QP 42 C731o COMBE o o| ON TEACHING PHYSIOLOGY AND ITS APPLICATIONS IN COMMON SCHOOLS THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES ON TEACHING PHYSIOLOGY AND ITS APPLICATIONS COMMON SCHOOLS. BY GEORGE COMBE. EDINBURGH: MACLACHLAN AND STEWART. LONDON : SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, & CO. MDCCCLVII. Price 3d. ap PRELIMINARY NOTICE. IN August 1857, 1 received a printed Prospectus of a " Na- tional Association for the Promotion of Social Science," then recently instituted under the Presidency of Lord Brougham. It contained a statement of the objects of the Institution, which are well known to the public. A practical rule to be observed by contributors, is stated in the Prospectus in the following words : " All Papers and Communications to be addressed to the General Secretary, 3 Waterloo Place, London, S. W. The General Committee of the Association, as well as the Committee of each Depart- ment, reserve the right of rejecting any Papers which they may consider inappropriate." In September, I prepared a Paper " On Teaching Physio- logy and its Applications in Common Schools," and sent it to the press. It was set up in types, with the following words printed in italics on the top of the first page ; " Offered to the, National Association for the Promotion of Social Science, by George Combe, and, if accepted, to be read by Mr Bastard." Under the title were printed the words " Proof -private." I transmitted two copies in proof to G. W. Hastings, Esq., the General Secretary of the Association, with a letter, explain- ing that my manuscript was difficult to read, that to lessen the labour of the General Committee, who were to decide on its admissibility as a communication, I had put it into types, but that if this was inconsistent with the rules, I should have it transcribed in a fair hand, and in that form sent, in due season, to the Committee. I received the following answer from Mr Hastings : " 3 WATEULOO PLACE, PALL MALL, S.W., Oct. 1, 1857. " I have read your paper with much pleasure, and think " it a valuable contribution to the Association. It will be " read by Mr Bastard, under the Education Department. " The printing of it, instead of being an objection, is a great " improvement." 305679S After this, without solicitation by me, my name appeared in the list of the General Committee of the Association ; I paid my subscription, and thus became entitled to all the privileges of a Member. The communication was placed by the Preliminary Com- mittee under the head of the " SECOND DEPARTMENT Edu- cation" and stands No. 9 in the list of papers to be read in that Section. Infirm health prevented me from leaving home ; and this was the chief reason of my requesting Mr Bastard to read the paper ; but also, he had heard the kind of instruction which it recommended practically given in a village school in Dorsetshire, and could thus speak to its utility. On 15th October, Mr Bastard proceeded to read the com- munication in the Educational Section, and was in possession of the floor, Sir John S. Pakington, Bart., in the chair, when he was interrupted by a certain person among the audience, who objected, that the paper was " printed." This, it will be observed, was reported by the Secretary to me as being " a great improvement." Again, it was urged, that " The Education Section was not the place for it." It was placed in that department by the Committee who decided on its being read. Again, it was said, "It is a treatise on Physio- logy." The Preliminary Committee, to whom it was sub- mitted, did not think so, when they admitted it ; and the ob- jector not having heard it, could not know what it contained. According to my information, the Chairman made no attempt to check these interruptions ; and Mr Bastard was compelled to sit down, without accomplishing the reading. If the consequences were confined to myself, I might have passed these proceedings over in silence ; but as a constitutional principle is involved in them, which is of vital importance to the success of the Association, I feel called on to submit them to the consideration of the General Com- mittee and the public. After a member has bestowed his time and thoughts in preparing a communication, which he hopes may be useful in promoting the objects of the Association ; after it has been submitted to the decision of the Preliminary Committee, who are invested with full powers of rejection ; after it has been admitted by them, and inserted in the list of ac- cepted papers has the author a right to be heard ? Or do the persons present in the Section, in a state of necessary ignorance of its contents, possess the privilege of stifling it, and preventing its being read ? It appears to me that, in such circumstances, the author is under tlio protection of the Chairman, and that the constitutional course of action for those persons who may disapprove, is to leave the room during the reading, or to listen, and, at the close, state their objections. Unless this be recognised as a fundamental law of the Association, and firmly carried into effect, the Preliminary Committee, with its right of judgment and powers of rejec- tion, will become a snare ; and every contributor will be liable to have his paper rejected by a tribunal of persons who absolutely can know nothing of what it contains ! The Association is said to be instituted for the " Promotion of Social Science ;" but promotion means " moving forward," yet the reception given to my communication indicates that new suggestions will not have much chance of encourage- ment. It is right and indispensable to have a Preliminary Com- mittee, armed with powers of rejection ; but if it consist of enlightened men, it will not exclude propositions merely because they are not yet popular ; and every friend to pro- gress and co-operation will, without feeling injured, bow to its authority. But the case is widely different, when the Chairman of a Section allows their decision to be trampled under foot. At the same time, I acquit Sir John Pakington of intentional discourtesy towards me personally ; and only regret that he the leader of a national movement in favour of education should have failed to see the important bearing of the subject of my paper on education of every kind, and the consequent propriety of placing it in the "Edu- cation Section" of the National Association for the Promo- tion of Social Science. I have now only to appeal to the General Committee and to the public, as the tribunal of the last resort ; and if they shall consider the proceedings now described as calculated to promote the objects of the Association, I shall bow to their decision, and retire from the field. GEO. COMBE. EDINBURGH, 21st October 1857. The following letters describe the impression produced by the Lessons mentioned in the following pages. From the Rev. J. C. M'ALESTER to GEORGE COMBE. HOLYWOOD, COUNTY DOWN, October 19, 1857. The lesson on Physiology which you kindly gave to my pupils some weeks ago, interested them exceedingly, and led them to reflect on important matters to which before they had given no thought. The impression made on my own mind, and on that of several friends who were present, was, that it would be most desirable to add Physiology to the subjects usually taught in public and private schools. Whether in reference to its use- fulness, or its religious tendencies, its value can hardly be over-estimated. I trust, from the interest which your lesson and conversation have given me, that I shall be able to do something towards promoting among children a knowledge of the wonderful structure of the human body, and of the laws on which life and health depend. I am, &c. C. J. M'ALESTER. From THOMAS HORLOCK BASTARD, Esq. of Charlton, Dor- setshire, to GEORGE COMBE, Esq. CHARLTON, BLANDFORD, October 27, 1857. In reply to your question, as to my impression concern- ing the physiological lesson you gave here in August last to a few of the labourers' and artisans' children, in presence of some of the parents and other adults, I have no hesitation in saying, that, although in a rural village like this, where only the usual (I might say antiquated) instruction is given, there could be little to prepare the minds of the people for such a lesson, yet it was obvious that it interested the chil- dren quite as much as the adults, in a way that could only arise from their understanding you, and perceiving the utility of the information you imparted. Of this I had subsequent corroboration, by observations volunteered to me by several of the parents, that they should like to have some more lessons like the one that gentleman gave us. I am, &c. THOS. H. BASTARD. TEACHING PHYSIOLOGY AND ITS APPLICATIONS IN COMMON SCHOOLS. IN one respect, Physiology may be said to be a science only in its infancy, and in another, to be already so far ad- vanced as to be capable of valuable practical applications. This apparent paradox admits of an easy solution. The most learned physiologists are still in a state of pro- found ignorance concerning the intimate processes carried on in tbe tissues of the human body, which produce the pheno- mena of life. This knowledge, nevertheless, is indispensable to raise Medicine to the dignity of an exact science ; and as it has not yet been attained, some persons represent the healing art as one of a purely empirical character ; and Physiology, on which it professes to be founded, as at present a chaos of conjectures. But, on the other hand, it is undeniable that much is known concerning the structure, functions, and conditions of health of the vital organs, as well as concerning many of the causes of their abnormal action ; and on this knowledge medical practitioners found a treatment of disease that is at once ra- tional and beneficial. But the same knowledge is available for the preservation of health, and for the advancement of so- cial well-being in other departments of life, and on this account it may be made an important branch of instruction in common schools. A few elucidations will suffice to shew the manner in which it has been successfully taught in some seminaries, to chil- dren and young persons, of ten years of age and upwards, and also the applications to practical conduct of which it is susceptible. To prevent misapprehension, I beg to state that I do not recommend Physiology to be taught in common schools in the form of lectures, but in that of lessons, in which the children themselves shall take a part, and in which there shall be a constant interchange of remarks, question, an- swer, and inference, between the pupils and their instructor. Moreover, in these lessons no attempt should be made to teach the science or practice of Medicine. In an ordinary Medical education instruction is given in the following branches : 1st, Anatomy, or the structure of the human body. The teaching under this head embraces descriptions of every bone, muscle, nerve, and viscus in the body, with their at- tachments and connections, so minute that the student may know how to discover their position ; and how to recognise abnormal changes in them in living subjects, with a view to medical treatment, or, if necessary, to operate on them. I do not recommend teaching at all approaching to this in detail, nor with a view to these objects. 2dly, Physiology, or a scientific description of the func- tions of every cell, tissue, bone, nerve, muscle, and viscus in the system, according to the profoundest views of the most recent investigators. I do not recommend teaching Physiology in this manner. 3dly, Pathology, or the diseased structure of every cell, tissue, bone, and viscus of the body. I do not recommend this instruction to be given. 4thly, The Practice of Physic, or the application of all the foregoing branches of knowledge to the diagnosis and cure of disease. This is not recommended to be introduced. This statement of negatives is made because medical- men in general, to whom the Directors of Schools naturally look for advice, have these modes of instruction in their minds (few of them having seen any other in operation), when they deliver opinions on the propriety of introducing Physiology into schools. The kind of instruction recommended, and which has already been successfully taught in some seminaries, may now be mentioned. The plan of it is this : A description of the various organs of the human body on which health and life depend, is given in simple and popular language, but scientifically correct, so as to avoid sowing error in the mind of the pupils ; the use or function of the part is described in the same manner, the exposition being plain and popular in language, but in principle sound and scien- tific, challenging the criticism of the highest medical investi- gators. The influence of the different organs on each other is then explained ; and the knowledge thus communicated of the structure, functions, and relations is applied to elu- cidate the natural conditions on which the healthy and un- healthy action of each vital organ depends ; in other words, the causes of good or bad health, and the means that should be used in our daily habits to secure the one and avoid the other. The practical application of this knowledge lies, in a greater or less degree, within the power of every intelli- gent person, and much disease and suffering in ordinary lite may be avoided, and much substantial enjoyment gained by acting on it. The instruction concerning the use of each organ is founded on its structure and its relations to the other organs ; and the structure is described in words, and as far as possible illustrated by preparations and by diagrams. It is generally acknowledged, that not children only, but adults also, more easily and distinctly comprehend, and longer remember, an object after having seen it, and heard it at the same time clearly described, than by merely reading about it. Now, the object in introducing the human skeleton and diagrams of the muscles, lungs, heart, and blood-vessels, and other vital organs, into schools, and giving viva voce descrip- tions of them, is to do effectually what a book is capable of accomplishing only imperfectly, namely, to convey to the pupils correct ideas of the structure, so extensive as to serve as a solid basis for understanding the uses or func- tions of the parts, and the influence of the vital organs on each other and on the whole corporeal system ; in other words, to understand the natural conditions on which health depends, and the causes which produce disease. The use or function is far better understood when founded on a demonstration of the structure than when communicated merely by verbal description as a general and unsupported fact. Actual knowledge of the structure and functions ren- ders the relations of the vital organs to each other intelli- gible, and their reciprocal influence highly interesting ; for example, it enables us to comprehend the influence of the di- gestive organs on the power and activity of the muscles, lungs, and brain ; the influence of the brain over the heart, the lungs, and the stomach ; the influence of the circulating fluids in forming, supporting, and repairing the waste of all the organs ; and so forth. And, as already remarked, this knowledge of the structure, functions, and relations, of the vital organs all combined, lays the foundation for a clear exposition of the laws of health, by teaching which, we point out the course of action which every individual should habi- tually observe in order to promote his usefulness and prolong his enjoyment of life. The sexual organs and functions are omitted in the les- sons and diagrams, and it is not found that this omission materially affects the practical value of the instruction given ; for these being organs of reproduction, their functions do not directly involve the life of the individual, as those of the vital organs, such as the heart, lungs, stomach, brain, and intestines do. Moreover, the same laws of health which govern the vital organs hold good in the case of the organs of reproduction, and in so far the instruction given is indi- rectly applicable to them. As already observed, the instruction given is sound and scientific in its basis and character, although limited in ex- tent and popular in expression. This is the kind of instruction which has been introduced with advantage into several schools, and a few reasons may be offered why it should be generally adopted. The deaths that occur throughout England and Wales, and also the causes of them, and the ages of those who die, are reported to the Registrar- General, and by him classified and reduced into tables, which, accompanied by his commen- taries, are annually presented to Parliament and published. Soon after this regulation was introduced it was discovered that there were great differences in the rates of mortality in different districts. The excess of death in some localities, amounting to 10, 20, 30, and even 40 per cent, over the number of deaths in other situations, among the same num- ber of people, of the same ages, attracted attention ; the causes of the excess were investigated, and found in many instances to be avoidable or removable by application of the natural means of health. A Sanitary Commission was appointed by Parliament to apply these means, which consist of draining, removing nuisances, ventilating houses, supplying warmth, inducing habits of cleanliness and temperance, and so forth, among the people. This Commission made extensive investigations, and published valuable reports, which were printed by Par- liament for general instruction. The burden of these reports year after year was, that their best efforts were obstructed, and often rendered nugatory, by the prevalent ignorance among all classes, of the natural conditions of health, in con- sequence of which the advantages of the sanitary measures recommended were neither understood nor appreciated ; and even where there was a desire among the people to carry them into effect, their ignorance acted as a formidable obstacle to their doing so. The Government were informed that the best method of removing this obstruction was, if possible, to instruct the peo- ple generally in the natural conditions of health and disease, by teaching them so much of the structure of their own bodies as might enable them to understand the functions of the vital organs, and the influence of damp, dirt, foul air, miasma, intemperance, and other causes which obviously produced the excess of disease and death. Moreover, the Government were convinced of the great importance of intro- ducing Physiology into juvenile schools, and had even taken steps to do so ; when, with a view to strengthen their hands, and those of every one interested in improving the sanitary state of the people, the following document was drawn up, and subscribed by sixty-five of the leading physicians and surgeons of London, including the principal teachers of ana- tomy and physiology, and the practice of medicine and sur- gery, in the metropolis, and also all the medical officers of the royal household. " Medical Opinion on the importance of teaching Physiology and the Laws of Health in Common Schools. " Our opinion having been requested as to the advantage of making the Elements of Human Physiology, or a general Knowledge of the Laws of Health, a part of the education of youth, we, the undersigned, have no hesitation in giving it strongly in the affirmative. We are satisfied that much of the sickness from which the working-classes at present suffer might be avoided ; and we know that the best-directed efforts to benefit them by medical treatment are often greatly im- peded, and sometimes entirely frustrated, by their ignorance and their neglect of the conditions upon which health neces- sarily depends. We are therefore of opinion that it would greatly tend to prevent sickness, and to promote soundness of body and mind, were the elements of Physiology, in its application to the preservation of health, made a part of general education ; and we are convinced that such instruc- tion may be rendered most interesting to the young, and may be communicated to them with the utmost facility and pro- priety in the ordinary schools by properly-instructed school- masters." " London, M'rch 1853." The original opinion was deposited in the hands of Go- vernment, and a large impression of it was printed and cir- culated. The Government gave effect to it by ordering the preparation of an elementary work on Physiology applied to health, and suitable diagrams to illustrate it, for the use of schools, and by instituting examinations in Physiology, and making a certificate of ability to teach it a title to an in- creased allowance of pay. These facts have been ascertained by correspondence with Dr Lyon Play fair, of Marlborough House, as falling under his department of the educational measures adopted by the Board of Trade ; and he has stated also that the Committee of Council for Education in England, and the Commissioners of Education in Ireland, are co-oper- ating with the Board of Trade in the introduction of Physi- ology into schools. A series of nine beautifully-executed diagrams have now been published by the Board of Trade for the use of common schools. The same evils had been felt in the United States of North America, and the Legislature of Massachusetts resorted to similar means of removing them, as appears from the fol- lowing extract from the General Laws relating to Public Instruction, passed by the Legislature of Massachusetts. Chapter 229 is entitled " An Act requiring Physiology and Hygiene to be taught in the Public Schools ;" and it ordains as follows : " Sect. 1. Physiology and Hygiene shall hereafter be taught in all the public schools of this commonwealth, in all cases in which the School Committee shall deem it expe- dient. " Sect. 2. All school teachers shall hereafter be examined in their knowledge of the elementary principles of Physi- ology and Hygiene, and their ability to give instructions in the same. . " Sect. 3. This act shall take effect on and after the 1st day of October 1851. (April 24, 1850.)" Instruction in Physiology and the laws of health is highly beneficial to the children, in reference not only to their future social character, but also to their welfare as individuals. It tends to give them intelligent notions of the means by which disease may be avoided, and health promoted in their own persons ; and thereby renders doubly efficacious rules given to them by their teachers regarding their personal habits of cleanliness, temperance, and exercise ; the avoidance of foul air, damp clothes, ill-aired rooms, and so forth. It comes home to their minds as having a solid basis in nature, instead of resting solely on the authority of the teacher. After they understand the natural, and therefore inevitable, consequences of neglecting or infringing the con- ditions of health, the pupils will become aware that such conduct may bring suffering and premature death upon them, although they may elude the vigilance of their masters, or defy the admonitions of their friends. Moreover, it will enlighten them in the management of their own offspring, should they live to become parents, and will add to their in- telligence and usefulness in following medical advice in cases of domestic sickness or of general visitations of epi- demic disease. These lessons are beneficial also as a means of train- ing the mental faculties of the pupils. They teach them to observe accurately things that exist to study their modes of action to comprehend their relations and effects, and to draw from them practical conclusions directly involving their own well-being. All the information recommended to be given will be real ; and as it will have direct applica- tion to the pupils themselves, it will naturally interest them, as well as instruct and discipline their understanding. The application of Physiology to the elucidation of Social Economy is also an important practical object. This may be shewn by a brief report of a lesson which, in August 1857, I gave to a class of children of the working-classes in the agricultural village of Charlton in Dorsetshire, when on a visit to my friend Mr Bastard, who has done much for the individual and social improvement of the people of that place. The lesson was intended to shew that this kind of instruction is not only intelligible, but interesting and useful to young persons in every rank of life. I was honoured by the attendance of the curate and schoolmaster, the smith and carpenter, and nearly thirty of the adult population of the village. The lesson was improvised for the occasion, and assumed the form of a conversation, the questions being put to the pupils in succession. It was repeated, in September, in a school for children of the middle class, kept by the Rev. Mr M'Alester at Holywood, near Belfast. There, several new questions were put, and higher answers elicited than in Charlton, and both lessons are combined in this report. It is proper to add, that to the more difficult questions, the an- swers were drawn out by suggestions and illustrations, which it would be tedious to detail, and which, in each instance, must be varied to suit the intelligence of the pupils. QUESTION. Did you get your breakfast to-day ? " Yes, 8 Sir." At what horn'? " At eight o'clock." Of what did it consist? " We had bread and milk." Q. Have you had dinner? " Yes, Sir/' What had you for dinner? Some said bread, and cheese, some bread and milk, &c. At what hour ? " At one o'clock." Q. Why did you eat dinner so soon, after breakfast ? Here there was a pause ; at last a boy said, " Because I was hungry, Sir." Quite right. Q. But why were you hungry so soon ? No answer ; a pause ; still no answer. Q. Would you like to know why you were hungry so soon ? All shouted, " Yes, Sir ; please tell us." Q. Have any of you a knife ? Here several pocket-knives in various stages of wear were presented. One much worn in the joint, and one not perceptibly worn, were selected. Q. Do you see any difference in the joints of these two knives? They were handed to each pupil and examined. v Yes, Sir; one is worn round, and the other is quite straight in the joint." Q. Right : but what caused that one to be- come round? " Much opening and shutting ; this wore away the iron of the joint by rubbing against the spring." Q. Does the axle of a cart-wheel wear away ? " Yes, Sir." Q. Why ? " Also by rubbing." Q. Do they put grease on it ? " Yes." Q. For what purpose ? " To make the wheel move easy, and rub less." Q. Now, does anything resembling this go on in your body ? A pause ; no answer. Q. Strip off your jackets. This was instantly done, accompanied by a shout of laughter. Feel with your left hand the shoulder-joint of the right arm, and swing the right arm, extended at full length, round and round. Q. What do you feel ? " The top of the arm mov- ing at a joint." A diagram of the human skeleton was here unrolled, and the structure of the ball and- socket joint of the shoulder explained to them. Q. Is there anything like this in your arm ? " Yes, Sir ; it is the same as in the drawing." Q. Now, suppose that this were a real skeleton of bone, and I should swing its arm round and round for a day, what would ensue ? " The motion would wear the bones in the joint." Here the secretion, in the socket of the joint, of oil to lessen the friction of the cartilages coating the bones, was explained. Q. Will this altogether prevent the waste ? " No ; the cart-axle has oil, yet it wears." The hinge joint of the elbow, and several other joints, were shewn on the diagram, to give them a notion of the extent of surface over which this kind of waste takes place. Now, with your right hand grasp firm the thick part of the left fore- arm. and open and shut the hand, and move it forcibly in every way you can : Q. Do you feel anything moving below the skin ? " Yes, Sir ; something rises and falls." Q. What is it? No answer. Q. Would you like to know ? " Very much." Ano- ther diagram was then unrolled, shewing the superficial layer of muscles stript of the skin. Q. Do you see here the part of your arm that rises and falls I " Yes, Sir ; it is flesh." The structure and use of the muscles was now explained to them ; namely, that each consists of numerous fine fibres, or threads of flesh bound up in a common sheath, that their ends are attached to the bones, and that, by contracting and relaxing, they move the limbs. Q. If these fibres rub against each other, and contract and relax, during a whole day, as happens when a man digs with a spade, or guides the shafts of a plough, will they wear? "Yes, Sir." Q. Now suppose this wearing and waste to go on for several days, and not to be repaired, what would happen ? " The man would become weaker and weaker, and at last die." Q. Right. But how is the waste caused by this wearing to be sup- plied ? " By eating." Q. Does the bread and milk and cheese supply it ? " Yes." Q. How 1 One said, " They are converted into blood." A brief explanation of the processes of digestion, assimilation, and absorption of the nutritious elements of the food ; of their conversion into blood ; and of the deposit by the blood of bony matter to bones, flesh to muscles, nervous substance to nerves, &c., was given. The children listened to these elucidations with eager attention. Q. When you ate your dinner at one o'clock, did you do so because you understood all these things, and saw that it was time to repair the waste ? A laugh " No, Sir, we were hungry." Well, then, what made you hungry? All an- swered, " It was the waste." Let us attend, then, to the point at which we have arrived. Q. Hunger, you say, is a call to you to eat to repair waste : who made your body to waste away, to require food, and to feel hungry? " God." Q. Did He make you hungry, to lead you to eat when it was necessary to do so, although you knew nothing concern- ing the cause of your being hungry ? " Yes." Q. Was this a kind provision for your welfare ? " Yes, Sir." Let us inquire now, whether anything more has been done by God for your preservation and enjoyment. Q. Where did the bread come from ? " From the baker." Q. Did he make it ? " Yes." Q. Out of what ? " Flour and water." Q. Where did he get the flour? " From the miller." Q. Where did the miller procure it? "He bought wheat 10 from the farmer, and made it into flour." Q. Where did the farmer get the wheat ? " It grew on his farm." Q. Do you mean that the farmer found it all ready-grown in his fields, whenever and in whatever quantity he wished to gather it ? " No, he raised it." Q. What did he do to raise it ? " He ploughed the land." Q. Anything more ? " He harrowed it." Q. Anything farther ? " He sowed seed." Q. Was nothing more necessary ? One clever boy, the son of a farmer, said, " He put dung into the ground." Q. Right. Was anything more done? " In harvest he cut the wheat and thrashed it." Well said. Q. But was this all that was needed ? A pause ensued ; at last a boy answered, " Rain, Sir." Q. Quite cor- rect ; but are you sure that nothing more was required \ A pause ; then one said, " Heat, Sir." Q. Well answered ; but where did the heat come from ? " From the sun, Sir." You have told me that the farmer, in order to raise wheat, must plough, manure, harrow, and sow seed : Where did the land and first seed come from ? " God provided them." Right. Who furnishes the rain and the sunshine ? " God." Q. Does God also plough, manure, harrow, and sow the land I " No, Sir, the farmer must do those things." Let us again consider the point at which we have arrived. You say that God made your bodies liable to waste, that He made you feel hungry when it was necessary to eat in order to repair the waste, and that bread and other articles of food are necessary to this end ; and you have traced the history of bread through the baker, the miller, and the farmer, back to God, as the Giver of it. Here, then, we see that God has formed the body, and the ground, the wheat, the rain, and the sunshine, with reference the one to the other : Q. Why has God provided the rain and the sunshine, the land and the seed, and not also done the ploughing and harrow- ing \ A long pause ; and much reflection was expressed in the countenances of the children. It was necessary to help them, and I said, Every farmer needs land and seed and rain and sunshine ; and these he cannot make, and, therefore God provides these things for them all. Q. Now why does He not do the ploughing and other work also \ " The far- mer can do all these, and God leaves him to do them." From what you tell me, then, I understand that before you could enjoy the bread which you ate to your breakfast to-day, it was necessary that the bounty of God, and the labour of the farmer, of the miller, and of the baker, should be com- bined? " Yes, Sir." Q. And that in those arrangements God does only what he has not enabled man to do for himself, and 11 that he has assigned to man the rest of the work ? " Yes, Sir." Q. Well, then, when the farmer ploughs the land, is he doing something which God intended that he should do ? ' ; He is." Q. When you do what God requires you to do, are you doing the will of God 1 ''' Yes, Sir." When a farmer -is ploughing all day, is he doing a necessary duty ? " Yes, he is." Q. Is he to be respected or despised for work- ing in this manner. " To he respected ; he is doing what is right." Q. If he had in his mind all the steps which we have followed, would he feel that in ploughing he was doing a religious duty? "Yes." Q. Why so? "Because he would understand that God had appointed him to do it, that he and others might have bread to enable them to live." Right. Q. But to enable the farmer to raise wheat in the greatest quantity and of the best quality, is anything more necessary on his part ? A pause ; then the answer, " Strength." What gives him strength "? " The food that he eats." Right. Q. Is anything more necessary \ A pause ; at length a boy said, " Mind," and another said, " Knowledge." Right again. He requires to know how to plough. Q. But how does he acquire this knowledge ? " Somebody who has learned to plough must shew him the way." Quite correct ; and we call the combination of this acquired knowledge with strength, skill. Has every man equal strength ? " No." Q. Is every man equally clever in learning to do what you teach him ? " No.'' Then if you were farmers, and were going to hire two men to plough your land, and one were skilful and the other not, would you give them both the same wages ? " No." Q. Why not ? " Because the one would plough more and better than the other, and do more to raise wheat." Right. But would this not be a hardship to the unskilful man ? " He should acquire more skill." Q. But if he is naturally weak and dull ? " This would be his misfortune : He should try some easier work." Right again. Suppose you were farmers and could not plough all the fields with your own hands, but must hire men to plough for you, would you require anything more in your ploughmen than strength and knowledge I A pause ; no answer. Q. Has the ploughman the care of the horses \ " Tes, Sir." Q. Is it his duty to feed and curry them, make a nice clean bed for them, and keep them dry and warm in the stable ? " That is his duty." Suppose, now, you had two ploughmen, one of whom was a kind-hearted, conscientious man, who was fond of his horses, and did all these things for their welfare punctually and with pleasure ; and another who was ill-tern- 12 pered, careless, and unconscientious, and looked on the care of his horses as a burden, which he shirked whenever his master's eye was off him Q. Which would you prefer ? " The good man." Certainly. Q. But why would you prefer him ? " Because his horses, being well fed and cared for, would work better." Q. Then you consider good nature and honesty necessary to make a good ploughman, as well as knowledge and strength? " Yes, Sir." Let us next suppose that there are two villages like Charl- ton, each with five hundred inhabitants, who need to be fed with bread, and that each of them depends entirely on three farmers for the wheat with which their bakers must make bread ; and that the three farmers who supply one village are skilful, conscientious, active men, and keep only good ploughmen and horses ; and that the three farmers who sup- ply the other village are careless, unskilful, and unconscien- tious persons, who do not look after the conduct of their ploughmen : Q. Which would the lazy and unconscientious ploughmen of the neighbourhood seek out for their masters ? " They would go to the careless farmers'?" Q. Which village, then, would be best supplied with wheat and bread ? " The one that had good farmers." It appears from this that all the people who live in the villages depend, more or less, on the character and skill of the farmers and ploughmen in the neighbourhood for their supply of bread ? " They do, Sir." Q. But is it not hard that these persons in the villages who have no command over the farmers should suffer by their bad conduct ? A pause ; no answer. Let us inquire how this happens. Q, Do the people of the villages do any thing for the farmers in return for the wheat and bread "? " Yes, Sir they make clothes and shoes for them ; also carts and ploughs, and the baker bakes bread for them." Right. Q. Does the school- master instruct their children, and the clergyman preach to them on Sundays 1 " They do." Q. Will it make any dif- ference to the farmers if the tradesmen, the schoolmaster, and clergyman who do these things for them, are skilful and conscientious, or slothful, careless, and unconscientious ? " It will make all the difference between being well served and ill served." And suppose that the prices of the things fur- nished by these two sets of tradesmen, schoolmaster, and clergyman, were equal, would the farmers prefer the articles made by the one set to those made by the other ? " Yes, Sir ; they would find the articles made by the good and skilful men the best." Q. Would they, on account of their superior quality, be really cheaper than the other, although the price in money was the same ? " Yes ; they would serve the farmers better, and also wear longer." Q. Is it not a hard- ship on the farmers to depend for good articles on the skill and honesty of these villagers over whom they have no con- trol ? A pause ; no answer . Now mark what I am going to say. Q. Do the villagers depend on the sale of their articles to the farmers for obtaining a share of their wheat to make bread ? " Yes, Sir." Q. And if they make bad articles, will the farmers buy them ? " No, Sir." Q. Will the villagers in that case have a supply of bread ? " No." Then you see that the farmers have a degree of control over the conduct of the villagers ; for if they do not make good articles, they withhold their bread. Let us again turn to the farmers. Which of the two classes of farmers, the skilful and honest, or the unskil- ful and careless, would produce the best wheat I " The skil- ful and honest." Q. Which could afford to sell their wheat cheapest, and yet by their greater crops have enough for them- selves and for payment of their rents ? " The good and skilful farmers." Q. Would the villagers prefer buying good wheat of them to inferior wheat from the other class, even if the price were the same I " They would." Right. But from this it appears that the farmers, in their turn, are dependent on the villagers for the sale of their wheat ? " Yes, Sir." Now, who was it that made the farmers and the villagers, and, by the constitution of their bodies made it necessary for them all to work, and each to' do work to supply his neigh- bours with something that they need, in return for which he gets something that is wanted by himself who, I ask, estab- lished this necessity for working, and this dependence of us all, the one on the other I " It was God." Right. Q. When you are told in the Bible that it is your duty to love your neighbour as yourself do you see, in this state of things, any arrangement to lead us to do so? "Yes, Sir; if we should all do our duty in our own lines, we should all benefit our- selves and our neighbours at the same time; for each of us would have more things to sell and of a better quality, and lie would get more articles in return." Well answered. Q. But let me ask again, If God has established all this in the framework of our bodies and the endowment of our minds, is he a clever fellow who tries to find a shorter way than by skilful and honest labour, to a supply of bread, who, for example, cheats to get it, or steals it ? " No, Sir." Q. Can bread be produced by cheating and stealing? (A laugh). ' w No, it cannot." Q. Do the men who try to get bread by these means, take it from some one who has produced it, or has obtained it by giving something valuable in exchange for it ? 14 ' Yes." Q. Then is it the interest of all good, skilful, and honest people to stop these men from eating the bread which they do nothing to produce ? " Yes." Q. If they combine their strength, have they the power to prevent them ? " They have, Sir." Q. If, then, by working skilfully and honestly each of us in our own line, and exchanging our articles, we are all better supplied, and if God has arranged things in this manner, what kind of conduct does He prescribe to us, and approve of? A pause. " God means us to acquire skill, to be kind to each other, and to be honest." Q. Then, is there any hardship in our being dependent one on the other in this way? "No, Sir." Q. Do you see in this dependence any sign that God meant us all to be happy together ; in short to love our neighbours as ourselves I " Yes, Sir." Well, then, let us bear these things in mind, and try to do them, in the full conviction that we shall never find shorter, easier, or better ways to our own happiness than those which God has appointed, and that in all of these we must walk side by side with our neighbours to find the surest way to our own enjoy- ment. I repeat that this was an improvised lesson, given to illustrate a method of instructing children which at once I'ouses their intellects, excites their moral faculties, and con- veys knowledge of actual things and agencies which directly affect their well-being. It will be observed that in illustrat- ing the waste of the human body, I confined myself to that form of it which could be made intelligible to pupils who had not been instructed in Physiology. Where this subject has been taught to children, impressive lessons may be founded on it, embracing a wide field of practical duties both per- sonal and social. I learned this mode of teaching from my friend Mr William Ellis, of No. 6 Lancaster Terrace, Re- gent's Park ; and beg to recommend to every one who feels an interest in it to visit the schools in London con- ducted by Mr Runtz in Chancery Lane, and Mr Shields in Peckhatn. They will there learn that it is capable of ex- tensive and highly beneficial applications. There are six Birkbeck schools in London, which Mr Ellis has been in- strumental in establishing on this plan,* and also similar schools in other parts of the kingdom, a visit to any of which will be found interesting and instructive. * See Note A. APPENDIX. NOTE A. Schools referred to on p. 14. The Birkbeck Schools at present in existence are, 1. Southampton Buildings, Chancery Lane (for Boys). 2. Bell-yard, Commercial Place, City Road (for Boys). 3. Cambridge Road, Mile-End (for Boys and Girls) . 4. Vincent Square, Westminster (for Boys). 5. Willow Brook Road, near Hill Street, Peckham (for Boys, Girls, and Infants). 6. Robinson's Row, Kingsland. In Manchester there is a secular school, and one is con- ducted in the Mechanics' Institute in Salford, by Mr John Angell. In Leith, there is a school in the premises of the Edin- burgh and Leith Ropery Company, instituted by Mr James Hay, and taught by Mr William Ellis. In Glasgow, there is a secular school in Carlton Place in- stituted by a number of the inhabitants of that city, among whom Mr James MacClelland and Mr Cunliffe may be men- tioned as having devoted much attention to the subject of education. It has 230 scholars on the roll, and in some of the departments additional applicants cannot be received. There are probably more schools conducted on Mr Ellis's principles than I am acquainted with ; I mention only those about which I possess some information. The following is a list of works on Social Economy, pre- pared for schools by Mr Ellis, of Lancaster Terrace, Regent's Park : 1. Outlines of Social Economy. 2d edition, fcap. 8vo, Is. 6d. half-bound. 2. Outlines of the History and Formation of the Understand- ing. Fcap. 8vo, 2s. half-bound. 16 3. Questions and Answers suggested by a Consideration of some of the Arrangements and Relations of Social Life. Fcap. 8vo, 2s. 6d. half-bound. 4. Introduction to the Study of the Social Sciences. Fcap. 8vo, 2s. half-bound. 5. Progressive Lessons in Social Science. Fcap. 8vo, Is. 6d. half-bound. 6. Education as a Means of Preventing Destitution. Post 8vo, 4s. cloth. 7. Reminiscences and Reflections of an Old Operative. Fcap. 8vo, sewed, 3d. 8. What am I ? Where am I ? What ought I to do 1 How am I to become Qualified and Disposed to do what I Ought? Fcap. 8vo, Is. 9. Where must we Look for the Further Prevention of Crime ? Post 8vo, Is. 10. A Layman's Contribution to the Knowledge and Prac- tice of Religion in Common Life being the substance of a course of Conversation-lessons introductory to the study of Moral Philosophy. Pp. 470. Price 7s. 6d. boards. London : Smith, Elder, & Co., 65 Cornhill. Lessons on the Phenomena of Industrial Life, and the Conditions of Industrial Success. Edited by the Rev. Richard Dawes, M.A., Dean of Hereford. 2d edition, price 2s. Groombridge & Sons, 5 Paternoster Row. UNIVERSITY OF C. 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