THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES MUSIC LIBRARY GIFT OF Bernard A. Diamant HISTORY OF MUSIC A CONCISE HISTOEY OF MUSIC FROM THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE CHRISTIAN ERA TO THE PRESENT TIME. the Wiet ot H. G. BONAVIA HUNT, B.Mus., CHRIST CHURCH, OXFORD, WARDEN Or TRINITY COLLEGE, LONDON J AND LECTURER ON MOSICAL BISTORT IH THE SAKE COtI.EOE. |ttfe (Sbition, NEW YORK: CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS, SUCCESSORS TO SCBlBNERp ARMSTRONG & CO. TO MT DEAR AND HONOURED FRIEND, SIR JOHN GOSS, Mus.D, WITHOUT WHOSE NAME NO HISTORY OF MODERN MUSIC CAN BE COMPLE1B, Sl/is little Uook is, WITH KVE5Y FEELING OF ItKSl'KfT ANU AFFECTION, INSCRIBED. December, 1877. PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. THAT a new edition of this little work should be called for within three months of its first appearance affords gratifying evidence that it has met to some extent, at least an acknowledged want among students of music. In response to the general invitation with which I concluded my " Introductory " Chapter, several corre- spondents have favoured me with corrections 'and sug- gestions of which I have thankfully availed myself. Accordingly, a few minor names and matters have been added or substituted for others. The general plan and the bulk of the work, however, remain the same as before. I cannot let this occasion pass without expressing my sincere obligations to those gentlemen, the majority of them musicians of acknowledged learning and emi- nence in the art, who have assisted me in the careful preparation of this Second Edition for the press. H. G. B. H. March, 1878. CONTENTS. PAOB DEDICATION ... ... ... ... V INTRODUCTORY ... ... ... ..- ... xi GENERAL SUMMARY ... ... 1 CHRONOMETRICAL TABLES .. ... ... 61 ART SUMMARY ... -. ... ... ... 82 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS ... ... ... 157 LIST OF MUSICAL EXAMPLES ... ... ... 168 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF MUSICAL WORKS ... 169 GENERAL INDEX 176 INTRODUCTORY. THE plan of this little History is so distinct as fai as I am aware from that of any other work upon the same subject, that a careful perusal of these prefatory explanations will greatly help the reader in his study of the book. It would be more cqrrect to say that all previous Histories of Music are distinguished from the present effort in the respect that they have no plan at all, beyond the two very general features of chronological order (rarely adhered to) and a grouping of composers and events into a number of " schools." The volu- minous works of Burney and Hawkins each form a mass of promiscuous and ill-digested matter, which requires much sifting and collating on the part of the student before he can arrive at the information he requires ; while, as both works are now a century old, they stop short of the most productive as well as the most interesting period of musical history. The smaller histories of Hogarth, Schliiter, Eitter, and others, though admirably adapted for the purpose for which they were originally compiled, are still no more than courses of popular lectures, in which much that is naturally xii Introductory. required for a student at a musical examination, is necessarily omitted. The classification adopted in the following pages is the result of many trying experiences as a student, whose chief difficulty has been the separation of the subjective from the objective divisions of the study. To a certain extent the one is necessarily wedded to the other, and I have recognized this where necessary, yet without disturbing the general plan, which I will now proceed to describe. The book is divided into Three Sections. The First Section contains a general review of musical epochs and events, including short biographical sketches of the principal characters concerned, with an enumera- tion of their most important works. ' The principle of chronological order has been observed, yet not slavishly, as sometimes it would have seriously interfered with the general plan, without yielding an equivalent advantage. A palpable difficulty has been the classi- fication of the " schools." The term " school " is so ambiguous, and has been employed in so many senses, that the student is frequently at a loss when asked to defiae any one of them. There are the " Belgian " or "Flemish," the "Koman," the "Venetian," the "Neapolitan," the "Spanish," the "German," the " French," the " English " schools ; and these terms have respectively been variously and indiscriminately used to denote either a group of composers of the same nationality, or a distinguishing style of musical com- position. Again, as to the latter interpretation of the term, the student, in the course of his reading, is liable Introductory. xiii to a new bewilderment with every succeeding work he is led to peruse. Some writers adopt the above classification ; others speak broadly of two great con- trasting schools the Italian and the German ; others, again, add to these two the French and the English schools ; while a fourth section will deny or ignore the existence of the English school in toto. In order to disencumber the mind of such perplexities as these, I have generally adopted the method of classification by nationality ; and have included the Roman, Venetian, and Neapolitan groups under the common head of " Italian." On an examination of the text of the first section, the reader will notice that beyond paragraph 18, every paragraph, with a few exceptions, is headed with an initial letter enclosed in brackets. Each initial letter denotes the division to which the matter that follows it belongs; viz., B., Belgian; I., Italian; G., German ; E., English ; F., French. These paragraphs are so worded that the reader, according to his require- ments, may trace the course of any particular " school " without interruption. Thus, if at any time he wish to confine his attention to the succession of English composers, he will look for the first paragraph headed by the initial E., after which his eye will easily and rapidly guide him to the second and further paragraphs bearing the same initial letter. And as far as the succeeding paragraphs of each denomination are con- cerned, the chronological order will be found intact. The Second Section comprises a series of Chrono- metrical Tables or Charts, the first Chart containing 1000 years, the succeeding Charts 100 years. Each xiv Introductory. Chart is duplicated, and the duplicates are placed on opposite pages. The right hand duplicate contains the names of musicians and historians, while that on the left hand is devoted to the corresponding epochs and events. As in a geographical map the relative positions of towns or counties may be seen at a glance, so in this Chronological map the student may see pictured before him, upon a very simple plan, the time-relationship of persons and events, persons with persons, events with events, and events with persons. For this admirable scheme I am indebted to my able and learned friend, Mr. David Nasmith, LL.B., whose Chronometrical Chart of English History has formed the model for these tables. The study of History, with its legion of miscellaneous facts and disjunct dates, has by this invention been rendered far less irksome and more definite, and it is a matter for regret that Mr. Nasmith's valuable Chart is not to be found on the Avails of every school-room in England, notwithstanding the earnest recommendations of Brougham, Thiers, Carlyle, and other eminent historians. The Third Section summarizes the history of the art itself, unencumbered by the necessity of tracing the career of any composer referred to in the course of the text. It deals (1) with the birth and development of the modern scales, counterpoint and harmony ; (2) with the history of choral music, ecclesiastical and secular; (3) with instrumental music, and the development of the now classical forms of composition; (4) with musical instruments, ancient and modern ; and enumer- ates (5) some of the principal works of each important Introductory. xv class, together with the names of composers, arranged in approximate chronological order. The student is warned that he is not to expect in this what is called a " readable " book ; it has been written with a view to systematic study, and not for mere entertainment, in short, it is a text-book, not a discourse. To this end I have endeavoured throughout to restrict myself to matters of fact, every digression being an attempt to throw light upon facts disputed or uncertain. These pages, then, are not intended for consecutive perusal, but for sectional study ; each division, while maintaining a relation with the whole, being complete as to its own subject. I would therefore recommend, first, a cursory perusal of the work from beginning to end, in order to master the plan and gain a general idea of the contents ; secondly, to select any school or period treated of in the General Summary ; thirdly, to refer, as occasion may require, to the corresponding text of the Art Summary; and lastly, to consult the Chronometrical Tables for the period in question or, better still, to copy out such Tables upon a separate sheet, and upon a larger scale, that they may lie immediately in front of the student while he is reading. Each of the sections may be studied as a principal text, and compared with the other sections in the same way. For example, if the student take for his subject the growth and development of the Sonata form, he will read Section III., paragraphs 26 28 ; if he wish for particulars respecting the principal composers mentioned in par. 28, he will refer to Section I. ; who were contemporary writers of Sonatas he will ascertain xvi Introductory. at a glance from the Tables in Section II. ; and so on, mutatis mutandis, according to the nature of the subject in hand. The student is thus enabled to take a more or less comprehensive view of any subject in proportion to his individual requirements. The miscellaneous questions at the end of the book have been added as an assistance to students preparing for examinations. Having, by a systematic study of these pages, possessed himself of the principal facts of Musical History, the student will be the better able to under- stand and appreciate the more critical writings of other historians, and to every advanced student such reading is recommended as an after course. Lastly, in a work containing an enormous number of facts and dates, some of them controverted or otherwise uncertain, it is to be feared that occasional discrepancies, real or apparent, may be found. I shall be grateful to any reader who will communicate to me any such errors or discrepancies, with a view to correction upon the first opportunity. As to omissions, the necessary limits of the work have precluded the insertion of many names and particulars of secondary importance, but I hope and believe that the information supplied is amply sufficient for the needs of the ordinary student of music. Trinity College, London, W. HISTORY OF MUSIC. SECTION I. GENERAL SUMMMARY. 1. WHILE in the works of many of the ancient writers the subject of Music has been dwelt upon at more or less length, it is impossible for us to form upon their statements or. passing allusions an exact idea of the character or extent of the art as practised in the days of the Egyptian, Grecian, and Roman empires.* 2. With regard to the musical scales of the Greeks, all that we really know is : That they were built on a system of tetrachorda or groups of four notes ascend- ing in diatonic succession ; that, familiarly speaking, two of these tetrachords put together formed a " scale ; " that there were various kinds of scales, differing in nature from each other in respect of the relative posi- tions occupied by the semitones ; and that, therefore, the effect of the music, whether melody or harmony, produced from such scales, was entirely different from that of the present clay. 3. It is generally believed that the Greeks originally derived the rudiments of their musical knowledge from the Egyptians, who were great proficients in the art, as * " In short, there can be no history of music as an art, where no musical works of art exist." SCHLUTEB. 1 2 History of Music. [i. 4 6. may be seen from the monumental remains of that splendid nation. Upon a number of these monuments are representations of harps, lutes (or guitars), and other instruments ; bands of musicians performing con- certed music ; but in the nature of things there is no source from which we may gain any notion as to the effect or character of the music produced. 4. There has been much discussion on the question whether harmony was known to, or employed by, the ancients. On the one side it is asserted that the Greek writers make no mention of harmony * (as we under- stand the term) in any of their works upon music, and that the construction of the old scales the discordant nature of their " thirds," for instance effectually pre- cluded the use of polyphonic music. On the other side, the existence of the stringed instruments, such as the lyre, the harp, and the lute ; the structure of the double pipes blown by a single mouthpiece ; have been adduced as strong evidence in favour of some sort of harmony, however crude it might sound to modern ears. 5. The most noted among Greek theorists were Pythagoras (circ. B.C. 600) and Lasos; amongst practical musicians were Terpander of Lesbos (B.C. 670), who invented or introduced the seven-stringed kithara; Olympos the Phrygian, who brought into Greece the art of flute-placing, which thenceforward formed an important element in Greek instrumental art ; and Tyrtaeus, a soldier, musician, and poet, who in fact was a "troubadour," or minstrel. 6. Although it is tolerably conclusive that instru- mental music, pure and simple, was a favourite recre- ation of the Egyptians, the Greeks for many ages employed their instruments only as an accompaniment to the voice, whether for monologue or chorus. It is * The term appovia (harmoiiia),as employed by Greek writers, is applied only to their octave system, or conjunction of two successive tetrachords (v. par. lOj. General Summary. 3 characteristic of the race that the later development of flute-playing as a separate art was accompanied by the institution of competitive trials of skill, by which the real vocation of the musician was lost amid the petty technicalities of mere mechanical display. And upon this began the decline of Grecian music, which indeed practically died out with the fall of the Grecian empire. 7. The Romans had no distinctive music of their own. They were pre-eminently a martial race, and probably the music they most appreciated was the trumpet-call. In their earlier days they were too busy, and in later times too lazy, to cultivate the art among themselves. In the era of luxury and dilettanteisni which preceded their decay, they employed Greek slaves as singers and players. In the reign of Nero, who affected a devotion to music, the pursuit of the art became fashionable for a time, but the Romans were not in earnest, and consequently left behind them no marks of musical culture. 8. It is not until the fourth century after Christ that the actual history of music as a separate art begins. About the year A.D. 330, Pope Sylvester, we are informed, instituted a singing school in Rome, but there is no statement upon which we may form an accurate idea of the kind of music practised. By the light, however, of subsequent events we know that the singing must have been unisonal, and that the melodies were built upon the old Greek scales or modes, or possibly were ancient Hebrew airs, though some good authorities consider this doubtful, ^^ 7 'e also infer that St. Sylvester was acquainted with the method of anti- phonal chanting, as Pliny, who lived in the second century, incidentally mentions this as the custom amongst the Christians of his day. 9. A few years later (374 397) St. Ambrose, Arch- bishop of Milan (not the Ambrose to whom is attributed the authorship of the Te Deum), took an especial interest in the culture of Church music, and arranged 4 History of Music. [T. 9 11. the four diatonic scales known as " The Authentic Modes." He decreed that upon one or other of these scales all Church melodies should be constructed, and during his time many new hymns or chants were com- posed, some of them by himself. St. Ambrose also greatly improved the style of antiphonal singing, and organized a fine choir in his own church at Milan. 10. St. Ambrose had no immediate successor to con- tinue the excellent work he had begun. By degrees the music of the Church deteriorated ; and it was not until two centuries had elapsed that a reform was effected. Gregory the Great (590 604) during his pontificate devoted himself to the work of reformation and improvement, and restored to Church song that solemnity of character which it had gradually lost. He also added to the Ambrosian scales four others, which he called " the plagal modes." Both the authentic and plagal modes have for their foundation the old Greek system of " tetrachords." We annex a complete table of the eight scales : TONE AUTHENTIC. TONE PLAGAL. 1. Dorian. DEFGABCD 2. Hypo-Dorian ) f ^11- \ AI3CDEFGA (or Julian). ) 3. Phrygian. EPGABCDE 4. Hypo-Phrygian. BCDEFGAB 5. Lydian. FGABCDEF 6. Hypo-Lydian j CDEFGABC (or Ionian). \ 7 -f*- JGABCDEFG 8. Hypo-mixo- , p A fl D Lydian. ) Lydian. t On comparison it will be seen that the plagal modes commence at a fourth below the authentic. The above are known- as the eight " Gregorian modes." 11. St. Gregory established a music school at which these modes and the order of the Church Service were systematically taught. The liturgy was noted entirely, it is said, by himself, and the whole was entitled the "Antiphonar," the chant or plain-song (cantus-planus, or cantus-firmus) being sung alternately or antiphonallr I. 11 14.] General Summary. 5 between priest and choir. A very crude description of notation was used, consisting of dots and scratches of various shapes, and the " stave " was then unknown. 1-i. The system founded by Gregory the Great quickly spread throughout the Christian countries. Trained teachers and singers were sent from Rome to France and Germany (604 752), and schools of Church music were established in most of the principal dioceses in those countries. It is, however, affirmed that the improvement effected was but transient, owing to the barbarous and untutored condition of the people, who in those times were little more than savages. 13. The Emperor Charlemagne (768 814) proved himself a zealous apostle of the musical system of St. Gregory. He founded music schools at Metz and other towns, and placed them under Italian singers of note. In this work the emperor .employed one Alcuin, a British ecclesiastic, as his principal assistant, and Charlemagne himself paid periodical visits of inspec- tion to these schools, both in France and Germany. It was not until this period that " Gregorians " be- came the universal use throughout western Christ- endom. 14. There is documentary evidence that at this period musicians had a crude conception of harmony. Isidore of Seville, a contemporary of Gregory, alludes in his " Treatise on Music " to Symphony and Diaphony, concerning which Professor Ritter observes " By the first word he meant probably a combination of con- sonant, and by the latter of dissonant, intervals." Some little time after the death of Charlemagne, Hucbald (840 930), a Fleming, accompanied his melodies by a *>/s and Medea are his principal works. Mozart was greatly impressed with the beauty of Medea, which he heard during his visit to Mannheim in 1778. In the course, of his observations on this melodrama, Mozart writes : " It is not sung, but declaimed, and the music is like a recitative obbWjato ; sometimes there is talking amid the music, which has a splendid effect." J. G. Nau- mann (1741 1801) principally devoted himself to Church music : his Das Vater Unser, a setting of Klopstock's paraphrase of the Lord's Prayer, is his 26 History of Music. [i. 43, 44. chief composition. F. H. Himmel (1765 1814) was a popular composer of opera, his Fanchon being among the most successful of his works. 43. (I.) Alessandro Scarlatti (1659 1725) gave to the oratorio a more decided form than it had at the hands of Carissimi and his contemporaries. He introduced independent movements (intermezzi) for the orchestra, which he greatly improved, and divided the aria into three distinct portions. He wrote masses, oratorios, operas, and other compositions ; and his celebrated fugue for two choirs Tu es Petrus, is still occasionally performed at St. Peter's in Rome. His son, DOMENICO SCARLATTI, was a popular harpsichord player and com- poser for that instrument. F. Durante (1G84 1755) wrote exclusively for the Church, in which branch of the art he did good service, but his claim to a place in musical history rests chiefly upon his having been the master of several musicians of eminence, including F. Feo, who composed, inter alia, a grand mass for two choirs (A. Stradella, composer of several fine oratorios, among them St. John the Baptist, is also accounted one of Durante's pupils, though there is apparently some evidence to the contrary) ; Duni, Terradeglias, Jo- melli (1714 1774), and Piccini, hereafter mentioned. An important contemporary of Durante was Leonardo Leo (16941746), whose oratorio, The Death of Abel, is highly spoken of by historians. Other Italian or Neapolitan musicians of this period were G. P. Pergo- lesi (1710 1736), composer of a Stabat Mater and several operas ; G. Sacchini (1735 1786) ; Gnglielmi, Galuppi, Lotti (1660 1740), who adopted the then modern style in his operas; A. Caldara (1G74 1763), one of the greatest masters of fugue; Marcello (1680 1739), author of the Paraphrases on the 50 Psalms of David. 44. (FRENCH OPERA.) Originally an offshoot of the early Italian Opera, which was introduced into France by Cardinal Mazarin, about the year 1645, the French i. 44.] General Summary. 27 School of Opera boasts a numerous array of com- posers. The first genuine French work was La Pas- torale, composed (in 1659) by E. Cambert. But the actual founder of the French school was J. B. Lully (16331687), who, though by birth an Italian, was brought up in the household of the French monarch (Louis XIV.) and was placed in the king's private band as a violinist. His Tragedies lyriques consisted mainly of recitatives and choruses ; here he generally ignored the aria and the duet, both so highly character- istic of the Italian School. Lully is regarded as the originator of the overture, which he generally composed in two parts the first an adagio, or slow movement, the second a sprightly minuet, or a fugue. Lully was suc- ceeded by J. P. Rameau (1683 1764), the renowned mathematician and writer on musical theory, who greatly improved upon Lully's style, by introducing a greater variety in the melody and harmony of his vocal writings. His principal opera, Cantor and Pollux, was a popular work with the French for many years, despite the strictures of ROUSSEAU, who complained that Ra- meau's harmonies were far-fetched, and destructive of tune. An attempt was made recently in Paris to effect a revival of Castor and Pollux, but the writer is not aware whether it was successful. During the life- time of Rameau (1752), a rival opera company, imported from Italy, caused no small stir amongst French mu- sicians. This company, whom the French styled " Les Bouffons" introduced a species of comic operetta, or opera-fjouffe, on the French stage : but in a short time Les Bouffons were compelled to leave the country, through the persistent opposition of the French or " National " party. But they had left behind them the taste for opera-bouffe, and several French composers produced, almost immediately upon the departure of the Italians, a number of comic operettas amongst them, Z,66- Troqmurs, by D'AuvERGNE (1713 1797). Among other contemporaries of Rameau, were DUNI 28 History of Music. [T. 44, 45. (1 7091 775), PHILIDOR, and MONSIGNY (17291817), the composer of Le Deserteur, and Rose et Colas. These paved the way for Gretry (J 741 1813), in whose reign the French operetta reached its zenith. Despite the example of his great predecessor Rameau, Gretry had recourse to the developed aria form, which he frequently introduced in connection with the recita- tives. Gretry's Richard Coaur-de-Lion and Zemire et Azor achieved for their writer an immense popularity in his own day, and they have both been performed in Paris in recent years. Among the most favoured con- temporaries of Gretry were : D'Alayrac (1753 1809), composer of Nina and Las deux Savoyards both lately revived; Berton (1766 1844), composer of Montana et Stephanie, Ponce de Leon, Le Delire, Aline, and other works of a similar character; Simon Catel (1773 183U), whose opera Semiramis has been placed on the French boards very lately ; and lastly, Nicolo Isouard (1777 1818), a native of Malta, composer of the much-admired Cendrillon. These names, with those of BOIELDIEU, GOSSEC, and MEHUL, the celebrated author of Joseph, bring us down almost to the present generation of French composers. 45. (I.) CH. W. GLTTCK (17141787), a native of Bohemia, received his training at Prague and Vienna ; and subsequently at Milan, Avhere he studied Italian opera under Samartini. In 1741, his first opera ^4?-- taxerxes was produced at Milan, and its success en- couraged him to write Clytemnestra and Demetrio, which were produced at the same theatre. In 1745, Gluck visited England, and his Caduta del Giyuiti and Artamene were produced at the Haymarket, with, however, but doubtful success. After a few years' stay in this country, Gluck returned to Vienna, and thence went to Rome, where, in 1754, La Clemenza di Tito a Antigone were well received. He afterwards went to Florence, and the real importance of this visit consists in the valuable friendship which Gluck then formed i. 45 47.] General Summary. 29 with the poet Calzabigi, \vhose schemes for the im- provement of opera Avere cordially entered into by the composer. The result was the production in 1764* of Orfeo, at Vienna, on the occasion of the marriage of the Emperor Joseph II. In Orfeo, the drama is released from the old restraints and conceits with which Italian opera had too long been burdened, and the music was written with a view to heightening the dramatic effect of the work. The opera met with an unqualified success, and fully established Gluck in the front rank of composers. This work was followed, in 1767, by Alceste, which was a further development of the same art principles. This work, however, was not so well received as the composer had reason to expect, and in his disappointment he turned to Paris. (46.) 46. (F.) GLUCK arrived in Paris in 1773, and early in 1774 Iphigenie en Aulide was performed, and ulti- mately gained him his footing in the French capital. He subsequently adapted to the French stage his Orfeo and Alceste. The advent in Paris of a formidable rival, Piccini (1728 1800), who sought to establish in France the old and exploded form of Italian opera, created some sensation, and aroused considerable party feeling. This occurred in 1776. The musical world in Paris was split into two powerful parties, the " Gluck- ists" and the " Piccinists," and the controversy was carried on with a good deal of unnecessary acrimony. In 1777 Gluck produced Armidv which, however, suffered a temporary eclipse by the production in the following year of Piccini's Roland. Gluck's IphigeniQ en Tauride, however, in 1779, practically asserted his triumph, although the rivalry continued until his death in 1787. 47. (0.) JOSEPH HAYDH (17321809) was bom * Some writers give 1762 as the date of Orfeo, while Alceste has been assigned to the years 1766, 1767, aud 1769 respect- ively. 30 History of Music. [i. 47. of poor parents, in the village of Rohrau, on the Aus- trian frontier. His first step in a long musical career was in the capicity of a chorister in the Cathedral of St. Stephen, at Vienna, not many miles from his native place. Here he remained eight years, and during this period received lessons on the violin and harpsichord from the cathedral choir-master, Reuter. It is said that Haydn practised at least sixteen hours a day. His first lessons in composition were obtained, not from Reuter, but from Fux's Gradus ad Parnasswn, which he studied without the help of a master. On quitting, when his voice had broken, the cathedral choir, Haydn suffered a good deal of privation, and scraped together a scanty living by means of harpsichord lessons. After some rebuffs, he obtained the position of personal attendant upon Nicolo Porpora, a popular singing- master of that day, who allowed Haydn the privilege of playing the accompaniments during the singing lessons, and eventually gave him a good deal of valu- able instruction in singing and composition. While thus engaged, Haydn contrived to secure one or two poorly paid appointments, such as the choir-mastership of a church in Vienna, the organistship of a private chapel, and the position of tenor singer in the Cathe- dral of St. Stephen. About the year 1750, when he was 18 or 19, Haydn obtained his first introduc- tion to the public through the instrumentality, it is said, of one Curtz, a comic actor, who commissioned him to compose an opera, The Devil on Two Sticks. This was represented at one of the Vienna theatres, and had a short-lived success. Haydn next devoted himself to the composition of instrumental trios and other chamber music, which at once made him popular, not- withstanding the opposition he met with from certain quarters on account of supposed musical heresies. His reputation as a youthful composer of promise brought him to the notice of Prince Esterh-izy, an enthusiastic amateur, who, struck with the merit and originality of i. 47.] General Summary. 31 a new symphony of Haydn's, retained the composer in his private service ; subsequently (1760) giving him the appointment of chapel-master a post which he con- tinued to hold till the death of the prince, in 1790. During his tenure of office, Haydn composed a large number of symphonies, operas, masses, concertos, trios, quartets, and other vocal and instrumental works. In 1790 he was induced, on the earnest representations of Salomon, to visit London, where Salomon acted as director of the " Professional Concerts," the scheme of which was very similar to that of the present " Phil- harmonic Concerts." Under agreement, Haydn pro- duced either a symphony or a smaller composition at each concert given by Salomon. The success of this professional campaign induced Havdn to revisit London (in 1794), where he remained until the May of the fol- lowing year. During his two visits he composed the group known as the London Symiihonies, twelve in number, which rank amongst the finest of his orches- tral works. On his return to Vienna, he retired from professional and public life, but still busied himself in composition, and in 1798 at the age of 66 produced his great oratorio, The Creation. This work, the words for which, it is said, were originally written (by Lidley) for Handel, produced a profound impression at the first performance, which took place in the Schwartzenberg Palace, Vienna. The fame of The Creation soon spread through Europe ; in England it has long been second only to The Messiah in popular favour. Thomson's well-known poem furnished the subject for Haydn's next oratorio, The Seasons, which was completed in 1801. This was Haydn's last important work. A complete list of his compositions would fill two or three pages of this book ; they have, however, been summarized as follows: "Symphonies, 118; quartets, 83; concertos, 24; trios, 24; sonatas, 44; operas, 19; masses, 15; dances, about 400; pieces for the baryton (a species of viol-da-yamba), 163;" but this summary is by no means 32 History of Music. [r. 47, 4. exhaustive. In oratorio, besides The Creation and The Seasons, must be mentioned The Return of Tobias; and lastly, The Seven Last Words a beautiful but little- known work, lately revived. (The Seven, Last Words was performed in the church of St. Peter, Bayswater, on Good Friday, 1876, and again in 1877, under the direction of Mr. Edwin Lott, organist of the church.) Haydn is generally regarded as the founder of the modern symphony, and the sonata-form ; but he him- self has acknowledged his indebtedness in these re- spects to Philipp Emannel Bach, "who first prepared the way for the brilliant epoch of instrumental music which began with Haydn." The latter may, neverthe- less, be regarded as the father of modern orchestration. 48. (Gr.) WOLFGANG AMADEUS MOZART (1756 1791), the son of Leopold Mozart, himself an ex- cellent musician, and author of a treatise on the violin was born at Salzburg, Germany. At a very early age Mozart gave surprising tokens of his musical genius, which the father fostered and encouraged in every pos- sible way. At the age of four years he received his first lessons on the harpsichord, and two or three years afterwards on the violin. It is narrated that when he was only six years old he made his first crude attempt at musical composition a concerto for the clavier which was not devoid of distinct musical idea and expression. About this time his father took the boy and his sister Maria the latter eleven years old on a professional tour to Vienna, where they were received with much favour, and were invited to perform before the Emperor and Empress. The following year they visited Munich, Mayence, and other cities of Southern Germany, and thence proceeded to Paris and London. In London they performed before the King and Queen (George III. and Charlotte) at St. James's. Everywhere the little musicians more, probably, by reason of their youth than for their actual performances were petted and caressed. In 1765 they went to Holland, where i. 48.] General Summary. 33 young Mozart wrote the six sonatas, for violin with piano- forte or harpsichord accompaniment, for the Princess of Orange. Early in 1767 Mozart went again to Vienna, where he spent two or three years in study and compo- sition. Here, besides writing two or three small operas and a Stahat Mater, he produced his first mass, on a commission from the Emperor, in 1768. In 1770 he commenced a lengthy and eventful tour through Italy, receiving much praise and many honours and keep- sakes, but very little pecuniary reward. His opera, Mitridate, was performed at Milan during this tour ; but although it had a temporary success, this opera does not deserve a legitimate place in any catalogue of Mozart's compositions. His next opera, La Finta Giar- diniera, produced at Munich in 1775, in many respects shows a sensible advance upon previous work, but con- tains no features worthy of special comment. His first really important opera is Idomeneo, which was produced at Munich in 1781. This work, although to a great extent built upon the- old Italian model, especially with respect to the elaborated aria, abounds in characteristic beauties, both in the choruses and in the instrumental scoring. Owing to the weakness of the libretto, and its want of dramatic interest, it is ineligible for the modern opera-stage. Occasional excerpts, however, are still to be heard in the concert-room. Die Entfiihnmg aus dem Serail, produced the following year, exhibits a growing independence of style, and more varied re- sources in the illustration of the several contrasting characters. Le Nozze di Figaro (1786) is too well known to be commented upon here ; we may, however, note that this is Mozart's finest work from the purely dramatic point of view ; while Don Giovanni (1787) excels in the elucidation of individual character. Respecting the latter work, a German critic writes : " Mozart's Don Giovanni is, by its marvellous delinea- tion of both tliri lights and shadows of life, its com bined seriousness and playfulness-, tragedy and comedy 3 34 History of Music, [i, 48. a universal, unique, and deeply significant work ; one to which, in the sister art of drama, Goethe's Faust can alone be worthily compared." The succeeding opera, Cosi fan tutte (1790), though containing many inci- dental beauties, is marred by the childish and essen- tially inartistic character of the libretto. In 1791 appeared La Glemenza di Tito, the libretto of which is identical with that previously employed by Gluck and others which was performed at Prague for the coronation of the Emperor Leopold II. In this opera Mozart introduced (to the aria, Non pin di. fiori) an obbligato for a new instrument, the Corno de bassetto, or basset-horn, a kind of low clarionet, now practically obsolete. Two of these "basset-horns" are also em- ployed in the Requiem, of which we shall have to speak later on. In many of the details of La Glemenza di Tito Mozart had recourse to the assistance of his pupil, Sussmaier, who, it is said, wrote most of the recitatives for this opera. Within a few weeks of the production of Tito, the Zauberflote (H Flauto Magico) was completed, and performed at Vienna, and was repeated one hundred times during the same and the following year. This was his last opera. Mozart had also been active in the production of other works. He had written many masses, and several symphonies, of which the finest are the G minor, the E flat, and the Jupiter Symphony in C, besides numerous quartets, and other chamber music. He had also written a number of pianoforte concertos and sonatas (which latter are seldom performed in public). His last work was the Requiem (1791), the greater portion of which he com- posed on his death-bed. There has been much discus- sion among critics regarding the authenticity of three important numbers in this beautiful work. It is asserted by some that the pupil, Siissmaier, who had already given Mozart much assistance in the preparation of La Clemenza di Tito and other contemporaneous or later works, actually composed the greater part of i. 48, 49.] General Summary. 35 the Requiem. If this be the case, it is surprising how Siissmaier sustained the individuality of Mozart throughout the remainder of the work, and it is still more astonishing that, apart from his connection with Mozart, so accomplished a writer should have left behind him no other abiding memorial of his own powers. The numbers claimed by Siissmaier as having been entirely composed by himself are the three last Sanctus, Benedictus, and Agnus Dei. Mozart's won- derful skill in orchestration has been exemplified to us not only in his own works. The originally thin scoring of The Messiah was expanded by him in 1789, and since then Mozart's "additional accompaniments" have invariably been adopted at the performances of this oratorio. Other works of Handel were similarly re- scored by Mozart. As a contrapuntist, also, Mozart takes high rank. The fugal movement (rinale) in the J(//>iter Symphony, and that in the overture to Zauber- flote, are standard examples of the highest form of contrapuntal development. 49. (G.) The German contemporaries of Haydn and Mozart are very numerous ; but we cannot do more than catalogue the principal amongst them, giving their names, as far as pos-ible, in chronological order. J. GK Albrechtsberger (1736 1809) is chiefly known to us through the medium of his elaborate work on har- mony, counterpoint, and composition; but he wrote as many as twenty-six masses, and numerous other smaller works, chiefly ecclesiastical. Michael Haydn (1737 1806), a younger brother of the great Haydn, was greatly esteemed by the latter for his sacred com- positions, which included masses, motets, canticles, and other liturgical music. C. D. Dittersdorf (1739 1799) produced thirty-seven operas, over forty sym- phonies, and a number of other forgotten works. J. Andre (1741 1799) wrote German operas. J. G. Naumann (1741 1801), composer of oratorios, masses, operas, and symphonies, still survives in occasional ex- 36 History of Music. [i. 49, so. tracts from his larger works. J. P. Martini (1 741 1816) wrote masses, a Requiem, and several French operas. J. P.Schulz(1747 ISOOUndCLNeefe (1748 1798) the latter a master of Beethoven were both writers of opera. The Abb& Stadler (17481833) and Vogler (1749 1814) were composers principally of Church music : Vogler, however, wrote five operas, and, more- over, was the author of several treatises on the theory of music. J. P. Reichardt (1752 1817) wrote thirty operas and some oratorios. J. Pleyel (1757 1831) is a familiar name with the pianoforte student. Be- sides his sonatas and other pianoforte compositions, lie wrote a number of larger instrumental works, including symphonies and quartets. J. L. Dussek (1761 1812) takes a still higher position in the classical pianoforte school. His sonatas, occasionally heard in the concert- rooms of the present day, abound in originality and artistic power. D. Steibelt (1764 1823) was another prolific composer for the pianoforte, and among his works are t<> be found many excellent studies. C. F. Zelter (1758 1832) wrote part-songs and other vocal compositions, and organized the Liedertafel, a choir of male voices, said to be the first society of the kind formed in Germany. Andreas Romberg (1767 1821) is best known in this country in connection with the popular Lay of tlie Bell, a favourite work with local choral societies. He wrote seven operas and several symphonies. Other German composers and teachers of the same period are : SCHOBEBT, J. H. KNECHT, D. G. TURK, PETER VON WINTER, J. PREIXDL, J. WEIGL, B. A. WEBER, WENZEL MULLER, and B. EOMBERG, brother of the Andreas Eomberg mentioned above. 50. (I.) The leading Italian composers of the latter half of the 18th and the commencement of the 19th centuries were not so numerous as those of Germany. L. Boccherini (1740 1806) stands almost alone in the domain of purely orchestral music. G. B. i. 50, 5i.] General Summary. 37 Viotti (1753 1824), the celebrated violinist, and founder of a new school of violin-playing, wrote a number of concertos, chiefly for his own instrument, and with an especial view to the" display of his own marvellous powers of execution. The only notable composer of pianoforte music was Muzio dementi (1752 1832), whose Gradus ad Parnassum and twelve Sonatinas are likely to remain familiar subjects of study for years to come, dementi was a prince among teachers, and during his lengthy stay in Eng- land exercised a remarkable influence upon the art of pianoforte-playing in this country. His grave lies within the precincts of Westminster Abbey, and a small tablet marks the spot. A. Salieri (1750 1825), N. Zingarelli (17521837), D. Cimarosa (1754 1801), S. Mayer (17631845), and F. Paer (1771 1839), were all composers of oratorios, masses, or operas, but- their works are now nearly forgotten, save by a few musical antiquaries. 51. (F.) M. L. CHERTJBINI (17601842) was a native of Florence, but having at the age of 26 settled in Paris, where he took up his permanent abode, he is properly classed by some historians as belonging rather to France than to Italy. A pupil of SABTI, an able teacher of that time, Cherubini made rapid pro- gress in the art, and at the age of 22 produced his first opera, 11 Quinto Fabio, To the Paris public he introduced himself by Demophon, but this work failed to command a positive success. In 1791, however, he completely won the popular favour by the production of Lodoiska. Undoubtedly his best opera is Les Deux Journees, which he brought out in the year 1800; this work is not unknown to the stage of the present day. Other operas were Medea, Eliza, Anacreon, Faniska, Les Abencerages, and Ali J3aba. But Cherubim's fame rests not so much on bis work for the stage as that for the Church. His masses, notably the one in D minor, are grand and impressive compositions, and for their 38 History of Music. [i. 51, 52. scholarly treatment alone are worthy of especial study. The same may be said of the Requiem in C minor, written in 1810. In 1835, Cherubini wrote a Requiem for male voices only, for the commemorative service in honour of BOIELDIEU (1775 1834), one of his own pupils, himself a popular writer of opera. Cherubini's well-known treatise on Counterpoint, Canon, and Fugue establishes his position as a master in the art. The work was written in the French language, and has been translated into English by Mr. Cowdeii Clarke. As a composer, Cherubini was highly esteemed by Beethoven, who pronounced him " the most estimable of living musicians." An important contemporary of Cherubini was E. H. Mehul (1763 1817), whose operas were at one time very popular. The principal of these were Joseph, Eiiphrosyne, Stratonice, and L'Irato. Excerpts from Joseph are still occasionally published in France and England, but the work is not now performed, except in Germany. A single overture (Le Jeune Henri) seems to be the only composition by Mehul which has really survived this once popular composer. Among other French contemporaries of Cherubini we may note J. F. LESUEUR (1764^1837), 0. F. LAKGLE (1741 1807), and PIERRE KOBE (17741830). 52. (G.) LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN, the greatest among German composers, and the most universal musical genius the world has ever produced, was born at Bonn, 1770, and was the son of a tenor in the Electoral chapel. The father, a man given to intemperate habits, was, while he lived, a source of misery to his son, as well as to the wh< -le family, who were kept in a state of poverty approaching to destitution. Ludwig, who showed early signs of musical talent, was regarded by his father as a possible source of enrichment, and on this account was forced to practise upon the pianoforte so many hours at a stretch that his studies became a positive slavery to him. He received his first lessons from Van den Eeden, the Court organist, but the sue- i. 52.] General Summary. 39 ceeding organist, Neefe, gave him more methodical instruction. Such was the progress he made, that at the age of 12 he occasionally took Neefe's place at the ohapel organ; and at the age of 13 (1783) was en- trusted with the post of cembalist (pianist) then an important position, in the orchestra attached to the Court Theatre. His great ambition, however, was to go to Vienna for the completion of his studies, and in 1785 he was enabled to carry out this project. Arrived in Vienna he sought out Mozart, who at first, it is said, received him somewhat coldly, but on hearing him play an improvisation on a given theme, was so astounded that he said to his friends, " Pay heed to this youth ; he will one day astonish the world." The opinion of Mozart, then in the zenith of his popularity, did not, however, have an immediate effect on the fortunes of the young musician. Beethoven had already published (1783), when in his 13th year, some small compo- sitions, including three sonatas, which were dedicated to the Elector of Cologne, his patron at Bonn. During this first sojourn in Vienna, which lasted about two years, he appears to have given himself up entirely to study. In 1787 he was recalled to Bonn, by the death of his mother, his affection for whom was heightened by the fact that she was as affectionate and watchful as his father was harsh and neglectful. He had now virtually to provide for the maintenance of his family, and was obliged to have recourse to teaching, an occu- pation which he always disliked. The only bright spot in his life at this period was the intimate and lasting friendship he formed with the Breuning family Madame Breuning (a widow), her three sons, and a daughter. In their society Beethoven spent many happy hours of relaxation, and in their company made his acquaintance with the classic literature of the world, and especially of his own language. Here, too (at Bonn), he gained the friendship and assistance of the Count "Waldstein, to whom he dedicated the well-known 40 History of Music. [i. 52. sonata which, is now identified "with the Count's name. To the influence of Waldstein is attributed the appoint- ment of Beethoven, about this time, as Court pianist. In 1792, having been granted a pension hy the Elector, Beethoven was enabled to revisit Vienna, and so left Bonn, never to return. Again settled at Vienna, and this time under more favourable circumstances, Beet- hoven placed himself under the tuition of Haydn. But, unhappily, there was no real friendship between them. Men of temperaments more opposite in charac- ter it would be hard to conceive : Haydn was mild and equable, Beethoven was enthusiastic and eccentric. Beethoven thought he had reason to complain of the indifference and actual negligence of his master, but notwithstanding these misgiving;?, he continued to re- ceive lessons from Haydn until 1784, when the latter left Vienna on a visit to London. Beethoven availed himself of this departure to attach himself to Albrechts- berger, then organist of the cathedral, under whom he remained about fifteen months, and with whom he got on little better than .with Haydn. Nevertheless there is ample evidence that he worked unceasingly all this time. (The result of his studies is supposed to be shown in the work entitled Studien im Generalbciss, published under Beethoven's name, but it has been pretty clearly proved that only a small proportion of this book is Beethoven's sole and actual work.) It was in the year 1795 that Beethoven commenced his public career as a composer and performer. At the annual concert, for this year, in aid of the widows and orphans of musicians, Beethoven produced the piano- forte concerto in C major, himself being the pianist. This performance was a sudden revelation to the Vien- nese public, and from this time engagements crowded upon him. During the seven years that followed, he pub- lished the thirty-two sonatas, three concertos, two sym- phonies, nine trios, and numerous other smaller works. But in 1800 the greatest calamity that could befall a i. 52.] General Summary. 41 musician overtook Beethoven deafness. It is remark- able that nearly all, if not all, his nine symphonies were composed under this affliction. The following are their dates: First Symphony, in C major, 1800; Second, in D major, dedicated to his patron, Prince Lichnowsky, 1802; Third (the Eroica), 18034; Fourth, in B flat major, 1806 ; Fifth, in C minor, about 1808; Sixth (Pastorale), in F major, about 1808; Seventh, in A major, 1812; Eighth, in F major, 1812 ; Ninth (the great Choral Symphony), in. D minor, 1822 3. The only opera Beethoven wrote was Leonora, produced in 1805, and condemned by the critics. He wrote new overtures, making four in all, to the work ; aud under the new title of Fidelia, it was once more presented. This was in the year 1814. In Church music Beethoven was not prolific. His first Ma^s, in C major, composed in 1807; the Missa Solemnis, in D major, 1818 22; The Mount of Olives, a short oratorio (in which occurs the well-known Halle- lujah], about 1800; appear to be his only sacred com- positions. His works have been thus roughly sum- marized by Czerny : One opera, two dramas with music, a melodrama, several single dramatic choruses and songs, one oratorio, two masses, nine symphonies, eleven overtures, one septet, seven pianoforte concertos, one violin concerto, two violin quintets, seventeen violin quartets, tive violin trios, thirty-five solo sonatas for pianoforte, ten sonatas for pianoforte and viulin, six sonatas for pianoforte and violoncello, seven trios for pianoforte, violin, and violoncello, a pianoforte quintet, a great many other pianoforte compositions, cantatas, songs with pianoforte accompaniments, &c. As a virtuoso on the pianoforte, Beethoven out-distanced all his rivals, including the celebrated Hummel, who was studying under Mozart at the period of Beethoven's first visit to Vienna. Beethoven owed much of his command of or- chestral resources to his practical acquaintance with the stringed instruments, any of which he was able to play, 42 History of Music. [i. 52, 53. and to this cause in a special degree the beauty and finish of his string trios, quartets, and quintets, are due. It has been asserted that Beethoven's horn parts are often weak; some saying that his want of familiarity with that instrument made him timid in its employment ; others, that he was apt to give it impossible passages. To bth these accusations the horn part in the Septet alone ought to be a sufficient answer, and the Septet was a comparatively early production (1800). Notwithstand- ing incessant hard work, and a career of almost unin- terrupted artistic triumph, Beethoven's last years were haunted by a dread of approaching poverty, for which, however, there was no real cause. He died at Vienna (1827), and was publicly buried with great pomp. 53. (G.) J. N. Hummel (17781837) received his early lessons from Mozart, and even while a boy is said to have been a wonderful performer on the pianoforte. In after years he was considered a worthy rival of Beet- hoven in the art of extemporization. He principally devoted himself to the pianoforte, both as player and composer. Schliiter says of him : " After the three great masters, Hummel is the best pianoforte (not sonata) composer; and, as such, is the founder of a school which has cast into the shade Dussek, Steibelt, Pleyel, Wolfl, and others." In Church music his masses take high rank even now, and the one in B flat is fre- quently performed. Hummel also very successfully adapted the symphonies of Haydn and Mozart, and some of Beethoven's also, for pianoforte, flute, viulin, and violoncello. A Septet, written fur pianoforte, string and wind instruments, is Hummel's clief d'ceuvre. His operas and he wrote several are now forgotten. S. NEUKOMM (1778 1858), who wrote in all depart- ments of composition; A. EEICHA (1770 1836), author of the well-known work on fugue ; A. DIABELLI (17811858); C. KREUTZER (17821849), who composed twenty-four operas and a number of masses, were among the most esteemed German musi- cians of this time. t 54.] General Summary. 43 54. (Gr.) Ludwig Spohr (17841859), a native of Brunswick, developed at a very early aga that remark- able talent for the violin which placed him amongst the most brilliant violinists, of his time. At the age of 14 he obtained the patronage of the Duke of Brunswick, who placed him in his orchestra, and subsequently em ployed Franz Eck, an excellent player, to give him lessons. Of his long and successful career as a per- former we shall not now speak : the D minor and E minor concertos, both composed at an early period, bear sufficient testimony to his executive powers, as well as to his skill as a composer of violin music. As a writer, with the exception of a few lessons received in his youth, it is said that Spohr was entirely self- taught. This accounts for much of the freedom, some would say lawlessness, which characterizes all Spohr's work. His first opera, Alruna, had a considerable local success, but it is now entirely forgotten. How- ever, the reception accorded to this work encouraged "Spohr to further efforts in opera, and in 1816 Faust was produced at Prague. Spohr's Faust, since eclipsed by Gounod's immortal work, contains many fine points, and should not have been allowed to fall into unmerited neglect. Seven years later Jessonda was produced at the Court Theatre of Cassel, to which Spohr had been appointed as director. These are his two great operas ; Zemire und Azov had but a fleeting popularity, and other operas were even more short-lived. Of his ora- torios, The Last Judgment is the best known in this country; Calvary (1835) deserves a more frequent hearing. In 1820 Spohr came over to England to con- duct one of the Philharmonic Concerts, and under his own baton was produced, for the first time and in manuscript, the Symphony in D minor. The symphony entitled Die Weihe der Tone (The Consecration of Sound), an ever-present feature in our orchestral programmes, was produced in 1832. The Fall of Babylon was composed for and produced at the Norwich Musical Festival of 44 History of Music. [i. 54, 55. 1842 ; iu 1843 Spohr himself conducted a performance of the work at Exeter Hall, by the Sacred Harmonic Society. Besides the works already mentioned, Spohr composed eight symphonies, including the Historical and the Seasons, a double quartet for strings, and a number of works in which the violin figures as the principal instrument. As an example of his skill in part writing may be mentioned his Mass for ten voices, composed for the Leipsic Choral Society, but relin- quished by that body as impracticable. Spohr, how- ever, successfully produced it at Cassel, in 1827. Spohr' s choral music, although highly esteemed amongst us, is yet so difficult by reason of the " chromatic " progres- sions in which he freely indulges, that few vocal societies find the courage to attempt it in public. His instrumental works are in constant use and request, while his two great violin concertos are frequently selected by modern virtuosi as admirable vehicles for the display of their skill on the most difficult of all instruments. 55. (G.) Karl Maria von Weber (17861826), the son of a travelling actor once a man of wealth and good social position had the good fortune to be placed under the tuition of Michael Haydn (par. 49). Of his juvenile productions including two comic operas it is needless to speak : "Weber's actual career as a com- poser did not commence until he had visited Vienna (in 1803), where he studied for some months under the Abbe Vogler (par. 49). The following year Weber was appointed to the directorship of the opera-house at Breslau. Here he had a narrow escape of being acci- dentally poisoned. A succession of worldly reverses subsequently induced him to accept the post of private secretary to Prince Ludwig of Wurtemberg. In. the year 1811 he obtained the countenance of the Grand Duke of Wurtemberg to a new opera, Abu Hassan, the success of which enabled Weber to make a professional tour amongst the principal cities of Germany. In 1813 i. 55.] General Summary. 45 he obtained the appointment a comparatively import- ant one of musical director of the theatre at Prague ; for which he composed several new works. Thence he removed to Dresden (1816) in the capacity of Kapell Meister to the King of Saxony. We cannot stay to enumerate the many compositions (among them the Jubilee Cantata and the Mass in E flat) which ema- nated from Weber's pen at this period. A new, and the most brilliant, era of his life was commenced with the opera Der Freischiitz, originally intended for the Berlin Theatre. The same year, 1820, he completed Preciosa, and this work was produced before its prede- cessor. The success of Preciosa, marked as it was, was as nothing compared with that of Der Freischiitz, the fame of which quickly spread to this country, and occasioned an invitation of the composer to London, as well as the commission to write Oberon for the English stage. In 1823 Euryanthe was produced, at Vienna, but the success of the opera was very transient, and gave Weber considerable disappointment. Acting on the advice of Beethoven, Weber subsequently curtailed the work, and thus obtained for it a wider hearing. Weber paid his promised visit to London in the year 1826, bringing with him his opera Oberon, which was produced at Covent Garden under his own baton. An internal disorder of long standing, aggravated no doubt by hard work and continuous anxiety, prematurely ter- minated his life. He died suddenly, at the close of his engagement at Covent Garden, and was buried in London. Some years afterwards his remains were re- moved to Germany, and were re-interred at Dresden. The great work of Weber's life was the development of a distinct school of German opera. His Der Freischiitz and Euri/antlie must always be regarded the period of their production duly considered as among the most important contributions to the rising school. Schliiter regards Wagner's Lohengrin as the offspring of Eury- anthe by "direct descent." Euryantlie, however, has 46 History of Mmic. [i. 55, 56. long been shelved, owing, no doubt, to the weakness of its libretto ; but Der Freischiitz enjoys an undiminished popularity. It is affirmed by some that it was Weber who originated the plan of including in the opera overture the leading airs from the body of the work. It is, however, to be noticed that the same feature exists in the overture to Don Gioi:anni (1787), a work which dates many years before Weber's operas. 56. (G.) Franz Schubert (17971828) began his career as a chorister in the Imperial Chapel at Vienna, where he remained until his 16th year. Of his juvenile efforts at this period we shall not speak ; we should, however, make an exception of the celebrated song Hagar's Lament, which shows how early his won- derful powers as a song-composer were developed. When the loss of his treble voice brought an end to his chorister's duties, he returned to his native town in the capacity of schoolmaster's assistant in his father's school. Here he composed a number of works, includ- ing the Mass in F, which, slight as it is in construction, is a charming composition ; and well deserves the in- creased attention which has of late years been accorded to it in this country. The Masses in C and G were composed about 1815 ; the same year were produced an enormous number of songs, including The Erl Kiinj, highly prized by Goethe. At the age of 20 Schubert left his home to reside in Vienna, and subsequently entered the service of Count Esterhazy as music-master to his children, where he remained about two years. After this Schubert never held any definite appoint- ment, but lived an erratic kind of life, although he was seldom out of Vienna. He once applied for a po&t in the Imperial Chapel, but failed. He formed but few permanent friendships, and did not succeed in winning the regard of Beethoven until the latter was on his death-bed. As a composer for the opera, Schubert was exceedingly active and uniformly unsuccessful. The r. 56, 57.] General Summary. 47 music to Rosamunde, originally produced at the " An der Wien " Theatre, in 1823, appears to be the best example of his efforts in this class of composition. A few years ago the music of Rosamunde was brought before a London audience at the Crystal Palace, Sydenham, but we do not know of any further attempt to keep it alive. Next to his marvellous sungs, Schubert's piano- forte works are the most popular amongst his composi- tions. His sonatas are, as a rule, somewhat erratic in point of musical form, but they are all full of strong connected interest, and exhibit in a remarkable degree the inexhaustible fertility of Schubert's mind. The same may be said of the pianoforte fantasies. In the domain of chamber music, his most important com- position is, perhaps, the octet for stringed and wind instruments, occasionally performed in this country. Of Schubert's nine symphonies undoubtedly the finest is the symphony in C, composed in 1828, the year of his death. The score of his unfinished symphony in B minor presents so many characteristic beauties that it is a matter for regret that he did not complete the work. Of his Church music, to the works already mentioned must be added the Mass in E flat (composed in 1828), which is frequently performed in this coun- try. Schubert also wrote several cantatas including Miriam's Battle Song melodramas, marches, and other occasional compositions, but all these save the marches are now nearly forgotten. 57. (Gr.) The name of Jacob Meyerbeer (1794 1864) is indissulubly associated with French Opera, but he was a German not only by birth but by training, and was a fellow-disciple with Weber under the Abbe Vogler at Vienna, at which city Meyerbeer was known as a brilliant pianist. His early operas Jephtha's Daughter and The Two Caliphs, produced in Germany, and Romilda, Semiramide riconosciuta, Margherita cFAnjou, and others, for the Italian stage, were by no means so successful as his later works in Paris. Robert 48 History of Music. [i. 57, 58. le Diable, produced at the Paris Grand Opera in 1831. at once established the fame of its composer. Robert was followed by Les Huguenots (1836) ; L'Etoile du Nord (originally in German), 1854; Le Prophete (1849) ; Le Pardon de Ploermel better known as Dinorah (1859) ; and L'Africaine (1864). The greater part of Meyerbeer's life was spent in Paris, and Rossini was the only composer who rivalled him in popularity. Among the lesser German contemporaries of Meyerbeer we should give the first mention to J. Moscheles (1794 1870), so celebrated for his pianoforte playing that Mendelssohn, who was in a position to command the best masters, availed himself of Moscheles' tuition. Moscheles held for some time the position of professor of the pianoforte at the Leipsic conservatorium. He com- posed, besides some symphonies, a number of concertos, sonatas, and variations for his especial instrument, and his works still occupy occasional places in our concert- programmes. FERDINAND EIES (1784 1838) was a pupil of Beethoven, and excelled as a pianist. He composed several pianoforte concertos and sonatas; also two operas, besides quartets and other chamber music. F. KALKBRENNER (1784 1849) was another accom- plished pianoforte player, and has left behind him many studies which are highly prized by pianoforte teachers. With one or two notable exceptions the names of F. E. FESCA (17891826); J. C. F. SCHNEIDER (1786 1858); H. J. LINDPAIXTNER (1791 1856); J. MAYSEDER (17891863); B. KLEIN (17941832); C. CZEKH Y (17911857), whose piano- forte studies are familiar to the students of the present day; M. HAUPTMANN (1794 1868) well remembered as the teacher of many living musicians ; A. B. MARX (17991866); C. EEISSIGER (17891859) bring the catalogue of German composers down to our own day. 58. (G.) FELIX MENDELSSOHN-BARTHOLDY (1809 1847), born inHamburg, was the sonof a wealthy banker, who on discovering his child's precocious talent for i. 58.] General Summary. 49 music spared no pains in fostering and developing it both by direct tuition of celebrated professors and by the refining influence of the highest musical society. Brought up in an atmosphere of musical culture from infancy, Mendelssohn had opportunities which seldom fall to the lot of a musical student, and availed himself of them to the fullest extent. On the removal of the family to Berlin, Mendelssohn received his pianoforte instruction from Berger, the principal pianist there, and for composition was placed under Zelter, a pupil of Sebastian Bach : - this combined course began when Mendelssohn was but eight years old. Under Zelter he continued some years ; but at this time his parents had no thought of his devoting himself entirely to music as a profession. This was not decided until the year 1825, when, on visiting and playing before Cherubini, in Paris, he* obtained the enthusiastic approbation of that great master. The first composition of any im- portance was the Symphony in C minor, written in 1824, when Mendelssohn was but 15. In 1825, the opera, The Wedding of Camacho, was produced at Ber- lin, but while it had a hearty reception at the hands of the public, the Berlin press was hostile to the work. Two years afterwards (1827) came the overture to the Midsummer Night's Dream; and, in the following year, the descriptive overture A Calm Sea and Prosperous Voyage. To about the same period is attributed the Reformation Symphony, introduced into England a few years back by Mr. Manns at the Crystal Palace. The year 1829 was marked by Mendelssohn's first visit to England,* he having just completed his studies at the University of Berlin. He appeared at several London concerts, and was warmly received on all sides. A short trip to Scotland occasioned the overture entitled Fingal's Cave, or The Hebrides, produced on his return * Professor Hitter (History of Music, p. 394) gives 1827 as the date of this visit. The invitation (from Moscheles) came in that year, but the journey was deferred until 1829. 4 50 History of Music. [i. 58. to Berlin, in the same year. In 1830 Mendelssohn, proceeded on a tour through Italy and Switzerland, and while at Eome composed the music to The First Walpurgis Night of Goethe. In 1833, after having failed to obtain the principal professorship at the Berlin Sing-Academie, he was appointed " Municipal Music Director " at Diisseldorf, where he commenced the oratorio, St. Paul. From Diisseldorf he was sum- moned to the directorship of the Gewandhaus concerts at Leipsic, and while there completed his St. Paul, the first performance of which took place at the Diisseldorf festival of 1836. In the autumn of the following year St. Paul was produced at the Birmingham festival, under the composer's direction. The public celebration, at Leipsic, in 1840, of the fourth centenary of the in- vention of the art of printing, occasioned the produc- tion of the Festgesang and the sinfonia cantata, Lob- gwing, (Hymn of Praise). The former cantata was sung in the public square at Leipsic, on the unveiling of the statue of Guttenberg; the Hymn of Praise was performed in St. Thomas's Church. (The recent Caxton Commemoration Festival, 1877, was similarly marked by a performance of this work in Westminster Abbey, under the direction of Dr. Bridge, the organist.) In 1841 Mendelssohn accepted the appointment of Kapell-meister to the King of Prussia, for whom he composed, as his inaugural work, the music to the An- tigone. The year 1843 witnessed the accomplishment of a long-cherished project of Mendelssohn's the Leipsic Conservatoriuru of Music of which he was the founder and first director. Among the original profess- ors were Schumann and Hauptmann. Mendelssohn's last great work was the Elijah, which was expressly composed for, and produced at, the Birmingham Fes- tival of 1846. An opera, Lorelei, and an oratorio, Christus, were both left unfinished. His death, in 1847, took place at Leipsic, and his remains were con- veyed for interment to Berlin. It is needless to give a i. 58, 59.] General Summary. 51 full list of his works, which are well known in this country. The disciples of a new school have protested against the general idolization of Mendelssohn which would place him on a par with Handel and Beethoven; but, in spite of all that can be adduced against him, Mendelssohn continues to maintain a high position in the popular esteem. Rarely, if ever, is any scheme of " Classical Concerts," whether of orchestral or of chamber-music, marked by an utter exclusion of works from the comprehensive repertory which Mendelssohn has left behind him. All his compositions from his symphonies to the charming Lieder ohne worte from the Elijah to the Anthems for two Choirs breathe a life and freshness, a sublimity and devoutness, which more than compensate for an occasional absence of detailed and formal construction. 59. (G.) Robert Schumann (18101856), a native of Zwickau, Saxony, was educated at Leipsic for the legal profession, but eventually abandoned his studies in favour of music. Under the care of WIECK his re- markable powers as a pianist were rapidly developed, while his theory studies were directed by Heinrich Dorn. In the year 1834 Schumann brought out the Neue Zeitschrift fur Musik, a journal which still exists, and in it he published a number of essays and sketches on musical subjects all full of literary power and keen critical perception. So far, Schumann had confined himself principally to compositions for the pianoforte, among which we should mention the Sonata in F sharp minor, that in G minor, and the Fantasias ; and it was not until 1841 that he attempted his first symphony, in B flat. In 1843, the Cantata, Paradise and the Peri, a setting of the story from Moore's Lalla Rookh, was produced at Leipsic, but did not create any very decided impression. An opera, Genevieve, produced in 1848, also proved unsuccessful. The same year the music to Manfred, excerpts from which are occasionally performed in this country, was written. Schumann's finest work 52 History of Music. [i. 59, 60. of tliis class, however, is his music to Faust, a work full of beauty and power, which deserves to be better known and more widely appreciated. This was produced in 1850. In the same year Schumann was appointed to the Directorship of Music at Diisseldorf, but his confirmed ill-health, and the increasing symptoms of mental disorder, prevented him from undertaking much active duty, although as a "writer he was still very pro- lific, producing his Symphony in E flat (1851), and several fine works, including The Minstrel's Curse, Hermann and Dorothea, and Tlie Pilgrimage of the Rose. But, in 1854, insanity took complete possession of him, and after an ineffectual attempt to druwn him- self in the Ehine, he was conveyed to a private asylum. in the neighbourhood of Bonn, where, in 1856, he died. The claims of Schumann as a composer were almost unknown in this country until his widow, the gifted pianist Clara Schumann, by her wonderful play- ing of his Avorks for the pianoforte, brought to light her husband's exalted genius, which was too far in advance of his own time to obtain the immediate recog- nition which his illustrious contemporary, Mendelssohn, received. 60. Frederic Chopin (18101849), a native of Warsaw, spent by far the greater portion of his artistic life in Paris, and his works are strongly tinctured with the style of the French School. His dance-music, especially his Polonaises, based on the form of an old national dance in Poland, is remarkable for the under- lying melancholy which in fact more or less charac- terizes all Chopin's works. His Mazourkas, Studies, Nocturnes, Waltzes, Galops, and Impromptus, as well as the Polonaises, are all familiar compositions in the drawing-room, as well as in our concert-rooms. Chopin introduced several new features in pianoforte scoring. " It is to him," says Liszt in his well-known Life of Chopin, " that we owe the extension of chords, struck together in arpeggio, or en batter ie ; in the chromatic i. 60, 61.] General Summary. 53 sinuosities of which his pages offer such striking ex- amples ; the little groups of superadded notes falling like light drops of pearly dew upon the melodic figure." His sonatas, the first of which contains The Funeral March, and his concertos serve to exhibit every variety of sentiment and passion, in which, however, pathos strongly predominates. Chopin died of decline at an early age (39), and the March to which we have alluded was performed at his funeral. 61. (F.) The list of celebrated French composers of the period succeeding our last summary of this school is a brief one. Daniel Auber (1782* 1871) for many years director of the Paris Conservatoire, devoted him- self principally to opera. His best known works are Fra Diavolo, -Le Domino Noir, and Masaniello (La Muette de Portici). L. HEROLD (17911833) lives through his famous opera, Zampa (1830) ; other operas wefe Marie and Le Pre aux Olercs. Hector Berlioz (1803 1869), whose intimate acquaintance with every possible resource of the orchestra led him into the com- position of works which require the employment of large and abnormally constituted bands to produce them, was originally a medical student, but afterwards went through the music course at the Conservatoire of Paris. He produced a large number of works, chiefly orchestral, of which his symphonies, Episode de la vie d'un artiste, Harold en Italie, Romeo et Juliette, and the Fantastique, are the principal. His opera Benvenuto Cellini is still, we believe, occasionally performed in France. HALEVY (1799 1862), besides his greatest opera, La Juive, so popular in Paris, wrote several operas, among them L'Edair, and Les Mousquetaires de la Reine. FELICIEN DAVID (1810 1876), whose symphony-ode, The Desert, was revived, after long neglect, at Paris shortly after his death, brings us to the end of the list of completed careers. * Schliiterand some others mention 1784 as the date of Auber's birth. 54 History of Music. [i. 62, 63. 62. (I.) GK Spontini (1784 1851) effected considera- ble improvements on the style of Gluck, to whom also lie, more nearly than any other composer, approaches in classic dignity. Like Gluck, Spontini, after a brief Italian career, settled in Paris (1803), and for the Paris Opera wrote his master-piece, La Vestale, as well as the operas, Ferdinand, Cortez, and Olympic. Professor Hitter, who, as we think, mistakenly fixes the date of Spontini's birth ten years earlier, thus Avrites of him : " Animated by a sense of heroic grandeur, full of pathos and passionate expression, he necessarily gave to his forms an adequate amplitude and vigour of style. But not this quality alone characterizes his works : tender- ness of feeling, and sympathy for the softer chords of human passion, are also familiar to his pen. Amidst all the brilliancy of scenic representations, he seldom becomes trivial, or degenerates into mere superficial effect. His effects are always sustained by noble dramatic meaning. His orchestral accompaniments and illustrations are vigorous, sonorous, and brilliant, according to the requirements of the scenic situation." All this is amply proved on a mere glance at the score of his Vestale, which ought to find an English publisher, and a place in every musician's library. 63. (I.) Gioachino Rossini (1792 1868), a native of Pezaro, in Italy, early distinguished himself at the school of music at Bologna, where he studied composi- tion under Johann Martini. While yet a boy, he wrote seveial operas for the provincial theatres, and at the age of 21 produced Tancredi at Venice. In 1816 Rossini went to Rome, and produced, at the Carnival of that year, the Barlnere di Siviglia and another opera. Otello was performed at Naples shortly afterwards, and at Rome La Cenerentola, while at Milan La Gazza Ladra found immediate favour. All these works were written in the same year 1816. Mose in Egitto (in which the celebrated prayer, To Thee, great Lord Dal tuo stellato Soglio was inserted as an afterthought), was i. 33, 64.] General Summary. 55 produced in 1818, and La Donna del Lago in the year following. In 1823 took place the first performance of Semir amide, at Venice. After a short and successful visit to London, Rossini went to Paris, where he re- mained for the rest of his life. The only opera of note composed for the Parisians was the fine work Guglielmo Tell, which appeared in 1829. After this date no other compositions, except the Stabat Mater and the post- humous Messe Solennelle, appeared from his pen. The most prominent among Rossini's Italian contemporaries were: V. Bellini (^1802 1835), whose Norma, La Sonnambula, and / Piirltani, are his only lasting operas ; G. Donizetti (1797 1848), the composer of Lucrezia Borgia, Lucia di Lammermoor, La Favorita, Don Pasquale, LElisire d'Amore, La Fille du Regi- ment, and other favourite operas ; S. MERCADANTE (1797 _ 1870), and M. CARAFA (1785 1872) both truthfully described as " weak imitators of Rossini." 64. (E.) Samuel Wesley (1766 1837) was a son of the Rev. Charles Wesley, the great hymn-writer. Samuel Wesley is said to have attempted composition even in childhood; at the age of six years he wrote an oratorio, Ruth a mere childish production, as might have been expected, but still showing signs of unusual musical taste and ability. Wesley's anthems are among the finest of his time. They must not, however, be confounded with those of Samuel Sebastian Wesley (1810 1876), his son, whose Blessed be the God and Father, and The Wilderness, and other anthems and Church Music, stamp him as one of the greatest Church writers of the age. William Crotch (1775 1847) was another in whom genius was early discovered and developed. He has left behind him the oratorios, The Captivity, and Palestine, and a number of anthems, services, glees, and a work on Harmony. His grand motett, Methinks I hear the full Celestial Choir, is frequently performed, and may be cited as an exquisite specimen of vocal writing in five parts. For 56 History of Music. [i. 64, 65. some years Dr. Crotch filled the Chair of Music at the University of Oxford. Thomas Attwood (17671838) was a pupil of Mozart, under whose careful training he acquired that sweetness of style and clearness of diction for which his writings are noted. He composed a number of anthems of which Come, Holy Ghost is the most popular and several operas, now unknown. J. B. Cramer (1771 1858) was a leading pianist and teacher, and composed upwards of 100 pianoforte sonatas, seven concertos, numerous studies, and the well-known instruction book. John Field (1782 1837), a pupil of dementi, was another accomplished pianoforte player and composer, whose nocturnes are ever favourite compositions. Sir H. R. Bishop (1782 1855) was a prolific composer of almost every kind of music, but excelled in the part-song and glee. He wrote many popular operas in English, and from these many of his best-known songs and choruses are taken. V. Wallace (1814 1865) survives in his operas, Maritana, Lurline, &c. M. W. Balfe (18081870), an Irishman by birth, but an Italian by training, com- posed principally for the stage. His operas, The Bo- hemian Girl, and The Talisman, a posthumous work, are at the present moment the most prominent of Balfe's productions. Sir William Sterndale Bennett (1816 1875), one of the most gifted of English com- posers, was not a prolific writer, but everything he lias left us is of the highest merit. His two cantatas, The May-Queen and The Woman of Samaria, are beautiful works of their kind. Of his orchestral works, the Symphony in G minor, the concert overtures, The Wood Nymph, Paradise and the Peri, and the pianoforte concertos, are among the best. Cipriani Potter, a former principal of the Royal Academy of Music, is still remem- bered as a skilful teacher and an accomplished writer. 65. (E.) The more prominent among the composi-rs of our own da*y shall now be briefly noticed. Sir John Goss (b. 1800), sometime organist of St. Paul's Cathe- i. 65.] General Summary. 57 dral, was in boyhood a chorister of the Chapel Royal, and afterwards became a pupil of Attwood, at St. Paul's. He has composed a large number of works, chiefly sacred. Among his anthems the best known are, If we believe that Jesus died (composed for the funeral of the Duke of Wellington), Praise the Lord, give thanks, Saviour of the World, Stand up and bless the Lord your God, and taste and see how gracious the Lord is. His secular works include Ossiaris Hymn to the Sim, There is beauty on the Mountain, The Sycamore Shade, fyc. Sir John Goss was formerly a Professor in the Royal Academy of Music, and his work on Har- mony and Tltoronyh-bass is a well-known and widely popular text-book. Sir Julius Benedict (b. 1804), composer of The Lily of Killarney and other operas, and of the oratorio, St. Peter, is a native of Stuttgart, Germany, but has been resident in. England for many years. Sir Michael Costa (b. 1810) com- poser of the popular oratorio, Eli, and of Naaman, has also written several operas, among which may be mentioned Malvina and Don Carlos. He is the con- ductor of Her Majesty's Opera, and of the Sacred Har- monic Society. G. A. Macfarren (b. 1813), Professor of Music, in the University of Cambridge, and Principal of the Royal Academy of Music, has written an immense number of works, chiefly vocal, among them the two oratorios, St. John the Baptist and The Resurrection. Edward J. Hopkins (b. 1818), organist of the Temple Church, London, ranks with the best Church writers of the present day. His Services in F and A, his anthems and hymn-tunes, are deservedly esteemed, and will have a permanent place in the music-literature of the Church. The Rev. Sir F. A. Gore Ouseley, Bart. (b. 1825), Pro- fessor of Music in the University of Oxford, is the composer of the oratorios St. Poll/carp and Hagar, and of several fine anthems, of which It came even to pass is perhaps one of the best. Sir Frederick Ouseley has written treatises on Harmony, on Counterpoint, 58 History of Music. [i. 65 67. Canon, and Fugue, and on Musical Form. Other eminent English musicians are : Sir R. P. Stewart, Professor of Music in the Universitj 7 " of Dublin, com- poser of Church music, cantatas, and instrumental works ; Dr. Steggall, organist of Lincoln's Inn, whose anthems and services are justly esteemed as among the best of the day ; F. H. Cowen, composer of the Rose Maiden, the Corsair, dramatic cantatas; also of Pauline, an opera, and The Deluge, an oratorio ; A. Sullivan, composer of Tlie Prodigal Son, The Light of the World, &c. ; Berthold Tours, who has written some fine anthems and Church Services, besides numerous songs; Joseph. Barnby, author of many popular anthems and services ; John Barnett, whose Mountain Sylph is a favourite composition; J. F. Barnett, composer of The Ancient Mariner, &c. ; J. L. Hatton, author of Hezekiah, (an oratorio), and several anthems, songs, and part-songs, &c., &c. 66. (F.) CHARLES GOTTNOD (b. 1818) stands at the head of French composers at the present day. lie has written some fine sacred works (Messe Solennelle, Messe du Sacre Cosur, &c.), but his fame will rest chiefly upon his operas, of which Faust is his chefd'oeuvre. Amongst other leading French composers are Ambroise Thomas, director of the Paris Conservatoire, author of Mignon, Hamlet, and other operas ; Flotow (author of Maria) ; Jacques Offenbach, composer of many comic operas, including La Grande Duchesse, Barbe Bleu, &c. ; and HERVE, another writer of Opera Comiqtie, whose Chilperic has had a world-wide but ephemeral popu- larity. Among other living French musicians may be mentioned MASSE, MASSENET, C. SAINT-SAENS, LECOCQ, and GUILMAXT. 67. (I.) GIUSEPPE VERDI (b. 1814) now stands al- most without a contemporary of any importance among Italians His operas are very numerous, the most popular among them being Ernani, Rigoletto, II Trova- T. 67 69.] General Summary. 59 tore, La Traviata, Un Ballo in Maschera, and A'ida. His Requiem, notwithstanding a frequent disregard of many important canons of contrapuntal writing, is a grand and impressive work. 68. Niels W. Gade (b. 1817), a native of Copenhagen, one of the most distinguished of living composers, is chiefly known through his Erlking's Daughter and other cantatas, but he has also written some splendid symphonies and other orchestral works, as well as chamber-music and songs. Anton Rubinstein, a native of Russia, better known as a pianist of the first rank, has also written concertos and other orchestral pieces, of which latter his recent Ocean Symphony is the most remarkable. 69. (G.) RICHARD WAGNER (b. 1813), whose art- theories have for many years been the subject of a great deal of bitter controversy amongst musicians, has en- deavoured to revolutionize the whole system of opera, and to overturn all previous notions of musical form. His earlier operas, Rienzi, and Das Liebesverbot, are framed upon the old models ; but he forsook these in his Fliegende Hollander and Tannhauser, and even these he considers as far beneath the ideal form of opera. Lohengrin may be regarded as a more decided advance upon Tannhauser; but Tristan and Isolde and the Meistersinger are the first works which embody the full realization of Wagner's views. His greatest contribution to the " music of the future " is the well-known opera- series, Der Ring der Nibelungen. This fourfold work consists of Das Rheingold, Die Walkiire, Siegfried, and Goiter ddmmerung, and the whole series was per- formed at a great public festival, in 1876, at Bayreuth, Germany, in a theatre especially constructed for that purpose. A selection from this tetralogy was per- formed in London, at the Royal Albert Hall, 1877, under the composer's personal direction. Franz Liszt (b. 1811), a native of Hungary, is one of the greatest 60 History of Music. [i. 69, 70. of living virtuosi on the pianoforte, for which he has written concertos, and numherless smaller studies and transcriptions, besides cantatas and symphonies. Liszt is a strong advocate of the "Wagner theories, to which we shall refer more particularly in a later section of this work. Johannes Brahms (b. 1833), whose Song of Destiny and Requiem are becoming familiar works in this country, has also proved his remarkable genius in the symphony and other important forms of composi- tion. J. Raff, J. JOACHIM (b. 1831), ERNST PAUER, are all distinguished composers, amongst many others, in their respective styles. 70. We have now come to the conclusion of our general summary, which from the nature of our subject can be little more than biographical. Our suc- ceeding section will consist of a series of tables of musicians and events ; after which we shall proceed to trace, with the help afforded by the present section, the history of the art itself. 61 SECTION' IT. CHRONOMETRICAL TABLES OF MUSICIANS AND MUSICAL EVENTS. EXPLANATION. 1. EACH page contains a " square," divided into ten parts. The squares on opposite pages are duplicates, i.e. they represent the same period of time ; the left hand page indicating events, discoveries, &c., the right hand page containing the names of musicians. From the time of Alfred the Great (870) and onward, the reigns of the English Sovereigns are given in the respective intervals of their accession, in order the more clearly to localize the musical events in the mind of the student. 2. The first square (right and left) includes the dates A.D. to A.D. 999. Each succeeding square represents 100 years. 3. Table No. I. contains ten spaces of 100 years each ; these again are subdivided into ten spaces of ten j r ears each. Table No. II. (and each succeeding table) con- tains ten spaces of ten years each, each space of ten years being afterwards subdivided into ten spaces of one year each. These spaces are so arranged that each terminal number of a date has a fixed position in the squares : thus, the date " xxxO " is always assigned to the " band " at the top of the square ; the date " xxx5 " is always to be found in the centre square, and so on. 4. The sign * prefixed to a name or event denotes that the date is uncertain or approximate. 5. It will be well for the student to exercise himself in the identification of dates and squares, by the use of the figures, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, before systematic- ally employing the tables in conjunction with the text. Example. To find the year 1555: 5 is invariably the centre figure. Turning to Table VII. (150099) we see that 1550 is the centre square of ten years, and 1555 the centre of that square. A few experiments of this kind will easily familiarize the student with the plan of these tables. 62 TABLE I. A.D. TO 999. MUSICAL EPOCHS AND EVENTS. [II. fl '- a bo f 1 1 (D . S ja "3 i g ^* " Z 00 "1 S | ^ _o a j "fi . 11 11 fe t3 . V. S cS- 5l ) fiji S3 a 02 H i : .11 11 II (S 8 S. Q CO S 1 *" I .g o ,_ o . j .a s g|| i| ^ a bo o o b 11 8, 00 2 S cj o S o * o *^ o 00 . 1 h 05" 05 w ^ . < B 1 P Sgi *ti ffi A O ||| 1 s a ft rl o 1 X II.] 63 TABLE I A.D. TO 999. MUSICIANS. 1 I o tq&q I I 64 TABLE IL A.D. 1000 TO 1099. MUSICAL EPOCHS AND EVENTS. [IL rfj o g, 'Eg 11 11 * o o.g 1 6-4 * _M f* o o o n.] 65 TABLE II A.D. 1000 TO 1099. MUSICIANS. al i! i C6 TABLE in. A.D. 1100 TO 1199. MUSICAL EPOCHS AND EVENTS. [0. ILj 67 TABLE III. A.D. 1100 TO 1199. MUSICIANS. 7 T T CO 7 7 CO CO 1 ^ 1 . s 7 7 7 i rt 7 00 1 7 7- CO 7 7 7 7 7 1 7 7 1 CO T 7 CO i T 1 7 'O T e c -S ft? i i 7 7 00 7 7 00 s 7 1 CO 7 " a 7 7 7 7 T s 7 7 7 7 8 i J CO to CO o 1 1 i j 1 1 1 i 1 IN 1 7 i 7 00 7 S 7 7 CO 7 7 CO 1 rH . 3 f-H 1 -r ~ 7 7 7 f 7 '[ o - ' ^ 68 TABLE IV. A.D. 1200 TO 1299. MUSICAL EPOCHS AND EVENTS. [n. O fl II.] 69 TABLE IY. A.D. 1200 TO 1299. MUSICIANS. 70 TABLE V. A.D. 1300 TO 1399. MUSICAL EPOCHS AND EVENTS. [II. si it m- II n TABLE Y. A.D. 1300 TO 1399. MUSICIANS. 7 i i i i i 1 i ^ 1 ! 00 J 7 o 7 7 7 00 7 7 7 ' CO B Sj rt r rj * 7 7 1 1 7 1 1 7 7 to 7 7 a 7 7 7 7 7 7 >0 1 7 7 7 >0 7 o 7 10 00 2 s g ^ 9 CO 3*3 7 M T 1 7 75 7 7 7 r j i 7 7 8 e s k CO 7 to 1 7 7 7 o CO i 7 a I? CH O o s 7 00 7 7 7 7 7 7 CO i s 7 7 ~ 'f 7 7 7 7 7^ g e CO i ft! 72 TABLE VL A.D. 1400 TO 1499. MUSICAL EPOCHS AND_ EVENTS. [II. O n.] 73 TABLE VI. A.D. 1400 TO 1499. MUSICIANS. CO -o 0> CO o> i 1 1 1 1 i 1 if sS 33 "I * I! a] 75 TABLE YIL A.D. 1500 TO 1599. MUSICIANS. m (O ^ 1 1 1 S 1 p 1 i OS " 8 h a fe 1 g- ^ i! tq i4 3 P y T- 3 T T fO ft 3 T 7 00 e 7 7^-2 T 3 1 1 ^ = 2 7 T 7 1 7-2 t- 1 1 ^ *H ' 7 2 I 3 11 o O S K. o "a * 1 71 .a T 7 8 "* l.s 1^ *J a "g """ II o < gi 11 I . P. 2 "--^ o M ^ DO E o t 1 1*4 9 |2 i a cs 5 O | ^ CO w O* * i 1 I-H T-l (L| ^ o a | 1 * o S ^ -| ? a si to '"S T3 S p, 2 ^j! . s o* S 'ri g 2 s i. 1 H .si Bali O o W 1 i!! 1 !! 1 "S 1 I 1 i o o s i a o | > | g CO rH to i s * ii.] 77 TABLE VIII. A.D. 1600 TO 1699. MUSICIANS. to to 0". CO to 0> i ' *>' 1 1 1 1 1 It! 1 o 1 S" Bj d 1 S 1 g B e 00- ,. 1 -a -2 T 1 00 10 T^- 1 00 T-i T* TJ 5 g 8 8 S i i ID a 55 > 1 1 F M 1 S g n 3 , 73 7 7 t- 1 o" 7 7 1 7 7 *r a iCi fc 3 o 1 o m Ol eo Oi . ~5 to o^' | \ . 1 1 1 1 '3 I 8 2 i William 1 and Mar 1 7 7 --a- 00 T-rJ T oo u- IN T to o 5 = s "E S -tl'S 1 3 e e "^ 1 v i 1 7 | S ' 5 8 * s c ,: "s . ..- - Sb to T a, c 7: 11 1 > P I W 2-8 a 00 T t T ^ .-8 T T 1 1 fc, 1 ,0 7 1 o 3 I 1 | g 7 -2"o 1 g g 03 o i 7 3 7 7 7 b- U r ' T : T ^ O P = CO *. e "3 | 31 1-1 "" < o 78 TABLE IX. A.D. 1700 TO 1799. MUSICAL EPOCHS AND EVENTS. [H. a '3 3 o o o 53 so*" 51 S Martin Beimel 3 '3, O 1 1 <= .0 TiJ 10 PH V >0 T- 3- rl ^* t- PH t *- 0** SJ! 1 Schuman 1 Liszt 6. -] 1 Hinimel d \ Verdi 6. IMehul d. Gade l>. 1 Berton d. Crotch d. Mendelssohn g 1 S3 | Auber d. 1 | Titiens d 82 History of Music. [in. i, 2. SECTION III. ART SUMMARY. 1. FOR the reasons adduced at the commencement of the first section of this work, we shall not lead our readers into the labyrinths of Greek scales, or the fanciful dissertations of mediaeval writers on musical theory, but will proceed at once with the actual history of music as an art (and science), which practically dates from the fourth century after Christ. 2. The plain-song of the early Christian Church was, as we have seen, formed upon the old Greek scales or modes, the use of which was carried into Italy by the Greek slaves who acted as minstrels to the rich dilletanti of Rome. The voice was generally accom- panied with the lyre (\vpa), an instrument which had from seven to fifteen or sixteen strings. "Whether the lyre supplied harmony or merely " doubled " the voice is, however, an open question. There is no record of this instrument being employed in the Church ; and in all probability it was judged as of too secular a charac- ter to admit of its use in Divine worship. The modes or scales of Gregory the Great have already been tabu- lated (v. sect, i par. 10); we shall now present our readers with a view of the eight chants or " tones " formed upon those modes. The following are quoted by Sir John Hawkins from a work by Gaffurius (1502). For the convenience of the student we have translated them into the modern notation : Ex. L TABLE OP GREGORIAN TONES. TONE I. , J_fc= ~ ~" O O O 9-0 i Q.V&-& ~ a g-Gf L^-^J^==f^=t : =r z r==} *Pri-mus to - nus sic in - ci - pit sic me - dia - tur et * "The first Tone thus commenceth, thus proceedeth (or mediate*), and thus endeth." III. 2.] Art Summary. 83 Ending i. Ending ii. l 1 ? TONE II. m Se - cun - dus to - nus sic in - ci - pit sic me - di - a - tur Ending i. Ending ii. et sic fi - ni - tur. TONE III. -&- -&- -0- -- -&- =| | \t=\=: Ter - ti - us to - nus sic in - ci - pit sic me - di - a - tur Ending i. Ending ii. Ending iii. ==g2=e=zdttg t ^^*4 3 *i et sic fi - ni - tur. TONE IV. gy-g p 6> g S> g -- g-y-e p , g> P_ g>-|. Quar - tus to - nus sic in - ci - pit sic me - di - a - tur Ending i. Ending ii. Ending iii. et sic fi - ni - tur. TONE V. :t m Quin - tus to - nus sic in - ci - pit sic me - di - a - tur 84 History of Music. Ending L BHEEt^= [ill. 2. Ending ii, -&- &- it sic fi - ni - tur. TONS VI. Sex-tus to-nussic in-ci-pit sic me - di - a - tur -&- et sic fi - ni - tur. TONE VII. Vel sic. et sic . . . me - dia - tur et sic fi - ni - tur. Ending it Ending iii. Ending iv. BESESESZ i-G^^-Y 21 ^ 2 -^^ 2 ^ E tgEfltt= a o. TONE VIII. Pel tic solennit. Oc - ta - vus to - iius sic in - ci - pit Ending i. Ending ii. sic me - di - a - tur et sic fi - ni-tur. These chants were ordered to be used in all the Christian churches of Europe, and to be used in their integrity. It must not be supposed, however, that strict uniformity in the manner uf singing the tones in. 2, 3 ] Art Summary. 85 could be preserved throughout Christendom ; the Gallic singers took great liberties with the Cantusfirmus, and were frequently rebuked for their many unpardonable licences. Besides the above, there were the more ancient " Ambrosian Chants," so called after St. Am- brose, who either composed them, or more probably directed their use in the Church. The following ex- amples we take from Dr. Crotch's valuable work, " Specimens of Various Styles of Music ": Ex. 2. AMBROSIAN CHANTS. -&- -rxSH- -t ry l -tlaK-ir- (Circa A.D. 334397.) - i - 1 ^8 2 3. The general method of singing the chants was alternate or antiphonal : either between priest or choir, or from "side to side," as the Psalms are now sung in our cathedrals. Cathedral choirs, and those of most churches, have for ages been divided into two portions facing each other, and respectively termed De- cani, or the side of the Dean or other principal priest, and Cantoris, or the side of the Cantor, Precentor, or " chief singer." Hawkins mentions yet other modes of antiphonal singing : " "With respect to the music of the primitive church, though it consisted of psalms and hymns, yet was it performed in sundry different man- ners; that is to say, sometimes the psalms were sung by one person alone, the rest hearing with attention; sometimes they were sung by the whole assembly ; sometimes alternately, the congregation being for that purpose divided into separate choirs ; and, lastly, by one person, who repeated the first part of the verse, the rest joining in the close thereof. Of the four different methods of singing above enumerated, the second and third were very properly distinguished by the names of 86 History of Music. [m. 3, 4. symphony and antiphony, and the latter was sometimes called responsaria ; and in this, it seems, women were allowed to join, notwithstanding the apostle's injunction on them to keep silence." 4. The ancient chants and hymn-melodies of the Church were all built, as we have seen, upon the Greek scales or modes Dorian, Lydian, Phrygian, Ac. The origin of the modern major scale, now common to the whole of the civilized world, has never, to our know- ledge, been actually traced or satisfactorily accounted for. The native airs of Western Europe, where the modern scale took its rise, are built upon totally differ- ent tonalities the Scotch and Iri^h, for instance; while in England itself, the primitive melodies sung by rustics, from Yorkshire to Somerset, denote a mode similar to, if not identical with, the Dorian.* In the absence of direct evidence to the contrary, we are in- clined to the belief that our present scale was gradu- ally evolved in obedience to the requirements of counterpoint. "With most of the old modes the use of imperfect concords (thirds or sixths), especially if syncopated or suspended, would be less tolerable even than sequences of consecutive fourths or fifths. An experiment upon a complete scalar passage in most of the modes will exemplify this. The absence of the " leading-note " the 7th of the scale a semitone distant from the octave for a long time deprived musicians of the perfect cadence. For one or two centimes after the introduction of added parts to a melody, the subject was invariably taken from the Gregorian plain-song ; but gradually it became the custom to raise or lower by a semitone various notes in order to avoid awkward in- tervals. In the Dorian mode, for example, the sixth * Many readers will doubtless recognize the following fragment as a familiar "pastoral" strain : in. 4, 5,] Art Summary. 87 note, Bfl, was altered to Bb, on account of the disso- nance existing between the former note and F, the third degree of the scale. If, to create a " leading-note," we raise the seventh degree (CE|) to C$, we have at once the complete modern scale of D minor. That of D was the usual minor key with the early con- trapuntists ; next to it came the key of A minor, pos- sibly founded upon the related plagal mode, the Hypo- Dorian (v. sec. i. par. 10), which required only the raising of the seventh degree by a semitone to consti- tute it a perfect modern minor scale. 5. The first attempt (on record) to clothe the bare unisonal or octave-singing of the appointed plain chants of the Church, was that of the Fleming, Hucbald. His diaphony, or two-part accompaniment upon the rude pipe-organ which at that time was being introduced into the principal cathedrals of Europe, consisted of an un- varying succession of fourths, fifths, or octaves, which would give the cantus firmus a certain grimness and stiffness not wholly out of character with the native severity of the Gregorian tones. Some writers state that the organum was not played but sung, others that it was intended to be sung at a certain time-distance after the cantus, as a kind of canonic imitation. But if we look at the following specimen of the organum or diaphony by Guido (circa 1022) we shall at once see that the latter hypothesis is utterly untenable : Ex. 3. ORGANUM or DJAPHONY. (a) Cantus. At whatever point we may commence the discantus or under-part we shall be met, sooner or later, by in- 88 History of Music. [IIL 5, 6. superable difficulties. We must, therefore, accept the above crude accompaniment as it stands. We can, however, imagine the birth of a more euphonious counterpoint by the perhaps at first accidental com- bination of a portion of the cantus firmus with a new commencement of the octave organum, as below : -ffl. -&. -&- discantus. At the point* the imitation would be interrupted, when the performer would either resume his octave accompaniment or proceed to the invention of further imitations at other intervals. This suggestion is offered with considerable diffidence and only in the absence of any other rational proposition. 6. Into the various musical methods invented by, or attributed to, Guido d'Arezzo, it would be impossible to enter at length, in the present little work ; and many of the descriptions, as given by Hawkins and others, would only be confusing to the student. The chief innovation appears to have been the extension of the old tetrachordal system, introduced by Ambrose and Gregory, to that of the hexachord, or six-note series. This hexachord system is illustrated by the employment of the UT, RE, MI, &c., which form the commencing syllables of the lines we have already quoted (sec. i. 15) ; the melody to which they are supposed to have been set by Guido runs as follows : Ex. 5. &* 7*3 l &* &- :5zzt ^ES UT que - ant lax - is RE - so - na - re fi - bris III. 6.] Art Summary. 89 ra ges - to - rum FA - mu - li tu SOL - ve pol-lu - ti LA-bi - i re - a - turn Sane - te Jo-an-nes. It will be observed that the tonality of tins chant in no way coincides with that of our modern scale. The invention of the stave, or staff, for the purposes of notation, is popularly ascribed to Guido, though some writers affirm that a seven-lined stave * was in use before his time. For several centuries the size of the stave varied considerably, some employing three, some four, some seven, some eight, others ten, and others, again, as many as eleven lines. From the last mentioned it is stated that our modern five-lined staves are derived, the fixed F and C lines being variously supplemented above and below to suit the respective requirements of the various voices : Ex. 6. Divisions of the Great Stave of Eleven lines. Bass. Baritone. Tenor. Alto. Mezzo Soprano. Violin or Soprano. G clef. In the ancient missals the C and F lines were eithei painted in distinctive colours or were written as dotted or thickened lines, with a view to the more readily dis- tinguishing them. They thus served, in a rude fashion, the purpose of the modern clefs, which, in their turn, are a development of the rudimentary forms to be seen in the staves still employed for " Gregorian " music : * Of this stave the lines only, not the spaces, were used for the notes. 90 History of Music. [ in. 6 8. EX. r. F clef. C clef. This stave of four lines was the one generally adopted in, and for some time after, the thirteenth century. 7. It would appear that Guido and his contempo- raries used notes which were all of the same character and relative time duration, for the first indication of long and short notes we have is from the writings of Franco of Cologne, who gives the maxima, longa, brevis and semibrevis (sec. i. 16), and thus creates the cantus memurabilis, or measured song. These characters and terms were employed for several centuries, and our modern system of notation is founded upon the inven- tion of Franco. For a long period the system was ascribed to Jean de Meurs (or Muris), but the claim of Franco has since been thoroughly established. Dr. Crotch furnishes the following specimen of Franco's counterpoint, rendered into modern notation : Ex. 8. FRANCO. ^_ 8. We advance a step in the history of counterpoint, when we find Marchnttus of Padua, who nourished about the early part of the fourteenth century, giving rules for the alternate employment of consonances and ii j. 8, 9.] Art Summary. 91 dissonances. But if we are to place any faith in the authenticity of the preceding example i. e. if it has not received some " finishing touches " from a later hand-- we may be sure that nearly every rule necessary to the production of good counterpoint was known in the time of Franco. 9. The early theorists and historians generally were ecclesiastics, and devoted their attention mainly, if not exclusively, to Church music ; consequently there is but little record of the progress of secular music during the first twelve centuries after Christ. There are, how- ever, various allusions to the existence of a race of itinerant minstrels, who visited the houses of the great, and sang to them ballads of which famous exploits or weird legends formed the principal themes. The story of King Alfred assuming the character of one of these wandering musicians, as a safe disguise and passport for admission into the enemy's camp, is a familiar passage in every history of England. There- seems little doubt that Alfred was as accomplished a musician as he was a poet, and that he did much to further the progress of musical art in England. By some he is even credited with being the founder of the Chair of Music at Oxford, but there is scarcely sufficient evidence at hand to prove this. These "bards," or "troubadours," as they came to be called, led a romantic and adventurous life, and it was no uncommon freak for a man of gentle birth to take up the role for a time. Very frequently it so happened that two or more of these poet-minstrels were visiting the same house or hostelry at the same time, and as a natural consequence they entered into friendly competition for the first place in the esteem of their listeners. There is no doubt that this practice de- veloped into the more public " tournaments of song " which formed a strong feature in the musical enterprise of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The Minne- sdnger were a famous confraternity of German trouba- dours who held public competitions for the post of 92 History of Music. [in. 9, 10. honour, or laureateship, of the country. A notable con- test of the Minnesanger took place about the year 1207, in a town in Saxony. It is affirmed that " the original home of the troubadours was Provence, in the south of France, where they originated about the eighth century. Subsequently, at the time of the German Minnesanger, there were also troubadours in Italy, Spain, and Eng- land." The Eisteddfod, or annual musical competition in Wales, is a remnant of the old bardic contests of this country. The Meistersanger of Germany were a subsequent race of musicians, who in the fourteenth cen- tury sought to revive the ancient exploits of the Minne- sanger, and for that purpose formed themselves into bands or guilds for the regulation of contests ; but these had a very ephemeral existence. Wagner's opera the Meistersinger is founded upon the popular traditions regarding these later troubadour?, who were, as a rule, ignorant of the true art of poesy or of musical compo- sition. 10. In the first section of this work (par. 17) we have alluded to two or three of the principal trouba- dours of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, and have given the first mention to Adam de la Hale, of Provence. In his " History of Music," Professor Bitter gives two of De la Bale's melodies. The second of these two we shall quote here, with, however, a con- siderable alteration of Professor Bitter's added har- monies : Melody by DE LA HALE. III. 10, 11.] Art Summary. 93 I I The above is taken from a little musical play, or masque, entitled fiobin and Marion. De la Hale com- posed several of these dramatic pieces, which were a kind of secular counterpart of the ancient miracle-plays or "mysteries" of which more hereafter. 11. The art of counterpoint received its full develop- ment at the hands of the Belgian or Flemish masters, of whom Dufay was the first of any note. It was be- lieved that to this master we owe the invention of the canon, or imitation at regular intervals of one voice by another. Here is a short canon in two parts, " at the octave above," by Dufay : Ex. 10. DUFAY. qr zz2=ir-J i T i= erff3=r ^^^=^=^^^^^ \^ 94 History of Music. [m. 11. This specimen exhibits comparatively few crudities. The canon by Jusquin des Pres, of which the following is the commencement, is, however, a striking advance upon the work of Dufay : Ex. 11. JUSQUIN DES PEES. The musicians of this (and a later) period gloried in the production of canons, some of which were purposely so enigmatical that it taxed the ingenuity of their con- temporaries to discover where they commenced, and at whatintervals the various parts were to be employed. As in the poems of George Herbert we find him indulging in quaint metrical devices by which his lines are sometimes made to represent the shape of an altar or of wings, so we find the old contrapuntists moulding their canons into circles or triangles, or so contriving them that they may be sun^ any way upside down, or backwards, making equally "good counterpoint" in either case. Most of these caprices must have cost their authors many months of labour and thought; but from a musical point of view they are worthless. As technical studies, however, they were not w-thout a certain value, for they led to the discovery cf the furthest resources at the musician's command, and familiarized him with every form of melodic combination. III. 12.] Art Summary. 95 12. The Belgian writers carried, as we have seen, the art of counterpoint* to great perfection, and formulated most of the rules which, with a few modifications, arc observed by strict contrapuntists at the present day. They divided counterpoint into five principal methods or "species;" the first being note against note (the simplest and at the same time the most severe form) ; the second, two notes of counterpoint to one of the plain-song; the third, four notes to one; the fourth, syncopated counterpoint; and the fifth, figurate or florid counterpoint. For the benefit of the general reader a short illustration of each species of counter- point is appended : Ex. 12. COUNTERPOINT (first species). ry :an S^fi PLAIN-SONG, or CANTUS FIRMUS. Bx. 13. COUNTERPOINT (second species'). PLAIN-SONG. Ex. 14. COUNTERPOINT (third species). =t PLAIN-SOXO. * Contra, against; punctum, point, or note. 96 History of Music. Ex. 15. COUNTERPOINT (fourth speciet). [in. 12, is. 1^1 PLAIN-SONO. Ex. 16. COUNTERPOINT (fifth tpecitl). PLAIN-SONO. 13. DESCANT was an art by which the singer was able to add to a plain-song at sight a kind of rough counterpoint consisting entirely of concords the uni- son, third, fifth; six'h, and eighth. The early writers laid down a number of rules as to the employment of these intervals by the singer. The counterpoint in Ex. 12 would serve as an illustration of the allowed pro- gression and intervals in descant. FABURDEN (or J 'also bordone) was a yet simpler form of counterpoint, and was originally, as the term indicates, nothing but a drone bass, or "tonic pedal." The term was used afterwards to signify a simplified species of descant, moving, for the most part, in thirds or sixths. The folknving fragment of an example given by Morley will best show the nature of the faburden : Ex. 17. PLAIN-SONO. 31333331 33313331 in. 13 16.] Art Summary. 97 The faburden, when written, was always placed under the plain-song. 14. In an earlier portion of this work (i. 24) we have alluded to the practice by the Belgian composers of employing the plain-song of the Church or the secu- lar melody as the "given subject" on which to build their counterpoint. The first (so far as we know) to break through this established custom was Des Pres, who frequently invented his own subjects, and may be regarded as the first COMPOSER of modern music.* 15. It was not, however, until after the time of Palestrina that the ecclesiastical modes were entirely set aside for the modern major and minor scales. But Palestrina and his contemporaries had learnt to discard the circumscribed plain-song and the frivolous air, and the former in an especial degree gave to Church-music not only dignity but sweetness and expression. 16. The date of the introduction into the Church of music other than the liturgical (by liturgical music is understood the Mass, the setting of the Psalms and Canticles, &c.) is not precisely known. The miracle- plntj, which was the precursor of the Oratorio, was a very ancient institution, originally introduced by the ecclesiastical authorities as a means of popular instruc- tion in sacred doctrine and history, but afterwards cor- rupted by the gradual introduction of absurd and mon- strous traditions respecting our Saviour and his apo- stles, and by the interpolation of ludicrous soliloquies and dialogues. The reader may gain a very fair idea of these miracle-plays, or " mysteries," from the example which Longfellow gives in his well-known poem "The Golden Legend." L'Anima e Corpo (i. 33), produced as a specimen of the reform which St. Philip de JS'eri initiated in the sixteenth century, is little more than a "mystery " play, although it formed the immediate inau- * The term " modern music " is used in contradistinction to that which existed in the ancient or ante-Christian periods. 7 98 History of Music. [HI. is. guration of the oratorio. The stage-directions of Cava- liere, the composer of the music of L'Anima e Corpo, are cited by Dr. Burney as follows : " It is recommended to place the instruments of accompaniment behind the scenes,* which, in this first oratorio, were the following : A double lyre, a harpsichord, a large or double gui- tar, and two flutes. 1. The words should be printed, with the verses correctly arranged, the scenes numbered, and characters of interlocutors specified. 2. Instead of the overture, or symphony, to modern musical drama, a madrigal is recommended, as a full piece, with all the voice parts doubled, and a great number of instruments. 3. When the curtain rises, two youths, who recite the prologue, appear on the stage ; and when they have done, Time, one of the characters in the Mo- rality, comes on, and has the note with which he is to begin given him by the instrumental performers behind the scenes. 4. The Chorus are to have a place allotted them on the stage, part sitting and part stand- ing, in sight of the principal characters ; and when they sing they are to rise and be in motion, with proper gestures. 5. Pleasure, another imaginary character, with two companions, are to have instruments in their hands, on which they are to play while they sing and perform the ritornels.- 6. II Corpo, the Body, when these words are uttered, ' Si die hormia alma mia,' &c., may throw away some of his ornaments, as his gold collar, feather from his hat, &c. 7. The World, and Human Life in particular, are to be gaily and richly dressed ; and, when they are divested of their trappings, to appear very poor and wretched, and at length dead carcases. 8. The symphonies and ritornels may be played by a great number of instruments ; and, if a violin should play the princip d part, it would have a good effect. 9. The performance may be finished with * It is noticeable that "Wagner has reverted to this old practice of concealing the orchestra. in. 16, 17.] Art Summary. 99 or without a dance. If without, the last chorus is to be doubled in all its parts, vocal and instrumental ; but if a dance is preferred, a verse beginning thus : ' Chiostri altissimi, e stcllati,' is to be sung, accompanied sedately and reverentially by the dance. Then shall succeed other grave steps, and figures of the solemn kind. During the ritornels the four principal dancers are to perform a ballet, ' saltato con capriole,' enlivened by capers or entrechats, without singing, and thus, after each stanza, always varying the steps of the dance ; and the four principal dancers may sometimes use the gafiard, sometimes the canary, and sometimes the courant step, which will do very well in the ritornels.* 10. The stanzas of the ballet are to be sung and played by all the performers within and without." This description, which presents to the mind a thing totally foreign to the modern idea of an -oratorio per- formance, is valuable as showing that the original in- tention of the promoters was to establish- a sacred drama, not a lengthy religious cantata, under the title "oratorio." But very few of the oratorios which are popular at the present day are literally dramatic. The Messiah or the Creation could not possibly be adapted to the stage without mutilation. On the other hand Bach's Passion (that of St. Matthew in particular) would seem to approach very nearly to the old idea of the oratorio, a sacred musical drama, with its narrator, and the responsive double choirs. 1 7. It will be seen that the early oratorio was con- stituted of the recitative, the chorus, and the ritornello or instrumental interlude. The recitative, or musica parlante, introduced as a revival of the old Greek form of musical declamation, was employed chiefly as a vehicle for the narrative portions of the sacred play. It was usually sung to the accompaniment of the theorbo (arch-lute) or of the spinnet or harpsichord. Cavaliere in oratorio, and Monteverde in opera, effected some * Ritornello, an interlude or entr' acte. 100 History of Music. [in. 17 improvements upon the original crude recitative, but Carissimi gave it an established form ; and the Arioso sprang out of these coutinued elaborations. The Aria, with its " binary " construction, was a still later development. The following example of recitative is taken from Mr. Leslie's edition of Carissimi's oratorio, Jonah : Ex. 18. RKCITATIVE from Jonah. CARISSIMI. B v ^ - '-- -g m r * f^^f- v * - ? * And there - up - on they cast lots, and be - hold the B=fr-r-=F lot did fall up-on Jo - nah. So all the men who were ^t- Eftirdri&ia S=j ^^ -a - .*' fSk- a tempo moderate. in the ship said un - to him. III. 17.] Art Summary. 101 A short extract from the same oratorio will serve as a fair illustration of the dramatic chorus-music of the seventeenth century : Ex. 19. CHORUS from Jonah. CARISSIMI. So they did take up Jo - nah.and did cast him forth in - to the i r^ , -0- :p j=Vf|5=t iz^=fc^:-p sea, and the sea did then cease from the f u-ry of its rag-ing. -- I i | I , i -0- \ J J 1 T What has been said of the art-development of the oratorio will apply also to the opera. There is indeed but little distinction to be made between " sacred" and " secular " choral music of those days. The following chorus from an opera by Caccini will show this : Ex. 20. CACCINI. s-JS-=i^uJ d-fa :fr ^ 1 3 . -H Q " - z*_ ig_ *J-L*-Ii^z*=*:.i*i^gzz:f' r i f T r r- r f iii i i ' \ .^_J_d!_^_.'.,_^ nS -r- ^iP tz t J> - . - - r v i r 102 History of Music. [in. 17. Until about the middle of the eighteenth century, oratorio took its place as Church music, i. e. it was re- garded as an adjunct to, if not indeed an important feature of, Divine worship. Hence the introduction, by Bach, into his Passion Music, of familiar chorales in which the congregation were allowed to take part. Mendelssohn, who was an ardent admirer of Bach, and was mainly instrumental in reviving the popularity of that great master, himself introduces old chorales in his oratorio, St. Paul, and also in the Lobgesang, which was first performed in the Church of St. Thomas, Leipsic. It was Handel who established the oratorio upon the secular stage, and since his time perform- ances of oratorio have been almost universally confined to the concert-room. Very recently, however, there has been a movement in favour of reinstating this class of music in its original place, and the Passions of Bach, and other oratorios, or lengthy selections from them, are now frequently performed in our cathedrals and larger churches. In design and construction, the development of the oratorio progressed side by side with that of other departments of musical art ; and save in the matter of orchestration, this species of composi- tion is pretty much where Bach left it. It only remains, therefore, to append a list, chronologically arranged as far as possible, of the principal composers of oratorio, to whose names, occurring in the first section of this work, the reader is referred for further information : Name. Principal Works. Cavaliere (1600), iSAnima e Corpo. Carissimi (1580 1673), Jonah ; Jephtha, &c. Schiitz (1585 1672). Passion ; Resurrection, &c. Keiser (1673 1739), Blending and Dying Jesus. J. S. Bach (16851750), Passion (S. Matthew $ S. John). Handel (16851759), Messiah, Israel in Egypt, &c. Leo (1694 1746), ' Death of Abel. Graun (17011759), Der Tod Jesu. Stradella (o. 1750), St. John the Baptist. m. 17, is.] Art Summary. 103 Name. Principal Works. Haydn (1732 1809), Creatirn ; Seasons. Crotch (1775 1847), Palestine; Captivity. Beethoven (1770 1827), Mount of Olives. Spohr(1784 1859), Calvary; Last Judgment, &c. Mendelssohn (18091847), Elijah; St. Paid. Among the composers of oratorio of our own day may be mentioned : Macfarreii (St. John the Baptist, &c.); Costa (Eli; Naaman) ; Benedict (St. Peter); Ouseley (St. Polycarp ; Hagar) ; Sullivan (Prodigal Son ; Light of the World). The exquisite sacred can- tata of the late Sterndale Bennett (TJie Woman of Samaria) may justly be classed with the oratorio. 18. The Mass, a species of composition called forth by the requirements of the Roman liturgy, is of very early date, and may be divided into two classes : the first, Miasa Solemnis, sung at high celebrations of the Holy Eucharist ; the second, Requiem, used at Mas-es for the Dead. The Missa Solemnis generally consists of the following separate movements : Kyrie Eleison, Gloria in Excelsis (usually subdivided into Gloria, Domiue Deus, Quoniam Tu Solus, &c.). Credo in unum Deum (again subdivided into Credo, Et Inearnatus, &c.), Sanctus, Benedidm, Agnus Dei. The Requiem. Mass contains, in addition to the liturgical numbers, the Gloria, however, being usually omitted, the beautiful Latin hymn known as the Dies Irce. It is seldom that the whole of the Dies Irce is included in the Requiem, as the performance of an elaborate setting of every verse would be too wearisome. The verses most commonly selected are Dies Irce, Tuba mirum, Recordare, and Lachrymosa. At first the Mass was sung to an authorized plain-song, which, as the art of counterpoint developed, gradually came to. be accom- panied by other voice-parts, above and below. Then new melodies, many of them being, as we have seen, popular secular tunes of the period, were introduced as subjects upon which the contrapuntist might exercise his ingenuity in constructing canonic imitations, and so- 104 History of Music. [m. 18. called fugues (i. 24). This abuse of the art having been denounced by the Council of Trent, Palestrina at once effected -wonderful reform by means of his noble Masses, of which we have already given some account (i. 29) For a long period Masses were sung without any kind of instrumental accompaniment ; a primitive kind of orchestration was, however, introduced towards the close of the sixteenth century. Since the Reform- ation, English composers have had no opportunity of distinguishing themselves by setting the " Mass." The Communion Office of the English Church is ill-adapted to an elaborated musical treatment. The Kyrie Eleison is only a short response repeated after each Command- ment ; the Benedictus and Agnus Dei, though still used without authority in some churches, are unusual subjects j while the remainder cannot be split up into detached movements. The single-voice setting known as Mer- becke's is an adaptation of a traditional plain-song, with a number of interpolations by Merbecke himself. In Roman Catholic Churches the Mass has always been the principal function ; consequently every known re- source has at all times been employed to give grandeur and solemnity to this portion of the Roman liturgy. The compositions of Mozart, Haydn, Beethoven, Schu- bert, and other modern composers were therefore ar- ranged for soli, chorus, and full orchestra.* The princi- pal composers of this form of work are very numerous, and in the following list we do not attempt to include other than the most notable amongst them : Dufay (13801430). Ockenheim (14301513). Des Pres (14401521). Palestrina (15141594). Lassus (1520 1595). Byrde (15431623). Allegri (15801652). * At St. Peter's, Rome, however, no instrumental accompaniment of any sort is permitted. m. 19, 20.] Art Summary. 105 Scarlatti (16591725). Fux (16601732). Caldara (16781763). Marcello (16801739). Bach (16851750). Leo (1694 174fi). Durante (1693 1755). Feo (16991750). Hasse (16991783). Pergolesi (17101736). Graun (17011759). Haydn (17321809). Webbe (1740181-6). Paesiello (17411816). Naumann (17411816). Martini (17411816). Zingarelli (17521837). Mozart (17561791). Cherubini (17601842). Beethoven (17701827). Hummel (17781837). Weber (17861826). Rossini (17921868). Schubert (17971828). Berlioz (18031869), 19. But while the English School was deprived of so complete a subject from a musical point of view as the Mass, the purified liturgy of the Anglican Church still afforded the musician ample scope for the exhibition of his imagination and skill. There yet re- mained to him the Te Deum, Magnificat, and other Canticles, the Psalms and Hymns, and that other im- portant item, peculiar to the Church of England, the Anthem. 20. The Anthem was always regarded as the principal feature of the English " Cathedral Service," as it could be elaborated at the will of the composer, and was generally of two or more movements. The words of Anthems are, as a rule, taken from Scripture ^ but sometimes portions of the Prayer Book (the Collects for instance) have been used. Verse Anthems are such as contain 106 History of Music. [in. 20. one or more movements assigned to a single voice, or to a duet, trio, or quartet; usually concluding with a chorus. There are many instances, however, of verse Anthems in which the only movements are for solo voices. Full Anthems are those in which the whole choir may take part throughout. Verses are of very frequent occurrence in Anthems and Service-music, as Church composers were naturally desirous of displaying the leading voices in the Cathedral or other Church choirs nnder their charge. Some of these " verses " are very elaborate almost to tediousness ; a fair specimen of this kind of anthem is I was in the Spirit, by Dr. Blow. The " verse " parts in Cathedral music, with the exception of solos, are generally sung without ac- companiment, while the " full " portions, or choruses, are accompanied by an organ-part, sometimes independ- ent, but more usually a mere "doubling" of the voices. Most of the following composers of Anthems have also written Service-music, i. e. settings of the Canticles and Communion Office ; and what we have said about the Anthem applies also to the Service-music of our Cathe- drals.* Names. Anthems. Tye (1500 1560), ^1 mill exalt Thee, &c. Tallis (1523 1585), \Icallandcry, &c. Byrde (15431623), \Son- down Thine ear. Gibbons (1583 1625), \Hosanna to the Son of David, &c. Child (1608 1696), ^Praise the Lord, my Soul. Blow (1648 1708), \I befold, and lo, &c. * The student is recommended to procure as many as be can of the Anthems here enumerated; and if he study thun in their chronological order he will gain a better insight than any verbal description will give him, into the development of form and style, as well as the individual characteristics of each composer. t Anthems thus marked have been published (or republished) within a recent date, and are easily procurable. in. 20, 21.] Art Summary. 107 Names. Anthems. Wise (d. 1687), Prepare ye the may. Purcell (16581695), ^0 give thanks. Clark (d. 1707), f I mill love Thee. Aldrich (16471710), \O Praise the Lord. Croft (16771727), \God is gone up, &c. Greene (1698 1755), \O Clip your hands. Kent (1700 1736), '[Hear my prayer. Handel (1685 1759), Chandos Anthems. Wei don (1708 1736), ^Hear my crying. Boyce (17101779), ^By the waters of Babylon. Travers (d. 1758), ^Ascribe unto the Lord. Nares (1715 1783), ^Blessed is he that considereth. Battishill (1738 1801), \Call to Remembrance. Arnold (1739 1802), f Who is this that cometh. S. Wesley (17661837), \Tkou, God, art praised. Crotch (1775 1847), \Ho>v dear are TJiy counsels. Attvvood (17671838), \Cotne, Holy Ghost. Clarke-Whitfeld, ^Behold, how good and joyful. Mendelssohn (18091847), t Judge me, God. Walmisley, ^Father of Heaven. SterndaleBennett(1816 1875), f0 that I knew. S. S. Wesley (d. 1876), \The Wilderness. Dykes (d. 1876), t These are they. Among the most prominent writers of Anthems and Service-music in the present day are, Goss, E. J. Hop- kins, Macfarren, Ouseley, Elvey, Sullivan, Stainer, Stewart, Steggall, Turle, Barnby, Bridge, Calkin, Gar- rett, Smart, Thome, and Tours. Some modern Anthems have heen scored for full orchestra, and are more dra- matic and descriptive in style than those of the older writers. 21. Many pages might he taken up with the history of the Hymn-tune, or Chorale, a species of composition which, because it is easily learned by ear, becomes the special property of the people, and like an heirloom, is handed from generation to generation. Many "Gre- gorian " hymn-tunes are in use at the present day, and it is needless to say that they are of the most ancient date ; hut their presence in the hymnals of our day is 108 History of Music. [m. 21. due, not to their having been treasured up by the masses, but to the zeal of a few musical antiquarians. Of these about the best are Urbs beata, Jesu dtdcis rnemoria, and Corde natus, named respectively after the first words of the Latin hymns to which they were com- posed. Ex. 17 (par. 13) will show the commencement of an ancient tune very familiar to those accustomed to the use of a certain Church hymnal.* The scales in which these old melodies are written are ill-suited to the modern process of harmonization, and the vocal harmonies added to many of these " Gregorian " tunes are necessarily forced and disconnected, leaving no im- pression of a distinct tonality they are, in short, without beginning and without end. For many of the old tunes which are really and truly the heritage of the English and German nations we are indebted to the great religious movement of the sixteenth century under Luther, who, with the aid of "Walther and Gou- dimel, published the first collection of chorales to words in the vernacular (1524). The two chorales, Eirf feste burg ist unser Gott (a strong tower is our God), and Great God, what do I see and hear, are both ascribed to Luther, but it is doubtful whether he really com- posed them, though he may have arranged or harmon- ized them for Wallher's book, probably with some help from Goudimel or Clemens non Papa. " The Old Hundredth " has been variously ascribed to Luther, to Goudimel, and to Guillaume Franc ; all that is posi- tively known concerning this immortal tune is that it was published about the year 1550. It is by no means improbable, however, that it had actual existence, either " orally " or in manuscript, even before that date. Many of these ancient hymn-tunes were doubtless quotations or adaptations from larger works. Tallis's Canon, well- known in our time in connection with the Evening Hymn, belongs to this class : * Hymns Ancient and Modern. The canon, " at the octave below," is between the treble and tenor voices, and these parts are given in larger notes for the s;ike of distinctness. The other two parts serve to complete the harmony. Moreover, if the experiment be tried, it will be found that the Old Hundredth can be made, with only three alterations (marked *), to form a crude kind of " canon, two in one at the octave below," at the half-bar distant : Ex. 22 ff T ' 1 T rn It will also be observed that this " canon " is infinite 110 History of Music. [HI. ZL. or perpetual, on examining the two points J J. The alterations (* and **) might easily be accounted for. That such a combination, crude as it is, will be regarded in the light of a mere coincidence, we can hardly anti- cipate. The fact that many of the old masters were accustomed to take fragments of chorales as subjects for fugal writing, would seem to prove that these ancient melodies were often originally composed with a view to canonic imitation, more or less strict, in the accom- panying voices. We might multiply instances, but the following fragments will suffice for our present purpose : Ex. 23. (From the Wiirtemberger Gesangbuch15S3[?].) (a) at 8ve below. (7) at 8ve above. ^, .^ >& P P- -P- -P- 9 p: f f in. 21, 22.] Art Summary. Ill KOLNER OESANQBUCH. (S) at 4th below. Our modern hymn-tunes are in too many cases charac- terized by a straining after vivid effects in harmony, to the exclusion of the flowing counterpoint which gives an unmistakable grace and dignity to the old chorale. It is unnecessary to attempt to catalogue the names of composers of hymn-tunes ; the best amongst our English writers will be found amongst the com- posers of anthems mentioned in the preceding para- graph. 22. We now pass into the dominion of secular music. After the "folk-songs" of the troubadours, which had a long and uncontested popularity for many ages, came the Madrigal, a kind of part-song, about the pre- cise origin of which there has been a great deal of useless speculation. The . term " madrigal " has been variously accounted for, some opining that it comes from madre di gala, or " mother of the festival " in allusion to the Virgin Mary as patron of the month of May, with its olden pastoral festivities ; others that the name is derived from that of the Spanish town, Madri- gal, where one, Don Jorge, an early writer of " madri- gal" poetry, lived, and whence, after the fashion of those days, he derived his surname, " de Madrigal." Other theories have been advanced, but they are not even worth mentioning ; the most feasible is that which assigns the term to the above prolific and popular writer of madrigal poetry ; for it has been in all ages the custom to associate a thing with the name of a noted producer. The earliest form of madrigal, but for the secular words generally of a pastoral, or an amorous character could hardly be distinguished from the sacred motett, or anthem. There is little doubt, moreover, that for a long period the madrigal was written for voices only it was a chorus, in fact, with- 112 History of Music. [m. 22. out instrumental accompaniment. The madrigal com- posers of the Elizabethan era greatly developed and extended this form of composition, freely employing canonic imitation, and other contrapuntal devices. The ancient " Ballets " and " Fa las " were also a species of madrigal, hut were usually of a more light and trifling kind, and bore little resemblance in form to the mad- rigal proper. Some historians have assigned the intro- duction of the madrigal to Adrian "Willaert, chapel- master of St. Mark, Venice, but this is uncertain ; at all events it is known that his successor at St. Mark's, Cj'prian de Eore, devoted himself to this form of composition, and gained a high reputation for it. The latter part of the sixteenth century was the golden age of the madrigal, particularly in England, under the reign of Elizabeth, who fostered music no less than the other liberal arts. The Triumphs of Oriana, dedicated to Queen Elizabeth, is the finest collection of madrigals extant (i. 27). The best of these are popular even in the present day. Luca Marenzio, a friend of Dowland, was one of the most accomplished among the many Italian madrigalists of the sixteenth century. The madrigal, Dissi a Tamata, quoted in extenso by both Hawkins and Crotch, opens as follows : MAREKZIO. -- ~p i . p r> III. 22.] Art Summary. 113 The above is a compression of the vocal score ; the madrigal pure was not accompanied as a rule, though indeed there are many madrigals extant with basso continuo, or bass figured for lute or harpsichord. The modern " madrigal " is hardly distinguishable f rom the " part-song ; " i. e. it contains a continuous melody, and is generally provided with a pianoforte accompaniment. The following is a sufficiently comprehensive list of the chief madrigal cnmposers, and the madrigals men- tioned are those of especial note at the present day : Name. Willaert [?] (14901563), Festa (d. 1545), De Rore (c. 1580). Palestrina (15141594). II. Edwardes (15201566), Marenzio (1550 1594), Byrde (15431623). Wilbye (15601612), Dowland (15621626), Morley (15631604), Benet (15G5 1605), Gibbons (15831626), Madrigal. Quando rltrovo (Down in a floivery vale). In going to my lonely bed. iJisxi a Famata. While the bright sttn. Flora gave me fairest flowers. Awake, sweet love. My bunny lass. Ye restless thoughts. Oh tliat the learned poet*. 8 114 History of Mmic. [in. 22, 23. After Gibbons the madrigal deteriorated, and though T. Linley, W. Horsley, W. Callcott, and R. L. Pearsall have contributed some excellent models, this species of composition may be regarded as belonging to the past. 23. The Glee was an offshoot, or, more correctly, a later development of the madrigal. While the latter consisted of only one movement, the glee had two, three, and four. The glee was also written for solo voices in each part, and therefore was capable of much greater style and finish than the madrigal, which was designed for the chorus. In the present day the glee is more popular than its precursor, doubtless because the style of the former is in greater accordance with the requirements of modern art. The glee is now frequently sung by modern choral societies, by which means, although some of these bodies are highly trained and capable of putting great expression into the music they sing, the real charm of the glee is lost. At one time Rounds and Catches were the most popular " domestic music " in vogue, and many of these catches were, in fact, glees in which a punning expression was given to the words. To this day glees are divided into two kinds the Ferions and the cheerful though the latter does not necessarily imply a playing upon words. The father of the English glee was Thomas Brewer, whose Turn Amaryllis is still a favourite at the glee-clubs. The writers of glees have been so numerous that we cannot give more than the leading glee-composers in the following list : Name. Glees. T. Brewer (16091676), Turn Amaryllis. T. Arne (1710 1778). Which isthe properest day, v Ex. 26. (Apollo and, Orfeo ascend to heaven, singing.) MONTEVERDE. r-M -i-a-i-iT^-H^-F-*-"^- 1 -^-*-^ -*- SSI^SF =t^= * Even the Chorale has been introduced, when suited to the scene or occasion. ^ifD*?:*.. ,-.*., ip7^ -r^ ,g^7^rt it n n j m , *-4*4. . r 1 f L Can - - r "\' i I J , b _^ e _- e . d'al Cie-lo. After Monteverde, the next great light of the Italian opera was A. Scarlatti, known as the founder of the so-called Neapolitan School. His operas, Carlo Re d'Almagna, II Giro, and others, were an immense advance upon their predecessors, and obtained for him the first place among the opera-composers of his day. His style would now be considered stilted and con- ventional, but they have decided form, and mark an epoch in the development of the aria. Lotti and Sacchini were the immediate successors of Scarlatti, 118 History of Music. [in. 25. while Piccini was, as we know, the favoured champion of the Italian school in France. Gluck, Hasse, Mozart, and other German composers contributed largely, if not mainly, to Italian opera ; . while Handel, German as he was by nationality, was essentially Italian in opera. Gluck in his later operas (i. 45, 46), such as Orfeo and Alceste, was the first to break from the estab- lished lines, and the Zauberflote, of Mozart is generally looked upon as the pioneer of a distinct German school of musical dranta. The little-known Euryanthe of Weber is still more decidedly " German," but Richard "Wagner has gone beyond all others in the noted "Tetralogy" of 1876. Wagner has initiated a com- plete revolution in opera, discarding the set airs, and substituting for them a modernized musica parlante, or recitative. He declines to write melodies for the purposes of more vocal display. The old traditions as to the "related keys" are cast aside without com- punction. In short he makes music entirely subservient to the dramatic element. With him, the libretto is no longer a .species of lay figure upon which to hang any kind of musical drapery or embroidery that the composer may fancy or the singer desire. Wagner composes his own libretti, and this fact illustrates the fundamental principle on which he works, and of which he is so strenuous an advocate. This principle is, that the music, the poetry, and the mise-en-scene of an opera should each aid, not over-weight the other, and thus unite to produce the desired dramatic effect. The old opera may be regarded, on the. other hand, as a collection of vocal and instrumental compositions or numbers, each complete in itself as to form, and strung together by the story of the libretto. In fac t, Wagner's dramatic music is so far removed from that which for ages has been known as " opeia," that it has been difficult for musicians or the public to connect the former with the latter. They therefore say " this is not opera," and some few add " nor even music." It is, in. 25.] Art Summary. 119 however, to be remembered that no musician has ever ventured upon a new path without bringing upon him- self and his work the doubt, suspicion, or contempt of the majority of his contemporaries, who are naturally satisfied with what their predecessors and themselves have done. In such cases it is posterity which assigns to a musician or thinker (a composer must be both) his rightful place in the realm of art. If we view the subject from Wagner's new standpoint, all previous opera can only be regarded as of the Italian lype, whether produced by Italian. German, French, or English composers. Thus, the opeias of Purcell, though the words are Eng ish, were avowedly con- structed upon Italian models, and the same may be said of the works of eveiy English composer of opera, from Lock to Balf<-. In short, the success of the English composir has been in proportion to his power of assimilation to the Italian style. To the French composers, from Canibert to Gounod, though many splendid works have been produced, we may apply the same terms. Germany, however, may claim the honour of effecting most of the improvements which are now universally accepted as essentials. Gluck's Orfeo, Mozart's Zauberjiote, Weber's Euryanthe, Wagner's Lohengrin, are so many landmarks in the development of opera; and such a view is not incon- sistent with the conviction that the works of Purcell or Handel in the past, and of Verdi or Gounod in the present are important contributions to musical art. The following are the most celebrated opera-composers of every school, and further information respecting each may be gained on reference (by means of the General Index) to the name wherever it occurs in our first section : frame. Principal Works. Peri (c. 1600). Lafne. Caccini (r. 1600), Eur'ulice* * Jointly with Peri. 120 History of Music. [HI. 25. Name. Monteverde (15661650), Schiitz (15851672), Cambert (c. 1659), Lock (16201677), Lully (16331687), Henry Purcell (16581695), Lotti (16601740), A. Scarlatti (16591725), Keiser (16731739), Rameau (16831764), Handel (16851759), Leo (1694 1745), Basse (16991783), Clayton (c. 1700), Graun (17011759), Pergolesi (1710 1736), Arne( 1710 1778), Boyce (17101779), D'Auvergne (1713 1797), Gluck (1714 1787), Benda (17221795), J. A. Hiller (17281804), Piccini( 1728 1800), Monsigny (17291817), Arnold (1739 1802), Gretry (17411813), D'Alayrac (17531809), Mozart (1756 1791), Cherubini (17601842), Storace (17631796), Mehul (17631817), Hiinmel (17651814), Berton (17661844). Beethoven (17701827), Catel (1773 1830), Boieldieu (1775 1834), Isouard (17771818), Principal Works. Orfeo, Arianna, &c. Daphne. La Pastorale. Psyche* Tragedies Lyriqves. Dido and jEneas, King Arthur, &c. Various. Carlo He d" Almagna. More thfin 100 operas. Castor and Pollux. Almira, JUnaldo, &c. Olympiade. Various. Arsinoe, Rosamund. Various. Various. 23 Operas (Artazerxes, &c.). The Cliaplet. Les Troqiieiirs. Orfeo, Alceste, Armide, &c. Ariadne auf Scuros, Jfedea. Lieaersplele. Roland, &c. Rose ft Colas, Le Deserteur. 40 English Operas. Zemire et Azor, &c. Les Deux Saroyards. Don Giovanni, Figaro, Zavber- fiote, &c. Les Deux Jonrnees. Medea, &c. 14 English Operas. Joseph, Euphrosyne. Funclion. Ponce de Leon, &c. Fidelio (Leonora). Se/itiramis. La, Dame Blanche. Cendrillon. * The telebrated "Macbeth Music" has recently been claimed for Purcell. III. 25, 26.] Art Summary. 121 Name. Auber (17821871), Sir H. Bishop (17821855), Spohr (1784 1859), Spontini (17841851), Weber (17861826), Herold (17911833), Rossini (17921868), Meyerbeer (17941864), Schubert (1797 1828), Donizetti (17971868), Halevy (17991862), Bellini (18021835), Berlioz (18031869), Sir J. Benedict (b. 1804), Balfe (18081870), Mendelssohn (18091847), Schumann (1810 1856), Flotow (b. 1811), Wagner (b. 1813), Wallace (18141865), Verdi (b. 1814), Gounod (b. 1818), Ambroise Thomas Offenbach Principal Works. Fi-a Diavolo, Masaniello. Miller and his men, &c. Faust, Jessonda. La Vest ale. Der Fi-eischiitz, Preciosa, Euryanthe. Zampa. Gvglielmo Tell, Semiramide, &C. Les Huguenots, L'Africaine. Rosamimde (incidental music). Lucrezia Borgia, Lucia, &c. La Juive, Les Mousqiietaires. Norma, La Sonnambula. Benventtto Cellini. Gipsy's Warning, Lily of Kil- larney. Bohemian Girl, Talisman. Weddinr/ of Camacho, &c. Genevi'eve. Marta. Tannhduser, Lohengrin, Nibe- lungen. Maritana, Lurline. 11 Trovatore, Rlgoletto, Alda. Faust, Romeo et Juliet. Mignon, Hamlet. Orphee aux Enfers. &c. 26. The following brief chronological summary of the rise and progress of Opera will further assist the student : Society of Literati established in Florence for the purpose of reviewing "the auctent Greek art of musical and dramatic declamation" (inusica parlante) First opera, Dafne, by Peri, libretto by Rinuceini ... Euridice, by Peri and Caccini ... Monteverde gives a more pronounced form to the Opera, and produces Orfeo, &c. Introduction of the Opera into Germany Schiitz' Daphne ... ... ... (c.) 1580 1594 1600 (c.) 1650 1627 122 History of Music. [in. 26. Opera introduced at Venice ... ... ... 1637 Italian Opera introduced into France under Mazarin 1645 Opera introduced at Naples ... ... ... 1647 First French Opera, La Pastorale, by Cambert ... 1659 Improvement of the Recitative, by Carissimi, Inven- tion of Arioso ... ... ... ... (c-.) 1660 [Orchestra of the period, " small French violin," tenor and bass viols, harpsichord, theorbo, flute a bee, trumpets, trombones, &c.] Opera introduced at Rome ... ... ... 1671 First English Opera, Psyche, by Lock ... ... 1673 Lully, the supposed originator of the overture, which he composed in two movements, Adagio and Allegro ... ... ... ... (c.) 1680 Purcell composes Tlie Tempest, and other English Operas ... ... ... ... 1690 A. Scarlatti develops the Aria, giving it what is now known as the "ancient binary " form ... (c.) 1700 Handel's first Opera, Almira, at Hamburg ... 1705 Italian Opera introduced into England ; performance of Arsinoe (with English words, however,) at Drury Lane ... ... ... ... 1706 Revival of Italian Opera in England Handel's Radamistiis produced ... ... ... 1720 Handel's new Opera Company started ... ... 1729 Gluck's first Opera, Artaxerxes, produced at Milan 1741 Gluck visits England ; writes operas for the Hay- market Opera House ... ... ... 1745 Hasse writes for the German stage, but on Italian models ... ... ... ... (c.} 1750 Les Uoi/ffons appear in France ... ... 1752 Production of Gluck's Orfeo at Vienna ... ... 1764 Gluck goes to Paris ... ... ... ... 1773 The "Gluckist and Piccinist" factions in Paris ... 1776 Mozart's Jdomeneo produced at Munich ... ... 1781 Metastasio, the celebrated poet and Opera librettist, dies ... ... ... ... ... 1782 Mozart's Don Giovanni first performed ... ... 1787 Mozart's Zauberflote first performed at Vienna ... 1791 Arne, Arnold, Storace, and others produce a number of English Operas ... ... 17501800 Cherubini's Les Deux Joumees produced ... 1800 Beethoven's Leonora produced at Vienna ... 1805 Leonora reproduced as Fidelia, with new overture 1814 in. 26, 27.] Art Summary. 123 First performance of Spohr's Faust, at Prague ... 1816 Weber's Der Freischiitz and Preciosa produced ... 1820 ["Weber is supposed to have set the fashion of incorpor- ating principal airs of the opera in the overture.] Meyerbeer's Lcs Huguenots produced ... ... 1836 Wagner's Nibelungen (Tetralogy) produced at a public festival in Bayreuth, Germany ... 1876 27. We have hitherto restricted our attention to the development of vocal music, accompanied or unaccom- panied. We now turn to the consideration of purely Instrumental Music, a very wide branch of our subject, as it ranges from the pianoforte morceau to the elabor- ated symphony from the " solo instrument " to the " full orchestra." The independent employment of instrumental music dates from a very early period. The Egyptian monuments show that bands of harps and other instruments existed in almost pie-historic times ; certainly we can form no idea of the style or effect of the concerted music prodriced by these ancient minstrels. In the latter days of the old Grecian empire there sprang up a race of flute-players, but we are equally ignorant as to the nature of their perform- ances. In the earlier ages of the Christian era instru- ments were generally used as an accompaniment to the voice ; in fact the history of modern instrumental music as a distinct art, and as we now understand it, does not commence until about the sixteenth century. It is true that Royalty had its private bands as well as its vocalists, at a much earlier date, but if we except the startling " pibroch " of the Scottish bagpipes, the precise nature of the music performed is practically lost to us. Probably the repertoire of these old bands such as the band of weygldes or hautboys employed by Edward III. of England consisted only of dance-tunes and the well-worn airs of popular songs. Nevertheless these ancient dance-tunes may be regarded as supplying the germs of some of the most elaborated forms of modem composition. The coranto, the gavotte, the 124 History of Music. fin. 27. gtgue, the saralande, the allemande, the gallia.rd, were all ancient dances, afterwards made " classical " by the studies of Corelli, Bach, Purcell, and other illustrious composers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The saites-des-pieces of these writers consisted of sets of three, four, or even a greater number of movements modelled upon these old dance-forms, and grouped to- gether with a due regard to contrast bet wee u the pace or measure of each kind of dance. The following short extracts, taken from various sources,* will give the reader some idea of the principal dance-forms utilized in these suites : Ex. 26. CORAHTO. (Lively.) 1 WHITELOCKE. Ex. 27. ALLEMAJTDK. (Stow.) D0MONT. * "We should make special acknowledgment of the following : Hawkins' History of Music ; Stainer and Barrett's Dictionary of Musical Terms. III. 27.] Art Summary. 125 $==== Ex.28. GAVOTTE. From the suite (for Orchestra) in D. 3. S. BACH. Allegro, f m v N*- -^. - i=C=f p_ZL_~. !=K : 1 . T I t-h ^Tp? a ^^ iv *, ^ - J--H FH H i rf^ + ^^+"0-m + &C. -\ T- rr i r T E^Efe^^ - ^ ^ Ex. 29. GALLIARU. (Lively.) FRESCOBALDI. 126 History of Music. Ex. 30. GIGUE or JIG. (Lively.) -P- [lll. 27. ECCLES. BirHr-f 2 : ff 3 ; r^f- - r p_4-_4: n tt 3 1 4 I 3c a -' I fs '- 1^ j-- I Ex. 31. SARABANDE. (Slow and stately.) PDBCELL. r i b Other dances were the Bourree, Carillon, CJiaconne, Cotillon, Minuet, Passepied (a variety of the minuet), Polacca, Pavaine, Passecaille, Musette, Tarentelle, Hornpipe (a species of gigue), Rigadoon, &c. Most of these dances were in use in the times of Elizabeth and Louis XIV., Avhile the minuet and the gavotte remained fashionable at Court for a long time afterwards. The suites were written principally for the harpsichord, but in. 27 29.] Art Summary. 127 also for strings, and for the organ. Many suites were arranged for violins and harpsichord, with a basso continue, or figured bass for the latter. Among the most distinguished writers of suites are C^relli, Bach, Purcell, Handel, Couperin, Kiihnau, Domenico Scarlatti, Alberti, &c. 28. Lutes and viols (of which more hereafter) were long employed only as accompaniments to the voice. Hawkins writes : " Concerning compositions of many parts adapted to viols, of which there are many, it is to be observed, that when the practice of singing mad- rigals began to decline, and gentlemen and others began to excel in their performance on the viol, the musicians of the time conceived the thought of substituting instrumental music in the place of vocal ; and for this purpose some of the most excellent masters of that instrument, namely Dowland, the younger Ferabosco, Coperario, Jenkins, Dr. Wilson, and many others, betook themselves to the framing compositions called Fantazias, which were generally in six paits, answering to the number of viols in a set or chest, .... and abounded in fugues, little responsive passages, and all those other elegancies observable in the structure and contrivance of the madrigal." As we have seen, viols were afterwards employed in suites-des-pieces. 29. It is to the suite that we owe the Sonata, justly regarded as one of the highest forms of composition. The primitive sonata, however, is scarcely to be identi- tied with the class of composition now bearing that name. Those of Frescobaldi and others of this time are mostly single movements, and are sometimes called Canzone. In Purcell's time the sonata generally con- sisted of three or more movements ; the celebrated Golden Sonata, for two violins and a figured bass (by Purcell), is in five movements Largo, Adagio, Canzona* Allegro, Grave, and Allegro, all (except the fourth * The term Canzona is to be noted here. 128 History of Music. [in. 29. movement, which is in the relative minor) being in the key of F. The Sonata di Chiesa, belonging to about the same period, consisted, as the name implies (Church Sonata), of slow and solemn movements, mostly adapted to the organ, while the secular and more lively com- position was denominated Sonata di Camera (Chamber Sonata}. The movements usual in the modern Sonata are, 1. The Allegro. This is the most important of all as to its form, which is of the kind commonly called Sonata, or more correctly, Binary ; i. e. it consists of two subjects or themes, the first in the tonic, the second in the dominant, or relative major if the first theme be in a minor key, and" the development and recurrence of these two themes are to a great extent guided by established rules, though much is left to the individual skill and style of the composer. The modern binary form was developed by Haydn ; after him came Mozart ; while Beethoven perfected it in his well-known sonatas and symphonies. 2. The Andante or Adagio. This movement, usually with one principal theme, cantabile, is generally in a related key other than that of the dominant ; e. g. if the first movement be written in the key of C, the Andante may be in F. 3. The Minuet or Scherzo. The latter, a more vigorous movement than the Minuet, was introduced by Beet- hoven. 4. Allegro or Presto. This is written in the original key (the same as that of the first movement) and is generally of a freer character the Rondo form, consisting of only one principal theme of somewhat frequent recurrence. But the forms of these after- movements are not so essential to the sonata as that of the first. In some compositions the second and last movements will be found to be written in strict binary form ; while in others even the first movement will be found wanting in the essentials of the " sonata " proper. Thus, the first movement of Beethoven's popular " Sonata in A flat " (Op. 26) is nothing more than an " air with variations " while the sonatas of Schubert are in. 29.] Art Summary. 129 particularly erratic as to form . Sonatas have been written for the violin, the organ, the harpsichord or pianoforte, and for other instruments ; the following are the names of the principal composers who have written for the harpsichord, and later on for the pianoforte : Suites and {Early) Sonatas for Harpsichord. Graziani (16091672). Cesti( 1624 1675). Lully (16341687). Biber (16481698). Corelli (16531713). Purcell (16581695). A. Scarlatti (16591725). Kiihnau( 1667 1722). Buouoncini (1672 1750). Albinoni (16741745). Mattheson (1681 1722). D. Scarlatti (16831757). Durante (16841755). J. S. Bach (16851750). Handel (16851750). Alberti (17051745). Boyce (1710 1779). W. F. Bach (17101784). C. P. E. Bach (17111788). Schobert (c. 1750). Modern Sonatas for the Pianoforte. Haydn (17321809). dementi (17521832). Mozart (1756 1791). Pleyel (17571831). Dussek (17611812). Steibelt (17641823). Beethoven 17701827). Cramer (17711858). Hummel (17781837). Field (17821837). Ferd. Ries (17841838). Kalkbrenner (17841849). 9 180 History of Music. [in. 29, 30. Modern Sonatas for the Pianoforte, Onslow (17841853). Weber (17861826). Czerny (17941868). Moscheles (17941870). Schubert (17971828). Schumann (18101856). Mendelssohn (18091847). Chopin (18101849). Henselt (b. 1814). Sterndale Bennett (18161875). It should be added that the above composers were more or less distinguished as performers on the harp- sichord or pianoforte. 30. The Sonata di Camera has already been men- tioned; the class "Chamber Music " (Miisica di Camera) includes many varieties of composition all music, in fact, which is capable of performance by a few persons. Songs, glees, pianoforte solos or duets, and other instrumental solos with or without pianoforte accom- paniment, would properly come within the category. But the term " Chamber Music " is now commonly used to indicate works written for two or more instru- mental performers, of whom there should be only one to each part or instrument. Stringed, wood, and even brass instruments of a not too noisy character, have been employed in this species of music. Each per- former being a soloist, especial care is taken with each part, so that the skill of the player and the character- istic qualities of his instrument may be suitably displayed. The earliest instrumental chamber music of which anything certain is known was that composed for the " sets of viols," and to which we alluded in par. 27. The "fantasias" of Powland, Jenkins, and others of that date were gem-rally written in six parts, for the six instruments comprising a " chest of viols." The modern compositions of this class, from the duet to the octet, are usually written in the " sonata " form. in. 30, 31.] Art Summary. 131 described above, and may be familiarly described as sonatas for several instruments in concert, with this distinction, that each part is an individual voice ; not a mere contributary to complete harmony. Sammartini (1700 1775), Haydn, Boccherini, Mozart, Viotti, Pleyel, Shield (17541829), Gretry, Cherubini, Dussek, B. Romberg, Beethoven, Eeicha, Georges Onslow, Hummel, Neukomm, Spohr, Ferdinand Eies, Weber, Fesca, Schneider, Schubert, Mayseder, Haupt- rnann, Molique, Reissiger, Mendelssohn, Schumann, Bennett, are among the most distinguished composers of chamber-music of the approved type. 31. The history of the Concerto may almost.be said to run side by side with that of the Mimca di camera, and may be regarded as forming the link between the latter and the purely orchestral symphony. The modern concerto is a Composition for one principal instrument and the full orchestra, but the orchestra, although it cannot be regarded in the light of a mere accompaniment, is entirely subservient to the solo instrument, only coming in fortissimo when the soloist is in rest.* The most usual concertos are those for the pianoforte, or the violin ; but compositions of this kind have been written for the organ (by Handel, &c.), and for almost every orchestral instrument of import- ance such as the flute (by Kiihlau), the clarinet (by Weber), and the violoncello (by B. Eomberg). The musical form of the earlier concertos by Corelli and others prior to, or contemporary with, Bach, was very similar to that of the " sonata " of the same period ; the present form is like that of the symphony, except that the concerto has fewer movements. The minuet is seldom, if ever, introduced in the modern concerto. We append a list of the principal composers of concertos. * There are, of course, occasional exceptions to this rule, especially when the organ, or the pianoforte, is the solo instru- ment. 132 History of Musk. [m. si, 32. For the violin: Corelli, Tartini (1692 1770), Nar- clini, Lolli (17301802), Viotti (17531824), Baillot (17711842), Beethoven, Paganini (17841840), Spolir, DeBeriot (18021870), Mendelssohn, &c. For the pianoforte (or harpsichord} : J. S. Bach, Handel. Hasse, Sammartini, Friedemann Bach, C. P. E. Bach, J. 0. Bach (the foregoing all for the harpsichord), Haydn, Boccherini, Gietry, Dittersdorf, Nftumaon, dementi, Mozart, Pleyel, Dussek, Steibelt, Cramer, Beethoven, Weber, and others whose names have been mentioned as composers of pianoforte sonatas. 32. The term Symphony has been, and is still, so variously applied as to cause some confusion to young students. The introduction of a few bars usually written in songs is generally so called, while Handel and other composers of that time have inserted in their oratorios or cantatas short inteiinezze for the orchestra under the same name.* But the symphony proper, in the sense in which it is mentioned throughout this work, is a lengthy and highly elaborated composition for the full orchestra. The construction of the symphony is very similar to that of the pianoforte- sonata, both as regards the employment of the "binary " form and the number and style of the contrasting movements ; the only difference being if difference it can be called that the movements are more extended than in the ordinary sonata. The symphony is the highest form of orchestral work, and any number of instruments of the same and of various kinds may be employed, while solos for any players can be freely introduced. Beethoven has added voices to one of his symphonies the ninth, commonly called the Choral Symphony. We have already said that any kind of instrument may be employed in the symphony ; but the following may be regarded as a fair specimen of the usual score : * e. g. the Pastoral Symphony in the Messiah, in. 32.] Art Summary. 133 1. Flutes, generally two parts written. 2. Hautboys, generally two 3. Clarionets, generally two 4. Bassoons, generally two 5. Horns, tno to four 6. Trumpets, generally two 1. Trombones, tivo or three 8. Kettle Drums, generally two, tuned in 4"" or 5 th '. 9. First Violins, several instruments to one part. 10. Second Violins, ,, 11. Violas (or Tenors) ., 12. Violoncelli, ,, 13. Double Basses, Boccherini was one of the first to write symphonies in correct form, but Haydn is really the founder of the symphonic form as we have it to-day. Mozart elabor- ated it, Beethoven perfected it. Although many since Beethoven have produced symphonies, some of them really fine works, it cannot be said that any advance either in form or orchestral effect has been made within the last 50 years. Some of the later writers have written a species of shortened symphony, called the concert-overture ; this is of about the same length as the opera-overture, but more strict as to f<>rm. Over- tures to well-known operas have always been popular in the concert-room, and the concert-overture is a result of this popularity. Schumann, Mendelssohn, and Bennett ; Brahms, and many other Jiving com- posers, have written this class of orchestral work, which is more modern than the symphony. The following list includes as many writers of symphonies as the student need remember : Hasse (1699 1783). Sammartini (1700 1775). Haydn (1732 1809), London Symphonies, Toy Symphonies, &c., 118 in all. Gossec (1734 * 1829), Symphonic en Re (D). * Schliiter erroneously gives the year 1773. Gossec died in his ninety-sixth year. 134 History of Music. fra. 3& 34. Boccherini (17401806). Naumann (17411801). Gretiy (1741 1813). dementi (17521832). Mozart (1756 1791), Jupiter Symphony, aud many others. Pleyel (1757 1831), 29 symphonies. A. Romberg (17691821). Beethoven (1770 -1827), nine symphonies (Pastorale, Eroica, Choral. &c.). Reicha (17701836). Neukomm (1778 1858). Onslow (17841852). Spohr (17841859), Die Weihe tier Tone (TJte Power of Sound), &c. Moscheles (1794 1870). Schubert (17971828), Symphony in C, &c. Berlioz (18031869), Romeo et Juliette, &c. Mendelssohn (1809 1847), Scotch, lief urination, and other symphonies. Schumann (1810 1856), Symi)honies in C, B flat, &c. Liszt (b. 1811), Faust Symphony, Tasso, &c. Bennett (1816 1875), Symphony in C minor, &c. Niels Gade (*. 1817). Amongst other symphonists now living may be mentioned J. Eaff, Brahms, Joachim, Rubinstein, Sullivan, Prout, and Silas. 33. Having enumerated the principal forms of in- strumental music, it now behoves us to give some account of the ancient and modern musical instruments ; we shall, however, confine our attention to those of especial note. Luscinius, in his Musurgia (1536), enters into many particulars concerning obsolete instru- ments, of some of which he supplies excellent wood-cuts : many of th^se are included in Hawkins' History of Music, and to this work we must refer those of our readers who are curious upon the subject. The more interesting among them shall be alluded to in the course of the present section. 34. The precise origin of the Lyre (\vpci), one of the most ancient of musical instruments, is wrapped in in. 34, 35.] Art Summary. 135 obscurity, unless its invention is to be assigned to Jubal, ''the father of all that handle the 'harp' and the organ." The lyre is undoubtedly of Asiatic origin, was imported into Egypt, and thence into Greece. It is a stringed instrument, of a size to be held by one hand against the shoulder, while the other hand pulls or " plucks " the strings. It has no neck or frets, consequently the pitch of the strings cannot be altered in playing, as with the " kithara " or guitar genus, to which we shall refer by and bye. The lyre may in fact be regarded as the prototype of the harp, and secondarily of the harpsichord from which last we immediately derive the pianoforte. Into the old traditions of the Greeks, who attribute the invention of the lyre to Mercury, we shall not enter. Originally the Greek lyre had but four strings ; these were in- creased by Terpander to seven ; while later musicians extended the number to eight, ten, fifteen, and, lastly, even to sixteen strings. These strings were attuned to the several Greek modes, and were plucked with the fingers,* as an accompaniment to the voice. 35. The Harp, which stands next in relation to the lyre, is one of the most ancient arid universal of stringed instruments, and has generally possessed a greater number of strings and consequently a larger compass than the lyre. ' The shape of the modern harp must be familiar to every reader, and its triangular form is almost identical with that of the Egyptian and Assyrian hnrps as depicted on the ancient monuments. The further we go back, however, we shall find these in- stalments more and more bow-like in shape ; so that there is good reason to believe that the first idea of the harp was derived from the bow of the archer, the * Instead of the fingers, a little stick or staff, made of bone, metal, or a quill, and called a. plectrum (irXrjKTpov}, was frequently used for this purpose: hence the lyre, kithara, harp, lute, &c., are known as "plectral instruments." 136 History of Music. [in. 35, 36. twang of the tightened string or cat-gut when plucked giving forth a more or less definite tone or note. In Wales the harp is still regarded as the national instru- ment, as it has been from the earliest times ; it is said, however, that the Irish harp is even more ancient, that, in fact, the Britons acquired it from the Irish Celts. The harp hns been tuned in various ways, sometimes with a double row of strings (double harp or Arpa doppia) proceeding by semitones ; and the triple harp that is, having three rows of strings, is otherwise known as the "Welsh harp." The harp has long been recognized by composers as a valuable instrument in the orchestra. The Arpa doppia, or double harp, already mentioned, was employed by Monteverde in his opera Orfeo. In Handel's Saul the harp is used as a solo instrument, though the movements written for it are not of a very distinctive character, and might have been played with a similar effect upon the harpsi- chord. In the scores of several modern operas the harp has been introduced with splendid effect, and Wagner has employed several of these instruments together. The invention of the pedal action has by some been attributed to Hochbrucker, 1720; by others to Velter, 1730. This renders it possible that the pedal harp was used in Saul, which was composed^in 1738-9. In Esther, which was produced in 1720, the old Welsh harp was employed. About a century later (1820) Erard introduced the double action, by which means the strings may be raised two semitones, thus affording greater facility for modulation. The older, or siw/le- actiun harp, had seven pedals, raising the notes respec- tively affected one semitone only ; the usual compass of this instrument was nearly six octaves, its normal scale being that of E flat. 36. The Spinet (or Spinnet), sometimes called " the Couched Harp," was a keyed instrument, and was the prototype of the harpsichord. By some writers it is mentioned as identical with the Virginals, described in. 36, 37.] Art Summary. 137 by Luscinius in his Mnsiirgla (1536). Certain it is that the action, compass, and shape of the instruments were very similar, if not identical. Either instrument had a single string for each note, which was sounded by the plectral action of a quill and jack set in motion by the key. The compass varied between three and four octaves, commencing from C or F below the bass stave. The smaller instruments were generally placed upon a table while being played upon. We have before alluded to the " Virginals " as the favourite musical instrument of Queen Elizabeth, for whom Dr. Tye composed many little " pieces " or studies. Byrde also wrote several compositions for the Virginals, which were printed in the collection known as Queen Eliza- beth's Virginal Book. 37. The Harpsichord (Harpsicon, Clavicembalo, Clavecin, Cembalo), introduced into this country about the beginning of the seventeenth century, was an enlargement upon the spinet, both as regards power and compass. The notes were produced by the same action as that of the spinet, but in the harpsichord there were two, sometimes three, and even four brass or steel wires to each note, and " stops " were provided, by means of which the tone power could be intensified or diminished at the will of the player. Many instruments had a contrivance for the gradual opening and shutting of the lid, which gave the effect of a swell. Some had, besides, an upper keyboard, with a separate set of single strings which gave an effect similar to that produced by the soft pedal of the modern pianoforte. The usual com- pass of the harpsichord was five octaves, starting from the lowest bass note E : 138 History of Music. [ui. 37, 38. During the latter part of the seventeenth, and the greater portion of the eighteenth centuries, almost every orchestra contained the harpsichord, which occupied an important place in the scores, and was generally played by the conductor. The names of the more distinguished harpsichord players will be found included in the list of composers for that instrument given in paragraph 28 of the present section. A perusal of the harpsichord music of the Bachs and their contemporaries will show that, especially regarding the peculiar action of the instrument, the performers of that time were possessed of a wonderful degree of manipulative skill, some of their compositions being of a character to tax the executive powers of many of the best pianists of our own day. Until the middle of the last century the use of the thumb in playing was not allowed it was Emmanuel Bach who, in 1753, first introduced a system of "fingering" in which the thumb was admitted. But no method of fingering, nor mechanical contrivance, could make the harpsichord a perfect instrument ; it lacked, from the nature of its action, the capacity for producing that subtle, ever varying " light and shade " which constitutes what is known as " expression." 38. It was the Pianoforte (Hammer-clavier) which', posse- sing the vital power of " expression," eventually superseded the harpsichord. The harp-like shape and the metal wires remained as in the older instrument, but the quills and jacks were displaced by the little hammers with which every one is familiar. Every degree of piano and forte being thus producible by the touch of the performer, the new instrument obtained its present name by common consent, as indicating a feature hitherto unknown in connection with keyed instruments. The idea of the pianoforte seems to have occurred coincidently to several persons about the same date; the earliest amongst them, however, appears to have been Cristofali, in 1711. The other co-inventors were Marius, Wood, and Schroter. The fir^t noted in. 38, 39.] Art Summary. 1 39 maker of pianofortes was Silbermann, whose instru- ments were much approved by Bach. This great musician does not appear, however, to have discarded the harpsichord in favour of the new instrument. It was not until 1760, ten years after the death of Bach, that the pianoforte came into popular favour. The earliest makers were Stein, Broadwood, Collard, Erard, and others whose names are well known at the present day in connection with pianoforte manufacture. Under the heads " Sonata " and " Concerto " we have men- tioned the names of the principal composers for the pianoforte ; the same musicians were celebrated like- wise as virtuosi, or performers iipon this instrument. We should, however, add to that list the following artists, who made pianoforte playing their special vocation : Herz, Thalberg, Schuloff ; and amongst living celebrities, Halle, Clara Schumann, Arabella Goddard, Lis/t,* Rubinstein,* Von Billow, Essipoff, Pauer. 39. The Lute, now obsolete, may be regarded as the most important of the many varieties of the kithara f genus. The period of the invention of the lute is stili a matter of speculation; some say that it is of Asiatic origin. Dante (d. 1321) alludes to it in a manner which proves that it was a well-known instrument in his time. Mersennus (d. 1640) tells us that the lute consisted of three parts : first, the table or flat sound- board lying under the lower end of the strings ; secondly, the back or body, formed by nine convex ribs jointed together ; thirdly, the neck, and in front of it the finger-board, over which nine frets or lines of cat-gut were stretched. The usual number of the strings was six, the five largest being doubled, making eleven strings in all. Many of the later ins ruments, however, * Vide \. 68, 69. f The kithnrn \v;is distinguished from the lyre in the addition of a neck with frets lying close under the strings, by which means the pitch of each string could be raised by the " stopping " or pressure of the fingers. 140 History of Music. [in. 39. had as many as twenty-four strings. The lute was usually tuned as under : with two strings to each note, the highest excepted. The Orphar ion-lute had from sixteen to twenty strings, which were of metal instead of cat-gut. The Bass-lute (Theorbo, Arch-lute, Kithara bljuga) had, as the last name implies, two necks, or, more correctly, two hea'is and fret-boards of different sizes and placed side by side, the longer fret-board for the bass strings, and the shorter for the upper and middle strings. The theorbo came into use about the beginning of the seventeenth century, and formed a valuable constituent in the early orchestra. Thomas Mace, in his quaintly-written treatise, Musick's Monument (1676), has given an interesting description of the theorbo, for which he was a very popular composer. Music for the lute was written in a peculiar kind of notation, called tablature, consisting of letters and other signs upon a six-line stave. Performers on the lute or theorbo were termed "lutenists," and until recent years existed the office of " Lutenist in the Chapel Royal." The theorbo fell into disuse about the middle of the last century. Some writers affirm that the latest employment of this instru- ment in the orchestra was by Francesco Conti, in 1708, but this statement is not correct. Handel used it in his Ode on Saint Cecilia's Day, which was composed and produced in 1739, as an accompaniment to the air " The Soft Complaining Flute." The score is marked " Liuta," but the compass employed III. 39, 40.] Art Summary. 141 conclusively indicates the theorbo. In old scores we frequently find the part for the theorbo written as a lasso continue, or figured bass. Among the most emi- nent lutenists were Mace, Kapsberger, Lambert, Conti, Gaetauo, and Gauthier. Hawkins gives the following specimen of lute music, composed by Thomas Mace : Ex. 32. MY MISTRESS. THOMAS MACE. Other varieties of the Jcithara family were the ghittern or cither, the citole, the mandolin (employed by Mozart in Don Giovanni}, and the guitar, which has enjoyed a more recent popularity. The hackbret or dulcimer may scarcely be said to belong to the same order, as its strings were not " plucked," but beaten by small pellets or hammers, upon the principle of the modern pianoforte. 40. The family of stringed instruments played with a bow has been a very numerous one. The most ancient viol on record appears to be the ravenstrom (or ravanastron), still played in India by the mendicant monks of Buddha. Tradition says that this primitive instrument was invented by one of the kings of Ceylon, but as the date assigned to this monarch is somewhere about five thousand years before Christ, the tradition is worth very little indeed. It is said, however, that the ravenstrom was the precursor of the youdok, or 142 History of Music. [m. 40. Russian fiddle ; and the Welsh crwth, which had six strings strung across a flat bridge, and was played partly with the bow, and partly by plucking with the fingers. Another ancient variety is the urh-heen of the Chinese, which consists of a mallet-shaped box, into which a stick or tube is fixed, with three or four strings strung from pegs at one end of the stick and passing over a bridge fixed upon the mallet-like box. The trumpet-marine consisted of a triangular box with one string strung across a very low bridge. From the rebab of Egypt, a single-stringed fiddle with a square-shaped body, is probably derived the rebec, a- thiee-stiinged instru- ment in shape more nearly resembling the modern violin. From the rebec sprang in fact the family of viols to which frequent allusion has been made. The Viol, OTvitula, dates from the tenth or eleventh century ; it usually had six strings, and the finger-board was furnished with frets. The size of the viol was approxi- mate to that of the viola, or tenor violin now used in the orchestra. The " chest of viols " has been described by an old writer as " a large hutch with several apartments and partitions in it, each lined with green baize. Every instrument was sized in bigness according to the part played upon it, the treble being the smallest," &c. A model chest of viols contained six instruments, two trebles, two tenors, and two basses. From the chest of viols we obtain the Violoncello; also the Viol-da-gamba, or leg-viol, so culled from the position in which it is held by the performer. The finger-board of the gamba was provided with frets, and the strings, six in number, were thus tuned : Ei: The viol-da-gamba was an instrument much favoured by Bach, who wrote obbligati parts for it in some of his in. 40, 41.] Art Summary. 143 scores one notable instance occurs in the Passion according to St. Matthew. Bach invented a similar instrument, having a somewhat higher compass, which he named Viola pomposa, but this was soon superseded by the violoncello. The Baryton, or Viol-di-Bardone, was another instrument of the viol class, having six to seven cat-gut strings played with the bow, under which lay sixteen metal strings which were plucked with the fingers of the left hand. Prince Esterhazy, the patron of Haydn, was exceedingly fond of this instrument, for which Haydn composed upwards of one hundred and sixty studies. A very similar instrument, both as to the number of cat-gut strings and the metal strings beneath, was the Viol-d'amour, which Meyerbeer lias employed for a special effect in Les Huguenots. The Double bass (contra-basso), the largest of all the viols, is said to have been invented by Salo, in 1580; Montedair introduced it into the orchestra in 1696. 41. The actual inventor of the Violin, or little viol, is not known, nor yet the precise date of its introduction. The earliest mention of the instrument as a constituent of the orchestra seems to be that given by Monteverde in the list of the orchestra at the performance of his Orfeo, 1650 : " Duoi violini piccoli alia Francese ;" two little violins of the French sort. But that at this date the vi<>lin was not a novelty is patent from the fact that the violin manufacture was commenced by the elder AMATI about the year 1600. We further hear of one BALTAZARINI giving violin performances in England in 1577. From the recent research of a German antiquarian it seems tolerably conclusive that the violin manufacture was initiated in Germany, and was imported thence into Italy. The principal Italian makers of the seventeenth century were the AMATI, the GUARNERI, and the STRADIUARI families (all of Cremona), who so jealously guarded the peculiar secrets of their manufacture, that no modern maker has so far been able to reproduce instruments of the same quality. 144 History of Music. [in. 41, 42. Others of the same period were JACOBUS STAIXER or STEIXER, ALBAXUS, and the KLOTZ family these were the principal German makers. The following distin- guished violinists are named in approximate chronolo- gical order : BALTAZARINI, LULLY, BALTZAR, BANISTER, BASSAXI, CORBLLI, TARTINI, LOCATELLI, JARNOVICK, BITTI, ALBIXOXI, GIARDINI, CAMPAGXOLI, LUXATI, DIEUPART, PERGOLESI, LE CLAIR, GEMIXIANI, LOLLI, VIOTTI, BAILLOT, KREUTZER, EODE, MAYSEDER, PAGAXIXI, LAFOXT, SPOHR, DE BERIOT. The principal violinists of the present day it is unnecessary to mention. 42. Among WIND INSTRUMENTS, probably the most ancient is the Flute, of which there have been many varieties. The word " flute " is supposed to be derived from fluta, a lamprey, or small eel, which has on its side seven marks or holes corresponding to those of the instrument. The flute was exceedingly popular with both the Greeks and the Romans, who introduced flute playing into their religious ceremonies, and almost on every public occasion indeed, even at their funerals. At first, and until a comparatively recent date, the mouth-piece and shape of the flute was not unlike the flageolet. Some flutes were " double," i.e., having two tubes connected with a single mouth-piece. Luscinius describes flutes of four sizes, ranging from treble to bass. The Recorder, frequently alluded to by the old English writers, was a kind of flageolet, and varied in length from about twelve inches to three feet, the largest being the Bass Recorder. The Pilgrim! i Staff was the name given to one kind of flute from its great length and consequent resemblance to the staves carried by religious pilgrims in their processions. The Cornet, not to be confounded with the modern brass instrument of the same name, was a bow-shaped flute, tapering towards the mouth-piece, and came into use in the reign of Elizabeth. The tone of the cornet was regarded as very closely resembling the human voice, and for this reason, at the Restoration, when Cathedral in. 42, 43.] Art Summary. 145 choristers were yet very scarce, owing to the discourage- ment of choral services by the Puritans, this instrument was used to strengthen the treble parts. The old English Mute, Q? flute-Jvbec, so called because the mouth- piece had some resemblance to the bill or " beak " of a bird, was the flute commonly used in the orchestra up to the time of Handel, who introduces into some of his scores the modern horizontal or German flute (flaato traverso), as the traverse, evidently to distinguish it from the flute-a-bec, still in general use in his day. 43. Of the present REED INSTRUMENTS the Oboe (or hautboy) is one of the oldest. Its use in England may be traced as far back as the fourteenth century. They were employed in the court band of Edward III., and were then known as weyghte* or wai'tes ; and it is further supposed that the Christmas "waits" derived their appellation from the fact that these waites or hautboys were a prominent feature of those nocturnal entertain- ments. In the plays of Shakespeare, we find frequent allusion to the " hautboys " in the staye directions announcing the entry of royal or martial pageants. The Corno Inglese (CorAnyla!*) is, familiarly speaking, a larger oboe, and forms the " alto " of the smaller instrument. The Orfeo of Gluck contains a part for this instrument, as well as the overture in Rossini's Guillanme Tell ; while Meyerbeer has introduced it into many of his scores. The instrument has also been employed by Wagner and some other modern writers. The " natural bass " of the above instruments is the Bassoon (called in Italian fagotto, from its resemMance, when the parts are severed and tied together, to a bundle of sticks or faggots), said to have been invented in the year 1539 by an Italian named Afianio, but there is no doubt that it was of much earlier date, though of different shape and compass, and was knoAvn as the Bombard, or Bass Weyyhte. It is not, however, to be confounded with the Basaun mentioned by Luscinius, which was really a bass 10 146 History of Music. [HI. 43, 44. instrument of the trombone (or sackbut) class. Handel was one of the first among important composers to introduce the bassoon into the orchestra, and his use of the instrument in Saul (in the Incantation scene, Infernal Spirits, and Why hast thou forced me ?) is an instance well known to musicians. The same master has employed the bassoon to great advantage in Thou didst bloic, in Israel in Egypt. Since Handel's time the bassoon has taken an important place in the orchestra. The Double Bassoon, the compass of which is an octave below that of the bassoon, was first intro- duced into the orchestra at the Handel Commemoration in Westminster Abbey, 1784. Owing to the unwieldy size of the instrument it has been very sparingly employed by musicians ; nevertheless Beethoven has introduced it in two of his symphonies the G minor, and the " Choral," with imposing effect. 44. The modern Clarinet was the invention of Denner of Nuremberg, in 1690 ; some writers, however, give the date as 1720. Its predecessor was the Chala- meau.* or Schalmey, sometimes mentioned as the precursor of the oboe. The term " chalameau" is still employed to denote the lower and middle registers of the clarinet, which was first used in the orchestra about the middle of the last century. It had a place in the score of an opera, Orione, by J. C. Bach (a son of the great master), composed about 1760. The alto and bass clarinets are simply larger varieties of the smaller instrument, each producing a correspondingly lower compass. The Basset-Horn (Corno di bassetto}, which has been described' as taking an intermediate place between the clarinet and fcassoon. is of comparatively modern date, although seldom used in modern scores. Lotz, of Presburg, in Germany, introduced it in 1782 ; and Mozart appears to be the first master of note who adopted it. His Clemenza di Tito, and more notably * From calamus, a reed. in. 44, 45.] Art Summary. 147 still, the Requiem, both contain remarkable illustrations of the striking properties, the individual excellencies of this much neglected instrument. The Basset-Horn resembles in shape a large clarinet, having a metal bell. The compass of the instrument ranges from the lower bass F to the middle C in the treble stave. The instrument might be considered obsolete but for its employment in military bands. The Serpent, which dates from 1590, scarcely belongs to the clarinet class, but it may be mentioned here in concluding our notice of wood instruments. The Serpent has a compass similar to that of the bassoon, but its alleged uncertainty of tone-production has long since brought it into disfavour, although we have heard it remarked by instrumentalists of experience, that in the hands of a skilful player it could still be made to form a most valuable addition to the orchestra of the present day. 45. We can only glance at the principal members of the numerous family of BRASS INSTRUMENTS. The Horn (Corno), though the least assertive among brass instruments, adds so greatly to the colouring of sym- phonic music, that it has always occupied an honoured place in the orchestra. It is also one of the most ancient of instruments, being at least of mediaeval origin. The Horn for which Beethoven and other great masters wrote, is the primitive one called the French Horn, which simply produces the natural harmonics of the open tube, other notes, always sparingly used, being artificially formed by the insertion of the hand in the bell. In 1748, Hampel, a German, invented a plan for the production of the semitones ; Kolbel, Miiller, and others tried further improvements, but the later inven- tion of Saxe (the use of pistons) completely overcame the mechanical difficulties, while at the same time the tone of the instrument deteriorated. The Trumpet (Clarino, tromba) is of equal antiquity with the horn, and its notes are similarly produced, but of higher pitch and more brilliant tone. The scores of the last 148 History of Music. [m. 45, 46. century show that the trumpets of that time were capable of producing higher notes than at the present day, the probability being that the instruments wero then altogether smaller in the tube and bell.* The Trombone, formerly known as the sackbut, figured in the scores of the sixteenth century. G. Gabrieli (1540 1612) employed four sackbuts in the accompaniments to his Surrexit CJ/ristns, and at this the musician is inclined to smile ; but it is not improbable that they were used to double or lead the voice parts, each represented by a goodly number of singers. Again, the trombone was included in the score of Monteverdi's Orfeo. The presence of the trombone in some of Handel's scores has been ascribed to Mozart, but this is now considered more than doubtful. There are four species or sizes of trombone, the soprano, the alto, the tenor, and the bass. The first and fourth kinds are seldom now used ; the latter owing to its being fatiguing to the performer, and of sluggish utterance. Other bass instruments are the Bombardon, the Tuba, the Euphonium, of comparatively recent date ; and the Ophicleide, which was invented to supersede the serpent in the orchestra. 46. It now remains to us to give a short summary of the development of the Organ, the most comprehensive of all instruments. In histories of the organ it is usual to give a description of a small collection of pipes worked by hydraulic action, known as " the water-organ of the ancients ; " but although diagrams are supplied with the description, the account is some what apocryphal. The Alayrejjha, or organ of ten pipes, with a keyboard, is" alleged to have existed in the second century, but doubts have been expressed regarding the nature of this instrument also. It is, however, an histjrical fact, that an organ, the gift of * The Claret, Felt, and Thiirnerhorn, mentioned by Luscinius, were all ancient varieties of the Clarion or trumpet. m. 46.] Art Summary. 149 Constantino, was in the possession of King Pepin of France circa A.D. 757. Still earlier (circa 700), Aldhelm, a monk, makes mention of an organ with "gilt pipes," though he gives no clue to the size of the instrument. In the tenth century, an organ having 400 pipes is mentioned by Wolstan ; the organ was played with " keys," and was blown by thirteen separate pairs of bellows. Drawings of this period still extant represent the organ as an instrument having but few pipes, blown with evident labour by two or more persons, and played upon by a monk. The keys of these organs were of wood, of from three to six inches in breadth, and requiring to be played upon by hard blows of the fist. Thus it is plain that these instru- ments were not capable of yielding more than the plain song or melody of ancient Church music, or at most, the crude organum or diaphony to which we have elsewhere alluded. The " half-notes," or semitones, were introduced at Venice about the end of the eleventh century ; even at this date the compass of the instrument was limited to two octaves. The invention of the organ pedal is attributed to Bi.-rnhardt, * about 1490 ; and the compass was an octave from B flat or A. These pedals were nothing more than small pieces of wood of a size to be played with the toe in fact, the heel was not used until a comparatively recent period. The " swell organ" was first introduced by Jordan in 1712 ; the Venetian swell, by which a more gradual crescendo and diminuendo is effected was the invention of England, towards the end of the last century. The swell was further improved by Green, a well-known organ-builder of the same period. As the organ developed, in the course of time, into the character of a solo instrument, f the ingenuity of musicians and organ-builders (who t The Regale, or Regain, was a small portable organ (now obsolete), in use during the sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries. This, probably, was the instrument which proved so great a solace to Milton in his blindness. * Vide i. 24. 150 History of Music. [HI. 46 were as great enthusiasts in their calling as the Italian violin-makers were in theirs) was exercised in the production of new varieties of tone and register. The smaller wind-instruments were more or less successfully imitated, and their names are still associated with certain organ-stops notably the Krumkorne (Cremorne, Cremona}, the Gemslwrn, and the Hohl flote. The most celebrated builders in England during the last century were Abraham Jordan, "Father" Schmidt, Harris, Suetzler, Schroder, Avery, Byfield, and Green. Organ-playing as a separate art undoubtedly owes much to Frescobaldi, who has been called " The father of organ-playing ; " he wrote fugues and other compositions in which he expressly studied the capicities of the instrument of his day. The following list of celebrated organists includes those chiefly who were reputed for their special skill as performers, or composers of organ- music. We have not thought it necessary to mention living organists : Dr. John Bull (15631622). Viadana (1560 1625). Frescobaldi (15801640). Gibbons (15831625). Kerl (16251690). Froberger (16371695). Buxtehude (c. 16401707). Stradella( 1645 1678). Blow (16481708). Purcell (16581695). Couperin (16681733). Caldara (16781763). Mattheson (16811764). Walther (16831729). J. S. Bach (1685-1750). Handel (16851759). Hasse (16991783). Boyce <1710 1779). Marpurg (1719 1789). Albrechtsberger (17361809). Stadler (17481833). Vogler (17491818). in. 46 48.] Art Summary. 151 Rink (17701846). Mendelssohn (18091847). S. Sebastian Wesley (d. 1876). George Cooper (d. 1876). 47. The foremost among INSTRUMENTS OP PERCUSSION is the Drum (tambour, tympanum), consisting of a hollow hemisphere or cylinder of wood or metal, over the mouth or ends of which is placed a skin or parchment, in tension. The pitch of the note produc.ed may be raised or lowered by the tightening or slackening, as the ca^e may be, of the parchment disc ; this being effected by screws or bracings of leather working upon cords. The drum most commonly used in the orchestra is the hemispherical or " kettle-dra/m" generally a pair tuned at the distance of a fourth or fifth from each other tonic and dominant. Beethoven has produced some remarkable effects from the drum for example, the enharmonic change in the first movement of the fourth symphony (in B flat), when the original tonic (B flat) drum is unexpectedly employed as Aji. Berlioz, than whom no man better understood the resources of the orchestra, made a special study of. the drum ; and in his Eequiem upon the death of Xapoleon I. introduced several sets of kettle-drums sordini. The great or long drum (bass drum, grosse caisse) is very sparingly used by composers, who employ it only in fortissimi passages, such as in the chorus " Come with torches " in the WaJjrttnjis Night of Mendelssohn. The Glockenspiel is a frame of bells sometimes of steel bars, possessing a fair compass of simply diatonic intervals, and struck with hammers, with the hand, or by keys as in the pianoforte. Mozart uses a glockenspiel with exquisite effect in his Zauberflote. The Carillon which Handel used in Saul was an instrument very similar to, if not identical with, the glockenspiel. 48. In the above review necessarily cursory of the principal musical instruments, past and present, we have mainly followed the plan adopted by Berlioz in 152 History of Music. [in. 48. his Treatise on Instrumentation ; and, like him, we have reserved to the last our mention of that most exalted of all " instruments of music," the HUMAN VOICE. We have already, in our first section (i. 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 29), alluded to the schools of singing founded hy Ambrose, Gregory, Charlemagne, and other early patrons of music, or musicians, in connection with ecclesiastical music. Of the early institution of church choirs we have already treated in the present section (par. 3), and with the growth of the contrapuntal art may lie traced the development of choral harmony, with its divisions of soprano, alto or contralto, tenor and bass. With respect to solo-singing, we have to look to the troubadours, the minnesanger, and other secular vocalists for the birth of the present art, but more immediately to the opera, which gave a new and larger scope for vocal skill. In the earlier days of the opera the female as well as the male characters were acted hy men (for a long time women were not allowed upon the stage), to which end, hy an artificial process, the treble voice of boyhood was preserved to them through life. Among such male soprani may be mentioned, Senesino, Bernacchi, Caffarelli, Farinelli ; in fact, male soprani continued in favour with the public long after the advent of female opera singers. Of the latter, Hawkins gives a long list, of which we may note the following : San Nicola, Santini (afterwards the wife of Ant >nio Lotti). Boschi, Mrs. Tofts, Maria Gallia (who took the part of Rosamund in Clayton's opera of that name), Margarita de 1'Epine, Mrs. Barbier, Anastasia Robinson (afterwards Countess of Peterborough), Faustina; other celebrated female singers of the last century were Tesi> Cuzzoni, Francesca Gabrieli, Mrs. Billington, (fee- Belonging to the present century were Catalani (d. 1849), Sontag, Clara Novello, Pasta, Jenny Lind, Malibran, Giulia and Giulietta Grisi, Mara, Alboni, Titiens (d. 1877), Patti, Nillson, Patey; some of whom are still living, and some in retirement. Among the tenor and in. 48, 49.] Art Summary. 153 bass singers of the last fifty years are : Tambnrini, Lablache, Staudigl, Wachtel, Rubini, RatF, Kelly, Mario, Braham, Sims Reeves, Santley, &c. Many of these artists distinguished themselves in oratorio as well as in opera. 49. The ancient schools of singing have been succeeded by Conservatoires or Academies, where every branch of the mu.-ical art is cultivated and taught. Amongst the Academies which possess an historic fame are the Conservatoires of Milan, Bologna, Berlin, Leipsic, Paris, and the Royal Academy of Music in London. The Royal Academy of Music, which was founded in 1822, and afterwards incorporated by Charter, has passed through many vicissitudes, but has succeeded in establishing for itself a position worthy of the English nation, and has given to the world many esteemed musicians, of whom the late Sterndale Bennett is a notable instance. Other institutions established for the promotion of musical learning are, the College of Organists, established in 1864, for the benefit of organists and other church musicians ; Trinity College, London, instituted in 1872, and afterwards incorporated by Charter, for the promotion of musical and general education ; the National Training School for Music, which commenced its useful work in 1876 ; the Royal Irish Academy of Music ; and other important insti- tutions, all of which, in their several capacities and spheres of work, have combined to further the musical progress of this country. Nor can we omit a reference to the Tonic Sol-fa movement, which for several years has been spreading through our own and other English- speaking countries, and lias undoubtedly done much to improve the musical knowledge and taste of the masses. In 1875. the leaders of the movement obtained a Charter for an institution which bears the name of the Tonic Sol-fa College, and many connexional choral bodies have been formed, and trained on the Tonic Sol-fa principles, the most important of which are the 154 History of Music. [in. 49, 50. syllabic notation and the " Moveable Do." It is not within the province of this work to discuss the merits or demerits of this system, about which there has been much unprofitable controversy. 50. It now only remains to us to enumerate the principal writers on the Science of music. The voluminous Latin Treatise of BOETHIUS (d. 525) was based to a great extent upon the ancient dissertations of Pythagoras, Aristoxenus, Ptolemy, and others, and entered with great minuteness into the mathematical ratios of intervals, dealing of course with the old Greek scales. CASSIODORUS (c. 470 560), a distinguished scholar of the same period, a' so wrote concerning the science of music, but added little or nothing to the extensive and somewhat mystic lore amassed by Boethius. Allusion has already been made to the more practical treatises of Guido, Isidore of Seville, and Franco of Cologne. Succeeding writers, such as Odington, Tinctor, De Handle, Gaffurius, Franchinus, and others, founded their observations on the Boethiau and Guidonian systems. The inauguration of the modern science is due chiefly to Dr. William Holder (d. 1697) and Rameau (1683 1764). Dr. Holder's treatise on Harmony (1694) is worthy of note as containing the scheme of natural harmonics, familiarized to us by the later works of Logier and Ouseley. Hawkins thus summarizes this portion of Dr. Holder's work : " He makes a concord to consist in the coincidence of the vibrations of the chords of two instruments, and speaks to this purpose : If the vibrations correspond in every course and recourse, the concord produced will be the unison ; if the ratio of the vibrations be as 2 to 1, in which case they will unite alternately, viz, at every course, crossing at the recourse, the concord will be the octave. If the vibrations be in the ratio of 3 to 2, their sounds will consort in a fifth, uniting after every second, i. e., at every other or third course ; and if as 4 to 3, in a diatessaron or fourth, uniting after every in. 50.] Art Summary. 155 third recourse, viz., at every fourth course, and so of the other consonances according to their respective ratios." On that part of the theory of music which relates to the formation or derivation of chords there have been many writers, but among these none has, we imagine, been the cause of so much controversy among musicians as .the theories of Dr. Day, whose chief exponent at the present time is Professor Macfarren. To explain the respective doctrines held by Day, Ouseley, and Stainer would need, to do justice to the subject, a separate work ; here we can only assure the young student that Avhatever differences may exist among theorists as to the etymology of a chord (e. g., whether it has one root or two roots) the mode of its employment and res-ilution are identical in every case that is, the practical effect is the same. The harmony treatises of Crotch, Catel, Callcott, and Goss, have dealt almost exclusively with the practical side of the subject. The works of the three former writers, however, are gen- erally regarded as being " behind the times." Of Counter- point and Fugue the most prominent expositors have been : Zarlino (15171593), Fux, or Fuchs (1660 1732), Pwlre Martini (1706 1784), M arpurg (1718 1795), Albrechtsberger (17361809), Cherubini (1760 1842), and Eeicha (17701836). Bach's Art of Fugue, published in 1748, is simply a collection of tine examples, all on one subject, of this form of composition. Chief among the critics, historians, and miscellaneous writers on musical science and art, during the past and present centuries are : J. Mattheson (168 1 1 764), essay- ist and historian; J.J.Rousseau (1712 1778), essayist; Sir John Hawkins (1720 1791), historian; Dr. Charles Burney (17261814), historian; O. F. Langle (1741 1807), theorist; Gretry (17411813), essayist; J. N. Forkel (1749 1818), essayist and historian; C. F. Zelter (17581832), essayist; A. E. Choron (17721834), theorist; Giuseppe Baini (17751844), historian; F. J. Fe"tis (1784 1872), essayist and 156 History of Music. [in. 50, 51. historian; A. B. Marx (1799 1866), theorist; H. Berlioz (1803 1869), essayist; R. Schumann (1810 1856), essayist; also Ambros, Liszt, Engel, Eimbault, Chappe!!, Hullah, Ritter, &c., &c. 51. There is, however, another and a distinct class of musical philosophers, whom we may call the SCIENTISTS of the present day ; men whose researches as physicists have led them into a special inquiry into the natural laws and phenomena of sound. To this class belong Wheatstone, Tyndal, Blaserna, ami many others whose names must be familiar to every reader of contemporary musical literature. But undoubtedly the most distinguished amongst musical scientists is HELMHOLTZ, the German physicist and physician, whose work Die Lehre von den Tonempfindungen, recently translated into English by Mr. A. J. Ellis, has opened, as it were, a new world to the view of the musician. It may he said that the art of music profits little by these physical discoveries ; but while the science is still in its infancy, we cannot predicate with certainty concerning the result of all this recent research. It may be that, at any moment, while the pen is in the hand, or the lips are moved to speech, some sudden burst of light, some new and splendid apocalypse, shall, by the instrumentality of science, irradiate the whole world of music, revealing forms of beauty, and spheres of vision, hitherto beclouded or unknown. EXAMINATION QUESTIONS.' SECTION I. 1 "What do you know of the musical scales of the Greeks f 2 From whom did the Greeks derive the rudiments of their musical knowledge 1 3 In what sense is the term "Harmony" employed by the Greek writers ? 4 Who were the most noted among Greek Theorists 1 5 Who introduced the art of flute-playing into Greece ? 6 What ancient nation employed Greek slaves as singers and players ? 7 When may the history of music as a separate art be said to commence ] 8 About what date, and by whom, was the first singing school instituted in Rome 1 9 Upon what evidence do we infer that St. Sylvester was acquainted with the method of antiphonal chanting 1 10 W.hen did St. Ambrose live ; and what did he do for Church Music 1 11 What were the "Authentic Modes 1" The " Plagal Modes 1 " Give a list of them as arranged by St. Gregory. * The Student is requested to search out for himself the answers to these questions, the numbers prefixed to them having (designedly) no reference to the body of the work. 158 Examination Questions. 12 What was meant by the term Diaphony 1 Organum? 13 Name some of thu improvements effected by Guido in the old system of notation. 1 4 What title has been applied to Guido ] 15 From what devices are our present C and F clefs derived ? 1 6 When was the note Si introduced 1 17 Who introduced the system of musical measure (musica mensurabilis) 1 18 Give the names and shapes of the notes used by Franco. 1 9 What was the state of counterpoint in Franco's time 1 20 Who was the inventor of " rest " signs ] 21 Give some account of Adam, de la Hale. 22 Name some of the most distinguished troubadours of De la Male's time. 23 Who has been credited with having established the first correct principles of consonances and dis- sonances 1 24 To whom is ascribed the introduction of florid counterpoint ] 25 State what you know of Dufay, and of the rise of the Belgian School. 26 Which of the early Belgian composers has been styled " the Sebastian Bach of the fifteenth century," and on what grounds 1 27 What is your impression concerning the character of the " fugues " composed by the early Belgian masters'? 28 Des Pre"s effected an important advance in the art of musical composition. What was it? 29 Name some of the most distinguished pupils of Des Pres. 30 What was Luther's opinion of Des Pres' music 1 31 A pupil of Des Pres has been styled " the founder of the Venetian .School." Give his name. 32 To whon* ^ ascribed the introduction of the Madrigal ? Examination Questions. 159 33 Who was the most distinguished contemporary of Willaert ? 34 Who introduced the chromatic element into musical composition ] 35 Who was the first to use the terms Adtcjio, Allegro, &c. ? 36 What were the principal failings of the Belgian School 1 37 When was the organ-pedal invented, and by whom 1 38 Give the date of the invention of moveable music- types, and the name of the inventor. 39 Who has been called the "father of English contra- puntists 1 " 40 Who wrote the anthem, / will exalt Thee, Lord f 41 What was Merbecke's principal work 1 42 Give a short account of Thomas Tallis. 43 Which of the early English musicians wrote a motett in forty parts 1 44 Give the name of a famous canon by William Byrde. 45 Who was the first professor of music at Gresham College 1 46 What was " The Virginal Book ] " for whom was it written] . 47 Give the title of a celebrated collection of madrigals published about the beginning of the seventeenth century, and name some of the principal con- tributors to the work. 48 Who was Constanzo Festa ] What is his place in the history of Church Music ] 49 Name a distinguished pupil of Goudimel. 50 Give an account of the controversy which occasioned the production of Missa Papae MarcellL 51 What was the name given to the style of composition of which Missa Papae Marcelli was the inaugu- ration ] 52 Who was ISTanini? 160 Examination Questions. 53 A six-part motett, Lamentabatur Jacobus, composed by a Spaniard, is still performed in the Sistine Chapel at Rome. Give the name of the composer. 54 In what style of composition did Marenzio particu- larly excel 1 55 Who introduced instrumental accompaniments in the music of the Church 1 Name the instruments employed by this composer. 56 Trace the origin of the Opera. 57 What was musica parlante ? 58 Give the name, date, and composer of the first Italian Opera. 59 On what special occasion was Euridice produced 1 60 To what great composer of the seventeenth century was it reserved to give a more pronounced form to the Opera 1 61 For what practices was Monte verde subjected to the unfavourable criticisms of his contemporaries ? 62 ISTame the principal Operas of Monte verde. 63 Give an account of the circumstances attending the rise of Oratorio. 64 Account for the term Oratorio, as applied to that cla, i. 59 Sonatas (32), Concertos, &c., Bee- thoven, i. 52 Sonatas, &c., Pleyel, i. 49 Sonatinas, dementi, i. 50 Song of Destiny, Brahms, L 69 Sonnambula, Bellini, i. 63 Sosarme, Handel, i. 41 Stabat Mater. Mozart, i. 48 Stabat Mater, Palestrina, i. 29 Stabat Mater, Pergolesi, i. 43 Stabat Mater, Rossini, i. 63 Stand up and bless the Lord, Goss, i. 65 St. Cecilia's Day, Handel, iii. 39 St. John the Baptist, Macfarren, i. 65, iii. 17 St. John the Baptist, Stradella, i. 43, iii. 17 St. Paul, Mendelssohn, i. 58 St. Peter, Benedict, i. 65, iii. 17 St. Polycarp, Ouseley, i. 65, iii. Stratonice, Mehul, i. 51 Studies, Chopin, i. 60 Suites Anglaises, Bach, \. 40 Suites des Pieces, Bach, i. 40 Sumer is a cumen in, i. 20 List of Musical Works. 175 SuiTexit Christus, Gabrieli, i. 30 Susanna, Handel, i. 41 Sycamore Shade, The, Goss, i. 65 Symphonie en Ro, Gossec, iii. 32 Symphonies, Beethoven, i. 52 Symphony, Jtubensteiii, i. 68 Symphony iii C, Schubert, iii. 32 Symphony in C minor, Mendels- sohn, i. 58 Symphony in E flat, Schumann, 'i. 59 Symphony in G minor, Stern- dale liewiett, i. 64 Talisman, Balfe, i. 64, iii. 25 Tancred and Clorinde, Monte- verde, i. 32 Tancredi, Rossini, i. 63 Tiinnhiiuser, Wagner, i. 69, iii. 25 Tasso, Liszt, iii. 32 Te Deum, Vesta, i. 28 Te Deum, Hasse, i. 42 Te Deum and Jubilate in D, Pur- cell, i. 37 Tempest, The, Purcell, i. 37 Tetralogy, Wagner, i. 69, iii. 25 The Lord is King, Botjce, i. 38 Theodora, Handel, i. 41 There is beauty on the Mountain, Goss, i. 65 These are they, Dykes, iii. 20 The two Caliphs, Meyerbeer, i. 57 Thou, O God, art praised, S. Wesley, iii. 20 Timon of Athens, Purcell, i. 37 Toy Symphonies, Haydn, iii. 32. Tragedies lyriques, Lully, i. 44, iii. 25 Treatise on Music, Isidore of Seville, i. 14 Tristan and Isolde, Wagner. i. 69 Triumphs of Oriana, Morley, i. 27 Trovatore, II, Verdi, i. 67 Tu es Petrus, Scarlatti, i. 43 Turn Amaryllis, T. Brewer, iii. 23 Un Ballo in Maschera, Verdi, i. 67 Utrecht Te Deum and Jubilate, Handel, i. 41 Violin Concertos, Viotti, i. 50 , Corelli, &c., iii. 31 Walpurgis Night, Mendelssohn, i. 58, iii. 47 Water Music, Handel, i. 41 Wedding of Camacho, The, Men- delssohn, i. 58, iii. 25 Which is the properest day, T. Arne, iii. 23 While the bright sun, Byrde, iii. 22 Who is this that comoth, Arnold, iii. 20 Wilderness, The, S. S. Wesley, i. 64, iii. 20 Wohltemperirte Klavier, Bach, i. 40 Woman of Samaria, Sterndale Bennett, i. 64, iii. 17 Wood Nymph, The, Sterndalf Bennett, i. 64 Xerxes, Handel, i. 41 Ye restless thoughts, Benet, iii. 22 Zampa, Herold, i. 61, iii. 25 Zauberflote, Mozart, i. 48, iii. 25 Zemire et Azor, Gretry, i. 44, iii. 25 Zemire und Azor, Spohr, i. 54 176 GENERAL INDEX. ** In every case the reference is to section and paragraph. Academies of Music, iii. 49 Accompaniment, i. 6, 37, 48, iii. 16, 17, 22, 25, 28, 30, 45 Adagio, i. 23, 44 Adieu, my loves, i. 24 Afranio, iii. 43 Albanus, iii. 41 Albert!, iii. 27, 29 Albinoni, iii. 29, 41 Alboni, iii. 48 Albrecht.sberg-er, i. 49, iii. 46, 50 Aleuin, i. 13 Aldhelm, iii. 46 Aldrich, Dr., i. 37, iii. 20 Alfred, King, iii. 9 Allegri, i. 34, iii. 18 Allegro, i. 23 Allemande, iii. 27 Amati, iii. 41 Ambros, iii. 50 Ambrose, i. 9, iii. 6, 48 Ambro.siaii chants, iii. 2 Andre, i. 49 Anerio, i. 29 Anthem, i. 25, iii. 20 Antiphonal singing, i. 8, 9, 11, iii. 3. Antiphonar, i. 11 Arcadeldt, i. 21, 31 Arch-lute, iii. 17, 39 Aria, i. 33, 43, 44, iii. 17, 25, 26 Arioso, i. 33, iii. 17, 26 Aristoxenus, iii. 50 Arne, i. 38, iii. 23, 25, 26 Arnold, i. 38, iii. 20, 25, 26 Arpa doppia, iii. 35 Attilio, i. 41 Attwood, i. 64, iii. 20 Auber, i. 61, iii. 25 Authentic modes, i. 9, 10 Avery, iii. 46 Bach, C. P. E., i. 40, iii. 29, 31, 37 Bach, F., i. 40, iii. 29,31 Bach, J. C., i. 40, iii. 31, 44 Bach, J, Sebastian, i. 39, 40, iii. 17, 18, 27, 29, 31, 38, 40, 46, 50 Bagpipes, iii. 27 Baillot, iii. 31, 41 Baini, iii. 50 Balfe, i. 64, iii. 25 Ballads, iii. 9 Ballet, iii. 16, 22 Baltazarini, iii. 41 Baltzar, iii. 41 Banister, iii. 41 Bar, i. 16 Barbier, Mrs., iii. 48 Barnby, J., i. 65, iii. 20 Barnett, J. & J. F., i. 65 Baryton, i. 47, in* 40 Basaun, iii. 43 Bassani, iii. 41 Basset-horn, i. 48, iii. 44 Bass-lute, iii. 39 Basso continuo, i. 34, iii. 22, 28, 29 Bassoons, iii. 32, 43 Battishill, i. 38, iii. 20 Index. 177 Beethoven, i. 52, iii. 17, 18, 25, 2932, 43, 45, 47 Belgian School, i. 19 Bellini, i. 63, iii. 25 Benda, i. 42, iii. 25 Benedict, J., i. 65, iii. 17, 25 Benet, i. 27, iii. 22 Benevoli, i. 34 Bennett, Sterndale, i. 64, iii. 17, 20, 29, 30, 32, 49 Beriot, de, iii. 31, 41 Berlioz, i. 61, iii. 18, 25, 32,47, 50 Bernacchi, iii. 48 Bernhardt, i. 24, iii. 46 Berton, i. 44, iii. 25 Biber, iii. 29 Bijuga, Kithara, iii. 39 Billington, Mrs., iii. 48 Binary form, iii. 29, 32 Bird (or Byrde), i. 26, iii. 18, 20, 22, 36 ' Birmingham Musical Festival, i. Bishop, i. 64, iii. 23, 25 [58 Bitti, iii. 41 Blaserna, iii. 51 Blow, i. 36, 37, iii. 20, 46 Boccherini, i. 50, iii. 3032 Boethius, iii. 60 Boieldieu, i. 44, iii. 24 Bombard, iii. 43 Bombardon, iii. 45 Boschi, iii. 48 Bouffe, Opera, i. 44 Bouffons, Les, i. 44, iii. 26 Bourree, iii. 27 Bow, iii. 35, 40 Boyce, i. 38, iii. 20, 25, 29, 46 Braham, iii. 48 Brahms, i. 69, iii. 32 Brevis, i. 16, iii. 7 Brewer, iii. 23 Bridge, iii. 20 Broadwood, iii. 38 Buddha, monks of, iii. 40 Bull, Dr. John, i. 26, iii. 46 Billow, Dr. Von, iii. 38 Buononcini, i. 41, iii. 29 Burney, Dr., iii. 50 Buxtehude, iii. 46 Byfield, iii. 46 Byrde (or Bird), i. 26. iii. 18, 20, 22, 36 Ca.ccini, i. 32, iii. 17, 24, 26 Caffarelli, iii. 48 Caldara, i. 43, iii. 18, 46 Calkin, J. B., iii. 20 Callcott, iii. 22, 50 Cambert, i. 44, iii. 25 Campagnoli, iii. 41 Canon, i. 20, 24, 26, 51, iii. 11, 18, Cantatas, i. 52, 65, 68 [21 Cantus firmus, i. 11, 21, 26, (transposition of), 29, iii. 12. Canzone, iii. 29 Canzonet, i. 38 Carafa, i. 63 Carillon, iii. 27. 47 Carissimi, i. 33, iii. 17, 26 Cassiodorus, iii. 50 Catalani, iii. 48 Catalano, i. 34 Catch, iii. 23 Catel, i. 44, iii. 35, 60 Cavaliere, i. 33, iii. 16, 17 Cembalo, iii. 37 Cesti, iii. 29 Chaconne, iii. 27 Chalameau, iii. 44 Chamber Music, iii. 30 Chappell, W., iii. 50 Charlemagne, i. 13, iii. 48 Cherubini, i. 51, iii. 18, 25, 26, 30, 50 Chest of Viols, iii. 28, 30, 40 Child, i. 36, iii. 20 Choirs, i. 9, 11, 22, 30, iii. 3, 42, 45 Chopin, i. 60, iii. 29 Chorale, i. 35, iii. 21 Choron, iii. 50 Chorus, i. 6, iii. 1618, 20, 22, 25 Chromatic, i. 23, 54 Chronology of the Opera, iii. 26 Church Music, i. 8 14, 17, 21 24, 2831, 3443, 49, 64, iii. 9, 14, 1721,42,46 limarosa, i. 50 llaret, iii. 45 ilarinet, iii. 31, 32, 44 ilarino, iii. 45 llarke, Cowden, i. 51 Hark, Jer., i. 37, iii. 20 Clarke- Whitfeld, iii. 20 lavecin, iii. 37 lavicembalo, iii. 37 12 178 Index. Clavichord, i. 40 Clayton, iii. 25 Clefs, i. 15, iii. 6 Clemens non Papa, i. 21, 31, 35, iii. 21 dementi, i. 50, iii. 29, 31, 32 Collard, iii. 38 College of Organists, iii. 49 Concerto, i. 34, 41, 47, 50, 54, iii. 31, 38 Concert Overture, iii. 32 Conservatoires, iii. 49 Conti, iii. 39 Contra basso, iii. 40 Cooper, George, iii. 46 Coperario, iii. 28 Coranto, iii. 27 Corelli, iii. 27, 29, 31, 41 Cornet, i. 30, iii. 42 Corno di bassetto, i. 48, iii. 44 Corno Inglese, iii. 43 Costa, M., i. 65, iii. 17 Cotillon, iii. 27 Couched Harp, iii. 36 Council of Trent, i. 29, iii. 18 Counterpoint, i. 16, 1821, 24 26, 39, 48, 49. 51, 65, iii. 7, 8, 11, 12, 18, 50 Couperiu, iii. 27, 46 Courcy, Chatalain de, i. 17 Co wen, F., i. 65 Cramer, i. 64, iii. 29, 31 Credo, iii. 18 Cremona (Cremorne), iii. 46 Cristofali, iii. 38 Croft, i. 38, iii. 20 Crotch, i. 64, iii. 17, 20, 50 Crwth, iii. 40 Cuzzoni, iii. 48 Czerny, i. 57, iii. 29 D'Alayrac, i. 44, iii. 25 Dance Tunes, Ancient, iii. 27 Dante, iii. 39 D'Auvergne, i. 44, iii. 25 David, Felicien, i. 61 Day, iii. 50 Denner, iii. 44 Descant, iii. 13 Diabelli, i. 53 Diaphony, i. 14, iii. 46 Dies Irae, iii. 18 Dieupart, iii. 41 Discantus, i. 14, iii. 5 Dittersdorf, i. 49, iii. 31 Donizetti, i. 63, iii. 25 Dorian Mode, iii. 4 Double Bass, iii. 32, 40 Dowland, i. 27, iii. 22, 28 Drone Bass, iii. 13 Drums, iii. 32, 47 Dryden, i. 37 Duet, iii. 20, 25 Dufay, i. 20, 25, iii. 11, 18 Dulcimer, iii. 39 Dumont, iii. 27 Duni, i. 43, 44 Dunstable, i. 25 Durante, i. 43, iii. 18, 29 Dussek, i. 49, iii. 2931 Dykes, Dr., iii. 20 Eccard, i. 35 Eccles, i. 36, iii. 27 Edwardes, iii. 22 Egyptians, monumental remains of, i. 3, iii. 27 Egyptians, musical knowledge of, Eisteddfod, iii. 9 Elizabeth, Queen, i. 25, 27, iii. 36 Ellis, A. J., iii. 51 Elvey, G. J., iii. 20 Engel, iii. 50 England, iii. 46 Erard, iii. 35, 38, Essipoff, iii. 38 Esterhazy, Prince, i. 47 Euphonium, iii. 45 Evening Hymn (Tallis), i. 26, iii. 21 Faburden, iii. 13 Fagotto, iii. 43 Faidit, i. 17 Fa las, iii. 22 Fantasia, iii. 28 Farinelli, iii. 48 Fan-ant, i. 26 Felt, iii. 45 Feo, i. 43, iii. 18 Ferabosco, iii. 28 Fesca, i. 57, iii. 29, 30 Index. 179 Festa, i. 27, iii. 22 Fetis, iii. 50 Field, i. 64, iii. 29 Fingering, i. 40 Flageolet, iii. 42 Flauto traverso, iii. 42 Flotow, i. 66, iii. 25 Flute, i. 4, 5, 32, 33, iii. 16, 27, 31, 32, 42 Flute-a-bec, iii. 42 Folksongs, i. 17, iii. 22 Forkel, iii. 50 Form, iii. 29, 32 Franc, Guillaume, iii. 21 Franchinus, iii. 50 Franco of Cologne, i. 16, iii. 7, 50 French Opera, i. 44, 49, iii. 24 Frescobaldi, i. 34, iii. 27, 29, 46 Froberger, iii. 46 Fugue, i. 20, 34, 44-, 48, 61, iii. 18, 28, 50 Full Anthems, iii. 20 Fux, i. 47, iii. 18, 50 Gabrieli, A., i. 30 Gabrieli, Francesca, iii. 48 Gabrieli, G., i. 30, iii. 45 Gade, N. W., i. 68, iii. 32 Gaetano, iii, 39 Gaffurius, iii. 50 Gallia, Maria, iii. 48 Gal Hard, iii. 27 Gallus, i. 35 Galop, i. 60 Galuppi, i. 43 Garrett, iii. 20 Gauthier, iii'. 39 Gavotte, iii. 27 Geminiani, iii. 41 German opera, iii. 24, 26 Giardim, iii. 41 Gibbons, Orlando, i. 36, iii. 20, Gigue, iii. 27 [22, 46 Glee, iii. 23 Glockenspiel, iii. 47 Gloria in. Eiccelsis, iii. 18 Gluck, i. 45, 46, iii. 25, 26, 43 Gluckists and Piccinists, i. 46, iii. 26 Goddard, Arabella, iii. 38 Goss, J., i. 65, iii. 20, 23, 60 Oossec, i. 44, iii. 32 Goudimel, i. 21, 29, 35, iii. 21 Goudok (Russian fiddle), iii. 40 Gounod, Ch., i. 66, iii. 25 Graun, i. 42, iii. 17, 18, 25 Graziani, iii. 29 Greek scales, i. 2, iii. 1 Green, iii. 46 Greene, i. 38, iii. 20 Gregorian chants and melodies. i. 13, 24, 29, iii. 2, 4, 21 Gregorian modes, i. 10, iii. 2 Gregory the Great, i. 10 14, iii. 6, 48 Greshatn College, i. 26 Gretry, i. 44, iii. 25, 3032, 50 Grisi, iii. 48 Guarneri, iii. 41 Guglieluii, i. 43 Guido, i. 15, iii. 67, 60 Guilmant, i. 66 Guitar, i. 3, 33, iii. 16, 39 Hackbret, iii. 39 Hale, Adam de la, i. 17, iii. 10 Halevy, i. 61, iii. 25 Halle, Charles, iii. 38 Hammer-clavier, iii. 38 Hampel, iii. 45 Handel, i. 41, 42, iii. 17, 20, 24 27, 29, 31, 35, 39, 42, 43, 46, 47 Hiindl (Gallus), i. 35 H audio, de, iii. 50 Harmonics, iii. 60 Harmony, i. 4, 14, 16, 17, 19, 26, 32, 38, 44, 49, 65, iii. 4, 30, 48, Harp, i. 3, 4, iii. 35 [50 Harpsichord, i. 32, 33, 37, 40, 41, 47, 48, iii. 16, 17,22, 27, 29, 31, 37, 38 Harpsicon, iii. 37 Harris, iii. 46 [46 Hasse, i. 42, iii. 18, 25, 26, 31, 32, Hassler, Hans Leo, i. 35 Hatton, J. L., i. 65 Hauptmann, i. 57, iii. 30 Hautboy, iii. 27, 32, 43, 44 Hawkins, iii. 50 Haydn, i. 47, 49, 53, iii. 17, 18, 2932, 40 Haydn, Michael, i. 49 Hebrew airs, i. 8 Helmholtz, iii. 61 180 Index. Henselt, iii. 29 Herold, i. 61, iii. 25 Herve, i. 66 Herz, iii. 38 Hexachord, iii. 6 Killer, J. A., i. 42, iii. 25 Hilton, i. 26 Hiinmel, i. 42, iii. 25 Hochbriicker, iii. 35 Hohl flute, iii. 46 Holder, Dr. William, iii. 50 Hopkins, E. J., i. 65, iii. 20 Horn, i. 52, iii. 32, 45 Hornpipe, iii. 27 Horsley, iii. 22, 23 Hoyte, W. S., i. 34 Hucbald, i. 14, iii. 5 Hullah, iii. 50 Hummel, i. 53, iii. 18, 29, 30 Hymn, i. 23, ii. 4, 19, 21 Instrumental Music, iii. 27 Intermezzo, iii. 32 Irish Academy of Music, iii. 49 Irish Harp, iii. 35 Isidore of Seville, i. 14, iii. 50 Isouard, i. 44, iii. 25 Italian opera, i. 41, iii. 24, 25 Jarnovick, iii. 41 Jenkins, iii. 28 Joachim, i. 69, iii. 32 Jomelli, i. 43 Jordan, iii. 46 Jorge, Don, iii. 22 Jubilate, i. 37 Kalkbrenner, i. 57, iii. 29 Kapsberger, iii. 39 Keiser, i. 39, iii. 17, 25 Kelly, iii. 48 Kent, i. 38, iii. 20 Kerl, J. C. Von, iii. 46 Kettle-drum, iii. 47 Kirbye, i. 27 Kithara, i. 5, iii. 33, 39 Klein, i. 57 Klopstock, i. 42 Klotz, iii. 41 Knecht, i. 49 Kolbel, iii. 45 Kreutzer, i. 53, iii. 41 Krumhorn, iii. 46 Kuhlau, iii. 31 Ktihnau, iii. 27, 29 Kyrie Eleison, iii. 18 Lablache, iii. 48 Lachrymosa, iii. 18 Lafont, iii. 41 Lambert, iii. 39 Langle, i. 51, iii. 50 Lasos, i. 5 Lassus, Orlandus, i. 23, iii. 18 Lawes, i. 36 Leclair, iii. 41 Lecocq, i. 66 Leipsic Choral Society, i. 54 Lejeune, Claude, i. 31 Lemaire, i. 15 Leo, i. 43, iii. 17, 18, 24 L'Epine, Margarita de, iii. 48 Lesueur, i. 51 Liedertafel, i. 49 Lind, Jenny, iii. 48 Lindpaintner, i. 57 Linley, iii. 22 Liszt," Franz, i. 69, iii. 32, 38, 50 Litany, i. 23 Literati, Society of, i. 32, iii. 25 Liturgy, English, i. 26 Locate! li, iii. 41 Lock, i. 36, iii. 24 Lolli, iii. 31, 41 Longa, i. 16, iii. 7 Lossius, i. 35 Lott, Edwin M., i. 47 Lotti, i. 43, iii. 25 Lotz, iii. 44 Lully, i. 44, iii. 25, 29, 41 Lunati, iii. 41 Luscinius, iii. 33, 36, 42, 43 Lute, i. 3, 4, 32, iii. 22, 28, 39 Lutenists, iii. 39 Luther, Martin, i. 21, 35 Lydian mode, iii. 4 Lyre, i. 4, 33, iii. 2, 16, 34, 35 Macbeth Music, i. 36, iii. 26 (note) Mace, Thomas, iii. 39 [50 Macfarren, G. A.,i. 65, iii. 17, 20, Madrigals, i. 22, 24, 27, 30, 34, iii. 22, 28 Magnificat, i. 23, iii. 19 Magrepha, iii. 46 Index. 181 Malibran, iii. 48 Mandolin, iii. 39 Mara, iii. 48 Marbecke (or Merbecke), i. 26, Marcello, i. 43, iii. 18 [iii. 18 March, i. 60 Marchettus, i. 18, iii. 8 Marenzio, Luca, i. 30, iii. 22 Mario, iii. 48 Marius, iii. 38 Marpurg, iii. 46, 50 Martini, i. 49, iii. 18, 50 Marx, A. B., i. 57, iii. 50 Masques, i. 36 Mass, i. 20, 21, 24, 29, 40, 43, 47 49, 56, iii. 16, 18 Masse, i. 66 Massenet, i. 66 Mattheson, iii. 29, 46, 50 Maxima, i. 16, iii. 7 Mayer, S., i. 50 Mayseder, i. 57, iii. 41 Mazarin, Cardinal, i. 44, iii. 24 Mazourka, i. 60 Measure, Musical, i. 16, iii. 7 Mehul, i. 44, 51, iii. 25 Meistersanger, iii. 9 Mendelssohn, F., i. 58, 59, iii. 17, 20, 25, 2932, 46 Merbecke (or Marbecke), i. 26, iii. 18 Mercadante, i. 63 Mersennus, iii. 39 Metz, Music School at, i. 13 Meurs, Jean de, i. 18, iii. 7 Meyerbeer, i.57, iii. 25, 26, 40,43 Minnesanger, iii. 9, 48 Minstrels, i. 5 Minuet, i. 44, iii. 27, 29 Miracle-plays, i. 33, iii. 16 Molique, iii. 30 Monsigny, i. 44, iii. 25 Monteclair, iii. 40 Monteverde, i. 32, iii. 17, 24, 25, 35, 41, 45 Morales, Christoforo, i. 30 Morley, Thomas, i. 27, iii. 13, 22 Moscheles, i. 57, iii. 29, 32 Motett, i. 2124 (in 40 parts), 26, 29, 30 (24 parts), 35,49, 64 Mouton, i. 21, 22 Mozart, W. A., i. 48, 49, 62, 53 iii. 18, 25, 26, 2932, 39, 44, 47 Mozart, Leopold, i. 48 Muller, W., i. 49 Miiller, iii. 45 Musette, iii. 27 Miihica di Camera, iii. 30 Musica parlante, i. 32, iii. 17, 25, 26 Nanini, i. 29 Nardini, iii. 31 Xare.s, i. 38. iii. 20 National Training School for Music, iii. 49 Naumann, i. 42, 49, iii. 18, 31, 32 Neefe, i. 49 Neri, St. Philip de, i. 33 Nero, i. 7 Neukomm, i. 53, iii. 30, 32 Nillson, Chrlstini, iii. 48 Nocturne, i. 60, 64 Norwich Musical Festival, i. 64 Noses Red, The, i. 24 Notation, i. 11, 15 Novello, Clara, iii. 48 Nuova Musica, i. 29 Oboe, iii. 27, 32, 43, 44 Ockenheim, i. 20, iii. 18 Odington, iii. 50 Offenbach, i. 66, iii. 25 Old Hundredth, iii. 21 Olympos, i. 5. Onslow, iii. 29, 30, 32 Opera, Origin and progress of, i. 32, 3739, 4159, iii. 17, 24 26, 48 Ophicleide, iii. 45 Oratorio, Rise and progress of, i. 33, 3843, 47, 4959, 6167, 69, iii. 16, 25 Orchestra, i. 30, 32, 43, 47, 62, iii. 16, 18, 26, 32, 45 Organ, i. 14, iii. 27, 29, 31, 46 Organ Concertos, i. 41 Organists, i. 34, 3638, 40, 41, iii. 46 Organ-pedals, i. 24, iii. 46 Organuin, i. 14, iii. 5, 46 Orpharion, iii. 39 Ouseley, i. 65, iii. 17, 20, 50 182 Index. Overture, i. 44, 48, 61, iii. 16, 25 Paer, F., i. 50 Paesiello, iii. 18 Paganini, iii. 31, 41 Palestrina, i. 29, iii. 15, 18, 22 Paris Conservatoire, i. 61, 66 Passecaille, iii. 27 Passepied, iii. 27 Passion Music (Schiitz), i. 35, (Bach), 40, (Handel), 41, (Graun), 42, (Haydn), 47 Pasta, iii. 48 Patey, Mdmo., iii. 48 Patti Adelina, iii. 48 Pauer, E.. i. 69, iii. 38 Pavaine, iii. 27 Pearsall, iii. 22 Pergolesi, i. 43, iii. 18, 25, 41 Peri, i. 32, iii. 24, 25 Petrucci, i. 24 Philidor, i. 44 Phrygian mode, iii. 4 Pianoforte, i. 49, 52, 53, 56, 59, 60, 69, iii. 22, 29, 31, 38 Piccini, i. 43, 46, iii. 25 Pilgrim's Staff, iii. 42 Pipe, Double, i. 4 Plagal modes, i. 10 Plectrum, iii. 34 Pleyel, i. 49, iii. 2932 Pliny, i. 8 Polacca, iii. 27 Polonaise, i. 60 Polyphonic Music, i. 4 Porpora, i. 47 Potter, Cipriani, i. 64 Praetorius, i. 35 Preindl, i. 49 Pres, Jusquin des i. 21, iii. 11, 14, 18 Prout, Ebenezer, iii. 32 Psalms, i. 23, 43, ii.. 16, 19 Ptolemy, iii. 50 Purpell, Henry, i. 36, 37. iii. 20, 2527, 29, 46 Pythagoras, i. 5, iii. 50 Quartetts, i. 47, iii. 18, 25 Quintetts, i. 52, iii. 25 Quondam Tu Solus, iii. 18 Raff, i. 69, iii. 32 Raff (2), iii. 48 Rameau, i. 44, iii. 25, 50 Ravenstrom, iii. 40 Rebah, iii. 40 Rebec, iii. 40 Recitative, i. 32, 33, 39, 42, liu Recordare, iii. 18 [17, 25 Recorder, iii. 42 Reeves, Sims, iii. 48 Regals, iii. 46 Reicha, i. 53, iii. 30, 32, 50 Reichardt, i. 49 Reissiger, i. 57, iii- 30 Rests, i. 16 Ries, F., i. 67, in. 29, 30 Rigadoon, iii. 27 Rimbault, iii. 60 Rink, iii. 46 Rinuccini, i. 32 Ritornello, iii. 16, 17 Ritter, iii. 50 Robinson, Anastasia, iii. 48 Rode, i. 51, iii. 41 Romans, Musical pursuits of the, i. 7 Romberg, A., i. 49, iii. 32 Romberg, B., i. 49, iii. 30, 31 Rondo form, iii. 29 Rorc, Cyprian de, i. 22, iii-. 22 Rossini, i. 63, iii. 18, 25 Round, iii. 23 Rousseau, i. 44, iii. 50 Royal Academy of Music, i. 41, 65, iii. 49 Rubini, iii. 48 Rubinstein, i. 68, iii. 32, 38 Sacchini, i. 43, iii. 25 Sackbut, iii. 43, 45 Saint-Saens, i. 66 Salieri, i. 50 Salo, iii. 40 Sammartini, iii. 30 32 San Nicola, iii. 48 Santini, iii. 48 Santley, iii. 48 Sarabande, iii. 27 Saxe, iii. 45 Scales or modes, i. 2, 4, 8 Scarlatti, A., i. 43, iii. 18, 25, 2S Scarlatti, D., i. 43, iii. 27, 29 Schalmey, iii. 44 Index. 183 Scherzo, iii. 29 Schmidt, iii. 46 Schneider, i. 57, iii. 30 Schobert, i. 49, iii. 29 Schools of Music, i. 8, 12, 13, 29 Schroder, iii. 46 [iii. 49 Schroter, iii. 38 Schubert, i. 56, iii. 18, 25, 29, 30, 32 Schuloff, iii. 38 Schulz, i. 49 Schumann, Clara, i. 59, iii. 38 Schumann, R., i. 59, iii. 25, 29, 30, 32, 50 Schiitz, i. 35, 39, iii. 17, 24 Scientists, iii. 51 Sebastiani, i. 39 Semibrevis, i. 16 Senesino, iii. 48 Senfl, i. 35 Septett, i. 52, 53 Serpent, iii. 44 Seven-stringed Kithara, i. 5 Seventh, Chord of the, i. 32 Shield, iii. 30 Si, i. 15 Silas, Edward, iii. 32 Silbermann, iii. 38 Sing Academie, Berlin, i. 58 Singers, great, iii. 48 Singing Schools, i. 8, 12, 13, 29, iii. 48 Smart, H., iii. 20 Smith, Stafford, iii. 23 Snetzler, iii. 46 Sonata, i. 37, 47, 48, 52, iii. 29, 32,38 Sonata di Camera, iii. 29 Sonata di Chiesa, iii. 29 Sonatinas, i. 50 Songs, i. 22, iii. 27, 30 Son tag, iii. 48 Spinet, i. 32, iii. 17, 36 Spofforth, iii. 23 Spohr, i. 54, iii. 17, 25, 26, 30, 31, 41 Spontini, i. 62, iii. 25 Stadler, i. 49, iii. 46 Stainer, iii. 20, 50 Staudigl, iii. 48 Stave, i. 11, 15, iii. 6 SteggaU, C., i. 65, iii. 20 Steibelt, i. 49, iii. 29, 31 Stein, iii. 38 Steiner (or Stainer), iii. 41 Stevens, R. J. S., iii. 23 Stewart, R. P., i. 65, iii. 20 Storace, iii. 25, 25 Stradella, A., i. 43, iii. 17, 46 Stradiuari, iii. 41 Suites-des-pieces, i. 40, 41, iii. 27 29 Sullivan, A. S.,i. 65, iii. 17, 20 32 Siissmaier, i. 48 Swell, iii. 37, 46 Sylvester, Pope, i. 8 Symphony, i. 14, 4749, 52, iii. 16, 25, 32 Tablature, iii. 39 Tallis, Thomas, i. 26, iii. 20 Tambour, iii. 47 Tamburini, iii. 48 Tarantelle, iii. 27 Tartini, iii. 31, 41 Tavern er, i. 25 Te Deum (Ambrosian), i. 9; Festa, 28 ; Purcell, 37, iii. 19 Terpander, i. 5, iii. 34 Terradeglias, i. 43 Tesi, iii. 48 Tetrachords, i. 2, 10, iii. 6 Tetralogy, i. 69, iii. 25, 26 Thalberg, iii. 38 Theorbo, iii. 17, 39 Theory of Music, i. 30, 44, iii. 9 Thihaut of Navarre, i. 17 Thomas, Ambroise, i. 66, iii. 25 Thome, E. H., iii. 20 Thiirnerhorn, iii. 45 Tinctor, iii. 50 Titiens, Mdlle., iii. 48 Tofts, Mrs., iii. 48 Tonic Sol-fa movement, iii. 49 Tours, i. 65, iii. 20 Travers, i. 38, iii. 20 Trinity College, London, iii. 49 Trios, i. 47, iii. 20, 25 Triumphs of Oriana, i. 27 Troinba, iii. 45 Trombone, i. 30, 34, iii. 32, 43, 45 Troubadours, i. 5, 17, iii. 9, 10, 22,48 184 Index. Trumpet, iii. 32, 45 Trumpet-marine, iii. 40 Tuba, iii. 45 Tuba Mirum, iii. 18 Turk, i. 49 Turle, J., iii. 20 Tye, Christopher, i. 25, iii. 20, 36 Tympanum, iii. 47 Tyndall, iii. 51 Types, Movable, i. 24 Tyrtaeus, i. 5 Unisonal Singing, i. 8, iii. 5 Urh-heen (Chinese fiddle), iii. 40 Velter, iii. 35 Verdi, i. 67, iii. 25 Verse Anthems, iii. 20 "Viadana, i. 34, iii. 46 Viol, i. 32, iii. 28, 40 Viola, iii. 32 Viola-da-gamba, i. 47, iii. 40 Viola pomposa, iii. 40 Viol d' amour, iii. 40 Viol di Bardone, iii. 40 Violin, i. 30, 37, 48, 50, iii. 16, 27, 29, 31, 32, 41 Violinists, iii. 41 Violoncello, i. 52, 53, iii. 31, 32, 40 Viotti, i. 50, iii. 30, 31, 41 Virginal Book, Queen Eliza- beth's, i. 26 Virginals, i. 25, iii. 36 Vittoria, i. 30 Vitula, iii. 40 Vogler, i. 49, iii. 46 Vulpius, i. 35 Wachtel, iii. 48 "Waelrant, i. 31 Wagner, i. 69, iii. 25, 26, 43, 44 Wallace, V., i. 64, iii. 25 Walmisley, iii. 20 Walther, i. 35, iii. 21 Walther (2), iii. 46 Waltz, i. 60 Webbe, iii. 18, 23 Weber, B. A., i. 49 Weber, C. M. Von, j. 55, iii. 18, 25, 26, 2931 Weelkes, i. 27 Weigl, i. 49 Weldon, J., i. 38, iii. 20 Welsh Ha.rp, iii. 35 Wesley, S., i. 64, iii. 20 Wesley, S. Sebastian, i. 64, iii. Weyghtes, iii. 27, 43 [20, 46 Wheatstone, Sir C., iii. 51 White, Robert, i. 26 Whitelocke, iii. 27 Wieck, i. 59 Wilbye, i. 27, iii. 22 Willaert, i. 22, iii. 22 Wilson, Dr., iii. 28 Winter, P. Von, i. 49 Wise, Michael, i. 36, iii. 20 Wolstan, iii. 46 Wood, iii. 38 Zachau, F., i. 41 Zarlino, i. 30, iii. 50 Zelter, i. 49, 58, iii. 50 Zingarelli, i. 50, iii. 18 University of California SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY 405 Hilgard Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90024-1388 Return this material to the library from which it was borrowed. MUSfC "RRARV ML 161 H912c 1878