GIFT OF Syllabus ^ On 4 a A Japan Suggested Outlines for a Discussion of Japan, Her Historu, Culture, Problems, and Relations with the United States KENNETH SCOTT LATOURETTE D. Willis James Professor of Missions in Yale University FOREWORD "DELIEVING that an outline of subjects about Japan with references to reliable sources of information would be of value to members of the Japan Society, to clubs, debating organizations, teachers, students, and writers and speakers on Japan the Townsend Harris Endowment Fund Committee of the Japan Society asked Professor Kenneth Scott Latourette, of Yale University, a student of the Far East, to prepare such a work. The reader should understand therefore that this pamph- let does not necessarily express the views of the Committee, whose opinions on the subjects covered . in the compilation were not sought. It is entirely the production of Professor Latourette; the Townsend Harris Committee and the Japan Society act merely as the vehicle for its distribution. COMMITTEE : DARWIN P. KINGSLEY, Chairman SEYMOUR CROMWELL R. ICHINOMIYA JOHN H. FINLEY OTTO H. KAHN ELBERT H. GARY MASANAO KOBAYASHI A. BARTON HEPBURN JULIAN STREET LINDSAY RUSSELL GERARD SWOPE GUY E. TRIPP FRANK A. VANDERLIP JAPAN SOCIETY, INC. 25 West 43d Street New York attain that goal, however, it is highly advisable that as many other organizations as possible aid in the sound instruction of our people about Japan and things Japanese. Informal groups in colleges and universities, business men's organizations, and women's clubs can and should each have its part. It is primarily to meet the needs of such groups that this set of outlines has been prepared. The first and longest syllabus is for the use of those who may wish to devote a series of meetings to Japan. There is no reason, however, why individual sections from it should not be chosen by those who may wish to devote a shorter time to the study. The other and briefer outlines are designed for groups that may wish to take up only one feature of the life and problems of our trans-Pacific neighbor. At the end of each section there are given bibliographical references to four or five of the books that ought most frequently to be found in public or private libraries, and at the close of the pamphlet there is to be found a selected list of the most important works in English on Japan. KENNETH SCOTT LATOURETTE. August, 1921 JAPAN An Outline for from Six to Ten Studies A THE GEOGRAPHIC BACKGROUND OF JAPAN I. The geographic components of Japan. 1. The islands, from North to South: The Kuriles, Sak- halin (Southern half only, although the Northern half is also occupied at present), Hokkaido (Yezo), the Main Island, Shikoku, Kyushu, the Riukius, Taiwan (Formosa). The Bonins, a small group important only for strategic reasons, lie outside this chain. By the Treaty of Versailles, Japan acquired under a mandate the former German islands north of the Equator, i.e., the Marianne or Ladrone, the Pelew, the Caroline (including Yap), and the Marshall Islands. 2. On the mainland of Asia: Chosen (Korea), leased territories in Manchuria, and 1 eased II. Area. Somewhat larger than the state of California. III. Character of the islands. Mountainous. The soil is fre- quently unfertile, and only about a quarter of it is capable of being reduced to cultivation. IV. Influence of the islands upon the history of their people. 1. The insular position encourages national individuality. 2. In the old days this insular position also made possible a kind of isolation from the continent. During historic times there has been no successful invasion from the mainland. 3. The islands, because of their nearness to the continent, were subject to cultural influences from China and the population and civilization of the country are Asiatic. 4. The position of the islands gives Japan the control of all the sea approaches to north-eastern Asia, and so assures her an advantage in the commercial and naval future of China, Eastern Siberia, and the North Pacific. 5 5. The insular character of the country and the nearness to the continent have been factors in leading the nation to seek to develop its shipping and commerce. 6. The fact that the arable land of the islands is greatly limited has caused the Japanese to turn to industry, commerce, emigration, and imperialism as outlets for surplus population and energy. The islands have very little iron and insufficient coal of first quality, and they are, accordingly, eager to insure to themselves free access to the abundant supplies of both which are to be bound on the neighboring continent. Bibliography. K. S. Latourette, The Development of Japan, Macmillan, 1917, chapter I. W. E. Griffis, The * Mikado's Empire, New York, 1913, 12th edition; E. B. Mitford, Japan's Inheritance. London, T. Fisher Unwin, 1913; E. W. Clement, A Handbook of Modern Japan, Chicago, A. C. McClurg, 1905, Chapter I. B THE HISTORY OF JAPAN TO THE COMING OF PERRY I. The mythological stories of the origin of the nation. According to these the islands and their people are the offspring of the gods, and the imperial house is directly descended from the Sun Goddess, the first emperor being Jimmu Tenno, and the traditional date of his accession, 660 B.C. II. The real facts of the case are, probably, that the Japanese are a mixed race, made up of migrations from the continent and the islands to the south, and that the original center of the Japanese state was Yamato, on a peninsula of the south-eastern part of the Main Island. The people were for many centuries crude, without a highly organized government or a system of writing. 6 III. Beginning with the sixth century A.D., there came intimate contact with the civilization of China through Korea, and this contact brought about great changes in Japan. 1. Buddhism came in, and with it as the vehicle there entered writing, art, architecture, and philosophy. 2. The political machinery of the state was remodeled to make it conform to that of China. 3. Commerce and industry felt the stimulus of contact with the continent. 4. The Japanese were not blind imitators of Chinese culture, but modified it in places to meet their needs. IV. The rise of feudalism and the shogunate, with their dual government. 1. The political machinery introduced from China proved ill adapted to Japan, and in time broke down. After some centuries of struggle and evolution the real power of the govern- ment passed into the hands of a military class which came to be organized into a system that in many respects resembled the feudalism of medieval Europe. 2. The head of this military class was the shogun, and while the emperor and his court still existed and were nominally the source of all authority, the actual administration of the country was in the hands of the shogun and his officials. The shogunate began in 1192 A.D. V. Japan under the shogunate. 1. The shogunate was successively in the hands of several military families. 2. In the civil war which followed the fall of the Ashikaga shoguns at the close of the sixteenth century A.D. there arose a commoner, Hideyoshi, who for a time ruled the country and carried out a bloody invasion of Korea. 3. The final dynasty of the shogunate, that of the Toku- gawa family, was begun by lyeyasu in 1603, and ended with the resignation of the shogun and the abolishment of the shogunate in 1867. 4. Intercourse with Europeans began at the close of the sixteenth century. The Portuguese were the first to come, and other Europeans followed. Both traders and Catholic missionaries came and the latter quickly won a large following, especially in southern Japan. The success of the missionaries and the danger of political division and unrest which their presence was thought to involve, led Hideyoshi and lyeyasu to proscribe Christianity. Under lyeyasu and his successors there was carried on a bloody persecution of Christians and the Church was all but stamped out. To keep out missionaries and by so doing to preserve the political unity and independence of the country, the islands were closed against practically all trade with Europe. Only the Dutch were permitted to come to Japan, and commerce with them was carried on under the very greatest restrictions. Bibliography. Latourette, The Development of Japan, Chapters II-V; Griffis, The Mikado's Empire, F. Brinkley, A History of the Japanese People, New York Encyclo- paedia Britannica Co., 1915, pp. 1-664; Clement, Handbook of Modern Japan, Chapter VII; R. P. Porter, The Full Recognition of Japan, Oxford University Press, 1911, Chapters II, III. THE CIVILIZATION OF THE OLD JAPAN I. The organization and the spirit were military and feudal. 1. The feudal lords, or daimyo, and their armed retainers, or samurai, were the dominant political class, and their ideals gave the tone to those of the entire nation. 2. This tradition has been largely carried over into the new Japan and constitutes at once a large part of her strength and her weakness. 8 II. The imperial house, while politically almost impotent, remained in theory the source of all authority and socially was held far to outrank the shogun. This sacrosanct position of the emperor and the tradition that he should reign but that his ministers should be the real executives and should assume responsibility for all his acts has been carried over in part into the new Japan. III. The religions. 1. Shinto. This was the primitive faith of the Japanese, somewhat modified by later elements from the continent. Its chief emphasis in time came to be upon paying honor to ancestors, national heroes, and to the imperial house. 2. Buddhism. This had been introduced from China and Korea and had been the vehicle on which had come much of the culture of the continent. It was divided into a number of sects and its monastic houses were often very powerful. The Tokugawa shoguns especially favored it. 3. Confucianism. This system of ethics and philosophy was introduced from China. In the strictest sense it is doubtful whether it is a religion. It was not as widespread as in China and its chief influence was upon the upper class. IV. Bushido, the ethical system of the military class. This had in it Buddhist and Confucian elements and placed great emphasis upon loyalty and personal honor. Its influence upon the new Japan is still important. V. Art. This was largely fostered and influenced by Budd- hism. The artistic spirit was strong, perhaps in part because of the beauty of the natural environment of the nation. The chief forms of art were painting, carving, architecture, sword making, and ceramics. The artistic spirit also expressed itself in dances, ceremonies, and in an elaborate courtesy. 9 VI. Literature. 1. Except in poetry this was largely Chinese in form and style. 2. The Chinese character was used for writing, but this was in part modified by the invention of syllabic signs. VII. National Characteristics. 1. Martial. 2. Exclusive. 3. Sensitive, with a highly developed sense of courtesy and honor. 4. Accustomed to adapting foreign institutions, ideas, and devices to the use of Japan. VIII. Economic organization. 1 . The merchant class was looked down on by the military class, and trade was considered below the dignity of gentlemen. 2. Such industry and commerce as existed were organized on the guild basis. 3. The country was self-supporting and there was practi- cally no foreign trade. Bibliography, Latourette, The Development of Japan, Chapter VI; Griffis, The Mikado's Empire \ Brinkley, A History of the Japanese People, passim. D THE TRANSFORMATION OF JAPAN, 1853-1894 I . The coming of the Occident. 1. The opening of Japan was inevitable because of the expansion of European peoples, industry, and commerce in the nineteenth century. 2. Japan was opened by Commodore Perry, acting for the United States. The motive w'as provision for American seamen and commerce in the North Pacific. 10 3. The treaty negotiated by Perry, in 1854, the Spring after his first coming to Japan, was followed by others with Western powers. 4. The first effective commercial treaties were negotiated by Townsend Harris, for the United States, in 1857 and 1858. By these treaties certain ports were opened for commerce and the residence of foreigners, exterritoriality was adopted and a customs tariff was fixed. 5. The steady growth of commerce and of other forms of intercourse with the United States and Europe, such as Christian missions, the establishment of foreign consulates and legations, the sending of Japanese diplomatic representatives abroad, and the employing of foreign teachers all of these were chan- nels for the introduction of Western ideas and institutions. 1 1 . Changes in Japan which followed the coming of the Occident. 1. Political. a. International dissension over the question pi whether the country should be opened to the foreigner. The shogun favored admitting him, but a group of southern fiefs, chief of whom were Satsuma and Choshu, opposed this policy and gained the ear of the emperor. b. The end of the shogunate and the restoration of the emperor (1867). The shogun found his position intolerable, chiefly because of the dissension over foreign policy and an increasing demand that the emperor resume the full direction of the state. He accordingly resigned and imperial decree declared the duarchy at an end. c. In 1868 the emperor who is today known by the name of Meiji came to the throne. As he reached manhood he backed the reformers. d. The southern fiefs, who were now dominant, experienced a change of mind and favored admitting the foreigner. 11 e. In 1868 the capital of the empire was removed from Kyoto to Yedo (renamed Tokyo), a symbol of the end of the duarchy and national seclusion. f. The end of feudalism. In 1869 the daimyo volun- tarily surrendered their fiefs and in 1871 the feudal system was officially abolished by imperial decree. g. The centralization of government. (1) The substitution of compulsory, universal military service for the feudal army in which service was a class privilege. (2) So far as law could do it the old class distinc- tions were abolished and all subjects of the emperor were placed on an equal footing. (3) The organization of a bureaucracy responsible to the authorities at Tokyo. (4) National courts and codes of laws framed in part according to European models. (5) Creation of a national currency and banking system. (6) An official revival of Shinto to increase the respect for the emperor and his ancestors and so to foster patriotism. (7) The work of centralization and reorganization was carried on by a group of young men, largely ex-samurai and members of the southern fiefs, and the control of these fiefs over the government, especially over the army and navy, largely continued under the new forms. Although feudalism was legally abolished, its spirit and traditions could not be so easily extinguished, and its influence has been strong even down to the present time. h. The opposition to the new order of things did not quickly die down, but culminated in the Satsuma revolt of 1877. This was easily suppressed. i. The formation and adoption of a constitution. (1) The agitation for this dated from the seven- ties and even the sixties. Tentative steps were taken toward 12 it by the government and as the demand continued and increased the government promised (1881) that a constitution would be granted. (2) The document was largely the work of Ito, who was sent to the West to study the forms of government in use there. (3) The constitution was prepared secretly by an imperial commission and was officially promulgated in 1889. It was the gift of the emperor and was not a document drawn by a popularly elected assembly. (4) The constitution resembles in many ways that of the German Empire. All power is centered in the emperor. Certain rights are conceded to all Japanese subjects limited, however, by restrictions placed by law. There is an Imperial Diet, composed of the House of Peers and the House of Representatives. The upper house is made up of hereditary, nominated and elected members. . The lower house is made up of members elected on the basis of a franchise which has been steadily expanded but is still limited. No laws can be passed or new taxes levied without the consent of the Diet, but the emperor may exercise an absolute veto over the Diet. The cabinet is responsible to the emperor alone, and not to the Diet. The institution of the Elder Statesmen, or Genro, while not provided for by the constitution, and entirely extra-legal, is very influential. The body has been made up of those leaders who were most active in the organization of the new Japan. The constitution, while seemingly so undemocratic, was probably the best possible for the Japan of 1890, and it is so elastic that under it the govern- ment can become more and more democratic as the nation becomes ready for and desirous of such a change. j. The rise of parties and the struggle of the lower house to obtain control of the cabinet. Itagaki and Okuma were the chief party leaders. 2. Diplomatic. a. The establishment of foreign legations in Japan and the sending of Japanese consular and diplomatic representa- tives to the West. 13 b. There was a growing demand that exterritoriality be abolished and the full control of the country over its customs duties be restored. This agitation was due to a rapidly growing patriotism and sense of national importance. Exterritoriality was finally abolished in 1898, and complete tariff autonomy came into effect in 1911. c. In 1875 Russia recognized Japan's sovereignty over the Kuriles in return for Japan's recognition of her owner- ship of Sakhalin. d. In the seventies Japan extended her provincial administration to the Riu Kiu Islands and in other ways main- tained her claim to them against a counter claim of China. e. In 1876 Japan opened Korea to the outside world and became the champion of progress in that hermit kingdom. Her policy there came into conflict with that of China, who claimed suzerainty over the peninsula, but in 1885 Tokyo and Pekin came to a working, and, as it later proved, temporary agreement concerning the country. 3. Ecomomic. a. The increase of foreign trade. b. The beginnings of railways. c. The beginnings of a mercantile marine. d. The introduction of modern methods of industry and agriculture. e. The beginnings of a banking system. f. In all of these activities the state usually took the lead. 4. Educational. a. The introduction of a complete system of public instruction on Occidental lines, with universal compulsory primary education as a foundation and culminating in the universities. Foreign teachers were employed in large numbers. 14 b. The appearance of a modern literature, largely in the form of translations of Western books. c. The rise of newspapers and periodicals. 5. Religious. a. The disestablishment of Buddhism and an emphasis on Shinto. b. The removal of the edicts against Christianity and the rise of Christian churches Catholic, Greek Orthodox (Rus- sian), and Protestant. Bibliography. Latourette, The Development of Japan, Chap- ters VII-IX; Griffis, The Mikado's Empire; Brinkley, A Short History of the Japanese People, pp. 664-699, 707-710; Clement, Handbook of Modern Japan, Chapters VIII, IX, X; Porter, The Full Recognition of Japan, Chapters IV and V. JAPAN BECOMES A WORLD POWER AND AN INDUS- TRIALIZED AND COMMERCIAL NATION I. The War With China, 1894-1895. 1. Cause: Dispute between China and Japan over the control of Korea, and the fear of Japan that Russia might some- time annex the country. 2. The war Japan won easily on land and sea. The Chinese fleet was destroyed, and Wei-hai-wei, Port Arthur and Talien were taken. 3. The treaty (of Shimonoseki) that ended the war. By this treaty China recognized the independence of Korea; the Liaotung Peninsula (in Southern Manchuria), Formosa, and the Pescadore Islands were ceded to Japan, and an indemnity was given her. 15 4. Russia, France, and Germany intervened and compelled Japan to recede to China the Liaotung Peninsula in return for a larger indemnity. 5. As a result of this interference Japan began to expand her army and navy and a war with Russia seemed not improbable. 6. The effect of the war was somewhat to increase the world's respect for Japan. She had not, however, yet attained recognition as a world power. II. European aggression in China. 1. European powers, impelled by the imperialism of the nineteenth century, began to struggle for railway concessions, leases, and spheres of influence in China. France obtained railway concessions and the lease of a port in South China, Great Britain leased Wei-hai-wei and marked out the Yangtze Valley as her sphere of influence, Germany obtained (1899) a ninety-nine year lease on the harbor of Kiao Chau and con- cessions for railways in Shantung, and Russia got a lease on Port Arthur and Dalny (on the Liaotung Peninsula) and con- nected them by rail with her trans-Siberian trunk line. Russia had already obtained the consent of China to build the trans- Siberian railway across Northern Manchuria instead of having it follow the windings of the Amur in all-Russian territory. Russia, who had years ago annexed Siberia and was engaged in pushing the boundaries of her Asiatic possessions as far eastward and southward as possible, seemed bent on acquiring Manchuria and Korea, and in so doing had become a menace to Japan. 2. The United States tried to oppose by means of the Open Door Policy this land-grabbing by Europe, but in the main obtained only perfunctory acquiescence in it. III. Japan's part in the Boxer Outbreak (1900). 1. Some of the Chinese attempted to oust the Westerner and a joint expedition of the Powers was organized to relieve 16 the foreigners who were beseiged in Peking. In this expedition Japan had a part, and her troops bore themselves well. 2. Russia took advantage of the Boxer troubles to extend her power in Manchuria, and maintained her forces there in spite of the protests of the United States, Great Britain, and Japan. IV. The Anglo- Japanese Alliance. This agreement was formed in 1902, and was confined in its scope to the Far East. It was directed primarily against Russia, for both parties feared her aggressions in Asia. It was renewed in 1905, because of fear of Germany, and again in 1911, for ten years. V. The Russo-Japanese War, 1904-1905. 1. The causes: Russian intrigues in Manchuria and Korea. 2. The war. Japan won on both land and sea. On land she drove the Russian army back and captured Port Arthur and Mukden. On sea she penned up and captured the eastern fleet of the Czar and destroyed the Baltic Fleet in the Straits of Tsushima. Had it not been for revolution in Russia, how- ever, the Czar might have continued the war, and had he done so it might have gone hard with Japan, for her resources were badly strained. 3. The Peace of Portsmouth. Through the friendly offices of President Roosevelt the two belligerents were brought together at Portsmouth, and by the treaty that followed, Japan's paramount interests in Korea were recognized, Manchuria was to be evacuated, the Russian leases on Port Arthur and Dalny and the Russian railways in South Manchuria were transferred to Japan, the south half of Sakhalin was ceded to Japan, and the reimbursement of each power for the expense of caring for prisoners of war, the maintenance of railway guards in Manchuria, and the recognition of Chinese sovereignty in Manchuria were provided for. 17 4. The effects of the war were greatly to increase the prestige of Japan in Europe and Asia, to commit her to a continental policy, to insure her control of Korea and her deep interest in China, to strengthen the hands of her militaristic elements, and to lead to a renewal of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance (1905 and 1911). VI. Japan's growing power on the Continent, 1905-1914. 1. The annexation of Korea, 1910. Under Japanese rule, which in the beginning was openly militaristic, the pros- perity of the peninsula has greatly increased, but the inhabitants have been restive. 2. By commerce, by subsidizing steamships, and by extend- ing her post offices, Japan increased her influence in China. Many thousands of Chinese studied in Tokyo, and Japan thus became the medium by which much of Occidental culture came to China. 3. Japan was much interested in the revolution of 1911 (by which China became a republic), and in the disorders that accompanied and followed that event she found opportunity to strengthen her influence in China. VII. Japan and the Great War, 1914-1918. 1. In August, 1914, Japan entered the war on the side of the Entente. She was led to do this partly by the Anglo- Japanese Alliance, and partly by her own interests in China. 2. Aided by a small British force she took from Germany the latter's holdings in Shantung, giving the world to under- stand that she would return them to China. She also helped to drive the German raiders off the North Pacific and captured some of the German Islands in the Pacific. 3. In 1915 she made five groups of twenty-one demands on China. By these she sought to extend her power in Man- churia, to win China's consent to any settlement which Tokyo might make with Germany about the latter's former possessions in Shantung, to obtain control of the greatest iron works in 18 China, to have China promise not to cede or lease to any third power any portion of her coast, and to secure a strong hold on China's government and army, railway concessions in the Yangtze Valley and a certain priority of interest in the province of Fuhkien. Because China was helpless she granted most of the demands included under the first four groups, but the Chinese people considered themselves humiliated. A large section of the Japanese public came to feel that the demands were too severe and hence a mistake. If there is any defense for them and for Japan's other aggressions in China, it is to be found in the necessity of Japan's maintaining free access to China's markets and resources, in China's weakness, in the fact that European powers by their aggressions had threatened to close the door against Japan, and in the opportunity that the Great War gave Japan to obtain a secure hold on China against the days of renewed European expansion. 4. In 1916, Japan entered into an agreement with Russia by which the two powers were to protect each other's interests in the Far East. 5. In 1917, Japan entered into secret understandings with Russia, Great Britain, France, and Italy by which these powers agreed to support at the peace conference Japan's claims to the German islands north of the equator, and the former German holdings in Shantung. 6. In 1917, after the United States and China had entered the war, the Lansing- Ishii Agreement was arrived at between Japan and the United States. By this both powers agreed to observe the territorial integrity and independence of China and the open door into that country, and the United States recognized that because of "territorial propinquity" Japan had 4 'special interests" in China. 7. Japan entered into a military agreement with China for common defense against the common menace of Russian unrest on the north. 8. In 1918, Japan loaned to China large sums on the security of revenues and other valuable assets in various parts of the country. 19 9. The civil war which broke out in China in 1917, and which has continued to the present time, further weakened China and facilitated somewhat the extension of Japanese influence in the country. 10. Early in 1918, Japan and the United States, aided by small forces of British, French, and Italians undertook a joint expedition into Eastern Siberia to help put down the Bolsheviki, and to allow the Czecko-Slovaks to make their way out. The withdrawal of the American forces in 1920 left Japan alone in Siberia and there her troops still remain. 11. In 1919, some Koreans, placing hope in the avowed championship by the Allies of the self-determination of peoples, started an independence movement. This was easily put down by the Japanese, but the severity with which this was done aroused sharp criticism in the United States and among many of the Japanese, and a milder administration was promised. 12. In 1919, by the Treaty of Versailles with Germany, Japan was given the mandate to the former German islands in the Pacific, north of the equator, and was given outright the former German holdings in Shantung. The latter provision aroused opposition in the United States and greatly enraged the Chinese. Led by the students, the Chinese people instituted a boycott against the Japanese and their products, and forced their government to decline to sign the treaty. Japan later made overtures to China to open negotiations to adjust the Shanturtg situation, but to date the Chinese have refused to accept her terms. 13. At Paris, in 1919, at the instance of the United States, a financial consortium was projected for the purpose of making loans for the development of China through an international group, and thus to prevent the creation of further spheres of influence and concessions to individual nations. Japan at first declined to join this consortium unless Manchuria were exempted from its scope. She later, however, reached an understanding with the consortium which enabled her to enter. 14. During the war Japanese industry and commerce grew with great rapidity and the country was very prosperous. 20 15. The net results of the war were greatly to increase the wealth of Japan, to give her a recognized place among the great powers, to extend largely her control over China, and because of the great losses of European nations to leave her relatively much stronger than she was in 1914. VIII. Japan and the United States. 1. Until 1905, the relations between the two nations had been cordial. America's part in opening Japan, her friendly attitude, her return of part of the Shimonoseki indemnity fund, the work of American teachers, advisers and missionaries, and the lack of any serious cause of friction between the two countries had all made for friendship. 2. After 1905, the relations between the two countries had periods of strain. The chief causes of this strain were Japan's economic situation, the question of Japanese immigration to the United State's, the conflict of the interests and policies of the two powers on the continent of Asia, especially in China, rivalry on the Pacific, including competition in naval armaments, and the activities of a jingo press in each country. 3. The economic situation of Japan; a. A growing population. b. A limited amount of arable land, no iron, only a fair amount of coal, and a dearth of many of the raw materials for industry. c. Under the circumstances, Japan has only two alternatives, to foster emigration or to become an industrial and commercial nation, exchanging her manufactured products for food and raw materials. d. Many of the best of the vacant lands of the world, such as Australia, the United States, and Canada, are closed against her and this exclusion is provocative of irritation. Her only opportunity is in becoming an industrialized nation, and if she is to do this she finds her best natural market and source of raw materials on the neighboring continent. This gives her 21 a great interest in China and Eastern Siberia. Her Chinese policy is her main interest in foreign relations. If she is to have a strong voice in Asiatic affairs and is to develop a large mer- chant marine for her commerce, she feels the need of a powerful fleet to protect her shipping and her communications with Asia. e. In all of these needs, i.e., room for emigrants, vigorous Chinese and Asiatic policies, and a large fleet, her interests have clashed with those of the United States. 4. The Japanese in the United States. a. The presence of Japanese on the Pacific Coast of the United States and in Hawaii. They originally came in as unskilled laborers and at first were welcomed. They were hard-working, thrifty, and law-abiding. b. Prejudice against the Japanese first arose in about 1900, but did not become serious until 1905 and 1906. The center of the prejudice was in California, but there was also opposition to the Japanese in the State of Washington and in Hawaii. c. In 1907 there was arranged the "Gentlemen's Agreement" by which the Japanese government undertook to prevent the coming of unskilled laborers to the United States. The Japanese have on the whole scrupulously observed this agreement; but they have seriously irritated the people of the Pacific States by permitting " Picture-Brides" to be sent over. This practice has now been discontinued. Such Japanese as have entered the United States have for the most part not been of the groups falling under the scope of the prohibition. d. In 1913 Californians became alarmed at the increase in the amount of land owned or leased by Japanese, and although the proportion of this land to the total cultivated area of the state was small, they feared a Japanese invasion and in spite of the opposition of President Wilson, passed legislation which was designed to prevent the Japanese from holding land except on a short term lease. In 1920 new and more stringent legis- lation was passed by California. 22 e. Unless born in the United States, Japanese are not permitted to vote. They cannot become naturalized citizens. The status of those who are born in the United States is complicated by the fact that under certain conditions Japan may still claim them as her subjects, and that there is some agitation for depriving them of American citizenship. f. The net result of the anti-Japanese agitation in the United States has been to embitter Japanese against America and to increase the dislike and suspicion of Americans for Japanese. There has, however, been an active and influential minority in each country working for good-will and mutual understanding. 5. The conflict of Japan and America in Asia. a. Underlying causes. Japan feels that her existence depends upon her retaining free access to the markets, mines, and raw materials of Asia, and especially China. China is weak and European powers have threatened to partition her and close the door against Japan. Japan, accordingly, desires to have a controlling voice in China's affairs. This desire is ree'n- forced by the presence in Japan of a militaristic, imperialistic group that is very influential in the government. The United States has stood for the open door in China and for the inde- pendence and territorial integrity of that country. Her capi- talists are partly awake to the possibilities for commerce and the investment of capital in China and may become dangerous rivals of the Japanese. b. In 1905 Harriman tried to buy the railroads in Manchuria that Japan had acquired from Russia, but failed. He later tried to get control of the Russian lines there. Secretary Knox also proposed to neutralize the railroads of Manchuria. These various attempts aroused the opposition and suspicions of Japan. c. Various attempts of Americans to invest capital in China helped to make the Japanese believe that the United States might become a dangerous rival on the continent. Some of these attempts were America's part in the international 23 syndicate which in 1913 loaned money to China, the project of an American company to build docks in Fuhkien, opposite Formosa, the proposal of American capitalists to loan money for the construction of a railway in Shantung in competition with railways controlled by Japan, and the part of the State Department of the United States in initiating and of American financiers in carrying on the consortium of 1919. American official policy has been to favor the independence and territorial integrity of China. This angers Japanese imperialists and at times it seems, even to those who are not imperialistically inclined, to be a cloak under which to hide sinister designs on China. d. During the war the United States was the only power to lodge even a semi-protest against the Twenty-One Demands. She was largely influential in leading China to break with Germany, and she was the only one of the Allies who, in 1917, advised China that it was better for her to compose her internal differences than to go to war with the Central Powers. At Paris American public opinion strongly condemned, on the whole, the transfer of the German rights in Shantung to Japan. These various acts, together with American intervention in Siberia, and the sympathy of Americans with the Korean attempt at independence, seemed to many Japanese to indicate an attempt to displace Japan as the dominant power in Eastern Asia, or at least to be an effort to check Japan in her endeavor to realize what she deemed to be her legitimate ambitions. e. Many Americans, on the other hand, became firmly convinced that Japan was attempting to annex Eastern Siberia, to control and possibly sometime to annex China, and to become the kind of menace to the world that Germany was in 1914. f. The Root-Takahira Agreement of 1908 and Lansing- Ishii Agreement of 1917 were attempts to adjust the relation- ships of the two powers in China, but were not highly successful. 6. Japanese-American rivalry on the Pacific. a. Many Americans believed Japan^to have ambitions to annex Hawaii and the Philippines. 24 b. The controversy over the island of Yap, a former German possession and an important cable station, (1920 and 1921) did not improve matters. c. The Japanese have an increasing part of the carrying trade of the North Pacific. d. The rival naval building programs of the United States and Japan. 7. There is in each country a jingo press which talks much of war and makes the most out of every rumor with scant regard to whether it is true or false. 8. In the face of these various causes making for misun- derstanding there are a number of counterbalancing forces. a. The unwillingness of both powers to go to war. The United States is tired of war and the Japanese know them- selves to be much the weaker of the two powers in natural resources. In each nation there are those who believe that a war between the two countries would be disastrous to one and possibly both belligerents and that only harm could come from it. b. In each country there are those who are working to remove the causes of misunderstanding between the two nations. c. America is still Japan's best customer, and war between the two countries would work a hardship on large elements in the Island Empire. 9. War between the two countries would be highly unfor- tunate but is by no means inevitable. There must, however, be an active effort toward good will and mutual understanding and adjustment of difficulties, for by the very nature of the ambitions and interests of the two nations differences and diplomatic contests can hardly be avoided for many years to come. 25 IX. Economic developments in Japan since 1895. 1. A large growth in manufacturing, especially during the war. 2. With this rise of manufacturing has come the growth of great industrial cities. 3. A large increase in commerce. That with China has particularly expanded. 4. The development of a growing merchant marine, aided by heavy government subsidies. 5. Growth in banking and in life and fire insurance com- panies. 6. A rapid increase in wealth, especially during the war. A few have grown very rich, but there seems also to be a general rise in the standard of living. 7. A few months after the conclusion of peace there was a sharp industrial and financial depression in Japan, as was to be expected. This will not be of permanent injury to the prosperity of the country. 8. Underlying all this growing prosperity is the fact, however, that Japan's natural resources are limited. The amount of her arable land is small, her coal fields are not exten- sive, and she has but little iron. Her hope lies in industrial and commercial efficiency and in achieving control of or main- taining free access to the natural resources of Eastern Asia. X. Internal political developments since 1895. 1. Party struggles. The hope of some of the parties was to bring about the responsibility of the cabinet to the diet. This was not achieved but the ministry has usually found it advisable to conciliate the lower house as much as possible. 2. Agitation for the extension of the franchise. It was partly successful. 26 3. The present premier, Kara, is spoken of as the first commoner to hold the office. 4. Among the prominent figures in the politics of the past twenty-five years have been Ito, Katsura, Saionji, Okuma, Terauchi, and Yamagata. 5. There is a growing liberal sentiment, especially among the middle and student classes, but the conservatives, entrenched in the army and navy, still have a controlling influence in the government. 6. There are the beginnings of radicalism, including socialism, but its influence is still very slight. There have been some labor disturbances. 7. The nation is intensely patriotic and as a whole is devotedly loyal to the emperor. The present emperor, Yoshihito, succeeded the emperor Meiji in 1912. XI. Intellectual and educational development. 1. A growth in schools, and great pressure upon the institutions of higher education to accommodate the numbers who apply for admission. 2. Japanese scholarship is proving able and is making contributions of importance along a number of lines. 3. There is growth in the output of newspapers, periodicals, and books. Bibliography. Latourette, The Development of Japan, Chapters X-XII; Brinkley, A History of the Japanese People, pp. 697-731; Clement, Handbook of Modern Japan, passim ; Porter, The Full Recognition of Japan, passim ; Mitford, Japan's Inheritance, passim; Japan and Japanese - American Relations, Clark University Addresses, New York, G. E. Stechert and Co., 1912, passim. 27 SUGGESTED OUTLINES FOR SINGLE MEETINGS ON JAPAN A. JAPANESE-AMERICAN RELATIONS. See pages 21-25, of this syllabus for an outline and consult the biblio- graphy on pages 38 and 39, for a list of books. B. THE JAPANESE CONSTITUTION. See page 13 for a brief outline. Bibliography. W. W. McLeran, A Political History of Japan During the Meiji Era, 1867-1912, New York, 1916; Clement, Handbook of Modern Japan, Chapters IX and X; McGovern, Modern Japan, Parts II and III. C. SINO-JAPANESE RELATIONS. I. Relations before the nineteenth century. 1. The Japanese had derived most of their culture from China. 2. The Chinese looked upon the Japanese with patronizing contempt as "island dwarfs" who had borrowed all that kept them from being barbarous from the ' 'Middle Kingdom." 3. In the sixteenth century Japanese pirates had raided the coasts of China and Hideyoshi had invaded Korea with the expectation of conquering China by that route. II. Relations in the nineteenth century before 1894. 1. In the seventies there was friction between the two countries over the title to the Riu Kiu Islands and incidentally over Formosa. 2. There was also friction over Korea. Japan opened the country to foreign intercourse and supported the party of progress, while China claimed the suzerainty of Korea and backed the reactionary group. In 1884 both powers intervened in a collision between these two groups, but withdrew their troops in 1885 under an agreement which it was hoped would cover similar incidents in the future. 28 III. The Chino- Japanese War. See above, page 15. IV. Japan's par tin suppressing the Boxer Uprising. See above, page 16. V. The Russo-Japanese War. See above, page 17. China gave her consent to the provisions of the Peace of Portsmouth that affected her. VI. Between 1905 and 1914 Japan was gradually extending her influence over China. See above, page 18. VII. During the Great War Japan greatly increased her power in China, but in doing so aroused the antagonism of most of the Chinese people. See above pages 18-21. VIII. China is necessary to Japan's future, for that depends upon the successful development of Japan's industry and commerce and China is at once Japan's best potential market and her nearest supply of iron and other raw materials. Bibliography. Latourette, The Development of Japan-, S. K. Hornbeck, Contemporary Politics in The Far East, New York, 1916; B. L. Putnam Weale, The Truth About China and Japan, New York, Dodd, Mead & Co., 1919; A. J. Brown, The Mastery of the Pacific, Scribner's, 1919. D. JAPANESE RELIGIONS. I. Shinto. 1. The religion of primitive Japan. It has no elaborate theology, no ornate ritual nor highly organized pantheon. It pays great honor to national heroes, to the spirits of ancestors, especially of imperial ancestors, and to the Sun Goddess, the putative ancestress of the imperial line. It has no ethical code. 2. It has been somewhat influenced by Buddhism and by Chinese mythology. 3. Its shrines have no images, but may occasionally con- tain replicas of the mirror, sword, and jewel said to have been entrusted by the Sun Goddess to her grandson, the ancestor of the imperial line. 29 4. The maintenance of its shrines and ceremonies has been largely taken over by the state, and many claim that its observances are patriotic rather than religious. It has been used to reenforce the patriotic spirit of the new Japan. II. Buddhism. 1. This faith was introduced from Korea and China and is of Indian origin. 2. Buddhism, as the vehicle by which continental culture came to Japan, was very prominent and under the Tokugawa shoguns it was supported in part by the state. 3. The dominant type of Buddhism is Mahayana ("Greater Vehicle") or northern Buddhism, but this has been divided into a number of sects. 4. Buddhism is still very active in Japan and is directed by well educated and able leaders. It is making a serious effort to keep abreast of the times and is a vital factor in the life of the nation. III. Confucianism. This has never been as prominent as it has been in China and from the nature of the case has no hierarchy. Its influence has been largely that of a philosophy and a system of ethics, and has been largely exerted upon the upper classes. IV. Christianity. 1. This was first introduced by the Jesuits in the sixteenth century and was eventually stamped out by severe persecutions. 2. It was reintroduced by Protestant, Catholic, and Russian missionaries in the nineteenth century and has made a good deal of progress. While numerically very much in the minority, its adherents have increased much more rapidly than the population and have had an influence on the life of the nation far out of proportion to their numerical strength. 30 Bibliography. Latourette, The Development of Japan-, Griffis, The Mikado's Empire ; W. G. Aston, Shinto, The Way of the Gods, London, 1905 ; G. W. Knox, The Development of Religion in Japan, New York, 1907; A. Lloyd, The Creed of Half Japan, New York, 1912; O. Carey, A History of Christianity in Japan, New York, 1909. E. JAPANESE INDUSTRY. I. The situation in 1853. The country was virtually self- supporting. Its main industries were agriculture, fishing, and various kinds of handicrafts. Such manu- factures as existed were organized on the guild system and were in the handicraft stage. II. Industry in the age of transition, 1853-1894. 1. Government leadership in the transformation, rather than private initiative. This was because: a. Under the old regime the people were accustomed to official leadership; b. Only the government had the requisite capital; c. The urgency was too great to wait for private enterprise to take the lead. 2. Forms that government leadership took: a. Agents were sent abroad to study occidental methods of agriculture and manufacture and to draw up plans for Japan. Foreign experts were employed. b. Experimental stations and laboratories, model factories, foundries, and farms were started and were gradually turned over to private enterprise. c. An elaborate and efficient system of technical and industrial education was inaugurated. d. An efficient banking and currency system was established. 31 (1) The silver standard first prevailed, but the gold standard was adopted in 1897. (2) The first banking system was formed on the American model (1872) but private banks later arose and in 1882 there was established the Bank of Japan on the type of the central banks of France, Germany, and England. The Bank of Japan has the exclusive right to issue paper. (3) The Yokohama Specie Bank was founded to help in foreign trade. (4) Other important banks are The Hypothec Bank (Bank of Agriculture), The Industrial Bank, and the colonial banks of Formosa, Korea, Hokkaido, etc. III. Changes since 1894 and conditions at the present time. 1. The chief industries are: a. Agriculture. This is still the chief industry. It is very intensive and the plots are small, for only one-sixth of the area of the country is under cultivation and the majority of holdings are under 2% acres. Most of the farmers are tenants. The chief crop is rice. Aid to farmers is given by the Hypothec Bank and by government experiment stations. b. Forestry. This is very important, for one-half of the taxable land is forested. There is scientific forestry. c. Fisheries are very important and have been so for years. d. Stock-breeding. This has been greatly improved in recent years. e. Sericulture. Silk is one of the greatest articles of export. f. Mining. The chief minerals are coal, copper, sulphur, with some gold, silver, petroleum, zinc, tin, antimony, and iron. g. Manufactures. 32 2. A great growth in manufactures has taken place in the past twenty-five years. a. This is because population is increasing and cannot migrate, arable land is limited, and Japan's hope of continued prosperity rests accordingly upon her success in becoming a manufacturing and commercial nation and exchang- ing the products of her factories for food. b. Obstacles in the way. (1) Lack of skilled labor and of experience with modern industrial appliances. (2) Limited natural resources. There is very little iron and there is not as much coal as in many nations. There is little land on which to raise raw materials for factories. (3) There was originally a lack of capital. c. Assets. (1) An abundant supply of cheap labor. (2) A strong government to take the lead. (3) Aptitude in adopting and adapting foreign methods. (4) Great natural resources on the continent in Korea, Manchuria, and China Proper. (5) A large potential market in China. (6) The possibility of developing extensive hydro- electric power. d. Great growth, especially during the Great War. The number of industrial companies nearly doubled between 1908 and the end of the war. e. The greatest industries are textile, machine and tool, ship-building, chemical, and food and drink. f. There has been a marked depression since the war, but this is probably to be only temporary. 3. A great increase in wealth during the war. Bibliography. W. M. McGovern, Modern Japan, Part V; Porter, The Full Recognition of Japan, Chapters XIII- XVIII; Pooley, Japan at the Cross-Roads, Chapters, IV, V. 33 F. JAPANESE TRANSPORTATION AND COMMERCE. I. The rapid growth of railways, mercantile marine, and com- merce in the past thirty years. 1. The necessity for this lies in Japan's increasing popu- lation, her limited area, the lack of land to which Japanese can easily migrate, and the consequent necessity of seeking expansion in commerce. 2. The total increase of foreign trade from 1896 to 1910 was over 300 per cent. In shipping the growth was even more marked. 3. Aids in rapid growth. a. Necessity. b. Government aid through commercial schools, an efficient consular system, subsidies to steamship lines and The Yokohama Specie Bank. c. The enterprise of the people. II. Commerce. 1. Great firms such as the Mitsui Company and Mit- subishi Company have aided it. 2. For many years the United States was Japan's best customer, buying chiefly silk. China has since become the best customer, purchasing chiefly piece goods. With the rise of cotton mills in China, other forms of Japanese imports must become important there. There has been a growth of Japanese imports, especially during the war, to India and other sections of South East Asia. 3. In 1919, there began a boycott in China against Japanese goods. This was caused by the dislike of the Chinese for the Japanese policy in China in recent years, and was precipi- tated by the Shantung decision at Paris, and the arrest of some student agitators by pro-Japanese Chinese officials in Peking. The boycott was engineered by students and for a time greatly injured Japanese trade, but it gradually became less acute. 34 III. Railways. These were originally built partly by the government and partly by private initiative. They were nationalized in 1907. They constitute a very good system, both on the main islands and in Korea and South Manchuria. IV. Shipping. 1. This has been aided by heavy government subsidies, and for this and other reasons has grown rapidly, especially during the Great War. 2. The chief steamship companies are the Nippon Yusen Kaisha (Japan Mail Steamship Company), the Toyo Kisen Kaisha (Oriental Steamship Company), and the Osaka Shosen Kaisha (Osaka Mercantile Steamship Co.). Bibliography. Clement, Handbook of Modern Japan, Chapter III; McGovern, Modern Japan, Part V; Porter, The Full Recognition of Japan, Chapter XIX; Pooley, Japan at the Cross Roads, Chapters IV and V. G. SHRINES AND ANCIENT CITIES OF JAPAN. I. Nagasaki, the old port of entry to Japan. II. Izumo, an old Shinto shrine. III. Kyoto, the old capital, with its ancient temples. IV. Ise, the seat of early imperial shrines. V. Nara, an early imperial capitol. VI. Miyajima, in the Inland Sea. VI I . Kamakura, the capital of the earlier shoguns. VIII. Tokyo. Here and there are to be found, scattered through the modern city, relics of the Yedo of the Tokugawa shoguns, such as the castle, now used for the imperial palace, and the Shiba temples. IX. Nikko, with its shrines. X. Hikone, with its old feudal castle. 35 Bibliography. L. Hearn, Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan; H. W. Mabie, Japan To-day and To-morrow, New York, Mao millan, 1914; Mitford, Japan's Inheritance; Lawson, Highways and Houses of Japan, New York, F. A. Stokes Co., 1910; E. R. Scidmore, Jinricksha Days in Japan, New York, Harpers, 1899; H. G. Ponting, In Lotus-Land Japan, London, Macmillan, 1910; W. Tyndale, Japan and the Japanese, London, Methuen, 1910. H. THE ART OF JAPAN. I. Most of it is of Chinese origin. II. Beauty is part of the soul of Japan. III. Painting. 1. The ideal of the older painting was to catch the soul of a landscape as much as the form. 2. The newer schools are influenced by European models and ideals. IV. Architecture. The best examples of the older architecture are seen in Buddhist temples and feudal castles. V. Ceramics. The older wares were developed by different schools in the various feudal states. To-day the art is badly commercialized. VI. Lacquer. VII. Textile fabrics . VIII. Dancing, especially the classic No. IX. Gardening. X. Tea ceremonial. XI. Flower arrangement. Bibliography. Clement, Handbook of Modern Japan, Chapter XVI; Binyon. Painting in the Far East; Fenellosa, Epochs of Chinese and Japanese Art; Morrison, The Painters of Japan; Brinkley, Japan, Its History, Arts, and Literature; Encyclopedia Britannica, under article on Japan. 36 A SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BOOKS ON JAPAN I. Description, Travel and Statistics. Chamberlain, B. H., Things Japanese, London, 1902. Clarke, J. I. C, Japan at First Hand, Dodd, Mead & Co. Clement, E. W., A Handbook of Modern Japan, 6th edition, Chicago, A. C. McClurg, 1905. Griffis, W. E., The Mikado's Empire, New York, 1913 (12th ed.). Hearn, Lafcadio, Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan, 2 vols., Boston, Houghton, Mifflin Co., 1895. McGovern, W. M., Modern Japan, Its Political, Military, and Industrial Organization, New York, Scribner's, 1920. Mitford, E. B., Japan's Inheritance; The Country, Its People, and Their Destiny, London, T. Fisher, Unwin, 1913. Nitobe, I., The Japanese Nation, Its Land, Its People, and Its Life, New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1912. Pooley, A. M., Japan at the Cross Roads, London, George Allen and Unwin, 1917. Porter, R. P., The Full Recognition of Japan, Oxford Uni- versity Press, 1911. Sunderland, J. T., Rising Japan, New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1918. II. Art and Architecture. Binyon, L., Painting in the Far East. London, 1908. Fenollosa, E. F., Epochs of Chinese and Japanese Art, London, 1912. Morrison, A., The Painters of Japan, London and Edinburgh, 1911. 37 III. Education and Literature . Aston, W. G., A History of Japanese Literature, New York, 1899. Kikuchi, Baron Dairoku, Japanese Education, London, 1909. Mitford, A. B., Tales of Old Japan, London, 1871. Reinsch, P. S., Intellectual and Political Currents in the Far East, Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1911. IV. Religion, Ethics, and Social Life. Aston, W. G., Shinto, The Way of the Gods, London, 1905. Carey, Otis, A History of Christianity in Japan, New York, F. H. Revell, 1909. Gulick, S. L., Evolution of the Japanese, 5th ed., New York, 1905. Hearn, Lafcadio, Japan, An Attempt at Interpretation, New York, 1904. Knox, G. W., The Development of Religion in Japan, New York, 1907. Lloyd, A., The Creed of Half Japan, New York, 1912. Nitobe, I., Bushido, The Soul of Japan, 10th ed., New York, 1905. V. Japanese- American Relations. Abbott, J. F., Japanese Expansion and American Policies, New York, 1916. Gleason, G., What Shall I Think of Japan, Macmillan, 1921. Gulick, S. L., The American Japanese Problem, New York, 1914. lyenaga T. and Sato K., Japan and the California Problem, New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1921. Japan and Japanese- American Relations. Clark University Addresses, New York, 1912. Kawakami, K. K., Asia at the Door, New York, 1914. 38 Millis, H. A., The Japanese Problem in the United States, New York, 1915. Millard, T. F. F., Democracy and the Eastern Question, New York, The Century Co., 1919. Pitkin, W., Must We Fight Japan? New York, 1921. VI. History. Asakawa, K., The Russo-Japanese Conflict, Boston, 1904. Brinkley F., Japan, Its History, Arts, and Literature, 8 vols., Boston and Tokyo, 1901-1902. Brinkley, F., A History of the Japanese People, New York, 1915. Brown, A. J., The Mastery of the Far East, New York, Scribner's, 1919. Dillon, E. J., The Collapse of Russia, New York, G. H. Doran Co., 1918. Griffis, W. E., The Japanese Nation in Evolution, New York, T. Y. Crowell & Co., 1907. Hara, K., An Introduction to the History of Japan, New York, Putnam's, 1921. Hayashi, Count Tadasu, The Secret Memoirs of, London, 1915. Hershey, A. R., Modern Japan, Bobbs, Merrill Co. Hornbeck, S. K., Contemporary Politics in the Far East, New York, Appleton, 1916. Latourette, K. S., The Development of Japan, New York, Macmillan, 1917. Longford, J. K., The Story of Old Japan, London, 1910. Longford, J. K., The Story of Korea, New York, 1911. McLaren, W. W., A Political History of Japan During the MeijiEra, 1867-1912, New York, 1916. Murdoch, James, History of Japan, During the Century of Early Foreign Intercourse, 1542-1641, Kobe, 1903. Okuma, Count Shigenobu, Fifty Years of New Japan, 2 vols., 1909. 39 AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE. tSO &m 1^^* ' *' LD21-100m-7,'39(402s) 1 _ Binder Gaylord Bros., Inc. Makers UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY