine 
 the mouth, the best method is to place a slip-noose about the 
 upper jaw, drawing it fairly tight, and fastening the other 
 end of the rope to a post. The hog will pull back, squealing 
 hard, with the mouth open, under which conditions the teeth 
 
476 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 can be examined. The following very clear statement of age 
 of teething in swine, is by Dr. D. Mclntosh. 2 
 
 "At birth, the young pig has eight teeth four tem- 
 porary incisors and four temporary tushes ; about the tenth 
 day appear the second and third temporary molars ; at one 
 month, four incisors are out, two in the upper and two in 
 the lower jaw ; about the sixth week, the temporary foremost 
 molars are visible ; at three months, two more are added to 
 each jaw; at this period all the milk teeth are in position. 
 Time is then allowed for the jaws and teeth to grow, and at 
 six months, in the majority of pigs, a small tooth comes up 
 on either side of the lower jaw, behind the temporary tushes, 
 between them and the molars; and in the upper jaw, 
 directly in front of the molars ; at six months, the fourth 
 molar appears through the gums ; at nine months the corner 
 incisors are displaced and permanent ones make their 
 appearance. The permanent tushes are also cut at this time, 
 and the fifth molar on each side of both jaws makes its 
 appearance. At one year the middle incisors are replaced 
 by permanent ones, and by this time the tushes are of a 
 considerable size ; at this period the temporary incisors are 
 shed and replaced by permanent ones ; at eighteen months, 
 in most pigs, dentition is complete, as the lateral incisors 
 and the sixth molar are up." 
 
 The stomach of the hog has a capacity of about one and 
 a half to two gallons. Sisson states 3 that its left part is 
 large and rounded, while the right part is small, and bends 
 sharply upward to join the small intestine. There is a large, 
 blind pouch in the upper end of the stomach, the diverticu- 
 lum ventriculi. The stomach of the hog is much more 
 simple than that of the ox or sheep. 
 
 The intestine of the hog is about fifteen times the length 
 of the body, the small part being from 50 to 65 feet long 
 and the larger 12 to 15 feet long. 
 
 The liver is relatively large, weighing about four pounds 
 
 2 Diseases of Swine, 1897, p. 22. 
 
 8 The Anatomy of the Domestic Animals, 1914, p. 483. 
 
THE ANATOMY OF THE HOG 
 
 477 
 
 in the mature animal. The hirl is small, usually 
 less than a pound. 'Pile /. - /V///r//,s i are smooth and 
 shaped, about twice as long as broad. The bladder is thin 
 and has considerable capacity. 
 
 The skin of the hog in the improved breeds varies in 
 character, and ranges in thickness from one to two milli- 
 meters (.04 .08 inch). The sebaceous glands in the skin, 
 according to Sisson, are small, and not so abundant as with 
 most other animals, while the sweat glands, to the contrary, 
 are large, yellow or brownish in color, and may often be 
 seen with the naked eye. The exterior layer of the skin is 
 much tougher and denser than with other domestic animals, 
 and contains many large pores. Numerous fine blood ves- 
 sels, capillaries and nerves extend through the delicate 
 under layer of skin. Eeferring to the quality of the skin, 
 Youatt states 4 that in some of the large, old breeds it is 
 thick, coarse, tough and almost as impenetrable, in compari- 
 son, as the hide of a rhinoceros ; while in many of the smaller 
 breeds, and particularly in those which have a considerable 
 admixture of Asiatic blood, and in the Chinese pigs them- 
 selves, it is soft, fine and delicate, and bears no slight degree 
 of resemblance to the skin of a human being. 
 
 The hair of the hog is quite variable, according to the in- 
 dividual, or to the 
 part of the body on 
 which it grows. The 
 coarsest, heaviest 
 hairs are found 
 along the back over 
 the spine, and espe- 
 cially over the neck 
 and shoulders. 
 These hairs are 
 known as bristles, 
 and in the case of 
 male hogs, they 
 
 Fig. 261. "Some individuals have coats of 
 curly hair." This is a Lincolnshire Curly Coated 
 pig, a British breed. 
 
 < The Pig, 1847, p. 107. 
 
478 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 are sometimes raised more or less erect in time of anger 
 or excitement. The bristles are often very coarse and long 
 especially on boars of large size that show much masculinity. 
 The finer, softer hair is found along the sides of the body. 
 There is considerable range of difference in the character of 
 the hair, even in case of the same breed. Some individuals 
 have coats of curly hair, but this is not popular among 
 producers of pure-bred swine, the straight, smooth coat be- 
 ing preferred. Occasionally on a hog, the hair on the back, 
 at some spot not over two or three inches in diameter, will 
 be more or less awry or twisted, forming what is known as 
 a swirl among stockmen. While the swirl is of no special 
 significance, breeders of pure-bred stock discriminate 
 against it, and sell animals having this peculiarity for less 
 money than they otherwise would. The hair about the 
 head is also often coarse, short and wiry. 
 
CHAPTER XL VI. 
 
 THE PORK CARCASS AND ITS CUTS. 
 
 To be able to judge swine intelligently, it is necessary lo 
 understand into what the carcass of the hog, as a product of 
 the feeder's art, may be transformed in its final analysis. 
 The average man knows that from the carcass of the hog 
 are taken hams, pork chops, spare ribs, etc., but he little 
 knows or cares for further information. The qualified 
 judge, however, understands that the carcass of the hog 
 cuts into parts of different values and for various domestic 
 uses. Further, he must learn, as a preliminary part. of the 
 study of animal form, that in order to have a carcass of 
 first quality and value, it is necessary to have a live animal 
 of first quality and high-class conformation. High-class 
 meat is a product of quality, and high-priced cuts come 
 from the parts that the intelligent breeder attempts to re- 
 produce in the highest degree of perfection. 
 
 The dressed carcass of the hog shows a smaller per cent 
 of waste than any other farm animal. Ordinarily, the hog 
 will dress out close to 80 per cent carcass and 20 per cent 
 offal for fattened stock. The older and more heavily fat- 
 tened, the greater the per cent of carcass to offal. In the 
 prize hog carcasses at one International Live Stock Ex- 
 position, the smallest per cent of carcass to offal was 83.2, 
 and the greatest 88.3 per cent. A record of 85 per cent 
 carcass and 15 per cent offal at an American hog carcass 
 show, is not at all remarkable. At the European shows, 
 such as the Smithfield of London, where the bacon type 
 prevails, the dressing out percentage is considerably Irs; 
 than the highest American records. The weights of carcass 
 vary greatly, but 160 to 250 pounds are popular, while ii 1 
 the market desires lard, a still heavier weight up to 400 
 
 479 
 
480 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 pounds gives a fat back and a high dressing out weight ii ! 
 well fattened. Figures show that the hog has less waste in 
 killing than any other farm animal. The butcher in selling 
 the carcass, has much less waste than with either beef or 
 mutton, for as a rule he receives a good price for his extra 
 fat or leaf lard. 
 
 The wholesale cuts of the pork carcass especially in- 
 terest the student of animal conformation. He should be 
 familiar with these, where they come from and their relative 
 values. A knowledge of the retail cuts, while desirable, is 
 less necessary. 
 
 The pork carcass when ready for cutting up consists of 
 the body, legs, feet, head and ears, complete, less the internal 
 organs, excepting the kidneys. The body is split completely 
 through on the under line, from the tail to brisket. From 
 this point there is some slight difference in cutting, accord- 
 ing to the market classes and uses. However, in general 
 practice, the carcass is cut into two sides. Sometimes the 
 head is divided into two parts, and sometimes it is cut 
 off entirely at the neck. 
 
 The parts of the pork carcass are not many, and are 
 easily separated into their several groups. In the large 
 packing-houses, a common sight is to see a half of a dressed 
 hog drop from a floor above to a large chopping block, about 
 which stand three or four men with great cleavers attached 
 to axe-like handles. With one well-directed blow, each man 
 in turn strikes the carcass, so that in a trice the side before 
 them is neatly reduced to standard wholesale cuts, and 
 shoved on to be cared for by the sorters. The wholesale 
 parts of dressed hogs may be divided into the following 
 general classes : Hams, sides, bellies, backs, loins, shoulders, 
 tutts and plates, and miscellaneous. 
 
 The grading 1 of pork cuts, says Prof. L. D. Hall, 1 is more 
 complex than that of other meats since it involves not only 
 their quality, shape, proportions of fat and lean, and 
 
 1 Market Classes and Grades of Meats. Bull. 147, Illinois Agr. Exp. Station, 
 1910. This is a very valuable publication, beautifully and extensively illustrated. 
 
Fig. 202. "The sides of Hie hog carcass: 1, ham; 2, middle piece; 3, 
 belly piece; 4. shoulder; 5, Boston butt; 6, head. (Photo by courtesy 
 ',.lletf of Veterinary Medicine, Ohio State University.) 
 
 481 
 
482 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 weight, but also the styles of cutting and methods of pack- 
 ing by which they are prepared for different classes of trade. 
 Many of the grade names refer merely to different methods 
 of cutting and curing; but since they are applied only to 
 cuts of specified quality, thickness or weight, the grades are 
 in reality based on the latter factors to a large extent. The 
 various cuts differ considerably as to methods of grading; 
 consequently an adequate explanation of the factors in- 
 volved, and their relative importance, can be presented only 
 by describing the grades of each class. 
 
 As a matter of simplicity and convenience, the following 
 parts will be briefly referred to as representing standard 
 cuts. 
 
 The hams are cut off just in front of the point of the hips, 
 and are neatly trimmed as may be necessary. However, 
 there are two distinct types of ham cuts, the one given being 
 the American cut. The English and Scotch have a longer 
 cut beyond the point of hip. The leg should then be cut 
 off, and in some cases it is severed just above the hock, and 
 in other cases just below it. Hams pack better with a 
 shorter leg. 
 
 The middle piece is the entire part between the end of 
 ham at hip, and back of shoulder. This is separated from 
 the shoulder between the fourth and fifth ribs. This middle 
 piece is of great importance, because it contains the side 
 from which bacon is produced, while its upper part fur- 
 nishes pork chops or roast pieces. Along the back in fat 
 hogs is a layer of white fat, sometimes over three inches 
 thick. This is what is known as a fat back. The packer 
 slices this off in long strips, from which lard is made. Be- 
 low the back is the loin piece, which furnishes some of the 
 most popular fresh meat of the carcass. In the lower third 
 is a part termed the belly strip. Bacon of various grades 
 and classes is made from the entire middle strip, and some 
 of the highest class bacon, such as the Wiltshire side, con- 
 sists of the side, ham and shoulder left in one piece, and 
 then specially treated for the purpose. However, such a 
 
THE PORK CARCASS AND ITS CUTS 
 
 483 
 
 type of bacon is not com- 
 mon in America, the smaller 
 side, free of shoulder and 
 ham, being used. 
 
 The shoulder is separated 
 from the head, just back of 
 the ears, and the leg is cut 
 off above the knee joint. 
 The shoulder is prepared 
 into several styles of cuts, 
 and is often sold under 
 the trade name of picnic or 
 California ham. Pieces 
 called butts are cut from 
 the top of the shoulder and 
 from the jowl. 
 
 The head is not very 
 valuable, but is used as 
 
 Swifts StandardPadcCuts 
 Chicago Jftyle 
 
 Fly. 263. "The various cuts differ con 
 stderably as to methods of grading." 
 
 It 
 
 fresh meat, for scrapple, sausage and head cheese, 
 also pickled. 
 
 The relative amounts and values of pork cuts, as secured 
 from a 250-pound hog, that dressed out about 80 per cent 
 ;nv thus reported by Wallace's Farmer (Dec. 8, 1911) : 
 
 CUTS AND PRODUCTS 
 Hams 
 
 Weight 
 Ibs. 
 35 
 
 Price 
 per Ib. 
 $0 17 
 
 Shoulders 
 
 30 
 
 .10 
 
 Sides -thick 
 
 25 
 
 .10 
 
 Sides thin 
 
 . .. 21 
 
 .20 
 
 Lard -. . . 
 
 . .. 30 
 
 .15 
 
 Sp;m> ribs, head, feet, backbone 
 
 S:uisa"-e. . 
 
 . .. 40 
 18 
 
 .07 
 .20 
 
 Total 
 
 199 Av. $0.14.1 
 
CHAPTER XLVII. 
 
 THE COMMON TYPES OF SWINE. 
 
 ACCORDING to present standards, all breeds and kinds of 
 hogs may be divided into two groups or types, as they are 
 commonly called. By far the most common, especially in 
 America, is known as the lard type. The essential features 
 in this case include shortness of head and neck. Consider- 
 able relative width of back and fullness of ham, depth of 
 body, shortness of leg, and when well fattened, a thick layer 
 of fat over back, sides and hams. The ~bacon type usually 
 exhibits length in various parts, as shown in the head, neck, 
 body and legs. In this type the back is narrower, the length 
 of side more pronounced, and the hams lack the thickness 
 seen in the other case. There are certain distinguishing 
 
 Fig. 264. "All breeds and kinds of hogs may be 
 divided into two groups or types." 
 
 484 
 
THE COMMON TYPES OF SWINE 485 
 
 features, irrespective of breed, in each type. The lard hog 
 is, as the name implies, a producer of excess fat or lard, is 
 phlegmatic of temperament and tends to produce few rather 
 than many young at birth. The bacon hog is valued for its 
 length of side, from which bacon is secured, is very active 
 in temperament;, and usually produces large litters. The 
 lard hog, in its more highly developed form, is a product of 
 the great corn-growing section of the Central United States, 
 and is well represented in the vast majority of the hogs that 
 find their way into the American slaughter house. The 
 bacon type is produced in only a small way in this country, 
 while it is quite universal in Europe, where a leaner type of 
 hog is in demand, and where bacon is an important item of 
 consumption. All breeding operations which result in re- 
 ducing the length of head, of body, and of legs, simply 
 emphasize lard conformation. The best examples of the 
 bacon type have long heads, great proportionate length of 
 body, and long legs. Very fattening foods, like corn, pro- 
 mote the lard type, while the small cereals, especially barley, 
 oats and the by-products of wheat, and skim milk, promote 
 the bacon type. 
 
CHAPTER XLVIII. 
 
 JUDGING THE LARD TYPE OF SWINE BY THE 
 SCALE OF POINTS. 
 
 The scale of points for the lard type or fat hog, which 
 follows, may be used for the first study of this animal. 
 The hog to be scored will be analyzed with the aid of this 
 standard : 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS FOR FAT HOGS OF LAED TYPE. 
 
 Standard of Score of 
 SCALE OF POINTS Perfect Hog 
 
 Score Studied 
 A GENERAL APPEARANCE, 34 Points: 
 
 Weight: Score according to age, 175 Ibs. for 6 mos. ; 
 
 300 Ibs. at 1 year 4 .... 
 
 Form, broad, deep, low, symmetrical, compact, 
 
 standing well 10 .... 
 
 Quality, hair fine, skin smooth, no coarseness of bone 10 .... 
 
 Condition, deep, firm, even covering flesh, giving 
 
 smooth finish 10 .... 
 
 B HEAD AND NECK, 7 Points: 
 
 Snout, neither coarse nor long 1 .... 
 
 Face, wide between eyes, cheeks full, without 
 
 wrinkles . . 1 .... 
 
 Eyes, mild, good size, to be easily seen 1 .... 
 
 Ears, not coarse, of medium size, neatly attached. . 1 .... 
 
 Jowl, smooth, broad, full to shoulders 1 .... 
 
 Neck, thick, short, broad on top 2 .... 
 
 C FOREQUARTERS, 12 Points: 
 
 Shoulders, broad, deep, full, smooth, compact on top fi .... 
 
 Breast, wide, roomy 4 .... 
 
 Legs, straight, short, strong, wide apart, well set, 
 
 pastern upright, standing well upon toes . . 2 .... 
 
 D BODY, 32 Points: 
 
 Chest, deep, wide, large girth, flanks well filled . . 3 .... 
 Back, slightly arched, very broad, thickly and evenly 
 
 fleshed 9 .... 
 
 Loin, wide as back, full and strong 8 .... 
 
 Sides, fairly deep, not too long, smooth and full ham 
 
 to shoulder 6 .... 
 
 Belly, straight, wide, trim, not paunchy 4 .... 
 
 Flanks, full and low 2 .... 
 
 486 
 
JUDGING THE LARD TYPE OF SWINE 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS 
 
 Standard of 
 Points 
 Scored 
 E HINDQUARTERS, 15 Points: 
 
 Rump, same width as back, long, level, wide . . . . 3 
 Hams, deep, wide, thick, not wrinkled, fleshed well 
 
 to hock 10 
 
 Legs, straight, short, strong, wide apart, well set, 
 
 pasterns upright, strong, standing well on toes 2 
 
 Total points 
 
 100 
 
 487 
 
 Score of 
 
 Hog 
 Studied 
 
 The general appearance of the hog first requires atten- 
 tion. The animal should be kept more or less in motion, that 
 
 Fig. 265. THE POINTS OF THE HOG. 
 
 it may be seen from various points of view. The judge may 
 quietly move it about in a small area, so as to comprehend 
 the size, proportion, quality and condition. One should 
 look down over the back to note the width of body from 
 above, while from one side, length and depth of body, and 
 carriage of head, back and legs are especially to be noted. 
 From front or rear one sees thickness of body at each end, 
 with placings of legs and feet. The weight is not impor- 
 
488 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 tant, excepting as associated with age. A pig that has been 
 well fed and cared for after being weaned, should gain 
 in weight from three-fourths of a pound to one pound a 
 day. A satisfactory weight of a fat hog at six months of 
 age is about 175 pounds, and at twelve months is about 
 300 pounds. The market demands as to weight vary, some- 
 times heavy hogs being wanted, while again lightweights 
 are preferred. In general, 250 pounds is a satisfactory 
 
 Fig. 266. "This thick, deep form suggests the very greatest meat-carrying 
 
 capacity." 
 
 weight. In the great Chicago hog market, where nearly 
 nine million hogs have been received in a year, the average 
 weight is not far from 225 pounds per head. "Winter 
 weights usually run lighter than those of summer by twenty- 
 five pounds or so. With a standard of four points for per- 
 fect weight, an animal weighing much under the standard 
 should be scored accordingly. Suppose a weight of 
 225 pounds at one year, then three points might show the 
 measurement for weight of the pig being scored. A greater 
 
JUDGING THE LAUD TYPE OF S\VINK 489 
 
 weight than 300 pounds is not usually to be regarded as 
 a fault, and hence should be given perfect score. 
 
 The form of the lard hog- should be broad, deep, low set, 
 symmetrical, smooth and compact, supported on legs that 
 are strong and squarely placed. Thickness and smoothness 
 of outline are essential, with the parts most valuable to the 
 butcher highly developed, especially the back, sides and 
 hams. A general view shows the sides of the body widely 
 
 Fig. 267. "The hair serves as a protection in summer and winter and 
 should be abundant rather than sparse." (Photo by courtesy Mr. L. E. 
 Troeger.) 
 
 separated yet parallel, no wider in front than behind, while 
 the depth is such as to allow but little space between the 
 belly and ground. This thick, deep form suggests the very 
 greatest meat-carrying capacity. In fact, Europeans and 
 city people have often regarded the form of the lard type 
 as a monstrosity. As expressed in its most perfect form, 
 in a 250-pound pig that has been well fed there may be an 
 excess of fat; but such a form most perfectly illustrates 
 early maturity, a strong development of the parts of car- 
 
490 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 cass most in demand by consumers, and, as a rule, most 
 profitable feeding. The injury to form due to long-con- 
 tinued and unwise feeding should cast no reflections on the 
 ideal of the lard type of hog. 
 
 The quality of the lard hog is seen in the fineness of hair, 
 smoothness of skin and refinement of bone. The hair is one 
 of the best indicators of quality. There are, perhaps, greater 
 
 variations in qual- 
 ity of hair on the 
 hog than any other 
 class of farm ani- 
 mals. This has al- 
 ready been referred 
 to on page 477. The 
 hair on barrows or 
 sows should be 
 smooth, not coarse 
 nor wiry, and 
 should have a glos- 
 sy appearanc e 
 without special 
 hair serves as a 
 and should be 
 
 Fig. 268. "Creases, seams or wrinkles become 
 more evident with maturity. They prevail along 
 the sides of the body and particularly about the 
 shoulder, throat and face." 
 
 treatment aside from feeding. The 
 protection in summer and winter, 
 abundant rather than sparse. Hogs that kill out best do 
 not have notably coarse hair. Too fine hair, however, is 
 undesirable, indicating an animal of over refinement, that 
 will not hold up to strong feeding. The skin is an impor- 
 tant indicator of quality. It should be smooth and free of 
 wrinkles. Creases, seams or wrinkles (different names for 
 the same thing) become more evident with maturity. They 
 prevail along the sides of the body, and particularly about 
 the shoulder, throat and face. Creases sometimes occur in 
 the thicker skin at the points mentioned, that may have a 
 depth of one-fourth inch or more. As hair usually grows 
 from these creases or seams, it is very difficult to scald 
 and remove satisfactorily from such a hog at killing 
 time. Inasmuch as a large per cent of the hogs slaughtered 
 
JUDGING THE LARD TYPE OF SWIXK J<)l 
 
 in America, after scalding are passed through an artificial 
 scraping machine to remove the hair, it can easily be under- 
 stood why buyers prefer hogs with smooth skins rather than 
 rough, creasy ones. The skin of the hog should also be mel- 
 low and uniform in quality over the entire body. The skin 
 about the shoulder, however, is tougher and thicker than it 
 is elsewhere. The pressure of the finger tips, or even of 
 a cane, on the skin at different points, will clearly 
 demonstrate this difference. On the males, the skin often 
 assumes great thickness and hardness at the shoulders, 
 forming what the swine breeder calls the ' * shields. ' ' These 
 are essentially an inheritance from the wild hog, and serve 
 as a protection from injury of the vital parts while fighting. 
 Boars fight by striking with their heads and tusks against 
 the heads and shoulders of their opponents. The strong 
 tusks of the boar cannot easily tear through this shield. In 
 the improved breeds of to-day, as reflected in the case of the 
 fat market hog, heavy, rough skin at the shoulder is objec- 
 tionable. The fat barrow, for example, should have a skin 
 exhibiting but little variation in quality at shoulder 
 or ham. A scurfy, scaly condition of skin may be 
 due to various causes, but is decidedly objection- 
 able. In hot climates white breeds are often troubled 
 with sun scald and scurfiness, for which reason hogs 
 of this color are not popular in the south. A black 
 or red skin absorbs heat from the air more quickly than 
 does the white, but these also radiate the heat more rapidly, 
 which process serves to cool the body. This explains why, 
 in the tropics, the dark-skinned hog is more popular than 
 the white, being associated with more comfort in keeping 
 cool. 
 
 The character of the bone in the hog is an important 
 indicator of quality. The bones about the head and legs 
 serve as the index of quality. If large and coarse, in pro- 
 portion to size of body, then quality is lacking, for beyond 
 a certain indefinable point, all excess bone is undesirable, 
 as representing waste from a food point of view. Bone in 
 
492 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 the hog, however, is regarded somewhat differently from 
 what it is with other farm animals. The demand is for a 
 large, smooth bone, of quality, free from coarseness at 
 joints. In fact, it is undoubtedly true that too much quality, 
 as shown in small and fine bone, is far too common with im- 
 proved breeds of swine to-day. The fat hog, weighing 250 
 to 300 pounds, requires a strong bone, to support so great 
 a weight in such small compass. In judging quality of 
 bone, insist on plenty of diameter in the shank bones half- 
 
 Fig. 269. "In judging quality of bone, insist on plenty of diameter in the 
 shank bones half-way between ankle and knee or hock." 
 
 way between ankle and knee or hock. Yet one need not 
 place too much stress on this where hogs are fattened, 
 ready for the butcher. It is far more important with breed- 
 ing stock. 
 
 The condition of the lard hog refers to the extent to 
 which fattening has been carried. When the hog is in 
 prime condition, the flesh is laid on smoothly and uniformly 
 and is firm to the touch. Fat hogs are frequently too fat 
 and are perhaps soft and flabby. Also, occasionally when 
 hogs are fed too long and get in high condition, the fat 
 along the sides, especially at the upper part of rib near the 
 
JUDGING THE LARD TYPE OF SWINE 493 
 
 shoulders, slips down toward the end of the rib. This gives 
 a sharply sloping or bevelled appearance on each side of 
 the upper third of the body, the rounded outline that at 
 one time prevailed having disappeared. If the hog is in 
 ideal condition, there is a trim and attractive finish of 
 appearance that is unmistakable. The extremely fat hog 
 in the show ring is not the butcher's ideal as to condition, 
 unless he is seeking a heavyweight from which a special 
 
 Fig. 270. "The extremely fat hog in the show ring is not the butcher's 
 ideal as to condition." 
 
 yield of lard is desired. In scoring, one is justified in dis- 
 criminating more against the extremely fat animal than 
 against the one that is not quite fat enough. Buyers and 
 judges, however, oftentimes give more credit to mere con- 
 dition than they should, especially in show-ring competi- 
 tion. This is illustrated by the fact that judges passing on 
 fat Berkshires at the International Live Stock Exposition, 
 sometimes give the highest awards to very fat animals, 
 
494 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 whereas barrows of this breed, to be in prime condition, 
 should not carry as much flesh and thickness as most Ameri- 
 can breeds of the lard type. 
 
 The head of the lard hog varies considerably in charac- 
 ter, but breed differences in this discussion are unimportant. 
 There are certain features that are regarded with favor 
 by all buyers. The head should be fairly short. Its length 
 is largely dependent on the length of snout. Too long a 
 snout is open to criticism as indicating waste in killing, 
 consequently a short snout, that is not rough and coarse 
 is preferred. The face should be wide in front, with ample 
 space between the eyes. "Width of face is correlated with 
 
 JTig. 271. "The face should be wide in front, with ample space between the 
 eyes. Width of face is correlated with width of body." 
 
JUDGING THE LARD TYPE OF SWINE 495 
 
 width of body. Creases on the side of the face sometimes 
 occur, but these are objectionable. Special treatment of the 
 head is frequently required after killing, in order to remove 
 the hairs from the creases of the face. The cheeks should 
 be full and smooth. In scoring the head, discriminate 
 especially against seams and roughness. The eyes of the 
 hog should be not only wide apart, but easily seen, having 
 clear whites. Such eyes indicate a quiet temperament. 
 Frequently the eyes are almost hidden, due to excessive fat 
 about this part of the head. Eyes in short, dish-faced heads 
 are less easily seen than in long heads. The eye of the hog 
 is naturally small, but his vision is far better than some 
 might suppose, if he has a fair chance at all for an outlook. 
 Partial or complete blindness is not rare among the im- 
 proved breeds, and this defect should result in disqualifica- 
 tion by the judge. The ears assume an erect position in some 
 cases, irrespective of breeds, while with others they may 
 droop over close to the face. This is not important unless 
 one is considering breed character. It is important, how- 
 ever, that the ear be of good texture, covered with fine 
 hair, and neatly attached to the head. The heavy, coarse 
 ear, large at the base, is indicative of general coarseness. 
 Some authorities, in describing the ideal ear, specify that 
 it should be small, but the large ear need not necessarily 
 be coarse. The ear may be large and thin, and quite lacking 
 in coarseness, as occurs with a number of European breeds. 
 If large and thick, and heavy at its attachment, the ear is 
 quite sure to be coarse and unshapely. The jowl is the 
 thick, fleshy part at the base of the lower jaw and neck. 
 This part usually carries considerable roundness and full- 
 ness, and indicates condition of fleshing. The fatter the 
 hog, the more highly developed the jowl, which in its best 
 form should be round, smooth and firm, and full to the 
 space between the shoulder points. One objectionable fea- 
 ture is often found at the jowl the occurrence of creases. 
 In judging, emphasize smoothness more than fatness. Flab- 
 
496 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 biness is also undesirable, a condition to be found in over- 
 fat hogs, when the jowl will shake like jelly, and show much 
 softness. As one feels of this part with the hand, it should 
 be reasonably firm and smooth to the touch. The neck of 
 the lard hog is naturally short, broad and deep. There is 
 little likelihood of its being too short, but occasionally there 
 is too much length. The neck naturally rises sharply from 
 back of the ears, for a short distance, after which it more 
 
 gradually rises to 
 the point where it 
 merges into the 
 body. The upper 
 part of the neck, 
 toward the head, 
 tends to be narrow 
 and somewhat bev- 
 elled on the sides, 
 rather than wide 
 and well rounded 
 off, as occurs gen- 
 erally farther back. 
 On the under side 
 of the neck consid- 
 erable fullness is 
 likely to occur with 
 the fat animal, 
 and often the 
 
 throat drops down a pendant, keel-shaped part, which ex- 
 tends back between the legs and quite near the ground. The 
 neck should blend smoothly with the body at the neck-vein 
 or shoulder point. In judging the neck, special emphasis 
 should be placed on a short conformation, as associated 
 with two things, viz., strength of constitution, and a smaller 
 percentage of low-priced meat. 
 
 The f orequarters, consisting of shoulders, breast and legs 
 are credited with 12 points. In the shoulder we find one 
 of the more important parts used as cured meat. If the 
 
 Fig. 272. "The neck naturally rises sharply 
 from back of the ears a short distance." 
 
JUDGING THE LARD TYPE OF SWINE 
 
 497 
 
 Fig. 273. "The shoulders themselves should 
 he well laid in, and besides the covering on the 
 sides, should he smooth and well filled out on 
 lop." 
 
 shoulder -vein is 
 well filled out, it 
 carries smoothly 
 and deeply over the 
 blade, resulting in 
 a wide, thick, meaty 
 shoulder, with no 
 hard prominence at 
 the point. Rough- 
 ness and coarse- 
 ness is not infre- 
 quent here. Creases 
 and hardness of 
 shoulder covering 
 are sometimes 
 found in fat stags 
 and sows, and some 
 barrows. The shoulders themselves should be well laid in, and 
 besides the covering on the sides, should be smooth and well 
 filled out on top. A wide, level, thick covering over the ends of 
 the blades is associated with the thick-fieshed type. The 
 breast occupies the space just at and in front of the fore- 
 legs, and blends 
 into the lower neck 
 and shoulder. 
 Width and fullness 
 should be features 
 of the breast, with 
 the breast-bone or 
 brisket carried well 
 forward, showing 
 evidence of consti- 
 tutional vigor. The 
 front legs should 
 be reasonablyshort, 
 
 c t T n n o- ami as Fig. 274. "Modern requirements demand a 
 
 pastern that is rather short and earned strongly 
 
 viewed from in upright." 
 
498 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 front or one side, straight and well set. A nat- 
 ural tendency is for the legs to curve in at the 
 knees, and sometimes the knee joint is markedly curved. 
 As viewed from in front, a slight curve of joint may be 
 expected, but only as consistent with natural joint develop- 
 ment, not enough, however, to justify the term "buck 
 kneed. " A narrow placing of the legs naturally indicates 
 lack of heart capacity and vitality, and when the knee 
 joints approach too closely to each other, a narrow chest 
 formation is sure to occur. The pasterns occupy the space 
 between toes and ankle joints. Much has been said by 
 swine men regarding the pasterns. Modern requirements 
 demand a pastern that is rather short and carried strongly 
 upright, with the hog well supported on the toes. It is 
 assumed that modern methods of feeding produce hogs that 
 are often unable to support their weight on upright toes 
 and pasterns, especially if they have been fattened and 
 pushed for early maturity. The reason so many hogs have 
 badly sloping or broken down pasterns, with the dew claws 
 touching the ground, is said to be because of this excessive 
 weight. However, the author questions the soundness of this 
 argument. It has been his observation, both on wild boars in 
 captivity, and with the bacon type of hogs, that weak pas- 
 terns are as much in evidence with these as with hogs of the 
 lard type, which carry much heavier weight. The upright, 
 strong pastern is probably more a feature of the improved 
 swine than of the old, wild or native stock. In early days, 
 before the railways, when hogs were driven to market, 
 strong legs and pasterns were most essential if an animal 
 was to be a good traveller. The necessity of upright pas- 
 terns probably is not so great to-day, nevertheless, it may 
 be assumed that they add to the strength of footing, and 
 carry bodily weight more easily than does the sloping so- 
 called weak pastern. The toes should not spread too wide 
 apart and, as viewed from in front, they should point 
 squarely ahead. A common weakness of front toe position 
 is "toeing in" or pigeon toe. From a side view the toes 
 
JUDGING THE LARD TYPE OF SWINE 
 
 499 
 
 should liave quite an erect position. However, animals that 
 are old or heavy frequently break down at the pasterns and 
 slope considerably both at this point and the toes. 
 
 The body of the hog is given 32 points more than to 
 any other one section in the scale of points. This is because 
 six parts are included here, two of which, the back and 
 loin, are most important from a meat-producing point of 
 view. The chest, which occupies the space just back of the 
 shoulders, gives 
 evidence of heart 
 and lung capacity, 
 hence a demand 
 here for width and 
 depth, and a dis- 
 tinctly large girth. 
 Special emphasis 
 should be given to 
 fullness at the front 
 flanks, and just 
 back of the shoul- 
 der. If the front 
 legs are short and 
 carried wide apart, 
 and the shoulders 
 are well laid in, as 
 a rule the chest 
 
 will show a wide girth, exhibiting plenty of con- 
 stitution. Certain features are associated with desira- 
 ble chest conformation, viz. : the low-set floor, and a 
 wide placement of the legs. The chest girth of 
 the hog is relatively large, and a measurement of 38 
 inches at 9 months of age is quite common. Matured fat 
 hogs may girth 70 inches or more. The back of the hog 
 naturally rises in a slight arch, as reference to the skeleton 
 clearly shows. Some breeds exhibit considerable natural 
 arch, and others but little. It is very desirable to secure 
 plenty of length, with slight arch, and considerable spring 
 
 Fig. 275. "The hack of the hog naturally rises 
 in a slight arch." 
 
500 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 of rib or width of back. Young hogs naturally carry the 
 back strong and with a reasonable amount of arch, but with 
 age the tendency is for the back to become more level and 
 even to sag. In. scoring, much emphasis should be placed on 
 the back being strongly supported in the case of young 
 animals. More allowance may be made for mature and 
 
 especially old ani- 
 mals. As one looks 
 down on the back 
 from above, the 
 ribs should show a 
 strong arch, with 
 the outer back lines 
 parallel to each 
 other. The fat hog, 
 in good condition, 
 will show a thick, 
 even, firm covering 
 of flesh over the 
 entire back. The 
 character of this 
 covering may be 
 determined, not 
 only by the eye, 
 but by the touch of 
 the finger tips at various points on the back. The loin 
 is essentially a part of the back, and so should have all of 
 its width and strength. In the loin, where the muscles are 
 least used, are to be found the tenderest and best cuts of 
 meat, so a smooth, thick fleshing is always desired here. 
 Further, as the kidneys lie below the loin, if this part of 
 the body is strongly developed, with no depression in front 
 of the hips, it may be assumed that the kidneys are well pro- 
 tected and will render the efficient service desired. Emphasis 
 should be placed on the loin being quite level with the back, 
 where it merges with the hips, for a falling away or slack- 
 ness here is a too common fault. "When hogs are over- 
 
 Fig. 276. "Emphasis should be placed on the 
 loin being quite level with the back, where' it 
 merges with the hips." 
 
JUDGING THE LARD TYPE OF SWINE 
 
 501 
 
 forced or are too fat, the fat will show as much in the 
 back and loin as elsewhere. 
 
 The sides of the hog should be of good depth, dropping 
 down from a well arched rib. The form of the side de- 
 pends somewhat on the breed or breed influence, for in some 
 cases the sides are rather curved from the ribs down, while 
 with others they are flat and drop quite vertically toward 
 the belly line. In 
 general it is desira- 
 ble to have the 
 sides of fair length, 
 carried out in a 
 straight line from 
 shoulder to hip, so 
 that a straight edge 
 will touch all along 
 or nearly so. 
 Smoothness and 
 freedom from 
 creases applies here 
 as elsewhere, and 
 the smoother the 
 side the more uni- 
 form the quality of 
 
 the fleshing. Creases often extend in vertical lines 
 along the sides, especially toward the shoulder and give 
 a rough appearance as well as indicating poor fatten- 
 ing character. A side long and deep, perfectly smooth, 
 showing a clean, healthy skin, covered not too thickly with 
 straight hair of fine quality, should score very high. The 
 belly proper may be regarded as the part of the body lying 
 between two lines extending from the lower part of each 
 front flank to hind flank. As one stands off and looks at 
 the belly, the lower edge carries quite level, with clean- 
 cut lines, indicating little waste in killing. A paunchy, 
 rounded belly is much objected to by discriminating buyers, 
 as bearing evidence of too much intestines and consequent 
 
 Fig. 277. "It is desirable to have the sides 
 of fair length, carried out in a straight line 
 from shoulder to hip, so that a straight edge. 
 will touch all along, or nearly so." 
 
502 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 loss in dressed weight. Buyers note sharply this feature. 
 One must not confound this characteristic in the fat hog, 
 with the paunchy look of breeding females, or of young 
 pigs with full bellies. In the latter this condition will 
 change, while the paunchy belly on the fat hog, as a rule, 
 continues its undesirable development. Flanks that are full 
 and carried low down are associated not only with depth of 
 body, but thickness as well. Fullness of flank, especially in 
 front, accompanies strong heart girth and vigorous consti- 
 tution. A full hind flank, showing a tendency to roll some- 
 what when the animal is in motion, is evidence of easy 
 fattening quality. "When the flanks on the same side are 
 low and full, the body line below is quite level and likely 
 to be parallel with the upper line of body. The wise judge 
 will not give a superficial examination to the flanks. 
 
 The hindquarters of the lard type of hog, in the estima- 
 tion of most judges, represent the most valuable part from 
 a commercial point of view. This is because we have here 
 the heaviest weighing part, commanding the highest .price 
 per pound. The rump is a continuation of the back line, 
 from the outside of the hips to the end of the body. As 
 one looks down on the rump from behind, it should show 
 
 the same width 
 throughout, exhib- 
 iting thickness and 
 weight. As viewed 
 from one side, the 
 ideal rump will be 
 long and level, that 
 is, the top line will 
 be continued as 
 nearly level as pos- 
 sible, quite close to 
 the setting on of 
 the tail. However. 
 it is quite natural 
 for the rump of the 
 
 Fig. 278. "It is quite natural for the rump of 
 the hog to slope considerably." 
 
JUDGING THE LARD TYPE OF SWINE 
 
 503 
 
 Fij,'. i>70. "The well-formed ham from this 
 side view will ;ilso present much fullness be- 
 hind." 
 
 hog to slope con- 
 siderably, so that 
 even in the highest 
 scoring individuals 
 one will not find 
 this part so truly 
 level as with high- 
 class cattle or 
 sheep. Great length 
 and thickness are 
 the two most im- 
 portant features, 
 for thus weight is 
 secured. The set- 
 ting on of the tail 
 is often low, and 
 when this is the 
 case it will be noted 
 
 that the rump is inclined to be steep, and the 1m m 
 below is short. All. of the arguments are in behalf 
 of a long, full, level rump, with tail attached reasonably 
 high, because this conformation goes with heavy, meaty 
 development below. The hams viewed from the side should 
 be wide across at the top, because the rump forms the 1op 
 of the ham. They should also be wide from stifle to end 
 of body, and of great comparative length, from either hip 
 or stifle to the point of the hocks. This brings out the im- 
 portance of the long rump. The well-formed ham, from 
 this side view will also present much fullness behind, the 
 outline dropping rather vertically for some distance, and 
 then curving in sharply to form the narrow part of the leg, 
 not far above the hock. From this standpoint the ideal ham 
 will be smooth, absolutely free of wrinkles and folds of skin, 
 but rounded out sufficiently to indicate thickness and 
 weight. The hock itself will be somewhat thick, yet trim 
 and neat. Viewed from behind, the hams should appear 
 thick and meaty, with the outer parts of the thighs widely 
 
504 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 separated. Where the thighs contract to form the lower 
 thigh and hock, the curves between the legs at the twist 
 should approach a right angle as much as possible, with the 
 lower thighs widely separated at points of hocks. It is es- 
 sential that, from a rear view, the hams be both thick and 
 deep. The judge will note that some thick hams lack depth. 
 
 Others show more 
 thickness through 
 from side to side, 
 and yet possess con- 
 siderable depth 
 from tail setting to 
 the deepest point 
 between the two 
 thighs. The hind 
 legs should stand 
 straight and be 
 well supported on 
 the toes. Viewed 
 from one side, the 
 leg from hock to 
 ankle should come 
 down in a vertical 
 line. It is a com- 
 mon tendency for 
 
 the hog to shove the hind legs beneath the body in quite a 
 slanting position, with the dew claws almost, if not quite 
 touching the ground, the weight of body being supported on 
 the entire length of toes, rather than on their tips. This is a 
 very undesirable position, and is usually associated with 
 lack of bone and weak leg formation. From the hock down, 
 the bone should seem reasonably large and strong, in order 
 to bear the great weight of the fat hog. A rear view shows 
 the hocks widely separated, and the shank bones well apart 
 and parallel and strongly supported on the pasterns and 
 toes, which should point directly ahead. If the hocks are 
 too close together then the legs and toes point outward, 
 
 Fig. 280. '"The curves between the legs at 
 the twist should approach a right angle as much 
 as possible." 
 
K SWINE r><)5 
 
 a conformation associated with a .narr<>\\- thigh ;md ham. 
 If the hocks are widely separated, and the legs and toes 
 point in a rather unusual position behind then the legs 
 are usually bowed, and furnish a weak support to the body. 
 The butcher is not interested in this matter of position of 
 leg and bone, if the ham is sufficiently thick and deep, but 
 as a matter of inheritance, the strength of bone and proper 
 carriage of leg have a vital bearing on the character of the 
 
 Fig. 281. "It is a common tendency for the hog to shove the hind legs 
 beneath the body in quite a slanting position, with the dew claws almost, 
 if not quite, touching the ground." 
 
 ham and its value. The pasterns and toes or the hind legs 
 should have an upright, straight carriage, for the same 
 reasons given in the discussion of these parts of the front 
 legs. 
 
 The anima*! being carefully examined, and comparison 
 with the ideal being made through the various steps of 
 scoring, the total score is to be placed at the bottom of the 
 card. In making this detailed examination, the various 
 features of importance are brought to the attention of the 
 judge. A number of other hogs may be scored to advantage 
 
50fi JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 : n the same manner, or two may be scored for comparative 
 jtudy. In lids score card comparison the same parts of each 
 animal should be systematically compared, step by step. 
 Thus one may note how many points Hog A scores in 
 weight, and how Hog B measures up beside A, and so on, 
 comparing the several other points to be examined. One 
 person may quite conveniently score tw r o animals, and make 
 an interesting comparative study, but it is not desirable to 
 oxtend much beyond this. 
 
CHAPTER XLIX. 
 
 THE COMPARATIVE STUDY OF SWINE. 
 
 IN making a comparative study of swine without the use 
 of a scale of points, two or more animals may be 
 brought forward. In general class work, a pen of four 
 makes a convenient number for study. It may be assumed 
 that these are suited to go in the same age class, and have 
 been prepared for the same purpose, so that their condi- 
 tions are comparable. This puts the comparison on a fair 
 basis as to age, and purpose or type. In view of the fact 
 that these animals are destined for the butcher, the judge 
 in his work must keep first in mind the general considera- 
 tions of the scale of points, that is, weight, form, quality 
 and condition. Therefore, he carefully looks over the hogs, 
 first moving them about to view each from all points 
 whereby comparison may be drawn. He, naturally, at once 
 compares size and, other things being equal, the larger 
 animal has the advantage. Beauty as shown in symmetry 
 of form, at once attracts the judge, but as the butcher is 
 looking for the greatest profit in the carcass, he is not losing 
 sight of quality and condition. So, keeping in mind the 
 need of good, firm flesh, thickly and evenly distributed 
 over the frame, the judge puts a premium on these features, 
 not losing sight of the necessity of dressing out to show 
 as little waste in head, legs and guts as possible. These 
 are all general considerations, and must be weighed up in 
 the comparison. Therefore, in order to bring the contrast 
 to a finer basis, it is necessary that the judge, even wilh 
 animals for immediate slaughter, should bring into com- 
 parison certain important details of conformation, These 
 we would naturally assume to be the back, loin, shoulders, 
 sides and hams, the parts most desired in the carcass. So 
 
 507 
 
508 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 the judge, with the aid of his stick, groups his animals side 
 by side in order that he may look down on the backs and 
 compare breadth and length, and note wherein one surpasses 
 another. Standing behind the animals a few feet, one also 
 gets a rump and ham view, as well as back, so that this 
 position gives a good point for observation. To see the 
 sides the hogs must be moved so that an unobstructed view 
 may be had, whereby the sides may be easily studied. An 
 experienced judge usually has the animals well scattered 
 in the judging space, thus enabling him to study and corn- 
 
 Fig. 282. "The judge, with the aid of his stick, groups his animals 
 
 side by side, in order that he may look down on the backs and compare 
 
 breadth and length, and note wherein one surpasses another." (Photo 
 by courtesy Ohio Agr. Exp. Station.) 
 
 pare at his leisure. If one has four animals very closely 
 matched then some of the minor characteristics, such as 
 length or position of legs, size of ear, width of face, etc., 
 will serve as a basis for arriving at a decision. One year 
 the Ohio State University had in competition at the Inter- 
 national Live Stock Exposition, a pen of three fat hogs that 
 had won first prize in class. They were very choice and 
 unusually well-matched individuals, but in the competi- 
 tion for championship honors, after mature deliberation, 
 the prize went elsewhere. The judge later explained, and 
 rightly, that one pig in the Ohio pen had somewhat crooked 
 Mnd legs, which he persisted in keeping well under his 
 
THE COMPARATIVE! STfDY OF SNVINK f )0n 
 
 body. It was this defect, slight as it WHS, which resulted 
 in the defeat of an otherwise very choice pen. This de- 
 cision illustrates, that, in the final measurement, of tin- 
 judge, he must frequently emphasize 1 the importance of 
 non-essentials, in arriving at a decision. 
 
 A comparative placing card for swine will be found 
 serviceable for students, and may be arranged after the 
 following plan. This card has been filled out for illus- 
 trative purposes. Each part may thus be discussed and 
 compared in detail, and differences brought out that might 
 otherwise be quite overlooked : 
 
 L':| 3d 1th 
 
 M: u-< -Place Place 
 
 D (! B 
 
 15 I > C 
 
 C 1 '. D 
 
 A l> C 
 
 I J I ) ( ' 
 
 B :n c 
 
 B D C 
 A C D 
 
 B r> c 
 
 ADC 
 ADC 
 
 The reason for placing the hogs in a ring in their regu- 
 lar order of merit, student or judge should be able to give. 
 No uniform rule is to be applied in the matter of giving 
 reasons, for much more may be expected in some cases than 
 in others. Close competition requires more explanation 
 than where the decision of the judge has been easy. The 
 reasons, however, should deal with features that the well- 
 informed would at once recognize as of first importance. 
 
 The following discussion of placing a ring of market lard 
 hogs, was prepared by a man who gives especial attention 
 to the judging of swine: 
 
 Comparative Placing Card 
 for , Swine 
 Size 
 
 1st 
 PI: ic 
 . . A 
 
 Condition 
 Quality 
 
 . . A 
 . . A 
 
 Head 
 
 . . I'. 
 
 Neck and iovvl 
 
 A 
 
 Shoulders 
 Back 
 
 .. A 
 . . A 
 
 
 .. B 
 
 
 A 
 
 "Leers 
 
 . . B 
 
 Feet . ... 
 
 . . B 
 
 Placing 
 
 A 
 
510 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 "I placed B first, C second, A third and D fourth. 
 
 "B is placed over C because of pronounced superiority 
 in form and quality. B is broader, deeper and longer than 
 C ; B furthermore has a more neatly laid in shoulder, which 
 joins to a smoother, longer side. In rear end development 
 B is superior to C, having a broader and longer rump, 
 which in turn gives more width and thickness of loin. B's 
 superior quality is shown by a more even distribution and 
 fineness of coat covering, by a harder, denser character of 
 bone, and by more evenness and smoothness of contour gen- 
 erally. In view of these points of excellence which B shows 
 over C, one would judge the former as dressing more meat 
 of superior quality when placed in the hands of the butcher. 
 
 1 ' C is placed over A chiefly because of superior condition, 
 there being little difference, in form and quality. C's better 
 condition is shown by greater thickness over the top, sides 
 and hams. Briefly stated, C shows more finish than A and 
 therefore would be more desirable from the standpoint of 
 the butcher. 
 
 ' ' D in this ring is an outstanding, inferior hog, and there- 
 fore is placed last. He lacks the width, depth and thick- 
 ness possessed by the other animals, and is furthermore 
 inferior in his arch of back, strength of loin, and smooth- 
 ness of body generally. 
 
 "Briefly summarized, B is superior to C in form and 
 quality, C is superior to A chiefly in condition, and A is in 
 most every respect superior to D." 
 
 The above illustrates a common method of expression in 
 giving reasons for placings, whether oral or written. Na- 
 turally, persons will differ in the degree of emphasis they 
 will place on the different parts, either good or bad. Fur- 
 ther, the same person will necessarily discuss each pen as 
 a separate affair, emphasizing more in one case than an- 
 other, as impressed by the personality of the animals judged. 
 However, one thing the judge should always keep in mind, 
 and that is to discuss his placings in as systematic a man- 
 ner as possible. 
 
CHAPTER L. 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE NOTES ON THE LARD TYPE BREEDS 
 OF SWINE. 
 
 THE lard type of swine being 1 almost universal in the 
 United States, the breeds of that kind are common, while 
 those of the bacon type are comparatively rare. 
 
 The Berkshire breed of swine originated in the county of 
 Berks in south England. Its prevailing color of skin and 
 hair is black, with white hair on the face, lower parts of 
 legs, and tail. These six white points need not necessarily 
 all be in evidence, but the breed has been developed to a 
 degree that almost insures their presence. The body itself 
 
 Fig. 283. BERKSHIRE BOAR. "The head is comparatively short and more 
 or less dished." 
 
 511 
 
512 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 should be black, but white marks may occur elsewhere, espe- 
 cially on ear, throat and armpit, without disqualifying for 
 registration. In size, the Berkshire ranks well. Young pigs 
 at six months of age should weigh 175 pounds, and 300 at 
 twelve months. In ordinary condition mature boars should 
 weigh 600 pounds and sows 500 pounds. The Berkshire pos- 
 sesses certain quite distinctive breed features. The head is 
 comparatively short and more or less dished, in some cases 
 
 the nose turning 
 up to an extreme 
 degree, not ap- 
 proved of by very 
 thoughtful breed- 
 ers. The ears should 
 be erect of car- 
 r i a g e, especially 
 with young ani- 
 mals; on old hogs 
 the ears tend to 
 lean forward more 
 or less, due to 
 weakening of the muscles connecting with the head. The back 
 of the Berkshire carries but little arch and is of fair length ; 
 from an end view it does not usually show as much width as 
 some other breeds. The rump may be of excellent length, but 
 the ham tends to lack somewhat in thickness. The bone is of 
 fair quality, and Berkshires stand as well on the feet as 
 do most breeds. The quality of the flesh is of the highest 
 grade, and in general fleshing, the Berkshire shows up 
 smooth and to advantage. This is a breed that does not 
 naturally carry the thickness of the Poland-China, Chester 
 "White or Duroc-Jersey, being the narrowest of the lard 
 type breeds. British breeders favor a leaner-fleshed pig 
 than do Americans. Our judges should not seek the same 
 width and roundness of form with the Berkshire as have 
 the other breeds mentioned. 
 
 Fig. 284. A Berkshire barrow, champion at the 
 International Live Stock Exposition. 
 
LARD TYPK HRKKDS OF SWTXR 513 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS FOR BERKSHIRE SWINE. 
 
 (Adopted by the American Berkshire Swine Association.) 
 
 Points 
 
 Color Black, white feet, face and tip of tail, but skin and hair occasion- 
 ally showing tinge of bronze or copper color. An occasional splash of 
 white not objectionable; lack of either of white points admissible .. 3 
 Face and snout Face well dished and broad between the eyes; snout short 
 
 and broad 7 
 
 Eyes Prominent, clean, clear, large, dark hazel or gray 2 
 
 Ears Medium size, setting well apart, carried fairly erect, inclining for- 
 ward, especially with age 3 
 
 Jowl Full, firm, not flabby or hanging too low, running back well to neck 3 
 Neck Full, short, slightly arched, broad on top, well connected with 
 
 shoulder 3 
 
 Hair Fine, straight, smooth, lying close to and covering body well; free 
 
 from bristles 3 
 
 Skin Smooth and mellow 3 
 
 Chest Deep, full and wide, with good heart girth 6 
 
 Shoulder Smooth and even on top and in line with side G 
 
 Side Deep, smooth, well let down, straight side and bottom lines . . . . 6 
 Back Broad, full, strong, level or slightly arched; ribs well sprung . . 10 
 Flank Extending well back and low down on leg_ making nearly a 
 
 straight line with lower part of side " 
 
 Loin Full, wide and well covered with flesh 6 
 
 Ham Deep, wide, thick and firm, extending well up on back and holding 
 
 thickness well down to hock 10 
 
 Tall Well up on line with back, neither too fine, short or tapering . . . . 2 
 Legs and feet Straight and strong, set wide apart, short in pastern, with 
 
 hoofs nearly erect, capable of carrying great weight K) 
 
 Size Size all that is possible without loss of quality or symmetry, with 
 good length. Weight in good condition, boars at 12 months 350 to 
 450 pounds; at 24 months, 500 to 700 pounds; sows at 12 months 
 
 350 to 400 pounds; at 24 months 500 to 700 pounds 6 
 
 Appearance and character Vigorous, attractive, of good disposition, firm 
 
 and easv of movement 6 
 
 100 
 
 The Poland-China breed of swine is of American origin, 
 having its early development in southwest Ohio. This is 
 a oreed that has gone through some changes in color mark- 
 ings. Formerly, the body was black, with white spots of 
 variable size on the black background. In recent years 
 the Poland-China has been bred to color markings quite 
 like the Berkshire, the face and legs especially being more 
 or less white. "White marks may occur elsewhere, however. 
 In fact there is now some attention being paid to what is 
 termed the Spotted Poland hog, which may be registered 
 in one of the recognized Poland-China record books as well 
 as in the National Spotted Poland Record Association. The 
 
514 
 
 JUDGING. FARM ANIMALS 
 
 body color of the Poland-China is strictly a deep black, not 
 having any suggestion of bronze or reddish tint^ as in case 
 of the Berkshire. The size of the Poland-China ranges 
 from medium to large. Pigs at six months should weigh 
 about 175 pounds, and at 12 months the standard insists 
 that pigs of either sex must weigh at least 300 pounds. At 
 full maturity, in fair condition, boars should weigh 600 
 pounds or more, and sows not less than 450 pounds. In 
 
 Fig. 285. Poland-China sow, "Lucille," grand champion Louisiana Purchase 
 Exposition, 1904. (Photo by courtesy American Agriculturist.) 
 
 ordinary breeding condition they will be quite likely to 
 waigh less than this. The head of the Poland-China is 
 straight of face. The ears should be fine and break over at 
 the upper third into a neat droop. With age, the ears 
 frequently droop quite low over the face. The back should 
 show quite a pronounced arch, as viewed from one side, 
 while an end view exhibits a strong spring of ribs, with a 
 tendency for the body to be much narrower below than 
 above. The hindquarters of fair specimens of this breed 
 
LARD TYPE BREEDS OF SWINE 515 
 
 have wide, long rumps ;m<l deep, thick thighs. The rumps, 
 however, are often somewhat droopy. Thickness of ham is 
 a characteristic of this breed. The bone is often light for 
 the weight carried, and the pasterns may be quite sloping. 
 Breeders of Poland- Chinas have almost divided themselves 
 into two groups, one favoring a medium-sized, quick ma- 
 turing pig ; the other, a larger, heavier boned, coarser hog. 
 Unquestionably, this breed has lost much ground among 
 farmers in the middle west, due to over-refinement and 
 small litters. These objections, advocates of the so-called 
 "big type" are endeavoring to overcome. If a combination 
 of scale and quality are present, other things being equal, 
 the large type will usually receive the approval of the 
 judge. Quality must be emphasized. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS FOR POLAND-CHINA SWINE. 
 
 (Adopted by the National Poland-China Record Association.) 
 
 Points 
 
 Head and face Should be broad, even and smooth between and above 
 the eyes; slightly dished, tapering evenly and gradually to near the 
 end of the nose. Broad lower jaw; head inclined to shortness, but 
 not enough to give appearance of stubby nose. In the males a nias- 
 
 culine appearance and expression '' 
 
 Objections: Head long, narrow between the eyes; nose -uncrcn and 
 coarse; too large at the muzzle or the, head tuo short: not full or 
 high above the, eyes; or too much wrinkled around or ahore the 
 eyes. 
 
 Eyes Full, clear, prominent, expressive 
 
 Objections: Dutt expression, deep set or obscure. Sight impaired by 
 
 wrinkles, fat or other cause. 
 
 Ears Ears attached to the head by a short, firm knuckle, giving free 
 and easy action. Standing up slightly at the base to within .two- 
 thirds of the tip, where a gentle break or drop should occur; in 
 .size neither too large nor too small, but even, fine, thin, leaf shape, 
 
 .slightly inclined outward 
 
 Objections: Large, floppy, straight, upright or coarse; knuckle long, 
 letting the ear drop too close to the head and face, hindering free. 
 use of the ears. 
 
 Neck Short, wide, even, smooth, -wall arched, rounding and full fro::i 
 poll to shoulder, with due regard to the characteristics of the sex 
 Objections: Long, narrow, thin and drooping from the shoulder to tin- 
 poll, with uneven ness canned by wrinkles or creases. 
 
 Jowl Full, broad, deep, smooth and firm, carrying fullness back near to 
 point of shoulders, and below line of lower jaw so that lower line 
 
 will be as low as breast bone when head is carried up level 
 
 Objections: Light, flabby, thin, and n<<-d!/e-*h<i]K-<l, dee/ili/ irrinkl.d. 
 not drooping below line of lower jaw and not carrying 
 back to shoulder and brisket. 
 
516 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Points 
 
 Shoulder Broad and oval at top, showing evenness with the back and 
 neck, with good width from the top to the bottom, and even smooth- 
 ness extending well forward 6 
 
 Objections: Narrow at top or bottom, not as deep as the bod)/, uneven 
 width, shields on pigs under eight months of age, or showing too 
 much shield at any age. 
 
 Chest Large, wide, deep and full; even underline to the shoulder and 
 sides, with no creases, giving plenty of room for the heart and other 
 organs, making a large girth indicating much vitality. Brisket 
 smooth, even and broad; wide between the legs and extending well 
 
 forward, showing in front 12 
 
 Objections: Pinched appearance at the top or bottom, or tucked in 
 back of the forelegs; showing too narrow between the legs; not 
 depth enough back of the shoulder. Brisket uneven, narrow, not 
 prominent. 
 
 Back and loin Broad, straight or slightly arched, carrying same width 
 from shoulder to ham; surface even, smooth, free from lumps, 
 creases or projections; not too long, but broad on top, indicating 
 well sprung ribs ; should not be higher at hip than at shoulder, and 
 should fill out at junction with side, so that a straight edge placed 
 along at top of side will touch all the way from point of shoulder 
 to point of ham. Should be shorter than lower belly line . . . . 14 
 Objections: Narrow, creased back of shoulders, swayed or hollow, drop- 
 ping below a straight line; humped or ivrinkled; too long or sun- 
 fish shaped; loin high, narrow, depressed or humped up; surface 
 lumpy, creased, ridgy or uneven; width at side not as much as 
 shoulder and ham. 
 
 Sides and ribs Sides full, firm and deep, free from wrinkles ; carrying 
 size down to belly; even from ham to shoulder; ribs of good length, 
 
 well sprung at top and bottom 8 
 
 Objections: Flat, thin, flabby, pinched, not as full at bottom as at top; 
 drawn in- at shoulder so as to produce a crease, or pinched and 
 tucked tip and in as it approaches the ham; uneven surface; ribs 
 flat or too short. 
 
 Belly and flank Belly broad, straight and full, indicating capacity and 
 room, being about the same or on a level at the flank with the under- 
 line of the chest; underline straight, or nearly so, and free from 
 
 fleshy appearance 4 
 
 Objections: Belly uneven and flabby, or apparent looseness in the make- 
 up. Pinched up in the flank or flanked too high. 
 
 Hams and rump Hams broad, full, deep and long from rump to hock. 
 Fully developed above and below, being wide at the point of the hip, 
 carrying width well down to the lower part of the hams. Fleshy, 
 plump, rounding fullness perceptible everywhere. Rump rounding 
 and gradually sloping from the loin to the root of the tail. Broad 
 and well developed all along from loin and gradually rounding to 
 buttock ; lower front part of ham should be full, and stifle well cov- 
 ered with flesh. Even width of ham and rump with the back, loin 
 and body. Even a greater width as to females not objectionable . . 10 
 Objections: Ham short, narrow, too round or slim, not filled out above 
 or below, or unshapely for deep meat; not as wide as the body; 
 back or loin too tapering, or small; rump narrow or pointed, not 
 plump or well filled or too steep from loin to tail. 
 
 Legs and feet Legs medium length, straight, heavy bone, set well apart 
 and squarely under body, tapering, well muscled and wide above knee 
 and hock; below hock and knee round and tapering, capable of sus- 
 taining weight of animal in full flesh without breaking down; bone 
 
LARD TYPE BREEDS OF SWINE 517 
 
 Points 
 firm and of fine texture; pasterns short and nearly upright. Feet 
 
 firm, short, tough and free from defects 10 
 
 Objections: Legs long, slim, coarse, crooked; muscles small above hock 
 and knee; as large at foot as above knee; pasterns long, slim, 
 crooked or weak; the hocks turned in or out of straight line; legs 
 too close together; hoofs long, slim and weak; toes spreading out 
 or crooked or unable to bear up weight of animal without breaking 
 down. 
 
 Tail Tail of medium length and size, smooth and tapering well and car- 
 ried in a curve 1 
 
 Objections: Coarse and long without a curl; or short, crooked or 
 
 stubby; or too small, fine, uneven, not tapering. 
 Coat Fine, straight, smooth, lying close to and covering the body well; 
 
 not clipped ; evenly distributed over the body . . . . 3 
 
 Objections: Bristles, hair coarse, harsh, thin, wavy or curly; swirls; 
 standing up; ends of hair split and brown, not evenly distributed 
 over att of the body, except the belly. Clipped coats should be cut 
 1.5 points. 
 
 Color Black with six (6) white points; tip of tail, four white feet 
 and white in face, or on the nose or on the point of the lower jaw. 
 All to be perceptible without close examination. Splashes of white 
 on the jaw, legs or flank or a few white spots on the body not objec- 
 tionable 2 
 
 Objections: Solid black, white mixed or sandy spots. Speckled with 
 white hairs over the body; mottled face or white and black; hair 
 mixed, making a grizzly appearance. 
 
 Size Large for age. Condition, vigor and vitality to be considered. 
 There should be a difference between breeding animals and those 
 kept or fitted for the show of at least 25 per cent in size. In 
 show condition or when fat, weights for the different ages should < 
 be about as follows: Boars over two years old, seven hundred (700) 
 pounds. Sows over two years old, six hundred (600) pounds. Boars 
 eighteen months old, six hundred (600) pounds. Sows eighteen 
 months old, five hundred (500) pounds. Boars one year old, four 
 hundred and fifty (450) pounds. Sows one year old, four hundred and 
 fifty (450) pounds. Boars and sows six mo-nths old, one hundred and 
 eighty (180) pounds. All hogs in just fair breeding condition, one- 
 fourth less for size. The keeping and chance that a young boar , 
 has cuts quite a figure in his size and should be considered, other points 
 being equal. Fine quality and size, combined, are desirable . . . . 10 
 Objections: Overgrown, coarse, flabby, loose appearance, gangling, j 
 hard to fatten; too fine, undersize; short, stubby, inclined to 
 chubby fatness. Not a hardy, robust animal. 
 
 Action and style Action vigorous, easy and graceful. Style attractive; 
 high carriage; and in males testicles should be prominent and of 
 
 about the same size, and yet not too large or pouchy 3 
 
 Objections: Clumsy, slow, awkward movement; low carriage, waddling 
 or twisted walk. A seeming tired or lazy appearance; not stand- 
 ing erect and firm. 
 
 Condition Healthy, skin clear of scurf, scales and sores ; soft and mellow 
 to the touch; flesh fine; evenly laid on and free from lumps and 
 wrinkles. Hair soft and lying close to the body; good feeding 
 
 qualities 2 
 
 Objections: Unhealthy, skin scaly, wrinkled, scabby or harsh, flabbi- 
 ness or lumpy flesh; too much fat for breeding. Hair harsh, dry 
 and standing up from the body; poor feeders; deafness, partial or 
 total. 
 
518 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Points 
 Disposition, Lively, easily handled and seemingly kind and responsive 
 
 to good treatment 2 
 
 Objections: Cross, sluffgish, restless, wild or of a vicious turn. 
 Symmetry of points The adaptation of all the points, size and style 
 
 combined to make the desired type or model 2 
 
 Total. 
 
 The Chester White breed of swine is of American origin. 
 It is a pure white breed, except for the occurrence of an 
 occasional blue-black spot in the skin. Any black or red 
 hair indicates impurity of blood. In size, the Chester "White 
 ranks among the large breeds. . Mature boars in fair flesh 
 should weigh about 600 pounds, and mature sows about 500. 
 Boars and sows six months old weigh about 175 pounds in 
 fair condition. Rather distinctive features of this breed 
 are a nearly straight face, and ears that droop or break 
 over one-third to one-half their length. Much emphasis 
 is placed on the ears being fine of texture and carried so 
 as to break over neatly. Erect ears are not characteristic 
 of the breed. Good specimens show a fairly short head, 
 although long heads are rather common. The back on well- 
 
 Fig. 286. Chester White sow, "Barget C," first prize in class at Ohio 
 
 State Fair. 
 
LARD TYPE BREEDS OF SWINE 519 
 
 fattened animals has great width and arch of rib, as viewed 
 from one end, while the side view should show a strong 
 arch in the back line. Chester "Whites tend to be rather 
 fine of bone for the weight they carry. The pasterns are 
 often too sloping and appear weak and unable to give proper 
 support to the body. Coats of curly hair occasionally occur 
 with this breed and, while not popular, do not disqualify 
 for registration. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS FOB CHESTER WHITE SWINE. 
 
 (Adopted by the Chester White Record Association, 1913.) 
 
 Points 
 
 Head and face Head short and wide; cheeks neat; jaws broad and 
 smooth; forehead medium, high and wide; face short and smooth; 
 
 nose neat, tapering and slightly dished 4 
 
 Objections: Head long, narrow or coarse; cheeks too full; forehead 
 low and 'narrow; jaws contracted and weak; face long, narrow and 
 straight; nose coarse, clumsy or dished like the Berkshire. 
 Eyes Bright, large, clear and free from wrinkles or overhanging f at . . 2 
 
 Objections: SmaM, deep set, surrounded by wrinkles or fat. 
 Ears Drooping at tip to give graceful appearance; thin, soft, pointing 
 
 outward and forward ; well proportioned to size of body . . . . 2 
 Objections: Too large and coarse; thick, lopping; lying too near the 
 
 face; stiff, erect or too small. Not under control. 
 Neck Wide, deep, short and nicely arched ; neatly tapering from the 
 
 shoulder . . 2 
 
 Objections: Narrow, thin, long, flat on top; tucked up; not extending 
 
 down to breast bone. 
 Jowl Smooth, neat, firm, full, carrying fullness well back to shoulders 
 
 and brisket when head is carried up level 2 
 
 Objections: Light, rough, and deeply wrinkled, too large and flabby, 
 
 not carrying fullness back to shoulders and brisket. 
 Shoulders Broad, deep and full, extending in line with the side and 
 
 carrying size down to line of belly C 
 
 Objections: Deficient in width or depth, extending above line of back; 
 thick beyond line of sides and hams; shields on boars too coarse 
 and prominent. 
 
 Chest Heart girth large, wide, deep and full; even underline to the 
 shoulder and sides, with no creases; giving plenty of room for the 
 heart and other organs, making a large girth, indicating much vi- 
 tality. Brisket smooth, even and broad; wide between the legs and 
 
 extending well forward, showing in front 12 
 
 Objections: Pinched appearance at the top or bottom, or tucked in back 
 of forelegs; showing too -narrow between, the legs; not d^ijth 
 enough back of the shoulder. Brisket uneven, narrow, not prom- 
 inent. 
 Back and loin Broad, straight or slightly arched, uniform width, free 
 
 from lumps or rolls, same height and width at shoulder as at ham 14 
 Objections: Narrow, swayed, humped, creasing back of shoulders, sun- 
 fih shaped, uneven width, lumps or rolls. 
 
520 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Points 
 
 Sides and ribs Sides full, smooth, deep, carrying size down to line 
 of belly, even with line of hum and shoulder. Ribs long, well sprung 
 
 at top and bottom, giving animal a square form 9 
 
 Objections: Sides: Flat, thin, flabby, uneven surface, compressed at 
 
 bottom, shrunken at shoulder and hain. Ribs: Too short, /(at. 
 Belly and flank Belly same width as back, full, straight, drooping as 
 low at flank as at bottom of chest; line of lower edge running 
 parallel with sides. Flank full and even with body, equalling heart 
 
 girth . . 4 
 
 Objections Belly narrow, pinched, sagging or flabby. Flank thin, 
 tucked up or drawn in, less than heart girth or length of body 
 from top of head to root of tail. 
 
 Hams and rump Broad, full, long, wide and deep, admitting of no swells; 
 
 buttocks full, neat and clean ; stifle well covered with flesh, nicely 
 
 tapering toward the hock; rump slightly rounding from loin to 
 
 root of tail, same width as back, making an even line with sides . . 10 
 
 Objections: Narrow, short, not filled out to stifle, too much cut up in 
 
 crotch or twist, not coming down to hock; buttocks flabby; rump 
 
 flat, narrow, too long, too sharp or peaked at root of tail. 
 
 Legs and feet Legs medium length, strong and straight, set well apart 
 
 and well under body ; bone of good size, firm, well muscled, wide 
 
 above knee and hock, round and tapering below knee and hock, 
 
 enabling the animal to carry its weight with ease ; pasterns short 
 
 and nearly upright. Feet short, firm, tough, animal standing well xip 
 
 on toes 9 
 
 Objections: Legs too short or too long, weak, crooked, too clone to- 
 gether; muscle* weak; bone too large and coarse., without toper: 
 pasterns long, crooked or slim. Hoofs Jong, slim, weak; toes 
 spreading, crooked or turned uj>. 
 Tail Small, smooth, nicely tapering, root slightly covered with flesh; 
 
 carried in a curl 1 
 
 Objections: Coarse, too long, clumsy, straight. 
 Coat Fine, either straight or wavy, with preference for straight, evenly 
 
 distributed and covering the body well ,> 
 
 Objections: Bristles, swirls, hair coarse, thin, standing up, not evenly 
 
 distributed over all the body except the belly. 
 
 Color White. Red or black spots in hair disqualify, but blue spots 
 in hide (commonly known as freckled) while objectional and should 
 
 be discouraged, do not argue impurity of blood . . 2 
 
 Objections: Color any other than white. 
 
 Size Large for age and condition. Boars two years and over, if in 
 good flesh, should weigh not less than 500 pounds; sows same age 
 and condition, not less than 450 pounds. Boars eighteen months 
 old, in good flesh, should weigh not less than 400 pounds; sows ?,~>o. 
 Boars twelve months old, not less than 350 pounds; sows I5UO. 
 Boars and sows six months old not less than 150 pounds each, and 
 
 other ages in proportion H 
 
 Objections: Overgrown, coarse, uncouth, hard to fatten. 
 Action and style Easy and graceful ; high carriage ; active ; gentle and 
 easily handled. In males, testicles should be readily seen, and of 
 
 same size and carriage 3 
 
 Objections: Sluggish, awkward, low carriage, wild, vicious. In males, 
 testicles not distinctly visible, nor of same size and carriage. 
 
 Condition Healthy and mellow touch, fat evenly laid on 2 
 
 Objections: Harsh to touch, flabbiness, fat in lumps on back or sides. 
 
 Disposition Quiet and gentle 2 
 
 Objections: Cross, restless, quarrelsome. 
 
LARD TYPE BREEDS OF SWINE 
 
 521 
 
 Points 
 the points, 
 
 Symmetry or adaptation of points The adaptation of all 
 
 site and style comlnncd to inaivc the desired type or model . . . . 3 
 
 Total 1UU 
 
 Disqualifications for registry: 
 
 1. Sows scoring less Hum do points. 
 
 2. Boars scoring less than 70 points. 
 
 3. lied or black hair in co;il. 
 
 4. Barren or stunted animals. 
 
 The Duroc-Jersey breed of swine is of American origin, 
 and has gone through its most important development in 
 the middle west, especially in Ohio. This is a red breed, 
 the color varying from a light sandy red to a dark cherry 
 red. The brighter color is more popular. Very dark red 
 or chestnut is objectionable. Black spots in the skin are 
 also unpopular. In size, the Duroc-Jersey ranks among the 
 large breeds. Boars two years old or over, in fair condi- 
 tion, should weigh about 600 pounds, and sows of the same 
 age and condition about 500 pounds. Boars twelve months 
 old, in fair condition, should weigh about 350 pounds, and 
 sows of the same age and condition about 300 pounds. 
 
 Fig. 287. Duroc-Jersey sow, "Pearl M. C.' 
 
522 ' JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Boars of this. breed are reported to liave weighed 1,000 
 pounds and more. The face of the Duroc- Jersey is either 
 nearly straight or slightly dished, the nose of medium 
 length, and the ears drooping forward, the top third break- 
 ing over. Young Duroc- Jersey males often show consider- 
 able length and coarseness of face, but this feature may be 
 more or less outgrown. Two types of Duroc-Jerseys are 
 more or less to be seen, a large-bodied, strong-framed, 
 stretchy sort, and a more refined and compact kind, that 
 matures early and does not attain the largest size. Size 
 with quality is what is attracting attention with present day 
 breeders. To secure this the body should be long, the back 
 strongly arched, the ribs well sprung, and with plenty of 
 depth. Large, strong bone is a much desired feature, with 
 the animal standing well on the toes. The Duroc-Jersey 
 has been much improved since the year 1900, and smooth- 
 ness of fleshing is especially emphasized by the best breeders. 
 Heaviness of shoulder and creases on the body are regarded 
 with special disfavor. The Duroc-Jersey should show a 
 long, wide, level rump and thick, well filled-out thighs, al- 
 though the ham lacks the roundness and fullness so often 
 seen in Poland-China. In temperament the Duroc- 
 Jersey ranks well, being active, yet usually quiet and easily 
 handled. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS FOR DUROC-JERSEY SWINE. 
 
 (Adopted by the National Duroc-Jersey Record Association.) 
 
 Points 
 
 Head and Face Head small in proportion to size of body, wide between 
 eyes; face nicely dished (about half way between Poland-China and 
 Berkshire), and tapering well down to nose; surface smooth and 
 
 even 4 
 
 Objections: Large and coarse, narrow between eyes, face straight, 
 crooked nose or too much dished. 
 
 Eyes Lively, bright and prominent 2 
 
 Objections: Dull, weak and obscure. 
 
 Ears Medium, moderately thin, pointing forward and downward r,nd 
 
 slightly outward, carrying a slight curve, attached to head neatly . . 2 
 Objections: Very large, round or nearly so; too swinging or flabby, not 
 of same size, or different positions, and not under control. 
 
 Neck Short, thick and very deep ; slightly arching 2 
 
 Objections: Long, shallow, thin. 
 
LA HI) TYI'K BHKKDS OF SWIXK 523 
 
 Jowl Uroad, full and neat, carrying fullness back to point of shoulders, 
 
 and in line with breast bone '2 
 
 Objections: Too large, loose and flabby, or too small, thin and wedging. 
 
 Shoulders Moderately broad, very deep and full, and not extending 
 
 above line of back; carrying thickness well down 6 
 
 Objections: Shin'l. thin. .v/m///r, e.rfcndim/ above line of back; boars 
 under one year old heavily shielded. 
 
 Chest Large, very deep, filling full behind shoulders, and breast bone 
 
 extending well forward so as to be readily seen 12 
 
 Objections: Flat, shallow, or not extending well down between forelegs. 
 
 Back and loin Medium in breadth, straight or slightly arching; carry- 
 
 ing even width from shoulder to ham: surface even and smooth .. 11 
 Objections: Narrow, creased behind shoulders; swayed or humped up. 
 
 Sides and ribs Sides very deep, medium length ; level between shoulders 
 and hams, and carrying out full down to belly. Ribs, long, strong, and 
 
 sprung in proportion to width of shoulders and hams 9 
 
 Objections: Flnbh//, created . Nlxtllnti' and not curri/ing proper width 
 from tup to bill/din. 
 
 Belly and flank Straight and full, and carrying out full to line of sides. 
 
 Flank well down to lower line of sides 4 
 
 Objections: Narroiv, tucked up, sagging or flabby. Flanks tucked up 
 
 or drawn in. 
 
 Hams and rump Broad, full and well down to hock. Buttocks full and 
 come nearly down to and fill full between hocks. Rump should have 
 a rounding slope from loin to root of tail ; same width as back, and well 
 
 filled out around tail 10 
 
 Objections: Hams narroic. xliort, thin; not projecting well down to 
 hock*: cut u}> too liit/li in crotch. Jliimp narrow, flat or peaked 
 at root of tail, or ton xti-en. 
 
 Legs and feet Medium in si/.e and length; straight, nicely tapering; wide 
 apart and well set iipon the body, pasterns short and strong. Feet 
 
 short, firm, tough . . .... . . '' 
 
 Objections: I*C<JN e.rtrcnicl// Jon;/ or xhort, slim, coarse, crooked; //.v 
 lurye brio ic the knee- nd hock o.v above; set too close together; 
 Jioekn turned: in or out of xtrtiiyJit line. Hoofs long, slim and 
 weak; toes Nj>rctn]ln</ and crooked. 
 Tail Medium large at base and nicely tapering and rather bushy at point 1 
 
 Objections: Extremely heavy, too long and ropy. 
 
 Coat,: Moderately thick and fine, straight, smooth, and covering the body well 3 
 Objections: Manif brittle*-; hulr coarse, harsh and rough; wavy and 
 curled; swirls or not evenly laid over the body. 
 
 Color: Cherry red, without other admixtures - 
 
 Objections: Yeri/ dark red or shady brown; very light or pale red; 
 black xyio/x orer the body; black flecks on belly and legs not de- 
 sired, but admissible. 
 
 Size Large for age and condition ; boars two years old or over should 
 weigh 600 pounds; sows, same age and condition, 500 pounds; boars 
 eighteen months 475 pounds; sows, 400 pounds; boars twelve months, 
 350 pounds, and sows 300 pounds; boars and sows six months of age, 
 !.")! pounds. These figures are for animals in fair show condition . . i> 
 Objections: Rough, coarse and lacking in feeding qualities. 
 
 Action and style Action, vigorous and animated; style, free and easy . . 3 
 Objections: Dull and stupid, awkward and wobbling. Testicles not 
 easily seen, nor of same size or carriage; too large or only one 
 showing. 
 
524 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Points 
 Condition Healthy; skin free from any scurf, scales, sores and mange, 
 
 and flesh laid evenly over entire body and free from lumps 2 
 
 Objections: Unhealthy, scales, sores and mange; too fat for breeding 
 purposes; hair harsh and standing up; poor feeders, etc. 
 
 Disposition Very quiet and gentle; easily handled or driven 2 
 
 Objections: Wild, vicious or stubborn. 
 Symmetry of points . . 3 
 
 Total 100 
 
 Disqualifications. 
 
 Form: Ears standing erect; small cramped chest and crease back of shoulders, 
 no as to cause a depression in the back easily noticed; seriously deformed legs 
 and badly broken down feet. Size: Very small or not over half size as given 
 in this standard. Condition: Excessive fatness; barrenness; seriously diseased; 
 blindness. Score: Less than 50 points. Pedigree: Not eligible to record. 
 
 Fig. 288. Cheshire boar, twice grand champion of breed at New York 
 State Fair. (Photo by courtesy American Agriculturist.) 
 
 The Cheshire breed of swine originated in Jefferson 
 County, New York. In color, the Cheshire should be pure 
 white, excepting for the occasional occurrence of small 
 blue-black spots on the skin. The size is of the medium 
 class, and the standard of excellence gives 400 to 600 pounds 
 for hogs of the breed when of mature size and well fattened. 
 Special characteristics of the Cheshire, other than those 
 
LARD TYPE BREEDS OF SWINE 525 
 
 above noted, are a tendency to shortness of head, a moder- 
 ately dished face, erect or nearly erect small ear, wide and 
 slightly arched back, and hams of the thick-fleshed type. 
 These pigs are little known outside of New York and have 
 had a very limited distribution. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS FOR CHESHIRE SWINE. 
 
 (Adopted by the Cheshire Swine Breeders' Association.) 
 
 Points 
 
 Head Short to medium in length, short in proportion to length of body. . 8 
 
 Face Somewhat dished, and wide between the eyes 8 
 
 Jowl Medium in fullness 3 
 
 Ears Small, fine, erect, and in old animals pointing slightly forward.. 5 
 
 Neck Short and broad 3 
 
 Shoulders Broad, full, deep 6 
 
 Girth around heart 8 
 
 Back Long, broad, straight nearly to root of tail 10 
 
 Sides Deep and full, nearly straight on bottom line 7 
 
 Flanks Well back and low down, making flank girth nearly equal to heart 
 
 girth 3 
 
 Hams Broad, and nearly straight with back, and running down well toward 
 
 hock ."' 10 
 
 Legs Small and slim, set well apart, supporting body well on toes . . . 10 
 
 Tail Small, slim and tapering 
 
 Hair Fine, medium in thickness and quantity 
 
 Color -White, and colored hairs to disqualify 
 
 Skin Fine and pliable, small blue spots objectionable, but allowable 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 2 
 3 
 Symmetry Animal well proportioned, handsome and stylish 8 
 
 Total 100 
 
 The Hampshire breed of swine is of American origin, 
 having long been known in Kentucky and southern Indiana 
 HIM lor the name of Thin Rind. The early career of this 
 breed in the middle west was as a bacon type of pig, but 
 in recent years it has been bred in the corn belt so as to 
 closely approach the lard type hog. However, it is more 
 comparable with the leaner type of Berkshire. The Hamp- 
 shire is a black breed with a white belt about the body. 
 This belt, which should encircle the body between shoulders 
 and hips, may be quite narrow, or rather wide, there being 
 no uniformity on this point. A- band four to 12 inches 
 wide just back of the shoulders, is most approved. It is 
 not at all unusual for Hampshire sows to farrow solid black 
 pigs, which illustrates the difficulty in uniformity of repro- 
 duction of the desired white belt. In size the Hampshire 
 
526 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 is of medium class, although some large examples have 
 been produced. Boars sometimes attain 600 pounds weight, 
 although this is not often the case. Mature breeding males 
 will usually weigh from 400 to 500 pounds and females 
 from 350 to 400 pounds. A standard weight for boars or 
 sows at twelve months is 300 pounds. The head of the 
 Hampshire is moderately long and straight, of just fair 
 width, and with more or less erect ears that point slightly 
 forward. The shoulders tend to be smooth and well laid 
 
 Fig. 289. "The Hampshire is a black breed with a white belt about 
 
 the body." 
 
 in, the back of only medium width, yet well supported. The 
 rump often lacks in width, but shows ample length, and 
 the hams are of medium thickness only, the twist often 
 showing a shallow development. Hampshire pigs may show 
 notable smoothness of body and be lacking in depth of rib, 
 compared with the more prominent lard type breeds. Form- 
 erly, the Hampshire inclined to be somewhat leggy, but 
 present day type pigs of the breed are not subject to special 
 criticism in this regard. In a general way, the Hampshire 
 is a very trim, active breed of hogs, that produces excellent 
 meat. In recent years it has grown greatly in popularity 
 in the middle western states. 
 
LARD TYPE BREEDS OF SWINE 527 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS FOR HAMPSHIRE SWINE. 
 
 (Adopted by the Hampshire Record Association.) 
 
 Points 
 
 Head and face Head medium length, rather narrow, cheeks not full. 
 Face, nearly straight and medium width between the eyes; surface even 
 
 and regular I 
 
 Objections: Head large, coarse and ridgy; nose crooked or mn<-i, 
 
 dished. 
 
 Eyes Bright, and lively, free from wrinkles or fat surroundings . . . . 2 
 Objections: Small, deep or obscure, or vision impaired by fat or other 
 
 causa. 
 
 Ears Medium length, thin, slightly inclined outward and forward . . . . '-! 
 Objections: Large, coarse, thick, large or long knuckle, drooping or not 
 
 under good control of the animal. 
 
 Neck Short, well set to the shoulders, tapering from shoulder to head . . 2 
 Objections Long, thick or bulky. 
 
 Jowl Light, and tapering from neck to point ; neat and firm 2 
 
 Objections: Large, broad, deep or flabby. 
 
 Shoulders Deep, medium width and full, well in line with back . . . . (5 
 Objections: Narrow on top or bottom, thick beyond line with Hide* and 
 
 hams. 
 Chest Large, deep and roomy; full girth, extending down even with line 
 
 of belly I'J 
 
 Objections: Narrow at top or bottom; small girth, cramped <>r 
 
 tucked up. 
 
 Back and loin Back straight or slightly arched, medium breadth, w'th 
 nearly uniform thickness from shoulders to hams and full at loins; 
 
 sometimes higher at hips than shoulders 15 
 
 Objections: Narrow, creased or droopy behind shoulders; surface rid mi 
 
 or uneven. 
 
 Sides and ribs Sides smooth, full, firm, carrying size evenly from shoul- 
 ders to hams; ribs strong, well sprung at top and bottom 8 
 
 Objections: Sides thin, fla>, flabby or creased, or ribs not well *i>nt.ng. 
 Belly and flank: Straight and full, devoid of grossness; flank full and run- 
 ning nearly on line with sides 6 
 
 Objections: Belly sagging or flabbi/ ; flank thin or tucked up. 
 Hams and rump: Hams of medium width, long and deep; rump slightly 
 rounded from loin to root of tail ; buttock full, neat and firm ; devoid 
 
 of flabbiness or excessive fat 10 
 
 Objections: Ham narrow, cut too high in crotch; buttock flabby ; rump 
 
 too fat, too narrow or too steep, or peaked at root of tail. 
 Legs and feet: Legs medium length, set well apart and squarely under 
 body, wide above knee and hock, and rounded and well muscled be- 
 low, tapering; bone medium, pasterns short and nearly upright; toes 
 short and firm, enabling the animal to carry its weight with ease. . . . 10 
 Objections: Legs too long, slim, crooked, coarse or short; weak HIUX- 
 cles above hock, and knee bone large and coarse, and legs without 
 taper; pasterns too long to correspond with length of lea, too 
 crooked or too slender; feet long, slim and weak; toes .v/*/v</ /////. 
 too long, crooked or turned up. 
 
 Tail Medium length, slightly curled 1 
 
 Objections: Coarse, long, clumsy, swinging like a pendulum. 
 
 Coat Fine, straight, smooth 2 
 
 Objections: Bristles or swirls, coarse or curl//. 
 Color Black, with exception of white belt encircling body, including fore 
 
 legs 2 
 
 Objections: White running high on hind legs, or extending more than 
 one-fourth length of body, or solid black. 
 
528 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Points 
 Size Large for condition; boar, two years old and over, 450 Ibs.; sow, 
 
 same age, 400 Ibs. ; eighteen months boar, 350 Ibs. ; sow, 325 Ibs. ; 
 
 twelve months boar or sow, 300 Ibs. ; six months, both sexes, 140 Ibs. 5 
 Action and style Active, vigorous, quick and graceful; style, attractive 
 
 and spirited 4 
 
 Objections: Dull, sluggish and clumsy, 
 Condition- Healthy, skin free from all defects, flesh evenly laid on and 
 
 smooth and firm, not patchy, and devoid of all excess of grossness . . 4 
 
 Objections: Skin scurfy, scaly, mangy or otherwise unhealthy; hair 
 
 harsh, dwarfed or cramped, not growthy. 
 Disposition Docile, quiet, and easily handled 3 
 
 Objections: Cross, restless, vicious, or with no ambition. 
 
 Total. . 
 
 . 100 
 
 Disqualifications. 
 
 Color Spotted, more than two-thirds white, or solid black. 
 
 Form Any radical deformity, ears very large or drooping over eyes, crooked 
 
 or weak legs, or broken-down feet. 
 Condition Seriously impaired or diseased, excessive grossness, . barrenness 
 
 in animals over two years of age, chuffy or squabby fat. 
 Size Not two-thirds standard weight. 
 Pedigree Not eligible to record. 
 
 I 
 
 Fig. 290. "The distinguishing feature of this 
 breed is a solid instead of cloven hoof." (Photo 
 by courtesy Mr. G. C. Kreglow.) 
 
 The Mulef oot 
 
 breed of swine is 
 of uncertain nativ- 
 ity. In its im- 
 proved form it is 
 an American prod- 
 uct, having re- 
 ceived its first im- 
 p o r t a n t develop- 
 ment in Ohio and 
 Illinois. It may be 
 regarded as of the 
 lard type. The dis- 
 tinguishing feature 
 of this breed is a 
 solid, instead o f 
 cloven foot, sugges- 
 tive of the hoof of a 
 mule in miniature. 
 The color is usually 
 a solid black, 
 
LARD TYPE BREEDS OF SWINE 529 
 
 though white points are admissible. The size is medium ; 
 boars over two years of age should weigh about 500 
 pounds in fair condition, and sows of the same age 
 about 400 pounds. Boars or sows at twelve months 
 of age weigh about 300 pounds. In general conformation 
 the improved Mulefoot closely resembles the Poland-China, 
 the blood of which, it may be assumed, has been at some 
 time used on the Mulefoot. Aside from color and foot 
 character, no striking differences are manifest between 
 good examples of the two breeds. The Mulefoot, however, 
 shows a greater variation in character than usually occurs 
 with an improved breed. The claim has been made by its 
 promoters that this is a cholera-proof breed, but there is 
 no satisfactory evidence to support this claim. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS FOR MULEFOOT SWINE. 
 
 (Adopted ly the National Mulefoot Hog Record Association.) 
 
 Points 
 Head and face Head medium length. Face broad between the eyes, nearly 
 
 straight, cheeks full, surface even and regular -1 
 
 Objections: Head large, coarse, crooked or much dished, long -nose. 
 Eyes Bright and lively, free from wrinkles or fat surroundings . . . . 2 
 Objections: Entail, deep or obscure, or vision impaired b,n fat or other 
 
 cause. 
 Ears Medium length, thin tipped, slightly inclined outward and forward. 
 
 knuc.k small and well set to the head 2 
 
 Objections: Large, coarse, thick; large or long knnck drooping or -not 
 
 under good control of the animal, or too erect. 
 
 Neck Short, well set to the shoulders, tapering from shoulder to head . . 2 
 Objections: Jjong, thick or bulky. 
 
 Jowl Full, neat and firm, tapering from neck to point 2 
 
 Objections Thin or flabby. 
 
 Shoulders Medium width, deep, full, not extending above line of back. . 
 Objections: Narrow, cramped, flat, e.rfen<l!ng above line of back ami 
 
 sloping too much from -point to tup. 
 Chest Large, deep and roomy; full girth, extending down even with line 
 
 of belly 12 
 
 Objections: Narrow at top or bottom, small, girth, cramped or tucked 
 
 up. 
 Back and loin Slightly arched, good breadth, with uniform thickness from 
 
 shoulders to hams; full at loin 15 
 
 Objections: Narroic, created or drooped beJrind ttlnmlderx, surface ridgy 
 
 or unei'i'ii. 
 
 Sides and ribs Sides full, smooth form, carrying size evenly from shoul- 
 ders to hams; ribs strong, well sprung at top and bottom 8 
 
 Objections: Sides thin, flat, flabby, or creased; ribs not well sprung. 
 Belly and flank Straight and full, devoid of coarseness; flank full and 
 
 running nearly on line with side 6 
 
 Objections: Belly sagging or flabby, coarse; flank thin or tucked up. 
 
530 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Points 
 
 Hams and rump J Hams full, long and deep ; rump slightly rounded from 
 
 loin to root of tail; buttock full, neat and firm 10 
 
 Objections: Ham narrow, cut too high in crotch; rump too steep or too 
 narrow, peaked at root of tail; buttock flabby. 
 
 Legs and feet Legs medium length, set well apart and squarely under body, 
 wide above knee and hock, rounded and well muscled below; tapering; 
 medium bone; pastern short and nearly upright. Foot solid, short, 
 
 smooth, enabling the animal to carry its weight with ease* 10 
 
 Objections: Legs too long or too short, slim, crooked or coarse; mus- 
 cles weak or light; joints coarse, not tapering; pastern too long, 
 crooked or slender; foot long, slim, weak or turned up. 
 
 Tail Medium length, straight or slightly curled 1 
 
 Objections: Coarse, long, clumsy, swinging. 
 
 Coat Fine, straight, smooth, soft to touch 2 
 
 Objections: Bristles or swirls, coarse or curl)/ hair. 
 
 Color Black; white points admissible 2 
 
 Objections: Too much white on feet, any white spots on body or head. 
 
 Size Large for condition; boars two years and over should weigh 500 
 pounds, sow same age, 450; twelve months boar or sow, 300; six 
 months boar or sow, 175 pounds 5 
 
 Action and style Active, vigorous, graceful, style attractive 4 
 
 Objections: Dull, sluggish, clumsy. 
 
 Condition Healthy; skin free from defect; flesh smooth, firm and evenly 
 
 laid on 4 
 
 Objections: Unhealthy, skin scurfy, scaly or mangy; hair harsh, not 
 growthy. 
 
 Disposition Docile, quiet and easily handled 3 
 
 Objections: Cross, restless, nervous, sluggish or without ambition. 
 
 Total. ... .100 
 
CHAPTER LI. 
 
 JUDGING THE BACON TYPE OF SWINE. 
 
 THE bacon hog is a well-recognized market type and is 
 increasing- in importance with the demand for leaner pork, 
 and especially breakfast bacon. The most valued charac- 
 teristic of the bacon type is a long side, that when properly 
 cured produces the choicest grade of bacon. Such bacon 
 as this has alternate layers of lean meat and fat, firm of 
 quality, without the heavy layer of external fat so much 
 a feature of the lard hog. In years past, in southern Eng- 
 land, in the county of Wilts (usually termed Wiltshire), 
 the people produced and fed a class of hogs from which 
 was made the choicest bacon. Gradually the fame of the 
 Wiltshire side and bacon became widespread, so that to-day 
 this name is supposed to be representative of the choicest 
 quality of bacon. This ideal bacon hog is commonly pro- 
 duced in England, Scotland, Ireland, Denmark and to a 
 considerable extent, in Canada, Large Yorkshire or Tarn- 
 worth hogs or their grades, represent the best bacon type. 
 Animals of their class, when properly fed such foods as 
 barley, peas, oats, skim milk, etc., produce the choicest 
 grades of bacon. Indian corn is not only too fattening, 
 but produces a softer grade of fat than is approved of by 
 the bacon judges. Bacon hogs, raised in the corn belt and 
 fed corn as the major part of their rations, after some gen- 
 cm lions lose much of the more important bacon -producing 
 characteristics, and tend more and more toward the lard 
 type. Hogs of the bacon type are comparatively uncommon 
 in Hie United States. Farmers of this country have looked 
 1o the hog as an important consumer of the great corn crop, 
 and the lard type seems in part to result from this feeding. 
 
 531 
 
532 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS FOR THE BACON TYPE OF HOG. 
 
 Standard of Score of 
 SCALE OF POINTS Perfect Hog 
 
 Score Studied 
 A GENERAL APPEARANCE: 34 Points: 
 
 Weight. Should be well developed for age. Market 
 hogs should weigh 160-200 Ibs. as most ap- 
 proved weights . 5 
 
 Form, long, smooth, deep, strong top line, underline 
 straight, belly trim and neat, entire form well 
 balanced 10 ... 
 
 Quality, hair fine, skin smooth and free of creases, 
 bone clean and strong, flesh firm and smooth 
 at all parts 10 
 
 Condition, well covered with firm flesh, especially on 
 
 back and loin; not too fat 6 .... 
 
 Style, active and sprightly, walking true, standing 
 
 up well on toes 3 .... 
 
 B HEAD AND NECK, 8 Points: 
 
 Snout, medium length and not coarse 1 .... 
 
 Face, broad between eyes, poll broad and full . . 1 .... 
 
 Eyes, of good size, full and bright 1 .... 
 
 Jowl, fair width and muscular, very neat and not 
 
 flabby 2 .... 
 
 Ears, moderately thin, fringed with fine hair . . . . 1 .... 
 
 Neck, medium length, muscular, without arch at top. . 2 .... 
 
 C FOREQUARTERS, 12 Points: 
 
 Shoulders, smooth, upright, well laid in, compact, 
 
 no wider than back 6 .... 
 
 Breast, good width and full 3 .... 
 
 Forelegs, set well apart, medium length and straight, 
 bone clean and not coarse, pasterns erect, toes 
 
 not spread, and erect 3 .... 
 
 B BODY, 33 Points: 
 
 Back, medium width, rising slightly above a straight 
 
 line, making slight arch from neck to tail . . . . 6 .... 
 
 Loin, wide as rest of back, strong and full, not much 
 
 arched 5 .... 
 
 Ribs, well sprung, then sharply vertical, long . . 4 .... 
 
 Sides, long, fairly deep, flat, straight from shoulder 
 
 to ham, smooth 8 .... 
 
 Chest, full, even with shoulder, with no tucked-up 
 
 appearance above or back shoulders 5 .... 
 
 Flanks full and low, not flabby 2 .... 
 
 Belly, firm, trim, thick, yet not flabby nor 
 
 shrunken 3 .... 
 
 E HINDQUARTERS, 13 Points: 
 
 Rump, same width as back, long, level, tail set fairly 
 
 high 4 
 
 Hams, full, not flabby, thighs tapering toward hocks, 
 
 without folds or creases .... 
 
 Hind legs, set well apart at hocks, medium long, 
 straight, bone clean and strong, pasterns Tip- 
 right, toes not spread and erect 3 
 
 Total points 100 
 
JUDGING THE BACON TYPE OF SWINE 
 
 533 
 
 In the following discussion, emphasis will be placed on 
 those features that are specifically characteristic of the 
 bacon hog". Other features that have a similar significance 
 in both lard and bacon type, and which have already been 
 discussed in the case of the lard pig, need not be so exten- 
 sively considered here. Persons interested in the details of 
 judging swine should first be familiar with the pages pre- 
 ceding, that discuss the methods and details involved in 
 judging lard hogs. 
 
 The general appearance of the bacon hog as compared 
 with the lard type, shows considerable length of body, dis- 
 tinctly less thickness and depth, a greater length of leg, 
 and much less fullness about the jowl, neck, shoulder and 
 ham. As an animal of this type walks about, the onlooking 
 judge is impressed with a conformation in which length 
 and narrowness are associated with a sort of litheness of 
 
 Fig. 291. "The general appearance of the bacon hog, as compared with 
 the lard hog, shows considerable length of body, distinctly less thickness 
 and depth, a greater length of leg, and much less fullness about the Jowl, 
 neck, shoulder and ham." 
 
534 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 form and activity of limb, freedom of motion, quite in con- 
 trast with the shorter, thicker, more phlegmatic lard hog. 
 
 The weight of the bacon hog naturally depends on the 
 age, condition and purpose. For market purposes, from 
 160 to 200 pounds is most acceptable, although individuals 
 may reach 225 pounds and meet with favor. When espe- 
 cially fed for bacon production, however, it is conceded 
 that the farther the animal passes beyond the 200 pounds 
 weight, the more the tendency to produce an undesirable 
 amount of fat. Therefore, in judging market weight, these 
 figures must b given careful consideration. With five 
 points as a perfect score for weight, an animal weighing 
 250 pounds might be graded off 30 per cent, giv- 
 ing a score of 3.5 points, thus indicating undesirable 
 weight. In case one is scoring breeding hogs of this type 
 these figures would not apply. Persons scoring breeding 
 stock on weight might adopt 300 pounds for twelve months 
 of age, with 600 pounds for mature females and 700 pounds 
 for boars. Yet these weights are frequently exceeded, espe- 
 cially by Large Yorkshires and Tamworths. 
 
 The form of the bacon hog, as has already been expressed, 
 should show great proportionate length, with strongly sus- 
 tained back, though but little arched. From a side view, 
 the form appears very smooth, free of creases, and having 
 fair depth, though with plenty of daylight below, and with 
 back and belly lines rather parallel. As the form is sur- 
 veyed from either in front or behind, it seems narrow, with 
 opposite sides parallel from shoulder to ham. Roundness 
 and fullness are distinctly lacking in any great degree. 
 
 Quality in the bacon hog is not essentially different in 
 character from that of the lard type. However, much em- 
 phasis is placed on smoothness and freedom from creases 
 or wrinkles, for a side thus affected would be quite impos- 
 sible for making prime bacon. The judge should discrim- 
 inate sharply against any roughness and creases about the 
 shoulder and sides. A fine coat of hair, uniformly and 
 smoothly distributed over the body, is an indicator of su- 
 
JUDGING THE BACON TYPE OF SWINE 
 
 535 
 
 perior quality of fleshing, such as is much desired in bacon 
 production. Roughness of bone is most easily to be noted 
 with bacon hogs, and should be discriminated against se- 
 verely. The bone should be clean and neat. The head 
 being comparatively lean and long with this type also gives 
 expression to quality in a considerable degree. However, 
 lack of quality here is measured rather by roughness and 
 coarseness than by length. 
 One may see some bacon hogs 
 with very long heads which 
 in no sense lack quality. 
 
 Condition in the bacon hog 
 is a very special feature of 
 this type. The frame should 
 be covered with firm flesh, 
 without a thick layer of fat. 
 Nothing suggestive of rolls of 
 fat at any part of the body, 
 or unevenness of condition, 
 meets with favor in the eyes 
 of the bacon judge. The en- 
 tire covering should rather be 
 neatly laid on, showing a firm 
 consistency of flesh so highly 
 essential in bacon. The touch 
 of the fingers to back, side 
 shoulder or ham, should give 
 a firm, yet mellow response, 
 
 without the deepness of fleshing felt in the lard type. The 
 buyer of bacon hogs places great emphasis on this condition. 
 
 Style and action in the bacon hog" are quite notable. In 
 action, in particular, this is manifested by a long stride 
 and much activity, due to a rather muscular conformation, 
 very good length of limb and perhaps nervous temperament. 
 
 The head and neck of the bacon hog, as combined fea- 
 tures, exhibit length to a marked degree. In fact, it is im- 
 possible to maintain bacon type with short head and 
 
 Fig. 292. "As the form is sur- 
 veyed from either in front or be- 
 hind, it seems narrow." 
 
536 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 neck, characteristic of the lard type. The snout is nat- 
 urally the part which shows length to the most striking 
 degree, and sometimes with the Tamworth, the length 
 of snout is extreme. Bacon producers do not discrimi- 
 nate against hogs with long snouts if they possess 
 plenty of quality. The face should be broad between the 
 eyes, and but very little dished if at all. The dish face 
 is rather a characteristic of the shorter bodied, fatter type 
 of hog. For a time, Large Yorkshire breeders favored the 
 dish face, and breeding with this point in view resulted in 
 reducing size and increasing the tendency toward the lard 
 type. In other words, thickness and shortness are incon- 
 sistent with bacon conformation. The eyes of the bacon 
 hog should never be surrounded by wrinkles of fat; they 
 should be prominent and easily seen. If the whites can 
 be clearly seen, which is usually the case, then the eyes are 
 not lacking in size. Occasionally the eyelids are red and 
 inflamed and the animal looks far from attractive. Tlic 
 jowl should be very trim and neat, firm and muscular, 
 rather than round and heavy with fat. A heavy jowl is 
 an indication of a tendency toward fat production on the 
 part of this type of hog. Look for a neatly rounded, smooth 
 jowl, as expressing ideal conformation and quality. Ears 
 inclining to be thin and long, rather than thick and short, 
 are characteristic with the bacon sort. The neck, as has 
 been already stated, with this type, inclines to be long and 
 lacking in flesh. It is important, however, not to have too 
 much length and leanness, for this implies waste and, in 
 breeding stock, lack of stamina and poor feeding qualities. 
 A medium between the short, thick, fat neck and the long, 
 lean one is what is desired. Day states * that ' ' a short, 
 thick neck with an arch, or crest of fat on top, such as is 
 commended in the fat hog, will cause the side of bacon to 
 be heavy at the shoulder and neck end, and this is the cheap 
 end of a side of bacon." Therefore, any tendency to an 
 arch is quite undesirable, and the judge should discriminate 
 
 1 Productive Swine Husbandry, 1913, p. 16. 
 
JUDGING THE BACON TYI'K OF SWINE 537 
 
 against it. The top of the neck, however, should not be 
 too narrow and ridge-like near the head. It should rather 
 round up over the top in full form as one evidence of neces- 
 sary vigor. 
 
 The f orequarters of the bacon hog: include the shoulders, 
 breast and forelegs. The shoulders, as a first essential, 
 should be smooth, light, and neatly laid in, and bacon hog 
 judges emphasize these features. This being one of the 
 cheaper parts of the body, a heavy shoulder is not wanted. 
 Another feature of conformation, also, is rather an upright 
 carriage of shoulder, for the reason 2 that when in this 
 position the animal is * ' comparatively short from the back 
 of the shoulder to the snout, but long from the back of the 
 shoulder to the rump." "When viewed from above, the 
 shoulders should appear compact on the top, and well cov- 
 ered, rather than open and lacking in covering. The thick- 
 ness over the shoulder tops should not exceed the general 
 back width, in fact it should be slightly less. If it is 
 notably more, then the conformation is heavy and the out- 
 side of the blade is not well covered. The breast should 
 be wide and full, the sternum projecting even with the 
 front of legs or beyond, indicating constitution. Depth of 
 breast is also sought for, but with the bacon type this is not 
 emphasized as with the lard type. If the chest lacks ma- 
 terially in depth, then there will be a lack in depth of side, 
 which is highly undesirable. The forelegs, excepting for 
 length, should possess the same general characteristics found 
 in the lard hog. They incline to be long, however, and 
 should not be severely scored by the judge, unless their 
 length is associated with a shallow depth of body. 
 
 The body of the bacon hog furnishes the most important 
 and highest-priced cuts of pork, for in it we find the back, 
 loin and side. The back, as a first essential, must not be 
 too wide, but rather of medium width, for the wide back is 
 usually associated with fat production. It should be well 
 carried, arching very slightly, ^specially at the loin, and 
 
 2 Productive Swine Husbandry p 17 
 
538 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 just enough to furnish strong support. A sagging back in 
 a breeding animal should be scored severely, excepting for 
 old age or in the case of a sow heavy in pig. In the case 
 
 of hogs ready for 
 the market, then 
 some sag of back is 
 not so important 
 from the butcher's 
 point of view, pro- 
 vided there is the 
 right width and 
 covering. The loin 
 furnishes the most 
 valuable cut in the 
 back, and should 
 have the same 
 width as the rest of 
 the back. This part, 
 however, in prime 
 condition, is very 
 strong, and is cov- 
 ered with a smooth 
 and firm layer of 
 flesh. Extending 
 over the back and 
 loin as a whole, for 
 it is all back, in 
 fact, there should 
 be a layer of fat 
 from an inch to an 
 inch and one-half in 
 
 thickness, extending smoothly and uniformly from neck to 
 loin. This fat covering is an important point with bacon pro- 
 ducers, and any excess in fat deposit is much discriminated 
 against by buyers, for the best grades of bacon carry no thick 
 layers of fat. One of the fine points in feeding bacon hogs, is 
 to determine when the condition of flesh is just right, and so 
 
 Fig. 293. "There should be a layer of fat 
 from an inch to an inch and a half in thickness, 
 extending smoothly and uniformly from neck to 
 loin." 
 
JUDGING THE BACON TYPE OF SWINE 
 
 539 
 
 sell before the hogs are overdone. In scoring on this point, 
 grade the animal in high condition more severely than the 
 one somewhat lacking in this respect. The ribs in a bacon 
 hog of the best type have a strong arch and then come 
 clown sharply into rather a vertical position. This is a dis- 
 tinctive feature of the ribbing, and through this conforma- 
 tion is secured the 
 flat side so much 
 valued by the ba- 
 con curer. The 
 ribs should also be 
 long, so as to pro- 
 vide depth of body 
 and size. The side 
 of the bacon hog, 
 to meet a critical 
 standard, must fur- 
 nish as completely 
 as possible four 
 things, viz., length, 
 depth, smoothness 
 and condition. 
 "From a packer's 
 standpoint, " says 
 Day, 3 "a bacon hog cannot have too long a side, but 
 the breeder must exercise care that he does not 
 secure this extreme length at the expense of constitu- 
 tion. . . . It is absolutely necessary, however, that the hog 
 should have a good length of side, much more than is found 
 in the fat type." In the scale of points, eight points are 
 credited to the sides, or really 12, if we include the ribs. 
 No other part is allowed so many points and, in judging, 
 this must be kept in mind. Emphasize the four essential 
 features in the bacon side, and score sharply if the animal 
 is much defective in these characteristics. Note, in particu- 
 lar, smoothness and condition of fleshing. The chest, as 
 
 * Productive Swine Husbandry, 1913, p. 18. 
 
 Fig. 294. " A bacon hog cannot have too long 
 a side." 
 
540 
 
 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 the part enclosing the vital organs, should be relatively 
 thick and deep. No depressions back of the shoulders, 
 or hollow or tucked-up flanks should be seen. A full, firm- 
 fleshed flank is essentially associated with constitutional vigor 
 and a good side of bacon as well. The belly, though fur- 
 nishing some of the cheapest meat, should be neat and trim, 
 
 thicker in its flesh- 
 ing here than in 
 the lard type, and 
 quite lacking in 
 flabby condition or 
 shrinkage about the 
 flanks. Paunchiness 
 or flabby condition 
 of the belly should 
 meet with distinct 
 disfavor. 
 
 The hindquar- 
 ters of the bacon 
 hog 1 involve hips, 
 rump, hams and 
 legs. The rump 
 should be long, of 
 the same width as 
 the back, be carried level rather than droopy, and be 
 slightly rounded over the top from one side to the other. 
 The flat-topped, broad rump is likely to carry too much fat. 
 The hips should not be wider apart than the width of the 
 back, and should be smoothly covered. The hams, also 
 called the gammons by some British authorities, have a 
 shape very distinctive to this type of hog. They should 
 exhibit much less thickness and fullness than does the ham 
 of the lard type, being more split up between, showing com- 
 paratively little twist, yet having a long, smooth muscle of 
 firm appearance, fleshing neatly and completely about the 
 lower thigh quite to the hock. The pared-off lower thigh 
 is easily seen from either one side or behind. A comparison 
 
 Fig. 295. "A comparison of the hind ends of 
 lard and bacon types of hogs brings out in sharp 
 contrast the difference in thickness of hams, as 
 well as spread and height between the legs." 
 
JUDGING THE BACON TYPE OF SWINE 541 
 
 of the hind ends of lard arid bacon types of hogs, brings 
 out in sharp contrast the difference in thickness of hams, 
 as well as spread and height between the legs. Allowance 
 should be made in passing on the hind legs, for more close- 
 ness between them than usually prevails with the lard type, 
 a feature that has no special bearing on the correct posture 
 of legs and feet. Cleanness and strength of bone, straight- 
 ness of leg, uprightness of pasterns and proper placings of 
 toes should be emphasized just as much as with the lard 
 hog. One naturally expects the bacon hog to carry himself 
 in ideal form on toes and pasterns, but he is often disap- 
 pointed in that respect. The judge should not be too 
 severe in his criticism of these two features, unless they are 
 distinctly and markedly defective. Furthermore, the judge 
 should be more exacting in the case of a younjg breeding 
 animal than one going finished to the shambles. 
 
CHAPTER LII. 
 
 JUDGING BREEDING SWINE. 
 
 THERE are certain very essential things that must be kept 
 in > mind and understood when judging breeding swine. 
 Where hogs are simply fed and finished for the butcher, 
 then they are passed upon solely for their value as meat, 
 having in mind the standards already discussed in detail 
 in the preceding pages. But if the hogs are to be considered 
 as breeding animals, to be used for purposes of reproduc- 
 tion, then still other qualities and characteristics must be 
 considered. One must have in mind the ideal lard or 
 bacon type, and then either add to or subtract from this 
 type, so as to secure the ideal breeding conformation and 
 character. This requires consideration of the following 
 features when applied to the boar or sow : 
 
 (a) Sex character. 
 
 (6) Temperament. 
 
 (c) Size. 
 
 (d) Frame. 
 
 (<?) Breed characteristics. 
 
 (A) THE BOAR. 
 
 Sex character in the boar is manifested in several ways. 
 The head is strong, is larger than that of the female, and 
 shows pronounced masculinity. After attaining a few 
 months of age the young males begin to show a slight in- 
 crease in size of head and, as maturity approaches, heavy 
 tusks appear on the sides of each jaw. Thus in the mature 
 boar one looks for a strong head, with what might be re- 
 garded as a tendency to coarseness, as shown in the larger 
 features, thickness of skin and coarse type of hair. The 
 
 542 
 
JUDGING BREEDING SWINE 
 
 543 
 
 neck should be strong, somewhat thick and perhaps a trifle 
 arched, though much arch is undesirable. In the shoulders, 
 sex is strongly manifested, in the shields, heavy coverings 
 of tough hide, which are very undesirable, and expert 
 judges always give 
 the preference to 
 the boar with 
 smooth and well- 
 laid shoulder. The 
 entire front part 
 of the boar tends 
 to broaden and 
 spread with age. 
 Such undesirable 
 development is lia- 
 ble to be repro- 
 duced in the pro- 
 geny. The sex of 
 the boar is also 
 prominent in his 
 reproductive o r - 
 garis. The scrotum 
 or sac containing 
 two testicles, ap- 
 pears in an incon- 
 spicuous form on 
 the young male 
 
 pig, between the hams and just below the vent or anus, 
 and with maturity this part assumes considerable size, and 
 projects out with distinct prominence. The judge should 
 see that there are two of these glands, of equal size and 
 exposure. Sometimes but one "seed," as the stockman 
 terms it, comes down from the scrotum and, though such 
 an animal may be a breeder, he is regarded as defective, 
 and should be so judged. 
 
 The temperament of the boar should be active to a certain 
 extent, but not nervously so. He is naturally inclined to 
 
 Fig. 296. "In the mature boar one looks for 
 a strong head." "Berryton Duke, Jr." 77341, 
 :i noted Kansas Berkshire boar. (By courtesy 
 Orange Judd Pub. Co.) 
 
544 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 fight with strange boars and to insist on having his own 
 way. There is altogether more self-assertion than in the 
 case of either barrow or sow, and sometimes he is blessed 
 with too much of this quality. Frequently, in the show 
 ring, he champs his jaws and froths at the mouth, a tem- 
 peramental action peculiar to his sex. 
 
 The size of the boar should somewhat exceed that of the 
 sow or sexless animal. At maturity he should show a 
 marked increase in size over the female, though no definite 
 figures can be established for this difference. It will de- 
 pend on the breed more than anything else. Large size of 
 male is not so essential, however, as some think. In fact, 
 if associated with coarseness it is undesirable. Perhaps 
 100 pounds greater weight than the sow, in the same flesh, 
 will not be much out of the way. The young boar should 
 have plenty of size for his age. If the boar is undersized 
 while young, he will not be likely to attain the size he 
 should at maturity. 
 
 The frame of the boar is to be seen in the character of 
 the bone, and in the breeding animal of this sex it should 
 be medium to large in size, with plenty of quality. Many 
 breeders prefer a large bone, especially as seen in the legs. 
 Too much refinement is objectionable, because at maturity 
 the animal cannot sustain his weight well and be used to 
 the best advantage for breeding, unless in a crate. The 
 boar, in ideal condition, has a strong frame, well covered 
 with muscles, such as indicate plenty of vitality. The 
 boar one sees so often at the shows, heavily covered with 
 fat, overdone and lacking in the activity so much desired 
 in breeding animals, is hardly a fit example of what the 
 breeding boar should be. The judge should discriminate 
 against the frame unduly submerged in fat. 
 
 Breed characteristics are important factors to consider 
 when one is judging pure bred animals. Each breed is char- 
 acterized by certain features of conformation and color. 
 The judge should be familiar with these characteristics. 
 The breeds differ more or less in shape of head, carriage and 
 
JUDGING BREEDING SWINE 545 
 
 type of ear, conformation of body as expressed in width of 
 back and depth and length of middle, and in color and coat 
 of hair. Some breeds closely resemble each other in certain 
 things, such as head or color, for example. Between yet 
 other breeds there are striking differences in various ways. 
 The boar should be a good model of the breed, and whether 
 he is or not will depend on how closely he compares with 
 the breed standard. 
 
 (B) THE SOW. 
 
 Sex character in the sow is especially seen in the fem- 
 inine type of head and neck ; the smooth, well-laid shoulder ; 
 length and depth of body, and mammary glands. The head 
 of the sow should show distinct refinement, and lack of the 
 self-assertive character so manifest in the boar. The neck 
 should be free of any thick, heavy crested condition, but 
 should be trim and neat, and appear a trifle longer than 
 with the boar. The shoulders should be smooth and laid in 
 neatly, so that the body will be no wider at this part than 
 further back, excepting when in thin flesh, due to nursing, 
 etc. Any thickness and heaviness of shoulder tends to mas- 
 culinity. The most distinguishing sex features of the sow 
 are the mammary glands or udder, which occupy the entire 
 space of the lower part of the belly. One gland extends 
 along each side, with a series of teats at regular intervals. 
 Six sound teats on each side are to be desired, though there 
 is some variation in this regard. One frequently finds sows 
 with blind or defective teats, due to injury, lack of use, etc. 
 Emphasis should be placed by the judge on the necessity 
 for sound and well-placed teats. 
 
 The temperament of the brood sow is of great impor- 
 tance. A naturally nervous, restless temperament is the 
 cause of great loss in young pigs, injured or neglected by 
 the mother. The model brood sow will lie quietly after pig- 
 ging, and while nursing her young will move about among 
 them with much care and quietness. She is not startled 
 by every noise, and grunts in a soothing, contented manner 
 
-;5 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 to her pigs. In the show ring one cannot always determine 
 this matter of temperament, but, as a rule, the brood sow 
 that is quiet and easily moved about may be regarded as 
 having the most desirable temperament. Occasionally one 
 finds a sow that is lazy and awkward, lacking in activity, 
 and not disposed to attend to her pigs. She is almost as 
 bad as the high strung, nervous sow, for she rarely raises 
 a litter. 
 
 The size of the brood sow should be large, without coarse- 
 
 Fig. 297. "The most distinguishing sex feature of the sow is the 
 mammary glands or udder." 
 
 ness. The present day tendency is to demand brood sows 
 with plenty of size and a reasonable amount of quality. 
 In the show ring the larger animal, other things being equal, 
 is given the preference. One reason for the great popu- 
 larity of the Duroc-Jersey in the middle west is the 
 considerable size of the matured females. The compact, 
 tidy, quick-maturing sort, that at one time was in favor, 
 has given way to the larger, slower-maturing, more ca- 
 pacious animal. A brood sow weighing around 400 to 450 
 pounds in the best of breeding condition will meet with favor. 
 Some breeds, like the Large Yorkshire, at maturity, weigh 
 
JUDGING BREEDING SWINE 547 
 
 600 pounds and more. The most desirable size will quite 
 depend on breed influence. 
 
 The frame of the brood sow is more expansive, with 
 greater stretch than in the case of the boar. The ribs show 
 the depth so important in maternity, while emphasis is 
 placed on length of body and width and strength of back. 
 This body, neat and smooth in its lines, should be easily 
 carried on strong feet and legs. The side view, in particu- 
 lar, should show a frame well covered, not in high condi- 
 tion, and bearing evidence of first-class reproducing ca- 
 pacity. With too much length of frame comes a tendency 
 of the back to sag. This is indicative of weakness, conse- 
 quently a strong carriage of back is desirable. The judge, 
 however, should not severely discriminate against a sow 
 heavy in pig, for the great weight within naturally pulls 
 down the back line. Also, old brood sows, that have raised 
 a number of litters, tend to sag in the back with age, but 
 young sows should show a frame especially strong. 
 
 The breed characteristics of the brood sow need no 
 special discussion here, for what has been stated regarding 
 these features in the boar, will have quite a general applica- 
 tion with the sow. 
 
CHAPTER LIII. 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE NOTES ON THE BACON TYPE 
 BREEDS OF SWINE. 
 
 The Large Yorkshire breed of swine is of English an- 
 cestry, having long been bred in England, and being the 
 most common of the British breeds of swine, where it is 
 known as the Large White Breed. It is white, and should 
 show no other color, except occasional small blue-black 
 spots on the skin. This is one of the largest breeds of 
 swine, and cases are on record of individuals weighing in 
 excess of 1,200 pounds. Mature boars, in fair flesh, at two 
 years of age or over, should weigh about 700 pounds, and 
 sows of the same age and condition, about 600 pounds. At 
 one year of age, either boars or sows should weigh about 
 350 pounds. This is a bacon type of swine, when properly 
 bred, and presents the following special characteristics: 
 a rather long, narrow and slightly dished face ; a large erect 
 or semi-erect ear, pointing forward; a smoothly laid-in 
 shoulder; narrow, long, yet strong, back; comparatively 
 wide loins; long, smooth, moderately deep sides; long, 
 fairly level, but only medium wide rump ; long, wide, but 
 not thick hams, with light twist ; and a tendency to more 
 length of leg than is popular with many American pork 
 producers. In general, one is impressed with the large per- 
 centage of side meat and much less thickness of back, jowl, 
 shoulder and ham, than obtains with the lard type. This 
 is quite a prolific breed, and the udder on the breeding 
 females should be well developed, and show twelve or more 
 teats. 
 
 In Great Britain there is a type of Yorkshire that is 
 shorter of head, and thicker all through, known there as 
 
 548 
 
NOTES ON THE BACON TYPE 549 
 
 the Middle White. In the United States there is a tendency 
 to show hogs of this type as Large Yorkshires, as they uu-H 
 with more favor from our swine raisers. In Great Britain, 
 a Large Yorkshire (Large White) may farrow a litter, 
 some of the pigs of which may be Middle Whites, and will 
 be so recorded on the records of the National Pig Breeders' 
 Association of Great Britain. There is a still smaller type 
 known as the Small Yorkshire (Small White) that, at one 
 time, was very common in England. This was a very short, 
 
 Fig. 298. Large Yorkshire boar, bred and owned in England by Mr. 
 Sanders Spencer. (Photo by courtesy American Agriculturist.) 
 
 wide-bodied, extremely dished-faced pig, the breeding of 
 which has been about discontinued. Recently the Royal 
 Agricultural Society of England abolished a place in its 
 premium list for the Small White breed, which is equivalent 
 to condemning it for further breed consideration. 
 
550 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS FOR LARGE YORKSHIRE SWINE. 
 
 (Adopted by the American Yorkshire Club.) 
 
 Points 
 
 General outline Long and deep in proportion to width, but not massive; 
 slightly arched in the back, symmetrical and smooth, with body firmly 
 
 supported by well-placed legs of medium length 5 
 
 Outline of head Moderate in length and size, with lower jaw well sprung, 
 
 and some dish toward snout, increasing with advancing maturity . . 4 
 
 Forehead and poll 1 
 
 Jowl M>di\im, not carried too far back toward neck, and not flabby. ... 1 
 
 Eye Medium size, clear and bright 1 
 
 Snout Turning upward with a short curve, increasing with age . . . . 1 
 Ear Medium in size, standing well out from head, nearly erect, but inclin- 
 ing slightly forward 1 
 
 Neck Of medium length, fair width and depth, rising gradually from poll 
 
 to withers, muscular but not gross, evenly connecting head and body. . 3 
 Outline of "body Long, deep and of medium breadth, equally wide at shoul- 
 der, side and ham ; top line slightly arched, underline straight . . . - 7 
 Back Moderately broad, even in width from end to end; strong in loin; 
 
 short ribs of good length 10 
 
 Shoulder Large, but not massive; not open above 6 
 
 Arm and thigh Broad, and of medium length and development 2 
 
 Brisket Wide, and on a level with underline 3 
 
 Side Long, deep, straight and even from shoulder to hip . . 8 
 
 Bibs Well arched and deep 5 
 
 Heart girth and flank girth Good and about equal 8 
 
 Hindquarters Long, to correspond with shoulder and side; deep, with 
 
 moderate and gradual droop to tail 5 
 
 Hams Large, well let down on thigh and twist, and rear outline somewhat 
 
 rounded 10 
 
 Twist Well down and meaty 1 
 
 Tail Medium, not much inclined to curl 1 
 
 Legs Medium in length, strong, not coarse, but standing straight and firm 5 
 
 Hair Abundant, long, of medium fineness, without any bristles 4 
 
 Skin Smooth and white, without scales, but dark spots in skin do not dis 
 
 qualify 2 
 
 1 
 5 
 
 Color White on every part 
 Movement Active, but not restless . . 
 
 Total 100 
 
 The Tamworth breed of swine is of English nativity, 
 having had its early development in central England. Its 
 color is red, the shade varying from light to very dark. A 
 golden-red hair in a flesh-colored skin, free from black 
 spots, is the most approved color marking. In size this is 
 a large breed of the most distinctive bacon type. The 
 average mature boar will probably weigh about 600 pounds, 
 and the sow 450 pounds. At six months pigs will weigh 
 
NOTES OX THE BACON TYPE 
 
 ,">."> 1 
 
 about 175 pounds. This breed presents certain well-defined 
 characteristics, besides the color and size. The head is very 
 long and straight of face, and inclines to be slender of 
 snout. The forehead is retreating, the eyes prominent, ami 
 the large ears lean forward but do not break over. The 
 neck inclines to be somewhat long and slender, the chest and 
 back narrow, the sides long and smooth, yet lacking depth, 
 and the hams large but deficient in thickness and showing 
 
 Fig. 299. Tamworth sow, "Brookhill Fancy," a first prize- winner. (Photo 
 
 by courtesy American Agriculturist.) 
 
 very little twist. The males at maturity often have heavy, 
 rough shoulders, and as a rule, the Tamworth emphasizes 
 length of leg to a degree not common with other breeds 
 known in America. This is a very fecund breed, and breed- 
 ing females should exhibit considerable udder development 
 and 12 or more teats. The more improved Tamworth has 
 a fair depth of body, not excessive, length of leg, and su- 
 perior smoothness and quality. Shortness of head is not 
 associated with the reproduction of bacon type, although 
 
552 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS 
 
 a heavy, long, coarse head is objectionable. The Tamworth 
 is temperamentally very active, and in a measure lacks in 
 quiet disposition. 
 
 OFFICIAL STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE FOR TAMWORTH 
 
 SWINE. 
 
 (Adopted by the National Pig Breeders' Association of Great Britain.) 
 
 Color Golden red hair in a flesh-colored skin, free from black. 
 
 Head Fairly long; snout moderately long and quite straight; face slightly 
 dished, wide between ears. 
 
 Ears Rather large, with fine fringe; carriage rigid, and inclined slightly 
 forward. 
 
 Neck Fairly long and muscular, especially in boar. 
 
 Chest Wide and deep. 
 
 Shoulders Fine, slanting, and well set. 
 
 Legs Strong and shapely, with plenty of bone, and set well outside of body. 
 
 Pasterns Strong and sloping. 
 
 Feet Strong, and fair size. 
 
 Back Long and straight. 
 
 Loin Strong and broad. 
 
 Tail Set on high and well tasseled. 
 
 Sides Long and deep. 
 
 Bibs Well sprung, and extending well up the flank. 
 
 Belly Deep, with straight underline. 
 
 Flank Full, and well let down. 
 
 Quarters Long, wide, and straight from tip to tail. 
 
 Hams Broad and full, well let down to hocks. 
 
 Coat Abundant, long, straight, fine. 
 
 Action Firm and free- spirited. 
 
 Objections Black hair, vert/ light or ffinger hair, curly coat, coarse mane, black 
 spots on skin, slouch or drooping ears, short or turned-up snout, heavy 
 shoulders, blocky build, small heart (firth, elephantness, wrinkled .vAi/i, 'in- 
 bent knees, hollowness at back of shoulder. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 RULES GOVERNING LIVESTOCK JUDGING 
 CONTESTS. 
 
 IN view of the great interest taking place these days in 
 livestock judging contests, it has seemed appropriate to 
 include, as appendix to this volume, examples of rules and 
 regulations governing such contests. 
 
 The following rules are> based on years of experience in 
 the management of judging contests, and may be regarded 
 as the most recent drafts on the subject. 
 
 RULES AND REGULATIONS GOVERNING THE INTER- 
 NATIONAL LIVESTOCK EXPOSITION LIVE- 
 STOCK JUDGING CONTEST.* 
 
 (1) Rules Governing Eligibility of Contestants. 
 
 1. Any farmer's son under twenty-five years of age who has 
 never attended an agricultural college or agricultural school, may 
 enter. 
 
 2. Any agricultural college undergraduate student represent- 
 ing his institution, who has never taken part in any meat-stock 
 or heavy-horse judging contest of interstate or international char- 
 acter previous to the year in which the contest is held, may enter, 
 provided he is in attendance as a regularly enrolled student in the 
 institution he represents, has taken two years' work in that in- 
 stitution, has not been away from the institution more than one 
 year at a time after first entering said institution, and who has 
 at no time served in the capacity of animal husbandry teacher 
 in any agricultural college. 
 
 3. No college shall be represented by more than five men, 
 which number shall constitute a team. 
 
 4. Each institution shall file with the Superintendent of the 
 Students' Judging Contest, at the time its students are entered, 
 
 * International Livestock Exposition. Preliminary Classification, 1916. 
 
 553 
 
554 APPENT)IX 
 
 ;in authoritative statement covering the eligibility oi ? each of its 
 representatives. 
 
 (2) Superintendent. 
 
 1. It shall be the duty of the Superintendent to see that all 
 rules and regulations governing 1 the contest are duly carried out. 
 He shall see that the contest is conducted with fairness and justice 
 to all concerned. 
 
 2. The Superintendent shall have a chief clerk and helpers to 
 assist him in superintending the students while working on the 
 different classes of stock, and to aid him in such other capacities 
 as he may require. 
 
 3. He shall direct the contestants which class to judge, time 
 to commence work, and time to stop. 
 
 4. He shall say nothing to a contestant concerning the method 
 to follow, either in judging' the class, forming the reasons, or 
 giving reasons before the committee. 
 
 5. The Superintendent shall have nothing to do with placing 
 the animals in the various classes, nor with the grading of the 
 placing, or the reasons. 
 
 6. He shall have charge of all the grades given for both plac- 
 ing and reasons, and it shall be his duty to have these tabulated 
 and totaled, and he shall deliver the result of the contest to the 
 Secretary of the International Livestock Exposition, who shall 
 publish the result. 
 
 (3) Clerks, Assistants and Attendants. 
 
 The clerks, assistants and attendants shall be at the command 
 of the Superintendent and shall carry out his orders, and none 
 of these assistants shall confer with the contestants, unless di- 
 rected to do so by the Superintendent. 
 
 The attendants showing the livestock shall hold the animals in 
 a careful manner, so that all contestants may have a fair chance 
 to make observations on the same. 
 
 (4) Judges. 
 
 1. There shall be three judges for each class of stock judged. 
 It is preferable that two of each set be stockmen (breeders or 
 feeders of the class to be passed upon), and the third an animal 
 
APPENDIX 555 
 
 husbandry instructor. No one shall be allowed to act as judge in 
 a class in which his animals are shown. 
 
 2. it shall be the duty of each committee of judges to look 
 over the class of stock, and of each judge to decide as to the order 
 in which the class shall be placed, and to decide on the essential 
 reasons for placing' the first above the second, the second above 
 the third, and the third above the fourth. The judges shall keep 
 their rating's of the animals secret until after the contestants 
 have been before the committee. 
 
 3. When the contestant appears before the committee, the clerk 
 shall present the contestant's card bearing his rating of the ani- 
 mals and each judge shall make a note of the same and grade it 
 as his judgment dictates and record his grade for placing on a 
 card bearing the contestant's number. Fifty points shall consti- 
 tute a perfect mark for placing. The contestant shall have two 
 minutes in which to give his reasons for placing the animals. 
 It shall be the duty of the committee to hear those reasons, to 
 grade the same independently, and to record their grade for 
 reasons on the cards mentioned above. Fifty points shall consti- 
 tute a perfect mark for reasons. 
 
 4. As soon as the judges have recorded their grades, the clerk 
 shall collect the three cards. The three grades on placing shall 
 be averaged, and the average shall stand as the contestant's 
 '"ule for placing that class. 
 
 5. The grade for reasons shall be arrived at in the same manner. 
 
 (5) Contestants. 
 
 1. All prospective contestants must send in their entries to the 
 Secretary of "International" Exposition by November 15, 1916. 
 
 2. Regular entry forms will be mailed all prospective con- 
 testants who request the same before November 15, !!)!(>. 
 
 3. An entry fee of $2.00 will be charged each contestant, which 
 sum must be forwarded with the application. The money re- 
 ceived from this source is to be used in defraying the expenses 
 of the examiners. 
 
 4. Each- college will be restricted to entering five (5) men, 
 which number shall constitute a team. 
 
 5. Each contestant shall report to the Superintendent in the 
 amphitheatre at 7 : 30 A.M., Saturday, December 2, 1916, when he 
 will be assigned a number and such instructions as the Super- 
 intendent desires to give. 
 
556 APPENDIX 
 
 6. No contestant will be permitted to inspect the livestock at 
 the International Livestock Exposition prior to the contest. Any 
 transgression of this rule will be sufficient cause to bar a student 
 from the contest. 
 
 7. No contestant shall wear any uniform, college colors, college 
 hat, nor shall he in any way signify to the judges his identity or 
 the identity of the college which he represents. 
 
 8. While the contest is in progress there shall be no conferring 
 between contestants or between a contestant and anyone else, 
 except as directed by the Superintendent or his representative. 
 Any violation of this rule will be punished by the expulsion of 
 the offender. 
 
 9. The contestants shall be divided by the Superintendent into 
 four groups, A, B, C, D, and shall be so designated thereafter 
 throughout the contest. In no group shall there be more than two 
 contestants from one college. 
 
 10. When the four classes of stock are brought in, Group A 
 contestants shall be assigned to one class, B to a second class, C 
 to a third class and D to the fourth class of animals. All groups 
 shall be notified three minutes before time is up. When final 
 time is called, Group A shall move to the second class, B to the 
 third, C to the fourth and D to the first class, and shall continue 
 to rotate in this way until each group has passed on every class 
 of livestock. 
 
 11. The contestant shall hand his card, bearing his number, the 
 descriptive name given the class of animals, and his placing, to 
 the Supervising Clerk, immediately after he finishes with each 
 class. 
 
 12. Each student shall be required to give reasons on two of 
 the three rings of stock he has examined in each class. 
 
 The contestants will be informed which two of the three rings 
 of livestock of each class reasons will be required upon as soon 
 as that point is decided. 
 
 13. When the contestants have passed upon all of the rings of 
 stock they shall be taken to convenient quarters, where each con- 
 testant shall be called before each committee of judges to give 
 reasons for placing each ring. The contestants will be required 
 to give reasons on one ring only at each hearing before the re- 
 spective committees. The contestants shall be called before the 
 committees to give reasons in the same order that they followed 
 in placing the rings of stock in the arena. 
 
APPENDIX 557 
 
 (6) Time. 
 
 1. In each of the classes eighteen minutes shall be allowed the 
 contestant to make his observations, record his placing, and write 
 such memoranda as he may desire. No contestant shall hold any 
 paper, card or device that will assist him while he is giving his 
 reasons before the judges, except that he will be handed the card 
 he turned in, which he will be allowed to retain while giving his 
 reasons. 
 
 Each contestant shall appear singly before the judges and will 
 be allowed two minutes to give reasons for his placing of each 
 ring of animals. The contestant shall write his placing on a card 
 and hand it to the clerk as soon as he has finished the work of 
 placing the class. 
 
 FOIIM OF CARD. 
 
 Contestant's number 
 
 Class- 
 
 Placing : 
 
 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 
 
 Card shall be four inches by two and one-half inches. 
 
 (7) The Rings of Livestock How Selected. 
 
 The representatives of institutions having full teams of students 
 in the contest shall divide themselves into committees, at a meet- 
 ing to be held in the amphitheatre on the morning of the contest 
 at 7 : 30 A.M., and immediately report their committee lists to the 
 Superintendent. It shall be the duties of these committees to 
 select and get out the rings of stock to be used in said students* 
 judging contest. It shall be their further duty to specify the 
 description of the ring that shall be given to the students. 
 
 The representative of each institution having a team entered 
 shall inform these committees what stock on the exposition 
 grounds his team of students have worked upon. 
 
558 APPENDIX 
 
 (8) Classes of Livestock and Methods of Numbering, 
 
 1. Four animals shall constitute a class. 
 
 2. The horses, cattle and sheep shall be identified by placing a 
 card on the animal. These cards shall be lettered A, B, C, 1). 
 
 The pigs shall be numbered by sticking large gummed labels 
 bearing the letter on the rump. 
 
 3. All newspaper men, officials and others, except the Superin- 
 tendent, his assistants, the judges, policemen and holders of stock, 
 shall be excluded from the ring while the contest is in progress. 
 
 The program to be followed will be given to the students by the 
 Superintendent in charge, on the morning of December 2nd. 
 
 Full instructions will be given the students in the arena on the 
 morning of the above date. 
 
 The following program shall be followed, beginning Saturday, 
 December 2, 1916 at 7 : 30 A.M. : 
 
 7 : 30 A.M. Superintendent gives instructions to students. 
 9 : 20 A.M. First ring : Horses, cattle, sheep and swine. 
 9 : 40 A.M. Second ring : Horses, cattle, sheep and swine. 
 11 : 00 A.M. Third ring : Horses, cattle, sheep and swine. 
 12:20 P.M. Luncheon. 
 
 1 : 20 P.M. Students give reasons before judging committees. 
 Each student will be allowed six minutes for giving his reasons 
 for the three rings of horses, cattle, sheep and swine, respectively, 
 making- a total of twenty-four minutes for reasons. 
 
 RULES FOR BOYS' STOCK JUDGING CONTESTS. 
 
 1. All contestants must reside within the county. 
 
 2. Contestants are limited to boys and girls under 19 years of 
 a,ge who have not attended a State Agricultural College. 
 
 3. All contestants must report to the person in charge not later 
 than 9 : 30 A.M. on the day of the contest. 
 
 4. Contestants shall fill out an application blank furnished by 
 the Secretary, before the day of the contest. 
 
 5. A "team" shall consist of three contestants whose names have 
 been furnished to the Secretary on one card before the day of the 
 contest. Membership in a team shall in no way hinder the con- 
 testant from competition for an individual prize or trip. 
 
 6. Each contestant shall be given a number by the Secretary 
 by which he shall be known during the contest. 
 
APPENDIX 559 
 
 7. Eacn contestant shall be required to place ana give reasons 
 i'or placing two or three classes of stock selected from the fol- 
 lowing list: Draft Horses, Beef Cattle, Dairy Cattle, Mutton 
 Sheep, and Lard Hoys. The Association holding the contest shall 
 determine which classes of stock will be used. 
 
 S. Score cards may be used in training 1 the contestants before- 
 hand, but no score cards shall be used in the contest. 
 
 9. Printed forms will be given each contestant on which to 
 make written reports of classes judged, and any contestant writ- 
 ing his name or placing any other identifying mark other than the 
 number assigned to him on his written report will be excluded 
 from the contest. 
 
 10. Each contestant shall devote his time strictly to the judging 
 of the stock and shall not refer to text-books or other data; 
 neither shall he converse with any other persons on any class of 
 stock being passed upon or to be passed upon. 
 
 11. The length of time allotted to each ring shall be at the dis- 
 cretion of the person in charge. In grading, 60 per cent shall 
 be allotted to placing, and 40 per cent to reasons. 
 
 The association holding the contest shall delegate one of its 
 numbers to assist the instructor in charge and to arrange for the 
 securing and getting out of animals for the different classes. 
 
RULES OF STUDENTS' CONTEST IN JUDGING 
 
 DAIRY CATTLE AT NATIONAL DAIRY 
 
 SHOW, 1916. 
 
 ELIGIBILITY OF CONTESTANTS. 
 
 Any student of an agricultural college, or of a secondary school 
 under direct supervision of a land-grant State Agricultural Col- 
 lege, who is regularly matriculated in a course of at least two 
 years in agriculture or dairying and has taken not less than twelve 
 weeks' undergraduate work during the calendar year in which the 
 show is held, who has never taken part in any dairy cattle judging 
 contest of a national or international character, who has never 
 acted as an official judge of cattle at a fair or show, and who has 
 at no time served in the capacity of a teacher of animal husbandry 
 or dairy husbandry in an agricultural college or secondary school 
 as above mentioned, may enter as a member of a team. 
 
 SUPERINTENDENT. 
 
 1. It shall be the duty of the superintendent of the contest to 
 see that all rules and regulations governing the contest are duly 
 carried out, and that the contest is conducted with fairness and 
 justice to all concerned. He shall decide all questions which may 
 arise in connection with the interpretation of the rules governing 
 the contest. 
 
 2. He shall have a sufficient number of clerks and assistants to 
 help him in conducting the contest. 
 
 3. He shall direct the contestants as to which class to judge, time 
 to commence work, and time to stop. 
 
 4. After instructing the contestants in a body regarding the con- 
 test, the form in which to prepare their reasons, etc., he shall say 
 nothing to any contestant as to the method for the contestant to 
 follow, either in judging the class or in writing his reasons. 
 
 560 
 
APPENDIX 561 
 
 5. The superintendent shall not take part in the rating of the 
 contestants. 
 
 6. He shall have charge of all records, shall have all ratings 
 tabulated and totaled, and shall deliver the results of the contest 
 to the general manager of the National Dairy Show Association. 
 
 7. The superintendent shall not designate the animals for the 
 first class until after the assistants have taken charge of the con- 
 testants; he shall do this not more than thirty minutes before the 
 first class is to be judged. 
 
 CLERKS, ASSISTANTS AND ATTENDANTS. 
 
 1. The clerks, assistants, and attendants shall be at the command 
 of the superintendent, shall carry out his orders, and none of them 
 shall confer with the contestants unless so directed by the super- 
 intendent. 
 
 2. The animals shall be held in a careful manner, so that all 
 contestants may have a fair chance to examine them. 
 
 3. One assistant shall have charge of each group of contestants, 
 and shall see to it that each contestant in his group remains in his 
 presence the entire time the contest is in progress, except in cases 
 of emergency, and then as directed by the superintendent. 
 
 4. Clerks shall also be provided for the judging committee. 
 
 JUDGES. 
 
 1. The judging committee shall consist of one man from each 
 institution having a team in the contest. This man shall be either 
 the head of the department which has charge of instruction in 
 dairy-cattle judging in the institution represented or the assis- 
 tant who coached the team, or another assistant who shall be desig- 
 nated by the head of the department; provided, however, that the 
 last-named assistant shall have the approval of the majority of 
 the members of the committee. If, for any reason, an institution 
 is not represented on the judging committee as above provided 
 for, the committte shall proceed with its work just as if each insti- 
 tution having a team in the contest were represented on the judg- 
 ing committee; however, a team from an institution which is not 
 represented on the judging committee is not eligible to compete 
 for team trophies unless good and sufficient reasons for the insti- 
 
562 APPENDIX 
 
 tution not being represented have been given, and accepted by the 
 superintendent of the contest. 
 
 2. It shall be the duty of the judging committee to decide the 
 official placing of each ring (four bulls and four cows) after the 
 contestants have judged the ring. The judges will enter their 
 placing on cards handed them when they enter the ring. Each 
 judge will also receive with the placing card a memorandum card, 
 on which he may copy the official placing and make such notes 
 about the animals as he wishes. Fifteen minutes will be allowed 
 the judging, committee to place each class and make notes on the 
 cards. 
 
 Five minutes will be given the members of the judging com- 
 mittee to examine the animals, record which animal is to receive 
 first place, and sign their cards. These cards shall then be col- 
 lected, and the clerk shall make known to the judging committee 
 which animal has received the majority number of votes. This 
 r.nimal shall be accorded first place. Four minutes shall then be 
 allowed the committee to choose the animal for second place and 
 hand in their cards. When the votes are counted the clerk shall 
 make known to the committee the animal receiving the majority. 
 Three minutes shall be allowed the committee for placing the third 
 nnimal, which will be designated by the -clerk after the votes have 
 been counted. The remaining animal will be accorded, fourth 
 place. 
 
 In case no animal receives a majority on the first Dallot, a second 
 vote shall be taken on the two highest animals. If no majority 
 results, the superintendent shall by lot withdraw the name of one 
 member of the judging committee, who shall retire from the com- 
 mittee while another vote is taken. In cases of ties not provided 
 for in these rules, the superintendent shall designate the method 
 of breaking the tie. Three minutes shall be allowed the judges 
 for recording the final official placement on the memorandum 
 cards and making such notes on them as they desire, at the end 
 of which time the cards will be taken up by the clerks. 
 
 3. During the contest the judges may converse with one another, 
 with the clerks, and the superintendent of the contest, but with 
 no one else until their work is completed; but they shall not dis- 
 cuss with one another anything pertaining to the classes of animals 
 used in the contest except when requested by the superintendent, 
 until the papers containing the' reasons have been rated. 
 
APPENDIX 563 
 
 4. After a class has been officially placed by the judging com- 
 mittee, it shall be decided by the vote, while the animals are still 
 in the ring, whether there is a pair or pairs of animals in that 
 particular class sufficiently close to warrant the penalizing of the 
 student less than fifteen points for the switching of the pair in 
 question. It shall further be decided whether there is a pair or 
 pairs of animals in the class sufficiently widely separated to war- 
 rant the penalizing of the student more than 15 points for each 
 animal incorrectly placed. 
 
 Two animals shall be considered as close if the animal second in 
 succession received more than one-half as many votes as the first 
 for the higher place. The two animals shall be considered as far 
 apart if the animal second in succession received less than one- 
 fifth as many votes as the first for the higher place. 
 
 The student shall be cut 10 points instead of 15 for switching a 
 close pair; however, if the contestant separates the close pair by 
 a third animal there shall be no reduction in the amount (15) of 
 the cut. 
 
 When a pair of animals within a class is far apart, the class 
 becomes divided into two groups. The student shall be cut 5 addi- 
 tional points for each lower-group animal that he places in the 
 higher group. 
 
 5. The clerk will compare the placing of the animals on each 
 contestant's card with the official placing by the judges as deter- 
 mined by the plan above. One hundred points will be allowed the 
 contestant on placing if his placing is the same as that of the 
 official placing; and for each place that each animal is out of the 
 way fifteen points shall be deducted, except as otherwise provided 
 for in paragraph 4. Until after a report of the contest is made 
 public the judges shall not know what any contestant gets on 
 placing. 
 
 The following scheme illustrates the variation in placing. The 
 correct order, A, B, C, D, gives 100 points, or perfect grade, for 
 placing: 
 
 A B C D 100 
 A B D C 85 
 A I) B C 70 
 A D C B 55 
 A C 4 B D 85 
 
 B A C D 85 
 B A D C 70 
 B C A D 70 
 B C D A 55 
 B D A C 55 
 
 C A B D 70 
 C A D B 55 
 C B A D 55 
 C B D A 40 
 C D A B 40 
 
 D A B C 55 
 D A C B 40 
 D B A C 40 
 D B C A 25 
 D C A I 1 , 25 
 
 ACDB70 BDCA40 CDBA25 DCBA10 
 
564 APPENDIX 
 
 The following examples illustrate the method of rating when 
 two animals are close. The official placing is A B C D and A and 
 B are a close pair. The reversing of this pair by a contestant is 
 to be cut only 10 points : 
 
 Normal Corrected 
 
 Eating Eating 
 
 B A C D 85 90 
 
 C B A D 55 60 
 
 C D B A 25 30 
 
 B C A D 70 70 
 
 (B and C are separated and there is no reduction in the amount 
 of the cut.) 
 
 The following examples illustrate the method of rating when 
 two animals are far apart : 
 
 Normal Corrected 
 Eating Eating 
 
 A B C D 100 100 
 
 A C B D 85 80 
 
 A D B C 70 65 
 
 C D A B 40 30 
 
 (The official placing is A B C D, and B and C are far apart.) 
 
 6. The judging committee shall, under the superintendent's di- 
 rection, be divided into four groups, each group to hear and grade 
 the reasons on one breed, consisting of one class of cows and one 
 class of bulls, for all contestants, basing their rating of the rea- 
 sons on the final official placing of the class as reached by the entire 
 committee. 
 
 7. The judges' memorandum cards for a class shall be returned 
 to them while the reasons on that class are being rated. The clerk 
 shall read to the judges the reasons of each contestant without 
 allowing them to know the contestant's number. Each judge in 
 each group, after hearing the reasons of the contestant, and with- 
 out conferring with the other judges, shall write down on a card 
 prepared for the purpose the rating assigned by him to the con- 
 testant and sign his name. These cards shall then be passed to 
 the clerk, who will put the number of the contestant on them and 
 ascertain the average grade, which shall be the grade of the con- 
 testant on reasons. One hundred points shall constitute a perfect 
 grade on reasons. 
 
APPENDIX 565 
 
 When the papers of a class of animals have been rated, the 
 judges shall return their memorandum cards to the clerk and he 
 shall deliver them to the superintendent, who shall make them a 
 part of the permanent records of the contest. 
 
 At no time during the contest shall the judges have access to the 
 papers on which the contestants give their reasons. 
 
 All papers on one class of animals shall be rated and the judges' 
 memorandum cards returned to the clerk, before another class is 
 taken up. 
 
 8. Jn case of a tie between contestants, either individuals or 
 teams, the tie shall be broken by finding which has obtained the 
 highest rating on judging cows. The ratings of the contestants 
 otherwise shall remain the same. 
 
 9. The clerk shall deliver the contestants' cards, the judges' 
 cards, and the final cards to the superintendent as a part of his 
 report. 
 
 CONTESTANTS. 
 
 1. All entries of contestants must be received by the general 
 manager of the National Dairy Show Association. 
 
 2. In due time regular entry forms will be mailed to the pro- 
 fessor of dairying or animal husbandry of each State Agricultural 
 College. 
 
 3. An entry fee of $2 will be charged each contestant, which 
 must be forwarded with the application. The money received from 
 this source is to be used in helping to defray the expenses of the 
 contest. 
 
 4. Each institution eligible to participate in this contest will be 
 permitted to enter a team, which shall consist of three eligible 
 students of that institution. 
 
 5. Any contestant who visits the cattle barn before the contest 
 shall be debarred. 
 
 6. Each contestant shall report to the superintendent of the con- 
 test at the office of the general manager at 8 A.M. October 13, 
 1916, when he will receive a number and such instruction as the 
 superintendent may deem necessary. 
 
 7. No contestant shall wear any uniform, college colors, college 
 hat, college pin, or anything which may in any way reveal his 
 identity or the identity of the college which he represents. 
 
566 APPENDIX 
 
 8. No student shall be allowed to take any book, notes, or writ- 
 ing paper into the contest except such cards, as are provided by 
 the superintendent of the contest. 
 
 9. While the contest is in progress there shall be no communi- 
 cation among the contestants, or between a contestant and any one 
 else, except as directed by the superintendent or his representative, 
 and then only in the presence of the superintendent or his repre- 
 sentative. 
 
 10. Reporters, officials, and others except the contestants, the 
 judges, the superintendent, his assistants, policemen, and holders 
 of stock, shall be excluded from the ring 1 while the contest is in 
 progress. 
 
 11. Any contestant violating any rule will be debarred from the 
 contest. If a member of any team is debarred because of viola- 
 tion of rules, that team will be debarred from the team contests, 
 although the remaining members may compete for individual 
 prizes. 
 
 12. The contestants shall be divided by the superintendent into 
 groups, N. 0. P. Q., etc., and each contestant shall have a num- 
 ber by which he shall be designated throughout the contest In 
 no group shall there be more than one contestant from the same 
 college. 
 
 13. When the first two classes are brought into the ring, group 
 N contestants shall examine one class, and each contestant shall 
 designate on the placing card how, in his opinion, the animals 
 should rank. Group O contestants shall in like manner examine 
 the other class. Contestants shall be notified three minutes before 
 the time is up, and when final time is called, the placing cards shall 
 be collected by the assistant in charge of each group. Groups N 
 and O will then exchange places in the judging ring and place 
 the remaining class. Groups N and shall then hand their placing 
 cards to the assistants and be conducted to the examining room, 
 where they shall write down their reasons for the placing of the 
 animals. Groups P and Q shall then examine the animals and pro- 
 ceed as groups N and ; and any other groups in like manner. 
 
 14. Each contestant on entering the ring will receive two cards, 
 one a blank form for the placing of the animals, the other a blank 
 card for notes. The placing card will be handed to the attendant 
 before leaving the ring. In the examining room a blank form 
 will be provided on which to write the reasons for the placing of 
 
APPENDIX 567 
 
 the animals. This, together with the student's card for notes, will 
 be collected before the student leaves the examining room. 
 
 TIME. 
 
 1. Fifteen minutes for each class shall be allowed the contestants 
 in the ring to make their observations, write down their placings, 
 and make such notes as they wish to assist them in remembering 
 the class when they go to the examining room. 
 
 2. When the contestants enter the ring, the animals shall be 
 moved around for two minutes so as to enable the contestants to 
 see them in motion. 
 
 3. Each contestant shall be allowed fifteen minutes to write 
 down his reasons for placing each class of animals. 
 
 CLASSES OF ANIMALS. 
 
 1. Four animals shall constitute a class. In each breed there 
 shall be one class of bulls and one of cows. 
 
 2. The cattle shall be known by cards (A. B, C, D) on the 
 animals' attendants. 
 
 AGE CLASSIFICATION IN THE SHOW RING. 
 
 The classification of animals in the show ring on the basis of 
 age, is a well established necessity. Animals subjected to compara- 
 tive placing should not vary too widely in age, especially when of 
 immature form. As a matter of common custom, an animal is 
 termed a yearling from the beginning of the thirteenth to the end 
 of the twenty-fourth month. Yet if we were to compare year- 
 lings born on January 2d and December 28th, of the same year, 
 we should quite likely find the older animal much the larger and 
 more mature. In the endeavor to establish uniformity in size and 
 age in cases of this sort, dates have been adopted for basing the 
 age classification of the younger classes of animals. A form of 
 classification is expressed in the following illustrations as applied 
 V) a fall show of cattle. 
 
 Senior calf, calved on or after September 1st, shown the follow- 
 ing year. 
 
 Junior calf, calved on or after January 1st, shown the same year. 
 
 Senior yearling, a year older than the senior calf. 
 
 Junior yearling, a year older than the junior calf. 
 
 Two-year olds and under three, dating from September 1st. 
 
 Three-year old and under four, dating from September 1st. 
 
 Four years old or older are assumed to be mature animals, and 
 comparable irrespective of age date. 
 
568 
 
 APPENDI:: 
 
 If a calf is dropped on September 10, 1916, and is to be shown 
 at the 1917 International Live Stock Exposition, he must be 
 entered as a senior. If dropped on February 10th, he must be 
 entered as a Junior. This arrangement provides for two groups 
 of animals of the calf class, where the conditions of size and age 
 will be fair for comparison in each class. At many fairs ages of 
 horses and foals date from January 1st. 
 
 A classification after the above form may apply to either horses, 
 cattle, sheep or swine. Variations occur in classifications, accord- 
 ing to local conditions, but the present day live stock show re- 
 quires exhibitors to enter all live stock exhibits on an age basis. 
 The following are examples taken from a prominent state fair 
 premium list, showing age classes provided for horses, cattle, 
 sheep and swine. 
 
 Stallion 4 years old or over. 
 Stallion 3 years old and under 4. 
 Stallion 2 years old and under 3. 
 Stallion 1 year old and under 2. 
 Horses J ^tallion c lt under 1 year. 
 
 Mare 4 years old or over. 
 Mare 3 years old and under 4. 
 Mare 2 years old and under 3. 
 Mare 1 year old and under 2. 
 Filly colt under 1 year old. 
 
 Bull 3 years old or over. 
 
 Bull 2 years old and under 3. 
 
 Senior yearling bull. 
 
 Junior yearling bull. 
 
 Senior bull calf. 
 
 Junior bull calf. 
 
 Cow 3 years old or over. 
 
 Cow or heifer 2 years old and under 3. 
 
 Senior yearling heifer. 
 
 Junior yearling heifer. 
 
 Senior heifer calf. 
 
 Junior heifer calf. 
 
 Cattle 
 
 Sheep . 
 
 Earn 2 years old or over. 
 Earn 1 year old and under 2. 
 Earn under 1 year old. 
 Ewe 2 years old or over. 
 Ewe 1 year old and under 2. 
 Ewe under 1 year old. 
 
APPENDIX 569 
 
 f Boar 2 years old or over. 
 
 Boar 18 months old and under 24 months. 
 I Hoar 12 months old and under 18 months. 
 I'.oar 6 months old and under 12 months. 
 
 _ . Boar under 6 months old. 
 
 Swine s c 
 
 Sow 2 years old or over. 
 
 Sow 18 months old and under 24 months. 
 Sow 12 months old and under 18 months. 
 Sow 6 months old and under 12 months. 
 Sow under 6 months. 
 
 CLASSES AND GROUPS OF ANIMALS IN THE 
 SHOW RING. 
 
 Animals are ordinarily exhibited at live stock shows or fairs, 
 under the heading of the breed or breeds to which they belong. 
 At many local fairs of minor importance little emphasis is placed 
 on the breed, and grades are allowed places in the classes. In the 
 better shows, grades are exhibited only in non-breeding classes as 
 for example, geldings, steers, barrows, or wethers. 
 
 The classes in the show ring are the groups that are arranged 
 and exhibited on an age basis. In our shows it is the common 
 custom first to make the awards in the classes, usually beginning 
 with the aged males, and judging in order from the oldest to 
 youngest class of each sex. An arrangement of the classes has 
 already been given under age requirements. 
 
 The herds or groups of the show ring, consist of collections of 
 animals shown as such, rather than as single individuals. There 
 are various groups based on different requirements. The more 
 common are the following : 
 
 Exhibitors' herd. One bull, 2 years old or over; one cow, 3 years 
 old or over; one heifer, 2 years old and under 3; one heifer, 1 
 year old and under 2; one heifer, under one year, all owned 
 by the exhibitor. This is often termed a "step-ladder" herd. 
 
 Breeder's young herd. One bull, under 2 years old; two heifers, 1 
 year and under 2; two heifers, under 1 year old, and all ex- 
 cepting the bull to be bred by the exhibitor. 
 
 Calf herd. One bull and two heifers, all under one year old and 
 bred by the exhibitor. 
 
 Get of sire. Four animals of any age or sex, the get of one sire. 
 
 Produce of dam. Two animals of any age or sex, the produce of 
 one cow. 
 
INDEX 
 
 
 Page 
 
 
 Pago 
 
 A 
 
 
 Arrangement of the scale of 
 
 
 
 
 points, systematic 
 
 17 
 
 A type, judging Merino, Ameri- 
 
 
 Astragalus horse 
 
 38 
 
 can or Class 
 
 412 
 
 Attitudes hind leg horse, cor- 
 
 
 Merino of Class 374. 
 
 413 
 
 rect 
 
 105 
 
 Aberdeen-Angus cattle 
 
 269 
 
 Ayrshire bull, scale points. . . . 
 
 340 
 
 Action draft horse 
 
 106 
 
 cattle 
 
 338 
 
 heavy harness horse 
 
 154 
 
 cow, scale points 
 
 341 
 
 light harness horse 
 
 14.", 
 
 
 
 of jack 
 
 181 
 
 
 
 of mule. 
 
 192 
 
 B 
 
 
 of saddle horse 
 
 164 
 
 
 
 Age classification, animals in 
 
 
 Back bacon hog 
 
 r>37 
 
 show ring 
 
 567 
 
 beef animal 
 
 245 
 
 of ox, indication of 
 
 21:5 
 
 dairy cow 
 
 288 
 
 of ox, teeth as indication . . 
 
 214 
 
 draft horse 
 
 91 
 
 of sheep 
 
 363 
 
 lard hog 
 
 499 
 
 of swine, determining 
 
 474 
 
 mutton sheep 
 
 .",!<> 
 
 of the horse 
 
 31 
 
 Bacon hog, back 
 
 537 
 
 American Merino 
 
 461 
 
 belly 
 
 540 
 
 saddle horse 
 
 167 
 
 body 
 
 537 
 
 Anatomy of hog 
 
 473 
 
 breast 
 
 537 
 
 of the horse 
 
 28 
 
 chest 
 
 539 
 
 of ox 
 
 209 
 
 condition 
 
 535 
 
 of sheep 
 
 361 
 
 ears 
 
 536 
 
 Andalusian jack 
 
 182 
 
 ey&s 
 
 536 
 
 Angora goat 
 
 463 
 
 face 
 
 536 
 
 characteristics 
 
 463 
 
 forelegs 
 
 537 
 
 fleece of 
 
 464 
 
 forequarters 
 
 537 
 
 scale of points " 
 
 465 
 
 form 
 
 534 
 
 Angus cattle, Aberdeen 
 
 269 
 
 general appearance 
 
 533 
 
 Ankle, cocked 
 
 206 
 
 hams 
 
 540 
 
 Animal, circulatory system of 
 
 
 head and neck 
 
 535 
 
 the 
 
 296 
 
 hindquarters 
 
 540 
 
 final purpose of beef 
 
 218 
 
 hips 
 
 540 
 
 quality in beef 
 
 231 
 
 jowl 
 
 536 
 
 size and weight of beef. . . 
 
 229 
 
 loin 
 
 538 
 
 Animals have serious defects, 
 
 
 neck 
 
 536 
 
 some 
 
 10 
 
 quality 
 
 534 
 
 Appearance bacon hog, general 
 
 533 
 
 ribs 
 
 539 
 
 beef animal, general 
 
 229 
 
 rump 
 
 540 
 
 draft horse, general 
 
 65 
 
 shoulders 
 
 537 
 
 heavy harness horse, gen- 
 
 
 sides 
 
 539 
 
 eral 
 
 151 
 
 snout 
 
 536 
 
 jack, general 
 
 176 
 
 style and action 
 
 535 
 
 of fat wether, general. . . . 
 
 381 
 
 weight 
 
 534 
 
 Arch, pelvic 
 
 291 
 
 Bacon type breeds of swine, 
 
 
 Arm draft horse 
 
 77 
 
 notes on 
 
 548 
 
 Arms and forearms light har- 
 
 
 hog, scale points 
 
 532 
 
 ness horse 
 
 IC7 
 
 swine, judging 
 
 531 
 
 
 571 
 
 . 
 
 
572 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Page 
 Balance of form, beauty and.. 4 
 
 Base narrow 89 
 
 wide 89 
 
 Beat, the 51 
 
 Beauty and balance of form. . . 4 
 
 Beef animal, back 245 
 
 breast 242 
 
 brisket 242 
 
 body 245 
 
 cheeks 239 
 
 chest 245 
 
 crops 45 
 
 ears 239 
 
 eyes 238 
 
 face of 239 
 
 final purpose of 218 
 
 flanks 249 
 
 forehead 239 
 
 forequarters 241 
 
 front legs 244 
 
 general appearance 229 
 
 general form 230 
 
 hair 232 
 
 head of 238 
 
 hide 231 
 
 hindquarters 249 
 
 hips 249 
 
 loin 247 
 
 method in judging the. . . . 227 
 
 muzzle 238 
 
 quality in 231 
 
 ribs 247 
 
 size and weight 229 
 
 shoulder 241 
 
 tail-head 251 
 
 thigh 251 
 
 withers 241 
 
 Beef breeds, descriptive notes 
 
 more important 265 
 
 Beef bull, breed characteristics 262 
 
 constitutional vigor 261 
 
 sex character in 259 
 
 Beef bulls, judging 259 
 
 Beef, carcass 221 
 
 and its cuts 218 
 
 finish 226 
 
 form of 225 
 
 quality 226 
 
 thickness 225 
 
 Beef cattle, comparative study 253 
 
 neck 240 
 
 for breeding, judging 259 
 
 handling 236 
 
 in ring, reasons for placing 256 
 or steer, score card for. . . 228 
 
 rump 250 
 
 scale of points for 228 
 
 chuck, piece of 224 
 
 Page 
 Beef cattle, cow, sex character. 262 
 
 size 263 
 
 udder 262 
 
 dressed carcass of 220 
 
 flank piece of 225 
 
 grading the carcass of. ... 225 
 
 loin of 222 
 
 plate piece of 225 
 
 rib piece 223 
 
 round of 223 
 
 shank piece of 225 
 
 tenderloin 222 
 
 type of cattle by scale of 
 
 points, judging 227 
 
 Belgian horse 125 
 
 Belly bacon hog 540 
 
 lard hog 501 
 
 Belted cattle, Dutch 343 
 
 Berkshire swine 511 
 
 scale of points 513 
 
 Blade of the horse, shoulder. . . 36 
 
 Blind spavin 200 
 
 Blood as factor in milk produc- 
 tion 295 
 
 Boar, breed characteristics. . . . 544 
 
 frame of 544 
 
 sex character 542 
 
 size of 544 
 
 temperament of 543 
 
 Body bacon hog 537 
 
 beef animal 245 
 
 Class C Merino 424 
 
 conformation of the stal- 
 lion 119 
 
 dairy cow 287 
 
 draft horse 89 
 
 heavy harness horse 152 
 
 lard hog 499 
 
 light harness horse 139 
 
 of jack 180 
 
 mutton sheep 396 
 
 saddle horse 163 
 
 Bog spavin 201 
 
 Bone dairy animal 281 
 
 of hog, character 491 
 
 spavin 200 
 
 Bones of man and horse, re- 
 semblances between 38, 39 
 
 Bow -kneed 89 
 
 Bow-legged 89 
 
 Boys' stock judging contests, 
 
 rules for 558 
 
 Breast bacon hog 537 
 
 beef animal 242 
 
 bone of the horse, sternum 
 
 or 36 
 
 lard hog 497 
 
INDEX 
 
 573 
 
 Page 
 
 Breed character ram 436 
 
 characteristics beef bull . . 262 
 
 boar 544 
 
 of ewe 438 
 
 sow 547 
 
 on carcass, influence of . . . 221 
 
 standards 18 
 
 types or fashions, the well- 
 informed judge will be 
 familiar with changes in 8 
 
 "Breeders' young herd 569 
 
 Breeding capacity of ewe 437 
 
 ram 435 
 
 draft horses, judging 118 
 
 sheep, judging 433 
 
 swine, judging 542 
 
 judging beef cattle for 259 
 
 Merino sheep, modern trend 420 
 Breeds cattle, descriptive notes 
 
 on dual-purpose 355 
 
 conditions o f disqualifica- 
 tion of representatives of 
 
 certain 18 
 
 descriptive notes more im- 
 portant beef 265 
 
 of draft horses 123 
 
 of sheep, descriptive notes 
 
 of more important 439 
 
 of swine, notes on bacon 
 
 type 548 
 
 of swine, notes on lard 
 
 type 511 
 
 Brisket beef animal 242 
 
 mutton sheep 394 
 
 Brown Swiss cattle 348 
 
 B type Merino 418 
 
 Bull, Breed characteristics beef 262 
 constitutional vigor beef. . 261 
 
 form dairy 319 
 
 scale points Guernsey 336 
 
 scale points Jersey 326 
 
 scale points Holstein-Frie- 
 
 sian 330 
 
 sex character in beef 259 
 
 size beef 261 
 
 size dairy 319 
 
 temperament dairy type. . . 317 
 
 veins on 319 
 
 vigor in dairy 319 
 
 Bulls and young cattle, judging 
 
 dairy type 317 
 
 dairy type 317 
 
 judging beef 259 
 
 Buttock horse 37 
 
 Page 
 
 Calf herd 569 
 
 knee 78 
 
 Calf-kneed 89 
 
 Canadian cattle, French 347 
 
 Cannon of horse 79 
 
 horse, hind 102 
 
 Cannons of light harness horse 137 
 
 Canter 57 
 
 Capacity of ewe, breeding 437 
 
 Capped hock 206 
 
 Carcass and its cuts, beef 218 
 
 mutton 375 
 
 pork 479 
 
 beef 221 
 
 beef, dressed 220 
 
 beef, grading the 225 
 
 cuts, relative values of 
 
 mutton and lamb 378 
 
 finish beef 226 
 
 form of beef 225 
 
 head hog 483 
 
 hog, dressed 479 
 
 influence of breed on 221 
 
 mutton, method of cutting 
 
 up 375 
 
 parts of pork 480 
 
 quality beef 226 
 
 shoulder of hog 483 
 
 thickness beef 225 
 
 to live weight in fat cattle, 
 
 per cent 220 
 
 wholesale cuts pork 480 
 
 Card American Merino, score. . 415 
 
 and its use, score 15 
 
 for beef cattle or steer, 
 
 score 228 
 
 dairy cattle comparison . . . 314 
 
 for dairy cow, score 275 
 
 draft horse comparison . . . 113 
 
 fat sheep comparison 407 
 
 fat sheep or wether, score 382 
 heavy harness horses, score 149 
 jack, Catalonian or Ameri- 
 can type, score 175 
 
 method of using the score. 18 
 
 mule, score 188 
 
 saddle horse, score 160 
 
 swine, comparative placing 509 
 
 Catalonian jack 182 
 
 or American type, score 
 
 card jack 175 
 
 Catch and hold sheep properly 
 
 for examination - 369 
 
574 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Page 
 
 Cattle, Aberdeen- Angus 269 
 
 Ayrshire 338 
 
 Brown Swiss 348 
 
 by scale of points, judging 
 
 beef type of 227 
 
 by scale of points, judging 
 
 dairy type 272 
 
 classification of domestic. 216 
 comparative study beef. . 253 
 comparative study dairy. 313 
 descriptive notes on dual 
 
 purpose breeds of 355 
 
 Devon 357 
 
 dewlap on 244 
 
 Dexter 346 
 
 dual-purpose 350 
 
 Dutch Belted 343 
 
 for breeding, judging beef. 259 
 
 French Canadian 347 
 
 Galloway 270 
 
 Guernsey 334 
 
 hair, dairy 281 
 
 handling beef 236 
 
 Hereford 266 
 
 Holstein-Friesian 328 
 
 hooks of 249 
 
 horns 240 
 
 Jersey 323 
 
 judging 209 
 
 judging dairy type bulls 
 
 and young 317 
 
 judging dual-purpose 350 
 
 Kerry 344 
 
 per cent, carcass to live 
 
 weight in fat 220 
 
 Polled Durham 266 
 
 Red Polled 355 
 
 scale of points Devon 359 
 
 Hereford 268 
 
 Red Polled 356 
 
 dual-purpose 353 
 
 Shorthorn 265 
 
 sub-types of 217 
 
 type, Importance dairy. . . 272 
 center of gravity in horse . 48 
 
 character boar, sex 542 
 
 in sow, sex 545 
 
 ewe, sex 436 
 
 mare, sex 121 
 
 ram, sex 433 
 
 saddle horses, type and. . . 160 
 stallion, sex 118 
 
 Characteristics American M e - 
 
 rino, distinctive 414 
 
 Cheeks, beef animal 239 
 
 Chemical character of meat, 
 
 physical and 218 
 
 Page 
 
 Cheshire swine 524 
 
 scale points 525 
 
 Chest bacon hog 539 
 
 beef animal 245 
 
 dairy cow 287 
 
 draft horse 90 
 
 lard hog 499 
 
 mutton sheep 396 
 
 white swine 518 
 
 scale points 519 
 
 Cheviot sheep 448 
 
 scale points 450 
 
 Chine 288 
 
 Circulatory system of the ani- 
 mal 296 
 
 Chuck piece of beef 224 
 
 Classes and groups of animals 
 
 in show ring 569 
 
 horses, types and 61 
 
 mules market 192 
 
 livestock, numbering 558 
 
 Classification animals in show 
 
 ring, age 567 
 
 Merino sheep according to 
 
 type 412 
 
 of domestic cattle 216 
 
 sheep 374 
 
 Clerks, assistants and atten- 
 dants student contests. . 554 
 
 Clydesdale horse 126 
 
 Coach horse, French 158 
 
 German 159 
 
 Cob horse 15(J 
 
 Cocked ankle 206 
 
 Color and markings Milch goats 470 
 
 skin hog 491 
 
 Colt teeth 31 
 
 Column, spinal 33 
 
 Community, competent livestock 
 
 critics or judges in a. . 13 
 Comparison card, dairy cattle. . 314 
 
 draft horse 113 
 
 Comparative placings of mutton 
 
 sheep, reasons for 408 
 
 study beef cattle 253 
 
 dairy cattle 313 
 
 draft horses 110 
 
 mutton sheep 404 
 
 swine 507 
 
 Complexus muscle horse 42 
 
 Condition bacon hog 535 
 
 lard hog 492 
 
 Milch goat, quality and. . . 469 
 
 mutton sheep 390 
 
 wool 431 
 
 wool-mutton sheep 403 
 
 the term 234 
 
INDEX 
 
 575 
 
 Page 
 
 Conformation feeder sheep. . . . 410 
 
 mare 122 
 
 mule 189 
 
 stallion, body 119 
 
 Contest, National Dairy Show 
 
 Students' Judging 5(50 
 
 Contests, rules for boys' stock 
 
 judging 558 
 
 rules governing livestock 
 judging 553 
 
 Contestants in students' c o n - 
 
 tests, rules governing. . 555 
 rules governing eligibility. 553 
 
 Constitutional vigor beef bull. 261 
 
 Cotswold sheep 456 
 
 scale points 457 
 
 Cow, back dairy 288 
 
 body dairy 287 
 
 chest dairy 287 
 
 ears dairy 284 
 
 evolution dairy 272 
 
 eyes dairy 284 
 
 face dairy 284 
 
 flanks dairy 289 
 
 forehead dairy 284 
 
 forequarters dairy 285 
 
 form or type dairy 277 
 
 function dairy 274 
 
 general appearance dairy. 276 
 
 head and neck dairy 283 
 
 head beef 262 
 
 hind legs dairy 294 
 
 hindquarters dairy 290 
 
 hips dairy 291 
 
 hocked 295 
 
 horns dairy cow 285 
 
 legs dairy 287 
 
 loin dairy 288 
 
 mammary development of. 295 
 method in judging dairy. . 274 
 
 muzzle dairy 284 
 
 neck beef 262 
 
 neck dairy 285 
 
 quality in dairy 280 
 
 ribs dairy 289 
 
 rump dairy 291 
 
 scale points Ayrshire cow. 341 
 
 dairy 275 
 
 Guernsey 337 
 
 Jersey 327 
 
 score card for dairy 275 
 
 sex character beef 262 
 
 shoulders dairy 286 
 
 size beef 263 
 
 tail dairy 293 
 
 temperament dairy 282 
 
 thighs, dairy 294 
 
 Page 
 
 Cow, udder beef LM;I> 
 
 weight or sixe dairy li7< 
 
 withers dairy 2st; 
 
 C Merino, body class 424 
 
 forequarters class 423 
 
 general appearance class. . 422 
 
 head and neck class 422 
 
 hindquarters class 424 
 
 C type Merino, score card for 
 
 Delaine or 421 
 
 Creases in hog 490 
 
 Crimp of wool 427 
 
 Critics or judges in a commun- 
 ity, competent livestock. 13 
 
 Crops beef animal 245 
 
 Croup draft horse 95 
 
 saddle horse 163 
 
 Curb 202 
 
 Cuts, beef carcass and its 218 
 
 grading pork 480 
 
 mutton carcass and its. ... 375 
 
 pork carcass and its 479 
 
 wholesale 480 
 
 relative amounts and 
 
 values pork 483 
 
 Cutting up carcass of mutton, 
 
 method of . . . 375 
 
 Dairy animal, bone 281 
 
 Disposition 283 
 
 secretions 280 
 
 bull, form 319 
 
 size 319 
 
 cattle, comparative study. 313 
 
 comparison card 314 
 
 hair 281 
 
 judging young 319 
 
 type, importance 272 
 
 cow, back 288 
 
 body 287 
 
 chest 287 
 
 ears 284 
 
 evolution 272 
 
 eyes 284 
 
 face 284 
 
 flanks 289 
 
 forehead 284 
 
 forequarters 285 
 
 form or type 277 
 
 function 274 
 
 general appearance 276 
 
 head and neck 283 
 
 hind legs 294 
 
 hindquarters 290 
 
576 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Page 
 
 Dairy animal, hips 291 
 
 horns 285 
 
 legs 287 
 
 loin 288 
 
 method in judging 274 
 
 neck 285 
 
 quality in 280 
 
 ribs 289 
 
 rump 291 
 
 scale points 275 
 
 score card for 275 
 
 shoulders 286 
 
 tail 293 
 
 temperament 282 
 
 thighs 294 
 
 weight or size 276 
 
 withers 286 
 
 Show Students' Judging 
 
 Contest, National 560 
 
 temperament 282 
 
 type bulls 317 
 
 type of cattle by scale of 
 
 points, judging 272 
 
 Dam, produce of 569 
 
 Defects in the horse, unsound- 
 ness, diseases and 196 
 
 some animals have serious . 10 
 
 Delaine Merino 374, 461 
 
 scale points 421 
 
 Density of fleece 428 
 
 Decision of the judge 11 
 
 Description of show jack 181 
 
 Devon cattle 357 
 
 scale points 359 
 
 Dewlap on cattle 244 
 
 Dexter cattle 346 
 
 scale points 347 
 
 Digestion, process of 295 
 
 Digestive organs sheep 365 
 
 system horse 43 
 
 Diseases and defects in the 
 
 horse, unsoundness 196 
 
 Disposition dairy animal 283 
 
 horse 47 
 
 Disqualification o f representa- 
 tives of certain breeds, 
 
 conditions of 18 
 
 Domestic sheep, classification of 374 
 
 Dorset Horn sheep 447 
 
 scale points 448 
 
 Drafter, walk of 106 
 
 Draft horse, action 106 
 
 arm 77 
 
 back 91 
 
 body 89 
 
 chest 90 
 
 comparison card 113 
 
 Page 
 
 Draft horse, croup 95 
 
 form of 67 
 
 gaskin 98 
 
 general appearance 65 
 
 head 71 
 
 height 65 
 
 hind pastern 103 
 
 hips 94 
 
 hock 99 
 
 loin 91 
 
 muzzle 71 
 
 neck 74 
 
 score card for 62 
 
 shoulders 76 
 
 temperament 70 
 
 thigh 98 
 
 trot 108 
 
 weight 66 
 
 withers 89 
 
 Draft horses, breeds of 123 
 
 comparative study of 110 
 
 first step in judging group 
 
 of Ill 
 
 Judging breeding 118 
 
 mules 194 
 
 or power type of horse by 
 
 scale of points, judging. 61 
 Dual-purpose breeds cattle, 
 
 descriptive notes on .... 355 
 
 cattle 350 
 
 judging 350 
 
 scale points 353 
 
 idea 350 
 
 type 352 
 
 Durham cattle, Polled 266 
 
 Duroc-Jersey swine 521 
 
 scale points 522 
 
 Dutch Belted cattle 343 
 
 scale of points 344 
 
 Ears bacon hog 536 
 
 beef animal 239 
 
 dairy cow 284 
 
 horse 73 
 
 lard hog 495 
 
 sheep 392 
 
 Escutcheon theory 311 
 
 Evolution dairy cow 272 
 
 Ewe, breed characteristics of. . 438 
 
 breeding capacity of 437 
 
 form of 438 
 
 judging 436 
 
 sex character of 436 
 
 size of... . 437 
 
INDEX 
 
 577 
 
 Page 
 
 Examination of sheep to be 
 
 scored, systematic 380 
 
 Examine sheep, how to handle 
 
 and 369 
 
 Exhibitors' herd 569 
 
 Expert judges of livestock, de- 
 
 mand for 13 
 
 Exposition, students' livestock 
 judging contest Interna- 
 tional 553 
 
 Eyes bacon hog 536 
 
 beef animal 238 
 
 dairy cow 284 
 
 lard hog 495 
 
 of horse 71 
 
 of sheep 392 
 
 Eyesight, defective 207 
 
 Pace bacon hog 
 
 beef animal 
 
 dairy cow 
 
 lard hog 
 
 sheep 
 
 Farm mules 
 
 Fashions, the well - informed 
 judge will be familiar 
 with changes in breed 
 
 types or 
 
 Fat sheep comparison card. . . . 
 
 or wether, score card for. 
 
 weight 
 
 wether, general appearance 
 
 Feeder cattle, judging stocker 
 
 or 
 
 sheep, conformation 
 
 judging 
 
 Feet of horse 
 
 hind 
 
 position front legs and. . . 
 
 Femur horse 
 
 Fetlock horse 
 
 hind 
 
 Fiber, quality wool 
 
 Fibula horse 
 
 Figures in scoring animals, use 
 
 of 
 
 Fine wool 
 
 Finish beef carcass 
 
 Fistula 
 
 Flank piece of beef 
 
 Flanks beef animal 
 
 dairy cow 
 
 horse 
 
 lard hog 
 
 mutton sheep 
 
 536 
 239 
 284 
 494 
 392 
 195 
 
 407 
 382 
 383 
 381 
 
 257 
 
 410 
 
 410 
 
 83 
 
 103 
 
 87 
 
 37 
 
 81 
 
 103 
 
 426 
 
 38 
 
 22 
 374 
 226 
 206 
 225 
 249 
 289 
 
 94 
 502 
 397 
 
 Page 
 
 Fleece, the 426 
 
 and its examination 426 
 
 Angora 464 
 
 'density of 428 
 
 examination of 431 
 
 on sheep 371 
 
 or staple, length of 429 
 
 or wool of sheep 366 
 
 Folds on American Merino. . . . 417 
 
 Forearm horse 77 
 
 Forearms light harness horse, 
 
 arms and 137 
 
 Forehand of jack 179 
 
 Forehead beef animal 239 
 
 dairy cow 284 
 
 horse 72 
 
 sheep 392 
 
 Forelegs bacon hog 537 
 
 Forequarters bacon hog 537 
 
 beef animal 241 
 
 Class C Merino 423 
 
 dairy cow 285 
 
 lard hog 496 
 
 mutton sheep 394 
 
 Form and function, study of . . 1 
 the efficient judge is a 
 
 student of animal 7 
 
 bacon hog 534 
 
 beauty and balance of. ... 4 
 
 beef animal, general 230 
 
 beef carcass 225 
 
 dairy bull 319 
 
 draft horse 67 
 
 ewe 438 
 
 heavy harness horse 152 
 
 jack 178 
 
 lard hog 489 
 
 light harness horse 133 
 
 mule 190 
 
 mutton sheep 384 
 
 or type dairy cow 277 
 
 ram 435 
 
 to use in the animal, rela- 
 tionship of 1 
 
 udder 300 
 
 Foot glands of sheep 367 
 
 light harness horse 139 
 
 Foul foot 210 
 
 Founder or laminitis 205 
 
 Fox trot 59 
 
 Frame of boar 544 
 
 brood sow 547 
 
 French Canadian cattle 347 
 
 coach horse 158 
 
 Front legs beef animal 244 
 
578 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Page 
 
 Function, the efficient judge is 
 a student of animal form 
 
 and 7 
 
 study of form and 1 
 
 Gaited saddle horse, three 166 
 
 Gaits of the horse 53 
 
 Gallop 57 
 
 Galloway cattle. 270 
 
 Gammons 540 
 
 Gare, kemp or 428 
 
 Gaskin draft horse 98 
 
 German coach horse 159 
 
 Glands of sheep, foot 367 
 
 Goat, Angora 463 
 
 characteristics Angora .... 463 
 
 color and markings Milch. 470 
 
 Milch 466 
 
 milking qualities of 466 
 
 quality and condition Milch 469 
 
 Saanen 471 
 
 size and shape Milch 468 
 
 Toggenburg 471 
 
 judging Milch 466 
 
 Group of draft horses, first step 
 
 in judging Ill 
 
 Groups of animals in show ring, 
 
 classes and 569 
 
 Guenon 311 
 
 Guernsey bull, scale points 336 
 
 cattle 334 
 
 cow, scale points 337 
 
 H 
 
 Hackney horse 157 
 
 pony 172 
 
 Hair beef animal 232 
 
 dairy cattle 281 
 
 hog 477 
 
 lard hog 490 
 
 Hampshire sheep 445 
 
 scale points of 446 
 
 swine 525 
 
 scale points 527 
 
 Hams 482 
 
 bacon hog 540 
 
 lard hog 543 
 
 Handle and examine sheo;). Low 
 
 to 369 
 
 Handling, subject of 236 
 
 Hands in judging sheep, use of 370 
 
 Harness type, judging horses of 
 
 light ... 130 
 
 Pag 
 
 Head and neck bacon hog 535 
 
 and neck Class C Merino. 422 
 
 dairy cow 283 
 
 mutton sheep 391 
 
 beef cow 262 
 
 draft horse 71 
 
 lard hog * 494 
 
 light harness horse 134 
 
 of beef animal 238 
 
 hog carcass 483 
 
 jack 179 
 
 mule 191 
 
 Heart horse 44 
 
 ox 211 
 
 Heaves 199 
 
 Heavy harness horse, action.. 154 
 
 body 152 
 
 form 152 
 
 general appearance 151 
 
 hindquarters 153 
 
 neck 152 
 
 quality 152 
 
 score card for 149 
 
 shoulders 152 
 
 temperament . . . 152 
 
 type, judging horses 14S 
 
 Height jack 177 
 
 draft horse 05 
 
 light harness horse 131 
 
 mule 190 
 
 Herd, breeders' young 569 
 
 calf 569 
 
 exhibitors' 569 
 
 Hereford cattle 266 
 
 scale points 268 
 
 Hide beef animal 231 
 
 Hind cannons horse 102 
 
 feet horse 103 
 
 fetlock horse 103 
 
 pastern draft horse 103 
 
 Hindquarters bacon hog 540 
 
 beef animal 249 
 
 Class C Merino 424 
 
 dairy cow 290 
 
 heavy harness horse 153 
 
 horse 94 
 
 jack 180 
 
 lard hog 502 
 
 light harness horse 141 
 
 mule 191 
 
 mutton sheep 398 
 
 Hips bacon hog 540 
 
 beef animal 249 
 
 dairy cow 291 
 
 draft horse 94 
 
 mutton sheep 398 
 
INDEX 
 
 579 
 
 Page 
 
 Hock, capped 206 
 
 dra ft horse 99 
 
 point of 38 
 
 Hocked cow 295 
 
 Hog, anatomy of 473 
 
 back bacon 537 
 
 bark lard 499 
 
 belly bacon . 540 
 
 lard 501 
 
 body bacon 537 
 
 lard 499 
 
 breast bacon 537 
 
 lard 497 
 
 carcass, head 483 
 
 shoulder of 483 
 
 character bone of 491 
 
 chest bacon 539 
 
 lard 499 
 
 color skin 491 
 
 condition bacon 535 
 
 lard 492 
 
 creases in 490 
 
 dressed carcass of 479 
 
 ears bacon 536 
 
 lard 495 
 
 eyes bacon 536 
 
 lard 495 
 
 face bacon 536 
 
 lard 494 
 
 Hanks lard 502 
 
 forelegs bacon 537 
 
 lard 497 
 
 forequarters baron 537 
 
 lard 496 
 
 form bacon 534 
 
 lard 489 
 
 general appearance 487 
 
 bacon 533 
 
 hair of 477 
 
 lard 490 
 
 hams bacon 540 
 
 lard 503 
 
 head and neck bacon 535 
 
 lard 494 
 
 hindquarters bacon 540 
 
 lard 502 
 
 hind legs lard 504 
 
 hips bacon 540 
 
 intestines of 476 
 
 jowl bacon 536 
 
 lard 495 
 
 liver of 476 
 
 loin bacon 538 
 
 lard 500 
 
 neck lard 496 
 
 pasterns 498 
 
 points of 487 
 
 quality bacon 534 
 
 Page 
 
 Hog, lard 490 
 
 ribs bacon :,:;: 
 
 rump bacon r>4(> 
 
 lard 502 
 
 shields 491 
 
 shoulders bacon 537 
 
 lard 496 
 
 sides bacon 539 
 
 lard 501 
 
 skeleton of ' 473 
 
 skin of 477 
 
 lard 490 
 
 snout bacon 536 
 
 stomach of 476 
 
 style and action baron. . . . 535 
 
 teeth of 474 
 
 toes 498 
 
 weight bacon 534 
 
 lard 487 
 
 in ring, reasons for placing 509 
 Hold sheep properly for exam- 
 ination, to catch and. . . 369 
 Holstein-Friesian bull, scale 
 
 points S30 
 
 cattle 328 
 
 cow, scale points 332 
 
 Hoof of horse 36 
 
 Hooks of cattle 249 
 
 Horns dairy cow 285 
 
 Merino 416 
 
 cattle 240 
 
 Horse, action draft 106 
 
 action heavy harness 154 
 
 light harness 143 
 
 saddle 164 
 
 age of the 31 
 
 American Saddle 167 
 
 Anatomy of the 28 
 
 Arm draft 77 
 
 Arms and forearms light 
 
 harness 137 
 
 Astragalus 38 
 
 back draft 91 
 
 Belgian 125 
 
 body draft 89 
 
 heavy harness 152 
 
 light harness 139 
 
 saddle 163 
 
 breeds of draft 123 
 
 buttock 37 
 
 cannon 79 
 
 cannons of light harness. . 137 
 
 center of gravity in 48 
 
 chest draft 90 
 
 Clydesdale 126 
 
 cob 156 
 
 complexus muscle 42 
 
580 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Page 
 Horse, correct attitude hind leg 105 
 
 croup draft 95 
 
 saddle 163 
 
 digestive system 43 
 
 disposition 47 
 
 ears 73 
 
 eyes 71 
 
 feet of -^ 83 
 
 femur 37 
 
 fetlock 81 
 
 fibula 38 
 
 flanks 94 
 
 foot of light harness 139 
 
 forearm 77 
 
 forehead 72 
 
 form of draft 67 
 
 heavy harness 152 
 
 light harness 133 
 
 French coach 158 
 
 gaits of the 53 
 
 gaskin draft 98 
 
 general appearance draft. 65 
 
 heavy harness 151 
 
 German coach 159 
 
 hackney 157 
 
 head of draft 71 
 
 light harness 134 
 
 heart 44 
 
 heavy harness type, judging 148 
 
 height draft 65 
 
 light harness 131 
 
 hind cannons 102 
 
 feet 103 
 
 fetlock 103 
 
 pastern draft 103 
 
 hindquarters 94 
 
 heavy harness 153 
 
 light harness 141 
 
 hips draft 94 
 
 hock draft 99 
 
 hoof of 36 
 
 humerus of the 36 
 
 in motion 48 
 
 intestine 43 
 
 Ischium 37 
 
 joints of 49 
 
 judging breeding draft. . . 118 
 
 judging saddle type of. ... 160 
 
 kneecap 38 
 
 knee of 78 
 
 knees of light harness. . . . 137 
 light harness type, judging 130 
 
 liver 43 
 
 loin draft 91 
 
 lungs 44 
 
 man and the 26 
 
 muscles of... 40 
 
 Page 
 
 Horse, muzzle, draft 71 
 
 neck light harness 135 
 
 heavy harness 152 
 
 saddle 103 
 
 nervous system 45 
 
 os calcis 38 
 
 park 156 
 
 pastern of 81 
 
 pasterns of light harness. . 138 
 
 pelvis of 37 
 
 Percheron 123 
 
 point hip of 37 
 
 position, front legs and feet 
 
 of 87 
 
 light harness 139 
 
 quality heavy harness 152 
 
 in the 68 
 
 light harness 133 
 
 resemblances between bones 
 
 of man and 38, 39 
 
 ribs 92 
 
 of the 35 
 
 runabout 156 
 
 scale of points of light har- 
 ness 131 
 
 score card for draft 62 
 
 heavy harness 149 
 
 saddle 160 
 
 Shire 128 
 
 skeleton of the 28 
 
 skull of the 29 
 
 shoulder blade of the.... 36 
 
 draft 76 
 
 heavy harness 152 
 
 light harness 136 
 
 saddle 163 
 
 standard bred 145 
 
 sternum or breast bone of 
 
 the 36 
 
 stifle joint 38 
 
 stomach 43 
 
 substance in the 68 
 
 Suffolk 129 
 
 tail of 97 
 
 saddle 164 
 
 temperament 45 
 
 draft 70 
 
 heavy harness 152 
 
 light harness 134 
 
 thigh draft 98 
 
 three-gaited saddle 166 
 
 to structure skeleton, rela- 
 tionship of speed in. ... 40 
 
 Thoroughbred 167 
 
 tibia 38 
 
 trot, draft 108 
 
 type and character with 
 
 saddle 160 
 
INDEX 
 
 581 
 
 Page 
 
 I Torso, types and classes of... . 61 
 
 walk of the 53 
 
 weight of draft 66 
 
 light harness 131 
 
 withers draft 89 
 
 unsoundness, diseases and 
 
 defects in the 196 
 
 under comparison, weak 
 and strong features of. . 113 
 
 Huckle bones 249 
 
 Humerus of 'the horse.. 36 
 
 I 
 
 International Livestock Judg- 
 ing Contest 553 
 
 Intestine horse 43 
 
 Intestines of hog 476 
 
 ox 213 
 
 Ischium horse 37 
 
 Jark, action of 181 
 
 Andalusian 182 
 
 body of 180 
 
 Catalonian 182 
 
 Catalonian o r American 
 
 type, score card 175 
 
 description of show 181 
 
 forehand of 179 
 
 form of 178 
 
 general appearance 176 
 
 head of 179 
 
 height 177 
 
 hindquarters of 180 
 
 Majorca 184 
 
 Maltese 184 
 
 Poitou 185 
 
 quality in the 178 
 
 scale points 175 
 
 spavin 200 
 
 temperament of 179 
 
 weight 177 
 
 Jacks and Jennets, judging. . . . 175 
 
 Jennets, judging jacks and. . . 175 
 
 Jersey bull, scale points 326 
 
 cattle 323 
 
 cow, scale points 327 
 
 cows and heifers, original 
 
 scale of points for 16 
 
 Joints, movements limbs and. . 49 
 
 horse 49 
 
 Jowl bacon hog 536 
 
 lard hog 495 
 
 Page 
 
 Judge, decision of the 11 
 
 is a student of animal form 
 
 and function, the efficient 7 
 Judges by specializing rather 
 than otherwise, men be- 
 come efficient 10 
 
 for student contests 554 
 
 of livestock, demand for 
 
 expert 1:; 
 
 Judging bacon type swine r.:;i 
 
 beef animal, method in. . . L'UT 
 
 bulls 259 
 
 cattle for breeding 259 
 
 type of cattle by scale of 
 
 points 227 
 
 breeding draft horses 118 
 
 sheep 4:::; 
 
 swine r4L' 
 
 cattle 209 
 
 Contest, National Dairy 
 
 Show Students' 560 
 
 rules governing livestock . . 553 
 
 time in r.r.T 
 
 dairy cow, method in 274 
 
 type bulls and young cattle 317 
 cattle by scale of points. . 272 
 draft or power type of 
 horse by scale of points. 61 
 
 dual-purpose cattle 350 
 
 ewe 436 
 
 feeder sheep 410 
 
 group of draft horses, first 
 
 step in Ill 
 
 horses heavy harness type 148 
 
 light harness type 130 
 
 jacks and jennets 175 
 
 lard type swine by scale 
 
 points 486 
 
 mare . 121 
 
 Merino, American or Class 
 
 A type 412 
 
 Milch goats 4(5(> 
 
 mule 187 
 
 mutton Merino or Class C 
 
 type 420 
 
 type of sheep by scale of 
 
 points 380 
 
 ram 433 
 
 saddle type of horse 160 
 
 sheep 361 
 
 use of hands in 370 
 
 Shetland pony 170 
 
 stallion 118 
 
 stocker or feeder cattle. . . '-M7 
 
 swine 473 
 
 young dairy cattle 319 
 
 Jump 59 
 
582 
 
 INDEX 
 
 
 Page 
 
 
 Page 
 
 K 
 
 
 Legs and feet horse, position 
 
 
 
 
 front . . . 
 
 87 
 
 Kemp or gare 
 
 428 
 
 beef animal, front 
 
 944 
 
 Kerry cattle 
 
 344 
 
 dairy cow 
 
 ?87 
 
 scale points 
 
 346 
 
 cow, hind 
 
 294 
 
 Kidneys of ox 
 
 212 
 
 lard hog, front 
 
 497 
 
 Knee, calf 
 
 78 
 
 hog, hind 
 
 504 
 
 cap horse 
 
 . 38 
 
 mutton sheep, front 
 
 394 
 
 horse 
 
 78 
 
 sheep, hind 
 
 399 
 
 sprung 
 Knees of light harness horse . . . 
 
 79 
 137 
 
 Lesson, value of the score card 
 Lever of first class 
 
 20 
 49 
 
 Knock-kneed 
 
 89 
 
 second class 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 third class 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 Light harness horse, action. , . 
 
 143 
 
 L 
 
 
 arms and forearms 
 
 137 
 
 
 
 body 
 
 13!) 
 
 Lacteal 
 
 297 
 
 cannons of 
 
 137 
 
 Lamb carcass cuts, relative 
 
 
 foot of 
 
 139 
 
 values of mutton and. . . 
 
 378 
 
 form 
 
 133 
 
 Lameness 
 
 197 
 
 head 
 
 134 
 
 Laminitis, founder or 
 
 205 
 
 height 
 
 131 
 
 Lard hog, back 
 
 499 
 
 hindquarters 
 
 141 
 
 belly 
 
 501 
 
 knees of 
 
 137 
 
 body 
 
 499 
 
 neck 
 
 135 
 
 breast 
 
 497 
 
 quality 
 
 133 
 
 chest 
 
 499 
 
 pasterns of 
 
 l.-.S 
 
 condition 
 
 492 
 
 position front 
 
 139 
 
 ears , 
 
 495 
 
 scale of points 
 
 131 
 
 eyes 
 
 495 
 
 shoulders 
 
 136 
 
 face 
 
 494 
 
 temperament 
 
 134 
 
 flanks 
 
 502 
 
 weight 
 
 131 
 
 forequarters 
 
 496 
 
 type, judging horses of . . . 
 
 130 
 
 form 
 
 489 
 
 Limbs and joints, movements. 
 
 49 
 
 front legs 
 
 497 
 
 Lincoln sheep 
 
 458 
 
 hair 
 
 490 
 
 scale points 
 
 459 
 
 hams 
 
 503 
 
 Liver of hog 
 
 476 
 
 head 
 
 494 
 
 horse 
 
 43 
 
 hind legs 
 
 504 
 
 ox 
 
 212 
 
 hindquarters 
 
 502 
 
 Livestock, selecting rings of. . 
 
 557 
 
 jowl 
 
 495 
 
 Live weight in fat cattle, per 
 
 
 loin 
 
 500 
 
 cent carcass to 
 
 220 
 
 neck 
 
 496 
 
 Loin of beef 
 
 222 
 
 quality , 
 
 490 
 
 bacon hog 
 
 538 
 
 rump 
 
 502 
 
 beef animal 
 
 247 
 
 sides 
 
 501 
 
 dairy cow 
 
 288 
 
 skin 
 
 490 
 
 draft horse 
 
 91 
 
 shoulder 
 
 496 
 
 lard hog 
 
 500 
 
 weight 
 
 487 
 
 mutton sheep 
 
 397 
 
 type breeds of swine, notes 
 
 
 Long wool 
 
 374 
 
 on 
 
 511 
 
 Low spavin 
 
 200 
 
 type swine by scale points. 
 
 
 Lungs horse 
 
 44 
 
 judging 
 
 486 
 
 ox 
 
 211 
 
 Large Yorkshire swine 
 
 548 
 
 
 
 Length of fleece or staple 
 
 429 
 
 M 
 
 
 Leicester sheep 
 
 454 
 
 
 
 scale points 
 
 455 
 
 Majorca jack 
 
 184 
 
 Leg horse, correct attitude hind 
 
 105 
 
 Maltese jack 
 
 184 
 
 mutton 
 
 378 
 
 Mammary development of cow. 
 
 295 
 
INDEX 
 
 583 
 
 Page 
 
 Man and the horse 26 
 
 resemblances between bones 
 
 of 38, 39 
 
 relationship of LV 
 
 use of horse by 4s 
 
 Mare, conformation of 122 
 
 constitutional vigor of. ... 122 
 
 judging 121 
 
 temperament of 122 
 
 sox characlor of 121 
 
 Market classes of mules 192 
 
 Markings Milch goats, color and 470 
 Meat, physical and chemical 
 
 character 218 
 
 Merino, American 461 
 
 or Class A type, judging. . 4.12 
 
 body Class C 424 
 
 Class B type 418 
 
 Delaine :{T4, 461 
 
 distinctive characteristics 
 
 American 414 
 
 fold on American 417 
 
 forequarters Class C 42.1 
 
 general appearance Class C 422 
 head and neck Class C. . . . 422 
 
 hindquarters Class C 424 
 
 horns 416 
 
 of Class A type :574, 413 
 
 or Class C type, judging 
 
 mutton 420 
 
 scale points American. 414, 415 
 
 score card American 415 
 
 Delaine or C Type 421 
 
 sheep according t o type, 
 
 classification 412 
 
 modern trend breeding. . . 420 
 Method in judging the beef ani- 
 mal 227 
 
 of using the score card. . . 18 
 
 Middle piece of pork 482 
 
 wool 374 
 
 Mine mules 195 
 
 Milch goat 466 
 
 quality and conditions. . . . 469 
 
 Saanen 471 
 
 size and shape 468 
 
 Toggenburg 471 
 
 goats, color and markings 470 
 
 judging 466 
 
 Milk production, blood as factor 
 
 in 295 
 
 secretion, process of 299 
 
 veins 307 
 
 wells 310 
 
 Milking qualities of goat 466 
 
 Mule, action of 192 
 
 conformation of 189 
 
 form of . . . . 190 
 
 Page 
 
 Mule, head of 191 
 
 height 190 
 
 hindquarters of 191 
 
 judging the 187 
 
 quality in 190 
 
 scale of points for 188 
 
 score card for 188 
 
 temperament of 191 
 
 weight 190 
 
 Mules draft 194 
 
 farm 195 
 
 market classes of 192 
 
 mine ; 195 
 
 plantation 193 
 
 Mulefoot swine 528 
 
 scale points 529 
 
 Muscle horse, couiplexus 42 
 
 Muscles of horse 40 
 
 Muscular development o f o x , 
 
 external 211 
 
 Mutton and lamb carcass cuts, 
 
 relative values of 378 
 
 carcass and its cuts :\~~ t 
 
 leg of 378 
 
 Merino or Class C type, 
 
 judging 420 
 
 method of cutting up car- 
 cass 01 375 
 
 rack of 378 
 
 saddle of 377 
 
 sheep, back 396 
 
 body ;;>(, 
 
 brisket 394 
 
 chest :;'.)<; 
 
 comparative study of 404 
 
 condition 390 
 
 flanks 397 
 
 forequarters 394 
 
 form of 384 
 
 front legs 394 
 
 head and neck :'> ( .H 
 
 hind legs 399 
 
 hindquarters 398 
 
 hips 398 
 
 loin of 397 
 
 neck of 393 
 
 quality in 387 
 
 ribs 397 
 
 rump 398 
 
 shoulder 394 
 
 skin 388 
 
 thighs 399 
 
 twist 399 
 
 wool on 401 
 
 type 374 
 
 of sheep by scale of points, 
 judging 380 
 
584 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Page 
 
 Muzzle beef animal 238 
 
 dairy cow 284 
 
 draft horse 71 
 
 sheep 392 
 
 N 
 
 National Dairy Show Students' 
 
 Judging Contest 560 
 
 Navicular disease 205 
 
 Navel ' . 289 
 
 Neck bacon hog 536 
 
 hog, head and 535 
 
 beef cattle 240 
 
 cow 262 
 
 Class C merino, head and 422 
 
 dairy cow 285 
 
 head and 283 
 
 draft horse 74 
 
 heavy harness horse 152 
 
 lard hog 496 
 
 light harness horse 135 
 
 mutton sheep, head and 
 
 391, 393 
 
 saddle horse 163 
 
 vein beef animal 241 
 
 Nervous system horse 45 
 
 Oesophagus horse 43 
 
 Oil or yolk 430 
 
 Organs of reproduction of sheep 365 
 
 sheep, digestive 365 
 
 Os calcis horse 38 
 
 Ox, anatomy of 209 
 
 external muscular develop- 
 ment of 211 
 
 heart of 211 
 
 indications of age of 213 
 
 intestines of 213 
 
 kidneys of 212 
 
 leg bones 210 
 
 liver of 212 
 
 lungs of 211 
 
 ribs of 210 
 
 shoulder blade . 210 
 
 skeleton of 209 
 
 skull of 209 
 
 spinal column of 209 
 
 . sternum of 210 
 
 stomach of 211 
 
 teeth as indications of age 
 
 of - 214 
 
 Oxford Down sheep 443 
 
 Page 
 
 Pace 55 
 
 Pacing standard 147 
 
 Paddling 89 
 
 Park horse 156 
 
 Pastern of horse 81 
 
 draft horse, hind 103 
 
 Pasterns hog 498 
 
 light harness horse 138 
 
 Pelvic arch 291 
 
 Pelvis of horse 37 
 
 ox 210 
 
 Percheron horse 123 
 
 Physical and chemical charac- 
 ter of meat 218 
 
 composition of udder. .... 298 
 
 Pigeon-toed 89 
 
 Placing card for swine, com- 
 parative 509 
 
 hogs in ring, reasons for. . 509 
 
 Plantation mules 193 
 
 Plate piece of beef 225 
 
 Point of hip, horse 37 
 
 Points American Merino, scale 
 
 414, 415 
 
 Angora goat, scale 465 
 
 Ayrshire bull, scale 340 
 
 Ayrshire cow scale 341 
 
 bacon type hog, scale.... 532 
 
 beef cattle, scale of 228 
 
 Berkshire swine, scale. . . . 513 
 
 Cheshire swine, scale 525 
 
 scale 519 
 
 Cheviot sheep, scale 450 
 
 Cotswold sheep, scale 457 
 
 cut in scoring, the expres- 
 sion 23 
 
 dairy cow, scale 275 
 
 Delaine Merino, scale 421 
 
 Devon cattle, scale 359 
 
 Dexter cattle, scale 347 
 
 dorset Horn sheep, scale. . 448 
 
 Duroc-Jersey swine, scale. 522 
 
 Dutch Belted cattle, scale. 344 
 
 fat sheep or wether, scale. 382 
 for dual-purpose cattle, 
 
 scales of 353 
 
 mule, scale of 188 
 
 Guernsey bull, scale 336 
 
 cow, fecale 337 
 
 Hampshire sheep, scale. . . 446 
 
 Hampshire swine, scale. . . 527 
 
 Hereford cattle, scale 268 
 
 Holstein-Friesian bull, scale 330 
 
 cow, scale 332 
 
 jack, scale 175 
 
 Jersey bull, scale 326 
 
INDKX 
 
 585 
 
 Points, row, scale 327 
 
 judging beef type of rattle 
 
 by scale of ^'27 
 
 lard type swine by scale.. 4X6 
 mutton type sheep by scale 
 
 of .".so 
 
 Kerry cattle, seal* 1 346 
 
 Large Yorkshire swine, 
 
 scale ."..- n 
 
 Leicester sheep, scale 1 45.". 
 
 light harness horse, scale of 131 
 
 Lincoln sheep, scale 459 
 
 Mulefoot swine, scale 529 
 
 Oxford Down sheep, scale. 443 
 Poland-China swine, scale. 515 
 Red Polled cattle, scale. . . 356 
 
 saddle horse, scale 160 
 
 scale of 15 
 
 Shetland pony, scale of .19, 170 
 Shropshire sheep, scale of. 442 
 Southdown sheep, scale. . . 440 
 
 Suffolk sheep, scale 451 
 
 Tunis sheep, scale 453 
 
 Poitou jack 185 
 
 Poland-China swine 513 
 
 scale points 515 
 
 Polled Durham cattle 266 
 
 Poll evil 207 
 
 Polled cattle, red 355 
 
 Pony, Hackney 172 
 
 judging Shetland 170 
 
 modern type Shetland.... 171 
 scale of points of Shetland 
 
 19, 170 
 
 types 179 
 
 Welch 172 
 
 Pork carcass and its cuts 479 
 
 parts of 480 
 
 wholesale cuts 480 
 
 cuts, grading 480 
 
 relative amounts and values 483 
 
 middle piece of 482 
 
 Porterhouse 222 
 
 Position front legs and feet 
 
 horse 87 
 
 light harness horse 139 
 
 Positions assigned a r i n g o f 
 
 horses, reasons for 115 
 
 Purpose of beef animal, final. . 218 
 
 Quality bacon hog 534 
 
 beef carcass 226 
 
 heavy harness horse 152 
 
 in beef animal 231 
 
 Page 
 
 Quality dairy cow 2xn 
 
 horse rs 
 
 jack 17H 
 
 mule I'.MI 
 
 mutton sheep ;;ST 
 
 light harness horse 133 
 
 udder 304 
 
 wool on mutton sheep.... 401 
 
 Quantity of wool produced by 
 
 mutton sheep 402 
 
 Quarter-crack 205 
 
 Quittor 206 
 
 Rack 58 
 
 of mutton 378 
 
 Ram, breed character 4:;t', 
 
 breeding capacity 4:',."> 
 
 form of 43r, 
 
 judging the 433 
 
 sex character of 433 
 
 size of 435 
 
 Rambouillet sheep 462 
 
 Reasons for comparative plac- 
 
 ings of mutton sheep. . . 408 
 placing beef cattle in ring 256 
 
 hogs in ring 509 
 
 positions assigned a ring of 
 
 horses 115 
 
 Red Polled cattle 355 
 
 scale points 356 
 
 Relationship of man to the 
 
 horse 26 
 
 speed in horse to structure 
 
 of skeleton 40 
 
 Reproduction of sheep, organs of 365 
 Resemblances between bones of 
 
 man and horse 38, 39 
 
 Rib-piece of beef 223 
 
 Ribs bacon hog 539 
 
 beef animal 247 
 
 dairy cow 2S.i 
 
 horse 35, 92 
 
 mutton sheep 397 
 
 ox 210 
 
 Ring, classes and groups of ani- 
 mals in show "><>'> 
 
 horses, reasons for posi- 
 tions assigned a 115 
 
 reasons for placing beef 
 
 cattle in 256 
 
 hogs in 509 
 
 Rings of livestock, selecting. . . 557 
 
 Ringbone 203 
 
 Roaring 200 
 
586 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Page 
 
 Romney Marsh sheep 460 
 
 Round of beef 223 
 
 Rudimentary teats 317 
 
 Rules for hoys' stock judging 
 
 contests 558 
 
 governing livestock judg- 
 ing contests 553 
 
 Rump hacon hog 540 
 
 beef cattle 250 
 
 dairy cow 291 
 
 lard hog 502 
 
 mutton sheep 398 
 
 Runabout horse 156 
 
 Saanen goat 471 
 
 Saddle horse, action 164 
 
 American 167 
 
 body 163 
 
 croup 163 
 
 neck 163 
 
 score card for 160 
 
 shoulders 163 
 
 tail 164 
 
 three-gaited 166 
 
 type and character with . . . 160 
 
 of mutton 377 
 
 type of horse, Judging. . . . 160 
 Sand-crack 205 
 
 Scale of points 15 
 
 American Merino 414, 415 
 
 Angora goat 465 
 
 Ayrshire bull 340 
 
 Ayrshire cow 341 
 
 bacon type hog 532 
 
 for beef cattle 228 
 
 Berkshire swine 513 
 
 Cheshire swine 525 
 
 Chester White swine 519 
 
 Cheviot sheep 450 
 
 Cotswold sheep 457 
 
 dairy cow 275 
 
 Delaine Merino 421 
 
 Devon cattle 359 
 
 Dexter cattle 347 
 
 Dorset Horn sheep 448 
 
 dual-purpose cattle 353 
 
 Duroc-Jersey swine 522 
 
 Dutch Belted cattle 344 
 
 earliest use of 15 
 
 fat sheep, or wether 382 
 
 Guernsey bull 336 
 
 Guernsey cow 337 
 
 Hampshire sheep 446 
 
 Hampshire swine 527 
 
 Hereford cattle 268 
 
 Holstein-Friesian bull .... 330 
 
 Scale of Points, cow 
 
 jack 
 
 Jersey bull 
 
 Jersey cow 
 
 Jersey cows and heifers, 
 original 
 
 judging beef type of cattle 
 by 
 
 judging dairy type cattle by 
 
 draft or power type of 
 horse by 
 
 lard type swine by 
 
 mutton type sheep by 
 
 Kerry cattle 
 
 Large Yorkshire swine. . . . 
 
 Leicester sheep 
 
 Lincoln sheep 
 
 light harness horse 
 
 mule 
 
 Mulefoot swine 
 
 Oxford Down sheep 
 
 Poland-China swine 
 
 relative values of parts of. 
 
 saddle horse 
 
 Shetland pony 
 
 Shropshire sheep 
 
 Southdown sheep 
 
 Suffolk sheep 
 
 systematic arrangement of 
 the 
 
 Tunis sheep 
 
 Score card American Merino . . . 
 
 and its use 
 
 beef cattle or steer 
 
 dairy cow 
 
 Delaine or C Type Merino. 
 
 draft horse 
 
 fat sheep or wether 
 
 heavy harness horses 
 
 jack, Catalonian or Ameri- 
 can type 
 
 lesson, value of the 
 
 light harness horse 
 
 method of using the 
 
 mule 
 
 saddle horse 
 
 of an animal, value of the 
 Scored, systematic examination 
 
 of sheep to be 
 
 Scoring animals, use of figures 
 in 
 
 the expression "points cut" 
 
 in 
 
 Secretion, process of milk 
 
 Secretions dairy animal 
 
 Sex character boar 
 
 ewe 
 
 beef bull 
 
 beef cow 
 
 Page 
 332 
 175 
 326 
 
 1(5 
 
 227 
 272 
 
 61 
 486 
 380 
 346 
 550 
 455 
 459 
 131 
 188 
 529 
 443 
 515 
 
 21 
 160 
 170 
 442 
 440 
 451 
 
 17 
 453 
 415 
 
 15 
 
 228 
 275 
 421 
 62 
 382 
 149 
 
 175 
 
 20 
 
 131 
 
 18 
 188 
 160 
 
 23 
 
 3 SO 
 
 23 
 299 
 280 
 542 
 436 
 259 
 262 
 
INDKX 
 
 587 
 
 Sex character, mare, 
 rani . 
 
 sow 
 
 stallion 
 
 Shank piece of beef 
 
 Shape Milch goat, size and. . . . 
 Sheep, age of 
 
 anatomy of 
 
 back mutton 
 
 body mutton 
 
 brisket mutton 
 
 chest mutton 
 
 Cheviot 
 
 classification of domestic. . 
 
 comparison card, fat 
 
 comparative judging of 
 mutton 
 
 study of mutton 
 
 condition mutton 
 
 wool mutton 
 
 conformation feeder 
 
 Cotswold 
 
 descriptive notes of more 
 important breeds of. ... 
 
 digestive organs 
 
 Dorset Horn 
 
 ears of 
 
 eyes of 
 
 face of 
 
 flanks mutton 
 
 fleece on 
 
 or wool of 
 
 foot glands of 
 
 forehead of ....'. 
 
 forequarters mutton 
 
 form of mutton 
 
 front legs mutton 
 
 Hampshire 
 
 head and neck mutton. . . . 
 
 hind legs mutton 
 
 hindquarters mutton 
 
 hips mutton 
 
 how to handle and examine 
 
 judging 
 
 breeding 
 
 feeder 
 
 Leicester 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 loin of mutton 
 
 modern trend breeding 
 Merino 
 
 muzzle 
 
 neck of mutton 
 
 Oxford Down 
 
 organs of reproduction of. 
 
 quality wool on mutton. . . 
 
 Page 
 121 
 
 4:;:; 
 545 
 118 
 225 
 4<iS 
 363 
 361 
 396 
 396 
 394 
 396 
 44 8 
 374 
 407 
 
 404 
 404 
 390 
 403 
 410 
 456 
 
 439 
 365 
 447 
 392 
 392 
 
 392 
 
 397 
 371 
 
 366 
 
 ;U;T 
 
 .">!>2 
 
 394 
 384 
 
 394 
 445 
 391 
 399 
 398 
 398 
 :;<;<> 
 361 
 43:5 
 410 
 454 
 45S 
 397 
 
 420 
 392 
 393 
 443 
 365 
 401 
 
 Page 
 Slice]), quantity wool produced 
 
 by mutton sheep 4O2 
 
 Hambouillet 4<J2 
 
 ribs mutton :;'.7 
 
 rump mutton .'IDs 
 
 reasons for comparative 
 
 placings of mutton 40S 
 
 Romney Marsh 460 
 
 wether, scale of points fat. 382 
 
 scale points Oxford Down. 443 
 
 Southdown 440 
 
 shoulder mutton :;s>4 
 
 Shropshire 441 
 
 skeleton of .">iil 
 
 skin of domestic 3;r 
 
 mutton :;ss 
 
 Southdown 43!) 
 
 Suffolk 450 
 
 teeth of 363 
 
 thighs mutton 399 
 
 to be scored, systematic ex- 
 amination of 380 
 
 Tunis 452 
 
 twist mutton 399 
 
 use of hands in judging. . 370 
 
 weight fat 3s3 
 
 wool on mutton 401 
 
 Shetland pony, judging 170 
 
 modern type 171 
 
 scale of points 19, 170 
 
 Shields in hog 491 
 
 Shire horse 128 
 
 Shorthorn cattle 265 
 
 Shoulder bacon hog 5 .".7 
 
 beef animal 241 
 
 blade of the horse 36 
 
 ox 210 
 
 lard hog 496 
 
 hog carcass 4s:; 
 
 Shoulders dairy cow 2sr, 
 
 draft horse 76 
 
 heavy harness horse 152 
 
 light harness horse l.",<; 
 
 mutton sheep .'!'.' I 
 
 saddle horse 163 
 
 vein beef animal 241 
 
 Show jack, description 181 
 
 ring, age classification ani- 
 mals in 567 
 
 classes and groups of ani- 
 mals in 
 
 Shropshire sheep 441 
 
 scale of points 442 
 
 Sidcbone 2<rj 
 
 Sides bacon hog 5::n 
 
 lard hog 501 
 
' 588 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Sire, Get of 
 
 Sirloin 
 
 Size and shape Milch goat. , 
 
 aim weight beef animal 
 
 beef bull . . 
 
 cow 
 
 boar 
 
 brood sow 
 
 dairy bull 
 
 cow, weight or. 
 
 ewe 
 
 ram 
 
 stallion 
 
 Skeleton of hog. . . . 
 horse . 
 
 ox , 
 
 sheep 
 
 Skin hog 
 
 color , 
 
 lard hog 
 
 of domestic sheep, 
 mutton sheep 
 
 Skull of the horse. . 
 
 ox 
 
 Snout bacon hog 
 
 Southdown sheep 
 
 scale of points 
 
 Sow, breed characteristics. 
 
 frame brood 
 
 sex character in 
 
 size brood 
 
 temperament brood. . . 
 Spavin, blind 
 
 bog 
 
 bone 
 
 jack 
 
 Specializing rather than other- 
 wise, men become effi- 
 cient judges by 
 
 Speed in horse to structure 
 skeleton, relationship of 
 
 Splint 
 
 Spinal column 
 
 of ox 
 
 Splay-footed 
 
 Stallion, body conformation of 
 
 the 
 
 constitutional vigor 
 
 judging the 
 
 sex character of the 
 
 size of 
 
 temperament of 
 
 Standard bred horse 
 
 of excellence of Tamworth 
 
 swine 
 
 pacing 
 
 trotting 
 
 Page Page 
 
 569 Standards, breed 18 
 
 222 Steer, score card for beef cattle 
 
 468 or 228 
 
 229 Sternum or breastbone of the 
 
 261 horse 36 
 
 263 ox 210 
 
 544 Stifle joint horse 38 
 
 546 Stocker or feeder cattle, judging 257 
 
 310 Stomach of hog 476 
 
 276 horse 43 
 
 437 ox 212 
 
 435 Stride 51 
 
 119 elevation of , 52 
 
 473 length of 52 
 
 2S rapidity of 52 
 
 200 sequence or order of 52 
 
 361 trueness of 52 
 
 477 Student contest judges 554 
 
 491 contests, duties superinten- 
 
 490 dent 554 
 
 366 contests, rules governing 
 
 388 contestants in 555 
 
 29 of animal form and func- 
 
 209 tion, the efficient judge 
 
 536 is a 7 
 
 439 Style and action bacon hog. . . 535 
 
 440 Substance in the horse 68 
 
 547 Sub-types of cattle 217 
 
 547 Suffolk horse 129 
 
 545 sheep 450 
 
 546 scale points 451 
 
 545 Superintendent students' con- 
 
 200 tests, duties 554 
 
 201 Swine, Berkshire 511 
 
 200 by scale points, judging 
 
 200 lard type 486 
 
 200 Cheshire 524 
 
 Chester White 518 
 
 common types 484 
 
 10 comparative placing card 
 
 for 509 
 
 40 study of 507 
 
 203 determining age of 474 
 
 33 Duroc-Jersey 521 
 
 2O9 Hampshire 525 
 
 89 judging 473 
 
 bacon type 531 
 
 119 breeding 542 
 
 119 Large Yorkshire 548 
 
 118 Mulefoot 528 
 
 118 notes on bacon type breeds 
 
 119 of 548 
 
 120 on lard type breeds of. ... 511 
 
 145 scale points Large York- 
 
 shire 550 
 
 552 Poland-China 513 
 
 147 Standard of excellence 
 
 146 Tamworth 552 
 
INDEX 
 
 Page 
 
 Standard of excellence, Turn 
 
 worth ;V)0 
 
 Swiss cuttle. Brown .".> 
 
 System of the animal, circula- 
 tory 296 
 
 Tail-head beef animal 251 
 
 dairy cow 293 
 
 horse 97 
 
 saddle horse 164 
 
 Tarn worth swine 550 
 
 standard of excellence. . . . 552 
 
 Teats 306 
 
 rudimentary 317 
 
 Teeth as indication of age of ox 214 
 
 colt 31 
 
 hog 474 
 
 sheep 363 
 
 Temperament of boar 543 
 
 brood sow 545 
 
 dairy bull 317 
 
 cow 282 
 
 draft horse 70 
 
 horse 45 
 
 heavy harness horse 152 
 
 light harness horse 134 
 
 jack 179 
 
 mare 122 
 
 mule 191 
 
 stallion 120 
 
 Tenderloin of beef 222 
 
 Tendons horse 40 
 
 Tnickness beef carcass 225 
 
 Thign beef animal 251 
 
 dairy cow 294 
 
 draft horse 98 
 
 Thighs mutton sheep 399 
 
 Thoroughbred horse 167 
 
 Thoroughpin 202 
 
 Three-gaited saddle horse 166 
 
 Thrush 206 
 
 Tibia horse 38 
 
 Time in judging contests 557 
 
 Toe narrow 89 
 
 wide 89 
 
 Toes hog 498 
 
 Tougenburg goat 471 
 
 Trot 54 
 
 draft horse at 108 
 
 fox 59 
 
 Trotting standard 146 
 
 Tunis sheep 452 
 
 scale points 453 
 
 Twist mutton sheep 399 
 
 Pago 
 Type, classification Merino 
 
 sheep according to 412 
 
 dairy cow, form or 277 
 
 dual-purpose i ,ii 
 
 Shetland pony, modern .... 171 
 and character with saddle 
 
 horse 160 
 
 Types and classes of horses. . . 61 
 
 cattle, sub- 217 
 
 pony 170 
 
 swine, common 484 
 
 U 
 
 Udder beef cow 262 
 
 form of 300 
 
 Physical composition of . . . 298 
 
 quality of 304 
 
 TJnsoundness, diseases and de- 
 fects in the horse 196 
 
 Use lu the animal, relationship 
 
 of form to 1 
 
 of scale of points, earliest. 15 
 
 Value score of an animal 23 
 
 Values parts of scale of points, 
 
 relative 21 
 
 pork ''uts, relative amounts 
 
 and 483 
 
 Vein beef animal, shoulder. . . . 241 
 
 beef animal neck 241 
 
 Veins, milk 307 
 
 on bull 319 
 
 Vigor beef bull, constitutional. 261 
 
 dairy bull 319 
 
 mare, constitutional 122 
 
 stallion, constitutional. . . . 119 
 
 Vilii 291 
 
 w 
 
 Walk, high-stepping 54 
 
 heavy draft 54 
 
 long, striding 54 
 
 of drafter 106 
 
 horse 5:> 
 
 ordinary 54 
 
 running 58 
 
 short-stepping 54 
 
 Wedge form dairy cow 277 
 
 Weight bacon hog 534 
 
 beef animal, size and 229 
 
 fat sheep . 383 
 
590 
 Weight, jack 
 
 INE 
 
 Page 
 177 
 487 
 131 
 191 
 60 
 270 
 172 
 310 
 
 381 
 
 382 
 382 
 89 
 241 
 280 
 89 
 
 (EX 
 
 Wool, condition of 
 crimp of . 
 
 Page 
 431 
 427 
 420 
 374 
 374 
 374 
 40:5 
 401 
 
 402 
 401 
 36G 
 
 430 
 
 548 
 550 
 
 lard hog 
 light harness horse 
 mule 
 
 fiber, quality 
 fine 
 
 
 draft horse 
 
 long 
 
 
 mutton sheep, condition . . 
 mutton sheep 
 produced by mutton sheep, 
 
 
 Wells milk 
 
 Wether, general appearance of 
 
 fat 
 
 quality 
 
 scale points fat sheep or . . 
 score card for fat sheep or 
 
 
 Y 
 
 Yolk oil or 
 
 Withers beef animal 
 dairy cow 
 
 Yorkshire swine large 
 
 draft horse. . 
 
 scale points, Large 
 
THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE 
 STAMPED BELOW 
 
 AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS 
 
 WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK 
 ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO 
 50 CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO $1.00 ON THE 
 SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE. 
 
 NOV 1 1 I96C 1 
 
 NQV 1 1 1968 
 8KTD OCT 2 9 1388 
 
 201368 
 
 REC'D NOV 1 8 1968 
 
 Book Slip-20m-5,'59 (A2537s4)458 
 
" 
 
 JEJ 
 
 Jud^ins: farm animals 
 
 3F115 
 
 OCT 
 
 lfi. 
 
 *t 
 
 S 
 
 DMY10 
 
 .^L^- 
 
 0'V 
 
 
 
 Y, BEANCH OS 1 THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, DAVIS 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA