IliiillliippppiMIHP I II i " ii " i " CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL mmmmmmmmmmmmummmmmmmmg eiKraUDE HARTMAN '^ - i t Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/childhisschoolinOOhartrich THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL "/ believe that education is the fundamental method of social progress and reform. . . , "By law and punishment, hy social agitation and discus- sion, society can regulate and form itself in a more or less haphazard or chance way. But through education society can formulate its own purposes, can organize its own means and resources, and thus shape itself with definiteness and economy in the direction in which it wishes to move J ^ John Dewey, "My Pedagogic Creed." " Sociology demands of educators . . . that they shall not rate themselves as leaders of children, hut as makers of society. Sociology knows no means for the amelioration or reform of society mxyre radical than those of which teachers hold the leverage. The teacher who realizes his social function will not he satisfied with passing children to the next grade. He will read his success only in the record of men and women who go from the school eager to explore wider and deeper these social relations, and zealous to do their part in making a better future. We are the dupes of faulty analysis if we imaa^ne that schools can do much to promote social progress until they are motived hy this insight and this temper." Albion Small, "The Demands of Sociology upon Pedagogy." THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL An Interpretation of Elementary Education as a Social Process BY GERTRUDE HARTMAN Formerly Director of the Merion Country Day ScHoot Merion, Pennsylvania * a t NEW YORK E. P. DUTTON & COMPANY 681 Fifth Avenue Copyright, 1922 By E. P. DUTTON & COMPANY A.U righta rettrvid Printtd in tht Unittd States of America ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author wishes to acknowledge with sincere appre- ciation the courtesy of the following publishers who have granted special permission for the incorporation in this study of the numerous extracts from publications for which they hold copyright. To the American Book Company for the quotation cited from Introduction to the Study of Society by Albion W. Small and George E. Vincent. To Messrs. D. Appleton & Co., for the quotations cited from Beginnings of Art by E. Grosse. To the University of Chicago Press for the quotations cited from The School and Society, The Child and the Cur- riculum by John Dewey, from The Place of Industries in Elementary Education by Katharine E. Dopp and from The Scientific Method in Education by Ella Flagg Young. To the Columbia University Press for the quotations cited from The Economic Interpretation, of History by Edwin R. A. Seligman. To Messrs. E. P. Button & Co., for the quotations cited from The Creative Impulse in Industry by Helen Marot. To Messrs. A. Flanagan Company for the quotations cited from My Pedagogic Creed by John Dewey and from The Demands of Sociology upon Pedagogy by Albion W. Small. To the editor of the Forum for the quotations cited from The Primary -Education Fetich by John Dewey. To Messrs. Ginn & Co. for the quotation cited from Sociology and Social Practice by Thomas N. Carver. To Messrs. Harper & Bros, for the quotations cited from Festivals and Pla/ys by Percival Chubb and his Associates. To Messrs. D. C. Heath & Co. for the quotations cited from How We Think by John Dewey. 468545 vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS To Messrs. Hery Holt & Co. for the quotations cited from The Influences of Geographic Environment by Ellen C. Semple. To Messrs. Houghton Mifflin Co. for the quotations cited from the Riverside Educational Monographs, Interest and Effort in Education and Moral Princples in Education by John Dewey and The Meaning of Infancy by John Fiske. To the Macmillan Company for the quotations cited from The Mind of Primitive Man by Franz Boas, from The American Commonwealth by Viscount James Bryce, from Democracy and Education by John Dewey, from the Cyclo- pcedia of Education, Paul Monroe, editor, and from The New History by J. Harvey Robinson. To the Public School Publishing Co. for the quotations cited from The Fourth Yearbook of the National Herbart Society, The Social Function of United States History by John Bach McMaster and The Social Function of Geog- raphy by Spencer Trotter. To the W. B. Saunders Company for the quotation cited from Introduction to Neurology by C. Judson Herrick. To the Yale University Press for the quotation cited from Human Nature and its Remaking by "William E. Hocking. Also to the Chicago Normal College Press, Publishers of the Educational Bi-monthly; to the George A. Doran Com- pany, Publishers of the Educational Review; to William Rice, Publisher of the London Journal of Education and School World, and to the editors of the Dial, the Kinder- garten Primary Magazine, the New Repuhlic and School and Society for quotations cited from their several period- icals. Also to the Anthropological Society of Washington, the National Education Association, the Smithsonian Institu- tion, and the Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology, for quotations cited from their publications. FOREWORD From among the many contributions that have enriched our professional literature during recent years, what se- lection shall be made by the teacher who seeks to translate the more modern philosophy of education into terms of daily school procedure and curriculum? What available sources adequately present the scientific background of that philosophy? Where shall we find interpretations of the scientific problems involved? What aids can the school library provide both for the teacher's use and for the chil- dren's reading? Miss Hartman has answered these questions by combin- ing a selection of library sources with an outline of the principles they illustrate, and a discussion of resulting im- plications for the school curriculum. We believe her study will be welcomed by teachers as a resume of exceptional value, discussing, as it does within a single volume, materials widely distributed through the pages of books and periodicals, many of them not easily available outside of special libraries. To the student and general reader we recommend it as presenting an able introduction to those precious conceptions of childhood and youth by which the word education is re-interpreted for those who hold it. Bureau of Educational Experiments. New York, November, 1921. vSi PREFACE This study was originally undertaken as a bibliography in response to a request made of the Bureau of Educational Experiments by a group of teachers representing several schools, all of whom are conducting experimental work in curriculum-making. In the course of the undertaking, it soon became evident that a bibliography to be of funda- mental educational value must be governed by clearly de- fined principles of selection. The theory of the book is an attempt to organize in terms of the best authenticated knowledge, after careful study of a wide range of author- itative sources, a working hypothesis for experimental pro- cedure. Since a pedagogy of any scientific pretensions presupposes a basis of modern biology, psychology, and sociology, of which it is a derivative science, a background of the points of view in those sciences, which have signi- ficance for education, is given in support of the educational philosophy advocated. Whenever significant points of view have lent themselves to direct quotation, the quotation has been incorporated with the text, since it conveys the idea in a far more vivid way than any digest could give. The predominance of references and quotations from the works of Dr. John Dewey is significant as indicating Dr. Dewey's profound service to the cause of modern educa- tion, in translating the findings of modern science and phi- losophy into their educational equivalents. The deep ob- ligation of the writer to the work of Dr. Dewey in this instance only reflects the indebtedness of an ever-growing body of workers in the educational field. It gives me pleasure to record here my indebtedness to the Bureau of Educational Experiments, who have made it possible for me to undertake the study. Gertrude Hartman. New York, November, 1921. CONTENTS PAGE Introduction. The Present Educational Situation 1 PART I. The Scientific Basis op Education 9 The Biological Basis 9 The Evolution op the Regulatory System 12 The Psychological Basis , 14 The Significance of Childhood 19 The Social Basis 23 The Evolution op Occupations 25 The Influence of Environment upon the Development OP Social Life 30 The Relation of Occupations to the Development of Social Life 32 The Relation of Art and Science to Occupations 34 The Evolution of the Scientific Method of Thinking. , 39 The Evolution of Knowledge 41 The Evolution of Organs of Social Regulation 45 The Present Social Situation 48 PART II. The Educative Process 55 The Function of Education 55 The Place of Activity in Education ~ 60 The Organization of Activities 67 ~ Activity as Play 68 Dramatic Activities 73 Investigation and Experimentation 74 Art Activities 77 Rhythmic and Musical Activities 85 The School Festival 87 Linguistic Activities 91 Composition 99 Literature 101 xi xii CONTENTS PAGE Activity as Work 107 Science 112 The Tool Subjects 118 Reading 122 Writing 126 Spelling 127 Arithmetic 131 The Organization of Subject-matter 134 The Study of Social Life 137 Community Study 139 Our National Life 150 The Study of Other Nations 155 Social Philosophy 161 Moral Education 163 The Function of the Various Subjects of Study in Expanding Experience 167 The Function of the Teacher 177 Measuring Progress 182 Equipment and Arrangements 185 POSTSCRIPT. A Call to Teachers 189 PART III. Bibliography of Sources for Subject-matter. . 191 Community Study 192 Food 192 Clothing 196 Shelter 199 Transportation 204 Communication 206 Conservation of Wealth 207 Education 208 Recreation 208 Religion 209 Protection 209 Government 210 FaiMrnvE Life 210 CONTENTS xiii PAGE OuB National Life 212 General 212 Government 213 History 214 The Study op Other Nations 221 General 221 North America .' 222 South America 226 Europe 227 Asia 241 Africa 246 Australia 247 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL INTRODUCTION THE PRESENT EDUCATIONAL SITUATION Educationally speaking we seem to be *' between two worlds, one dead, the other powerless to be born. ' * There are numerous signs indicating that the old educational order is passing; there are vital tendencies everywhere showing the newer trend of the times ; but as yet there is no new education in definite existence ; even our most pro- gressive schools can be looked upon only as a transition and a compromise. Current educational practice is still dominated by psychological assumptions which the new developments of psychology have shown to be untenable, and by sociological implications which are survivals from a social situation no longer existing. The gap between school practice and the modern point of view in psychology is painfully apparent. The old psychology looked upon mind and the subject matter of thought as two distinct entities more or less antagonistic to each other, which it was the business of education to reconcile. Knowledge was abstracted from the situation which made it useful and looked upon as an end in itself. The teaching of subjects, not in their relation to experi- ence, but according to a fixed order and classification, the following of logical methods of instruction, the belief in the doctrine of formal discipline — all find their explana- tion in this outworn psychological creed. ^*The supposed externality of subject-matter is but the counterpart phase of the alleged internal isolation of mind. If mind means 2 ' ' 5?Ei]Ei "icaiLb * mi)'-^ His .school certain powers or faculties existing in themselves and needing only to be exercised hy and upon presented subject- matter, the presented subject-matter must mean something complete in its ready-made and fixed separateness. Objects, facts, truths of geography, history, and science not being conceived as means and ends for the intelligent develop- ment of experience, are thought of just as stuff to be learned. Reading, writing, figuring are mere external forms of skill to be mastered. Even the arts — drawing, sing- ing — are thought of as meaning so many ready-made things, pictures, songs, that are to be externally produced and reproduced. . . . Some means must be found to overcome the separation of mind and subject-matter; problems of methods in teaching are reduced to various ways of over- coming a gap which exists only because a radically wrong method had already been entered upon.'' (John Dewey, Interest and Effort in Education, p. 94.*) *' Philosophers have debated concerning the nature and method of knowledge. It is hardly cynical to say that posi- tiveness of assertion on those points has been in proportion to the lack of any assured method of knowing in actual operation. The whole idea and scope of knowledge-getting in education has reflected the absence of such a method, so that learning has meant, upon the whole, piling up, wor- shiping, and holding fast to what is handed down from the past with the title of knowledge. But the actual practice of knowing has finally reached a point where learning means discovery, not memorizing traditions; where knowl- edge is actively constructed, not passively absorbed; and where men's beliefs must be openly recognized to be experi- mental in nature, involving hypothesis and testing through being set at work. Upon the side of subject-matter, the ideas of energy, process, growth, and evolutionary change have become supreme at the expense of the older notions of permanent substance, rigid fixity, and uniformity. The basic conceptions which form men's standards of inter- pretation and valuation have thus undergone radical altera- *By permission Houghton Mifflin Co. Copyright 1913 by John Dewey. INTRODUCTION 3 tion.'* (John Dewey, PJiilosophy of Education, Cyelo- pasdia of Education, pp. 702-703.*) According to the old point of view mental structure tended to fall apart into various faculties working more or less independently; the new point of view is an analysis of the processes of adaptive behavior, showing how they came into existence as the result of certain needs of life, and how they work together to maintain human beings to meet the constantly changing conditions of their environment. The false psychological basis of education is paralleled by a lack of realization of its social requirements. Strong social forces have for a long time been silently at work, and as a result our social life has undergone a complete and radical transformation. In education, on the other hand, outworn points of view have been handed on from genera- tion to generation and thus perpetuated, we have become habituated to traditional modes of thinking — in a word, education has become institutionalized. The result is that it now bears no clear and direct relation to the needs and opportunities of contemporary life. **If we go back a few centuries, we find a practical monopoly of learning. The term possession of learning is, indeed a happy one. Learn- ing was a class matter. This was a necessary result of social conditions. There was not in existence any means by which the multitude could possibly have access to intel- lectual resources. These were stored up and hidden away in manuscripts. Of these, there were at best only a few, and it required a long and toilsome preparation to be able to do anything with them. A high-priesthood of learning which guarded the treasury of truth and which doled it out to the masses under severe restrictions, was the inevitable expression of these conditions. But, as a direct result of the industrial revolution . . . this has been changed. Printing was invented ; it was made commercial . . . The result has been an intellectual revolution. Learning has been put into circulation. While there still is, and probably always will be, a particular class having the special business of inquiry in hand, a distinctively learned class is henceforth out of *By permission The Macmillan Co. Copyright 1911. 4 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL the question. It is an anachronism. . . . Our school methods, and to a very considerable extent our curriculum, are inherited from the period when learning and command of certain symbols, affording as they did, the only access to learning, were all-important. The ideals of this period are still largely in control, even where the outward methods and studies have been changed . . . our present education ... is highly specialized, one-sided and narrow. It is an education dominated almost entirely by the mediaeval conception of learning. It is something which appeals for the most part simply to the intellectual aspect of our natures, our desire to learn, to accumulate information, and to get control of the symbols of learning; not to our im- pulses and tendencies to make, to do, to create, to produce, whether in the form of utility or art. . . . *' While training for the profession of learning is regarded as the type of culture, or a liberal education, the training of a mechanic, a musician, a lawyer, a doctor, a farmer, a merchant, or a railroad manager is regarded as purely technical and professional. The result is that which we see about us everywhere — ^the division into * cultured* people and 'workers* . . . ." John Dewey ^ The School and Society, pp. 22-25.*) Such an educational situation tends to accentuate all the undemocratic tendencies of our time by strengthening class distinctions. Education under these circumstances tends to fall apart into two types seeking specialized aims. The education of the leisure class takes on more or less the character of an accomplishment; it is removed from the realities of every-day life and is con- cerned with an unproductive expenditure of time. On the other hand we see growing up a narrow, barren conception of technological education, dominated by the demands of industry rather than by educational principles, seeking to habituate workers in the various specialized modes of skill necessary for the efficient performance of their trades. Dissatisfaction is shown by the mass of the people to the making of a type of education a badge of inferiority, and *By permission University of Chicago Press. Copyright 1900 by the University of Chicago. Copyright 1900 and 1915 by John Dewey. INTRODUCTION 5 they therefore make every effort to secure the leisure-class education regardless of its serviceability. The pressing demand of the present is for the reestablish- ment of human relationships upon a saner and more secure foundation. It constitutes a challenge which the school cannot evade. If democracy is to be anything more than a mere political term, there must be a new educational theory which will relate education directly to the changed conditions brought about by the industrial revolution. The social aim of education for democracy must he of the sort which does not admit the implication of a class superiority. It mil he vocational, hut it will aim not •at a living hut a living together; it will he Uheralf hecause it makes men free. ^*We need to know the difference that the democratic ideal makes in our moral aims and methods; we need to come to consciousness of the changed conception of the nature of existence that its spread imports. We must reckon intelligently with the new and gigantic industrial forces that have come into being, securing by education a disposition to subordinate them to general welfare and to equality of opportunity so that they may not plunge us into class hatreds, intellectual deadness, and artistic vulgarity. Unless our science is to become as specialized and isolated a thing as was ever any scholastic scheme whose elaborate futility we ridicule, we must make the experimental atti- tude the pervasive ideal of all our intellectual undertakings, and learn to think habitually in terms of dynamic processes and genetic evolution. Clearness upon the issues, problems, and aims which our own period has brought to the fore- ground is a necessity for free and deliberate participation in the tasks that present-day education has to perform.'' (John Dewey, Philosophy of Education, Cyclopaedia of Education, p. 703.*) What is needed is a thorough overhauling of our educa- tional beliefs, the rejection of everything that is outworn, and the formulation of a philosophy of curriculum organ- ization consistent with the findings of modern biology, psychology and sociology, upon which alone can a sound *By permission The Macmillan Co. Copyright 1911. 6 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL philosophy of education be built. Unless we have such an organized philosophy we are without a standard by which to measure our day to day accomplishment, or to judge of the value of contemplated changes in procedure. Progress under any other conditions is due to a happy combination of external circumstances rather than to the application of scientific principles. READING Angell, J. R. — TJie Province of Functional Psychology, Psychological Review, March, 1907. CooLEY, C. H. — A Primary Culture for Democracy, Papers and Proceedings, American Sociological Society, 1918. Dewey, John — Democracy and Education, Macmillan. Chap, XIX. Labor and Leisure. Chap. XX. Intellectual and Practical Studies. Chap. XXL Physical and Social Studies. Chap. XXIII. Vocational Aspects of Education. Chap. XXIV. Philosophy of Education. Dewey, John — The Educational Situation, University of Chicago Press. Dewey, John — The Relation of Theory to Practice in Education, National Society for Scientific Study of Education, Year Book, 1904. Dewey, John — Schools of To-morrow, Dutton. Chap. IX. Industry and Educational Readjust- ment. Chap. XL Democracy and Education. Dewey, John — The School and Society, University of Chicago Press. Chap. I. The School and Social Progress. Chap. IV. The Psychology of Elementary Edu- cation. Dewey, John — American Education and Culture, New Republic, July 1, 1916. Yeblen, T. — The Theory of the Leisure Class, Huebsch. Chap. XIV. The Higher Learning as an Expres- sion of the Pecuniary Culture. INTRODUCTION 7 Watson, J. B.— Psychology as a Behaviorist Views It, Psychological Review, March, 1913. WooDWORTH, R. S. — Dynamic Psychology, Columbia Uni- versity Press. Chap. I. The Modem Movement in Psychology. Chap. XL The Problems and Methods of Psychol- ogy* PART I THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF EDUCATION The human species appears to possess characteristics so essentially different from those of every other animal species that it is not surprising if for centuries man regarded himself as a separate and distinct creation. In- deed, although the work of Darwin established beyond doubt our biological connection with the rest of the animate world, it is only within recent years that the evolutionary conception of life has materially influenced psychological and sociological thought. The development of a functional psychology, of a dynamic sociology, and the pragmatic point of view in philosophy, however, are all making increasingly clear how completely our mental, our social, and our moral life are the result of that age-long experience which stretches back into the dim past when the first bit of protoplasm stirred in the primordial ooze and life began upon the earth. Since in the child, with whom the school has to deal, we have the latest product of that race experi- ence, it is necessary before attempting to formulate any mode of school procedure, to trace in a general way the workings of those great natural forces which have combined to make him what he is. What heritage have those forces bestowed upon him? What limitations do they impose upon education ? What resources do they offer ? These are the questions which education asks of evolution. The Biological Basis Wherever conditions on the earth are favorable, life exists, and the whole great concourse of living things, high as well as low, are forced to engage in a never-ending 9 10 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL struggle to maintain their existence. However rudimentary in structure an organism may be, it must perform all the functions necessary to sustain life or else be extinguished. As nourishment is fundamental to the continuance of life, all organisms perform ceaseless and untiring movements in search of food. The lower organisms usually move about at random, making trial of all sorts of conditions, until possibly by chance collision they meet success in their quest. Jennings in his Behavior of the Lower Organisms describes bacteria as swimming about in a direction determined by the position of the body axis until the movement subjects them to unfavorable change; whereupon they reverse and swim in some other direction with rapid movements and much sensitiveness to unfavorable influences. This soon results in their finding and remaining in the favorable regions. We see, then, that a living being is not an inde- pendent thing existing in isolated passivity; the very con- ditions of its life force it into active relationship with the world of materials and forces upon which it depends for its sustenance. Life may be regarded as the sum total of the functions of an organism in their reciprocal relations, as the outcome of its relationship with the environment. Every organism reacts in ways that are advantageous to the functioning of its life processes. **If it gets into hot water, it takes measures to get out again, and the same is true if it gets into excessively cold water. If it encounters an injurious chemical substance, it at once changes its behavior and escapes. If it lacks materials for its metabolic processes, it sets in operation movements which secure such material, suspending these movements when the lack is fully sup- plied. If it lacks oxygen for its respiration it moves to a region where oxygen is found. If injured, it flees to safer regions. *' (H. S. Jennings, The Method of Regulation in Behavior and in Other Fields. Journal of Experimental Zoology, November, 1905.) The continued existence of an organism depends upon harmony being preserved between changes in the environment and changes within the organ- ism. Anything injurious to the organism produces changes in behavior until a favorable condition is reached. In con- THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF EDUCATION 11 ditions that are entirely favorable there is no need for a change in behavior. A change in behavior takes place only when there is some interference with the life process. Out of this situation has developed that essential charac- teristic of all living beings — their power of adaptability. All living things in order to maintain themselves, are forced into processes of adaptive behavior, and variations within an organism arise in accordance with this require- ment. The variety and complexity of environmental con- ditions require subtle modifications within the organism to meet the exigencies of the diverse circumstances to which it is subjected. Organisms are able to make adaptive changes in behavior because of that characteristic common to all protoplasm known as plasticity. Lower forms of life have only a limited ability to adjust themselves to their surroundings. If changes in the environment are too sud- den or too great, the organism dies. The essential condi- tions of life therefore put a premium upon the better and better adaptation of the organism to its environment. This necessity for a more adequate adaptation of life to environ- ment has given rise to increasing elaboration of structure in the scale of animal life. Organisms that vary in such a way as to make them unfitted to carry on their life func- tions are eliminated ; those which improve their functioning through improved structure survive and produce others after their kind. The struggle of an organism for more adequate function- ing involves an effort to control its environment; elabora- tion of structure contributes to increased control of the environment by increasing the precision of movements ; on the other hand it tends to restrict the form of movement to certain types. An organism which has adopted some special type of behavior becomes unadapted to other behavior. It develops structures under the influence of its adaptive behavior that make it difficult for it to react in other than one way. After a time it loses all tendency to react in other ways owing to the structural changes it has undergone. Complete specialization of structure leads to a condition of stability in the relationship between the organism and its 12 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL environment. The perfection of mechanism is unfavorable to further development. Animals become committed to one form of life and in so doing sacrifice their plasticity. Natural selection, therefore, while it favors variation of structure, also favors the persistence of plasticity, since plasticity is a prerequisite to growth. An organism to retain its plasticity must have the power of making over its environment in accordance with its own needs. The increasing control given by increasing elaboration of structure enables organisms to deal with an en- vironment which grows constantly more complex, more varied and more remote in time and space. A species which can adjust itself to only a few elements of its environment is less efficient than one which has diverse relationships and an extensive range of possible adaptations. The world of a protozoan is a drop of water; it can move but a short distance and distinguish but a few objects; the higher animals range over a wide territory and become acquainted with a great variety of objects; man lives in a world which is bounded by the most distant star, and which stretches back in time to ages before recorded history. The Evolution of the Regulatory System. — Regulation signifies any kind of reaction of the organism which reestab- lishes the normal state of functioning. The securing of an effective method of regulation is therefore a matter of supreme importance to life. As we progress up the scale of life, we see that in the elaboration of structure function develops from a generalized to a specialized condition. The one-celled organism responds as a whole to stimulus. Gradually in the differentiation of structure we see that certain cells are set apart for receiving stimuli, and others for responding to them. There is then necessity for some sort of connection between these two sets of cells, and still other cells form a line of connection to transmit the stimulus from the receiving cells to the responding cells. Such, in general, is the mechanism constituting the rudi- mentary nervous system of lower animals. Once estab- lished, such a system dominates the organism since it forms THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF EDUCATION 13 an apparatus by which the inner processes are kept in har- mony and the whole organism the better equipped to make adaptive movements. From this simplest form of mechan- ism has been gradually evolved the elaborate structure of the nervous system with all its varied and highly special- ized functions. ''A study of the comparative anatomy of the nervous system shows that its form is always correlated with the behavior of the animal possessing it. The simplest form of nervous system consists of a diffuse network of nerve-cells and connecting fibres distributed among the other tissues of the body. Such a nervous system is found in some jelly-fishes and in parts of the sympathetic nervous system of higher animals. Animals which possess this dif- fuse type of nervous system can perform only very simple acts, chiefly total movements of the whole body or general movements of large parts of it, with relatively small capacity for refined activities requiring the cooperation of many different organs. But even the lowest animals which possess nerves show a tendency for the nervous net to be condensed in some regions for the general control of the activities of the different parts of the body.*' (C. J. Herrick, Introduction to Neurology ^ pp. 28-29.) By the possession of a highly organized nervous system a multitude of activities may be made to work together in unity for the welfare of the whole organism. In the lower animals there is only one course which the stimulus can take; as the neural processes become more complex, the path from stimulus to response is increasingly roundabout. If the stimulus can go by only one route the organism can never learn to discriminate between the response it is able to make and some other possible response. A highly devel- oped adjusting mechanism enables the organism to select its present stimulus with reference to past experience and thus provide more adequately for the future. The supreme place in nature attained by man is due to the progressive evolution of the nervous system. In purely physical respects the human body is inferior to that of other animals. It is not through superior physique but through ability to direct the activities of the body that man excels 14 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL in the struggle for existence. This infinitely elaborated control system enables the human organism not only to respond appropriately to stimuli, but to order its behavior through an infinite series of responses, each determined by a preceding stimulus. From the biological point of view the human brain is the highest expression of an organizing system for the purpose of adaptation. The possession of a brain constitutes the greatest safeguard for success in the struggle for existence. READING Dewey, John. — ^Articles on AcUvUy, Adaptation^ Adjust- ment, Environment, and Organism. Cyclopaedia of Education. Macmillan. Jennings, H. S. — The Study of the Behaviour of Lower Organisms. Carnegie Institution. Pub. No. 16. The Method of Trial and Error in the Behavior of Lower Organisms. Jennings, H. S. — ModiftahiUty in Behavior. Journal of Experimental Zoology, November, 1905. Jennings, H. S. — The Method of Regulation in Behavior and in Other Fields. Journal of Experimental Zool- ogy, November, 1905. Miller, I. E. — The Psychology of Thinking. Macmillan. Chaps. I and II. The Biological Point of View. Morgan, C. L. — Animal Behaviour. Arnold, London. Chap. I. Organic Behaviour. Chap. VII. The Evolution of Animal Behaviour. Parker, G. H. — The Origin and Evolution of the Nervous System. Popular Science Monthly, February, 1914. Smith, G. E. — The Evolution of Man. Nature, September 26, 1912, or Report of the Smithsonian Institution, 1912. The Psychological Basis The life process is essentially a unit. To consider it under two categories, the biological and the psychological, is to run the risk of suggesting a separation where none exists. i THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF EDUCATION 15 The physiological and the psychical are merely two aspects of the same thing separated here only for convenience in discussion. Just how the conscious processes came to be, remains part of the mystery of the origin of life itself. Whatever their origin, the important fact is that they, like every other characteristic of living matter, developed out of the struggle for more effective functioning, and that each step in their elaboration has been regulated by the general evolutionary process of more complex and effective forms out of simpler and more general forms. From the evolutionary point of view consciousness is a superior device for securing adapta- tion ; it advances life more quickly, more economically, and more effectively than unconscious processes could do. The value of consciousness in the struggle for existence is self evident. An animal which reacted in a certain way to its environment and continued doing so, no matter how dis- astrous the results, would run the risk of annihilation. Therefore, any interference with the functioning of the life processes gives rise to changes in behavior in even the lowest organisms. This change in behavior is at first, for the most part, automatic, and highly subject to chance occurrence. Yet in the organism's choice of an environ- ment which furthers its life processes, and in indifference to, or rejection of, that which does not, we have the essence of consciousness. For an animal to be subject to the changes in its environ- ment is very precarious, and it is to its interest to gain control of its environment and thus render itself more secure. As we ascend the animal scale, therefore, we find that instincts are not rigid, but are capable of being modi- fied to suit varying circumstances. Inherited modes of action are modified by the experience of the organism. Even the lowest organisms do not always react in the same way to a given stimulus. The response may depend upon a num- ber of inner states or changes. As an animal profits by its past experience in adjusting its response to a present stimulus, we are justified in saying that it has undergone a conscious process, that its past experience is somehow 16 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL brought into relation with its present situation and influ- ences behavior. In the higher animals a very simple stimulus may give rise to a very complex response. The higher the type of organism the greater the variety of responses which may be called forth, and the greater the power of inhibition, the balancing of one possible stimulus against another, and the choice of the most advantageous one. We see, therefore, as we ascend the animal scale a growing tendency toward the regulation of action for the achievement of more and more clearly realized ends. The more an animal is able to look ahead and, on the basis of past experience, to manipulate the elements of its environ- ment so that desired results are brought about, the more secure it is. The more an animal is able to predict different futures for itself and to choose the proper course of action, the greater its chance of survival. The only way that an organism can control its future is by modifying its present environment through its responses. Therefore, wherever we see conscious activity at work we find attempts being made to make over the environment for the more efficient performance of life functions. As we pass from lower to higher forms of life we see that animals participate in shaping the course of their actions, and that inherited modes of reaction are more and more modified by experi- ence. All of this means the growth of intelligence. Intelligence once having been established as a factor in evolution, it comes to assume a I'ole of ever increasing im- portance. Competition between the intelligence of different animals in their struggle for existence gives it constant impetus. The animal with superior mental equipment has an immense advantage in being able to meet a situation in more than one way, and to deal with new situations in a complex and variable environment. As soon as intelligence has been developed so that a slight variation in it is more useful than a variation in physical structure, such variation will be selected, and physical superiority gives way to the development of intelligence. If we compare the highest animals with the lowest, we can see the tremendous develop- ment of effective forms of behavior due to the development THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF EDUCATION 17 of the conscious processes. With the evolution of man, physiological variation has ceased, but psychical variation has proceeded rapidly. The foregoing discussion of animal intelligence has seemed to put a high valuation upon the development of the animal mind. However, if we compare the highest animals with even the lowest tribes of men, we see the great gap which marks the dividing line between man and the brute creation. This need not lead us to suppose, however, that the human intellect is something different in kind from the animal mind. Though infinitely more complex, it may con- ceivably be looked upon as the last and most complex term in a series of evolutionary changes, to which reflex action, instinct, and intelligence directly lead. The special superiority of each animal species below man has been gained by surrendering the possibility of advance along other lines. The range of possible reactions to a given stimulus is limited, and repetition of reaction brings about a perfection of mechanism comparatively soon after birth, which precludes further development. Acquired ability, therefore has its limitations in the animal world. The mind of man may be looked upon as a superior organ of control, designed to keep track of a great multiplicity of environmental factors, to balance them up with reference to activity, and thus act as an effective instrument in subor- dinating the environment to its own purposes. Thinking is not a single process : it represents rather an organization of processes working together to evaluate activity with ref- erence to a highly complex environment, and thus to select from a number of possible responses the response which will be most successful in controlling the environment not only in the present but in the future. The evolutionary point of view makes it clear that the various faculties such as sensation, memory, imagination, reasoning and the like, each of which was regarded by the older psychologists as distinct in itself, are simply various aspects of a vast com- plex of conscious processes working together to enable the human species to deal effectively with an infinitely complex and varied environment. By means of the working together 18 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL of this elaborate mechanism the human mind is able to select from the countless stimuli presented to it those which need attention for the advancement of the organism, to organize its various resources, and thus to respond in appro- priate and effective ways. Through sensations we receive reports indicating the condition of affairs with reference to which we have to act. In a complex situation the reports are diverse, and contain seemingly incompatible elements. The mind is thus confronted with a problem and the demands for its solution determine the nature of the con- scious processes emploj^ed. The mind is not merely an organ for receiving stimuli ; it is also a recording apparatus, storing up valuable impressions which may be recalled at a future time in association with others, for the solution of a problem. This characteristic of mind we call memory. Habit is a path of preferred conduction between stimulus and response due to the repetition of similar experiences. It quickens reaction, and by making part of the mental process automatic lessens fatigue, thus releasing conscious- ness for more important phases. Through imagination phases of experience not present to the senses can be real- ized, details of past experiences can be combined in new and. original ways, tentative ways of meeting a situation can be projected. Through the exercise of judgment the sugges- tions for meeting the situation can be evaluated, those irrelevant rejected, and those relevant selected. As a result of this complex process response follows in the form of action. It is by means of this marvelously complex organization of conscious processes that man has escaped from routine existence, that he is able to meet new situations with in- genious solutions, that experience is being constantly recon- structed and continuity in behavior established. Through it man has secured control of the earth and transformed it into a human world. THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF EDUCATION 19 READING Dewey, John. — Article on Stimulus und Response, Cyclo- paedia of Education. Macmillan. Miller, I. E. — The Psychology of Thinking , Macmillan. Chap. III. Sensory-Motor Circuit. Chap. IV. The Significance and Function of Consciousness. C^ap. V. Differentiation and Organization of Consciousness. Chap. VI. Organic Unity of Mental and Motor Life. Chap. VII. Typical Modes of Adjustment. Morgan, C. L. — Animal Behaviour, Arnold, London. Chap. II. Consciousness. Chap. III. Instinctive Behaviour. Chap. IV. Intelligent Behaviour. Chap. VI. The Feelings and Emotions. Thomas, W. I. — Source Book for Social Origins, Part XL University of Chicago Press. Thorndike, E. L. — Educational Psychology, Teachers Col- lege Publication. The Significance of Childhood. — The human infant is born more helpless than the young of any other animal and its time for coming to maturity is relatively very long. At first this might seem to be a dis- advantage in the struggle for existence. Modern scien- tists have shown, however, that it is, on the contrary, a powerful asset having great influence on human supremacy. All creatures are endowed at birth with innate capacities essential to the preservation of the species. The young of most animals inherit a fairly perfect instinctive mechanism which comes to maturity soon after birth. Although the perfection of this instinctive equipment makes for efficiency along the lines for which it was designated, the very per- fection of the mechanism precludes development beyond the limits prescribed. It does not permit of great variation of 20 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL response. Man's nervous system, on the other hand, is more plastic than that of other animals. The human infant is bom with a very unspeeialized instinctive equipment ; it is little more than a bundle of original tendencies modifiable to al- most any degree. It has, however, strong and urgent im- pulses to action. This is a combination that makes for growth. With an original endowment that is general in character, and through the constant demands of specific situations, intelli- gence is developed rapidly and adaptations are made to new conditions, as these present themselves. Because the child starts out with few instinctive modes of behavior definitely determined in advance, his powers may be continually modified and organized through his own specific experiences into the kind of equipment best adapted to advancing his individual needs. In the human infant, then, we have the creature which though seemingly helpless, is really best adapted to develop- ing adequately for a highly complex environment. This point of view puts a high positive value upon childhood; it is a great powerful human resource to be guarded and conserved. John Fiske was the first to make clear the significance of infancy in relation to human supremacy. In the Meaning of Infancy he says: *'What is the mean- ing of the fact that man is born into the world more helpless than any other creature, and needs for a much longer season than any other living thing the tender care and counsel of his elders? It is one of the most familiar of facts that man, alone among animals, exhibits a capacity for progress. That man is widely different from other animals in the length of his adolescence and the utter helplessness of his babyhood, is an equally familiar fact. . . . *'Let us now take a long leap from the highest level of human intelligence to the mental life of a turtle or a codfish. In what does the mental life of such creatures consist ? It consists of a few simple acts mostly concerned with the securing of food and the avoiding of danger, and these few simple acts are repeated with unvarying monotony during the whole lifetime of these creatures. . . . Among slightly teachable mammals, however, there is one group more teach- THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF EDUCATION 21 able than the rest. Monkeys, with their greater power of handling things, have also more inquisitiveness and more capacity for sustained attention than any other mammals; and the higher apes are fertile in varied resources. ... At some remote epoch of the past — we cannot say just when or how — our half-human forefathers reached and passed this critical point, and forthwith their varied struggles began age after age to result in the preservation of bigger and better brains, while the rest of their bodies changed but little. . . . "But this steady increase of intelligence, as our fore- fathers began to become human, carried with it a steady prolongation of infancy. As mental life became more com- plex and various, as the things to be learned kept ever multiplying, less and less could be done before birth, more and more must be left to be done in the earlier years of life. So instead of being born with a few simple capacities thoroughly organized, man came at last to be born with the germs of many complex capacities which were reserved to be unfolded and enhanced or checked and stifled by the incidents of personal experience in each individual. . . . Here at last there had come upon the scene a creature endowed with the capacity for progress, and a new chapter was thus opened in the history of creation." (John Fiske*, TJie Meaning of Infancy y pp. 1-13.*) A full realization of the far-reaching implications of childhood brings with it as a necessary complement an appreciation of the real meaning of play in the life of the child. Child's play is not to be regarded lightly; it is not a relaxation nor a diversion. Nature's purpose in implant- ing the play impulse is a serious one and the child, as any- one can see by watching, applies himself seriously to carry- ing it out. Karl Groos summed up the fundamental bio- logical significance of play in these words: ''Children do not play because they are young; they are young in order that they may play." Play gives exercise to the deep- *By permission Houghton Mifflin Co. Copyright 1883 and 1889 by John Fiske. Copyi-ight 1909 by Houghton Mifflin Co. Copyright 1911 by Abby M. Fiske. ^2 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL seated motor instincts of tlie child. Under the powerful stimulus of the play impulse the child is driven to incessant action ; and thus develops in an experimental way his own methods of making adaptations to the infinitely varying conditions of his life. By this method the crude, general, original endowment of the child is, through endless adapta- tions, converted into a more specialized form more ade- quately suited to his particular needs. Impelled by his eager spontaneous curiosity about his surroundings, follow- ing the leadings of a broad and catholic interest in persons and things, the child is busy laying a wide and secure foundation of first-hand experiences for understanding all phases of his complex environment. He is absorbed in getting through an all round contact with persons and things that wide range of acquaintance with his physical and social environment which will serve as the foundation for the more specialized pursuits of later life. Play enables the child to realize his powers through putting them to a variety of uses. It is no doubt to this fact that the dis- tinguishing characteristics of the play impulse are due — interest in play for its own sake, with a corresponding dis- regard for the product ; the wide range of interest, and the quick shift of attention from one thing to the next ; the incessant demands of curiosity ; the desire to handle things ; the interest in doing the same thing over and over again. READING Chamberlain, A. E. — The Child, a Study in Evolution. Scribner. Chap. I. The Meaning of The Helplessness of In- fancy. Chap. II. The Meaning of Youth and Play. Chap. IV. The Periods of Childhood. Dewey, John. — ^Articles on Infancy and Play. Cyclopaedia of Education. Macmillan. FiSKE, John. — The Meaning of Infancy. Houghton. Groos, Karl. — The Play of Animals. Appleton. Groos, Karl. — The Play of Man. Appleton. THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF EDUCATION 23 Morgan, C. L. — Animal Behaviour. Arnold, London. Chap. IV, Section II. Play. The Social Basis The great distinguishing feature of human adaptation in contrast to that of the animal world is its social character. Sociological considerations have to do with the ways in which natural evolution has been modified in the life of man, and in particular with the modifications brought about about by group life. Life in society is not, of course, entirely confined to man. It is the rule rather than the exception in the animal world. Among the expedients into which the struggle for existence has forced animals, the most effective is that of living together in communities. The animals that can best avail themselves of the advan- tages of association multiply their individual forces and attain a safety that no isolated animal could ever achieve. The non-gregarious animals are therefore gradually out- numbered by those that are social. As we study animal life we perceive that although there is an immense amount of warfare among different species, there is a great deal of mutual support for defence among animals of the same species. This cooperation shows a great variety of forms ranging all the way from the mere gregariousness of ani- mals who temporarily associate themselves into herds and flocks the better to protect themselves against their enemies ; to the highly organized group life of such animals as the ants and bees, who form a highly interdependent and uni- fied community. The conditions of life tend to keep ani- mals of the same species together. Social life of a kind is therefore a direct outcome of the life process. There is a vast difference, however, between the social life of even the most advanced animals and that of the most primitive tribes of men. Among animals group life is developed only so far as it will satisfy animal needs; since their needs are strictly limited, group life is likewise limited and must always remain so. Social relationships among animals living in even a highly organized community are 24 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL upon a strictly physiological basis. Division of labor often brings about changes in structure so that individuals are unable to exist away from the community of which they are part. Such a condition of affairs makes for a static community life ; social evolution under these circumstances is impossible. Human association, on the contrary, is psychical; it is the result of interstimulation and response on the part of relatively independent individual units. Man satisfies his elemental needs through effort, each satis- faction opens up new wants, and new conditions present new problems calling for new and original solutions. Thus are set up two indeterminate, interacting series of develop- ments ; on the one hand increasing wants, and on the other an ever increasing variety of natural resources. In his effort to satisfy his wants the advantages of association and cooperation soon became apparent to primitive man. Thus came into being a psychic interaction that might be called social in the real sense of the word. This psychic inter- stimulation was made possible by the possession of language by which the ideas of one person could be transmitted to another and more effective forms of cooperation continually evolved. When men thus united upon the earth, a new type of functional and structural changes was set in motion ; social evolution became possible. READING Ellwood, C. a. — An Introduction to Social Psychology, Appleton. Chap. II. Organic Evolution and Social Evolu- lution. Chap. III. Human Nature and Human Society. Chaps. IV. and V. The Nature of Social Unity. Chap. IX. Instinct and Intelligence in The Social Life. Ellwood, C. a. — Sociology in Its Psychological Aspects, Appleton. Chap. VII. The Origin of Society. GiDDiNGS, F. H. — The Elements of Sociology, Macmillan. Chap. XX. The Early History of Society. THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF EDUCATION 25 Kropotkin, p. a. — Mutual Aid; A Factor of Evolution, Knopf. McGee, W. J. — TJie Relation of Institutions to Environ- ment. Report of Smithsonian Institution, 1895. Morgan, C. L. — Animal Behaviour, Arnold, London. Chap. V. Social Behaviour. Powell, J. W. — From Barharism to Civilization, American Anthropologist, 1888. The Evolution of Occupations Man's existence, like that of the rest of the organic world, is dependent upon his own exertions. Animals are forced to get their food wherever they can find it, and to pass from one environment to another to obtain it. Primitive man was also a migrating animal, dependent upon what nature had to offer him for support, and obliged to wander to a new environment when he had exhausted the food supply of the previous one. Though early man was inferior to other animals in various physical respects, he possessed a type of psychical equipment which gave him an immediate advantage in the struggle for existence, and was the means by which he gained his supreme position in the organic world. **...! ask you ... go with me to that early day when the first being, worthy to be called man, stood upon this earth. How economical has been his endowment. There is no hair on his body to keep him warm, his jaws are the feeblest in the world, his arm is not equal to that of a gorilla, he cannot fiy like the eagle, he cannot see into the night like the owl, even the hare is fleeter than he. He has no clothing, no shelter. He had no tools, no society or language or arts of pleasure, he had yet no theory of life and poorer conceptions of the life beyond. The road from that condition to our own lies next to the infinite. The one endowment that this creature possessed having in it the promise and potency of all future achievements, was the creative spark called invention.'' (0. T. Mason, Birth of Invention, Smithsonian Institution, 1892, p. 604.) 26 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL The assumption of the erect attitude, and the consequent liberation of the hands for specialized movements, gave primitive man an immediate superiority over all other animals. It not only enabled him to hurl weapons while escaping from his enemies, but to break stones and other loose objects for definite purposes. Animals have only a limited power outside of their own bodies for strengthening themselves in the struggle for existence, but the free use of the hand has had a great reflex upon developing the brain of man, stimulating it to devise ever better methods of satisfying his expanding needs. He began supplement- ing the power of the body with simple tools; he learned to lengthen his arms by means of poles, to make rakes instead of using his hands, hooks instead of fingers, and so on, and gradually evolved for himself a wealth of extra organs from his environment. At first these were mere adaptations of materials half formed by nature — branches of trees, stones, bones of animals, shells, and so on. By these means man gradually learned to exploit his own environment instead of being forced from one place to another in search of food. Instead of seeking a cave or retiring to a more congenial climate, he learned to make his environment serve him. He built houses and warmed them, he dressed in the furs and skins of certain animals and domesticated others, he cultivated plants, and exercised his ingenuity in devising utensils for his home, and implements for the advancement of his domestic life. The fundamental difference between animal industry and that of man lies in the fact that animal industry is ruled by instinct and therefore does not progress from generation to generation, while human industry is governed by in- ventive genius and is therefore capable of indefinite improvement. The human possibility of transmitting ideas by means of language is also another powerful factor in the development of occupations. *'The two outer traits in which the distinction between the minds of animal and of man finds expression are the existence of organized artic- ulate language in man, and the use of utensils of varied application. Both of these are common to the whole of THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF EDUCATION 27 mankind. No tribe has ever been found that does not possess a well organized language ; no community that does not know the use of instruments for breaking, cutting, or drilling, the use of fire and of weapons with which to defend themselves and to obtain the means of living. Although means of communication by sound exist in animals, and although even lower animals seem to have means of bringing about cooperation between different individuals, we do not know of any case of true articulate language from which the student can extract abstract principles of classification of ideas. It may also be that higher apes employ now and then limbs of trees or stones for defence, but the use of complex utensils is not found in any repre- sentative of the animal series. Only in the case of habita- tions do we find an approach to more complex activities, which, however, remain absolutely stable in each species — as we say, instinctive — and bear the evidence of any indi- vidual freedom of use, which constitutes the primary char- acter of human inventions. The origin of the instinctive activities of animals which lead to the construction of com- plex mechanical devices is still a hidden secret; but the relation of the individual of the species to these activities differs from that of man to his inventions in the complete lack of freed,om of control.'' (F. Boas, The Mmd of Primitive Man, pp. 96-97.*) Thus we see as one aspect of the evolution of industry a gradual elaboration of industrial processes and variation in tools from the mere adaptations of bones and stones made by primitive man, to the wonderful specimens of modern machinery, as a result of the inventions made by man, in an effort to satisfy his ever expanding needs. Occupations have progressed from the primitive arts of hunting and fishing to agriculture, mining and manufacturing. The resources of one region have been increased by bringing commodities from places where they are superabundant to places where they are needed. This development of occu- pations has taken place in a haphazard way in accordance with the predominating needs of the time. **Now the *By permission The Macmillan Co. Copyright 1911, 28 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL exploitation takes the form of discovering the species of plants that will respond most readily to man*s care; again, it is a search for earth's hidden secrets; at one time it is an attempt to find the most favorable routes of travel or the most advantageous sites for trade; at another it is a search for the choicest soils which can be made subject to man's needs by the use of new instruments and the means of maintaining collective activity. It may be a search in the sky for the means of determining the approach of a new season or a means of guiding the traveler at sea ; perhaps it is a series of experiments with new materials in order to bring about desirable features accidentally revealed; and sometimes it is an attempt to discover different forms of motive power or the means of applying the same." (K. E. Dopp, The Place of Industries in Elementary Education, pp. 66-67.) In the early days every family was its own ** butcher, baker, and candlestick maker." Every household had to meet all the economic requirements of its members with its own labor. Often a single individual carried on the whole round of activities from the search for the raw materials to the use of the finished product. This situation in which the whole burden of the processes from production to con- sumption fell upon one person, was rich in opportunities for the exercise of inventive ingenuity. It demanded intelligence and versatility, and dexterity in execution. Moreover the connection between production and use was obvious, and the value of labor estimated accordingly. The whole set of processes from production to consumption received its impulse and direction from the needs of the consumers. Occupations, in short, had a highly functional character. The advantages of cooperation and the division of labor according to natural aptitudes soon, however, made themselves manifest, and combined action in hunting, fishing, and for defence early became the rule. With the advance of social life in complesity, labor became more and more specialized. Each successive specialization, though it tended to weaken the pleasurable emotional reflex resulting from the close union of production and consumption, gave THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF EDUCATION 29 increased efficiency in production, and was therefore en- couraged. The progress of civilization with its consequent increasing complexity of the industrial processes is marked by a greater and greater distance between the producer and the consumer, and therefore by a greater disassociation of wholesome emotional reflexes from labor. The matter has been further complicated by the institution of slavery. In the days of slavery labor was compulsory. It became distaste- ful to the master class because of its association with an inferior class. It was irksome to the slave because the problem was external to his own interests and needs. He was no longer free to choose the conditions under which he worked. Labor which was originally a free expression of the whole of society became the forced expression of cer- tain members. Succeeding stages of culture have tended to perpetuate the distinction between classes, and in the course of time society has come to be sharply diiSferentiated into two great social classes: a wealthy leisure class, who, though they may engage in a variety of pursuits, choose those which are non-industrial, and the ''lower'* class, the indus- trial workers, who carry on the work of the world at the command of the wealthy. READING BxJCHER, C. — Industrial Evolution, Holt. Chap. I. Primitive Economic Conditions. Chap. II. The Economic Life of Primitive People. Dopp, K. E. — The Place of Industries in Education, Uni- versity of Chicago Press. Chap. II. Significance of Industrial Epochs. Herbertson, a. J. and F. D. — Man and His Work, Mac- millan. Chap. VIII. Agriculture. Chap. IX. Rise of the Arts. Chap. X. Rise of Manufactures. Chap. XI. Trade and Transport. Mason, 0. T. — The Birth of Invention^ Report of Smith- sonian Institution, 1892. 80 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL Powell, J. W. — Technology, or tJie Science of Industries, American Anthropologist, 1899. Thomas, W. I. — Source Book for Social Origins, University of Chicago Press. Part III. Invention and Technology. Veblen, T. — The Theory of the Leisure Class, Huebsch. Chap. I. Introductory. Chap. II. Pecuniary Emulation. Chap. III. Conspicuous Leisure. Chap. IV. Conspicuous Consumption. Chap. V. The Pecuniary Standard of Living. The Influence of Environment upon the Development of Social Life Man, like all organic life, is, as we have seen, dependent upon his environment for his means of subsistence. All material progress depends upon the interaction of man and his environment. "Every clan, tribe, state or nation in- cludes two ideas, a people and its land, the first unthink- able without the other. ... A land is fully comprehended only when studied in the light of its influence upon its people and a people cannot be fully understood apart from the field of its activities. More than this, human activities are fully intelligible only in relation to the various geographic con- ditions which have stimulated them in different parts of the world. . . . the modern society or state has grown into every foot of its own soil, exploited its every geographic advantage, utilized its geographic location to enrich itself by international trade, and when possible, to absorb out- lying territories by means of colonies. The broader this geographic base, the richer, the more varied its resources, and the more favorable its climate to their exploitation, the more numerous and complex are the connections which the members of the social group can establish with it, and through it with each other ; or in other words, the greater may be its ultimate historical significance. (E. C. Semple, Influences of Geographic Environment^ pp. 51-53.*) By *By permission Henry Holt & Co. Copyright 1911. THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF EDUCATION 81 virtue of his higher intelligence man alone among animals has the power to react upon his environment in a way to render it more beneficial to himself. Primitive man was very dependent upon his physical environment ; he was able to form only a few and intermittent relations with any one place, and was therefore forced to be a wanderer ; his social organization was, as a consequence, weak and loosely held together. Environmental conditions have given direction to the economic instincts of man and thus have indirectly affected social life. Social life began in regions where raw materials abounded and where food and shelter could be obtained through a medium amount of exertion. By his ^ inventive genius, expressed in his industrial development, however, man has steadily advanced from subjection to his ' physical environment to control of it. He has decided to what environment he wished to be subjected, and then deliberately sought to create such an environment. ''The relation of geographical conditions to national growth changes, and with the upward progress of humanity the ways in which Nature moulds the fortunes of man are always varying. Man must in every stage be for many purposes dependent upon the circumstances of his physical environment. Yet the character of that dependence changes with his advance in civilization. At first he is helpless, and, therefore passive. With what nature gives in the way of food, clothing, and lodging he must be content. She is strong, he is weak; so she dictates his whole mode of life. Presently, always by slow degrees, but most quickly in those countries where she neither gives lavishly nor yet presses on him with a discouraging severity, he begins to learn how to make her obey him, drawing from her stores materials which his skill handles in such wise as to make him more and more independent of her. He defies the rigors of climate ; he overcomes the obstacles which mountains, rivers, and forests place in the way of communications; he dis- covers the secrets of the physical forces and makes them his servants in the work of production. /But the very multi- plication of the means at his disposal ior profiting by what Nature supplies brings him into ever closer and more com- 32 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL pi ex relations with her. The variety of her resources, dif- fering in different regions, prescribes the kind of industry for which each spot is fitted; . . . Thus certain physical conditions, whether of soil or of climate, of accessibility or inaccessibility, or perhaps of such available natural forces as water power, conditions of supreme importance in the earlier stages of man 's progress, are now of less relative moment, while others, formerly of small account, have received their full significance by our swiftly advancing knowledge of the secrets of Nature and mastery of her forces. (J. Bryce, The American Commonwealth, Vol. 2, p. 450.*) Although physical environment influences social life, it does not determine human development. Every invention that is made alters in some degree the existing social environment; with every step of human progress, economic and social forces come to play a more and more imx>ortaut part. READING GooDE, J. p. — The Human Response to the Physical En- vironment, Journal of Geography, September, 1904. Herbertson, a. J. and F. D. — Man and His Workf Mac- millan. Introduction and first six chapters. Semple, E. C. — Influences of Geographic Environment, Holt. Thomas, W. I. — Source Book for Social Origins, University of Chicago Press. Part L The Relation of Society to Geographic and Economic Environment. The Relation of Occupations to the Development of Social Life The foregoing discussion has indicated the relationship between occupations and the development of civilization. Industry of one kind or another has been a dominant force *By permission The Maemillan Co. Copyright 1893 by Macmillan & Co. Copyi-ight 1910, 1914 by The Macmillan Co. THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF EDUCATION 33 in the upbuilding and maintaining of social structures. **The activities of life are of necessity directed to bringing the materials and forces of nature under the control of our purposes; of making them tributary to ends of life. Men have had to work in order to live. In and through their work they have mastered nature, they have protected and enriched the conditions of their own life, they have been awakened to the sense of their own powers — they have been led to invent, to plan, and to rejoice in the acquisition of skill. In a rough way, all occupations may be classified as gathering about man^s fundamental relations to the world in which he lives, through getting food to maintain life; securing clothing and shelter to protect and ornament it, and thus, finally, to provide a permanent home in which all the higher and more spiritual interests may center." (John Dewey, Tlie School and Society, pp. 135-136.) Eco- nomic facts are thus seen to constitute the sub-structure of society which conditions its very existence. Economic con- ditions have always controlled social conditions. So long as man could satisfy his needs without the help of his fel- lows, isolated production was the rule ; but as the economic struggle became more severe utilitarian motives led to co- operation. Economic necessity thus determined the original forms of social life out of which higher forms were grad- ually developed. The important factor in social change is therefore the economic factor. Economic considerations deal with only one class of human wants, and there are many other classes of social wants connected with the devel- opment of a state to any degree of social advancement; but in general social relations between people have been largely determined by economic considerations. *'The existence of man depends upon his ability to sustain himself; the economic life is therefore the fundamental condition of all life. ... To economic causes, therefore, must be traced in last instance those transformations in the structure of society which themselves condition the relations of social classes and the various manifestations of social life." (E. R. A. Seligman, The Economic Interpretation of His- tory, p. 3.) 34 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL The economic and industrial aspects of society show ^'the great advances in civilization that have come through those manifestations of intelligence which have lifted man from his precarious subjection to nature, and revealed to him how he may make its forces cooperate with his own pur- poses.'' We see therefore that ''The industrial history of man is not a materialistic or merely utilitarian affair. It is a matter of intelligence. Its record is the record of how man learned to think, to think to some effect, to transform the conditions of life so that life itself became a different thing. It is an ethical record as well; the account of the conditions which men have patiently wrought out to serve their ends.'* (John Dewey, The School and Society, pp. 156-157.) READING Dopp, K. E. — The Relation of History and Industry, Ele- mentary School Teacher, March, 1904. GiDDiNGS, F. H. — The Economic Significance of Culture, Political Science Quarterly, September, 1903. Herbertson, a. J. and F. D. — Man and His Work, Mac- millan. Chap. yil. The Influence of Occupation on the Mode of Life. Seligman, E. R. a. — The Economic Interpretation of His- tory, Columbia University Press. The Relation of Art and Science to Occupations Art has always been an important factor in community life and in determining progress. Grosse in his Begin- nings of Art, says: "There is no people without art . . . even the rudest and most miserable tribes devote a large part of their time and strength to art — art, which is looked down upon and treated by civilized nations, from the height of their practical and scientific achievements, more and more as idle play. And yet it seems wholly inconceivable, from the point of view of modern science, that a function to which so great a mass of energy is applied should be of no THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF EDUCATION 35 consequence in the maintenance and the development of the social organism; for if the energy which man devotes to aesthetic creation and enjoyments were lost in the earnest and essential tasks of life, if art were indeed only idle play, then natural selection should have long ago rejected the peoples which wasted their force in so purposeless a way, in favour of other peoples of practical talents ; and art could not possibly have been developed so highly and richly as it has been . . . the differences between primitive and higher art forms appear to be more of a quantitative than a qualitative sort. The emotions represented in primitive art are narrow and rude, its materials are scanty, its forms are poor and coarse, but in its essential motives, means and aims the art of the earliest times is one with the art of all times . . . the most efficient and most beneficent effect which art exercises over the life of the people consists in the strengthening and extension of the social bonds to which it contributes. ... As science enriches and elevates our intellectual life, so art enriches and elevates our emotional life. Art and science are the two most powerful means for the education of the human race. Thus art is no idle play, but an indispensable social function, one of the most effi- cient weapons in the struggle for existence; ... A con- sciousness of the importance of art to social welfare, has moreover, existed in man in all ages. . . . "We have the right to demand of art that it work in the direction of a social purpose.'' (E. Grosse, The Beginnings of Art, pp. 307-315.*) We must not lose sight of the vital relationship between art and ordinary occupations in the history of the race. Industry has had a powerful influence in developing arts of all kinds. The industry and inventive genius of early man was rewarded by leisure which gave opportunity for expres- sion to the stores of energy released. *'It is in such periods as these that we find activities similar in kind to those per- formed at other times, but different in their end. Free from the conditions imposed by the real hunt, the savage plays he is hunting, and we have the beginning of the *By permission D. Appleton & Co. Copyright 1897. 36 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL dance. ... At other times man may expend his surplus energy in the search for bright and shining objects, which he may pierce and string, and we. have the beginning of dress and decoration ; or he may trace in the sand, or on the walls of his cave, or on the bones of animals he has slain, mere lines at haphazard, until by a happy coordination he pro- duces a semblance to some familiar form, and we have the beginning of drawing. It would be easy to multiply instances of this kind ; but these are sufficient to illustrate the fact that the beginnings of art depend upon leisure and an accumulation of energy, and that the art instinct, which is bound up at first with the workmanship instinct, becomes free only as less strenuous conditions of life afford room for its manifestation." (K. E. Dopp, The Place of Industries in Education^ pp. 24-25.*) In the early days of art development no sharp line divided the fine from the useful arts. Use and beauty were regarded as one; their separation has been brought about largely by commercial production. Any useful object — a piece of pottery, a bit of weaving, a basket, an implement for hunting — took on an art value when the maker sought to objectify by means of it his own personal thoughts and feelings. ** Everybody who has not a purely literary view of the subject recognizes that genuine art grows out of the work of the artisan. The art of the Renaissance was great because it grew out of the manual arts of life. It did not spring up in a separate atmosphere, however ideal, but carried on to their spiritual meaning processes found in homely and everyday forms of life. . . . The merely artisan side is narrow, but the mere art, taken by itself, and grafted on from without, tends to become forced, empty, senti- mental. . . . All art involves physical organs — the eye and hand, the ear and voice; and yet it is something more than the mere technical skill required by the organs of expression. It involves an idea, a thought, a spiritual rendering of things ; and yet it is other than any number of ideas by themselves. It is a living union of thought and the *By permission University of Chicago Press. Copyright 1902 by The University of Chicago. THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF EDUCATION 37 instrument of expression." (John Dewey, The School and Society, pp. 77-78.*) Science and occupations are also organically interrelated. *'The history of culture shows that mankind's scientific knowledge and technical abilities have developed, especially in all their earlier stages, out of the fundamental problems of life. Anatomy and physiology grew out of the practical needs of keeping healthy and active; geometry and me- chanics out of demands for measuring land, for building, and for making labor-saving machines ; astronomy has been closely connected with navigation, keeping record of the passage of time; botany grew out of the requirements of medicine and agronomy ; chemistry has been associated with dyeing, metallurgy, and other industrial pursuits. In turn, modern industry is almost wholly a matter of applied science; year by year the domain of routine and crude empiricism is narrowed by the translation of scientific dis- covery into industrial invention. The trolley, the telephone, the electric light, the steam engine, with all their revolution- ary consequences for social intercourse and control, are the fruits of science." (John Dewey, How We Think, pp. 167- 168.) Every advance in industry depends upon the suc- cessful application of a scientific formula, and makes clear new needs, giving rise to new scientific discoveries. The scientist wrests from nature the secret of her forces; the artisan utilizes the knowledge thus gained, and moulds it into forms of use and beauty better adapted to the needs of human life. Thus related science, art, and industry have become a fundamental motive force of social advancement. **What is science? We are too apt to think of it merely as something ponderous, kept in equally ponderous books. But it is much truer to think of it not as lifeless printed material, but as something living in the mind and influ- encing one's work. For science is born anew in the delib- erate will and intention of each of us when we succeed in thinking about the principles of our work in a clear, logical, *By permission University of Chicago Press. Copyright 1900 by The University of Chicago. Copyright 1900 and 1915 by John Dewey. 88 THE CHn.D AND HIS SCHOOL and systematic way, and courageously put our conclusions to the test of experiment ; and the so-called sciences are the written records of such thinking, only more extensive, clear, systematic and consistent, and more true to reality because they have been tested by countless experiments and experi- ences in the race ... all theory, all knowledge, all the broad groups of sciences, originally sprang from the experience gathered by man from one or other of his numerous occupa- tions. Thinking has arisen from doing ; thought from action. Do not imagine that science floats, as it were, in the clouds, serenely isolated from the hum and bustle and occupations of the busy world, and developing in some mysterious manner of its own. The more vividly you realize this great truth, that science ultimately sprang, and is continually springing, from the desires and efforts of men to increase their skill in their occupations by understanding the eternal principles that underlie all dealing of man with Nature and of man with his fellow-men (that is, the manual and mental occupations, industry, trade, the professions, and so on), the more vividly will you see the deep importance of science to all occupations. You will then recognize the other side of the relation; for every action there is always a reaction. If science ultimately has sprung from, and is continually spring- ing anew from, occupations science has repaid the debt both by rendering those who follow her teaching more skilled in their occupations and by actually giving rise by her discoveries to absolutely new types of occupations. One of the great conditions of human progress is this unceasing reciprocal relationship between occupation and science, each constantly producing and being produced by the other.** (B. Branford, Science and Occupation, London Journal of Education, June, 1904, p. 435.*) *By permission of Mr. B. Branford and the London Journal of Education and School World. Copyright 1906. THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF EDUCATION S9 READING Branford, B. — Science and Occupation, London Journal of Education, June, 1904. Grosse, E. — The Beginnings of Arty Appleton. Herbertson, A. J. and F. D. — Man and His Work, Mae- millan. Chap. IX. Rise of the Arts. The Evolution of the Scientific Method of Thinking Because of his peculiar psychological make-up, man was early led to methods of investigation and experimentation in order to solve the environmental situation. The mental characteristic which distinguishes man from the lower ani- mals is his ability to analyze his experience, to separate successful elements from unsuccessful, and to apply the valuable results to new situations as they arise. An animal has, compared with man, little ability to profit by past experience, little ability to learn. Even primitive man constantly made use of trial by experiment and reasoning by analysis. His limitations were largely due to the fact that through the narrow range of his experience he had few facts to reckon with. He early began reasoning from his observations and evolving theories of the nature of things, which, though crude, were intelligent generalizations of experience. In the course of his inquiries he not only accumulated valuable stores of knowledge, but learned more and more successful and economic methods of obtaining his facts and of testing their validity. Through experience he learned how to learn. Had man not had this power, knowl- edge would have been nothing more than a memory of past incidents, and would have given us no clue to the solution of present problems, or power to predict the future. The possibility of progress under such conditions is highly problematical. The earliest use of experience as a guide to action was probably not very conscious. At first events were thought of as individual, but gradually by the repeated association 40 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL of certain events with certain others, the sequence was seen to be not the result of a happy chance, but was observed to be constant. Certain results were seen to flow inevitably from certain antecedent conditions. When it was observed that a certain order of events had been uniform in the past, it was natural to infer that they would remain uniform in the future, and it was possible to regulate his conduct accordingly. Thus through the power of prediction man was able to adjust his actions to future events, to meet new situations successfully, and continuity in conduct was thereby established. This technique of thinking which has been gradually refined and brought under control by man, finds its highest expression in the method of the scientist. Scientific method, associated as it is in our minds with a particular technique of thinking achieved only by special- ists under unusual circumstances, working with peculiar apparatus, is thus seen to be not different in kind, but only in degree from the thinking of the ordinary person. Scien- tific thinking is not synonymous with thinking about sci- ence; such thinking has often been unscientific enough. On the contrary, it is an attitude of mind and a skill that may be employed on any kind of subject-matter. It might be looked upon as thinking that has become unusually con- scious of itself and skilled in modes of arriving at conclu- sions. It is distinguished from ordinary thinking by exact- ness and by exhaustiveness of treatment. The transition from the ordinary to the scientific attitude of mind is made when one ceases to take things for granted and assumes instead a disposition to test opinions by inquiring into facts. The person who, through a process of comparing, inferring, and testing sees the relationships between facts, is using scientific method. It is the want of impersonal judg- ment, and of the accurate assessment of evidence which renders clear thinking so rare, and random and irrespon- sible judgments so common. The scientific attitude is the dynamic attitude; it regards facts as hypotheses to be dis- carded as soon as further experience proves them to be untenable. It is only by this process that man has been able to extend his control over the forces of nature. It is THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF EDUCATION 41 only through the process of continually replacing one for- mula by another of wider significance that we can under- stand the real nature of the universe. The field of science is unlimited. It is only when every phenomena has been examined and classified that the mission of science will be completed. It can never end until man ceases to be, until development ceases. EEADING Dewey, John. — Eow We TJiink, Heath. Chap. I. What is Thought? Chap. VI. The Analysis of a Complete Act of Thought. Chap. VII. Systematic Inference. Chap. VIII. Judgment. Chap. IX. Meaning. Chap. X. Concrete and Abstract Thinking. Chap. XI. Empirical and Scientific Thinking. Thomson, J. A. — An Introduction to Science, Holt. Chap. III. Scientific Method. The Evolution of Knowledge The fundamental sources of movement in society are to be discovered in the primary needs of mankind. They initiate the adjustments to be made between man and nature. Primitive man, in common with all other living organisms, was continually forced into vital relations with his physical environment, and such was the characteristic of his responses to the situations that arose that, from the first, he made attempts to modify and utilize the materials and forces of nature for the maintenance of his life processes. He also began to ponder over the significance of his experiences. Through his attempts to understand his experience and to find out what forces have made the world of experience what it is, he gradually accumulated a stock of useful information about the world in which he lived. The occupations on which he was dependent for life stim- ulated his quest of knowledge of nature, and each advance 42 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL in occupation yielded something to his general store of information. From personal experience he soon grew to have quite a respectable fund of common-sense, everyday knowledge. ''He had gained this knowledge under the impulse of his need of food, protection, shelter, and clothing. He was familiar with the habits of all the wild animals of his locality, and with most of the useful and poisonous plants. He was familiar with the topography of the various regions in which he lived and with the special advantages afforded by each. He knew the signs of the weather and the relation of the changing position of some of the heav- enly bodies to coming changes in his own activities. He had learned the limitations and the possibilities of the raw materials with which he worked, how to select the best materials for his weapons, implements, and utensils, and how to manufacture and manipulate the same.'* (K. E. Dopp, TJie Place of Industries in Education, pp. 30-31.) Man at even this early stage had made some prog- ress in the arts and sciences. "In a rude way he was a physicist in making a fire, a chemist in cooking, a surgeon in binding wounds, a geographer in knowing his rivers and mountains, a mathematician in counting on his fingers.'* However, the vast complex of physical phenomena by which he was surrounded, the evidences of power in the universe, still impressed him with wonder and terror. On the fringes of his matter-of-fact knowledge there gathered a rich cosmological lore, highly dramatic in character, in the form of myth or legend, in which the various forces of nature as yet unaccounted for in work-a-day experience were personified. Many of the primitive rites and ceremonies have to do with this mythical belief, in which thank offer- ings were made to spirits that were benign, and sacrifices to those that were hostile. These are the two original springs from which the stream of knowledge has flowed through the centuries. The possession of articulate language by human beings is supremely important, enabling the knowledge of each individual to become the property of the community. Without a ready means of communication the myriad units THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF EDUCATION 43 who perform their individual tasks would be unable to coordinate their experiences for the common good, and what was discovered by one generation could not be handed on to the next. Knowledge gained by oral language is re- stricted and unreliable; where it alone is achieved by a social group its transmission is dependent upon personal communication and the validity of memory. When with the invention of written symbols, oral tradition gave way to written records, "the funded capital of civilization'* accumulated at a much greater rate, and its transmission to the next generation was the more adequately secured. This possibility of a gradually accumulating store of knowl- edge by which the experiences of one generation may be contributed to the next is a condition fundamental to social evolution. It constitutes one of the essential superiorities of man over every other animal species. The knowledge possessed by other animals is instinctive, it is not gained through personal experience, and it does not progress from age to age. Man is the only animal with a social tradition. Except for the transmission of knowledge, the work of the past would have had to be done anew by each generation, and man could not have progressed far beyond the satisfac- tion of his elemental needs. The stage of savagery, there- fore, would have been his permanent social status. For a long time the knowledge gained by early man remained a chaotic mass of isolated facts, gained as the result of many separate experiences with the apparently discrete phenomena of nature, and without apparent order or connection. Gradually, however, with increasing experi- ence, and his ability to analyze his experiences, to note similarities and differences, man was able to make certain deductions as appropriate explanations of his experiences, and this mass of information, formerly haphazard and chaotic, gradually assumed a primitive kind of organiza- tion. Particular concrete phenomena were seen to be part of a great orderly relationship. Similar facts were related into a general category ; dissimilar facts were separated and combined with those with which they were related. In the evolution of knowledge we see the continuous struggle of 44 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL the human mind to reach a more comprehensive and exact formulation of experiences. By more and more methodical examination and systematic inquiry into the character- istics of phenomena, common sense and empirical knowl- edge have gradually given way to purposeful investigation in which facts have been condensed into general laws and the whole organized according to the best knowledge of the time. Men study a range of facts, they classify and ana- lyze, they discover relationships and sequences and then they describe in the simplest formula possible the widest range of related phenomena. It is in this way, by a process of accretion and elimination that the body of verified knowledge which the human race has accumulated in its long history has been slowly and gradually built up out of experience and organized according to prevailing ideas. The outer margins of knowledge at any given time are thus seen to be the scientific knowledge of the time. As knowl- edge has accumulated, the frontiers of tested knowledge have been steadily extended through the addition of new truths around their natural centers of attraction. Every generalization has been replaced by a broader hypothesis. On the fringes of this body of knowledge has always dwelt a mixture of truth and speculation — dogmas, myths, super- stitions — all those forms of belief which have not yet been subjected to verification in experience, but which none the less exert a potent influence on the minds of the people. Each successive century has put under inquiry such matters as lay within the range of its particular interests, and has modified the classifications of the preceding age. The con- tent of science has thus continuously increased with every increase in man's positive knowledge, and the amount of unverified knowledge has been steadily reduced. If we survey the whole gamut of knowledge we realize that there is implicit in every subject a possible science of the subject, which consists of the organized principles of the field of knowledge represented by that subject, the body of laws and principles which govern that particular set of facts. By the evolution of knowledge from its primitive form to its final form in the sciences, the world of experience is seen THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF EDUCATION 45 to be governed by universal laws, and what was originally thought by primitive man to be a chaos, is now found to be a cosmos. This, then, is the general nature of the process by which knowledge has been accumulated by the human race. The important fact to remember is that it is the outcome of the workings of the human mind upon the problems funda- mental to sustaining life. Humanity has not accumulated all this vast mass of communicable experience which we call science, without the constant and powerful stimulus of needing that knowledge, either directly or indirectly, for the more efficient pursuit of various occupations, READING Dewey, John. — Democracy and Education, Macmillan. Chap. XXV. Theories of Knowledge. Dewey, John. — Article on Knowledge, Cyclopedia of Edu- cation. Macmillan. Ellwood, C. a. — An Introduction to Social Psychology, Appleton. Chap. VI. The Nature of Social Continuity. Pearson, K. — The Grammar of Science, Scott, London. Chap. I. Introductory — The Scope and Method of Science. Thomson, J. A. — Introduction to Science, Holt. Tylor, E. B. — Anthropology, Appleton. Chap, XIII. Science. The Evolution of Organs of Social Regulation The life of man in society, like that of other organic species, is a struggle for existence, but it differs from that of animal societies in being a psychical process in which man consciously aims to produce social structures, by means of which the benefits of association may be the more effectively realized. Society carries on its life under the influence of psychical forces brought about by the interac- tion of minds. In a group of relatively free individuals with a ready means of communication, there is a free and 46 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL rapid interchange of psychical impulses. In the give and take of social life mental states are modified. Participation in common experiences tends to produce identical feelings and closely resembling ideas. The social process is there- fore a process of assimilation, a process of integrating the ideas and attitudes of the members of a group into an organic whole. The cultural scheme of a community is a composite of the thoughts and beliefs of the constituents, and is represented by its institutions. Solutions to prob- lems worked out by one generation are preserved for the benefit of the next by means of institutions. They become the channels by which the accumulated experience of gen- erations is continuously passed on, thus giving continuity to society and preserving racial achievements. Institutions by their very nature, however, tend to remain fixed; they are the products of past circumstances, while society lives in a rapidly changing environment produced by a multi- tude of factors interacting upon one another. Hence no set of institutions entirely applies to a present situation; they are in need of constant modification. Social progress comes about through successive changes in the social tradition as represented by institutions, but these changes do not occur until the need of change is felt by a sufficient number of the '■'members of a community. "When this point is reached there is a revaluation and revision of the traditional rules govern- ing social relationships. Now the two great sources of influence upon the minds of the members of a community motivating social action, are the point of view arrived at as the result of present experience with the environmental situation, and that which comes from the accumulated ex- periences of past generations as handed down by institu- tions. The various constituents of a community are affected in different proportions by these two great classes of influ- ence. The portion of the community most exposed by economic causes to the pressure of changes in the environ- ment seek to make changes in institutions to better their condition; any portion of the community habitually re- lieved from economic pressure so that it does not personally experience the effects of changes in the environment wiU THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF EDUCATION 47 not so quickly see the necessity for changes in institutions. They become the conservative class, traditionally minded, which acts as a check upon social transformation. Between these two extremes lie all possible gradations. Social progress is thus seen to be an evolutionary process, but it IS a process in which the intelligence and will of men must enter. Progress cannot be taken for granted; it is the result of forethought, of the conscious regulation of social affairs. Since society in the past has not been par- ticularly conscious of its own processes, social regulation has followed a more or less blind haphazard course in which inertia has played an important part. Discrepancies be- tween economic demands and the means of meeting them have been allowed to increase until serious maladjustments have resulted, and a more adequate social organization has been secured only after violent social upheavals. Although living within an association, few people have comprehended its nature, and as a result society has been overtaken by changes; it has not understood the means by which social changes might be consciously guided. It is evident that for the proper development of social adaptation, some form of social technique must be worked out by means of which institutions can convey to each generation the benefits of past experience, and yet remain flexible instruments com- petent to shape progress. This state of affairs can be brought about only when the scientific attitude is assumed in relation to the problems of society. To look ahead, to modify the present with reference to the future, is a pre- requisite of an intelligently progressive society. It is only when social life reaches the point where it consciously con- trols the conditions of its life that rational social advance- ment is assured. READING Elwood, C. a. — Introduction to Social Psychology, Apple- ton. Chap. VII. Social Change under Normal Condi- tions. 48 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL Chap. VIII. Social Change under Abnormal Con- ditions. Chap. XII. Social Order. Veblen, T. — The Theory of the Leisure ClasSy Huebsch. Chap. VIII. Industrial Exemption and Conserv- atism. The Present Social Situation The story of civilization is the story of social relation- ships; it is the story of man's efforts to create more and more effective forms of group life, and to establish agencies by means of which social adaptation may the more effec- tually operate. During the last century the cumulative effect of the principal forces that have been moulding the modern world have found expression in three inter-related forms: science, industry, and democracy. The latter half of the eighteenth century and the first quarter of the nineteenth century were periods of great scientific activity. As a result of the vast increase in scientific knowledge and its application to industry, making it possible to utilize natural forces for large scale pro- duction, a new industrial era has been inaugurated. Through the centralization of capital, the unit of produc- tion has been changed from the family to a compact unit of hundreds of workers, brought together in an especially adapted establishment, provided with the most extensive mechanical equipment. The process of production is ana- lyzed and subdivided into the greatest possible number of parts, and workmen of varying ability are set to work on the different parts simultaneously. This plan of combining workers effects an enormous increase in the output over that which could be produced by the same number of independ- ent workers, since each worker, confined entirely to one job, develops great skill and dexterity in it. As a result we have developed in factory production a highly specialized routine labor adjusted to machinery. The complexity of the processes has necessitated the closest study of technical problems and of conditions making for economy and effi- ciency of production. THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF EDUCATION 49 The very perfection of tlie mechanism of production now threatens, however, to become a menace, since it disregards the human factor involved. Machines were invented as a means whereby human beings might the more effectively satisfy their needs. In modern machine production the relation of means to ends in the relation of the workman to his machine has been entirely reversed. Instead of the worker using his machine for the realization of his own purposes, the machine now completely dominates the operator, tending to make of him a mere appendage which the ingenuity of an inventor has not yet succeeded in devis- ing. *'The logical development of factory organization has been the complete coordination of ^ all factors which are auxiliary to mechanical power and devices. The most im- portant auxiliary factor is human labor. A worker is a per- fected factory attachment as he surrenders himself to the time and the rhythm of the machine and its functioning ; as he supplements without loss whatever human faculties the machine lacks, whatever imperfection hampers the ma- chine in the satisfaction of its needs. If it lacks eyes, he sees for it; he walks for it, if it is without legs; and he pulls, drags, lifts, if it needs arms. All of these things are done by the factory worker at the pace set by the machine and under its direction and command. A worker's indulgence in his personal desires or impulses hinders the machine and lowers his attachment value. This division of the workers into eyes, arms, fingers, legs, the plucking out of some one of his faculties and discarding the rest of the man as valueless has seemed to be an organic requirement of machine evolution." (H. Marot, Creative Impulse in Industry, pp. 4^5.*) The discovery through scientific management that the principles of efficiency which were formerly thought applicable only to the mechanical phases of production might likewise be employed to regulate the energy supplied by the worker, has been the last link in the chain firmly riveting the operator to his machine. The whole motive force to activity is now seen to have passed from human beings into machinery. The complete prostra- *By permission E. P. Button & Co. Copyright 1918. 50 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL tion of the instinct of workmanship under these circum- stances is inevitable. The demands of labor unions are symptomatic. Human beings resist being made into machines, and the constant demand for shorter hours indicates the desire of the workers to escape from work which is disintegrating to personality. The workmen have combined against the employer to gain the freedom which they see steadily being taken away from them. Since they think themselves the inevitable victims of a machine age, their only chance for individual develop- ment seems to lie outside of their work. It has been found in innumerable instances, however, that increase in wages and the shortening of hours in no way solves the problem. The difficulty is far more fundamental in character. In the process of industrial evolution the factor which in the past has made of industry a great liberating force for the release of human values, has been cut off from it. Until we can in some way restore this factor so that it is again made tributary to industry, we can never hope for a solution to this great social problem. The present industrial organiza- tion does not offer to the worker the motive for work. What is the motive to industry? How far are the motives upon which industry has advanced in the past still operative? These are the fundamental questions which must be answered. The great advances in industry have been made through the application of scientific inventions to mechanical processes. In the modem system of production with its rigid application of the principle of division of labor, science and industry have become divorced. Specialists in laboratories work out the needed formulas. These pass through several departments and finally reach their appli- cation in the joint output of the workers. The present regime shuts off inquiry on the part of the workman into the processes upon which he is engaged. He has no oppor- tunity to accumulate valuable experiences from his labor and becomes a mere automaton in the performance of the day's work. As a result his work has no meaning to him; he sees in it no relation to his own needs and purposes. No THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF EDUCATION 51 satisfactory solution can be found to the industrial problem until the union of science and industry is again made operative in the personality of the artisan. We must restore to the workers a consciousness of the scientific im- plications of the processes upon which they are engaged. The laws of the physical sciences are statements of certain combinations of conditions. Scientific application consists in the creation by means of human invention of a set of conditions which do not occur simultaneously in nature. Efficient production will result only when the workers are made participators in the creation of new conditions that make possible new applications of science. It is only when the worker is allowed to become a conscious director of the natural forces with which he is dealing that the will to work is fostered; any other environment offers no in- centive to increased effort. If through giving the oppor- tunity to the workers for personal initiative in investigation and experimentation, the scientific values can be restored to industry, it will again resume its place as a fundamental motive force for the advancement of the human race. The question is how to bring about the necessary changes in the present complex state of the industrial arts. The prob- lem for those engaged in the conduct of industry consists in creating conditions by means of which this ideal may become effective in operation; the problem for those con- cerned with education consists in forwarding a type of education which, among other things, will develop a funda- mental concept of industry in its relation to the advance- ment of social life. In other words, we must introduce education into industry, and industry into education. The advance of science and industry during the last century has been accompanied politically by an advance in democratic control. The spread of democratic ideals and institutions, the dominant feature of contemporary life, is not a characteristic isolated from its scientific and industrial tendencies but rather a recognition of their social significance. Democracy signifies a flexible form of social organization resting upon the will of the mass of the people and responsive to changes in their purposes. Political 52 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL democracy dependent as it is upon a free movement of ex- periences and ideas can be nothing more than a mere term unless the people composing it are accustomed to a type of life-developing power related to responsibility. Since the modern world is an industrial world, it must remain a huge mechanism leaving the major portion of life unemancipated, unless industry is animated by the social spirit implicit in the democratic ideal. Beneath the mutual distrust of employer and workers lies a great fundamental problem as yet unsolved. The wage system is a system of industrial serfdom. Production is not for use but for profit. The worker sells his labor for a fixed price ; he has no rights in the product, he has no control over the conditions under which he works. It is evident that some form of reorganiza- tion is imperative for social welfare. As has been truly said in another connection, a nation cannot exist half slave and half free. We cannot expect the type of mind that has become inured to the benumbing effects of automatic labor for several hours each day, to express itself in its hours of release in any useful or satisfying form. It is impossible to retrace the steps of evolution and return to an earlier, simpler, industrial regime in which the workman is his own master. "We must find new values in the present industrial techniques. The only way that whole- some emotional reflexes can be restored to industry as it is now constituted is to take advantage of the opportunities resident in it for associated effort. The workers' sense of personal use must give way to a conception of social use. * ' It happens that in machine production and in the division of labor there are emotional and intellectual possibilities which were non-existent in the earlier and simpler methods of pro- duction. As power latent in inorganic matter has been freed and applied to common needs, an environment has been evolved, filled with situations incomparably more dramatic than the provincial affairs of detached people and communi- ties. Although this technological subject matter, rich in op- portunities for associated adventure and infinite discovery, is not a part of common experience, it exists, and if called out from its isolation for purposes of common experimentation, THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF EDUCATION 53 it is fit matter for making science a vital experience in the productive life of the worker. . . . The present is better than any time earlier in the history of technology for the development of a concept of industry as a socially creative enterprise. ... In the labyrinth of mechanical processes and economic calculation it is not to-day possible for a worker to think or speak of a product as his. ... A worker's claim to the product of his labor is merged in an infinity of claims which makes the product more nearly the property of society than that of any one individual. And this merging of claims which has resulted in the submerging of all wage workers, has set up the new educational task of discovering the possibilities for creative experience in asso- ciated enterprise. ''While an article manufactured under business condi- tions is the product of enforced association, we have in this condition the mechanics of a real association. As it now stands, the association is one of individuals, with the im- pulse for association and for creative elffiort left out. The interests of some ninety workers associated together in the making of a shoe are not common but antagonistic, except as they are common in their antagonism to the owner of the shoe on which they work. They hang together because they must ; their parting is the best part of a working day. *'And yet the practice of dividing up the fabrication of an article among the members of a group instead of con- fining the making of it to one or two people, opens up the possibility of extensive social intercourse, and has the power, we may discover, to sublimate the inordinate desire for the intensive satisfaction of personal life. Although the division of labor has given us a society which is abortive in its functioning like a machine with half assembled parts, it offers us the mechanics for interdependence and the opportunity to work out a coordinated industrial life." (H. Marot, Creative Impulse in Industry, pp. 25-28.*) The needed vivifying influence, capable of converting this sterile division of labor into a type tributary to the ad- vancement of social life is the democratic control of indus- *By permission E. P. Dutton & Co. Copyright 1918. 54 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL try. The cooperative system in which the workmen are responsible for the success or failure of their enterprise aims to restore the motive of personal interest to large scale production. Intrinsic interest in work which must often be lacking in machine production is supplemented by the stimulus to good workmanship coming through the sense of responsibility and cooperation. Machinery becomes to the worker a means to an end and is thereby invested with social value. READING Cole, G. D. H. — Lai our in the CommonwealtJi, Huebsch. Dewey, John. — The Need of Industrial Education in an Industrial Democracy, Manual Training Magazine, February, 1916. Marot, Helen. — The Creative Impulse in Industry, Dutton. Parker, Carlton. — The Technique of American Industry, Atlantic Monthly, January, 1920. Wallace, A. R. — The Wonderfid Century, Dodd Mead. Wolf, R. E. — The Creative Workman, The Technical Asso- ciation of the Pulp and Paper Industry, 117 East 24th St., N. Y. Wolf, R. E. — Making Men Like Their Jobs, System, Jan- uary and February, 1919. Wolf, R. E. — Control and Consent, Bulletin of the Taylor Society, March, 1917. PART II THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS The Function of Education We have seen that, as a result of the superior type of his responses to the environmental situation, man has evolved a highly complex social world of customs, traditions, insti- tutions and the like, which represent his ideas and beliefs. This accumulated experience of countless generations must be continuously passed on to the new members of society who are taking the places of those who die, if social progress is to continue unbroken. We have seen that whereas among the lower animals almost all the characteristics necessary for existence are directly inherited from the parents, man inherits only a small proportion of the powers he requires to carry on his life. "Every child is born destitute of things possessed in manhood which distinguish him from the lower animals. Of all industries he is artless; of all institutions he is lawless ; of all languages he is speechless ; of all philosophies he is opinionless; of all reasoning he is thoughtless; but arts, institutions, language, opinions and mentations he acquires as the years go by from childhood to manhood. In all these respects the new-born babe is hardly the peer of the new-born beast ; but as the years pass, ever and ever he exhibits his superiority in all these great classes of activities, until the distance by which he is sep- arated from the brute is so great that his realm of existence is in another kingdom of nature.'' (J. W. Powell, From Barbarian to Civilization, American Anthropologist, 1888, p. 97.) In the course of a few years, the child born igno- rant, helpless, dependent, must be adjusted to a rich, com- plex, and constantly changing environment. Each genera- tion must take over into their lives all the fundamental 65 56 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL values of civilization which it has required thousands of years to achieve. "Years, centuries, generations of inven- tion and planning, may have gone to the development of the performances and occupations surrounding the child. Yet for him their activities are direct stimuli; they are part of his natural environment. . . . He cannot, of course, appropriate their meaning directly through his senses ; but they furnish stimuli to which he responds, so that his atten- tion is focussed upon a higher order of materials and of problems. Were it not for this process by which the achievements of one generation form the stimuli that direct the activities of the next, the story of civilization would be writ in water, and each generation would have laboriously to make for itself, if it could, its way out of savagery." (John Dewey, How We Think, pp. 159-160.) This defines the high task of education ; it is evident that the ultimate reliance of all social reconstruction must be upon education. Society has always had a realization of this fact from primitive times to the present. In earlier, simpler societies the young were inducted into the collective knowledge of the community principally by direct participation in the life about them; but as time went on and knowledge in- creased greatly in amount, a special institution was dedi- cated to the work. The aim of education in each generation has been to enable the children to reach the highest point previously reached by the race. It seemed evident, there- fore, that the school must effect certain short cuts. The realization of this necessity together with a faulty knowl- edge of psychology has been responsible for the highly abstract form of school instruction. "There is a strong temptation to assume that presenting subject matter in its perfected form provides a royal road to learning. What more natural than to suppose that the immature can be saved time and energy, and be protected from needless error by commencing where competent inquirers have left off?" (John Dewey, Democracy and Education, p. 257.) Therefore the curriculum is worked out in detail, so much of each subject for each year, and the whole work of the school made to revolve about this fixed scheme. "Subdivide THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 57 each topic into studies ; each study into lessons ; each lesson into specific facts and formulae. Let the child proceed step by step to master each one of the separate parts, and at last he will have covered the entire ground. The road which looked so long when viewed in its entirety, is easily traveled, considered as a series of particular steps. Thus emphasis is put upon the logical sub-divisions and consecu- tions of the subject-matter. Problems of instruction are problems of procuring texts giving logical parts and sequences, and of presenting those portions in class in a similar, definite, and graded way. Subject-matter furnishes the end, and it determines method." (John Dewey, The Child and the Curriculumy pp. 12-13.) This mode of procedure, however effective it may be when the subject matter is regarded externally by itself, neglects the essential factor of the human being's peculiar method of assimilating subject matter. It is impossible for the school to make the short cut of verbally inducting the child into generalizations. We have seen that knowledge was the outcome of the experience of the race, and that it was gradually ordered and classified as wider and wider rela- tionships were perceived in the environment. Education, to function in the great evolutionary scheme of things, must te consistent mith the underlying . laws of development. The parallel between the development of the race and that of the child, recognition of which has expressed itself in the past in certain doctrinaire beliefs, notably the Culture Epoch Theory, lies in the process through which the human mind must go in order to reach its conclusions. The process is the same to-day as it was centuries ago. The only dif- ference is in the infinitely more complex environment with which the modern mind has to deal. Fundamentally, the possibility and opportunity for education lie in the capacity and necessity for the human organism to learn. A human being is an adaptive organism. It has certain vital needs to be met, and like all other organisms, it is subject to environmentar influences. It has, however, in- finitely greater innate capacities than any other animal. These, as we have seen, are not effective at birth; their 58 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL development depends upon experience. Born with the least coordinated and finished structure, the effective adjust- ments of the human infant have for the most part to be made after birth. We have seen that the scheme of adapta- tion in the animal world does not permit the development of effective modes of learning. The human infant on the other hand almost from birth begins responding to his environment in an effort to achieve his purposes. As he responds he experiences certain satisfactions and dissatisfac- tions and tends to modify his conduct accordingly. As a consequence of this interaction with the environment, more and more effective adaptations are made, and learning takes place at a rapid rate. "We see, therefore, that education is implicit in the effective functioning of the life processes. **As to structure, human nature is undoubtedly the most plastic part of the living world, the most adaptable, the most educable. Of all animals, it is man in whom heredity counts for least, and conscious building forces for most. Consider that his infancy is longest, his instincts least fixed, his brain most unfinished at birth, his powers of habit-mak- ing and habit-changing most marked, his susceptibility to social impressions keenest, — and it becomes clear that in every way nature, as a prescriptive power, has provided in him for her own displacement. . . . Other creatures nature could largely finish; the human creature must finish him- self." (W. E. Hocking, Human Nature and Its Remaking^ pp. 9-10.) In the eager explorative nature of young children and in their plasticity, then, we have a condition readily lending itself to educative influences. Nature in requiring educa- tion has provided generously for facilitating it. It is only our blundering that has kept us from taking advantage of the great native resources at hand and utilizing them for educational purposes. Education begins at birth but left to chance it would be haphazard and ineffective. Con- sciously directed education should seek to guide and direct the natural process. The school is simply a part of the great institutional life which man has evolved the more ade- quately to advance himself. The problem of the school is THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 59 how to adapt immature beings to a Mghly developed social environment. Child nature is the raw material of educa- tion, the stuff that has to be moulded into forms more efficient for social advancement. It seems evident, there- fore, that a scientifically directed education must begin with a psychological insight into childish needs and capacities, and must be conditioned at each stage of its development by just such insight. **. . . from the standpoint of the im- mature beings who . . . are being transformed into social members to sustain the community type of life, . . . educa- tion may be defined as a process of the continuous recon- struction of experience with the purpose of widening and deepening its social content, while, at the same time, the individual gains control of the methods involved, . . . Ex- perience is crude, narrow, and largely self-centered. Yet it has within itself capacities of assimilating and re-creating what is most perfected, developed and generalized in cul- ture, for otherwise the wonderful products of art, industry, and science would never have come into being as in the past. Hence the educative process is a constant proc- ess of making-over the existing experience, so that the social values lying blindly and crudely within it shall be clarified and enlarged. Yet the leverage of this trans- formation must be sought and found within experience itself; experience cannot be made over from without, but only in the process of its own growth. There are dynamic, transitive tendencies in the very nature of experience which tend to keep it growing and expanding. The educational process provides stimuli that appeal to these intrinsic ten- dencies." (John Dewey, Education, Cyclopedia of Educa- tion, p. 400.*) We have now defined the problem of formal education and indicated suggestions for its solution. The task of edu- cation is continuously to induce such intellectual and emo- tional responses in developing organisms as will direct them into desirable social channels. The solution of the problem involves two factors: Social considerations determine the end toward which adaptations are to be directed, and sup- *By permission The Macmillaii Co. Copyright 1911. 60 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL ply us with the subject content of education ; psychological processes dictate the method by which our aim may be accomplished. READING Dewey, John. — Democracy and Education, Macmillan. First ten chapters. Dewey, John. — My Pedagogic Creed, Flanagan. Dewey, John. — Prospective Elementary Education in Teaching the Elementary School subjects, edited by L. Rapeer. Macmillan. Dewey, John. — Psychology and Social Practice^ Univer- sity of Chicago Press. Dewey, John. — The School and Society, University of Chicago Press. Chap. I. The School and Social Progress. Chap. II. The School and the Life of the Child. Chap. III. Waste in Education. Chap. IV. The Psychology of Elementary Educa- tion. Dewey, John. — ^Articles on Education, Experiment in Education, Cyclopaedia of Education. Jennings, Watson, Meyer and Thomas. — Suggestions of Modem Science Concerning Education, Macmillan. Small, A. W. — TJie Demands of Sociology upon Pedagogy, Flanagan. The Place of Activity in Education The question of method leads naturally to a consideration of the place of activity in education. The curriculum of most elementary schools already includes a variety of active pursuits such as constructive work, modelling, plays and games and the like. Their introduction in many cases has been sanctioned for no better reason than as a concession to the persistent activity of children. When for the greater part of each day children are forced into unnatural posi- tions of passive receptivity, activity of any sort is welcomed by teacher and children alike as a relief from the resulting tedium and strain. To accept such a view is, however, to THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 61 assess activity in a purely negative way, and to fail entirely to appreciate its profound educational significance. It is thereby reduced to a trivial role, as a mere matter of ex- pediency, or as a diversion from the serious undertakings of the school. Such a view also fails to offer any standards of educational values in active pursuits: all are thereby reduced to a dead level. Active pursuits as they are now often conducted in schools are open to another serious criticism. The teacher, in her zeal for achieving results, centers her attention upon the finished product — the factor of least importance in the situation — and fails to center it upon the process, which is the really essential part of the whole matter. The products of childish activity can never be regarded as of any value except as an index of the intellectual factors implicit in them. They should be allowed to be as crude as the child's poorly coordinated muscles necessitate. The child should be allowed to make mistakes, if need be, in order that by his natural method of trial and error he may gain judgment for use in later attempts. A scheme of activities to be really educative should be rich in possibilities for making mis- takes, since it is precisely at this point that education takes place. The teacher's business is not to prevent mistakes — which she is likely to do when her attention is centered on the product — ^but to see that the child receives the full edu- cational benefit of his mistakes after he has made them. An automatic machine makes no mistakes, but it also evolves no ways of meeting new situations ; it cannot learn. Automatic control among animals marks their limitations. Habituation in human beings marks the end of progress in any series of thought processes. School activities, developed by methods of prescription and dictation, provide only training, by which pupils are enabled to meet more success- fully the same situation when it recurs ; they fail to provide education, by which pupils are able to meet with ingenious solution new situations as they arise. One of the essentials of growth is that children should be left free to work out for themselves the methods and processes of successful activity. 62 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL In following the course of evolutionary changes we saw the gradual emergence of more and more purposeful activ- ity as a vital factor in the struggle for existence ; we saw that it was through purposeful activity that man has grad- ually brought the materials and forces of nature under his control and thus achieved his supremacy in the world. In the development of civilization we saw that it was through the exigencies of daily life, through the emergencies which man was constantly obliged to meet in providing food, clothing, shelter, and his other necessities, that he was obliged to plan, to forecast the results of various lines of action, to formulate purposes, and to devise the proper means for their successful and economical realization. All of this means thinking ; it means thinking in the most valu- able sense of the term. It has been through the constant exercise of this kind of thinking that man has improved his technique of thinking, so that he is able to deal with situa- tions of the greatest complexity. In following the evolution of knowledge we saw that dogma and superstition always dwelt on the fringes, and represented beliefs that had not yet been subjected to the test of experience. Progress in knowledge has been the gradual extension of tested knowl- edge and the consequent diminution of unfounded beliefs. Purposeful activity may therefore be looked upon as the primary human motive force. It is such activity that has made civilization what it is ; it is only by such activity that progress can continue through each successive generation. Activity, therefore, instead of being a by-product of the educative process, is the process itself, since it is through purposeful activity that learning takes place and that tested hnowledge accrues. It is because thinking is integrally related to purposeful activity that activities offer a rich opportunity for the emergence of thought-provoking problems. When knowl- edge is pursued directly, as is the case in the old school regime, there is comparatively little opportunity for devel- oping this most valuable type of thinking. Children are allowed to think, but only upon isolated issues, on little unrelated units chosen and arranged in advance for them. THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 63 Tliey are rarely permitted to tJiink their way out of situor tions. Little opportunity is given for adapting ideas in relation to a problem to be solved. For the most part the attempt is made to give training in thought by ready-made methods. The power of thought cannot be developed by the direct method. What is passed on under such circumstances is the solution, not the process hy which it was arrived at. Thinking in childhood is not different in kind from the reasoning of adults. The difference lies in the narrow range of childish experience and in the less highly special- ized thinking processes. It is evident that the child cannot pursue the elaborate technique of adult thinking. He can, however, organize his crude processes to meet situations that are concrete and simple. It is the task of education to help children improve their methods of thinking by making them conscious of problems, and skilled in methods of solv- ing them. ^'The most significant question which can be asked, accordingly, about any situation or experience pro- posed to induce learning is what quality of problem it involves. At first thought, it might seem as if usual school methods measured well up to the standard here set. The giving of problems, the putting of questions, the assigning of tasks, the magnifying of difficulties, is a large part of school work. But it is indispensable to discriminate between genuine and simulated or mock problems. The following questions may aid in making such discrimination, (a) Is there anything hut a problem? Does the question nat- urally suggest itself within some situation of personal ex- perience? Or is it an aloof thing, a problem only for the purposes of conveying instruction in some school topic ? Is it the sort of trying that would arouse observation and en- gage experimentation outside of school? (6) Is it the pu- pil's own problem, or is it the teacher's or text-book's prob- lem, made a problem for the pupil only because he cannot get the required mark or be promoted or win the teacher's approval, unless he deals with it ? ... As a consequence of the absence of the materials and occupations which generate real problems, the pupil 's problems are not his ; or, rather they are his only as a pupil, not as a human being. ... A 64 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL pupil hSs a problem, but it is the problem of meeting the peculiar requirements set by the teacher. His problem becomes that of finding out what the teacher wants, what will satisfy the teacher in recitation and examination and outward deportment. Eelationship to subject matter is no longer direct. The occasions and material of thought are not found in the arithmetic or the history or geography itself, but in skillfully adapting that material to the teacher's requirements.'' (John Dewey, Democracy and Education, pp. 182-4.*) The chief danger which is the outcome of teaching by methods of prescription and dictation lies in the type of mind and character it produces. It inevitably puts a premium upon docility and routine thinking, and discour- ages sturdy and independent thought. The results of this sort of training may be of a kind inimical to social progress. Minds habituated to passive acceptance of knowledge from those in positions of authority without subjecting it to the test of personal reflection or inquiry into its validity, may easily be persuaded into all sorts of false beliefs. Educa- tion proceeding by such methods is open to the danger of becoming a mere process of indoctrination, propagating error, and perpetuating prejudice. Instead it should be a great dynamic force devoted to dispelling illusions, and eradicating error, constantly extending' the boundaries of tested knowledge, and thus consciously affecting social prog- ress. Children who are skilled in methods of experimental inquiry and proof, who are accustomed to examine into the nature of evidence, will have the power to discriminate be- tween sound knowledge and unfounded opinion and dog- matic belief. The greatest safeguard against the irrational tendencies always current in the social environment is the development of that attitude of mind known as scientific. Without such an equipment we are defenceless against the ideas that come down to us through tradition. ''While it is not the business of education to prove every statement made, any more than to teach every possible item of infor- mation, it is its business to cultivate deep-seated and effect- *By permiasion The Macmillan Co. Copyright 1916. THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 65 ive habits of discriminating tested beliefs from mere asser- tions, guesses, and opinions; to develop a lively, sincere, and open-minded preference for conclusions that are prop- erly grounded, and to ingrain into the individual's working habits methods of inquiry and reasoning appropriate to the various problems that present themselves. No matter how much an individual knows as a matter of hearsay and information, if he has not attitudes and habits of this sort, he is not intellectually educated. He lacks the rudiments of mental discipline. And since these habits are not a gift of nature — no matter how strong the aptitude for acquiring them: since, moreover, the casual circumstances of the natural and social environment are not enough to compel their acquisition, the main office of education is to supply conditions that make for their cultivation. The formation of these habits is the Training of Mind.'' (John Dewey, How We Think, pp. 27-28.*) The primary educational importance of activities lies in the fact that offering as they do, innumerable opportunities for the solution of real problems by the methods of scien- tific inquiry and proof, they offer the most natural and direct means of training in that type of mind known as scientific. "One of the only two articles that remain in my creed of life is that the future of our civilization depends upon the widening spread and deepening hold of the scientific habit of mind: and that the problem of problems in our education is therefore to discover how to mature and make effective this scientific habit. Mankind so far has been ruled by things and by words, not by thought, for till the last few moments of history, humanity has not been in possession of the conditions of secure and effective thinking. ... ' ' Scientific method is not just a method which it has been found profitable to pursue in this or that abstruse subject for purely technical reasons. It represents the only method of thinking that has proved fruitful in any subject — that is what we mean when we call it scientific. It is not a peculiar development of thinking for highly specialized ends; it *By permission D. C. Heath & Co. Copyrigut i910. 66 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL is thinking so far as thought has become conscious of its proper ends and of the equipment indispensable for success in their pursuit. ... If ever we are to be gov- erned by intelligence, not by things and by words, science must have something to say about what we do, and not merely about how we may do it most easily and economically. And if this consummation is achieved, the transformation must occur through education, by bringing home to men's habitual inclination and attitude the significance of genuine knowledge and the full import of the conditions requisite for its attainment. Actively to participate in the making of knowledge is the highest pre- rogative of man and the only warrant of his freedom.'' (John Dewey, Science as Subject Matter and as Method, Science, Jan. 28, 1910, p. 127.*) The organization of the school as a community, involving as it does frequent necessity for the adjustment of social relations similar to those occurring in the real world, pro- vides the best environment possible for the development of the scientific attitude in relation to social events and rela- tions. When social situations arise in a purely educative mediuniy it is possible as under no other circumstances to analyze them, to point out their weakness or strength — in short, to bring out their full educative value and gradually to build up a conception of social relations as they should be, and a consciously directed technique of cooperation. Children accustomed to respond in desirable ways to social situations during the formative period will have acquired modes of reaction of the greatest social value in later life. Such training will be of the greatest importance in bringing about that more conscious organization of society, so cru- cially needed, by which we order social changes, instead of undergoing change blindly. * ' A nation habituated to think in terms of problems and of the struggle to remedy them before it is actually in the grip of the forces which create the problems, would have an equipment for public life, such as has not characterized any people. ... Is there any meaning in the phrase 'democratic control' of social affairs *B7 permission The Science Press. THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 67 save as men have been educated into an intellectual famil- iarity with the weak places, the dark places, the unsettled difficulties of our society before they are overwhelmed by them practically?" (John Dewey, Tlie Schools and Social PreparednesSf New Republic, May, 1916, p. 16.) READING Dewey, John. — Democracy and Education, Macmillan. Chap. XI. Experience and Thinking. Chap. XII. Thinking in Education. Chap. XXV. Theories of Knowledge. Dewey, John. — How We Think, Heath. Chap. II. The Need for Training Thought. Chap. III. Natural Resources in the Training of Thought. Chap. V. The Means and End of Mental Train- ing. Chap. XII. Activity and the Training of Thought. Dewey, John. — Interest and Effort in Education, Hough- ton. Dewey, John. — Reasoning in Young Children, in Experi- mental Studies in Kindergarten Education, Teachers College Publication. Dewey, John. — The School and Society, University of Chicago Press. Chap. II. The School and the Life of the Child. Dewey, John. — Science as Subject Matter and as Method, Science, Jan. 28, 1910. Miller, I. E. — The Psychology of Thinking, Macmillan. Chap. VIII. Conditions and Function of Think- ing. Chap. XIII. Educational Applications and Illus- trations. The Organization of Activities When the fundamental psychological significance of activity is fully realized, the whole task of the school assumes a new aspect. Instead of being a problem in the 68 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL organization of subjects of study ^ tlie basic problem of tJie school becomes the formulation of a program of activities. It resolves itself into discovering the characteristics of the impulse to activity at different periods of growth, and in arranging activities in accordance with the gradually ex- panding capacities of the growing child. From the educa- tional point of view, however, activity is not an end in itself. It is only the most potent because the most natural means. Childish activities are educationally important only in that they are significant indications of possible future experiences; their value is in the leverage they afford, not in the accomplishment they represent. The problem of the school becomes, therefore, the selection out of the countless possibilities for activity open to children, of such activities as will gradually adjust them to the social responsibilities of adult life, which will provide experiences developing social sensitiveness and control, and which will at the same time give skill in desirable techniques. Activity as Play Play has for a long time been considered a legitimate educational factor until the mystic age of six is reached. The conception of play here advocated sharply differen- tiates it, however, from the conventional kindergarten or Montessori philosophy, and demands a much broader and, more extensive utilization of the play impulse in school. It demands also an entirely different treatment by the teacher and an entirely different play equipment. Groos's conclu- sion that the play impulse was developed through natural selection as a means of adapting the organism to its environ- ment, was a significant contribution to the theory of child- hood of profound importance to education. The admission of play into the school according to this point of view is a recognition of the general educational principle: that the natural processes of growth form the basis of the educative process; that the nascent instincts furnish the raw material of education. If we subscribe to this point of view in regard to play, it dictates the ends to be sought, and the THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 69 procedure and the materials to be employed. Play is natural education because it is identical with the life process. The function of education is not to teach a child to play, but to provide opportunity for play. Educative play has its justification in the fact that through it the play development of the child is not left to chance influ- ences. The school provides an environment carefully thought out and consciously arranged to stimulate the natural growth of the organism. We must not forget that the play world is the real world to the child, and that it is by means of it that he interprets the real world, working out for himself the relationships in it and thus experiencing it. This philosophy of play determines the type to be undertaken. It must be creative, not dictated; always governed by the child's inner purposes. The great thing, educationally speaking, is to make the child conscious of the play possibilities in his own environment, to suggest relation- ships implicit in familiar experiences, to keep the play impulse going from stage to stage of related play, thus con- tinually expanding the boundaries of experience and deep- ening its meaning. If education means the conscious direction of the native impulses of children into channels of greater social usefulness, it must lay hold of this great natural asset of childhood and utilize it to its fullest extent, making it the medium through which the child gains social I experience. One's conception of play naturally influences the choice of play materials. The introduction of toys and playthings into school is an innovation looked upon with doubt; but if we grant the validity of the philosophy of play outlined, playthings take on a new meaning and follow as a matter of course. They are not a means of amusement, but the tools of childhood, and as such are worthy of a serious edu- cational consideration. You, cannot expect a child, generous as is his attitude toward play materials, adaptable as he is in converting almost anything to his play uses, to express himself adequately without proper means of expression; even he cannot make bricks without straw. We should pro- vide him with toys and blocks, dolls, clay, crayons, paper, 70 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL and other play materials by which he may reproduce his home, his father's shop, the neighborhood with its streets full of traffic, the docks, the factories, and all the wealth of detail that makes up the modern world. It is by means of his active relations with these play materials, that the child is thinking through the home and community processes which he sees going on about him. This point of view governs the choice of playthings, enabling us to discriminate between those which are edu- cative and those which are not. Since toys are the means by which the child reproduces his environment they should be thought of not as isolated units, but in groups, related to the environment to be duplicated, and to each other. Other- wise they remain separate objects, inert, like the half- assembled parts of a great machine, not the active agents for interpreting related sequences. Since the play impulse is active, not passive, the character of the toys should be such that activity does not reside in the toy but remains with the child. *'The marvelous increase in the number and variety of children's toys is a subject worthy of more serious attention than it has yet received. Even a super- ficial observation of these toys indicates that many of them are of such a character as to leave the child comparatively passive. The activity is handed over to a mechanism. The child gets his emotional excitement without regard to its legitimate expenditure. The balance between the sensory and motor nerves is destroyed, the organic circuit is broken, the tendency to rely on an external stimulus is fostered. The mere fact that the stimulus calls for so little motor response is sufficient to explain its temporary effect and the constant demand for some new means of stimulation. Could parents and teachers take even a few minutes a day or a few hours a week to help children to see the possibilities in a pile of sand, an unoccupied piece of ground, the tough grasses and woody fibers growing in the waste places, a neighboring tree, dry-goods boxes, paper and paste, in short in any of the legitimate materials in the environment of the child, there would be a saving of time for adults and a more normal and happy growth in the child. Such conditions THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 71 would afford a normal outlet for the constructive instincts, which need nutrition at this period. . . /' (K. E. Dopp, T/ie Place of Industries in Elementary Education, pp. 107- 108.*) As Miss Dopp points out, we must use discrimination not only in the type of toys selected, but in the number. The young child should not be overwhelmed by the com- plexity of the play environment provided. It must bear some relation to his present needs and it must be suggestive enough to link the child's narrow personal concerns with those of the great world. There should be just enough play material to act as a stimulus in initiating play. When once the play is under way more playthings can be supplied to keep it going, or, even better, the children may be en- couraged to add to their nucleus of playthings by making their own. Such activity is valuable in exercising the children's inventive powers, in making use of materials at hand to satisfy their expanding needs. READING Chambers, Smith and Others. — Report of tJie Experi- mental Work in the School of Childhood^ University of Pittsburgh Bulletin, 1916. Cook, H. C.—The Play Way, Stokes. Chap. I. General Principles of the Play Way. Chap. II. General Method of the Play Way. Chap. VI. Play Town. Deming, Hunt and Others. — ^Bureau of Educational Ex- periments Publications. Bulletin I. Playthings. Bulletin III. The Play School. Bulletin IV. The Children's School^ Teacher's College Play Ground, The Greg- ory School. Bulletin V. The Stony Ford School, The Home School. Bulletin VIII. A Catalogue of Play Equipment. *By permission University of Chicago Press. Copyright 1902 by The University of Chicago. 72 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL Dewey, John. — Democracy and Education, Macmillan. Chap. XV. Play and Work in the Curriculum. Dewey, John. — How We Think, Heath. Chap. XII. Section 2, Play, Work, and Allied Forms of Activity. Chap. XVI. Section 2, Process and Product. Dewey, John. — Interest and Effort in Education, Hough- ton. Chap. IV. Types of Educative Interest. Dewey, John and Evelyn. — Schools of To-morrow, Dut* ton. Chap. V. Play. Hall, G. Stanley. — Aspects of Child Life^ Ginn. The Story of a Sand Pile. Hetherington, C. W. — The Demonstration Play School of 1913y University of California Bulletin, 1914. Hill, Patty Smith and Others. — Experimental Studies in Kindergarten Education, Teachers College Publication. Kilpatrick, W. H. — The Montessori System Examined, Houghton. Kilpatrick, W. H. — FroeheVs Kindergarten Principles Critically Examined, Macmillan. Lee, Joseph. — Play in Education, Macmillan. Murray and Brown. — The Child Under Eight, Longmans. Pratt, C. L. — The Real Joy in Toys, in ''Parents and Their Problems," National Congress of Mothers, Washington, D. C. Wells, H. G. — Floor GameSy Small, Maynard. Wood, Walter. — Children's Play and Its Place in Educor tion, DuJBfield. The aim of schools for young children then should be to provide a center rich in possibilities for play, in which all the desirable tendencies of child life may find legitimate satisfaction. The fundamental question to be answered is : what constitutes an all round opportunity for play? Fol- lowing are some of the more important types of activity in which children naturally engage, which should be provided for in the school plan. THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 73 Dramatic Activities. — ^Dramatic activities should occupy a most important place in our conception of educative play, because it is by means of them that children interpret con- duct and social action. The school environment should therefore offer ample opportunity for a broad range of dramatizations of social situations. The early plays of chil- dren are usually domestic in character, since dramatization requires related information, and the nucleus of the child's early stock of related information is in connection with home life. These home plays are especially suited to young children for several reasons. Representations of home life with its setting and the occupations carried on in the home are simple enough to allow children to see situations as wholes, and as they do not make great demand upon tech- nique, they allow even young children to realize their pur- poses. They therefore give desirable reflexes in allowing children to feel at each stage of the process the emotional glow which accompanies the mastery of a new power. They provide suflicient variety to give continual diversity to action, and thus permit that ready shift of attention char- acteristic of the play of young children, yet they have an underlying unity which gives a sense of organization, and affords opportunity for disclosing relationships as emphasis passes from one phase to another. They make possible par- ticipation in a great variety of processes, and introduce children to the purposeful use of a great variety of ma- terials. In the course of these dramatic representations more and more related information can be attached, and experience thus deepened and broadened. The home plays develop naturally, with increasing ability and knowledge, into plays reproducing all kinds of industrial and social situations. By extending the child's experience we give him more material for his dramatic purposes. Dramatic plays are therefore closely related to investigation and experimentation. Altogether the admission of this sort of plays into the school plan seems to be justified by the fact that it provides for the union of so many valuable edu* cative factors. 74. THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL READING Dewey, John. — The Scliool and Society, University of Chicago Press. Chap. V. Froebel's Educational Principles. Investigation and Experimentation. — The two most im- portant ways in which man has learned the secrets of the universe are by means of discovery and experiment. The child learns about his world by the same methods. It is important, therefore, to open up these two great avenues of knowledge in the play-life of children. Before entering school, children have learned a great deal by this method. The world of man and nature is new and presents vast opportunities for investigation. For young children life consists in a series of delightful experiments, the world is an unending field for adventure. The great task of the school is to preserve and perfect the eager explorative nature of childhood, by providing wider and more consciously ar- ranged opportunities than the child could get outside of school. Since dramatic plays are dependent for their development upon an increase of related information and a free and ready use of materials they give point and con- tinuity to related activities such as excursions and experi- mentation. The need for greater information to complete a play scheme necessitates an excursion into the neighbor- hood to see the real thing in operation, or the need for some plaything makes necessary its construction out of materials at hand. Whenever the completion of a situation requires the child to explore his environment for illustrative ma- terial or necessitates the conversion of materials into forms more adequately satisfying his purposes, the impulses to investigate and experiment are functioning on a high edu- cative level. In the school plan, therefore, excursions and trips will play a far more vital part than they now do in school life. At present they are too often regarded as interruptions of the ** regular work" and time begrudgingly provided for them. Here they are seen to be fundamental to the exten- THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 75 sion of experience and to introducing the child, through personal contact, into the social and physical world in which he is ultimately to play his part. The purpose of these excursions should be to reveal to the children the motivating forces, and the processes of social and natural phenomena. We cannot know life by second-hand methods, by reading or talking about it. The facts of life are all around us; to understand them the child must see them in their natural setting. Through the organization of definite trips of ex- ploration the school can greatly multiply children's points of contact with the world. Trips and excursions are the threads that interlace between the school and life outside, connecting the two as the children mature by an ever in- creasing network. By this means the neighborhood grad- ually becomes the child's social laboratory. The city child comes to learn at first-hand how his small concerns are linked up with the great humming life of the city around him ; the country child may make some important economic deductions about the sources of the raw materials supplying the great world with the wherewithal to do its work and keep itself going. Excursions for each sort of child should include not only those into the nearby neighborhood, but longer trips — for the country child into the nearest town, and vice versa for the city child. It might be possible to follow a commodity from its source to its destination and thus give a realization of the mutual interdependence of city and country. These trips, then, will be undertaken with definite purpose, and will include a great variety of places — excursions to museums, to industrial and commer- cial plants, to docks and harbors, to historic places, to farms, and so on. These countless related new experiences will form the basis of the children's understanding and appreciation of the world and all its marvelous industries and institutions. On the way will be assimilated a vast store of information about the essentials of social life, which will afterward no doubt find its expression in the dramatic and constructive activities of the school. "We must utilize to the fullest extent not only children's natural curiosity about the world in which they live, but 76 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL also their natural love of tinkering and doing things. Far from being mere idle fooling, as it is so often thought to be, this playful manipulation is fraught with the greatest edu- cational possibilities. It was by means of playing with a kite that Franklin made a valuable contribution to the application of electricity ; it was through watching a falling apple that Newton was able to make important deductions regarding the force of gravity. Young children should be given every opportunity to try out their ideas, to handle materials, to see what can be done with tools and machines, to indulge in the playful manipulation of toys and appli- ances involving mechanical principles. With increase of ability this manipulating instinct will gradually expand into more complicated activities with wood, with plastic materials, with textiles and the like. Children should be allowed to keep pets and thus observe them in their natural habitat. They should be given opportunity to grow plants in gardens and thus by experimentation to learn the condi- tions of growth. In the natural desire of young children to handle things and see what will happen we have the crude basis for the development of experimental science. From interest in seeing what happens under certain circum- stances to arranging conditions so that certain results will follow is but a step. If this interest develops so that the conditions are intentionally varied, and a purposeful effort is thus made to find out what conditions are present when the effect occurs, and absent when it does not occur, a principle can be enunciated, and we have the constituents of a scientific experiment. By developing activities in this way, we use every-day experiences to introduce children into those methods of discovery and verification which are the chief resource of scientific reasoning. READING Dewey, John. — Science as Subject Matter and as Method. Science, Jan. 28, 1910. Dewey, John. — Article .on the Logic of Experimentation. Cyclopaedia of Education. Macmillan- THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 77 Dewey, John. — The School and Society. University of Chicago Press. Chap. II. The School and the Life of the Child. Edwards, C. L. — Nature Play. Popular Science Monthly, April, 1914. Garrett, L. B. — Study of Animal Families in Schools. Bureau of Educational Experiments, Bulletin No. 2. Art Activities. — The art impulse lies very close to the play impulse; it is activity indulged in for its own sake, not under the pressure of supplying material needs. In- deed it finds expression usually only in the leisure that results when material needs have been satisfied. The effort of the self is always to enlarge itself through expression. Whenever man transcends the bounds of ordinary experi- ence he instinctively attempts to perpetuate his images in satisf^dng form through creative activity. The product, however crude it may be, inevitably takes on certain art qualities such as balance, rhythm, harmony and the like. It is because the art impulse and the play impulse are kin that it is possible in school to develop the natural activities of children • into forms having significant art values. *'Play as work, as freely productive activity, in- dustry as leisure, that is, as occupation which fills the im- agination and the emotions as well as the hands, is the essence of art. Art is not an outer product nor an outer behavior. It is an attitude of spirit, a state of mind — one which demands for its satisfaction and fulfilling a shaping of matter to new and more significant form. To feel the meaning of what one is doing and to rejoice in that meaning, to unite in one concurrent fact the unfolding of the inner life and the ordered development of material con- ditions — that is art. The external signs — rhythm, sym- metry, arrangement of values, what you please — these things are signs of art in the degree in which they exhibit the union of inner joyful thought and outward control of nature 's forces. Otherwise they are dead and mechanical. ' ' (John Dewey, Culture and Industry in Education, Educa- tional Bi-monthly, Oct. 1, 1906, p. 8.*) *By permission Chicago Normal College. 78 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL This description of the art impulse should serve to give a more fundamental conception of the purpose of art than is evident in the work of many schools, and to give a clue to the methods by which the vital connection between art and life may be made evident to children. We must set the school conditions so that the growth of artistic production is possible. If children are given experiences that kindle their imagination and stir their emotions, they will spon- taneously express themselves in forms objectifying their images. These productions, crude though they be, will be found to have art value. The free creative tendencies of children released in channels of satisfying achievement, should therefore form the basis of instruction in art. De- velopment in art may be looked upon as play, under the principle of order becoming conscious of itself. It may be thought that since most children are to become appreciators rather than creators of art, that appreciation might be developed through more direct methods. But it is particularly true of children, that it is only through per- sonal experience that they can appreciate the recorded ex- periences of others; in other words, that appreciation fol- lows experience. It is only hy taking part in creative pro- ductions, not for the sake of producing beauty, hut as a means of expressing significant feelings, tJiat a vigorous and wholesome appreciation of art can he huilt. In de- veloping the art spirit the appreciation of traditional works of art is important, but the greatest care should be exer- cised in their use, since they are specific responses to situa- tions quite different from the situation in which the child finds himself. Wherever they can be used, however, as a means of enabling the child to assess his own production, or as a stimulus to further personal expression, their use is justified and valuable. This point of view indicates also the use and value of instruction in technique in art. Technique should be intro- duced as needed as a stimulus to improving expression. As each step in technique means so much inhibition it is dangerous to set up these boundaries before ideas have an opportunity to originate and mature. Professor Dewey has THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 79 made such a significant analysis of the psychology of art production that it is incorporated here almost in full, and is intended to supply the point of view not only for drawing, with which it specifically deals, but with music, dancing, and all other art forms. *'It is obvious that the teaching of artistic expression will start along the lines of least resistance, and be effective as to both external output and as to the educator of the individual pupil just in the degree in which it bases itself upon the psychical impulse which furnishes the motive to expression. But something more is required than a right start. If the education is to be effective, this impulse must be directed, must be utilized to the full. . . . We have plenty of glorification of art, and of the importance of artistic training, but we have almost no definite scientific attempts to translate the artistic process over into terms of its psychical machinery — that is, of the mental processes which occasion and which effect such expression. In enter- ing upon the attempt to make such a translation I shaU select as basis of the discussion, for reasons that require no explanation, drawing as the type of artistic expression. *'We may begin our analysis with the familiar distinction of idea and technique. Every mode of expression, no matter how mechanical, no matter how fantastic, how impression- istic, has these tvv'o sides. The architect's drawing of the plan of a house, the engineer's working plan for the con- struction of a machine must have an idea to be expressed, or else any series of lines drawn with a ruler would serve as well. And the crudest attempt of a child to illustrate *Hickory-Dickory-Dock' has also its technique* — ^its mode of realization. It is also clear that in this process of expres- sion the primary function belongs to the idea, the secondary to the technique; they are related as content and form, as material to be conveyed and delivered and as mode of con- veyance, as what and as how. But lest this statement should be misinterpreted, as it seems to me it often is misinter- preted, it must be added that to say that one is final and *Tliis is to be interpreted in the light of the distinction hereafter made between unconscious and conscious technique. 80 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL the other subservient, one is end, the other means, does not of necessity mean that attention is to be concentrated upon the one and the other is to be neglected. What we derive from this statement of the subservience of technique to idea is not a criterion for the amount of attention to be given to each, but a criterion for the reason of directing attention to one or the other ; we get a motive for attending. If one is thoroughly interested in the idea as something to be expressed, he must, on that account, be interested in the mode of expression. An insufficient interest in the form or process always marks something crude, hazy, or unreal in the content. "We must be interested in the expression just in proportion to the intensity, the controlling character of our interest in the idea. But, on the other hand, this inter- est in the idea, in the story to be told, the thought to be realized, is the only basis for an artistic interest in the tech- nique. A mode of expression separated from something to express is empty and artificial.; it is barren and benumbing. ' ' I make this point at the outset because it seems to me to define both the practical and the theoretical problem of drawing instruction. It is comparatively simple to abstract the technique, to make command of certain tools, physical and mental, the end and aim; it is comparatively easy to start from the image, the story, and allow that to find its own unaided outlet, and under claim of the superiority of idea to technique, allow not simply a crude and unformed result to pass — that is a matter of no importance in itself — but to encourage crude and slovenly habits of expression to grow up — which is an exceedingly important matter. The via media which is such a difficult path to find — the straight and narrow path which makes for artistic righteousness — goes in neither of these directions, but attempts on the one hand to make the interest in the idea, the vital image to extend itself to the mode of conveyance, to make the entire interest in technique a functional not an isolated one, while on the other it recognizes the necessity of having the mode of expression react back into the idea, to make it less cloudy, more definite, less haphazard, more accurate, less the product of the momentary, undeveloped interest and THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 81 thought, more the outcome of mature reflection and com- prehensive interest. * ' So much for our practical problem in general. Now for its psychological equivalence. "What corresponds to idea, what corresponds to technique in the natural psychical process; how are these related to each other; how do they interact in a mutally helpful way ? We cannot accept one apparently simple way of answering this question. We cannot say that the idea is imaginative, is spiritual; while what corresponds to the technique is physical, mechanical. The simplicity of this answer is at the cost of reality. The mental occurrence which represents the form or mode of expression is just as much an image as is the idea itself. It is not the problem of the relation of a spiritual image to a physical organ of expression, but of one sort of imagery to another. And while this is perhaps an unusual putting of the matter, we must recognize that after all it is because the whole process is one of imagery that the problem is a soluble one in an educative sense. If one side, the idea, were alone a matter of the imagination, and the technique were simply a matter of delicate and accurate physical control of the eye and muscle, we could never get a genuine harmonizing of the two factors in the problem; we should be compelled simply to alternate from one side to the other or to make the best compromise we could. **In saying that the side of technique is itself a matter of imagery, I refer to what the psychologists term motor imagery, and to the well-known fact that imagery of all kinds has a tendency to overflow in the motor channels, and that thus there is a tendency to reproduce through action and experience, or to put forth in expression whatever has been gained in impression and assimilated into an idea. I refer, moreover, to the fact that such motor expression is not something done with an idea already made in the mind, but is necessary to the appreciation of the idea itself, If there is one principle more than another upon which view put forth here, the text-book must fall into a secondary place. The original source of arithmetic problems is some social situation under consideration by the class; the text- book may be used to furnish problems that illustrate similar situations requiring similar solutions. It is better still to utilize the home and outside experience of the children to furnish data for further problems. They may consult store-keepers, read advertisements of sales, bring in printed price-lists, bills from their home accounts, etc. The more real data the better. 134 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL READING Ball, K. F. and West, M. ^.—Household Arts Arithmetic, School Review, 1917. KiRKPATRiCK, E. A.— The Use of Money, Bobbs Merrill. McLellan, James A., and Dewey, John. — The Psychology of Number, Appleton. Thorndike, E. L. — Netv Method in Arithmetic, Rand. Wilson, G. M. — A Survey of Social and Business Usage of Arithmetic, Teachers College Contributions to Educa- tion, No. 100. Wise, C. T. — A Survey of Arithmetic Problems Arising in Various Occupations, Elementary School Journal, October, 1919. The Organization of Subject Matter The formal studies are the results of racial experience. Just as the race formulated its generalizations through wider and wider experience, so the child must be led through experience to general conclusions, from partic- ulars to universals. It follows, therefore, that the curriculum cannot be a fixed, classified series of studies formulated in advance and imposed upon the child in a formal way. Modern psychology has made clear that the value of special subjects apart from use is a pedagogical myth. It is the child and not subject-matter which deter- mines the organization of the course of study. Out of the natural processes of experience properly guided, the cur- riculum as classified subject-matter should extend over a long period, and he achieved gradually and naturally. ** Abandon the notion of subject-matter as something fixed and ready-made in itself, outside the child's experi- ence; cease thinking of the child's experience as some- thing hard and fast ; see it as something fluent, embryonic, vital, and we realize that the child and the curriculum are simply two limits that define a single process. ... It is continuous reconstruction of experience, moving from the child's present experience out into that represented THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 135 by the organized bodies of truth that we call studies. On the face of it, the various studies, arithmetic, geography, language, botany, etc., are themselves experience — they are that of the race. They embody the cumulative outcome of the efforts, the strivings, and successes of the human race generation after generation. They present this, not as a mere accumulation, not as a miscellaneous heap of separate bits of experience, but in some organized and systematized way — that is, as reflectively formulated. Hence, the facts and truths that enter into the child's present experience, and those contained in the subject- matter of studies, are initial and final terms of one reality." (John Dewey, The Child and the Curriculum, pp. 16-17.*) According to this view the curriculum is the great moving force, the effective instrument by which two variables, the child and the environment, are mutually interrelated. By means of the curriculum, child- ish experience is gradually released from the narrow con- fines of the here and the now into universal conceptions of time and space. **The world of experience is one, not many. . . . The proper educator is reality, not convention- alized abstractions from reality. Hence the demand . . . that schooling, particularly in its earlier stages, shall be changed from an afflictive imposition upon life to a ration- ally concentrated accomplishment of a portion of life it- self. . . . This reality as a connected whole, related to the pupil, is always the natural and rational means of educa- tion. A sequence of studies, in the sense that the pupil is to be enjoined from intelligent contact with portions of reality until other portions have had their turn, is a mon- strous perversion of the conditions of education. All real- ity, the whole plexus of social life, is continually confront- ing the pupil. No * subject' abstracted from this actual whole is veracious to the pupil unless he is permitted to see it as part of the whole. It is a misconstruction of reality to think and accordingly to act as though one kind of knowledge belongs to one age and another to another. *By permission University of Chicago Press. Copyright 1902 by The University of Chicago. 136 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL The whole vast mystery of life, in all its processes and conditions, confronts the child as really as it does the sage. It is the business of the educator to help the child interpret the part by the whole. Education from the beginning should be an initiation into science, language, philosophy, art, and political action in the largest sense. When we shall have adopted a thoroughly rational pedagogy, the child will begin to learn everything the moment he begins to learn anything." (Albion Small, The Demands of Sociology upon Pedagogy, pp. 21-25.*) The child with needs to be met is the starting point of instruction; the subject matter is whatever meets those needs. The curriculum should be a plastic flexible instru- ment capable of being employed by the teacher to meet specific needs as they arise. Information whether it be geographical, historic, scientific or what not should be sought as it is needed. As a result of such procedure we should have gradually built up an organically related body of subject matter following the development of experience. **When the child lives in varied but concrete and active relationship to this common world, his studies are naturally unified. It will no longer be a problem to correlate studies. The teacher will not have to resort to all sorts of devices to weave a little arithmetic into the history lesson, and the like. Relate the school to life, and all studies are of necessity correlated." (John Dewey, TJie School and Society f p. 80.) The criterion by which the curriculum must be judged is the psychological one — ''what is that study, considered as a form of living immediate, personal experience ? "What is the interest in that experience? What is the motive or stimulus to it? How does it act and react with reference to other forms of experience ? How does it gradually differ- entiate itself from the others? And how does it function so as to give them additional definiteness and richness of meaning? . . . *' Until we ask such questions the consideration of the school curriculum is arbitrary and partial, because we have *Copyright and published hj A. Flanagan Company, Chicago. THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 137 not the ultimate criterion for decision before us. The prob- lem is not simply what facts a child is capable of grasping or what facts can be made interesting to him, but what experience does he himself have in a given direction. The subject must be differentiated out of that experience in accordance with its own laws. Unless we know what these laws are, what are the intrinsic stimuli, modes of operation and functions of a certain form of experience, we are prac- tically helpless in dealing with it. We may follow routine, or we may follow abstract logical consideration, but we have no decisive educational criterion. It is the problem of psychology to answer these questions ; and when we get them answered, we shall know how to clarify, build up, and put in order the content of experience, so that in time it will grow to include the systematic body of facts which the adult's consciousness already possesses.'' (John Dewey, Psychological Aspect of the Curriculum. Educational Re- view, April, 1897, pp. 362-363.*) READING Dewey, John. — ^Article on Course of Study, Cyclopaedia of Education. Dewey, John. — The Child and the Curriculum, University of Chicago Press. Dewey, John. — Psychological Aspect of the School Cur- riculum, Educational Review, April, 1897. Dewey, John. — Democracy and Education, Macmillan. Chap. XIV. The Nature of Subject Matter. Dewey, John. — Moral Principles in Education, Houghton. "^^ Chap. IV. The Social Nature of the Course of Study. Dewey, John and Evelyn. — Schools of To-morrow, Dutton. Chap. IV. The Reorganization of the Curriculum. The Study of Social Life It may seem as if the point of view of curriculum organization suggested might easily lead to haphazard *By permission George H. Doran Company. 138 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL progress and under certain circumstances to chaos. If we are to give up the neatly arranged course of study, so much ground covered each year, examined and reviewed upon, if we are instead to follow a^ closely as possible the leadings of childish interests and capacities, it is necessary to have some principles of organization in order to see where those interests are leading and thus direct them. If we refuse to see true scientific sequence of subject-matter in the arbitrary arrangement dictated by the teacher or the de- mands of the daily program, have we any other organiza- tion to suggest? We have chosen as our definition of education *'the con- tinuous reconstruction of experience with the purpose of widening and deepening its social content.'' "We must find within this definition our principles of organization of sub- ject-matter. Experience has only three possible phases: present, past, and future. The present is the outcome of the past, and the basis of the future. These three phases should be the organization conceptions underlying the re- construction of experience by means of the curriculum. The aim is to give children : (I) An ever widening knowledge of their present social environment, radiating out from the home, through the neighborhood into national and international relationships. (II) Explanations of present situations by reference to their evolution. (III) The use of the knowledge thus gained for assessing present conditions and formulating hypotheses for social reconstruction. This does not mean that this classification is to be used in any rigid way; it means merely that the teacher has the conception of the way experience expands and deepens and that she should constantly lead the various experiences of her pupils out in these directions. READING GuNTON, George. — Economics in the Puhlie ScJiools, Ad- dresses and Proceedings of the National Education Association, 1901. THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 139 James, E. J. — Training for Citizenship, National Herbart Society, Third Year Book Supplement. James, E. J. — The Place of Political and Social Sciences in Modern Education, Annals of American Academy of Political and Social Science, November, 1897. Small and Vincent. — Introduction to the Study of Society, American Book Co. Vincent, G. E. — Social Science and the Curriculum, Ad- dresses and Proceedings of the National Education Association, 1901. Community Study. — The function of information is gradually to extend children's experience by constantly making clear the relationship between things known and personally experienced and things at a distance. Children's ability to construct correct pictures of things at a distance is based upon ideas gained in a vivid and real form in their own home neighborhood. Hence the necessity of utilizing to the fullest extent every phase of the home neighborhood to build up the conception of a type of social life resulting from certain cultural and natural conditions. **The social desideratum is that the developing member of society shall become analytically and synthetically intelli- gent about the society to which he belongs. The precision of his social intelligence in general depends upon the exact- ness of his knowledge of details in the life which he most intimately shares. Observation of the structure, functions, and forces of life in one's own community is the normal beginning of true and large social intelligence and action. ^' (Albion Small, The Demands of Sociology upon Pedagogy y pp. 28-29.) The source material of social life lies all about us. "The puzzling world is the student's own world and he may as well begin to resolve the puzzle in his own street or school district." (Small and Vincent, Introduction to the Study of Society, p. 16.) The initial point of departure should be the study of those particular phases of group life which fall well within the circle of the child's personal affairs. One of the first and most fundamental relationships that need to 140 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL be made explicit in the child's experience are those within the home and the relationship between the family and the neighborhood. This is important for a number of reasons. The family group is the first social group with which the child has definitely established social relations, and in connection with which all his knowledge must function socially in his every day experiences. The child when he first comes to school knows related things only in connection with home life. The family group of each child is the focussing point of his relations to the world environment. It must always remain a channel through which social experience comes to him. Moreover it repre- sents in little all the important elements of social rela- tionships. It is through family life that the child is initiated by experience into the social life of his time. It is clear that if the aim of instruction is to socialize a child's experience, its first task is to develop an under- standing of the social relationships illustrated in family life. School life then grows naturally out of home life. Social considerations also make this an important task for education. The family is the permanent social unit; it is the means by which social life is advanced. The life of society circles around the family, supplying its needs, broadening its outlook so that it is not only physic- ally nourished but psychically enriched and may give back to society a better solution of the social problem. A more enlightened understanding of the values bound up in family life is certainly desirable from a social point of view. By beginning with family relationships and radiating out into wider and wider circles of relationships, the school will give socialized meaning to children's ex- periences, constantly direct their attention to new aspects, and lead the way to new experiences, which will then have significance because their relationship to the old is realized. The home plays spontaneously engaged in by children in the play period, offer unending opportunities for devel- oping through discussions an understanding of the social relationships involved. If organized around this axis, THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 141 matters of food, clothing, and shelter are seen to be integrally related to vital experience. The family has the responsibility of fulfilling certain functions if social life is to be sustained. The important question is: what does the family need to keep itself going as a social organization? It must possess itself of material goods to satisfy its needs. Hence one of the first undertakings of the family is providing a shelter and making such addi- tions to it as will provide not only the necessities of life, but those that will make possible a desirable form of social life. It is essential if any fixed and orderly rela- tions are to result, for the family to establish permanent relations with the land. Consideration of this matter will involve showing how the environmental factor enters in to modify the satisfaction of human needs. The home is adapted not only to environmental but to economic conditions. In order that the home may be maintained certain activities must be engaged in to support it. Money must be earned not only for present necessities, but enough to provide against future emergencies. The family will then be seen to have a direct relation to the production of wealth. In order that the family may the more ade- quately satisfy its needs, a certain division of labor and certain forms of cooperation have been worked out in home relations. Individual rights are respected, but there are certain duties, indispensable to social harmony, re- quired of each member of the family. A certain regula- tory system has been evolved for maintaining social order. The home is not, however, an isolated unit complete in itself. Home life connects up with the community at innumerable points. They are inextricably bound to- gether. Each family by virtue of some economic arrange- ment receives through the channels of transportation the material goods necessary to carry on its life. The direct connection between the home and community may be made by making a study of the needs of the family and the means that have been established in community life for satisfying them. The home forms immediate contacts with a great many persons — ^the grocer, the milkman, the 142 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL carpenter, and so on — who weave a network connecting the home and the community. Each person considered is seen to touch a great many other persons each of whom is rendering some service. For instance the carpenter is able to give all his time to building because the grocer, the tailor and a number of other people provide him with food, clothing and all the other things that he needs. Consideration of these people leads to endless inquiries about the people who do this work : how they live, where they get their products, what they earn, what their prob- lems are, leading further and further into the industrial and social life of the community and exemplifying the principles of division of labor and cooperation. From their trips into the neighborhood the children will perhaps at first gain a general confused impression of activity as characteristic of social life. The streets are filled with people going in various directions, wagons and trucks are threading the streets, and so on. The child *'. . . knows the railroad with its long trains of freight cars which load and unload at the station; the fast ex- press that stops scarcely a moment to let oif and take on passengers. If he lives near a large river, the steamers and sailing vessels are familiar objects, and these, he knows, carry goods and passengers like the trains. Maybe there is a canal near his home on which the long, clumsy- looking boats are towed by horses and mules. In the village or town in which he lives there are buildings of many kinds — great factories and mills where things are made and grain is ground into flour, stores where things are sold, homes, and schools and churches. Then there are the farms about the neighborhood with their broad fields of wheat and corn, and their cattle and horses. No matter where he turns he sees work of some kind going on. Some of the people are buying goods, others selling them ; some work in the mills, others on the farms, some run the boats and trains, others are building houses or quarrying rocks or cutting down the trees and sawing them up into lumber. Everywhere it is work, and the child soon learns that he must work in order to live." (S. Trotter, The Social Func- THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 143 tion of Geography, National Herbart Society, Fourth Year Book, p. 64.) To the child it should appear that he is learning about people and what they are doing, but as the study of the community progresses this seemingly chaotic activity should be seen to be dominated by fundamental purposes, and the great majority of men to take definite places in a great social organization. The story of a community is the story of how men cooperate to supply their needs. This concept should be developed not in any case by statements or generalizations, but by constantly drawing the attention of children to the innumerable concrete in- stances about them that illustrate the principle. The activities carried on by the children in school and their trips into the neighborhood offer constant opportunity for giving insight through discussion into the mechanism of social life. The general plan should be to lay a broad basis in experience by inductive methods, and to make deductions whenever sufficient illustrations have been met to warrant summarizing. For instance, when a sufficient number of people supplying us with food have come to the children's notice, it might be well to make a summary of all the people who supply us with food, and thus show our dependence on others for food. The same procedure could be followed with other topics. Or, after sufficient knowledge has accumulated through experience, it might be well to summarize by considering a meal and seeing all the dependencies involved in it — or in a day's experi- ence from morning till night. The study of the community should include not only a consideration of the provisions for satisfying man's material needs, but also those for elevating social life. The relationship between social life and its economic basis should be constantly pointed out. Political institutions should be viewed as the means evolved to regulate social life so that it may develop most advantageously. The study of the community as a whole when it has reached that point might be summarized as a community survey. For older children who understand the significance of 144 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL maps, the making of a social map of the neighborhood showing the location of stores, factories, parks, railroads, and all the other provisions for supplying community needs, is an impressive way of summarizing the social resources of the neighborhood. Following is a tabular statement of the typical way in which a community attempts to satisfy its needs. Since a community is such a complicated network, in which many elements overlap, it is difficult to reduce it to any classified form. This classification is not intended to be anything more than a suggestion which may perhaps be helpful in clarifying the idea. COMMUNITY RESPONSES TO FAMILY NEEDS Needs Responses I. Economic (Physical Needs) , Production ■ ' Farming Dairying Fishing Foods (kinds) \ Tra,n sf ormation Slaughter Canning Factories , Bakeries, etc. Transportation (See special heading) Distribution . . . - f Markets I Grocery stores, etc. Preparation Cooking Serving Cotton-raising 1 Production Flax-raising Silk culture Sheep and cattle raising Clothing (kinds and accessories) Transformation- Transportation (s Distribution — De -Factories, etc. ee special heading) partment stores, etc. '■ Dressmakers .Making Tailors . Milliners, etc. THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 145 Need* Shelter (and furnishings) Responses {Lumbering Mining Quarrying, etc. /MUls 1 Glass-making, etc. Transportation. (see special heading) Builders Transformation , Supply. Supply stores Contractors , Architects ' Streets Roads Railroads Water traffic , Vehicles Banks ■ Brokers, etc. Insurance II. Social (Need for Social Intercourse) r Post office Transportation Conservation of Wealth Communication Education. Recreation. ReHgion. Pathological Phenomena Telephone Telegraph Wireless Newspaper . Books, etc. {Schools Colleges Libraries, etc. ' Clubs Theatres Movmg Pictures Art Galleries Music Parks f Churches \ Charity Organizations f Insane asylums \ Poor houses, etc. 146 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL III. Political (The Means of Regulating I and II). Needs Responses 1. Against fire — Fire depart- ment. Garbage Sewerage Protection and 2. Against Drainage defence of life < disease Board of and property Health Hospitals 3. Against r Police de- anti- social -j partment persons [ Jails (Laws Courts Lawyers, etc. A knowledge of the physical characteristics of the neighborhood, should be developed as they are observed in their effect upon the life of the community. In con- nection with the occupations carried on in the neighbor- hood, the children may be led to discover the reason for their location in the physical advantages afforded. Con- sideration of the absence of certain necessities in the neighborhood and the reason for their absence will make clear the necessity for transportation and commerce. In tracing necessities to their sources and discussing the geographic conditions necessary to their growth and manufacture, we may gradually build up a concept of the influence of nature upon the life of man, and of the interdependence of people not only upon the home neigh- borhood but upon the whole world. The complexity of contemporary social life is, however, so great that it is difficult for children to grasp its funda- mental significance, so that it is frequently necessary to analyze the situation into simpler elements. By going back into the past and showing how various social ar- rangements came into existence in response to man's needs, and by tracing their development step by step, their present complex aspect may be explained. It is for this reason that the study of primitive life is of great THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 147 importance in throwing light upon the origin of a number of the necessities of our every day life. It may be taken up with great profit in connection with the study of community life. Such a motive indeed presents the only legitimate excuse for undertaking the study, and suggests the type of work to be undertaken. In primitive life we have man of a rather simple type in direct contact with the forces of nature, and face to face with fundamental economic and social problems. It is easy for even young children to grasp the significance of the situation, and to appreciate the ingenuity and inventive genius of man, by which he brings the forces and resources of nature under the control of his purposes, and thus lays the founda- tion for our own supremacy. By such a study children may lay a broad basis for understanding the economic foundations of their own community life. If undertaken for this purpose the work will take on a more serious aspect than is characteristic of such work in many schools, where the object seems to be nothing more than to interest children in the picturesque and bizarre features of primi- tive life. It will suggest, too, a substitution of more scientific reading matter for many of the school texts which give a highly diluted if not altogether false idea of the period. Fortunately we have a wealth of anthro- pological material which enables us to see our customs, usages, and social institutions in early stages of develop- ment, to see how they came into being, and what their reflex was in advancing social life. And there are a number of good books written for children based upon authoritative sources. The children should be led to re- produce imaginatively the situation of the people under consideration. They should be made fully acquainted with the conditions under which they lived, and brought face to face with the same problems. They may then try to find solutions to these problems, and by constant comparison between their solutions and those of the people studied, they may gain a vivid realization of the ingenuity of primitive peoples in thinking out solutions to their problems. Step by step they can trace the needs 148 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL that called forth certain modes of activity; they can be led to understand how each successive invention lifted man to a higher social plane and enabled him to conquer new forces of nature hitherto undiscovered ; they can see the beginnings of those fundamental laws of associated living — division of labor and cooperation in a common cause. Consideration of how men have subjugated nature by learning its secrets, how they have learned to coooperate with one another for common ends, gives the key to the study of history; it gives some principle of selection among the great mass of material that is now available, indicating what is essential and what is trivial in the mass of facts that have come down to us from the past. **When history is conceived as dynamic, as moving, its economic and industrial aspects are emphasized. These are but technical terms which express the problem with which humanity is unceasingly engaged; how to live, how to master and use nature so as to make it tributary to the enrichment of human life. The great advances in civilization have come through those manifestations of intelligence which have lifted man from his precarious subjection to nature, and revealed to him how he may make its forces cooperate with his own purposes. The social world in which the child now lives is so rich and full that it is not easy to see how much it cost, how much effort and thought lie back of it. Man has a tremendous equipment ready at hand. The child may be led to trans- late these ready-made resources into fluid terms; he may be led to see man face to face with nature, without in- herited capital, without tools, without manufactured ma- terials. And, step by step, he may follow the processes by which man recognized the needs of his situation, thought out the weapons and instruments thai enable him to cope with them ; and may learn how these new resources opened new horizons of growth and created new problems. ' ' (John Dewey, The School and Society y pp. 156-157.*) Such *By permission University of Chicago Press. Copyriglit 1900 by The University of Chicago. Copyright 1900 and 1915 by John Dewey. THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 149 a method of historical study is valuable in giving the child an insight into what might be called the technique of progress. Since the object of historical study is not an enumeration of the various external changes that have taken place in the past, as is the case when history is conceived of as chronology, it is not necessary with young children, at least, that historical sequence be observed. Whenever prob- lems arise with reference to the child's natural and social environment which require the use of historical subject- matter for their solution, the subject-matter may be selected from the racial experiences of any age. Whenever a study of past conditions is made, care should be exercised to bring the minds of the children back to the present situa- tion. Constant comparisons between the present and the past will bring out the advance in social conditions brought about by historical changes. Besides the study of primitive life local history also becomes of great importance in explaining community char- acteristics. It may be developed by means of trips to places of historic interest in the neighborhood, and by studying real historic documents and relics in museums and other places. Such work is valuable in giving children experience in the methods of real historical inquiry and research, and in doing away with the idea that history is something which resides in books. These vivid first hand contacts with the industrial, social and political life that touch the child on every hand should furnish a wealth of facts from which rational relation- ships should be realized in the complex world in which the child finds himself. If the study of the home community has been developed in accordance with the requirements of the dynamic point of view, children will not be left with the idea that the community is a static organization. Through historical study they will come to look upon society as an evolving process dependent upon the interaction of certain forces. The value of the genetic method of studying history is precisely that it contributes to this point of view. The children should see their present community as the outcome 150 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL of the interplay of certain social forces in the past. They should be led to see that there are certain conditions and problems which have been created by the growing com- plexity of social life, and which we have as yet not been successful in solving. In discussions of these problems points of view should be developed as to methods of solving them. READING TJie Social Studies in Secondary Education. U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1916, No. 28. The Teacliing of Community Civics. U. S. Bureau of Edu- cation, Bulletin, 1915, No. 23. Aronovici, C. — The Social Survey, Harper Press, Phila. Byington, M. — What Social Workers Should Know about Their Own Communities, Russell Sage Foundation. Camp, K. B. — Primitive History in Primary Groups of the Laboratory School, Elementary School Teacher, October, 1903. Dana, J. C. — The Study of a City in the Schools of That City, Pedagogical Seminary, 1911. Dewey, John. — The School and Society. University of Chicago Press. Chap. VIII. The Aim of History in Elementary Education. Dunn, a. "W. — Civic Education in Elementary Schools as Illustrated in Indianxipolis, U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1915, No. 17. Hill, M. — The Teaching of Civics, Houghton. Todd, A. J. — The Teaching of Sociology to Undergraduates, Proceedings American Sociological Society, 1918. Trotter, S. — The Social Function of Geography, National Herbart Society, Fourth Year Book. Our National Life. — The laboratory study of the home community developed through first-hand information repre- sents a type study showing the social elements in a com- munity as responses for the more effective satisfaction of the common needs of the people in it. The information so THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 151 gained acts as a body of reference material valuable in understanding places at a distance. By constant compar- ison of regions further away with the home community, in which likenesses and differences are noted and the reason for them sought, it is possible to develop an understanding of places not in the immediate experience of the children. Certain social facts will be seen to be common to all com- munities; others will be seen to be characteristic of the peculiar conditions of the place under consideration. By this process we can gradually build up the child's relation- ship to city, nation, and the world. Among the larger social units to be early considered is our own country, since it is the one with which the child through his own travels and those of his family and friends has probably already first-hand experience, and it is the one with which his later experience will be most intimately concerned and about wliich it is necessary for him to have more detailed basic knowledge. When the United States is studied as so much geography, so much history, so much civil government, the knowledge thus gained tends to remain stratified ; it is not organized into a unity that gives a conception of national life as an organic whole. National life may be looked upon as a form of social life that is organized into a political unity. It is the result of the interplay of many factors, but they may all, perhaps, be looked upon as the result of the interaction of the following: (1) The People (that is, a people with a certain experience back of them, which has resulted in a certain cultural inheritance and certain cultural ideals)^ (2) The Territory (that is, the peculiar features of the land inhabited, which offer certain obstacles or advantages to economic and social development). (3) The Form of Government (that is, the type of regulatory control worked out in order to facilitate relations between (1) and (2) ). The study of the United States, then, should be the study of the particular form of nationality developed here in this particular territory offering certain national advantages and disadvantages, and of the type of political control worked out as the result of our peculiar national conditions. 152 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL The study should broaden out into a wide survey of our industrial and social institutions with accompanying en- vironmental explanations. Care should be taken not to develop the idea that the United States is an isolated unit ; on the contrary, it should be seen to be bound at innumer- able points to all the other nations of the world by the strong bonds of economic dependence. Explanation of every point discussed makes constant recourse to history inevitable. Here again precautions should be taken to show the close connection between America and the rest of the world. America was discovered ^ by Europeans in their effort to find a shorter route to India and the riches of the East; it has been built up by suc- cessive waves of migration from Europe, and its population is being constantly fed by a steady stream of immigration from all nations. *'The early history of our country as usually told is little more than the narrative of the exploits of Columbus, Ponce de Leon, De Soto, Champlain, Mar- quette, Joilet, La Salle, John Smith, and a host of other men who stand out as discoverers and explorers. . . . The economic and industrial condition of Europe, which was the direct cause of the period of discovery ; the fact that America was never sought, but stumbled on ; that when found it was not wanted; that much of its exploration v/as due to per- sistent efforts to get a way around it, to discover a northwest or a southwest passage to India, are lost sight of in the doings of particular men. . . . The motive for discovery, the effect of discovery upon the geographical ideas of the time, the reasons why the four great maritime powers of Europe came into possession of our country, why the Dutch acquired the Hudson, the Spaniards occupied our Gulf Coast, the English the Atlantic Coast, and the French the Great Lakes and the Mississippi, and the profound and lasting influence this particular arrangement of European settlers had on our later history, these are the things it concerns us to know, rather than the doings of particular men and the Indian wars of particular colonies. **A knowledge of the industrial and economic condition of Europe and Great Britain again is necessary to a correct THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 153 understanding of the period of colonization ; what drove the settlers to Jamestown and Quebec, what sort of people they were, what customs, usages, institutions, political ideas they brought and planted in the new world, is all important . . . The steady movement of the English westward from the Atlantic; the spread of the French into the valley of the Mississippi and their occupation of it to the headwaters of the Ohio ; the great difference in the manner of occupation by these two peoples, the French building forts and taking military occupation; the English building towns, opening up farms and taking possession by actual settlement, the effect this difference had on the long struggle for possession,, are rarely, if ever, presented to the school-boy. . . . '*He should see our country as it was when Washington was first inaugurated, a country vast in extent with its people gathered on a narrow strip along the seaboard and just beginning their march westward; he should see them destitute of manufactures, of machines, of great industries, of easy and rapid means of communication; he should see the arts and sciences in a rudimentary state, and he should see the differences in habits, customs, occupations, which were peculiar to the people of the eastern states, the middle states and the south. The attention of the student should be called to the fact that innumerable trades, occupations, industries, professions, callings that now afford a livelihood to millions of people had then no existence; that articles and conveniences with which he is perfectly familiar and which have come to be looked on as necessities of life were then unknown, and that the lot of every man in every walk of life was far harder than at present. When this condition has been shown and understood, the boy should follow step by step the wonderful progress from what was to what is. He should see our people hurrying westward in three great streams pushing the frontier before them across the Mississippi Valley, the Mississippi River, over the great plains to the Pacific, building cities, founding states, developing the resources of our country. He should Bee the northern stream engaged in a thousand forms of diversified industry, and the southern stream ignoring com- 154 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL merce and manufactures and devoting its energies to grow- ing cotton and tobacco, and he should be made to see how from these two opposite economic conditions grew in time two separate and distinct people, with utterly different ideas, institutions, customs, and purposes in life, and when this has been made clear to him he will understand the Civil War. To present such a history in slices four years thick and labelled with the names of presidents, or as a dry record of Congress and the doings of the political leaders of the hour is to destroy its meaning and render it valueless. To tell a child that Fulton invented the steamboat, Howe the sewing-machine, Morse the telegraph, Hoe the steam printing-press. Bell the telephone, Goodyear vulcanized India-rubber, is idle if the story stops there. The thing to be impressed upon him is that these great inventions and discoveries . . . have bettered the condition of civilized men everywhere, and are contributions to human welfare made by America." (J. B. McMaster, The Social Function of United States History. National Herbart Society, Fourth Year Book, pp. 26-30.*) As American history is frequently taught, the seeds of dislike and distrust of other nations are often sown. The pupil * * can proceed through his course of American history with no suspicion of Europe save as a place from which discoverers set sail and colonists departed, and as the abode of men whose evil plans got good Americans into wars, and whose affairs and governments in general are such that the less Americans have to do with them the better. ... It must be taught for what it is — ^largely a reflection of Euro- pean movements and problems . . . which are still affected by every change in the life of Europe, and which correspond to what is going on all over the world because of the opera- tion of world-wide forces. . . . Our own past history appears as a drama between the angels of light and the demons of darkness, between forces of freedom and enslave- ment, where victory has ever been on the side of the right. Our constitution and institutions generally are the embodi- *By permiBsion Public School Publishing Company, Bloomington, IllinoiB. Copyright 1898 by Chas. A. McMurry. THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 155 ment of the achieved and final victory of good ... we do need some way of making intellectually clear that there never was* a struggle between pure good and pure evil; and that there is now, as there always has been, a struggle between interests entrenched in law, institutions, and social conven- tion, and the requirements of further enlightenment and emancipation." (John Dewey, The Schools and Social Pre- paredness, The New Republic, May 6, 1916, pp. 15-16.*) An understanding of the real significance of our national his- tory, a realization of how our national ideals have been built up, is essential to a rational solution of present-day problems, and as a background for the better organization of social and economic conditions so that the nation may be better able to do its work in the world. We must have a clear understanding of what Americanism is, or we shall scarcely be successful in our efforts to further it. READING Dewey, John. — Nationalizing Education, Addresses and Proceedings of the National Education Association, 1916. Dewey, John. — The Schools, and Social Preparedness^ New Republic, May 6, 1916. McMaster, J. B. — The Social Function of United States History, National Herbart Society, Fourth Year Book. The Study of Other Nations. — Just as the home com- munity is a type for understanding the community ele- ments of any place far away, the national unit becomes a type for the study of other nationalities. The study of social life in other countries has become a part of the cur- riculum of many elementary schools, beginning quite early with stories of child life in various parts of the world. Too often in selecting these studies the picturesque and bizarre features of other nations are specialized — such as the wooden shoes and windmills of the Dutch, the quaint cus- toms of Japanese home life, and the like. There is great *By permission The New Republic. 156 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL danger that the over-emphasis of these features may give a very incorrect impression of the life of foreign peoples. A more rational standard for studying foreign nations would be something inherent in the experience of the children. There are innumerable points of contact between the ex- perience of children and conditions in remote parts of the world which can be made the starting-point of instruction. In the case of children of foreign-born parents, this might be the consideration of the lands from which they came to America; current events furnish constant connections that might be made use of; and the study of the home com- munity and our own country leads constantly to foreign countries in tracing the things we need in our homes to the places where they originated. These points of contact can easily be made use of to extend the experience of the chil- dren to a consideration of the types of social life in various parts of the world which are responses to varying environ- mental and cultural conditions. Constant comparison of points of similarity and difference should lead to a broader and broader comprehension of the bases upon which various forms of social life rest. The study of the industrial con- nection between various nations ought to give an idea of the whole world inevitably bound together by the ties of eco- nomic necessity. Ideas of present conditions should be strengthened by constant excursions into the past for explanations. A study of the people of various nations and their origin and development, alone leads to comprehension of their various characteristics. Gradually out of such historical study there should develop a realization of the great events that have worked together for the civilization of the world, and of the particular contributions of the great nations of the past. In this way the children may come to understand under what conditions and in what directions we may pro- gress most rapidly. ** Society is to-day engaged in a tremendous and unprecedented effort to better itself in manifold ways. . . . The part that each of us can play in forwarding some phase of this reform will depend upon our understanding of existing conditions and opinion, and these THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 157 can only be explained, as has been shown, by following more or less carefully the processes that produced them. We must develop historical-mindedness on a far more generous scale than hitherto, for this will add a still deficient element in our intellectual equipment and will promote rational progress as nothing else can do. The present has hitherto been the willing victim of the past ; the time has now come when it should turn on the past and exploit it in the interests of advance." (J. H. Robinson, The New History, pp. 23-24.) By a study of national histories, by reading for enjoy- ment the literature and folk-lore of the peoples studied, by listening to their music, by learning of their customs, laws, religion, and scientific achievements, and their contributions to art — by thus relieving the life of any people and appre- ciating their problems and their accomplishments, the chil- dren will come to have an intelligent regard for that people. They will see the ideals and characteristics of one nation, not as better or worse than ours, but as different — the out- come of a specific set of conditions. They should gain an idea of the value of these characteristics not as forces to separate people, but to unite them, giving a variety to social life that would otherwise be lacking. It is only by such study that a narrow provincial interpretation of patriotism can be made to give way to a bigger, broader conception of it. "In all our thoughts we think in terms of our own social environment. But the activities of the human mind exhibit an infinite variety of form among the peoples of the world. In order to understand these clearly, the student must endeavor to divest himself entirely of opinions and emotions based upon the peculiar social environment into which he is bom. He must adapt his own mind, so far as feasible, to that of the people whom he is studying. The more successful he is in freeing himself from the bias based on the group of ideas that constitute the civilization in which he lives, the more successful he will be in interpreting the beliefs and actions of man. He must follow lines of thought that are new to him. He must participate in new emotions, and understand how, under unwonted conditions, both lead to actions. Beliefs, customs, and the response of 158 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL the individual to the events of daily life, give us ample opportunity to observe the manifestations of the mind of man under varying conditions." (Franz Boas, The Mind of Primitive Man, pp. 97-98.) Mr. Clarence Kingsley has given in '^ School and Society" a suggestive account of how this kind of study might be conducted in school: ''The class would begin with the study of the Russian people of to-day, their social institutions, their industrial and agricultural organization, their manners and customs, and their national character- istics as revealed in their present-day contributions to the arts and sciences. We would then turn to the his- torian and ask him to tell us what he can about the events and causes that have made the people what they are to-day. We have here a basis for the selection of significant his- torical material. We would then turn to the geographer and we would ask him to tell us what he can about the elements in the geographical location that have helped in the making of this people. Our study of the Russian people would not, however, end here, but instead the really fruitful part would begin at this point, for the class would now be in a position to gain some conception of the possible development of this nation in the family of nations. And then in view of this compre- hensive study, they should discuss the relations that should exist between our nation and the Russian people as a nation. . . . ''We should not, however, omit a study of typical back- ward peoples. I would use the term backward rather than semi-civilized because the term backward is consistent with an ethical attitude toward these peoples; for in our study of them we should lay particular stress upon the attempt to find in them the possibilities that will, if they are properly treated, lead them to make their own distinctive contribution to civilization. . . . "The danger to be avoided above all others is the ten- dency to claim that one nation has a sweeping superiority over others. The claim of such superiority among nations as among individuals is a sure cause of irreconcilable THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 159 hatred. The cure for this narrow and partisan attitude is to be found in the broad conception that humanity is greater than any one nation. "The idea should be developed that every nation has, or may have,, something of worth to contribute to other nations and to humanity as a whole, and that consequently human- ity would be incomplete and one-sided without that contri- bution. This conception, when thoroughly inculcated, would lead to a national respect of other nations, and would cause us to regard the continued existence and development of all nations as essential to the development of civilization. We cannot expect that a principle so fundamental and comprehensive can be inculcated in the abstract, but through a specific study of many nations, the achievements and possibilities of each of which have been studied in the concrete, this idea may become established. ' ' This conception of the supplementary value of the dis- similarities of different nations and peoples, together with the ideal of human brotherhood which is generally thought of in terms of essential similarity, should do much to estab- lish genuine internationalism, free from sentimentality, founded on fact, and actually operative in the affairs of nations. . . . While the pupil may not learn very much history as such from this new course, the history he does learn will be organized around problems that are of vital importance to-day, and the teachers will have need of all the knowledge, historical, sociological and geographical, that they possess and can acquire about the people to be studied. . . . * ' . . . the results which I believe should follow from this study when organized rightly and conducted in the proper spirit: (1) It would tend to reduce friction in international relations, as such friction often results from popular clamor born of a lack of understanding of foreign nations. Our friendly relations with Japan have been jeopardized hy just such clamor. (2) It would help us to a truer understanding and appreciation of the foreigners who come to our shores. Our assimilation of immigrants is seriously retarded because so few of us understand them. (3) It would lead us to be 160 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL more helpful in oiir I'elations with backward peoples, be- cause it would help us to value them on the basis of their latent possibilities rather than on a basis of their small present achievement. This gain would be of special value in dealing with the Negro and the Indian. (4) It would rid us of the false conceit which prevents us, on the one hand, from criticizing ourselves, and, on the other hand, from profiting by the achievements of other nations. For instance, we fail to see ourselves as the South American countries see us, and we have been slow to learn the lessons of cooperative enterprises that we could learn from Den- mark. (5) Other nations, recognizing our breadth of spirit and willingness to adopt their achievements, would in turn be all the more ready to adopt the national ideas for which we stand.'' (C. D. Kingsley, The Study of Nations: Its Possibilities as a Social Study, School and Society, Jan. 8, 1916, pp. 38-41.*) Education has been made to serve the cause of national competition ; it can be made to serve the cause of national cooperation. It is especially necessary to the well-being of American social life that American children should be brought up with this ideal, since America is by its very make-up a compound of a great variety of peoples. Unless this attitude is developed by schools, national and social antagonisms will continue to flourish within our own bor- ders, and it will be impossible to work out any adequate means for people of various racial stock to work har- moniously together. Moreover, we must have a more rational estimate of the national integrity and the legiti- mate aspirations of the various nations, if we are to be in any way prepared to cope with the closer and closer inter- national relations that will develop in the future. We must learn to see beneath the varied expressions of nationality an essential human likeness; we must gain a consciousness of the common aims and interests of mankind. It is only by establishing common bonds of sympathy between nations that we can look forward with any assurance of security to •By permission The Science Press. THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 161 a time when ''peace and good will toward men'* will flourish upon the earth. READiisra KiNGSLEY, C. D. — The Study of Nations: School and So- ciety, January 8, 1916. Tuelij, H. E. — TJie Study of Nations, History Teachers Magazine, October, 1917. TuELL, H. E. — The Study of Nations, an Experiment in Social Education, Houghton. Social Philosophy The term philosophy, associated as it is in our minds with a particularly advanced and remote type of human being, may seem like a large term to use in connection with the affairs of little children; but it is one of the functions of the dynamic point of view to restore philosophy to experience. According to the new point of view ''philosophy is a method, not a remote standard of reference." Social life presents numerous conflicts and apparent inconsistencies, and our experiences stand out as so many isolated and detached fragments unless we connect them through processes of reflection into a philosophic con- cept. Every action is presumably based upon a philosophic assumption of some kind, however vaguely it may be defined : it involves a summing up of past experience and evaluating it for use in a present situation ; it includes some thought of future consequences. There is an innate ten- dency of the human mind to make such evaluations and syntheses of experience, from the unconscious grcpings of the little child to the purposeful consideration and reflec- tion of the mature person. The ability to penetrate beneath every-day life, to see relationships, to harmonize apparent conflicts, to view the events of experience as part of a great related scheme should be consciously developed by education. It should aid pupils in organizing information into some signiflcant whole that should act as a working theory of life. This 162 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL synthesis is often left to chance, to the planless effort of the maturing pupil to form into some coherent whole the phe- nomena which his daily life presents. When this is omitted, one of the most serious responsibilities of education is neglected. **If we are willing to conceive education as the process of forming fundamental dispositions, intellectual and emotional, toward nature and fellow-men, philosophy may even be defined as the general theory of education. Unless a philosophy is to remain symbolic — or verbal — or a sentimental indulgence for a few, or else mere arbitrary dogma, its auditing of past experience and its program of values must take effect in conduct. ... On the other side, the business of schooling tends to become a routine empir- ical affair unless its aims and methods are animated by such a broad and sympathetic survey of its place in contem- porary life as it is the business of philosophy to provide.'* (John Dewey, Democracy and E'ducation, pp. 383-384.) The study of existing social life, beginning with the home community and radiating through the world, supple- mented by a knowledge of how it has been built up through the workings of . great evolutionary forces, furnishes a wealth of facts from which should emerge a consciousness of the social factors that make or mar social life, and of the great social problems as yet unsolved. The aim of this synthesis is to give children an accurate knowledge of the needs and possibilities of society as a basis for social en- deavor. It is the function of education, then, to restore philosophy to life. The kind of philosophy here meant is itself dy- namic, evolving with experience, growing with maturity, and challenged and revised always by the new facts con- stantly contributed by a developing experience. It is, moreover, not an individualistic nor abstract affair, but a matter of the reflective adjustment of the individual to his social environment. A person's philosophy might be looked upon as the threads that weave the individual into the fabric of the social pattern. In school life this philosophic development can perhaps best be secured through group discussions. By such a method there will gradually be THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 163 built up in the group a common body of socially useful points of view, constantly modified to be sure, but acting as a standard of reference by which day to day events and conditions may be judged. An enlightened public opinion can thus be developed within the group as a motive force to control. This is the foundation upon which later more mature judgments may most safely rest. READING Dewey, John. — Article on Philosopliy of Education, Cy- clopaedia of Education. Macmillan. Dewey, John. — Democracy and Education^ Macmillan. Chap. XXIV. Philosophy of Education. Moral Education The educational aim is not fulfilled even with the development in the minds of its pupils of a conscious social philosphy. Social intelligence must eventuate in fruitful and enlightened social action. A social philosophy which does not affect conduct is sterile, if not posi- tively immoral. If social progress is to be effected, the working philosophy of life must go over into some kind of action that will bring about social improvement. Intel- lectual appreciation must therefore involve a sensitiveness to obligation, and the development of a disposition and an ability to act with other people for the common good. If we conceive of intelligence as the ability to look ahead, to forecast the result of this or that kind of action, we must attach responsibility for the action determined upon. In- creasing ability to direct changes brings with it increasing responsibility to make these changes in accordance with the best good of the group. This discussion indicates the responsibility of the school in regard to moral training. Moral training has always been regarded as part of the school's business, but it has been looked upon from an entirely formal point of view. It has been supposed to be developed sometimes through a series of lessons in ethics ; sometimes courses in story-telling 164 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL and ' * memory gems ' ' have been devised for this purpose ; his- tory is sometimes looked to to supply moral training. * * Our conceptions of moral education have been too narrow, too formal, and too pathological. We have associated the term ethical with certain special acts which are labeled virtues and are set off from the mass of other acts, and are still more divorced from the habitual images and motives of the children performing them. Moral instruction is thus asso- ciated with teaching about these particular virtues, or with instilling certain sentiments in regard to them." (John Dewey, Moral Principles in Education, pp. 42-43.) Much of our educational malpractice in regard to moral training is due, as Professor Dewey points out, to our fail- ure to distinguish between moral ideas and ideas about morality. ** 'Moral ideas* are ideas of any sort whatsoever, which take effect in conduct and improve it, make it better than it otherwise would be. Similarly, one may say, im- moral ideas are ideas of whatever sort (whether arith- metical or geographical or physiological) which show them- selves in making behavior worse than it would otherwise be; and non-moral ideas, one may say, are such ideas and pieces of information as leave conduct uninfluenced for either the better or the worse. Now 'ideas about morality' may be morally indifferent or immoral or moral. There is nothing in the nature of ideas ahout morality, of informa- tion about honesty or purity or kindness which automat- ically transmutes such ideas into good character or good conduct. . . . ''The business of the educator — ^whether parent or teacher — ^is to see to it that the greatest possible number of ideas acquired by children and youth are acquired in such a vital way that they become moving ideas, motive-forces in the guidance of conduct. This demand and this opportunity make the moral purpose universal and dominant in all in- struction — ^whatsoever the topic. Were it not for this pos- sibility, the familiar statement that the ultimate purpose of all education is character-forming would be hypocritical pretense; for as everyone knows, the direct and immediate attention of teachers and pupils must be, for the greater THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 165 part of the time, upon intellectual matters." (John Dewey, Moral Principles in Education, pp. 1-2.*) The moral code of the race has been gradually built up out of its experience, as an effective method of forwarding social advancement. Society has learned to approve those actions which tend to the advantage of the community. The moral creed of a particular group is nothing more than the conviction implanted in the minds of its members of the propriety of the manner of life imposed upon them. The standards thus evolved represent public opinion as to what is right and just. The moral is the social; the immoral is the anti-social. Any moral idea found to be socially valu- able is retained, those found to be no longer relevant to the social situation are gradually eliminated; those which are universally applicable remain as a permanent part of the moral code. The foregoing discussions reveal the moral value of activity in education. Since our moral standards are not something remote from experience but engendered by ex- perience itself, moral training cannot be inculcated by giving children a set of maxims ; it must be gained through the give and take of social life itself. To provide a child with a set of maxims is to bind him an unthinking slave to the past ; to give him the power to realize the moral implica- tions of his own conduct and to evolve a code of ethics for evaluating social experience, from the experience in which he is himself engaging, is to make of him an active agent of civilization. It is for this reason that activities in school are a fundamental necessity in guiding conduct. They give opportunity for situations that bring about moral training through experience itself. A school regime that encourages the passive absorption of knowledge for its own sake, that isolates pupils into individual units and emphasizes compe- tition, that makes communication among pupils a sin, is training up its pupils in a code of ethics which is not in accordance with what is advocated in life outside of school, and it fails to take advantage of the two great opportunities *By permission Houghton MiflSin Co. Copyright 1909 by John Dewey. 166 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL for moral training of life in a social group — ike training in cooperation and social sympathy. The participation of even small children, however, in projects of common inter- est to them calls for cooperation with all the moral training that it involves. The experience of a child in the company of his fellows is the best moral training he can have. Social disapproval has a quick and direct way of reforming con- duct that is worth a dozen homilies or moral lessons. We must interpret moral character more scientifically, more psychologically and adjust our pedagogical action accord- ingly. Moral character must be regarded as an organic growth, not a series of specific achievements. It is devel- oped through the formation of habits, through experiences. It is a disposition to order one's conduct with reference to the welfare of others. It is only through constantly meeting situations that give opportunity for the exercise of moral ideas that these habits and this attitude can be developed. Discipline from this point of view means not external com- pulsion, but inner control. Moral preference is exercised only in making a choice. It is only when there is freedom to act, to act wrongly or rightly, that any moral issue is involved. Otherwise the intelligence has no opportunity to discern right from wrong; the disposition to do right has no chance to function positively. We cannot develop in children a sense of responsibility to act rightly when we deny them freedom of choice as to their actions. Ethical conduct is socially regulated activity, and it is evolved only by social experience in an environment freed from external control. The question of civics is closely related to this matter. Civics teaching as it is to-day conducted is far less effective in its reflex upon social action than it might be. Isolated as it is, just a ''subject" crowded into a curriculum with many others, it often fails to impress the child with a sense of reality. **To isolate the formal relationship of citizenship from the whole system of relations with which it is actually inter- woven; to suppose that there is some one particular study or mode of treatment which can make the child a good ' THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 167 citizen; to suppose, in other words, that a good citizen is anything more than a thoroughly efficient and serviceable member of society, one with all his powers of mind and body under control, is a hampering superstition which it is hoped may soon disappear from educational discussion." (John Dewey, Moral Principles in Education, p. 9.) When the school is organized as a social community in which is being built up a body of facts as a basis for social action, when desirable attitudes and dispositions are being developed with regard to social matters, when this social philosophy has continual opportunity to function in situa- tions engendered by the school experience, all the resources of the school are being utilized for realizing the social mis- sion of education. The school cannot be a preparation for social life unless it reproduces within itself the conditions of social life. Education progressing in a school organized as a social laboratory is not merely a preparation for citi- zenship, it is an apprenticeship in citizenship. A concep- tion of morality built up as the outgrowth of such experi- ence will not be merely an abstraction residing in books or consisting of a collection of precepts; it will be a living thing pulsing through the very heart of social action. EEADING Dewey, John. — Democracy and Education, Macmillan. Chap. XXVI. Theories of Morals. Dewey, John. — Moral Principles in Education, Houghton. KiLPATRiCK, W. H. — The Project Method, Teachers College Record, September, 1918. The Function of the Various Subjects of Study in Expanding Experience The foregoing discussions of the development of a course of study based upon and controlled at every point by psychological and social considerations, have involved all the subjects of study, and an effort has been made to show how they may enter functionally into the educational situa- tion. It is necessary, however, for the teacher to have a 168 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL very clear conception of the educational significance of each subject, and of their relation to one another, in order that these subjects may become in her hands a free and flexible instrument to be used as needed. It may be well, therefore, to include here a brief summary of the specific contributions made by the various subjects in expanding experience. Placing ourselves at the standpoint of the developing child, we may roughly classify subject-matter under three head- ings: (1) Active pursuits, (2) Subjects which give social background for these pursuits, (3) The tool subjects. (1) Active Pursuits. — If education is to proceed in accordance with the demands of child biology and psychol- ogy it follows that the central core of the curriculum must be those studies which may be looked upon not so much as studies as active pursuits, or the natural modes by which learning takes place. The child is essentially active, and the fundamental task of instruction is to lay hold of the natural motor tendencies of childhood, and direct them in such a way that they acquire more and more of educational value. Beginning with those natural impulses of the child to construct, to investigate and experiment, to express him- self in various art forms, to communicate with his fellows, noted under play activities, it is possible to have him repro- duce in play or work form, those pursuits by means of which the work of the world is carried on. BEADING Dewey, John. — The Place of Manual Training in the Ele- mentary Course of Study. Manual Training Magazine, July, 1901. "Work in the constructive arts brings with it a considera- tion of the function of science in the curriculum. If prog- ress in constructive activities is not to remain the mere acquisition of modes of skill, these activities must be con- stantly illuminated by an insight into the scientific prin- ciples upon which they are built. The constant opportunity afforded by constructive activities for exercise in the THE EDUCATH^ PROCESS 169 methods of scientific discovery and research, raises these occupations above the plane of training and makes them truly educative. From the point of view of method, science, leading as it does from mere manual dexterity to intel- lectual inquiries into the nature of activities engaged in, might be looked upon as the connecting link between active pursuits and the theoretical subjects noted in the second group. From the point of view of content, science, reveal- ing as it does the scientific principles upon which all the inventions and achievements of the modern social world depend, gives important clues to the understanding of the complex social life in which the child finds himself, (2) Subjects Giving Social Background for Active Pur- suits. — Since our educational aim is to develop the child's understanding of the intricacies of the social life of which he must gradually become a part, subjects of instruction will take the nature of developing a sense of the social sig- nificance of the occupations upon which the child is actively engaged. Its mode of development will necessarily depend upon the development of activities within the school. The connection between the child's own activities and these subjects may possibly be made by means of excursions into the neighborhood to see various activities as they are carried on to-day. From these trips the child should gain the concept of man's achievements as responses to his environment in his efforts to satisfy his neeas. From this first hand study of the physical features of the home neighborhood in connection with the activities carried on there, he should gradually come to have an understand- ing of the part which the various forms of the configura- tion of the earth play in relation to activity. He should see lakes and rivers, mountains and plains as resources or obstacles to human progress. In this way there will be gradually built up a body of facts and principles about the physical environment in which we live and in con- nection with which many phases of social life have their explanation. *'The overcoming of natural obstacles by man, the planting of the wilderness, the subjugation of natural conditions to his daily needs, the advantage taken 170 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL by man of every possible means to effect his social develop- ment — these are the themes that must be dwelt upon. Nor is it necessary to compass every part of the known earth in order to accomplish the purpose of the study. The study of Hypes* in each great social and geographical unit, thoroughly pursued and rightly appreciated is worth infinitely more than the effort to gain widespread ac- quaintance with facts that must necessarily fade in large part from the mind. . . . *'The underlying principles of the geographic-social en- vironment, wherever viewed, present three phases of con- ditions of activity — production, transportation, and con- sumption. Under the first of these — production — ^will fall the consideration of the agricultural and mineral resources of a region as dependent upon topography, climate, and geological formation of land. The second — transporta- tion — must have as its subordinate topics the topograph- ical features, such as navigable rivers and lake chains, river valleys, the cutting of canals, and the building of railroads along the line of least resistance, by taking advantage of the 'lay of the land,* as in river gorges and the passes through mountains, or, in the case of canals, low water-sheds between adjacent basins either of lakes or rivers. With the development of steam as a means of transportation, feats in engineering skill have accom- plished marvellous results — tunnelling a mountain range is equivalent to removing the entire barrier, and * lands intersected by a narrow firth* are tied shore to shore by spanned arches or cantilever bridges. The third condi- tion — consumption — ^involves a consideration of the cities as great centers of population dependent upon two factors of social activity — manufacture and disbursement . . . . "What results are we to expect from this outlook of geography as a social factor in education? . . . The child's mind develops through healthy interest in the primary facts into an attitude of thought that looks for the causes and effects of things. He grows to see that the central motive of the study is the progress of humanity viewed against a background of geographical conditions. THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 171 He is led to understand that it is the cooperative labor of men that accomplishes results. The East must co- operate with the West, the North with the South — each with the other — ^in order to build up a strong and vital social community. From his own country he will look abroad with the same thought in mind to other countries and other peoples. He will tend more and more to lose that local prejudice which is engendered by narrow con- ditions of life and fostered by narrow methods of teach- ing. He will become more of an American than a Pennsylvanian, and with a wider experience in the history, literature and language of the race from which he has sprung, more Anglo-Saxon, though not a jot less Ameri- can. In other words, he becomes more socially intelligent, and social intelligence is the lever that lifts mountains. With the social intelligence must come the social disposi- tion — ^the deeper appreciation of himself as a member of society. It may not dawn upon him at once; he may never realize in a concrete way what the study has done for him; but if there be any good in him, he will surely become the stronger man, the better neighbor, the more useful member of the social life in which he lives and moves. His sympathies will widen toward all sorts and conditions of men. He will realize better the significance of that struggle in which he and all his fellows are in- volved." (S. Trotter, The Social Function of GeograpJiy, National Herbart Society, Fourth Year Book, pp. 66-79.*) Just as the meaning of social life is clarified for the child when viewed against the background of the natural conditions in which it takes place, so is it further explained by studying it in the process of formation. The present is the product of the past; there is no other explanation of it except the past which produced it. We are what we are for no other reason than as a result of a process of growth ; therefore we can understand what we are only by understanding how we came to be what we are. The study of history supplies us with the explanations of how *By permission The Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, Illinois. Copyright 1898 by Chas. A. McMurry. 172 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL things in our social life came to be as they are. According to this view, history instead of being a mere enumeration of what has happened in the past, comes to be the key to the understanding of the present. Knowledge of the past simply as past is of little value except as a literary accomplishment. * * If history be regarded as just the record of the past, it is hard to see any ground for claiming that it should play any large role in the curriculum of elemen- tary education. The past is the past, and the dead may be safely left to bury its dead. There are too many urgent de- mands in the present, too many calls over the threshold of the future, to permit the child to become deeply immersed in what is forever gone by. Not so when history is considered as an account of the forces and forms of social life. . . . Whatever history may be for the scientific historian, for the educator it must be an indirect sociology — a study of society which lays bare its process of becoming and its modes of organization. Existing society is both too com- plex and too close to the child to be studied. He finds no clues into its labyrinth of detail and can mount no eminence whence to get a perspective of arrangement." (John Dewey, The School and Society ^ p. 155.) This point of view necessarily affects very decidedly the method of studying history. If history is regarded as chronology, we naturally begin at the beginning and trace events in their time sequence; if, however, history is the key to some present situation, the starting point must be an examination of the present situation and the focussing of such historical facts upon it as will serve to explain it. * ' ... a study of the social factors and forces as they exist in the world about us must precede any attempt at the ex- planation of historical development. ... It is in this study of first-hand materials, in the observation of social activities about us, that we must get our clue to the relation of cause and effect in social and political affairs ; and until we have this clue, historical facts are merely so many isolated and unconnected events." (T. N. Carver, Sociology and Social Progress, p. 5.) Not only is the method of organizing historical data in- THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 173 fluenced by this point of view; the content selected is also profoundly influenced by it. Formerly history was almost entirely political in character. ''Our so-called standard works on history deal at length with kings and popes, with courtiers and statesmen, with wars waged for territory or thrones, with laws passed by princes and parliaments. . . . Until recently the main thread selected was political. Almost everything was classified under kings' reigns; and the policy of their governments and the wars in which they became involved were the favorite subjects of discus- sion. . . . Our most recent manuals venture to leave out some of the traditional facts least appropriate for an elementary review of the past and endeavor to bring their narrative into relation, here and there, with modern needs and demands.'' (J. H. Robinson, The New History, pp. 135-137.) ''The real question is, has not our bias for political his- tory led us to include many trifling details of dynasties and military history which merely confound the reader and take up precious space that should be devoted to certain great issues hitherto neglected? The winning or losing of a bit of territory by a Louis or a Frederick, the laborious piecing together of a puny duchy destined to speedy dis- integration upon the downfall of a Caesar Borgia, struggles between rival dynasties, the ambitions of young kings* uncles, the turning of an enemy's flank a thousand years ago, — ^have not such things been given an unmerited prominence? Man is more than a warrior, a subject, or a princely ruler; the State is by no means his whole interest. . . . He has, through the ages, made voyages, ex- tended commerce, founded cities, established great universi- ties, written books, built glorious cathedrals, painted pictures, and sought out many inventions. The propriety of including these human interests in our historical manuals is being more and more widely recognized, but political history still retains its supreme position and past political events are still looked upon by the public as history par excellence." (J. H. Robinson, Tlfie New History, pp. 8-9.*) *By permission The Macmillan Co. Copyright 1912. 174 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL If the aim of instruction is to make clear the social life in which children are to play a part and if history is to be one of our chief means of explaining that life, the problem resolves itself into one of selecting from all the mass of historical material available, those phases which will be of greatest service to children in working out the problems of their social lives. Political history has its basis in social and economic conditions of which it is merely the outward manifestation. Emphasis should therefore shift from the study of political history to the study of its economic and social basis, the historic development of the means by which men have subjugated nature and learned to cooperate with one another for the advancement of the common good. The larger conception of history now regards it as the record of all forms of human effort and achievement. It is a record of man's thought in the face of the infinite complexities of life and nature ; it shows the insight of man at various stages in his social develop- ment, his modes of thought, his range of knowledge and consequently his success or failure in solving his problems. History and geography are thus seen to be mutually complementary subjects. *' While geography emphasizes the physical side and history the social, these are only emphases in a common topic, namely, the associated life of men. For this associated life, with its experiments, its ways and means, its achievements and failures, does not go on in the sky nor yet in a vacuum. It takes place on the earth. This setting of nature does not bear to social activities the relation that the scenery of a theatrical per- formance bears to a dramatic representation ; it enters into the very make-up of the social happenings that form his- tory. Nature is the medium of social occurrences. It furnishes original stimuli; it supplies obstacles and re- sources. Civilization is the progressive mastery of its varied energies." (John Dewey, Democracy and Education, p. 247.) Since the understanding of history depends upon an appreciation of the natural environment as affording resources and presenting obstacles to human advancement, the child who has observed these natural aids and checks THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 175 upon human activity is prepared to understand their sig- nificance when noted in connection with events remote in time and space. READING Alford, C. W. — TJie Science of History, Popular Science Monthly, May, 1914. Bagley, W. C. — The Functions of Geography in the Ele- mentary School, Journal of Geography, May, 1904. Brunhes. — Human Geography, Rand. Dewey, John. — The School and Society, University of Chicago Press. Chap. VIII. The Aim of History in Elementarj Education. Dewey, John. — Democracy and Education, Macmillan. Chap. XVI. The Significance of Geography and History. Dodge and Kirchwey. — The Teaching of Geography, Rand McNally. Robinson, J. H. — The New History^ Macmillan. Chap. I. The New History. Chap. III. The New Allies of History. Chap. V. History for the Common Man. Eunyan, L. L. — Elementary History Teaching in the Laboratory School, Elementary School Teacher, Sep- tember, 1903. Sutherland, W. J. — The Teaching of Geography, Scott Foresman. Traner, F. W. — Socializing the Study of History, School Review, December, 1917. Trotter, S. — The Social Function of Geography, National Herbart Society, Fourth Year Book. (3) The Tool Subjects. — These subjects represent the symbols of the intellectual life. Reading and writing are the tools of communication; they make possible shared experiences on a much greater scale than mere oral language could do. Reading is a tool for the acquisition 176 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL of the experiences of others, writing is a tool for the expression of experiences. The mathematical processes provide us with measuring rods of various sorts. They are of fundamental importance to experience by making it possible to reduce things to a common denominator of number and thus evaluate them. Measurement and comparison are therefore of fundamental value in under- standing relationships. It is through number concepts that we are able to understand the economic structure of society. In the traditional education where knowledge is an 'end in itself, instruction in the means by which knowledge is acquired, naturally assumes a place of first importance in any scheme of curriculum-making. If, however, the aim of instruction is to develop in the immature members of society, through experience, an understanding of the social life in which they are to participate, emphasis in the earlier stages naturally falls upon those studies which directly aid in this undertaking. The symbols, affording as they do only indirect and remote modes of experiencing, assume a less important position, becoming, not an end in themselves, but merely a means of expanding experience. Instruction in the symbols will take place only when it becomes necessary to expand the child's understanding beyond what is possible from direct personal experience. Although this point of view may seem to relegate the three R's to a place of secondary importance, in reality they gain greatly in significance, since reading, writing, and number work instead of being so many isolated studies have a highly functional value, organically related to experience. READING Dewey, John. — The School and Society, University of Chicago Press. Chap. IV. The Psychology of Elementary Educa- tion. THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 177 The Function of the Teacher The teacher exists only for the sake of the learner. The foregoing discussions therefore define the task of the teacher. In the conventional school-room the teacher represents vested authority there to compel learning. Her method is considered as something distinct in itself. With a curriculum worked out in all its details, all that the teacher can do is to follow as conscientiously as may be this prescription laid upon her from above. It is small wonder that under such circumstances her method degenerates into mere routine skill, enlivened by such devices as she has found prac- tically useful in inducing learning. *^The material, the stuff to be learned, is, from this point of view, inevitably something external, and therefore indifferent. There can be no native and intrinsic tendency of the mind toward it, nor can it have any essential quality which stimulates and calls out the mental powers. No wonder the up- holders of this distinction are inclined to question the value of interest in instruction, and to throw all the emphasis upon the dead lift of effort. The externality of the material makes it more or less repulsive to the mind. The pupil, if left to himself, would, upon this assumption, necessarily engage himself upon something else. It re- quires a sheer effort of will power to carry the mind over from its own intrinsic workings and interests to this out- side stuff. *^0n the other side, the mental operation being assumed to go on without any intrinsic connection with the ma-, terial, the question of method is degraded to' a very low plane. Of necessity it is concerned simply with the various devices which have been found empirically useful, or which the ingenuity of the individual teacher may invent. There is nothing fundamental or philosophical which may be used as a standard in deciding points in method. It is simply a question of discovering the temporary ex- pedients and tricks which will reduce the natural friction between the mind and the external material. No wonder, once more, that those who hold even unconsciously to 178 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL this dualism . . . seek an ally in the doctrine of interest interpreted to mean the amusing, and hold that the actual work of instruction is how to make studies which have no intrinsic interest interesting — how, that is, to clothe them with factitious attraction, so that the mind may swallow the repulsive dose unaware." (John Dewey, Tlie Psychological Aspect of the School Curriculum, Educa- tional Review, April, 1897, pp. 357-358.*) Reacting against this point of view many of the new schools revert to the opposite extreme. *' There are those who see no alternative between forcing the child from with- out, or leaving him entirely alone. Seeing no alternative, some choose one mode, some another. Both fall into the fundamental error. . . . Both fail to see that development is a definite process, having its own law which can be ful- filled only when adequate or normal conditions are provided. ... If, once more, the 'old education' tended to ignore the dynamic quality, the developing force inherent in the child's present experience, and therefore to assume that direction and control are just matters of arbitrarily putting the child in a given path, and compelling him to walk there, the *new education' is in danger of taking the idea of development in altogether too formal and empty a way. The child is expected to 'develop' this or that fact or truth out of his own mind. He is told to think things out, or work things out for himself, without being supplied any of the environing conditions which are requisite to start and guide thought. Nothing can be developed from nothing; nothing but the crude can be developed out of the crude — and this is what surely happens when we throw the child back on his achieved self as a finality, and invite him to spin new truths of nature or of conduct out of that. . . . Development does not mean just getting something out of the mind. It is a development of experience and into experience that is really wanted. And this is impossible save as just that educative medium is provided which will enable the powers and interests that *By permission George H. Doran Company. THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS '179 have been selected as valuable to function. Tbey must operate, and how they operate will depend almost entirely upon the stimuli which surround them, and the material upon which they exercise themselves.'' (John Dewey, The Child and the Curriculum^ p. 23.*) If the aim of the teacher is to convert children into social beings, it is obvious that she must know both child- nature and the nature of the world in which the children live. She must be a sensitive observer of evidences of growth — but she must also have steadily in mind the goal to be reached. The child's present manifestations are to be assessed by their potentialities; they must be interpreted in terms of their social significance. Teachers should, therefore, have a knowledge of the fundamental principles and problems of social life, they should know not only the industrial, social and political organization of the world, but the laws which govern the development of the world and in accordance with which progress takes place. It is only when resting upon a solid foundation of psychology and sociology that the subjects of study, and the educative materials and equipment become so many working resources, so many flexible instruments by means of which the teacher realizes her aims. The limitless amount of material available makes selection necessary. Guided always by the evidences of the child's growing capacity, she arranges an environment supplying conditions that make for the movement of experience into channels of greater social value. She helps children to take apart the vague unity of their experience, to see further and deeper into the relationships implicit in it, at the same time she aims developing such techniques and skills in the children that they will become more and more independent of her. Recently much attention has been given in educational circles to the consideration of projects as a method of organizing the curriculum. As a means of transferring teachers' attention from the passive to the active aspect *By permission University of Chicago Press. Copyright 1902 by The University of Chicago. 180 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL. of education, and as indicating a practical tooi by means' of which school work may be motivated, the project method is valuable. There is danger, however, in the use of any particular terminology as a description of method. It too easily provides a handle by which method may be lifted out of the vital relationships which give it significance, and considered artificially as something by and for itself. The great educational lesson to he learned from modern psycliology is that there is no special magic residing in method as method hy means of which the progress of an out-reaching experience may he ejfected. If, however, the term project is employed by teachers as a convenient way of designating a concrete unit of ** whole-hearted purposeful activity in a social situation," it may fulfil a useful purpose in educational nomenclature. By its use the indefinite continuity of children's activity may be broken into parts, the relation of the one part to the next can the more easily be per- ceived, and thus the process of experience the more readily noted and progress measured. It thus gives a ready means of guiding activity into more and more purposeful channels. Another justification of the project method lies in the fact that it gives opportunity for developing within the school situations that engage the pupils' mental powers in the way in which they are implied in life outside of school. Every project to be educationally worth-while should include thought-provoking problems that evolve in a sequence, each one growing out of the preceding, and dependent upon it for its successful solu- tion. In this way experience may be led out naturally to the consideration of highly abstract problems. From such experience mental training of the best sort results because the mind is required to keep the desired end constantly in view, and to regulate intermediary processes with reference to it, to judge the qualHy of thinking by the results it brings, and to discard irrelevant sug- gestions. Habits, skills, or special techniques are being developed in the way they need to operate. Altogether the project, properly managed, gives great opportunity THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 181 for personal reflection and experimentation, which is the essence of the scientific method of thinking. It is only when projects are regarded in this way that they are educationally valuable. Considered as method the teacher has no method. Her method is simply her intelligence functioning at its highest capacity. ** Educa- tional method to be of worth should be scientific method applied to the art of teaching. The method of the teacher is simply an attitude of mind like that of the scientist. There are two elements involved, the learning mind, and the subject-matter or environment. To have an intimate acquaintance with each, to appreciate the expectant long- ing of mind, to interpret its responses to stimuli, to form valid conceptions of the activity and assimilating power' of each child in the environment made by the subject, is to have a method in teaching which covers the entire range ^of that great art. It is to have the method of science applied to education. This means that the teacher should have a method applicable to every subject, in every division of the school beginning with the kindergarten and extending through the graduate school. A distinct method for every subject is not necessary any more than a special scientific method for each branch of science would be necessary. Whatever be the subject one is teaching the aim is identical with that of all other sub- jects taught: to determine how mind is working with the material in its environment, what nourishment it is select- ing and assimilating. ' ' (E. F. Young, Scientific Method in Education, p. 147.*) This conception of method elevates it to the high place which it deserves. It demands of a teacher all of initia- tive, all of resource, all of the scientific yet sym- pathetic insight into the lives of growing children which she can command. Since the curriculum is not a fixed thing but a developing situation dependent upon the factors involved in it — the particular group of children, their particular environment, and the social subject-matter *By permission University of Chicago Press. Copyright 1903 by the University of Chicago. 182 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL that will adjust the two — upon the teacher devolves the entire responsibility for the success of the work. She may receive suggestion and help from other people and from books, but it is through the medium of her intelli- gence alone that any of this can become operative. It is only when teachers become imbued with a deep sense of the social significance of their calling that teaching can hope to fulfil its high office: *Hhe most perfect union of science and art conceivable in human experience.'' READING Dewey, John. — Democracy and Education^ Macmillan. Chap. X. Interest and Discipline. Chap. XIII. The Nature of Method. Dewey, John. — How We Think, Heath. Chap. IV. School Conditions and the Training of Thought. GooDLANDER, M. R. — Education TJirougJi Experience, Bureau of Educational Experiments, Bui. No. 4. KiLPATRiCK, W. H. — The Project Method, Teachers College Record, September, 1918. Snedden, D. — The Project as a Teaching Unit, School and Society, September 16, 1916. Stevenson, J. A. — The Project Method, Macmillan. Young, E. F. — Scientific Method in Education, University of Chicago Decennial Publications, Vol. Ill, University of Chicago Press, 1903. Measuring Progress. — The carrying out of this plan will necessarily have a great effect upon the daily program. It will no longer be possible to have set tasks and lessons following each other at half-hour intervals. We all re- member the story of the superintendent who proudly claimed that he could tell precisely what every child in the city was doing at a given moment. The requirements of child growth do not demand such assiduous attention to the clock. The daily program should be a flexible plan which allows time for essential activities, for discussion, THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 183 and for study and research. There should be time allowed for plays, games, the art activities and so on. Since the emphasis is upon activities and the free and full development of experience, it will be quite necessary for the teacher to keep a diary of daily events, for reference. This should be an effective aid for seeing the trend of activity and suggesting the next step in its development. Since the new point of view has not yet fully taken hold of school practice, we are as yet lacking in the technique necessary for quick and effective record- keeping. It will no doubt be possible at some later time to work out forms for record-keeping which will allow for all individual variations which this plan demands, but which will render less arduous the work of keeping track of the development of experience. Transfer sheets in which experiences are classified in relation to their bearing upon the various subjects of study would be valuable for recording progress in the curriculum. It will be necessary, also, to evolve some method of testing the results of this kind of education and some adequate method of measuring progress. The value of examinations, which of course are unsuited to a plan of education not based upon the pure knowledge aim, has been very seriously questioned even in conventional school work. It has been found by experimental data that since a teacher's judgment is necessarily a personal thing and even variable with one person according to physical state, examination marks are not an index of progress. Con- scientious teachers who have marked examination papers at two different times, have found a wide variation in the marks they have given for the same paper ; while the same paper, submitted to several teachers, has shown a correspondingly wide range of marks. There are numer- ous other defects of examinations, such as the loose evalua- tion of the various questions involved, the failure of the marks received to indicate where failures or difficulties lie, and so on. The tendency in educational work now is to substitute tests of a more scientific character for examinations. These tests as yet, however, are more 184 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL a matter of promise than of actual achievement. Some of them are applicable to an experimentally developed course of study, but others are not, since they assume a type of experience that any particular group of children may not have had. It is possible, however, to develop within any school a series of tests and scales which are based in method upon the standardized tests, but which are adapted to the particular set of experiences that the children in the school have had. It is particularly valu- able for children to develop their own scales, as has been advocated in the case of the drill subjects. Graphs used in arithmetical and other situations are of course im- portant scales; if a record is kept for a length of time of the words needed in spelling by children having typical experiences, a spelling scale can be developed; specimen papers showing the best handwriting of each pupil can be filed, and they become a norm for measuring all future results. It is probably by such methods as these, with the help of the intelligence tests, that we can at present best solve the question of tests, awaiting the results of our own ex- perimentation as contributions to a more scientific evalua- tion of children's progress. Such results, if carefully recorded, might presumably reveal something quite dif- ferent from the results obtainable under present school conditions. It seems likely that we have not yet tapped the well-springs of childhood's possibilities at their deep- est level. The same thing holds true of the essential facts of knowledge that should be expected as the outcome of a well-rounded and well-ordered school experience. Al- though it is undoubtedly important to have a body of minimum essentials, these too, to be valuable, must be arrived at experimentally. READING Ayres, L. p. — Measuring Educational Processes through Educational Result s^ School Review, May, 1912. THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 185 Bagley, W. C. — The Need of Standards for Measuring Progress and Results, Addresses and Proceedings of the National Education Association, 1912. Courtis, S. A. — Bulletin No. I Courtis Standard Tests, De- troit, Michigan. Equipment and Arrangements. — If the principles enun- ciated in the foregoing discussions are to be practically carried out by schools it follows that there must be a radical change in their appearance and arrangements. The conditions in the conventional school-room are such as to prevent the normal functioning of child charac- teristics. The arrangement of the ordinary school-room is hostile to the existence of real situations arising from experience. Almost everything testifies to the great premium put upon listening, reading, and the reproduction of what is told or read. *^ . . if we put before the mind's eye the ordinary school-room, with its rows of ugly desks placed in geometrical order, crowded together so that there shall be as little moving room as possible, desks almost all of the same size, with just space enough to hold books, pencils and paper, and add a table, some chairs, the bare walls, and possibly a few pictures, we can reconstruct the only educational activity that can possibly go on in such a place. It is all made 'for listen- ing* — because simply studying lessons out of a book is only another kind of listening; it marks the dependency of one mind upon another. The attitude of listening means, comparatively speaking, passivity, absorption; that there are certain ready-made materials which are there, which have been prepared by the school superin- tendent, the board, the teacher, and of which the child is to take in as much as possible in the least possible time. There is very little space in the traditional school- room for the child to work. The workshop, the labora- tory, the materials, the tools with which the child may con- struct, create, and actively inquire, and even the requisite 186 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL space, have been for the most part lacking. The things that have to do with these processes have not even a definitely recognized place in education." (John Dewey, The School and Society f pp, 32-33.*) The line of argument seems to have run: we must prepare children for life; since in life outside school they get activity and experience, we must withdraw them from all that, and give them an essentially different training, which they could not get were it not for the school. Hence the school has become isolated from life, and highly abstract and disciplinary in character. We have forgotten that in such a scheme of training for life, we are sacrificing life. The newer psychology assures us that the only preparation for life lies through life, and that we must rely on the develop- ment of the processes of growth for later manifestations of mental power. The present school viewed in the light of what it might become, if only we could rid our minds of cramping tradi- tion, is a dreary, drab place, scarcely reflecting the joyous spontaneity of childhood. In comparison the vision of the school of the future presents a delightful contrast. Since the school is an integral part of the life of the children, the legitimate school environment will be thought of not merely as the school building with its special equipment and its teachers. It will consist also of the home, the neighborhood, in short the general social setting in which the child finds himself. In this larger environment the school will aim to serve a particular function; it will be a middle department of the child's life so to speak; his social laboratory — the one place in the world especially designed to meet his needs, the place to which he may bring his problems, the particular facts he has discovered, where he may exchange information with his fellows, where all the confusing experiences of his daily life may be simplified, explained, the typical and significant phases pointed out, the whole enriched, ideal- *By permission University of Chicago Press. Copyright 1900 by The University of Chicago. Copyright 1900 and 1915 by John Dewey. THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 187 ized and brought into a more meaningful order, so that it may be carried back again into daily life making it fuller and richer in meaning because of the school process. All the arrangements within the school should be made in accordance with this conception. Since learning is essentially active the school must be preeminently a place adapted to activity. It will consist of laboratories of various kinds for experimentation and creative expression, such as play-rooms, work-shops, and studios, which will be provided with a generous and carefully thought out assortment of materials — with toys and play-things, with tools and apparatus, and specimens — in short with all sorts of equipment chosen to act as stimuli to initiating and carrying through active experimentation leading, as maturity permits, into the more controlled forms of the arts and the sciences. Around these arrangements for activities should be clustered whatever provisions are necessary for orienting them by proper information and study. Chief among these provisions would be the school library, where should be gathered and arranged in form for ready-reference, read- ing-matter, pictures, maps, drawings and related materials, where inquiries into the historic, geographic, scientific and social setting of matters under investigation could be satisfied. It is not to be supposed nor desired that this library be of the ready-made variety; it should be an organic growth, developing in response to school needs, and contributed to by the pupils as they find valuable material in their researches elsewhere. Besides the library there might appropriately be a school museum where there might be in the process of collection represen- tative specimens of the arts and industries of the ages. **In the ideal school there would be something of this sort: first, a complete industrial museum, giving samples of materials in various stages of manufacture, and the implements, from the simplest to the most complex, used in dealing with them ; then a collection of photographs and pic- tures illustrating the landscapes and scenes from which the materials come, their native homes, and their places of manu- 188 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL facture. Such a collection would be a vivid and continual lesson in the^synthesis of art, science, and industry. There would be also, samples of the more perfect forms of textile work, as Italian, French, Japanese, and Oriental. There would be objects illustrating motives of design and decoration which have entered into production. Litera- ture would contribute its part in its idealized representa- tion of the world-industries, as the Penelope in the Odyssey — a classic in literature because the character is an adequate embodiment of a certain industrial phase of social life. So, from Homer down to the present time, there is a continuous procession of related facts which have been translated into terms of art. Music lends its share, from the Scotch song at the wheel to the spinning song of Marguerite, or of Wagner's Senta." (John Dewey, The School and Society* pp. 79-80.) Is it too much to hope that with these oppor- tunities for the highest forms of expression, and with these materials to stir the imagination, pupils might respond in new forms of real, creative, inventive thought? READING Dewey, John. — The School and Society^ University of Chicago Press. Chap. III. Waste in Education. Dewey, John and Evelyn. — Schools of To-morrow, Dutton. Chap. VIII. The School as a Social Settlement. *By permission University of Chicago Press. Copyright 1900 by The University of Chicago. Copyright 1900 and 1915 by John Dewey. THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS 189 POSTSCRIPT— A CALL TO TEACHERS The social point of view sends a challenge to every phase of our school procedure. Educational reconstruction is indeed a big undertaking. Is it possible of realization? Or must we stand helpless before the evident failure of our educational system to educate? As we have seen, it is characteristic of the forward reach of the human mind, to hold before itself worthy ends and then set about finding means appropriate to achieving them. Is it too much to expect that the social requirements of education, once they are clearly comprehended and their profound sig- nificance realized, can be met? The great battles ^*to make the world safe for de- mocracy'* remain yet to be won — in the school-room. Let us then refuse longer to bind the new life to the life that is passing. Let us be no longer willing to shackle the experimental spirit of the youth of the world, or to place a ban upon creative and explorative thought. Let us unite to raise up a body of men and women thinkers, not partisans, animated by a great social consciousness, and standing ready to face their problems eager and unafraid. It is only in this way that we can make of education a great liberalizing agent for the release of democratic forces. It will take long, patient, painstaking* effort; it will require a body of whole-hearted experi- menters, fired by the philosopher's vision, willing to sub- mit every action to rigid scrutiny, and to extract from every failure that bit of good which will lead to its better application in the future. Are we ready for the great experiment ? PART III BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES FOR SUBJECT- MATTER The supplying of subject matter according to the needs of expanding experience requires a new organization of the sources where it may be found. The old text books organized according to adult logical classifications are no longer adequate to supply information so that it will enter functionally into experience. A card catalogue and an assortment of carefully selected books are an indis- pensable equipment for the teacher who wishes to create a rich, social background for the expanding intelligence of her pupils. For such teachers the following list of books has been compiled. They are classified not as so much geography, history, science, etc., but these subjects are all included under headings by consideration of which they function in experience. The bibliography is not intended to be exhaustive ; it may be looked upon rather as a nucleus about which every teacher will add such books as she finds directly suited to her needs, especially those dealing with local matters. Nor can unqualified approval be given to every book included. The last repre- sents a selection from the best books to be had at present. Most of the books included have been personally ex- amined ; those which have not have been taken from the A. L. A. lists or other reliable sources. It is difficult to make any sharp distinction between books for children and those for teachers, since children can often use quite advanced texts under guidance. Books which have been definitely written for children are, however, starred. 101 192 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL COMMUNITY STUDY Food Production and Distribution Adams, F. U. — Conquest of the Tropics. Doubleday, Page. The story of the creative enterprises con- ducted by the United Fruit Company. Illustrated. •Bassett, S. "W. — The Story of Sugar. Penn Pub. Co. Bengston and Griffith. — The Wheat Industry. Mac- millan. Connected treatment of the activities of wheat production through the farm, commercial movements, and manufacturers. Bishop and Keller. — Industry and Trade. Ginn. *Bradish, S. P. — Stories of Country Life. American Book Co. Brooks, E. C. — The Story of Corn. Rand McNally. The purpose is to combine the fundamental prin- ciples of geography and agriculture and to treat them historically in order that the youth of the country may appreciate the tremendous importance of agriculture in the history of the race. ♦Browne, E. A. — Peeps at- Industries — Sugar. Mac- millan. Account in simple language. Illustrated. ♦Browne, B. A. — Peeps at Industries — Tea. Macmillan. ♦Carpenter, F. G. — How the World is Fed. American Book Co. ♦Carpenter, F. 0. — Foods and Their Uses. Scribner. Cereals, fruits, vegetables, meats, fish, dairy prod- ucts, etc. ♦Casson, H. N. — The Romance of the Reaper. Double- day, Page. Account in simple language of the development of the reaping machine. ♦Chamberlain, J. F. — How We Are Fed. Macmillan. **The production and preparation for market of many of our principal foods. ' ' Story form. ♦Chase and Clow. — Stories of Industry, Vols. I and II, Educational Pub. Co. Crissey, F. — The Story of Foods. Rand McNally. ** Deals with the human agencies concerned in the BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 193 production of food. We are given a glimpse into the large business enterprises engaged in making it possible for our grocer to furnish us with a wonderful variety of foods gathered from all parts of the world. ' ' *Edgar, W. C. — The Story of a Grain of Wheat. Apple- ton. *Farmer and Huntington. — Food Problems. Ginn. To illustrate the meaning of food waste and what may be accomplished by economy. *U. S. Food Administration. — Food Saving amd Sharing. Doubleday, Page. Frederiksen, J. D. — The Story of Milk. Macmillan. Freeman and Chandler. — The World*s Commercial Products. Ginn. Authoritative book on the eco- nomic and commercial values of the vegetable prod- ucts of the world. Fully illustrated. *BiSHOP AND Keller. — Commercial and Industrial Geog- raphy. Ginn. Leading aspects of commerce and industry under three natural divisions correspond- ing to three great needs — food, clothing, and shelter. *KiRBY, M. AND E. — Aunt Martha's Corner Cupboard. Educational Pub. Co. Simple stories of tea, sugar, rice, etc. *Lane, M. a. L. — Industries of To-day. Ginn. Short stories by various writers on codfishing, ranch life, etc. *Lyde, L. W. — Man and His Markets. Macmillan. The chief articles of necessity and the organization of industry to produce and distribute each. *MoRRis, C. — Home Life in All Lands y Vol. I. Lippincott. *RocHELEAU, W. F. — Great American Industries, Vol. II. Flanagan. *RocHELEAU, W. F. — Geography of Commerce and In- dustry. Educational Pub. Co. Conditions relating to industries — dependence of industries upon geo- graphical conditions, relation of man to environ- ment, effect of commerce upon civilization, etc. Sherman, H. C. — Food Products. Macmillan. Smith, J. R. — The World's Food Resources. Holt. 194 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL Smith, J. R. — Commerce and Industry. Holt. How man's industries are determined by his environ- ment. The physiographic basis of the industry given in connection with the industrial fact that is being explained. ♦Storm, G. E. — The Water Supply of a Town or City. Lessons in Community and National Life, Series C. U. S. Bureau of Education, 1918. Surface, G. T. — The Story of Sugar. Appleton. Oc- currence in nature, early history, manufacture, from refiner to consumer ; our future sugar supply. *Tappan, E. M. — The Farmer and His Friends. Hough- ton. TooTHAKER, C. R. — Commercial Raw Materials. Ginn. Origin, preparation, uses of great variety of ma- terials; good maps. *TwoMBLY AND Dana. — The Romance of Labor. Macmil- lan. Stories by various authors describing various occupations. White, W. A. — The Business of a Wheat Farm. Scrib- ner's Magazine, November, 1897. History *FoRMAN, S. E. — Stories of Useful Inventions. Century. *MoRRis, C. — Home Life in All Lands, Vol. II. Lip- pincott. ♦Reynolds, M. J. — How Man Conquered Nature. Mac- millan. *Skeat, W. W. — The Past at Our Doors Macmillan. (See also titles under Primitive Life.) Cost ♦Ball and West. — Household Arithmetic. Lippincott. ♦Calfee, J. E. — Rural Arithmetic. Ginn. ♦DooLEY, W. H. — Vocational Mathematics for Girls. Heath. ♦HoYT AND Peet. — Everyday Arithmetic. Houghton. "Problems grouped by situations taken from ac- tual experience so that the child meets numbers BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 195 vitally related to his home and school interests." (Preface.) ♦Lewis, C. J. — Farm Business Arithmetic. Heath. ''Large majority of the problems have been taken from actual conditions. ' ' ( Preface. ) Richards, E. H. — The Cost of Food, Wiley. Rose, M. S. — Feeding the Family. Macmillan. Science Brownlee, R. B., and others. — Chemistry of Common Things. AUyn and Bacon. Clark, B. M. — General Science. American Book Co. Facts about heat, food, light, etc., in every-day applications. Fermentation, bleaching, dyeing, etc. Conn, H. W. — Bacteria, Yeasts, and Molds in the Home, Ginn. Goodrich, C. L. — The First Book of Farming. Double- day. Richards and Elliott. — Chemistry of Cooking and Cleaning. Whitcomb and Barrows. Van Buskirk and Smith. — The Science of Every-day Life. Houghton. Hygiene Conley, E. — Nutrition and Diet. American Book Co. ♦Denton, M. C. — An Intelligently Selected Diet, Lessons in Community and National Life, Series B. U. S. Bureau of Education, 1918. Jordan, W. H. — Principles of Human Nutrition. Mac- millan. *KiNNE and Cooley. — Food and Health. Macmillan. McCollum, E. V. — The Newer Knowledge of Nutrition. Macmillan. Richards, E. H. — Food Materials and Their Adultera- tion. Whitcomb and Barrows. Rose, M. S. — Feeding the Family. Macmillan. ♦TuTTLE, T. D. — Principles of PuhUc Health. World Book Co. 196 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL Clothing production and Distribution Adams, S. A. — The Department Store, Scribner's Mag- azine, January, 1897. AiKiN, C. G. — Millinery. Ronald Press. Straws and braids, making, trimming, principles of color, form, and shape. *Bassett, S. W.-'The Story of Silk. Penn Pub. Co. *Bassett, S. W.—TJie Story of Wool. Penn Pub. Co. In story form, illustrated. BiGWOOD, G. — Cotton. Holt. History, production, mar- keting, and manufacture. *BiSHOP AND Keller. — Industry and Trade. Ginn. ♦Brooks, E. C.—TJie Story of Cotton. Rand McNally. Treats the industry in its economic relation to people, traces development from primitive times to the present; to be used with older children. ♦Browne, E. A. — Peeps at Industries — Rubber. Mac- millan. Account in simple language, illustrated. BuRKETT AND PoE. — Cotton. Doublcday, Page. Cotton raising in the South ; the cotton plant, how it grows, marketing, manufacture, by-products. ♦Carpenter, F. G. — How the World Is Clothed. Ameri- can Book Co. ♦Chamberlain, J. F. — How We Are Clothed. Macmillan. ♦Chase and Clow. — Stories of Industry. Vol. 2. Educa- tional Pub. Co. ♦Cooke, A. 0. — A Visit to a Cotton Mill. Oxford Uni- versity Press. ♦Cooke, A. O. — A Visit to a Woolen Mill. Oxford Uni- versity Press. ♦Cooke, A. 0. — A Day with the Leather Workers. Oxford University Press. ♦Curtis, A. T.—The Story of Cotton. Perm Pub. Co. In story form, illustrated. Dooley, W. H. — Textiles. Heath. Gibson, C. R. — Romance of Modern Manufacture. Lip- pincott. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 197 ♦Hall, J. — Wea/vers and Other Workers. Rand McNally. Reading book for younger children. Hubert, P. G. — The Business of a Factory. Scribner's Magazine, March, 1897. Keller and Bishop. — Commercial and Industrial Geog- raphy. Ginn. KiNNE AND CooLEY. — Shelter and Clothing. Macmillan. *Lane, M. a. L. — Industries of To-day. Ginn. *Laut, a. C. — The Story of the Trapper. Appleton. Lehman, M. A. — Leather Goods. Ronald Press. Quali- ties of good leather, substitutes, preparation, manu- facture, etc. *Lyon, L. S. — The Worker in Our Society, Lessons in Community and National Life, Series A. U. S. Bureau of Education, 1918. McGowan and Waite. — Textiles and Clothing. Mac- millan. Moore, A. S. — Linen; from the Raw Material to the Finished Product. Pitman and Co. *Morris, C. — Home Life in all Lands, Vol. I. Lippincott. *MowRY, W. A. and a. M. — American Inventions and Inventors. Silver, Burdette. Nystrom, p. H. — Textiles. Appleton. The essential facts regarding the ordinary textiles of commerce, methods of manufacture and distribution, tests to determine quality, economic aspects. Omerod, F. — Wool. Holt. History, production, mar- keting and manufacture. ♦RocHELEAU, W. F. — Great American Industries, Vol. III. Flanagan. *RocHELEAU, W. F. — Geography of Commerce amd Indus- try. Educational Pub. Co. ScHERER, J. A. B. — Cotton as a World Power. Stokes. *ScHiLLiG, E. E. — The Four Wonders. Rand McNally. The Production of cotton, wool, linen, and silk. Illustrated. Stepfens, L. — The Modern Business Building. Scrib- ner's Magazine, July, 1897. *Tappan, E. M. — Makers of Many Things. Houghton. 198 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL Thompson, E. B. — Cotton and Linen Goods. Ronald Press. Sources and cultivation of cotton and linen, spinning, weaving, color, design, dyeing. ToOTHAKER, C. E. — Commercial Raw Materials. Ginn. *Van Hoesen, G. — Cotton Factory and Its Workers. Lessons in Community and National Life, Series B. U. S. Bureau of Education, 1918. ♦Very, E. — Warp and Woof, the Story of the Textile Arts. Educational Pub. Co. ♦Wilkinson F. — The Story of the Cotton Plant. Apple- ton. History *FoRMAN, S. E. — Stories of Useful Inventions. Century. ♦Holland, R. S. — Historic Inventions. Jacobs. ♦Lamprey, L. — In the Days of the Guild. Stokes. Stories of the golden age of English arts and crafts — ^wool merchants, wood carvers, etc. Illustrated. ♦Lyon, L. S. — The Rise of Machine Industry. Lessons in Community and National Life, Series A. U. S. Bureau of Education, 1918. ♦Morris, C. — Home Life in All Lands, Vol. II. Lip- pincott. ♦MowRY, W. A. AND A. M. — Anlerican Inventions and Inventors. Silver, Burdette. ♦Reynolds, M. J. — How Man Conquered Nature. Mac- millan. ♦Skeat, W. W. — The Past at Our Doors. Macmillan. ♦Tryon, R. M. — Spinning and Dyeing Linen in Colonial Times. Lessons in Community and National Life, Series C. ♦Watson, K. H. — Textiles and Clothing. American School of Home Economics. Primitive methods of spinning and weaving. Illustrated. {See also titles under primitive life.) BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 199 Cost *Ball and West. — Household Arithmetic, Lippincott. *DooLEY, W. H. — Vocational Mathematics for Girls, Heath. ♦Gardener and Murtland. — Industrial Arithmetic. Heath. Science *Brownlee, Fuller and others. — Chemistry of Com- mon Things. Allyn and Bacon. *Clark, B. M. — General Science, American Book Co. *Van Buskirk and Smith. — The Science of Every -day Life. Houghton. Hygiene *Kinne and Cooley. — Clothing and Health. Macmillan. ♦Tuttle, T. D. — Principles of Public Health, World Book Co. Shelter Production and Distribution *Barnard, C. — Tools and Machines. Silver, Burdette. *Balderston, L. R. — Housewifery. Lippincott. Manual of practical housekeeping; plumbing, heating, lighting, furnishings, etc. *Bassett, S. W. — Story of Lumber. Penn Pub. Co. In- formation about lumber camps and conservation. Illustrated. *Bassett, S. W.—The Story of Glass. Penn Pub. Co. History and development of glass making. Story form. ♦Bassett, S. W. — The Story of Porceladn. Penn Pub. Co. Bevier, I. — The House. Amer. School of Home Eco- nomics. Evolution of house, arrangement of rooms, furnishings, decorations, care, etc. BiNNS, C. F. — Story of the Potter. Wessels. Binns, C. F. — The Potter's Craft. Van Nostrand. *BiSHOP and Keller. — Industry and Trade. Ginn. *Carpenter, F. G. — How the World Is Housed. Ameri- can Book Co. 200 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL Casson, H. N. — The Romance of Steel. Barnes. An account of the growth of the steel industry and the men concerned in it. •Chamberlain, J. F. — How We Are Sheltered. Mac- millan. *Chase and Clow. — Stories of Industry, Vols. Z and II. Educational Pub. Co. Clark, T. M. — The Care of the House. Macmillan. How the house is built, heating, plumbing, gas, electricity, etc. *CooKE, A. 0. — A Day in an Iron Works. Oxford Uni- versity Press. •Cooke, A. 0. — A Visit to a Coal Mine. Oxford Uni- versity Press. •DoRRANCE, J. G. — The Story of the Forest. American Book Co. Greene, H. — Coal and Coal Mines. Houghton. •Hill, H. C. — The Wonder Book of Knowledge. John C. Winston. Short accounts of a number of famil- iar things. •Hopkins, "W. J. — The Doers. Houghton. Short stories in very simple language about the various workmen engaged in building a house. Husband, J. — A Year in a Coal Mine. Houghton. Keal experiences of the author. Hutchinson, E. L. — House Furnishings. Eonald Press. Materials and manufacture. Keller and Bishop. — Commercial and Industrial Geog- raphy. Ginn. •KiNNE AND CooLEY. — Shelter and Clothing. Macmillan. •Lane, M. A. L. — Industries of To-day. Ginn. •Martin, E. A. — The Story of a Piece of Coal. Ap- pleton. •McFee, I. N. — Little Tales of Common Things. Crowell. Short account in story form of various articles. •Meade, C. D. — The Story of Gold. Appleton. Develop- ment of modern gold mining industry. •Morris, C. — Home Life in all Lands, Vol. I. Lippincott. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 201 *Parker, E. p. — Petroleum and Its Uses, Lessons in Community and National Life, Series C. U. S. Bureau of Education, 1918. PiNCHOT, G. — A Primer in Forestry. Farmer's Bulletin 173. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. *Redway, J. W. — Commercial Geography. Scribner. *RocHELEAU, W. F. — Great American Industries, Vols, II and III. Flanagan. *RocHELEAU, W. F. — Geography of Commerce and In- dustry. Educational Pub. Co, *Samuel, E. I. — Story of Iron and Steel. Penn Pub Co. Method of mining and making into machines. *Samuel, E. I. — Story of Gold and Silver. Penn Pub. Co. Methods of mining, description of the process of minting, and something about currency. *Shinn, C. H. — The Story of the Mine. Appleton. An attempt to describe in a clear and simple way some of the every day features as well as the unusual things connected with mines, keeping constantly in view the human elements. Smith, J. R. — The Story of Iron and Steel. Apple- ton. *Smith, J. R. — Iron and Steel. Lessons in Community and National Life, Series C. U. S. Bureau of Education, 1918. Talbot, F. A. A. — Oil Conquest of the World. Heine- mann. Talbot and Breckinridge. — The Modern Household. Whitcomb and Barrows. The household as a social unit, as the center of consumption, the activi- ties of the household, the household and the com- munity. *Tappan, E. M. — Diggers in the Earth. Houghton. *Tappan, E. M. — Makers of Many Things. Houghton. Toothaker, C. R. — Commercial Raw Materials. Ginn. Tower, W. S.—The Story of Oil. Appleton. White, M. — The Fuels of the Household. Whitcomb and Barrows. Composition, combustion, incandes- cence. 202 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL *WiLLiAMS, A. — Tke Romance of Modern Mining. Lip- pincott. Description in simple language of the mining of different minerals in different parts of the world in ancient and modern times. History *FoRMAN, S. E. — Stones of Useful Inventions. Cen- tury. *HoLLAND, R. S. — Historic Inventions. Jacobs. *MoRRis, C. — Home Life in All Lands, Vol. II. Lippin- cott. *MowRY, "W. A. AND A. M. — American Inventions and Inventors. Silver, Burdette. *QuENNELL, M. AND C. H. B. — A History of Every-day Things in England. Scribner. ♦Reynolds, M. J. — How Man Conquered Nature. Mac- millan. ♦Skeat, W. W. — The Pasi at Our Doors. Macmillan. ViOLLET-LE-Duc, E. E. — The Habitations of Man in All Ages. Osgood. Very valuable, tracing ''the origin and development of domestic architecture among the several races of mankind, the modes in which human dwellings have been constructed, and the appearance and manners of their inhabitants from prehistoric times down to modern times.'* Waterhouse, p. L. — The Story of the Art of Building. Appleton. Traces the course of architecture from Egyptian down to modem times. (See also titles under Primitive Life.) Cost *Ball and West. — Household Arithmetic. Lippincott. *Brookman, a. T. — Family Expense Account. Heath. *Calfee, J. E. — Rural Arithmetic. Ginn. *DooLEY, W. H. — Vocational Mathematics for Girls. Heath. *HoYT AND Peet. — Evcry-day Arithmetic. Houghton. Sheaffer, W. a. — Household Accounting and Eco- nomics. Macmillan, BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 203 Terrill, B. M. — Household Management. American School of Home Economics. Household accounts, marketing, economy in spending, etc. Science ♦Brownlee, R. B., and others. — Chemistry of Common Things. AUyn and Bacon. *Clarke, B. M. — General Science. American Book Co. DoDD, M. E. — Chemistry of the Household. American School of Home Economics. A day's chemistry — an outline of the simple and most evident chem- ical changes suggested by a day's work at home. *Faraday, M. — Chemical History of a Candle. Button. Description of the science involved in a candle, written in a simple style suitable for young people. *HoDGDON, D. R. — Elementary General Science. Hinds, Hayden and Eldredge. Lynde, C. J. — Physics of the Household. Macmillan. The physics of mechanical appliances, water supply, heat, electricity, light in the home. *Trafton, G. H. — Science of Home and Community. Macmillan. ♦Van Buskirk and Smith. — The Science of Every -day Life. Houghton. Williams, H. S. and E. H. — Science in the Industrial World. Goodhue. Description of the telephone, telegraph, manufacture of paper, paints, dyes, etc. Hygiene Broadhurst, J. — Home and Community Hygiene. Lip- pincott. Capes and Carpenter. — Municipal House Cleaning. Dutton. Full discussion of the methods and ex- periences of American cities in collecting and dis- posing of ashes, garbage, sewage, etc. Elliott, S. M. — Household Hygiene. American School of Home Economics. The health of the home, the best situation for the house, importance of the cellar, drainage, plumbing, ventilating, etc. 204 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL Gerhard, W. P. — Disposal of Household Wastes. Van Nostrand. *0'Shea and Kellogg. — Heath and Cleanliness, Mac- millan. Prudden, T. M. — Dust and Its Dangers. Putnam. Pbudden, T. M. — The Story of Bacteria, Putnam. Transportation General ♦Adams, C. C. — Elementary Commercial Geography. Appleton. Emphasis given to improved transporta- tion, the application of steam-power to machinery, and the progress in chemical science as the main factors in the development of commerce and indus- tries. *BiSHOP AND Keller. — Industry and Trade. Ginn. ♦Carpenter, F. G. — How the World Travels. American Book Co. ♦Chamberlain, J. F. — How We Travel. Macmillan. Day, C. — History of Commerce. Longmans. Account of the commerce of various nations from the time of the early Egyptians to the present. ♦Dunham, E. — Jogging around the World. Stokes. Pic- tures and short descriptions of vehicles and beasts of burden in many countries. ♦Gregory, Keller and Bishop. — Physical and Commer- cial Geography. Ginn. Discusses the relation of man to his environment, and the geographic in- fluences on trade. ♦Hall, C. — Wonders of Transport. Blackie, London. ♦Holland, E. S. — Historic Inventions. Jacobs. ♦Lane, M. A. L. — Triumphs of Science. Ginn. ♦Morris, C. — Home Life in All Lands, Vol. I. Lippin- cott. ♦MowRY, W. A. AND A. M. — American Inventions and Inventors. Silver, Burdette. ♦Redway, J. W. — Commercial Geography. Scribner. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 205 *RocHELEAU, W. F. — Great American Industries, Vol. 4, Flanagan. •Smith and Jewett. — An Introduction to Science. Mac- millan. *Smith, J. R. — Industrial and Commercial Geography. Holt. A standard text dealing with the trade routes and the source and nature of materials for manufacture. ♦Tappan, E. M. — Travellers and Travelling. Houghton. *Van Buskirk and Smith. — TJie Science of Every-day Life. Houghton. *Werthner, W. B. — How Man Makes Markets. Mac- miUan. The story of commerce simply told. Eoads ♦Moore, C. H. — Good Roads. Lessons in Community and National Life, Series B. U. S. Bureau of Educa- tion, 1918. Page, L. W. — Roads, PathSf and Bridges. Macmillan. *Ravenel, S. W. — Road Primer for School Children. McClurg. Elementary principles and practice of road-making. Construction and maintenance, causes and effects of good roads. Streets Cohen, Mrs. J. H.^What We Should All Know About Our Streets. Women's Municipal League. New York. Fleming, R. D. — Railroad and Street Transportation. Russell Sage Foundation. Gutmann, L. — The Motorman and His Duties. Mc- Graw Hill Book Co. Railroads Crump, I. — The Boys' Book of Railroads. Dodd, Mead. *HusBAND, J. — The Story of the Pullman Car. Stokes. Johnson and van Metre. — Principles of Railroad Transportation. Appleton. Full discussion of all matters connected with railroads. 206 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL Talbot, F. A. A. — Rmlway Wonders of the World, Cassell. Talbot, F. A. A. — Railway Conquest of the World. Heinemann. ♦Warman, Cy. — The Story of the Radlroad. Appleton. Water *Chatterton, E. K. — Sailing Ships and Their Story. Lippincott. *CooKE, A. 0. — A Day in a Ship Yard. Oxford Univer- sity Press. *DoRLiNG, T. — All About Ships. Cassell. ♦Grant, Gordon. — The Story of the Ship. McLoughlin Bros. Large colored pictures showing ships from early times to the present. Short descriptions underneath. *Hall, C. — Conquests of the Sea. — ^Blackie. What the sea is, the beginning of shipping, birth of steam navigation, etc. *HowDEN, J. R. — The Boys' Book of Steamships. Stokes. Comprehensive history of steam-boats, their evolu- tion and construction, illustrated. *Ingersoll, E. — The Book of the Ocean. Century. Tides, currents, building of ships, early voyages, etc. Talbot, F. A. A. — Steamship Conquest of the World, Lippincott. Written to show how water transporta- tion has developed ; the rapid growth of the express liner during the last hundred years. Illustrated. Communication *Butler, F. 0. — The Story of Paper Making. Butler Paper Co., Chicago. •Casson, H. N. — The History of the Telephone. Mc- Clnrg. An account in simple language of the invention and development of the telephone. •Chase and Clow. — Stories of Industry, Vol. 2. Edu- cational Pub. Co. Clodd, E. — The Story of the Alphabet. Appleton. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 207 Davenport, C. — The Book: Its History and Develop- ment. Van Nostrand. Dibble, G. B. — The Newspaper. Holt. *DuNN, A. W. — The Community and the Citizen. Heath. *FoRMAN, S. E. — Stories of Useful Inventions. Century. ♦Gibson, C. R. — How Telegraphs and Telephones Work. Lippincott. ♦Holland, R. S. — Historic Inventions. Jacobs. *Jewett, F. G. — Town and City. Ginn. *Lane, M. a. L. — Industries of To-day. Ginn. *MowRY, W. A. and a. M. — American Inventions and Inventors. Silver, Burdette. Rav^lings, G. B. — The Story of Books. Appleton. *Reavis, W. C. — Telephone and Telegraph. Lessons in Community and National Life, Series B. U. S. Bureau of Education, 1918. ♦Reynolds, M. J. — How Man Conquered Nature. Mac- millan. ♦Rocheleau, "W. F. — Great American Industries, Vols. Ill and IV. Flanagan. *Rolt-Wheeler, F. W. — Boy with the United States Modi. Lothrop. SiNDALL, R. W. — The Manufacture of Paper. Van Nostrand, Steffens, L. — The Business of a Newspaper. Scribner's Magazine, October, 1897. Tov^rs, W. H. — Masters of Space. Harper. Com- munications among the ancients, signals past and present, fore-runners of the telegraph, the cable, the telephone, etc. •Van Buskirk and Smith. — The Science of Everyday Life. Houghton. Conservation of Wealth ♦Austin, 0. P. — Uncle Sam^s Secrets. Appleton. ♦Calfee, J. E. — Rural Arithmetic. Ginn. ♦Dole, C. F. — The Young Citizen. Heath. • FiSKE, A. K. — The Modern Bank. Appleton, 208 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL Harris, R. S. — Practical Banking. Houghton. *HoYT AND Peet. — Everyday Arithmetic. Houghton. *KiRKPATRiCK, E. A. — Money in the Community and the Home. Lessons in Community and National Life, Series C. U. S. Bureau of Education, 1918. KiRKPATRiCK, E. A. — The Use of Money. Bobbs Merrill. Lanier, C. — The Working of a Bank. Scribner's Mag- azine, May, 1897. *Lyon, L. S. — The Services of Money. Lessons in Com- munity and National Life, Series A. U. S. Bureau of Education, 1918. *Marriott, C. — Uncle Sam's Business. Harper. *MouLTON, H. Q. — The Commercial Bank and Modern Business. Lessons in Community and National Life, Series A. U. S. Bureau of Education, 1918. *McLouGHLiN, K. — Before Coins Were Made. Lessons in Community and National Life, Series C. ♦Reticker, R. — The Minting of Coins. Lessons in Com- munity and National Life, Series C. *Reynolds, M. J. — How Man Conquered Nature. Mac- millan. Education ♦Dole, C. F. — The Young Citizen. Heath, *DuNN, A. W. — The Community and the Citizen. Heath. *HiLL, M. — Lessons for Junior Citizens. Ginn. *NiDA, W. L. — City, State and Nation, Macmillan. Recreation Collier, J. — The Lantern Bearers. The Survey, June, 1915, and January, May and July, 1916. *HiLL, M. — Lessons for Junior Citizens, Ginn. *Jewett, F. G. — Town and City. Ginn. *MoRRis, C. — Ho7m Life in All Lands, Vol. 11. Lip- pincott. Mackaye, p. — The Civic Theatre in Relation to Re- demption of Leisure, Mitchell Kennerly. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 209 Religion •Abbott, E. — Charity in tJie Community. Lessons in Community and National Life, Series C. U. S. Bureau of Education, 1918. Cutting, R. F. — The Church and Society. Macmillan. *DuNN, A. W. — The Community and the Citizen. Heath. ♦Morris, C. — Home Life in All Lands, Vol. JI. Lip- pincott. *SoARES, T. G. — The Church as a Social Institution. Lessons in Community and National Life, Series B. Protection Against Fires *Crump, I. — The Boys' Book of Firerrien. Dodd, Mead. *DowNES, A. M. — Fire Fighters and Their Pets. Harper. *HiLL, C. T. — Fighting a Fire. Century. *HiLL, M. — Lessons for Junior Citizens. Ginn. ♦Jenks, T. — The Fireman. McClurg. *Jewett, F. G. — Town and City. Ginn. ♦RiCHMAN AND Wallach. — Good CitizensMp. American Book Co. Weeks, A. D. — The Avoidance of Fires. Heath. Against Disease *Bramhall, F. D. — How the City Cares for Health, Lessons in Community and National Life, Series C. U. S. Bureau of Education, 1918. *DuNN, A. W. — The Community and the Citizen. Heath. *HiLL, M. — Lessons for Junior Citizens. Ginn. Hutchinson, W. — Community Hygiene. Houghton. *Jewett, F. G. — Town and City. Ginn. *RiCHMAN AND Wallach. — Good CitizensMp. American Book Co. *Ritchie, J. W. — Primer of Sanitation. World Book Co. Sedgwick, W. T. — Principles of Sanitary Science and the Public Health. Macmillan. 210 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL SoPER, G. A. — Modern MetJiods of Street Cleaning, Engineering News Co. Waring, G. E. — Street Cleaning. Doubleday. Against Anti-Social Persons *Crump, I. — Boys' Book of Policemen. Dodd, Mead. ♦Dole, C. F. — The Young Citizen. Heath. *HiLL, M. — Lessons for Jundor Citizens. Ginn. Osborne, T. M. — Society and Prisons. Yale University Press. *RiCHMAN AND Wallach. — Good Citizenship. American Book Co. Woods, A. — Policeman and Public, Yale University Press. Govemment *Ayres, E. — Custom as the Basis for Law. Lessons in Community and National Life, Series C. U. S. Bureau of Education, 1918. •Dole, C. F.—TJie Young Citizen. Heath. *DuNN, A. W. — Cooperation through Law. Lessons in Community and National Life, Series C. ♦Edwards, G. — How State Laws are Made and Enforced. Lessons in Community and National Life, Series B. ♦Spencer, W. H. — The Development of a System of Laws. Lessons in Community and National Life, Series B. Primitive Life ♦Bayliss, C. K.—Lolami, the Little Cliff Dweller. Public School Publishing Co. ♦Brown, E. V. — When the World Was Young. World Book Co. Short accounts by various authors on various historical topics; the story of the food quest, the story of transportation, the story of lighting and heating. Clodd, E. — The Childhood of the World. Macmillan. A simple account of man in early times. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 211 *Dopp, K. E. — The Tree Dwellers. Rand. Primitive man, his ways of getting fire, and the changes wrought in society by its use. *Dopp, K. E. — The Early Cave Men. Rand. Improve- ments in clothing, in devices for carrying, and in tools and weapons. *Dopp, K. E. — The Later Cave Men. Rand. The mas- tery of many mechanical appliances, and the devel- opment of social cooperation. *Dopp, K. 'E.—TJie Early Sea People. Rand. The life of fishing people. The social cooperation involved in manufacturing and in expeditions on the deep seas. ♦Elliott, G. F. Scott. — Stories of Savage Life. Lip- pincott. Description of the life of primitive man, his customs, language, occupations, beliefs, arts, crafts, etc. Illustrated. ♦Hall, H. R. — Days before History. Crowell. Hutchinson, H. W. — Extinct Monsters. Appleton. Account of animals of prehistoric times. Illus- trated. JOLY, J. — Man before Metals. Appleton. Origin and use of fire, clothing, industries, weapons, imple- ments, primitive agriculture, domestication of ani- mals, beginning of navigation, etc. Mason, 0. T. — Origins of Invention. Scribner. A study of industry among primitive people. Illus- trated. Mason, 0. T. — Woman's Share in Primitive Culture. Appleton. Description of women's work in early times as food-bringer, weaver, skin-dresser, potter, etc. Illustrated. Mason, 0. T. — Primitive Travel and Transportation. Report of the Smithsonian Institution, 1894. Mason, 0. T. — The Human Beast of Burden. U. S. National Museum Report, 1887. An account of primitive methods and the evolution of travelling. Illustrated. *McIntyre, M. a. — The Cave Boy of the Age of Stone. Appleton. 212 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL ♦Morris, C. — Home Life in All Lands, Vol, 2. Lippin- cott. Manners and customs of uncivilized peoples. Nadaillac, J. F. A. — Manners and Monuments of Pre- historic People. Putnam. Food, weapons, tools, clothing, industry, social organization. Starr, F. — Some First Steps in Human Progress, Chautauqua Press. Fire-making, food getting, basketry and pottery, houses, dress, etc. Tylor, E. B. — Anthropology. Appleton. ♦Waterloo, S. — The Story of Ah. Doubled ay. Portions can be used with children to illustrate various phases of primitive life. OUR NATIONAL LIFE General ♦Allen, N. B. — Geographical and Industrial Studies^ United States. Ginn ♦Bishop and Keller. — Industry and Trade. Ginn. Brigham, a. p. — Geographic Influences in American History. Ginn. ♦Carpenter, F. G. — Geographical Reader — America. American Book Co ♦Chamberlain, J. F. and A. H. — The Continents and Their People — North America. Macmillan. ♦Dryer, C. R. — Elementary Economic Geography. Amer- ican Book Co. ♦Fisher, E. F. — Resources and Industries of the United States. Ginn. Herbertson, a. J. — North America. Macmillan. ♦Hotchkiss, C. "W. — Representative Cities of the United States. Houghton. The cities selected represent great centers of industry and life. Just enough of the history of the city is given to explain how it is a response to the physical and economic environ- ment. ♦King, C. F. — This Continent of Ours. Lothrop. Latane, J. H. — America as a World Power. Harper. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 213 ♦Monroe and Buckbee. — Our Country and Its People. Harper. Simply written, giving the essential facts of the industries of this country as related to its outstanding physical features. ♦Price, 0. W. — The Land We Live In. Small, Forest, mineral, and water resources of the United States. Shows why conservation is necessary. Russell, I. C. — North America. Appleton. Semple, E. C. — American History and Its Geographic Conditions. Houghton. Traces the influences of geographic conditions in settlements and success in overcoming obstacles. Shaler, N. S. — Nature and Man in America. Ginn. Designed for beginners in geology. Has direct bear- ing upon the relation of man and environment. Shaler, N. S. — The Story of Our Continent. Ginn. Simple account of the geological development of the continent and its influence on history. Smith, J. R. — Commerce and Industry. Holt. Tappan, E. M.—The World's Story. Houghton. Vols. 12, 13. The United States. Govermnent The SJiip of State hy Those at the Helm. Ginn. Descrip- tions of the departments of the national govern- ment by prominent men. ♦Austin, 0. P. — Uncle Sam's Secrets. Appleton. In story form. ♦Beard, C. A. and M. R. — American Citizenship. Mae- millan. ♦Du PuY, W. A. — Uncle Sam, Wonder Worker. Stokes. Account of the odd activities of the government bureaus. ♦Du PuY, W. A. — Uncle Sam's Modern Miracles. Stokes. Account of national departments dealing with roads, census, immigration, wealth, etc. ♦Franc, A. — Use Your Government. Dutton. Stresses what the government does for various classes of people — farmers, settlers, immigrants, etc. 214 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL Hart, A. B. — Actual Government. Longmans. ♦Marriott, C. — Uncle Sanies Business. Harper. Tufts, J. H. — Our Democracy. Holt. History European Background *Atkinson, a. M. — European Beginnings of American History. Ginn. Cheney, E. P. — European Background of American History. Harper. *Hall, J. — Our Ancestors in Europe. Silver, Burdette. *NiDA, W. — Dawn of American History in Europe, Mac- millan. , Indians *Chase, a. — Children of the Wigwam. Educational Pub. Co. Eeading book for children, showing child- life among the Indians. Illustrated. Curtis, N. — The Indians' Book. Harper. Written by the Indians and recorded, edited, and arranged by Miss Curtis. Songs and music. ♦Eastman, C. A. — Wigwam Evendngs. Little, Brown. Sioux folk tales retold by an Indian. ♦Eastman, C. A. — Indian Child Life. Little, Brown. Real Indian stories told by a real Indian. ♦Eastman, C. A. — Indian Boyhood. Doubleday, Page. An account of Indian boy-life told by an Indian. Training, games, and sports, playmates, etc. Fletcher, A. — Indian Story and Song from North America. Small, Maynard. Songs, gathered di- rectly from the Indians, given in connection with the story or ceremony with which it has association. Fletcher, C. A. — Indian Games and Dances with Native Songs. Birchard. Arranged from American In- dian ceremonials and sports, so that young people can take part in them. Music and setting given. Gk)DDARD, P. E. — Indiana of the Southwest. American Museum of Natural History. Handbook Series BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 215 No. 2. Takes up remains of the Cliff Dwellers, and account of the Modern Pueblos. Geinnell, G. B. — Blackfeet Indian Stories, Scribner. Folk-lore of the Blackfeet Indians. Grinnell, G. B. — Blackfoot Lodge Tales. Scribner. Indian stories, also much information as to Indian character, social organization, etc. Geinnell, G. B. — The Story of the Indian. Appleton. Suitable for older children. Contents : home, recre- ations, implements and industries, etc. •Humphrey, M. S. (Editor). — The Boy's Catlin. Scrib- ner. Rewritten from the larger work of Catlin. Account of religious ceremonies, corn-dance, buffalo- dance, lassoing wild horses, etc. James, G. W. — Indian Basketry. Radiant Life Press.' Very full account describing methods of making baskets, materials used, weaves, forms and designs, their relation to art, symbolism and ceremonial. Fully illustrated. James, G. W. — Indian Blankets and tJieir Makers. Mc- Clurg. Very full account of blankets and blanket weaving, designs, symbolism, ceremonials, etc. Fully illustrated. •Jenks, a. E. — The Childhood of Ji-Shih, the Ojihwa. Atkinson. In the introduction, W. T. McGee says of the author: "He displays deep insight into In- dian character and describes the Red Child as that person might have described himself in his own wigwam to his own grandchildren in the evening of his life." Mason, 0. T. — Aboriginal American Basketry. U. S. National Museum Report, 1902. Exhaustive treat- ment with many illustrations. Morgan, L. H. — Houses and House Life of the American Indians. Contributions to North American Eth- nology, Vol. IV. Gives various details about the type of house and social customs. Illustrated. •Snedden, G. S. — Docas the Indian Boy of Santa Clara* Heath. Excellent story of primitive Indian life. 216 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL ♦Starr, F. — American Itidians. Heath. Reader for children. Account of Indian life and customs from authoritative sources. Contents: house, dress, sign language, picture writing, dances and ceremonials, etc. WiSSLER, C. — North American Indians of the Plains. American Museum of Natural History, New York. Handbook Series No. 1. Takes up food, clothing, shelter, industrial arts, social organization, religion, etc. WissLER, C. — The American Indian. McMurtrie. A general summary. Contents: Domestication of animals, methods of transportation, the textile arts, the ceramic arts, decorative designs, architecture, special inventions, literature, music, social groups, mjthology, etc. Discovery and Exploration ' Bourne, E. G. — SpoAn in America. Harper. Dickson, M. S. — From the Old World to the New. Mac- millan. Dickson, M. S. — Pioneers and Patriots in Early Ameri- can History. Macmillan. FiSKE, J. — Discovery of America. Houghton. Ancient America, Pre-Columbian Voyages, Search for the Indians, etc. FiSKE, J. — New France and New England. Houghton. Griffis, W. E. — The Romance of Discovery. Wilde, Discovery and exploration of America treated not as unconnected episodes, but as links in a chain of events and as one of the many phases in the ever continuous movements of the Aryan race. •McMuRRY, Charles. — Pioneers of Land and Sea,. Mac- millan. Accounts of early explorers. Parkman, Francis. — Montcalm and Wolfe. Little, Brown. Parkman, Francis. — La Salle and the Discovery of the Great West. Little, Brown. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 217 *Parkman, Francis. — Rivals for America. Compiled by L. Hasbrouck. Little, Brown. Selections from ** France and England in America." Parkman, Francis. — The Struggle for a Continent. Compiled by P. Edgar. Little, Brown. ♦Seelye, Mrs. B. (Eggleston). — The Story of Columbus, Appleton. Thwaites, R. G. — France in America. Harper. Tyler, L. G. — England in America. Harper. Colonies Bruce, P. A. — Economic History of Virginia. Mac- millan. An inquiry into the material conditions of the people based on original and contemporaneous records. Bradford, W. — History of Plymouth Plantation. Scrib- ner. ♦Coffin, C. C. — Old Times in the Colonies. Harper. Customs, social life. Cooke, J. E. — Stories of the Old Dominion and Vir- ginia. American Book Co. Doyle, J. A. — English Colonies in America. Holt. *Drake, S. a. — Making of New England. Scribner. ♦Drake, S. A. — Making of Virginia and the Middle Colonies. Scribner. Earle, a. M. — Customs and Fashions in Old New Eng- land. Scribner. Domestic service, holidays, sports, etc. Earle, A. M. — The Sahhath in Puritan New England. Scribner. The New England meeting house, the old-fashioned pews, church music, observance of the day, etc. Earle, A. M. — Colonial Days in Old New York. Scrib- ner. The Life of a day, education and child life, Dutch town homes, farm homes, farm houses, holi- days, sports, etc. Earle, A. M. — Home Life in Colonial Days. Macmillan. Description of lighting, serving of meals, spinning, weaving. Illustrated. 218 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL Earle, a. M. — Costume of Colonial Times. Scribner. Detailed descriptions of various articles of clothing, gathered from old letters, wills, newspapers, etc. Earle, A. M. — Child Life in Colonial Days. Macmillan. School books, story and picture books, toys, schools and school life. Earle, A. M. — Stage-coach and Tavern Days. Mac- millan. Old Time Taverns, tavern fare and tavern ways, early stage-coaches, and other vehicles, etc. FiSKE, J. — The Dutch and Quaker Colonies in America. Houghton. ♦Oilman, A. — The Colonization of America. Lothrop. ♦Griffis, W. E. — Romance of American Colonization. Wilde. •Hart, A. B. — Colonial Children. Macmillan. Source reader. Historical sources have been selected and are interesting to children and simple enough for them to understand. •Hawthorne, Nathaniel. — Grandfather^ s Chair. Hough- ton. True stories of New England History. ♦MacElroy, M. H. — Work and Play in Colonial Days. Macmillan. ♦PuMPHREY, M. B. — Pilgrim Stories. Rand McNally. ♦Smith, H. E. — Colonial Days and Ways. Century. ♦Stone and Ficket. — Every Day Life in the Colonies. Heath. Pastimes, observances of Sunday, candle making, letter writing, etc. •Tappan, E. M. — Letters from Colonial Children. Houghton. '* Planned to give an idea of how life in some of the representative American colonies might have seemed to children.'* Thwaites, R. G. — The Coloyiies. Longmans. ♦Tiffany, N. M. — Pilgrims and Puritans. Ginn. ♦Tiffany, N. M. — From Colony to Commonwealth. Ginn. Weeden, W. B. — Economic and Social History of New England. Houghton. Early industries, domestic life, manners and customs, travel, roads, etc. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 219 National *Barber, L. L. — A Nursery History of the United States. Stokes. *Baldwin, J. — Discovery of the Old Northwest and Its Settlement hy the French, American Book Co. A series of connected sketches. Gives the atmosphere of pioneer settlements. ^Beard and Bagley. — History of the American People. Macmillan. A new school text, giving more atten- tion to the industrial and social phases of our national development than the older school books. ^BOGART, E. L. — Economic History of the United States. Longmans. Traces growth of industry, agriculture, commerce, population, from earliest times to present day. *Brigham, a. p. — From Trail to Railway. Ginn. An historical account of the great transportation lines which cross the Appalachian Mountains ; shows how surface features have determined routes of travel. *Catherwood, M. H. — Heroes of the Middle West. Ginn. Charmingly written sketches. CoMAN, K. — Economic Beginnings of the Far West. Macmillan. *CoMAN, K. — Industrial History of the United States, Macmillan. *Drake, S. a. — The Making of the Great West. Scrib- ner. Dunbar, S. — The History of Travel in the United States. Bobbs, Merrill. Reference books, four volumes, *' showing the development of travel and transporta- tion from the crude methods of the canoe and the dog-sled to the highly organized railway systems of the present, together with a narrative of the human experiences and changing social conditions that accompanied the enormous conquest of the continent. *' Eggleston, E. — History of the United Staies and its People. Appleton. 220 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL ♦Fairbanks, H. W.—The Western United States. Heath. Account of the physical conditions of the Pacific States and effect in history. FiSKE, J. — The War of Independence. Houghton. FiSKE, J. — The Critical Period in American History, 1783-1789. Houghton. *Hart, a. B. — Camps and Firesides of the Revolution. Macmillan. Source reader. A clear imaginative picture of the people and time. Emphasis on the social. Hart, A. B. — National Ideals Historically Traced. Harper. Hart, A. B. — Social and Economic Forces in American History. Harper. Hitchcock, R. — Louisiana Purchase. Ginn. JuDSON, H. P. — The Growth of the American Nation. Laut, a. C. — Pathfinders of the West. Macmillan. *McMurry, C. a. — Pioneers of the Mississippi Valley, Macmillan. *McMuRRY, C. A. — Pioneers of the Rocky Mountains and the West. Macmillan. Parkman, F.—The Oregon Trail. Little, Brown. Source book. Paxson, F. L. — The Last American Frontier. Mac- millan. Accounts of the opening up of the West. Contents : The Indian Frontier, the Santa Fe Trail, the Oregon Trail, California and the Forty-Niners, Pike's Peak or Bust, etc. *EoosEVEL»T, Theodore. — Winning the West. — ^Putnam. History of frontier action, treating dramatic and picturesque aspects of expansion across the AUe- ghanies. Sanpord, a. H. — The Story of Agriculture in the United States. Heath. The more important facts of our agricultural history from the time of the Indians to the present. Sparks, E. E. — United States of America. Putnam. Strong on economic and social phases. BIBLIOGRA.PHY OF SOURCES 221 Sparks, E. E. — The Expansion of the American People. Scott Foresman. Development social and territorial from the time of the colonies to the present day. Tryon, R. M. — Household Manufacturers of the United States. University of Chicago Press. Traces de- velopment from time of colonies to time of machine industry. Wright, C. D. — Industrial Evolution of the United States. Chatauqua Press. Evolution of industry from the colonial period to the present, the labor movement, influence of machinery upon labor. THE STUDY OF OTHER NATIONS General *Allen, a. E. — Children of the Palm Lands. Educa- tional Pub. Co. Life and products of the hot countries. •Andrews, J. — Seven Little Sisters. Ginn. Short descriptions of the lives of Eskimo, desert, moun- tain, Japanese children. •Andrews, J. — Each and All. Ginn. Stories giving information about the homes and customs of chil- dren of various nationalities. •Barnard, H. C. — How Other People Live. Macmillan. Pictures (many in color) and descriptions. •Chance, L. M. — Little Folks of Many Lands. Ginn. ♦DuTTON, M. B. — In Field and Pasture. American Book Co. Short Stories of child life in simple language ; the Pueblo, children of the Nile Valley, the Navajo boy, children of Tibet, Russia, etc. Illustrated. Lyde, L. W. — Man in Many Lands. Macmillan. •MiRiCK, G. A. — Home Life Around the World. Hough- ton. Written for children from eight to ten years of age. Geographical situations typical in climatic and physiographic conditions and in natural re- sources have been selected. Illustrated by photo- graphs by Burton'Holmes. 222 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL ♦O'Neill, E.-^TJie Story of tJie World. Putnam. A simple history for boys and girls. Illustrated. ♦Perdue, H. A. — Child Life in Other Lands. Rand Mc- Nally. Short stories of Indians, Eskimos, Norwe- gians, Dutch, German, Italian, Greek, Japanese, Chinese, and American children. Illustrated. •Shaw, E. R. — Big People and Little People of Other Lamds. American Book Co. Simple descriptions of people of India, Japan, Philippines, Russia, Hol- land, and Arabia. Illustrated. •Starr, F. — Strange Peoples. Heath. Reader for chil- dren. Short accounts of lives of Mexicans, Finns, Lapps, Malays, etc., from authoritative sources. •Taylor, Bayard. — Boys of Other Countries. Putnam. Accounts of life of children in different countries visited. Illustrated. •TOLMAN, S. W. — Around the World, Booh II. Silver. Stories of Russia, India, Egypt, Scotland. North America Alusha JuDSON, K. B. — Myths and Legends of Alaska. Me- Clurg. MuiR, J. — Travels in Alaska. Houghton. •NixoN-RouLET, M. F. — Our Little Alaskan Cousin. Page. Canada ♦Bealby, J. T. — Peeps at Many Lands — Canada. Mac- millan. Bourinot, J. G. — The Story of Canada. Putnam. Burpee and Morgan. — Canadian Life in Town and Country. Newnes, London. *Coe, F. E. — Our American Neighbors. Silver, Burdette. •Home, B. — Peeps at History — Canada. Black. Laut, a. C. — Canada, the Empire of the North. Ginn. The romantic story of Canada's growth from colony to kingdom. Macmillan, C. — Canadian Wonder Tales. John Lane. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES ns *McDoNALD, AND Dalrymple. — Betty in Cmada. Little, Brown. *MacDonald, E. R. — Our Little Canadian Cousin. Page. *Marshall, H. E. — Canada's Story. 'Stokes. Gates, D. W. — Canada To-day and Yesterday. Harrap. In the form of a series of adventures retold from the journals of pioneers, explorers, and travelers. *Parkman, F. — Rivals for America. Little. *Plummer, M. W. — Roy and Ray in Canada. Holt. **Well told and full of information historical and geographical." A. L. A. Tappan, E. M.—The World's Story. Houghton. Vol. II: Canada. History, stories, etc. *WiNSLOw, I. 0. — Our American Neighbors. Heath. Cuba *Fairpord, F. — Peeps at Many Lands — Cuba. Macmillan. *Wade. M. H. — Our Little Cuban Cousin. Page. Eskimos Nansen, F. — Eskimo Life, Longmans. Appearance and dress, cookery, winterhouses, social conditions, religious ideas, etc. *Peary, R. E. — Snowland Folks. Stokes. *Peary, J. — Children of the Arctic. Stokes. Suitable for young children. Fully illustrated. *Peary, J. — The Snow Baby. Stokes. Suitable for use by children. Well illustrated. Rink, H. J. — Tales and Traditions of the Eskimo, Blackwood. *ScANDLiN, C. — Hans the Eskimo. Silver, Burdette. *ScHWATKA, F. — Children of the Cold. Educational Pub. Co. Description of Eskimo children, houses, playthings, outdoor sports, Eskimo candy, amuse- ments, how their clothes are made, etc. Illustrated. *Smith, M. E. — Eskimo Stories. Rand McNally. De- scribes features of Eskimo life — games, home, food, clothing, etc. Illustrated. 224 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL Stefansson, J. — My Life with the Eskimo. Macmillan. ♦Wade, M. H. — Our Little Eskimo Cousin. Page. Greenland Tappan, E. M.—The WorWs Story. Houghton. VoL 8: Greenland. History, life of the People. Hawaii Alexander, M. C. — The Story of Hawaii. American Book Co. *Keout, M. H. — Alice's Visit to the Hawaiian Islands, American Book Co. Sim£)le descriptions and pic- tures based on observations. •TwoMBLY, H. S. — Hawaii and Its People. Silver, Bur- dette. •Wade, M. H. — Our Little Hawaiian Cousin. Page. Iceland *Leith, Mrs. Disney. — Peeps at Many Lands — Iceland, Macmillan. Tappan, E. U.—The WorWs Story. Houghton. VoL 8, Iceland. Sagas, life of the people, etc. Accounts by various authors. Jamaica ♦Henderson, J. — Peeps at Many Lands — Jamaica. Mac- millan. Labrador ♦Duncan, N. — Adventures of Billy Topsail. Revell. Adventures of a Labrador fisherman's son and his friends. Grenfell, W. T. — Tales of Labrador. Houghton. Mexico ♦Butler, E. C. — Our Little Mexican Cousin. Page. Eggleston and Seelye. — Montezuma and the Conquest of Mexico. Dodd. Plandrau, C. M. — Viva Mexico. Appleton. ♦Gaines, R. — Lucita; A Child's Story of Old Mexico. Rand. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 225 *6aines and Read. — The Village Shield — a story of Mexico. Dutton. Hale, S. — The Story of Mexico. Putnam. *McDonujD and Dalrymple. — Manuel in Mexico. Little, Brown. Morris, C. — The Story of Mexico. Winston. Condition and modes of life, products of soil, cities, railroads, commercial progress, ancient Mexico, etc. *Plummer, M. W. — Roh and Ray in Mexico. Holt. *'Well told and full of information historical and geographical." A. L. A. Spence, L. — The Myths of Mexico and Peru. Stokes. Tappan, E, M.—The World's Story. Houghton, Vol. II, Mexico. *WiNSi,-ow, I. 0. — Our American Neighbors. Heath. Newfoundland *Fairford, F. — Peeps at Many Lands — Newfoundland, Macmillan. Panama *PiKE, H. L. M. — Our Little Panama Cousin. Page. *Browne, E. a. — Peeps at Many Lands — Panama. Mac- millan. Bishop, J. B. — Panama Gateway. Scribner. *Gause and Carr. — The Story of Panama. Silver, Burdette. History of the making of the canal and account of the history of Panama. Philippine *BuRKS, F. W. — Barbara's Philippine Journey. World Book Co. *Knapp, a. — The Story of the Philippines. Silver, Burdette. Le Roy, J. A. — Philippine Life in Town and Country. Putnam. *MacClintock, S. — The Philippines. American Book Co. McGoverney, D. 0. — Stories of Long Ago in the Philip- pines. World Book Co. 226 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL ♦Mitchell, A. F. — Paz and PaUo. World Book Co. Stories of two little Filipinos. *Wade, M. H. — Our Little PJiilippine Cousin. Page. Porto Rico *Seabury, J. B. — Porto Rico, the Land of the Rich Port, Silver, Burdette. ♦Wade, M. H. — Our Little Porto Rica/n Cousin. Page. West Indies Fiske, a. K.—The Story of the West Indies. Putnam. Ober, F. a. — The Storied West Indies. Appleton. South America •Allen, N. B. — Geographical and Industrial Studies, South America. Ginn. Babson, R. W. — The Future of South America. Little. ♦Bowman, I. — South America. Rand McNally. Geo- graphic Reader. ♦Browne, E. A. — Peeps at Many Lands: South America, Macmillan. ♦Carpenter, F. G. — Geographical Reader: South Ameri- ica. American Book Co. ♦Chamberlain, J. F. — The Continents and Their People — South America. Macmillan. BuTTERWORTH, H. — South America. Doubleday. A popularly illustrated history of the struggle for liberty in the Andean Republics and Cuba. Dawson, T. C. — The Story of the South American Re- publics. Putnam. ♦FiGYELMESSY, E. H. — Two Boys in the Tropics. Mac- millan. Life of a family in South America by the mother of the boys. ♦Herbertson, a. J. — Central and South America, Mac- millan. ♦Markwick and Smith. — The South American Repub- lics. Silver, Burdette. ♦NixON-RouLET, M. F. — Our Little Brazilian Cousin, Page. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 227 Tappan, E. M..—The WorWs Story. Houghton, Vol. 2. South America. *Wade, M. H. — Twin Travellers in South America, Stokes. Trip to Brazil, Argentine, Bolivia, etc., told in story form. Europe General *Allen, N. B. — Geographical and Industrial Studies — Europe. Ginn. ♦Carpenter, F. G. — Geographical Reader — Europe. American Book Co. *Chamberlain, J. F. — The Continents and Their People — Europe. Macmillan. *Herbertson, a. J. — Europe. Macmillan. Readahle selections from the works of travellers who have visited the countries and recorded their observa- tions. Illustrated. Huntington, E. — The Geography of Europe. Yale University Press. A study of the physical geography of Europe and of the customs, indus- tries, and relationships of the various countries. Lyde, L. W. — The Continent of Europe. Macmillan. History Adams, G. B. — Civilization During the Middle Ages, Scribner. Ashley, R. L. — Modern European Civilization, Mac- millan. Cunningham, W. — Western Civilization in Its Economic Aspects. Putnam. Emerton, E. — Mediaeval Europe. Ginn. Emerton, E. — Introduction to the Study of the Middle Ages. Ginn. One of the best brief accounts of this period. Of special value to beginners. *Harding, S. B. — Story of the Middle Ages. Scott Fores- man. Hazen, C. D. — Modern European History, Holt. 228 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL Ogg, F. a. — A Source Book of Mediaeval History. American Book Co. Ogg, F. a. — Economic Development of Modern Europe. Macmillan. Provides great amount of material most useful to teachers who are aiming to give more emphasis to the industrial and social side of history and geography. Ogg, F. a. — Social Progress in Contemporary Europe. Macmillan. Robinson, J. H. — An Introduction to the History of Western Europe. Ginn. Robinson and Breasted. — Outlines of European His- tory. Ginn. *RoBiNSON AND Beard. — The Development of Modern Europe. Ginn. Shapiro, J. S. — Modern and Contemporary European History. Houghton. Austria ♦Mendel, F; E. — Our Little Austrian Cousin. Page. Palmer, F. H. E. — Austro-Hungarian Life in Town and Country. Putnam. Tappan, E. M.—The World's Story. Houghton. Vol. 6: Austria-Hungary. Folk-tales and legends — ^his- tory etc. — accounts by various authors. Belgium Boulger, D. C. — Belgian Life in Town and Country. Putnam. Contents : The two races in Belgium, the court and society, burger life in Brussels, the com- mercial classes in Antwerp. The manufacturing centers, country life, the army and the military life. Illustrated. *de Bosschere, J. — Folk Tales of Flanders. Dodd, Mead. *Cammaerts, E. and T. — A Boy of Bruges. Dutton. A story of Belgian Child-Life by a Belgian poet. Griffis, W. E. — Belgium. Houghton. Its history, legends, industry and modern expansion. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 229 •JONCKHEERE, R. — When I was a Boy in Belgium. Loth- rop. The author describes Belgian child life by giving his own true story. McManus, B. — Our Little Belgian Cousin. Page. *Ormond, G. W. T. — Peej^s at Many Lands — Belgium. Macmillan. Bohemia *Bandis, J. — Czech Folk Tales. Allen & Unwin, London. Maurice, C. E. — The Story of Bohemia. Putnam. Monroe, W. S. — Bohemia and the Czechs. Page. ♦WiNSLOw, C. V. — Our Little Bohemian Cousin. Page. Bulgaria Monroe, W. S. — Bulgaria and Her People. Page. ♦WiNSLOw, C. V. — Our Little Bulgarian Cousin. Page. Denmark *Bay, J. C. — Danish Fairy and Folk Tales. Harper. Brochner, J. — Danish Life in Town and Country. Putnam. Government and politics — church, army and navy — court and society, art, country life, etc. niustrated. ♦Ennes, L. M. — Our Little Danish Cousin. Pa^e. Tappan, E. M. — The World's Story, Vol. 8. Houghton. Denmark: Tales, legends, history, etc. Accounts by various authors. ♦Thomson, M. P. — Peeps at Many Lands — Denmark. Macmillan. England Cheyney, E. G. — An Introduction to the Industrial and Social History of England. Macmillan. Coman and Kendall. — History of England. Macmillan. Cunningham, W.—The Growth of English Industry and Commerce. Cambridge University Press. *Finnimore, J.— Peeps at Many Lands — England. Mac- millan. 230 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL ♦Freeman, E. A.— Old English History for CMldren, Macmillan. Green, J, R. — A Short History of the English People, American Book Co. *Harding, S. B.—The Story of England. Scott Fores- man. A continuous history of England's develop- ment clearly and interestingly told. Illustrated. *Jacobs, J. — English Fairy Tales. Putnam. McManus, B. — Our Little English Cousin. Page. ♦Marshall, H. E. — An Empire Story. Stokes. ** Traces the development of the British colonies. Attractive make-up and treatment." F. J. Olcott. ♦Marshall, H. E. — An Island Story. Stokes. *'A child's history of England. The biographical side is emphasized and the treatment is romantic. Large volume with colored pictures.'' F. J. Olcott. ♦O'Neill, E. — A Nursery History of England. Stokes. Story, A. T. — The Building of the British Empire. Putnam. The Story of England's Growth from Elizabeth to Victoria. Tickner, F. W. — Social and Industrial History of Eng- land. Longmans. ToMLiNSON, E. T. — British Isles. Houghton. Geography, industries, cities, schools, people and customs. Traill and Mann. — Social England. Putnam. A record of the progress of the people in religion, laws, arts, industry, commerce, science and manners from the earliest time to the pBesent day. Finland ♦Baldwin, J. — The Sampo. Scribner. The great Fin- nish Epic. Reade, a. — Finland and the Finns. Dodd, Mead. ♦Thomson, M. P. — Peeps at Man/y Lands — Finland. Macmillan. ♦Winslow, C. V. — Our Little Finnish Cousin. Page. France ♦Bonner, J. — A Child^s History of France. Harper. Cooke, A. 0. — Stories of France in Days of Old. Stores. BIBIJOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 231 ♦Button, M. B. — Little Stories of France. American Book Co. A cheap but excellent text-book volume of French history. Edwards, M. B. B. — Home Life in France. McClurg. ♦FiNNEMORE, J. — Peeps at Many Lands — France. Mac- millan. Hassall, a. — The French People. Appleton. Lynch, L. B. — French Life in Town and Country. Put- nam. McManus, B. — Our Little French Cousin. Page. *McDoNALD AND Dalrymple. — Colcttc in France. Little, Brown. ♦McGregor, M. — The Story of France told to Boys and Girls. Stokes. Pitman, L. W. — Stories of Old Framce. American Book Co. ♦Porter, L. S. — Genevieve. Button. ♦QuiLLER-CoucH, A. T. (Rctold by). — The Sleeping Beauty and Other Fairy Tales from the old French, Boran. ♦LuGARD, F. L. — Hector. Little, Brown. Tappan, E. M.—The World's Story. Houghton. Vol. 5: France. History, etc. Accounts by various authors. Germany Baring-Gould and Gilman. — The Story of Germany, Putnam. Bawson, W. H. — German Life in Town and Country. Putnam. ♦Button, M. B. — Little Stories of Germamy. American Book Co. Separate stories arranged so as to form a connected account of the history of Germany begin- ning with the mythological heroes and extending to the present day. ♦Marshall, H. E. — History of Germany. Stokes. ♦McBoNALD AND Balrymple. — Fritz in Germany. Little, Brown. 232 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL *MuLLER, M. — Elshethf A Story of German Home Life. Dutton. SiDGWiCK, C. — Home Life in Germany. Macmillan. Housewives, servants, food, shops, and markets, sports and games, peasant life, etc. *SiDGwiCK, C. — Peeps at Many Lands — Germany. Mac- millan. Tappan, E. M.— TTie World's Story. Houghton. Vol. 7: Germany. History, etc. Accounts by various authors. •Wade, M. H. — Our Little German Cousin. Page. Greece *Best, S. M. — Greece and Rome. Macmillan. *BoNNER, J. — A Child's History of Greece. Harper. *Browne, E. a. — Peeps at Many Lands — Greece. Mac- millan. •Buckley, E. F. — Children of the Dawn. Stokes. Old Tales of Greece. Bury, J. B.-r-History of Greece. Macmillan. BLiJMNER, H. — Home Life of the Ancient Greeks. Funk. •CowLES, J. D. — Our Little Spartan Cousin of Long Ago. Page. •Cow^LES, J. D. — Our Little Athenian Cousin of Long Ago. Page. Davis, W. S.—A Day in Old Athens. AUyn. A pic- ture of Athenian life. •Demetrios, G. — When I was a Boy in Greece. Lothrop. Written from an account given by a Greek boy. •Dragoumis, J. D. — Under Greek Skies. Dutton. Stories of life of Greek children of to-day. •GuERBER, H. A. — Story of the Greeks. American Book Co. GuLiCK, C. B. — The Life of the Ancient Greeks. Apple- ton. Aims to give the essential facts of the daily life of the Greeks. Takes up houses, home life, articles of food, clothing, social life, travel, etc. Harrison, J. A.--The Story of Greece. Putnam. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 233 ♦Lee, J. B. — Mr. Achilles. Dodd, Mead. The story of the friendship between a little girl who loves Greece and a Greek fruit-seller. Full of the brotherhood of races. MAHiVFFY, J. P. — Social Life in Greece. Macmillan. Mahaffy, J. P. — Old Greek Life. American Book Co. Moore, M. — Days in Hellas. Jacobs. *NixoN-RouLET, M. F. — Our Little Grecian Cousin, Page. ♦Tappan, E. M. — Story of the Greek People. Houghton. Tappan, E. M.—The World's Story. Houghton. Vol. 4: Greece. Holland *DoDGE, M. M. — Hans Brinker and the Silver Skates (Numerous Editions). Aims to give just ideas of of Holland, its resources and every day life of the people. Based on writers of Dutch history, litera- ture and art. •Dodge, M. M. — The Land of Pluck. Century. Descrip- tion of Holland and its people, and stories. ♦Griffis, W. E. — Brave Little Holland. Houghton. A bird's eye view. How a Dam Became a City. Writ- ten in simple form. ♦Griffis, W. E. — Dutch Fadry Tales. Crowell. ♦Griffis, "W. E. — Young People's History of Holland, Houghton. From early times to the present cen- tury. Illustrated. *Groot, C. de. — When I was a Girl in Holland. Lothrop. Hough, P. M. — Dutch Life in Town and Country. Put- nam. Material characteristics, court and society, workmen of the towns, peasant life, amusements, arts, religion, etc. Illustrated. •JuNGMAN, B. — Peeps at Many Lands — Holland. Mac- millan. McManus, B. — Our Little Dtuch Cousin. Page. •McDonald and Dalrymple. — Marta in Holland. Little, Brown. 234 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL Meldrum, D. S. — Home Life in Holland. Macmillan. Dutch interiors, the country and the home. Rogers, J. E. T.—The Story of Holland. Putnam. History from early days to modem times. ♦Smith, M. E. J. — Holland Stones. Band McNally. Tappan, E. M.—TJie World's Story. Houghton. Vol. 7: The Netherlands. History, social life and cus- toms-accounts by various authors. Hungary *KovER, H. T. DE. — Peeps at Many Lands — Hungary. Macmillan. •NixoN-RouLET, M. F. — Our Little Hungarian Cousin. Page. *PoGANY, N. — The Hungarian Fairy Booh. Stokes. Vauberg, a. — The Story of Hungary. Putnam. Ireland *CoLUM, P. — A Boy in Erin. Dutton. Irish Country life, folk lore and hero stories. *CuRTiN, J. — Myths and Folk-Lore of Ireland. Little, Brown. Dease, a. — Mother Erin. Sands. Her ancient history, some of her cities, some of her legends and tradi- tions, customs and superstitions, games, etc. *Home, B. — Ireland. Black. Johnson, C. — The Isle of the Shamrock. Macmillan. ♦Joyce, P. "W. — A Child's History of Ireland. Long- mans. Literature, art, music, dwellings, food, dress, family life, legends, political history. ♦Joyce, P. W. — A Reading Book in Irish History. Long- mans. Lawless, E. — The Story of Ireland. Putnam. ♦McDonald and Dalrymple. — Kathleen in Ireland. Lit- tle, Brown. Tappan, E. M. — The World's History. Houghton. Vol. 10 : Ireland. History, life of the people. Accounts of various authors. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 235 *HiNKSON, K. T. — Peeps at Mawy Lands — Iceland. Mac- millan. *Wade, M. H. B. — Our Little Irish Cousin. Page. *Yeats, W. B. — Irish Fairy Tales. Burt. Italy *Ambrosi, M. — When I Was a Girl in Italy. Lothrop. ' ' Marietta Ambrosi tells of her home life, play- mates, games, work.'' F. J. Olcott. *Basile, G. — Stories from the Pentamerone. Macmillan. Folk tales of old Italy. Bury, J. B. — History of the Roman Empire. American Book Co. Church, A. J. — Roman Life in the Days of Cicero. Macmillan. *CoLLODi, C. — Pinnochio. (Many editions.) Duff-Gordon, L. — Home Life in Italy. Macmillan. *FmNEMORE, J. — Peeps at Many Lands. — Italy. Mac- millan. Fowler, W. W. — Social Life of Rome. Chatauqua Home Reading Circle. Home life, holidays, re- ligion, etc. GiLMAN, A. — The Story of Rome. Putnam. *GuERBER, H. A. — Story of the Romans. American Book Co. *Harding, C. H. and S. B. — The City of the Seven Hills. Scott Foresman. Johnson, H. W. — The Private Life of the Romans. Scott Foresman. The family, the name, house and its furniture, dress, food and meals, amusements baths, travel, sources of income, the Roman day, etc. *McDoNALD AND Dalrymple. — Rafael in Italy. Little, Brown. Miller, W. — The Story of Mediaeval Rome. Putnam. Orsi, p. — The Story of Modern Italy. Putnam. Sedgwick, H. D. — A Short History of Italy. Houghton. *Tappan, E. M. — Story of the Roman People. Houghton. 236 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL Tappan, E. M.—Tlie World's Story. Houghton. Vol. 5: Italy. History, literature, art — accounts by various authors. ViLLARi, L. — Italian Life in Town and Country. Put- nam. Division of the population, questions of wealth and poverty, home life, political life, re- ligious life and thought. Agricultural population, amusements, literature. *Wade, M. H. — Our Little Italian Cousin. Page. Norway *Aanrud, H. — Lisheth Long frock. Ginn. Story of a Norwegian girl. *ASBJ0RNSEN, P. C. — Fairy Tales from the Far North. Burt. BoYESEN, H. H. — The Story of Norway. Putnam. His- tory from the time of Norsemen to modern times. ♦BoYESEN, H. H. — Boyhood in Norway. Scribner. Stories of boy-life in the land of Midnight Sun. Daniels, H. K. — Home Life in Norway. Macmillan. Children and education, food, women, homes. Illus- trated. *Dasent, G. W. — East o' the Sun and West o' the Moon. Putnam. Du Chaillu, p. — The Land of the Midnight Sun. Harper. Wealth of material on all sorts of details of life and scenery. ♦Ferryman, A. F. M. — Peeps at Many Lands — Norway. Macmillan. *Hall, J. — Viking Tales. Rand McNally. *Martineau, H. — Feats on the Fjords. Dutton. ''The author brings home to the youthful mind the wonders of the northern latitudes. The book opens with the long nights and ends with the long days. The midnight sun and the northern lights play their parts, whilst the beautiful simplicity of farm life in the Arctic Circle is unfolded with authorita- tive interest." BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 237 Tappan, E. M.—TJie World's Story. Houghton. Vol. 8: Norway. Mythology, folk-lore, social life. Ac- counts of various authors. *"Wade, M. H. — Our Little Norwegian Cousin. Page. * Walter, L. E. — Norse and Lapp. Black. A Norwegian winter, winter life in the country, summer life in the country, and on the fringe of the Arctic. The wandering Lapps, etc. *ZwiLGMEYER, D. — Johuuif Blossom (from the Norwegian by E. Poulsson). Pilgrim Press. Every day life of a Norwegian boy. *ZvnLGMEYER, D. — What Happened to Inger JoJianne (from the Norwegian by E. Poulsson). Lothrop. Every-day life of a Norwegian girl. Toland *Gardner, M. M. — Peeps at Many Lands — Poland. Mac- millan. *Mendel, F. E. — Our Little Polish Cousin. Page. MoRFiLL, W. R. — Story of Poland. Putnam. Country and people, sagas, the Poles as subjects of Russia, Austria and Prussia; politics, social conditions. Portugal *GooDALL, A. M. — Peeps at Many Lands— Portugal. Macmillan. Higgin, L. — Portugese Life in Town and Country. Putnam. Land, people, institutions. *Sa.wyer, E. a. — Our Little Portugese Cousin. Page. Stephens, H. M. — The Story of Portugal. Putnam. Historical. Tappan, E. M.—The World's Story. Houghton. Vol. 5: Portugal. Roumania KiRKE, D. — Domestic Life in Roumania. John Lane. 238 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL *Teslaer, J. V. — When I Was a Boy in Boumania. Lothrop. *WiNSLOw, C. V. — Our Little Roumanian Cousin. Page. Russia *CuRTAiN, J. — MytJis and Folk-Tales of the Russians, Western Slavs, and Magyars. Little, Brown. *Haskell, H. E. — Katrinka — the Story of a Russian Child. Button. ^McDonald and Dalrymple. — Boris in Russia. Little, Brown. *MoKRiEviTCH, V. — When I was a Boy in Russia. Loth- rop. MoRFiLL, W. R. — The Story of Russia. Putnam. Palmer, F. H. E. — Russian Life in Town and Country. Putnam. The landed proprietor, the peasant in serfdom, peasant characteristics, rural self-govern- ment, life on a large estate, a country town, Jewish life, life in winter, Industrial Co-operative Associa- tion. *PosTNiKOV, F. A. — Our Little Cossack Cousin. Page. *Ransome, a. — Old Peter's Russian Tales. Stokes. Rappoport, a. S. — Home Life in Russia. Macmillan. Villages, peasants, family life, marriage ceremonies, religious life, education. Tappan, E. M.—The World's Story. Houghton. Vol. 6: Russia. Folk-tales, history, etc. — accounts by various authors. *Van Bergen, R. — Story of Russia. American Book Co. *Wade, M. H. — Our Little Russian Cousin. Page. ♦Walter, L. E. — Peeps at Many Lands — Russia. Mac- millan. •Wheeler, P. — Russian Wander Tales. Century. Scotland. ♦Black, W. — The Four Macnicols. Harper. Boy life on the coast of Scotland. ♦Grierson, E. — Peeps at Many Lands — Scotland. Mac- millan. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 239 *Green, E. M. — Tlie Laird of Glentyre. Button. Johnson-, C. — The Land of Heather. Macmillan. Rural. and village manners; life and customs. Mackintosh, J. — The Story of Scotland. Putnam. McManus, B. — Our Little Scotch Cousin. Page. *Marshall, H. E. — Scotland's Story. Stokes. *McDoNALD AND Dalrymple. — Douold in Scotland. Lit- tle, Brown. Tappan, E. M.—The World's Story. Houghton. Vol. 10. Scotland. Ballads, legends, history-r-accounts by various authors. Servia *MiJATOViCH, E. — Serhian Fadry Tules. Robert Mc- Bride. *Petrovic, M. — Hero Tales and Legends of the Serbians, Harrap. ♦Winslow, C. V. — Our Little Servian Cousin. Page. Spain *Bates, K. L. — In Sunny Spain. Dutton. *Bonner, J. — A Child's History of Spain. Harper. *Browne, E. a. — Peeps at Many Lands — Spain. Mac- millan. Hale, E. E. — The Story of Spain. Putnam. HiGGiN, L. — Spanish Life in Town and Country. Put- nam. Land and people, types and traits, amuse- ments, religion, education, arts, commerce, and agriculture. Hume, M. A. S. — The Story of Modern Spadn. Putnam. *McDoNALD AND Dalrymple. — Joscfa in Spain. Little, Brown. *Nixon-Roulet, M. F. — Our Little Spanish Cousin. Page. ♦Segovia, G. — The Spanish Fairy Book. Stokes. Tappan, E. M.—The World's Story. Houghton. Vol. 5: Spain. 240 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL Sweden ♦CoBURN, C. M. — Our Little Swedish Cousin, Page. Heiden, 0. G. Von. — Swedish Life in Town and Coun- try. Putnam. ♦LiDDLE, W. — Peeps at Many Lands — Sweden. Mac- millan. ♦McDonald and DalrympliE. — Gerda in Sweden. Little, Brown. •Nyblom, H. — Jolly Calle and Other Swedish Fairy Tales. Dutton. Stefansson, J. — Denmark and Sweden with Iceland and Finland. Putnam. Tappan, E. M.—The World's Story. Houghton. Vol. 8 : Sweden. History, folk-lore. Accounts by various authors. Switzerland *FiNNEMORE, J. — Peeps at Many Lands — Switzerland. Macmillan. ♦Froelicher, F. — Swiss Stories and Legends. Mac- millan. *GuERBER, H. A. — Legends of Switzerland. Dodd, Mead. Hug and Stead. — The Story of Switzerland. Putnam. *Spyri, J. — Eeidi. (Many editions.) Story, A. T. — Swiss Life in Town and Country. Put- nam. Switzerland and the Swiss struggle with nature, education, industry, life and work in the Alps; Swiss women and homes; children, working- men's society and co-operation; fetes and festivals, etc. Illustrated. Tappan, E. M.—The World's Story. Houghton. Vol. 7: Switzerland — History and social life — accounts by various authors. *Wade, M. H. — Our Little Swiss Cousin. Page. Turkey Garnett, L. M. J. — The Women of Turkey and Their Folk-Lore, David Nutt. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 241 Garnett, L. M. J. — Home Life in Turkey. Macmillan. Social life, religious beliefs, institutions, domestic life. Garnett, L. M. J. — Turkish Life in Town and Country, Putnam. Inhabitants and institutions, dwellings, home life, religion, education, etc. Lane-Poole, S. — The Story of Turkey. Putnam. Tappan, E. M.—The World's Story. Houghton. Vol. 6: Turkey. History, Social life, stories, etc. ac- counts by various authors. *Van Millingen, J. R. — Peeps at Many Lands — Turkey, Macmillan. *Wade, M. H. — Our Little Turkish Cousin. Page. Wales *Edward, 0. M. — The Story of Wales. Putnam. Tappan, E. M.—The World's Story. Houghton. Vol. 10: Wales. Legends, life, etc. *Wilmot-Buxton, E. M. — Peeps at Many Lands — Wales, Macmillan. Asia General * Allen, N. B. — Geographical and Industrial Studies — Asia. Ginn. *Carpenter, F. G. — Geographical Reader — Asia. Ameri- can Book Co. *Chamberlain, J. F. — The Continents and Their People — Asia. Macmillan. CoBBOLD, R. P. — Innermost Asia. Scribner. *Herbertson, a. J. — Asia. Macmillan. * Huntington, B. Asia. Rand McNally. Geographic Reader. *Miller, H. — Little People of Asia. Button. Short accounts of Turkish, Persian, Hindu, Siamese babies. Illustrated. *Redway, J. W. — All Around Asia. Scribner. *Smith, M. C. — Life in Asia. Silver. *WiNSL0w, I. 0. — Distant Countries. Heath. 242 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL Afghanistan Tappan, E. M.—The World's Story, Houghton. VoL 2. Afghanistan. Aralia ^Mansfield, B. — Our Little Arabian Cousin. Page. Tappan, E. M.—TJie World's Story. Houghton. Vol. 3. Arabia. Armenia ^Schnapps, C. H. — ArcJiag, the Little Armenian. Button. *Wade, M. H. — Our Little Arntenian Cousin. Page. Assyria *Baikie, J. — Peeps at 3Iany Lands — Ancient Assyria. Macmillan. Ragozin, Z. a. — Story of Assyria. Putnam. Burmu *Kelly, R. T. — Peeps at Many Lands — Burma. Mac- millan. Ceylon *Clark, a. — Peeps at Many Lands — Ceylon. Macmillan. China Bard, E. — Chinese Life in Town and Country. Putnam. *Bryson, M. I. — Child Life in Chinese Homes. American Book Co. Chinese baby, home and friends, school and play festivals, and holidays. Illustrated. •Davis, M. H. and Chow-Leung. — Chinese Fables and Folk Stories. American Book Co. Douglas, R. K. — The Story of China. Putnam. Griffis, W. E. — China's Story. Houghton. ♦Headland, I. T. — Our Little Chinese Cousin. Page. ♦Headland, I. T. — The Chinese Boy and Girl. Revell. Contents : nursery and its rhymes, child-life, games, toys, stories told children. Illustrated. HOLCOLMB, C. — The Real Chinaman. Dodd, Mead. Gov- ernment, home life, social life, language, religion, superstitions, etiquette, etc. J BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 24S *JoHNSTON, L. E. — Peeps at Many Lands — CJiina. Mac- millan. *Lee, Yan Phou. — When I was a Boy in China. Lothrop. Written by a Chinese boy. *PiTMAN, N. H. — Chinese Fairy Stories. Crowell. Ross, E. A. — The Changing Chinese. Century, Indus- trial future, women, race, characteristics, appear- ance, education, etc, Tappan, E. M..—The World's Story. Houghton. Vol. I, China. History, social customs, literature. Ac- counts taken from various authors. *Van Bergen, R. — Story of China. American Book Co. Descriptive and partly historical. India CoMPTON, H. — Indian Life in Town and Country. Put- nam. India as it is. Caste, manners, and customs, the Indian at home, bungalow life, out-of-door life, Illustrated. *PiNNEMORE, J. — Peeps at Many Lands — India. Mac- millan. Village life, homes in the city, homes of the wild folk. Illustrated in color. *Griswold, F. — Hindu Fairy Tales. Lothrop. *KOLMAN, J. H. — Children of India. Revell. *McDoNALD AND Dalrymple. — Chandra in India. Little, Brown. McManus, B. — Our*Little Hindu Cousin. Page. *Marshall, H. E. — India's Story Told to Boys and Girls, Stokes. *Pratt- Chad WICK, M. L. — Stories of India. Educational Publishing Co. Tappan, E. M. — The World's Story. Houghton. Vol. 2 India. History, folk-lore, social life — accounts taken from various authors. *Wade, M. H. — Twin Travelers in India. Stokes. Japan Ancus, D. C. — Japan the Eastern Wonderland. Cas- sell. Fairs and festivals, ranks and religions, court and camp, the New Japan, etc. 244 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL *Ayrton, M. — Cliild Life in Japan. Heath. Written from actual observation of Japanese life. *Brain, B. M. — All About Japan. Revell. Stories of the Sunrise Land told for Little Folks. Brown, C. C. — Children of Japan. Kevell. Describes Japanese children in their homes and at school, their games, festivals, and superstitions. Fenollosa, M. M. — Blossoms from a Japanese Garden. Stokes. *FiNNEMORE, J. — Peeps at Many Lands — Japan. Mac- millan. ♦Campbell, H. M. — TJie Story of Little Metsu, the Japanese Boy. Educational Pub. Co. *Gaines, R. — Treasure Flower — a Child of Japan. Dut- ton. *Griffis, W. E. — Japan, In History, Folk-Lore, and Art. Houghton. For young people. Contents: Origin of the arts, letters, writing, social life, ideals, and symbols, signs and omens, etc. Hearn, Lafcadio. — Japanese Fairy Tales. Boni and Liveright. Kelman, J. H. — Children of Japan. Revell. Knox, G. W. — Japanese Life in Town and Country. Putnam. Lloyd, A. — Every -Day in Japan. Cassell. *McDoNALD AND Dalrymple. — TJme San in Japan. Little, Brown. Murray, D. — The Story of Japan. Putnam. *OzAKi, Y. T. — The Japanese Fairy Book. Dutton. *Shioya, S. — When I ^yas a Boy in Japan. Lothrop. Description of Japanese child life by a Japanese. Tappan, E. M.—The World's Story. Houghton. Vol. I. Japan. History, literature — accounts taken from various authors. *Van Bergen, R. — The Story of Japan. American Book Co. A brief and interesting history of Japan. *Wade, M. H. — Our Little Japanese Cousin. Page. *Williston, T. p. — Japanese Fairy Tales. Rand. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 245 Java HiGGiNSON, S. J. — Java, the Pearl of the East. Hough- ton. *ScHELTEMA, J. F. — Peeps at Many Lands — Java. Mac- millan. Kashmir *Bruce, F. M. J. — Peeps at Many Lands — Kashmir. Macmillan. Korea *CouLSON, J. D. — Peeps at Many Lands — Korea. Mac- millan, Gale, J. S. — Korean Sketches. Revell. The Coolie, the Korean mind, the Korean gentleman, etc. *PiKE, H. L. M. — Our Little Korean Cousin. Page. Mesopotamia Tappan, E. M.—The World's Story. Houghton. Vol. 2, Mesopotamia. Palestine *FiNNEMORE, J. — Peeps at Many Lands — The Holy Land. *GuERBER, H. — story of the Chosen People. American Book Co. HosMER, J. K. — The Story of the Jews. Putnam. *Kaleel, M. J. — When I Was a Boy in Palestine. Loth- rop. Tappan, E. M.—The World's Story. Houghton. Vol. 2. Palestine. Persia Benjamin, S. G. W.— Story of Persia. Putnam. *Olcott, F. J. — Tales of the Persian Genii. Houghton. *SnEDD, E. C. — Our Little Persian Cousin. Page. Tappan, E. M.—The World's Story. Houghton. Vol. 2. Persia. History, social customs, folk-lore, ac- counts taken from various authors. 246 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL Siarn Tappan, E. M.—The World's Storij. Houghton. Vol. 2. Siam. Taylor, Bayard. — Siam., the Land of the White Ele- phant. Scribner. Ancient and modern Siam. *Wade, M. H. — Our Little Siamese Cousin. Page. •Young, E. — Peeps at Many Lands — Siam. Macmillan. Siberia *Kennan, G. — Tent Life in Siberia. Putnam. The nar- rative of two years' life in Northern Siberia. Tappan, E. M.—The World's Story. Houghton, Vol. 6. Russia. Africa Badlam, a. B. — Views in Africa. Silver, Burdette. *Carpenter, F. G. — Geographical Reader — Africa. American Book Co. •Chamberlain, J. F. — The Continents and Their People — Africa. Macmillan. Du Chaillu, Paul. — The Country of the Dwarfs. Har- per. Strange experiences among the African pigmies Du Chaillu, Paul. — In African Forest and Jungle. Scribner. Adventures with wild animals and savage tribes. Du Chaillu, Paul. — Wild Life under the Equator. Harper. About animals and wild tribes of men in Equatorial Africa. •Herbertson, a. J. — Africa. Macmillan. Honey, J. A. — South-African Folk Tales. Baker. ♦KiDD, D. — Peeps at Many Lands — South Africa. Mac- millan. •Macnair, J. H. — Animal Tales from Africa. Stokes. *Muller, M. — Story of Akimakoo, an African Boy. Flanagan. Entertaining story of the life of an African lad. Give an account of the hunting of crocodiles and elephants — life in camp, en- counter with cannibals. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOURCES 247 Tappan, E. M.—TJie World's Story, Houghton. Vol. 3. Africa. Theal, G. W. — The Story of SoutJi Africa. Putnam. *Wade, M. H. B. — Our Little African Cousin. Page. *WiNSLOw, I. 0. — Distant Countries. Heath. Egypt *Baikie, J. — Peeps at Many Lands — Ancient Egypt. Macmillan. *Best, S. M. — Egypt and Her Neighbors. Macmillan. Erman, a. — Life in Ancient Egypt. Macmillan. GossE, A. B. — The Civilization of Ancient Egypt, Jack. Education, professions and occupations, amusements, architecture, sculpture, laws, religion, literature. Illustrated. *Kelly, R. T. — Peeps at Many Lands — Egypt. Mac- millan. Account of the country, the people and the life. Illustrated. McManus, B. — Our Little Egyptian Cousvn. Page. *McDoNALD AND Dalrymple. — Hossan in Egypt. Little, Brown. Rawlinson and Gilman. — The Story of Ancient Egypt. Putnam. *Starr, L. B. — Mustafa^ the Egyptian Boy. Flanagan. Account of every-day life around Cairo and com- parison with the life of Ancient Egypt. Tappan, E. M.—The World's Story. Houghton. Vol. 3. Egypt. History, folk-lore, accounts taken from various authors. Australia Buley, E. C. — Australian Life in Town and Country, Putnam. *Carpenter, F. G. — Geographical Reader — Australia, American Book Co. *Chamberlain, J. F. — The Continents and Their People — Oceania. Macmillan. *Fox, F. — Peeps at Many Lands — Australia. Macmillan. 248 THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL *Herbertson, a. J. — Australia and Oceania. Macmillan. ♦Kellogg, E. — Australasia and the Islands of the Sea. Silver, Burdette. *Knox, T. W. — Boy Travelers in Australasia. Harper. *NixON-RouLET, M. F. — Our Little Australian Cousin. Page. *Chadwick-Pratt, M. — Stories of Australasia. Educa- tional Pub. Co. Tregarthen, G. — The Story of Australasia. Putnam. END THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO $1.00 ON THE SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE. S£^ .J toC, Ma,. I ';/•', AUG 8 1938 NOV 17 1838 AUG 3 1939 AUG 29 1944 JUN 4 1946 ^JUN 6 1948 APB 10 1942 JV)\- 24 1941 LD 21-50m-l,*3 ^-S8545 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY ^'0