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 -.r CALIFORNIA, 
 
 BRARY, 
 
 O-OS ANGELES, CALIF. 
 
 BULLETIN No. 58 
 
 TRADE AND INDUSTRIAL 
 SERIES No. 15 
 
 & 
 
 Trade and Industrial Education 
 
 for 
 
 iris and Women 
 
 Part I. ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL ASPECTS 
 OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR 
 GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 Part 2. WAYS AND MEANS OF ESTAB- 
 LISHING AND OPERATING A PRO- 
 GRAM 
 
 Odohr, 1920 
 
 52499 
 
 ISSUED BY THE 
 
 FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 
 
 WASHINGTON 
 
 WASHINQTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTINQ OFFICE : 1920
 
 FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 
 
 WiixiAjr B. Wu.sox, CJininv.an. 
 Secrettiry of Labor. 
 
 Josiiu V W. Alexandek, 
 
 Secretary of Commerce. 
 
 Edwi.x T. Mkkkditii, 
 
 Secretary of Ayricultuie. 
 
 P. P. Cr-vxTOx, 
 
 . Commis.sionor of P^ducation. 
 
 Jamks p. Muneoe, Vice Chairmnn, 
 Manufacture and Commerce. 
 
 Calvin F. McIntosii, 
 Agriculture. 
 
 ARTHUR E. Holder, 
 Labor. 
 
 EXICCUTIVE STAFF. 
 
 Uel W. LAjriviN, Director. 
 
 Layton S. ILwvkins, Assistant Director, Vocational Education. 
 
 11. T. Fisher, Assi.stant Directoi", A'ocatioiial Rcb.'ibilitation. 
 
 Lewis H. Caeris, Assistant Director. Industrial Rehabilitation. 
 
 C. H. Lake, Cbief, Agricultural Education Service. 
 
 F. G. Nichols, Chief, C(;mmercial P^ducation Service. 
 
 Anna E. Richardson, Chief, Home Economics Education Service. 
 
 J. 
 
 John 
 
 C. ^VcuqHT,.; Chief, ,Iu4ui5tri;al,F,du'e4tio^ Strvic^. .' J 1 ,- 
 )HN .eo.M*'i:^G'j,: Fconbhiist 'and'^Statistici.'Kt. • '•' '-''
 
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Foreword 5 
 
 lutroductiou 7 
 
 PAKT I. KCONOJIIC AND SOCIAL ASPECTS OF VOCATIONAL EDrCATION FOR GIRLS 
 
 AM) MOJLKN. 
 
 I. Expansion of oiiportunitics for vocational education for girls and 
 
 wonjen possible under tbe Federal vocational education act 9 
 
 11. Economic and social aspects of vocational eflr.cation 11 
 
 HI. Fundamental distinctions between homeraaking and industrial edu- 
 cation 16 
 
 IV. Vocational education for girls and women a two-fold problem 20 
 
 V. Women in industry an increasingly important national problem — • 
 
 analysis and forecast , 22 
 
 I'ART I* WAYS AND MEANS' OF ESTABLISHING AND OPERATING A PROGRAM 
 OF VOCATIONAL EDICATION FOR CilRLS AND WOMEN. 
 
 I. Fundamental principles of Federal aid 35 
 
 II. Organization for administration to secure the benefits of appropria- 
 tions 1 35 
 
 HI. Funds available for distribution 36 
 
 IV. General provisions of the vocational education act 37 
 
 V. Special provisions for trade anil industrial education 38 
 
 ^'I. Types of vocational schools and training agencies 48 
 
 Evening schools and classes 50 
 
 Courses for table or counter service 53 
 
 The all-day vocational school or department 56 
 
 Course of study in telegraphy 65 
 
 Course of study in mechanical drafting 65 
 
 Part-time schools and classes: 
 
 The field for part-time education 6G 
 
 The girl, the job, and the part-time school 74 
 
 Specialized part-time instruction ^ 78 
 
 Training in industrial plants 80 
 
 MAPS AND DIAGRAMS. 
 
 Compulsory part-time school legislation in the States 4 
 
 IMininunn wage legislation in the States ]3 
 
 Legal limitation of working hours for women in the States 15 
 
 Industrial distribution of gainfully employed women and girls 10 years 
 
 of age and over: 1010 24 
 
 iiainfully employed woineji and girls 10 years of age and over, by States 25 
 
 Women and girls K) years of age and over employed in specified manu- 
 facturing ami mechanical pursuits: 1910 27 
 
 APPENDICES. 
 
 A. >^ynopsis SO 
 
 B. Classified bibliography — Women in industry 100 
 
 Available bulletins of the Federal Board for Vocational Education 105 
 
 3
 
 FOREWOED. 
 
 By tlie provisions of the A'ocational education act, enacted Feb- 
 ruary 23, 1917, the Federal Board for Vocational Education is 
 charged with the dut}- of disbursing Federal moneys to the States for 
 approved instruction in trade and industrial education of less than 
 college grade, and of promoting in cooperation vritli the States the 
 establishment of such instruction. 
 
 The bulletins on organization and administration of trade and 
 industrial education (Nos. 17, 18, 19) were prepared in sufficiently 
 broad terms to indicate tliat the policies of tlie Federal Board for 
 Vocational Education applied to instruction for girls and women 
 as well as for men and boys. 
 
 Accurate information relative to the changes in the employment of 
 women accelerated by the war is not available at present. However, 
 the public is becoming increasingly aware of the extent to which 
 industry is dependent upon women workers. 
 
 In consideration of this fact, this bulletin has been prepared by 
 Mrs. Anna Lalor Burdick, special agent for trade and industrial 
 education. It presents the background of industrial education for 
 women, some of the attendant problems and the program which 
 is i^ossible under the terms of the Federal act. 
 
 The manuscript was presented in conference before a group of 
 men and women representing tlie Federal Board, the State authori- 
 ties, and the local community. 
 
 For criticism and helpful suggestions acknowledgment is due to 
 I^'Iiss Cleo Murtland, associate professor of industrial education. Uni- 
 versity of Michigan ; and to the women who reviewed tlie manuscript : 
 
 Miss Mary Anderson, director, "Woman's Bureau, United States 
 Department of Labor, "Washington. 
 
 Miss Griselda Ellis, principal A'ocational School for Girls, 
 Newark, N. J. 
 
 Miss Mary Gilson, superintendent employment and service, Joseph 
 & Feiss Co., Cleveland, Ohio. 
 
 Miss Elizabeth Fish, principal Girls' Vocational High School, 
 Minneapolis, Minn. 
 
 Miss Isabel Ely Lord, director School of Household Sciences and 
 Arts, Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 5
 
 6 rOREWOKD. 
 
 Mrs. Iris Proiity O'Leary, special agent Vocational Education for 
 Girls, Trenton, N. J. 
 
 JSliss Ethel M. Smith, secretary, legislative committee, National 
 "Woman's Trade Union League, Washington. 
 
 IVIrs. Eva Whiting White, educational director, College Settle- 
 ment, New York. 
 
 Tliis bulletin may be considered as an official answer to the many 
 inquiries concerning matters of policy in trade and industrial educa- 
 tion for girls and women received by the office of the Federal Board. 
 
 L. S. Hawkins, 
 Assistant Director, Vocational Education. 
 
 I 

 
 TRADE AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION FOR GIRLS AND 
 
 WOMEN. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The attention of the public is focused sharply upon women wage 
 earners. 
 
 The most casual observer has not failed to note the expansion in 
 numbers of women employed, the influx of inexperienced workers 
 into new fields of labor, the redistribution of working women in dif- 
 ferent occupations, the actual changes in the industrial processes, 
 and the degree to which industry is becoming reorganized on a new 
 basis so as to include women workers among employees. This social 
 and economic movement of our day is placing tremendous responsi- 
 bilities upon society' for the construction of a program of purposeful 
 education that will insure the best type of womanhood, and main- 
 tain tlie integrity of the woman worker. 
 
 An increasing interest in the development of a program for voca- 
 tional education as it affects these girls and women is shown by the 
 number of national organizations which have recorded their approval 
 and support of the Federal vocational education act. This cumu- 
 lative weight of public opinion shoidd encourage States and local 
 communities to proceed to the organization and establishment of 
 vocational courses and schools commensurate with the needs of 
 women Avorkers and the numbers involved. 
 
 The educational advantages provided under the terms of this act 
 are extended to both men and women. Hence, the interpretations and 
 policies already set forth, in Bulletins Nos. 1, 17, 18, and 19,^ are ap- 
 plicable to all workers without regard to sex. These policies are 
 simply restated here in terms applicable to the organization and 
 operation of a vocational education program for girls and women. 
 
 * rublications of the Federal Board for Vocational ICducation : 
 Bulletin No. 1 : Statement of rolicies. 
 
 Bulletin No. 17: Tradi^ and Industrial Education — Organizalion and Administration. 
 Bulletin No. 18 : Eveiiins Industrial Scliools. 
 Bulletin No. 19 : Fart-lime Trade and Industrial Education, 
 
 7
 
 I 
 
 PART I. 
 
 ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL ASPECTS OE VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 
 FOB GIRLS AND WOMEN. 
 
 I. ExPANSiox OF Opportunities for Vocational Education for 
 Girls and Women Possible Under the Federal Vocational 
 Education Act, 
 
 The Federal vocational education act was passed in order to provide 
 an opportunity for the preparation and improvement of workers for 
 effective participation in wage-earning pursuits. It likewise antici- 
 pated the continuous development and expansion of the industries of 
 the United States. 
 
 The act provides for the development of two services. The first 
 of these is the administration of Federal funds to encourage States 
 to inaugurate schools and classes designed primarily (a) to prepare 
 persons for entrance to a chosen field of employment, through day 
 trade classes; (h) to increase the trade and technical knowledge of 
 those already employed, through part-time and evening schools; {c) 
 to prepare teachers, supervisors, and directors for the organization 
 and conduct of such classes. The second service is to extend, through 
 State and local authorities, the friendly offices of the Federal Board 
 for Vocational Education to industries interested in developing pro- 
 grams for training their own workers. For this purpose the act pro- 
 vides for the making of studies, investigations, and reports with 
 particular reference to the determination of courses of instruction 
 and the establishment of classes in the four general industrial fields, 
 nameh', (1) agriculture, (2) trade and industry, (3) commerce, and 
 (4) home economics. 
 
 The passage of the act in February, 1917, came simultaneously 
 with a national aAvakening and at a time when social, economJc, and 
 educational institutions were being brought to a strict accounting 
 for their contributions to our national efliciency. 
 
 The crisis of the war brought into the Nation's consciousness a 
 realization of the extent to which women were responsible for con- 
 servation and production of the common commodities. The essential 
 task of conservation, complicated by an increased cost of the necessi- 
 ties of life, made insistent claims upon the homemaker. Necessity 
 for increased production with a constantly diminishing labor supply 
 made heavy demands upon wage-earning women. These sudden and 
 
 9
 
 10 TRADE AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 
 
 iiniisiiiil demands effected a redih-tribution of workers by transfer 
 from nonessential industries, or change in type of employment, and 
 developed a labor supply to meet the demand. This redistri])ution 
 created tlie necessity for training for the new and diversified fields 
 of work into which Avomen were being drawn, and in which they are 
 now extensively engaged. The employment of women in these occu- 
 pations puts upon the community the responsibility for establisliing 
 and maintaining suitable training for them. Communities meeting 
 this responsibility are entitled to the benefits of the trade and in- 
 dustrial fund provided under the Federal act. 
 
 Three types of training have been recognized up to the present 
 time as serving the needs of the various groups of employees Avhich 
 modern industrial organization demands. These types of training 
 have been developed for three groups of 'vorkers: (1) For technical 
 experts, (2) for the producers, and (3) for the supervisory officers. 
 
 Training women for technical positions in industrial employment 
 lias been limited, is comparatively recent, and has been coincident 
 with industrial specialization. 
 
 Training of producers or operatives is still largely unorganized, 
 incidental, and confined chiefly to a method of permitting them to 
 participate in productive processes. In the well-established tradi- 
 tional trades, trade education was begun by private agencies as a 
 means of improving the condition of the worker; while in factory 
 occupations it was the outgrowth of necessity to meet an emergency 
 resulting from demands for an increased output A^ith inexperienced 
 Avorkers. 
 
 The trainiiig of women for supervisory positions in employment 
 and production departments, though of recent development, has 
 demonstrated its value by the results which women in personnel work 
 obtained by their intelligent selection, placing, and training of 
 workers. As one of the beneficial contributions of the war, this 
 scheme should be continued. 
 
 The history of vocational education hitherto has been marked by 
 the neglect of workers in factory occupations. Increasing consump- 
 tion of factory products demands increased production. This in 
 turn multiplies the quota of women Avorkers. The issue has been 
 evaded by classifying these operatives as unskilled and practically 
 out of reach of training. It is a demonstrable fact that for the 
 better-trained Avorker and supervisor there is a Avider opportunity 
 for choice and greater assurance of promotion. Since training in 
 these tAvo fields for producers and for supervisory officers concerns 
 the Avorker already employed, Avherever men and women are engaged 
 in the same occupations, the same opportunities and provisions for 
 training may be offered to both. By this policy provision is made for
 
 FOR GIKLS AND WOMEN. 11 
 
 the development of a vocational-education program commensurate 
 with the horizon of women's work. 
 
 II. Economic and Social Aspects of Vocational Education. 
 
 Certain economic and social forces have at times served to accel- 
 erate or retard the evohition resulting from the entrance of women 
 into paid occupations. Four steps in the cycle of tlie progression are 
 distinguishable : (1) Economic stress forces women workers into new 
 fields; (2) society comes to accept their presence as a fact; (3) private 
 enterprise demonstrates the possibilities of educational training and 
 preparation; (4) public agencies ultimately assume this service. 
 
 During the Civil War, because of the shortage of men and their 
 indisposition after the war to reenter the profession, women became 
 dominant in the teaching profession and have since remained so. 
 With the advent of the sewing machine and ready-to-wear garments, 
 women went into the garment factories, and also found a new field 
 for their services as saleswomen in department stores. The introduc- 
 tion of the telephone, the typewriter, the multigraph, the telegraph, 
 and other ofRce appliances has added to the numbers of women em- 
 ployed in wage-earning pursuits. As each group of workers became 
 permanent, the need for training was recognized. Normal training 
 was instituted for teachers; commercial classes were inaugurated by 
 private schools and colleges. Thougli social disapproval of com- 
 mercial education for the girl has been a decided barrier to its proo-- 
 ress, it has now become an established branch of the public-school 
 curriculum. 
 
 In industrial centers where women workers are most numerous, 
 the evil results of permitting girls 14 to 16 years old to enter the 
 industrial world ungnided, unguarded, unadvised, and untrained 
 has created a sentiment favorable to an extension of the educational 
 program to include trade instruction in day, part-time, and evenino" 
 schools together with provisions for guidance and placement. Day 
 trade schools for girls are comparatively few, and schools offering 
 industrial courses as part of their work are not common. This is 
 partly due to the long-prevailing public attitude that the industrial 
 world is not the place for women, and that a training Avhich fitted 
 them for anything but home life would be highly undesirable. As 
 their presence became an accepted fact, it was felt that individually 
 their periods of service in industry prior to withdrawal into their 
 OAvn homes were generally too brief to warrant specific trade training. 
 Though women are found in increasing numbers in ahnost all pro- 
 ductive industries, yet comparative!)^ few occupations demanding 
 specialized training have been open to them. In man}- cases a gen-
 
 12 TRADE AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 
 
 oral conviction that girls should have, or were demanding, some voca- 
 tional training has led to the introduction of the traditional trades, 
 dressmaking and millinery — into schools with little consideration of 
 local conditions of \\-ork, wages, or chances of employment. There 
 has been little recognition of training possibilities for vocations that 
 might offer better opportunities for girls." 
 
 Enlarging the scope of women's work has been a matter of break- 
 ing down prejudices on the part of the employer and of the worker 
 herself, a matter of reforming social attitudes toward different types 
 of employment and of recognizing that training is both necessary 
 and desirable for the occupations in which w^omen are engaged. 
 Again under the stress of war, the public has accei:)ted many situ- 
 ations Avithout debate, and has revised and readjusted its standards. 
 Out of this reconstructed social and educational background a pro- 
 gram of education for fields of work in which women are now em- 
 plo3'ed is being formulated. 
 
 It is clearly seen that the problems of employment and training of 
 women workers are numerous, tliat they are, from the standpoint of 
 social psychology, economic organization, and educational adjust- 
 ment, intricate and complex. 
 
 The girl wage earner is characterized by youth, inexperience, and 
 limited school attainment. She is usually limited to a local market 
 for her labor. She meets with sharp competition, and receives a 
 meager wage because she is considered to be part of a family group, 
 merely a contributor to her own support.^ Matrimonial expectancy 
 is a chance factor causing her employment to be regarded by all par- 
 ties concerned as casual or temporary. Because of social attitudes 
 toward her and her work, she tends to develop into an opportunist 
 with attention and interest centered in the immediate. Though she 
 oftentimes assumes financial responsibilities at home;'* yet she is dis- 
 inclined to seek out more complicated work or greater responsibili- 
 ties in the field of her labor. Her indifference to greater responsi- 
 bilities and their rewards and her apathy toward planning for future 
 advancement is a reflection of the spirit of society toward her as a 
 worker. 
 
 Then, too, industrial employment is underrated as a field of service 
 to society. A pay envelope should stand for a contribution to 
 economic values through quantity and quality of production or 
 service. It is a return for a service rendered under conditions ap- 
 proved of by society as suitable to insure the well-being of the 
 
 2 Report of Committee on Industrial Education of the American Federation of Labor, 
 1012. Senate Document 93G. second session. Sixty-second Congress, pp. 02, 92. 
 
 = Five Tlieories of Women's Wages, Dorothy Douglas. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 
 February, 1920. 
 
 * Survey of Wage-earning Girls Below Sixteen Tears of Age, in Wilkes-Barro, Pa. 
 1915. Sarah H. Atherton. National Consumers' League, New York, pp. 14 and 15.
 
 rOR GIRLS AXD WOMEX, 
 
 13
 
 14 TRADE A^D IXDUSTPJAL EDUCATION 
 
 Avoiker ill fulfilling her obligation to society. This pay envelope 
 assures the girl that she has made a contribution which the \vorld 
 recognizes and upon Avhich it has set a measurable value. 
 
 Social workers and economists have seen the necessity for 'bringing 
 to the attention of employers and consumers the current difficu.lties 
 encountered bv girls and "women in industry. Through their efforts 
 a program o/ legislation is being developed to protect the present 
 worke'r in the light of her future potentialities. See map on ]iage 13 
 showing extent of minimum Avage legislati(m in the I Jiitocl States, 
 and a map on page 15 showing the legal limitations of working hours 
 for women in the States. 
 
 Having no background of experience on which to base her judg- 
 ments, the young worker has been a poor bargainer. On the basis 
 that the girl should not work until she is able to earn a living wage— 
 the age of compulsory scliool attendance has been raised, and the 
 issuance of work permits has been assumed as a part of public school 
 duties. Educational supervision has been extended to the working 
 o-roup for a limited i)eriod providing both instruction and protective 
 
 measures. 
 
 Minimum-wage legislation tends to keep the girl in school longer; 
 to increase the age of entrance into employment ; to raise the average 
 intelligence of the beginning worker: and to make possible an in- 
 structional program fitting for employment or related to the daily 
 occupation. 
 
 Some States anticipating the value of training to the worker, the 
 cost of which the industry should bear, have provided that the learn- 
 ing period be determined, and that the employer provide reasonable 
 opportunity for the progression of tlie worker. It is the work of 
 the educational agent of any State industrial conmiission to see that 
 this period is neither too short, thereby working an injustice to the 
 employer, nor too long, thereby retarding the advancement of the 
 worker. Close scrutiny of occupations in indiLstry and their de- 
 mands upon the Avorker are necessary to determine the normal period.' 
 
 Minimum wage indirectly brings about a more careful selection 
 of workers in order that a larger amount of business may be handled 
 by fewer workers who will receive in turn the added advantage of 
 occupational training. 
 
 Society recognizes its right to insure itself against low standards 
 of intelligence, intellectual Avaste, and human Avreckage. Through 
 social-educational legislation it protects itself as a unit by .safe- 
 guarding the interests of groups. 
 
 "Minimum Wage Commissions. Current Facts, Jannary, 1020, Consumers' Leaguo, 
 p. 3. Thirteen States and the District of Columbia have some form of minimum wage 
 legislation.
 
 FOR GIRLS AXD WOMKN. 
 
 15
 
 16 TRADE AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 
 
 To this eiul, (lurino; the war, England j^assed measures requiring 
 compulsory daj^-school attendance until lO years of ao;e, and part- 
 time instruction of juvenile workers between the ages of 14 and 18.* 
 Dui-ing tlie last year this movement has spread rajjidly in the United 
 States. At the present time 19 states' have provided compidsory 
 instruction from four to eight jiours per vceek during the regular 
 liours of the working day. (See map on p. 4.) Though this period 
 may seem relatively short, it is sufficient t« establish the fact that the 
 cliild is a responsibility of the State, amenal>le to its demands, subject 
 to its discipline and protection; that she has not reached tlie status 
 of the adult Avage earner upon entrance into employment, but reserves 
 her greatest contribution to society for her maturer years. 
 
 Educators and the people as sponsors of education must recognize 
 the bearings which these social and economic factors have upon the 
 inauguration and operation of a program of vocational education 
 for girls and women as provided under the terms of the Eederal 
 vocational act. 
 
 IIJ, FuNi)A>rj;XTAL. DiSTIXCTIOXS 1)ETWEEX lIoMKMAKTXG AND 
 IXDUSTRIAL Eui CATION. 
 
 A consideration of the ])ursuits in Avhich women are engaged, and 
 of the probable demands u\)on their lal)or, is necessary to the formula- 
 tion of an educationt'il i)rogram for them as workers. 
 
 lu the main historical development presents two types of wage- 
 earning occn]:)ations for Avomen, namely those which Avere originally 
 household occu[)ations and those Avhich have had an industrial origin 
 in<lependent of the household. 
 
 AVoman has always been a factor in industiial life. As a producer 
 in the early stages of industrial development she Avas engaged in 
 varied processes relating to food, clothing, and shelter for her family 
 Avithin her oAvn houseliold., and she has moreover been employed in all 
 the diversilied occupations Avhich center around the care and rearing 
 of children. ^Vhen the home Avas the center of industry, her training 
 for homemaking Avas ol)tained through assistance in the varied house- 
 hold tasks; her indiistrial training Avas gained by participation in the 
 ])ro(hictiv"e Avork carried on in the home. Thus homemaking and in- 
 dustrial occupation Avere sui)plementary and interdependent. The 
 girl's indenture for ap]irenticeslii]\ unlike that of a boy, did not 
 stipulate that she Avas to be taught a specific trade, lience slie received 
 
 « School and Society, A'ol. XI, No. 264, p. 88, .Taiuiary 17, 1920. TJncloi- section 10 of 
 tli(! Gdueation act (Great Biitain) passed August 7, 1018, an obligation is laid on every 
 young person between 14 and 1(! years of ago, who is not receiving equivalent education 
 elsewhere, to attend a continuation school for 320, or at least 280, hours each year. In 
 seven years after this section comes into operation the number of hours must be -520 in 
 each year, and the pupils must attend up to 18, instead of 10 years of age, 
 
 ' Wisconsin passed the first law in 1011.
 
 FOR GIRLS AND WOMEN". ' 17 
 
 a general training in spinning, weaving, and numerous otlier house- 
 hold tasks.® Schools for spinning, Aveaving, straw phiiting, etc., were 
 developed in accordance with Puritan ideals of " cultivating the vir- 
 tue of industry" and avoiding "the sins of idleness."" To-day so- 
 ciety recognizes the responsibility of the schools for training in home- 
 making occupations, but has not yet recognized the responsibility for 
 industrial training — leaving this to industry. The paramount prob- 
 lems of food and clothing in the home, most of which are matters of 
 selection and conservation, are frequently misconstrued as problems 
 of production. Failure to recognize these changed conditions is re- 
 sponsible for the confusion that commonlj^ prevails relative to the 
 fundamental differences between preparation for the duties of the 
 home as it exists to-day, and preparation for modern industrial life. 
 
 The congestion of population in urban centers, and the demand for 
 increased production have alike wrought changes in the home and in 
 industry. Former household activities have become specialized occu- 
 pations, some of which have been forced into mills and factories, 
 whole industries being organized about them. Throngs of women 
 now find a livelihood in these occupations and a market for their 
 labor. 
 
 The second group of women's employments includes those occupa- 
 tions which never have been carried on as home processes, but which 
 are a development of modern industrial organization with its array 
 of specialized machines, appliances, and devices for increasing pro- 
 duction, facilitating records, and developing clerical efficiency in 
 ofnce administration. The use of power-driven machines in weaving, 
 knitting, stitching, printing, watchmaking, jewelry, and metal 
 trades, together with the use of the telegraph, typewriter, comp- 
 tometer, adding machine, etc., has created types of occupations in 
 fields which were originally occupied by men, but which have been 
 talven over by women operatives as specialized machines have made 
 possible the use of women's labor. These have been recognized as 
 women's occupations in proportion as men have been diverted to 
 other fields. The social stigma attached to their pursuit has 
 diminished. 
 
 As women have entered into industrial emplo3^ment outside the 
 hom.e there has arisen a tendency to legislate and regulate certain 
 conditions for the protection of the women workers and of society. 
 These measures usually antedate the consideration of industrial 
 training, and while they modify the standards of employment they 
 are in no sense a substitute for the benefits accruing to the worker 
 from education, and should not be so regarded. Training for those 
 
 * Willystine Goodsell : The Family as a Social and Educational Institution, p. 402. 
 « Spinning school established in Boston, 1720, by public philanthi-opist. School for 
 straw plaiting established iu Baltimore, 1824. 
 
 10787°— 20 2
 
 18 TRADE x\ND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATIOi^ 
 
 industries wliicli remain in the home in a limited degree — cooking 
 and sewing — has developed as home-making education. When the 
 demand arose for preparing the girl for wage earning, the same 
 instruction Avas assumed to be adequate, thus circumscribing the 
 courses offered and establishing a barrier to further educational ex- 
 periment in the field of industrial education. 
 
 Employments in the home and in industry, though emanating 
 from the same sources, are progressing along widely divergent 
 lines. The home maker is becoming increasingly a consumer of 
 goods and of service, Avhile the wage earner either is relegated to 
 productive employment outside the horizon of the household, or 
 becomes a purveyor of a limited service to large numbers. 
 
 Industry has become institutionalized largely to the degree to 
 whicli mechanical appliances have superseded hand labor. Thus 
 spinning, weaving, laiitting, dyeing, garment m.alving, shoe making, 
 dairying, food packing, canning, baking, laundering, and the like, 
 are to-day industries of tremendous proportions, in which woman 
 is not a new factor but a changed factor. She is employed in opera- 
 tive and directive positions requiring varying degrees of responsi- 
 bility and skill, both in production and in distribution of output. 
 
 Service activities of the home have become segregated and institu- 
 tionalized. Schools are maintained for educational purposes ; hosj^i- 
 tals for care of the sick ; churches for public worship ; theaters, play- 
 grounds, parks, museums, and libraries for recreational purposes; tea 
 rooms, clubs, and cafes supplement the hospitality of the home. To 
 meet these needs we have a suitable host of trained workers — teachers, 
 nurses, play-ground directors, social workers, librarians, dietitians, 
 caterers, waitresses, etc. Each class of workers may again be divided 
 according to the particular service rendered. These services would 
 be impossible on any other basis than that of service to groups and 
 specialization. It is a complicated problem for the home, to establish 
 itself in right relationships among these manifold agencies whose 
 expert service it has power to command. 
 
 Public utilities and the distribution of common commodities have 
 become departmentalized through cooperative and concerted action. 
 The controllable factors of environment which have bearing on 
 health, safety, housing, light, Avater, transportation, etc. have been 
 standardized. The multiple recording, classifying, assembling, 
 checking, and distributing necessary to carry on these commercial 
 enterprises are handled largel}' by Avomen employed in various types 
 of office and store service. 
 
 With this increasingly complex organization of society, the home 
 can not maintain, through diversified occupations, its traditional iso- 
 lation and independence. The home maker must assume a responsi- 
 bilit}' toAvard the problems of the Avage earners, toward civic enter-
 
 FOR GIRLS AND WOMEN". 19 
 
 prises, and toward municipal housekeeping. Either she becomes a 
 factor in them, or the home and society suffer because of her intro- 
 spective isolation. Vocational home economics education has taken 
 cognizance of these facts, and has formulated a program upon an 
 analysis of the work and functions of the homemaker. 
 
 Any analysis of the vocation of home making will demonstrate clearly that it 
 is a composite vocation embi-acing a wide range of vitally essential social serv- 
 ices, which devolve specially iiix)n women in their capacity as home makers. 
 In general, these include the following fairly separate and distinct lines of 
 vocational activity : 
 
 (a) The care and rearing of children. 
 
 ( b ) The care of the house and its equipment. 
 
 (c) The selection, preparation, and serving of food. 
 
 (d) The selection and care of clothing, and to some extent its actual con- 
 
 struction. 
 
 (c) The cai*e of the health of the family. 
 
 Home making is also a business and a social enterprise. As the manager 
 of a business enterprise, the home maker must determine the expenditure 
 of the family income and must direct or perform the labor involved in 
 running the plant. As a partner at the head of a social and civic unit, she 
 4s very largely responsible for the educational, moral, and social standards 
 of the home." 
 
 It can be readily observed that occupations differentiated in indus- 
 trial service and in commercial employment differ radically from the 
 occupation of the home maker. The differences which characterize 
 training along these several lines are consequent upon an ac- 
 knowledgment of the distinct character of the occupations them- 
 selves. The group whose well-being and comfort is to be conserved 
 by the home maker is bound together in domestic relationships by 
 family ties involving intimate and unselfish concessions on the part 
 of its individual members. 
 
 The fundamental distinction between liome economics education and certain 
 forms of industrial education for women's trades inheres in the occupations 
 themselves. As has been stated before, home making is a composite of undif- 
 ferentiated occupations I'equiring various forms of skill and of related knowl- 
 edge. The wage-earning occupations, such as dressmaking, catering, practical 
 nursing, millinery, etc., are specialized occupations requiring a high degree 
 of special skill in one field, together with related knowledge in that field. 
 The aim of home economics education is preparation for the work of the 
 house daughter, home maker, or liousehold assistant employed in this com- 
 posite vocation. The aim of above forms of industrial education is preparation 
 for wage earning in these specialized occupations. Distinctions between home 
 making schools and industrial or trade schools for girls may be made upon 
 the basis of (1) the aim of the instruction; (2) an examination of courses 
 of study as adapted to the preparation for the composite vocation or for a 
 specialized vocation; (3) the material and methods of instruction employed; 
 and (4) the relation of the instruction to later employment." 
 
 10 " Survey of the Needs in the Field of Vocational Home Economics Education," p. 10. 
 Bulletin No. 37, Home Economics Series, No. 4. 
 
 ^1 " Home Economics — Organization and Administration, p. 16, Bulletin No. 28, Home 
 Economics Series, No. 2.
 
 20 TEADE AND INDUSTEIAL EDUCATION 
 
 The purpose of trade or industrial education is fourfold: (1) to 
 prepare the girl for advantageous entrance into the field of wage- 
 earning; (2) to equip the girl for progression or advancement in the 
 type of work in which she is already eng.iged; (3) to enable the girl 
 or woman already employed to improve her civic and vocational in- 
 telligence; and (4) to enable the employed girl or woman to change 
 to a more congenial or profitable occupation. To the employer this 
 means an improved product, increased output, better morale, and 
 decreased labor turnover ; to the worker it means real cooperation in 
 industry, which results in higher wages and a better standard of liv- 
 ing ; and to the community, in consequence of these things, it means 
 a better citizenry. The training is intensive for one specialized 
 occupation, or for groups of related occupations, and is such as will 
 equip the workers for placement and steady employment. 
 
 The vocational teaching must be done by persons having skill 
 and experience in the trade, who keep abreast of the latest and best 
 trade practices. Eelated subjects, a knowledge of which adds to the 
 sldll and adaptability of the worker, m.ust be taught as tliey function 
 in these trades. Non vocational subjects, for general interest and in- 
 formation and social development, supplement and balance the pro- 
 gram. The educational value of an experience to the worker must be 
 the ultimate test of its admission to the curriculum. A follow-up of 
 the worker should check the value of the instruction. Each school 
 department or class must be classified according to the aim of the 
 group enrolled. The content of the course and the method of pre- 
 sentation will necessarily vary according to tbe vocational and educa- 
 tional experience of the group. 
 
 IV. Vocational Education tor Girls and Women a two-folo 
 
 Problem. 
 
 The duties and responsibilities of the woman wage earner, as well 
 as of the homemaker; indicate the two-fold nature of the problem of 
 vocational education as it concerns girls and women. These groups 
 are not mutually exclusive, either in personnel, or in interests. In 
 order that each indi^'idual may be assured the opportunity of doing 
 the liigliest type of productive service in both capacities, it is neces- 
 sary to provide training for both. The Department of Vocational 
 Home Economics ha.s set for itself the task of reaching the following 
 social groups : Older groups of girls and women out of school, younger 
 groups of girls who are at work, groups of girls in school, and groups 
 of foreign girls and women.^- 
 
 " See Eulletin No. 37, Home Economics Series, No. 4, entitled " Survey of the Needs 
 in the Field of Vocational Home Economics Education," p. 17. 
 
 J
 
 FOR GIRLS xVlSTD WOME^ST. 21 
 
 Trade and industrial education must recognize three possible 
 groups defined with respect to the wage-earning experiences of girls 
 and women: (1) Those who work only prior to marriage; (2) those 
 who whether married or not continue in employment indefinitely^; 
 and (3) tliose who after marriage enter on or return to wage 
 earning. 
 
 An analysis of the problems which confront the girl or woman who 
 enters the field of wage-earning occupations may be briefly stated as 
 follows : 
 
 1. To possess a marketable asset dependent upon natural ability and 
 training. 
 
 2. To secure employment, which requires some knowledge of the 
 labor market and its conditioning factors. 
 
 3. To adjust herself to standardized conditions of work based on 
 interresponsibility of employer and employee. 
 
 4. To produce a standard output in quantity and quality on the 
 basis of which her wage is determined. 
 
 5. To cooperate with groups charged with like tasks to conserve 
 the interests of the worker, the integrity of worlananship, and the 
 morale of the force. 
 
 6. To achieve economic independence under conditions which will 
 insure mainteance of a suitable standard of living, self-support, and 
 provision for dependents.^^ 
 
 7. To overcome the diflicultj'- caused by the assumption that women 
 can not render effective service in supervisory and managerial posi- 
 tions. 
 
 Preparation for a productive occupation pursued to its fullest 
 wage-earning possibilities presupposes deliberate choice, investment 
 of time and money, and assurance of placement. 
 
 By the shortest route to the pay envelope now scheduled in the 
 public schools, the commercial courses, increasingly large groups of 
 girls are giving evidence of their consideration of the advantages 
 of training as a means of present self-support ; as a means of obtain- 
 ing further educational opportunities; and as a means of assuring 
 themselves of economic independence.^* 
 
 The girl whose personal desires can no longer be considered family 
 necessities, and who is thrown upon her ovv'n resources to supply 
 
 " See " Cost of Living for Working Women : A Criticism of Current Theories," by 
 Dorothy W. Douglas. Quaiteily Journal of Economics, February, 1920. 
 
 " In the report of Commissioner of Education for 1915, F. V. Thompson, superintendent 
 . of Boston Public Schools, writes : " Commercial pupils constitute at least one-fourth of all 
 high school pupils, ten times as many as there are agricultural students, five times as 
 many as there are students of domestic arts, and nearly twice as many as are found in 
 all our higher educational institutions, and these figures do not include perhaps one 
 hundred thousand who were not tabulated in the returns to the Commission of Edu- 
 cation." Quoted in The Journal Polit. Econ., Vol. XXVIII, No. 2, Feb., 1920, by Mr. 
 Thompson in an article on the " Kelatiou of Collegiate School of Business to Secondary 
 School System," p. 159.
 
 22 TRADE AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 
 
 them ; the girl urged by the indefinite and nondescript demands origi- 
 nating in her association with youthful companions or in the fancied 
 social position of her family; the girl whose unpromising school 
 record argues limited school expectancy; the girl bearing the burden 
 of financial responsibility for self-maintenance or for the care of 
 dependents, which her earnings alone can meet— all of these girls, 
 with or without guidance, and irrespective of their qualifications, 
 are shunted into the only course in the public school with wage-earn- 
 ing possibilities. 
 
 An enlightened public opinion relative to industrial employments 
 ifor girls and women based on facts is necessary to reach the groups 
 of industrial wage earners with a program for vocational education 
 adequate to meet the needs of the girl who is preparing for employ- 
 ment, or who is already employed, and of the adult woman wage 
 earner. 
 
 Educational administrators, employers, employees, and prospec- 
 tive workers must actively engage in removing the cause for discrimi- 
 nation against industrial employment and advancement for girls and 
 women. They must strive to bring about a realignment of attitudes 
 toward one another, and must learn to appreciate fairly the social 
 justification of making industrial emplojmient yield the largest pos- 
 sible educational and economic returns to the worker. Thej'^ must 
 cooperate in determining what instruction can be most adA'antage- 
 ously offered ; the best method of providing it ; and the service which 
 the local public school may render in establishing the program. 
 
 Y. WoaiEN . IN Industry an Increasingly Important National 
 Problem — Analysis and Forecast. 
 
 For girls and women the opportunities for education and train- 
 ing leading to gainful occupations have been broadened by coedu- 
 cation. Also it is true that new vocations for which women are espe- 
 cially fitted have multiplied as a result of the mechanical and manu- 
 facturing development of the last few decades. It is, therefore, not 
 surprising that the rush of women into wage-earning employments 
 year by year has been as noticeable as the increase in demand for 
 women workers in these employments. In a comparatively brief 
 period the industrial employment of women has become a matter of 
 national and even of international significance, ^° 
 
 Although the influence of the war upon the employment of women 
 has been far reaching, it was not in itself the original occasion of 
 tlie entrance of women into industrial work. From 1880 to 1910 
 the number of women in the whole United States in industrial em- 
 ployment increased threefold. For the last generation the number 
 
 •5 See Report of First International Conference of Working Women. October 28, 
 lOl'J-Xovembei- 9, 1910, Washington, D. C.
 
 FOR GIRLS AND WOMEN". 23 
 
 of women in manufacturinfi" industries has increased more rapidly 
 than the number of men, hence the recent influx of women into 
 wage-earing pursuits may be looked upon as an acceleration of a 
 normal develoi^ment rather than an innovation. 
 
 It is not surprising that the facts and figures relative to the em- 
 ployment of women are outside the usual range of observation and 
 experience of the general public. Even available sources of such 
 information are not generally known to people engaged in the teach- 
 ing profession. Traditional and personal prejudices against the em- 
 ployment of women still persist in the minds of many people. It 
 is necessary, therefore, to provide information to wear away these 
 prejudices, to enlist the attention of people in order to stimulate their 
 observation and thought on tli(y subject, and to awaken them to a 
 realization of the conditions prevailing in their own States and com- 
 munities. This sort of preliminary work must be done to prepare 
 the way for the development of vocational education for women. 
 
 Authentic detailed figures relative to women in gainful occupa- 
 tions at the present time are unfortunately lacking. Until returns 
 from the United States Census of 1920 are available, the statistics of 
 1910 and for previous census years must suffice to indicate the changes 
 which have been taking place in recent decades. Of females 10 
 years of age and over in 1880 not more than 14.7 per cent were 
 engaged in gainful occupations. In the 20 years, 1880 to 1900, the 
 proportion increased to 18.8 per cent, and by 1910 it had jumped to 
 23.4 per cent. To-day the number is conservatively estimated at 
 12,000,000.^« 
 
 Of the 8,075,772 women reported in the 1910 census as being gain- 
 fully employed, 31.3 per cent were listed imder domestic and personal 
 service; approximately one-fourth, or 22.4 per cent, w^ere in agri- 
 cultural pursuits; about the same proportion, 22.5 per cent, in 
 mechanical and manufacturing industries; 14.6 per cent were em- 
 ployed in trade and transportation, or commercial work; and 9.1. 
 I)er cent were engaged in professional pursuits." (See diagram on 
 page 24.) 
 
 More recent figures concerning the employment of women in in- 
 dustry are those of the National Consumer's League (1918). The 
 following figures ^^ from that source i"epresent not women who have 
 been newly added in American industries but women already mill 
 trained who were transferred to war essential employments.^^ 
 
 w Women's Bureau. Hearings before the Joint Committees on Labor, Congress of the 
 United States, 66th Cong., 2(1 scss., on S. 4002, II. K. 1134, H. R. 12679, Mar. 4, 1920, 
 p. 20. Testimony by Mary Van Kleeck. 
 
 " United States Census, 1919, Vol. IV, p. 57. 
 
 's These estimates were based in part on Ivnown numbers employed in newly established 
 plants, and on a 20 per cent increase over 1910 Census figures for long-established metal 
 trades and plants holding direct or subsidiary war orders. 
 
 i» Figures given are as quoted in " War Time Problems of Ind<istrial Women." Indus- 
 trial Campaign Series No. 2, Tart I, p. 6.
 
 24 
 
 TEADE AISTD IITDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 
 
 Total vsomcn m icnr and other essential industries, J,GJ7,000. 
 
 In ciinncrios (over half of force) 8^,000 
 
 In food, drug, spiee, tobacco, and similar factories V2Z), 000 
 
 In textiles 27n, 000 
 
 In clothing factories (with 150.000 men) 212,000 
 
 In hosiery and knit goods (with 50,000 men) 130,000 
 
 In shoe factories — principally aiassachiisetts, Missouri, and 
 
 New York (with 208,000 men) : 95,000 
 
 Engaged in manufacturing general equipment (100,000 of these are 
 making bolts and riA-ets, running drill presses and working in 
 nruchiue shops and foundries, and 100,000 are iu munitions work) 
 
 917, 000 
 
 600,000 
 
 1, 517, 000 
 
 INDUSTRIAL DISTRIP.UTION OF GAINFULLY EMrLOYED WOMEN AND 
 GIRLS, 10 YEARS OF AGE AND OVER, 1910 (U. S. CENSUS). 
 
 ClassifieatioB 
 
 Kumbtr 
 
 Par cent 1 
 5 10 15 80 25 30 1 
 
 All occupatlOBS, Total 
 
 OcQsetie end pcrsOTial cerriee... 
 Uuwfaeturlng snd neehanteal .... 
 Agricultural purtuite 
 
 8,075,772 
 
 100.0 
 
 
 
 
 2,530.846 
 
 1,820,980 
 
 1,807,501 
 
 733,885 
 
 693 ,224 
 
 468,038 
 
 105.595 
 
 13,558 
 
 1,094 
 
 31.3 
 22.5 
 22.4 
 9.1 
 7.3 
 5.8 
 1.3 
 0.1 
 OA 
 
 
 
 - s 
 
 1 
 
 i'--^ 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The geographical distribution of the Avonien "vvorlvers in 1910 is 
 indicated by the following table in which percentages of women in 
 age groups in gainful occupations are listed under btates which are 
 representative of each of the geographical regions of the country. 
 They present neither the maximum nor minimum percentage. 
 
 Percentage gainfulli/ emploijcd in 1910 of icomcn in specified age groups. 
 [United States Census, 1910, VoL IV, p. 73.] 
 
 State. 
 
 10-13 
 years. 
 
 14-1.5 
 years. 
 
 lG-20 
 years. 
 
 21-44 
 years. 
 
 45 and 
 upward. 
 
 United States 
 
 Percentage. 
 
 8.0 
 
 Percentage. 
 19. S 
 
 Percentage. 
 30.9 
 
 Percentage. 
 26.3 
 
 Percentage. 
 15 7 
 
 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 .3 
 1.3 
 
 .5 
 
 1..3 
 
 28.4 
 
 1.3 
 
 .4 
 
 23.5 
 20.9 
 13.0 
 10.3 
 41.8 
 6.1 
 6.6 
 
 60.. 3 
 43. S 
 42.7 
 28.3 
 46.0 
 2.J.0 
 31.2 
 
 38.6 
 23.1 
 22.6 
 19.8 
 39.7 
 22 2 
 24^7 
 
 18 1 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 12 6 
 
 niinois 
 
 11 3 
 
 Missouri 
 
 12 3 
 
 Georgia 
 
 29 3 
 
 Colorado 
 
 16 3 
 
 California 
 
 14 4 
 
 
 
 I
 
 FOE GIRLS AXD WOMEX. 
 
 25
 
 26 
 
 TRADE AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 
 
 As will be seen from the above table, the highest proportion gain- 
 fully emplo^^ed is from the age period 10 to 20 j'ears, during which 
 period practically two-fifths, or 40 per cent, of all women were work- 
 ing for wages. Approximately this proportion would probably be 
 found to apply to the age period IG to 24 years. The distribution of 
 gainfully employed women and girls 10 years of age and over by 
 States in 1910 is graphically shown for the countr}^ as a whole by the 
 map on page 25. 
 
 Women of all ages are wage earners, as will appear from the fol- 
 lowing summary statement based upon census returns for 1910 : 
 
 
 Women and girls: 1910. 
 
 Age period. 
 
 Total 
 number. 
 
 Engaged in gainful occupations. 
 
 
 Number. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Ratio. 
 
 
 34,552,712 
 
 8,075,772 
 
 23.4 
 
 lin 4 
 
 
 
 10 to 13 years.. 
 
 3,593,239 
 1,770,S98 
 4,632,821 
 16,331,449 
 8,224,305 
 
 2Sfi,946 
 
 350,140 
 
 I, H47, cm 
 
 4,302,969 
 
 1,283,117 
 
 8.0 
 19.8 
 39.9 
 26.3 
 15.7 
 
 linl2 
 
 
 lin 5 
 
 16 to 20 years . 
 
 2 in 5 
 
 
 lin 4 
 
 
 lin 7 
 
 
 
 Though women are employed in a wide diversity of industries, 
 yet the number of processes and operations within those industries 
 open to them has been decidedly limited. This is true although the 
 United States Census (Vol. IV., p. 53) reports women workers in 
 105 out of 116 principal occupations, and a more complete census 
 tabulation (Vol. IV., p. 91) shows women employed in 1910 in 385 
 out of 428 occupations. 
 
 The following list of industries employing women at manufactur- 
 ing and mechanical pursuits is arranged according to their relative 
 importance in consideration of numbers of women workers reported 
 in 1910. (See also diagram on page 27) : 
 
 1. Dressmakers and seamstresses (not in factory). 
 
 2. Textile industries. 
 
 o. Sewers and sewing-machine operators (factory). 
 
 4. Milliners. 
 
 5. Ci.2;ar and tobacco factories. 
 G. Shoe factories. 
 
 7. Metal industries. 
 S. Clothing industries. 
 9. Food industries. 
 
 10. Tailorcsscs. 
 
 11. Printing and publishing. 
 
 12. Forewomen and overseers (manufacturing, etc.) 
 
 13. Apprentices. 
 
 14. Compositors, linotypist and typesetter. 
 
 15. Lumber and furniture industries.
 
 FOR GIKLS AND WOMEIT. 
 
 27 
 
 ^ "::. 
 
 •H m c 
 
 's: 

 
 28 TRADE A2?D INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 
 
 It has Leon commonly supposed that there are certain types of em- 
 ployments Avhich may be termed man-employing occupations, other 
 types of employments which may be considered women-employing 
 occupations, and still others at which both men and women may be 
 employed. AMiich sex shall be employed at the different operations 
 seems to be determined by the whims of local tradition or of indi- 
 vidual prejudice. As a result of the great increase in numbers of 
 women employed, the diversity of their employment, and the quantity 
 and quality of their work, more general intelligence is being directed 
 toward the selection and placement of women workers by measuring 
 their qualifications with the requirements of the job. The per- 
 centage of women, therefore, in many industries is undergoing rapid 
 changes. 
 
 The cotton industry and the clothing trades belonged historically to women, 
 but are at present followed by men also ; the shoe industry, historically a man's 
 trade, has used women's labor for a hundred years ; the cigar industry, not an 
 historic industry at all, began as a by-employment for farmers' wives, then be- 
 came a trade for immigrant men, and later ranks high among the women-em- 
 ploying industries.^'' 
 
 As a point of interest, it may be noted that man's share in textiles 
 and clothing, which are Avomen's industries, at present about equals 
 woman's share in boot and shoe manufacturing, which is a man's in- 
 dustry. 
 
 The emplo3^ment of girls and women is conditioned by youth, do- 
 mestic relationsliips, labor market, and protective legislation. Be- 
 cause of youth, inexperience, and ignorance of the value of coopera- 
 tion the girl worker is a poor bargainer.^^ In these facts lies the 
 occasion for the State to assume a protectorate over her interests, 
 requiring a minimum of educational attainment, setting a mini- 
 mum age of entrance to employment, protecting her from the 
 physical and moral hazards of undesirable occupations, shotting a 
 wage scale for her labor, etc. Although this legislation providing 
 for the protection of health, moral character, standards of living, and 
 family responsibilities is primarily designed in the interest of 
 woman's obligation to herself and to society as a citizen, mother, 
 defender, and producer, yet these restrictions often work a hardship 
 in individual cases and, under poor direction, seem oppressive. They 
 should obviously not be pressed to the point of handicapping the 
 worker herself in bargaining for employment under fair conditions. 
 
 A casual survey of the advertisements of any metropolitan daily 
 will suffice to establish the fact that the young girl wage earner enters 
 a market in which the competition for her labor is sharp. Many em- 
 
 =» Kdith Abbott. Women in Industry, p. 86. 
 
 =' Ethol M. Smith, Secretary I-eslslative Committee, National Women's Trade Union 
 League, Washington, D. C, reports a membership of 000,000 regular and allied members.
 
 FOR GIRLS AXD WOMEIT. 29 
 
 ployers specify that the " applicants must be between the ages of 17 
 and 24;" and. add sii€h indu<3em€nts as, "no training necessary;" 
 " paid while learning ;" " advancement guaranteed ;" and " promotion 
 assured." That the psychology of environment and its effect upon 
 the girl in influencing her choice of employment is understood can 
 be seen from the extent to which " agreeable surroundings," " rest 
 rooms," " social opportunities," " food at cost," etc., arc featured in 
 the " help wanted " columns. 
 
 The fact that the girl is supposed to remain under the protection 
 of her home until marriage, and if emplo^'ed after marriage must 
 generally confine her services to a local market, tends to limit her 
 opportunities for employment to local industries. 
 
 Married women engaged in gainful occupations outside the home 
 are still a minority of all married women, although the numbers so 
 employed is steadily on the increase.-- The war and its consequent 
 - shortage of workers salvaged the middle-aged woman worker, re- 
 turning her from casual to permanent industrial emploj'ment after 
 she had reared her children to a state of self-dependence. 
 
 Over 25 per cent of our working women in 1910 were married; 
 15.4 per cent were widowed or divorced. Unquestionably a large 
 part of the remaining CO per cent who were single shared family 
 responsibilities. The number of married women contributing to 
 the family income by their labor is increasing, and the period of time 
 which women spend in industry, variously estimated from three to 
 seven years,-^ is lengthening. 
 
 Those v.'ho hold the belief that wage earning by married women 
 is not an American problem overlook the economic forces and the 
 desire for purposeful activity which are driving married women, 
 as well as young girls, to gainful emi:)loyment.-* In 23 miscellane- 
 ous factory industries scattered through 17 States, the Federal Bu- 
 reau of Labor Statistics found in 1909 that 12.4 per cent of the 
 women workers were married. Of the women over 20 years of age 
 more than one-fifth, 22.G per cent, were married. Of American white 
 women in the selected industries 9.9 per cent were married. In the 
 four largest of the industries covered the percentage of married 
 ■women over 20 years of age was as follows : ^^ 
 
 — A liistory of the Family as a Social and Educational Institution. Willystine Good- 
 • «ell, p. 519. 
 
 28 Industrial Experience of Boston Trade School Girls, p. 78. Bulletin of the V. S. 
 B^ureau of Labor Statistics, No. 21o. (1917.) 
 
 '* Cost of Living in the United States, p. 30. Monthly Labor Eeriew, Vol. IX, No. 6, 
 December, 1919. In this study c,N:clusions were made " to secure families dependent 
 for support as largely as possible upon the earnings of the husband." The investigation 
 ,«covered 92 cities in the United States and 12,09G families of live members. Of tliis 
 arumber 1,073 families supplemented income thi'ough earnings of the wife; 2,252 families 
 supplemented income through earnings of children. 
 
 -^Eeport on Condition of Women and Child Wase-camers in the U. S., Vol. XVIII. 
 Misc. Industries, pp. 27-28. U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
 
 30 TKADE AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 
 
 J 
 Cotton textile industry: Per cent. 
 
 New England group 38. 4 
 
 - Southern group . 40. 7 
 
 Men's ready-made clothing 28. 6 
 
 Glass industry 12. 6 
 
 Silk industry IG. 
 
 Women have been regarded as a casually employed group, a labor 
 reserve upon which industry could depend in times of demand for 
 increased production. That tlieir presence in industry is regarded as 
 a permanent fact of sufficient moment for Congress to continue the 
 service of the Women's Bureau in the Department of Labor is, how- 
 ever, attested by congressional action of June 5, 1920. This bureau 
 has, during the limited period of its existence, formulated standards 
 and policies to promote the welfare of wage-earning women, improve 
 their Avorking conditions, increase their efficiency^ and advance their 
 opportunities for profitable employment. To this end they are mak- 
 ing a study of the opportunities for vocational training for wage- 
 earning employment for women.^** 
 
 What employments, serviceable to the community, are profitable 
 to woman, in that they are suitable to her well-being, offer adequate 
 wage, and insure progression, is a serious question at the present time 
 in industry for employers, and more especially for women themselves. 
 Certain determining factors are undergoing rapid changes. Immi- 
 gration has declined in recent years, cutting off, for the time being, 
 one source of additional workers ; the preponderance of feminine and 
 minor immigrants is a unique development in the history of our 
 immigration ; "'' and there has been during the war period an in- 
 creasing exodus to the war-ridden countries of Europe so that emi- 
 gration has exceeded immigration.^^ 
 
 The cost of the necessities of life increased 75 per cent in the five 
 years from July, 1914, to Jung, 1919, and has increased materially 
 since that time.^' Demands for increased production and the con- 
 sequent expansion of employment have drawn heavily on the available 
 supply of labor. 
 
 20 Testimony of Mary Anderson, Chief of the Women's Bureau. Hearing before the 
 Joint Committee on Lalior, Sixty-sixth Congress, on S. 4002, II. R. 1134, II. R. 12G79, 
 p. 5.5. 
 
 " Advance sheets, Bureau of Immigration, July 1 to Dec. 31, 1019. 
 
 2s Between November, 1918, and November, 1919, 214,000 emigrants left our shores, 
 and 201,000 immigrants arrived. New York Journal of Commerce, quoted Literary Digest 
 Apr. 24, 1920, p. 12. 
 
 ^ Monthly Labor Review, October, 1919, pp. 1-8. A comparison of the results of the 
 cost-of-living surveys made by the National Industrial Conference Board with those of 
 the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics indicates that while the former show an 
 advance of 72 per cent in the cost of living between July, 1914, and July, 1919, the latter 
 show an advance of 75 per cent between July, 1914, and June, 1919. Thus the only 
 two country-wide studies of this most important subject, although made by methods 
 dissimilar In many respects, show results in substantial accord. Taking account of recent 
 price advances it is perhaps fair to say that the cost of living has doubled since 1913.
 
 FOE GIELS AND WOME^-. 31 
 
 In no phase of life will all this economic stress be reflected more 
 quickly than in the daily work of men and women. The continua- 
 ance of employment of women in increasing proportion will depend 
 - upon immigration, labor shortage, industrial expansion, economic 
 need, and women's desire to engage in productive work. We are in 
 an era of transition. Industrially we can not think in terms even of 
 a comparatively recent past, since we are confronted with a radically 
 changed arid a rapidly changing order of affairs. 
 
 The multiple subdivision of industrial processes, and the develop- 
 ment of sj)ecialized machines adapted to women's powers and abili- 
 ties, have swept away" the traditions of apprenticeship and impaired 
 appreciation of the importance of training. 
 
 Occupations within these industries are highly specialized, and the 
 departments frequently so organized that each operation is of equal 
 importance to every other operation. Under these conditions there 
 may be little opportunity for advancement in gradations of skill, and 
 little incentive for transfer from one stage of employment to another. 
 Sufficient exj^jerimentation has been made, however, in training work- 
 ers for entrance into industries, as well as for progression from the 
 intermediate or lower stages to the higher stages of employment, to 
 prove the advantages of intensive short courses. 
 
 Prior to the war it had been assumed that training for occupation 
 of this type was unnecessary. It is now generally conceded that the 
 lack of vocational training works as an immeasurable hardship for 
 the young wage earner by holding her productive efficiency below the 
 requirements for earning a normal standard of wage. Garment-mak- 
 ing industries, textile industries, knitting industries, metal-trades 
 industries, together with public-service groups, such as the telephone 
 and telegraph corporations, are maintaining successful schools of 
 this kind at the present time in different localities throughout the 
 country. This training may be supplemented by related instruction 
 (1) to give an intelligent background of technical knowledge; (2) 
 to familiarize the worker with the details of plant organization; (3) 
 to increase her civic consciousness and industrial intelligence. 
 
 If this instruction is to be Federally aided, it must be given in 
 accordance with the terms of the Federal vocational education act, 
 and the provisions of the State plans approved under that act. In 
 Part II an account is given of the ways and means of realizing a 
 program of vocational education for women and girls. 
 
 Any national educational program for girls and women, adequate 
 to the demands and opportunities of the future, must include better 
 general education on the one hand, and better vocational education 
 on the other. Essential elementary knowledge, training, and disci- 
 pline, "universal, common, and compulsory," affords direct and in- 
 
 I
 
 32 TRADE AND Il^DUSTRIAL EDUCATI02T 
 
 valuable preliminary training for both occupational efficiency and 
 civic responsibility-^" 
 
 It is imiwrtant that some measure of instruction for vocational 
 efficiency be assured prior to entrance into wage earning. The length 
 of the course and the nature of the instruction should be determined 
 with reference to the age and educational experience necessary for 
 profitable entrance to the occupation. The election of a course should 
 depend upon the personal qualifications of the worker and the de- 
 mands of the work. Fourteen years is commonly acknoAvledged to be 
 the minimum age at which any such instruction can be advantageously 
 given. 
 
 AYhile for thorough trade and industrial education, some direct 
 initial training may be given in- the day school, yet it is commonly 
 believed that much of this training can only be given parallel to the 
 pursuit of the occupation. Provision may be made for this kind of 
 instruction during the regular hours of the working day when the 
 worker voluntarily or involuntarily attends part-time classes. " This 
 work should be chiefly adapted to the two ends to be attained: It 
 should be civic and vocational, not narrowl}^ but characteristically." ^^ 
 
 As an adjunct to strictly vocational education for giris and women, it is 
 fundamentally essential that tliey be given an understanding of the conditions 
 attendant upon wage earning, of the dignity of labor, of its contribution to 
 society, of the possibilities for protection of health, morals, and earning capacity, 
 and of the possibilities of advancement. 
 
 It should be the primary aim of preemplosTuent vocational training in those 
 trades where mechanical appliances have supplanted hand labor to fit the worker 
 to perform effectively some specialized work and to make it clear that this is 
 but one stage from which she should pass with additional training, when in- 
 creased maturity and experience justify advancement. 
 
 It should be the primary aim of subsequent or upgrading vocational education 
 to iit the worker for promotion to more advanced stages or for leadership. 
 
 It should be an especially important aim of vocational education at later 
 stages to fit Avomen, who expect to remain in wage-earning work, for productive 
 and directive work in fields which demand maturity, experience, and special 
 training that they will not be brought into sharp competition with every young 
 woman worker, no matter what may be the special training of the latter." 
 
 Industry will be benefited through training by the improived 
 product, increased output, better service rendered, and a stabilized 
 working force. 
 
 The Avorker will be benefited by the better wage, improvement in 
 the standards of living, and fuller participation in civic affairs. 
 
 Society will benefit automatically by the recognition of the service 
 rendered by the woman wage earner or the woman home maker, and 
 
 »> Frank E. Spaulding : Educating the Nation. (In Atlantic Monthly, April, 1020, 
 p. .^20.) 
 
 -1 Frank E. Spaulding : Educating the Nation. Atlantic Monthly, April, 1920. 
 
 ^ Report of Committee of Women in Trade and Industrial Education for Girls and 
 Women. National Society for Vocational Education, February, 1920.
 
 roR GIRLS a:sd womeist. 33 
 
 l)y the recognition of lier riglit to participate in educational programs 
 as they relate to her labor. 
 
 The Federal vocational education act recognized the need for t\vo 
 types of vocational education, for girls and women, liomc making and 
 wage earning. In both cases, it provides for the recognition of part- 
 time classes to increase both civic and vocational eiK(.'iency: evening 
 classes for instruction related to the day emi)h)yment; and day classes 
 for preparation for advantageous entrance to tlie ()ccui)ation. 
 
 The Federal Board for Vocational Education recognizes that classes 
 in trade or technical subjects for girls and women are to be approved 
 upon the same basis as in the case of similar classes established for 
 men under the provisions of the Federal act. 
 10787°— 20 3 
 
 /
 
 PART II. 
 
 WAYS AND MEANS OF ESTABLISHING AND OPERATING A PRO- 
 GRAM OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR GIRLS AND WOMEN. 
 
 I. Fundamental PiuNCirLES of Federal Aid. 
 
 Federal grants for the purpose of developing and promoting edu- 
 cational enterprises are recognized as being governmental devices of 
 increasingly practical importance.^ Tliey aim to stimulate the under- 
 taking of new enterprises by encouraging the kind of expenditures 
 most desirable in the interests of the country as a whole. They aim 
 to equalize the burden of the cost which is increased for some com- 
 munities by a relative insufficiency of means available for supi^orting 
 the cost. They aim to secure uniformity, efficiencj^, and economy of 
 administration. They aim to make available to all the experience, 
 knoAvledge, and breadth of view which a central executive department 
 can not fail to acquire. 
 
 The Federal vocational education act of 1917 (Public Xo. 347, Girth 
 Cong.) represents an application of the foregoing principles to a 
 national vocational education program. It proAddes out of the Na- 
 tional Treasuiy funds made available for cooperation with the States 
 in promoting a kind of education that is now a recognized national 
 need. 
 
 II. Organization for Administration to Secure the Benefits of 
 
 Api'rofriations. 
 
 Responsibility for the administration of these funds in any State 
 is discharged through two cooperating agencies : The Federal Board 
 for Vocational Education, representing the National Government, 
 and the State lioard for vocational education, created or designated 
 by the State legislature. The terms of the agreement between the 
 two representative agencies are embodied in a State plan. 
 
 The Feckn-al Board for Vocational Education consists of seven 
 members — the Secretary of Agriculture, the Secretary of Commerce, 
 the Secretary of Lalior, and the United States Commissioner of 
 Education, ex officio, and three citizens of the United States ap- 
 pointed by the President, one of whom shall be a representative of 
 the manufacturing and commercial interests, one a representative of 
 the agricultural interests, and ojie a representative of labor. 
 
 1 Siduey Webb : Grants iu Aid, pp. 9-2G. Lougmans Green. 
 
 35
 
 36 TRADE AInTD INDUSTRIAL EDUCATIOIT 
 
 The state board consists of not legs than three members, and has 
 all necessary power to cooperate Avith the Federal Board in adminis- 
 tration of the provisions of the act. 
 
 The State plan sets forth the details of administration of the act 
 within the State, the types of schools or classes to be subsidized, 
 -with a detailed description of each as to aim, character, and content 
 of courses of study, methods of instruction, qualifications of teachers, 
 and provisions for training teachers.- The Federal Board expects 
 that State plans will be prepared with reference to State and local 
 needs, and will be subject to revision whenever changes may be 
 necessary or expedient for purposeful experiment. For this reason 
 the State must make its own application of certain provisions and 
 standards foimd in the Federal act. These provisions guarantee the 
 autonomy of the State in the management of its ow^n educational 
 program. When State plans are approved by the Federal Board, 
 they become working agreements in terms of which Federal reim- 
 bursements to States are made. Local public boards in turn make 
 proposals of plans and applications for aid to State boards, direct 
 and supervise local instruction, and report on existing classes to State 
 boards. 
 
 III. Funds Available tor Distkibutiox.^ 
 
 The Federal annual appropriations for support of State programs 
 of vocational education are allotted from three distinct funds. For 
 agricultural education the fund is allotted to States on the basis of 
 their rural populations; for trade, industrial, and home economics 
 education, on the basis of the urban populations; and for teacher 
 training, on the basis of total populations. 
 
 Within the States, severally, the funds are to be used by State 
 boards in accordance with the following conditions: 
 
 (1) Section 11 of the act provides that one-third of the appropria- 
 tion for trade and industrial education must, if expended, be applied 
 to part-time schools or classes for workers over 14 years of age who 
 have entered employment. 
 
 (2) It is further provided in sections 3 and 11 that a portion of 
 the trade, home economics, and industrial fund, not exceeding 20 
 per cent, may be expended for salaries of teachers of home economics. 
 
 (3) Legal requirements imposed by the act stipulate that for each 
 dollar of Federal money expended in developing the program for 
 vocational education, according to the terms of the act, the State 
 or local community, or both, shall expend an equal amount (sec. 11). 
 
 = Outline for Plans of States, p. 107 Trade and Industi-ial Education — Organizatioa 
 and Administration. Bulletin No. 17, Trade and Industrial Series, No. 1. 
 
 3 Kor amount of these funds annually available see Statement of Tolicies, Table 1, p. G2. 
 Federal Board Bulletin No. 1.
 
 FOE, GIllLS AND WOMEIsT. 37 
 
 (4) Not more than GO per cent nor less than 20 per cent of the ap- 
 propriation for this training of teachers for any A'ear shall be ex- 
 Dended for the preparation of teachers and the maintenance of 
 teacher-training courses in any one line of vocational work (sec. 12). 
 
 (5) The State boards have been authorized by a ruling of the 
 Federal board to use teacher-training funds for the maintenance of 
 teacher training and supervision on condition that they set up an 
 approved plan of supervision and (qualifications of supervisors in 
 accordance with which such supervisors shall be employed, and that 
 not more than 25 per cent of the maximum of the teacher-training 
 fund in any one line be used for maintenance of supervision in that 
 work. This is with the understanding that a large part of super- 
 visory work is a training of teachers in service or itinerant teacher 
 training. It should tlierefore be shown in the plan for supervision 
 that such teacher-training work is included as a part of the State 
 supervision scheme, and that the persons engaged in this work shall 
 meet the qualifications necessary for this phase of supervision. (Vo- 
 cational Summary, Vol. I, No. 4, p. 12.) 
 
 IV. General Provisions or the Vocational Education Act. 
 
 It may be well to emphasize here that the Federal funds are ap- 
 propriated for the specific purpose of providing vocational educa- 
 tion for persons who have already chosen or have entered upon a 
 particular employment in order to prepare them for more efficient 
 service in the occupations of agriculture, home economics, and trade 
 "and industiy. It is assumed, moreover, that the States are already 
 making ample i^rovision for the general education of their youth, 
 and that the local school and community accepts the obligation to 
 set up adequate means to help the pupil and the parent determine 
 wisely upon the specific vocational selection. Tlie Federal funds, 
 therefore, are reserved to assist in providing a program for certain 
 forms of vocational education not adequately provided for at present 
 in our system of public education. It is further assumed that the 
 public schools are controlled or superA'ised by the State autliorities 
 and that the local community is financially obligated according to 
 the terms of the State plan, and is charged Avith the responsibility 
 of hiring the teachers, recruiting the pupils, conducting the scheduled 
 sessions of the school, and providing suitable equipment, supplies, 
 and other forms of maintenance. The general provisions, which are 
 common to the three forms of vocational education, are an integral 
 part of every State plan and may be briefly summarized as follows : 
 
 1. All schools or classes receiving Federal aid must be under 
 public supervision and control. 
 
 52499
 
 38 TKADE AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 
 
 2. That the controlling purpose of this education shall be to fit 
 for useful employment. 
 
 3. That the instruction shall be of less than college grade. 
 
 4. That it shall be designed to meet the needs of persons over 14 
 years of age who are preparing for or have entered upon a trade or 
 industrial pursuit. 
 
 5. That every dollar of Federal funds must be matched by a 
 dollar of State or local funds, or both. 
 
 G. That Federal money is to be expended only for reimbursement 
 for {a) salaries of teachers qualified according to the provisions of 
 the State plan, and for {h) expenditures incurred in the maintenance 
 of the training of teachers of vocational subjects. 
 
 V. Special Provisions for Trade and Industrial Education. 
 
 There are certain statutoiy provisions in accordance with which 
 schools and classes in trade and industrial education must be organ- 
 ized in order to receive Federal aid.* These provisions define cer- 
 tain conditions and absolute standards to be incorporated in the 
 State plan; they leave other conditions contingent upon the State 
 or local situation to the discretion and interpretation of the State, 
 but require them to be included in the working agreements sub- 
 mitted to the Federal Board for Vocational Education for approval. 
 
 ABSOLUTE standards INDICATED IX THE ACT. 
 
 The three types of schools or classes are defined in section II of 
 the act in terms of the groups of pupils to be reached and standards 
 to be observed. Girls yet in attendance at school may receive in- 
 struction ^preparatory to entrance upon industrial employment in 
 day vocational or trade schools. At least half the time of such in- 
 struction must be devoted to practical work on a useful and pro- 
 ductive basis and must extend over 9 months per year and not less 
 than 30 hours per week. The State board, with the approval of 
 the Federal Board, may modify conditions as to length of course and 
 hours of instruction per week in cities of less than 25,000 population. 
 Workers over 14 years of age (no upper age limit), who have entered 
 upon employment may be given classroom instruction of a grade 
 designed for persons from 14 to 18 years of age for not less than 
 144 hours per year in any subject which will enlarge their civic or 
 vocational intelligence. This instruction must be given during the 
 regular hours of the working day in part-time classes. Workers 
 over 16 years of age may receive instruction supplemental to their 
 daily employment in evening classes. 
 
 * Bulletin No. 17 : Trade and Industrial Series, No. 1. Trade and Industrial Education — ? 
 Drsanization and Administration, pp. 23, 26.
 
 FOR GIRLS AND W0ME2T. 39 
 
 DISCKETIONARY STANDARDS INDICATED IN THE STATE TLAN. 
 
 In view of tlie varying industrial development in the several States, 
 and the diverse tj^pes of trades or occupations in which girls and 
 women are employed and for which instruction may be given, certain 
 discretionary standards or conditions are left for tlie State to formu- 
 late and interpret according to the fundamental purjjose of the act, 
 which is to fit persons for useful employment. These stipulations 
 relate to the plant and equipment; minimum annual maintenance; 
 courses of study; methods of instruction; and ({ualilications of 
 teachers; and must be indicated in th.e State plan. 
 
 BUILDING AND EQUIPMENT. 
 
 Brieflj^ stated, the plant and equipment must be adequate for in- 
 structional purposes, whether it be shop or classroom, whether it be 
 in a separate schoolhouse, a factory, a store, a public building, or 
 other location determined by the advantages to or convenience of the 
 students enrolled. 
 
 The equipment necessary for schools or classes Avill depend upon 
 the trades to be taught, the types of schools or classes, the groups 
 that are to receive instruction, the character of the course of study 
 which has been determined upon, and the methods of instruction 
 adopted. 
 
 Since the administrative policies of the Federal Board recommend 
 that the State board shall require communities to state the aims of 
 each all-day, part-time, and evening school or class, it Avill be possible 
 for the State board to determine, for individual schools, whether the 
 equi])ment which is proposed is sufficient in quantity, variety, and 
 model to insure adequate instruction in the standard practices of the 
 trade or occupation to be taught. 
 
 The State laws relative to accident prevention must be observed. 
 Rules, regulations, and cautions should be posted ; guards and other 
 })rotectiA-e devices should be installed in compliance with provisions 
 for factory inspection. 
 
 Books, apparatus, cliarts. blackboards, and desks constitute other 
 items of general equipment to be considered in terms of the usual 
 standard observed by the State. 
 
 No portion of moneys ap]:)ropriated under this act for the benefit 
 of States may be applied to the erection or repair of braidings, the 
 purchase of land, or other items prohibited under section IT of the 
 act. 
 
 -MIMMUJC FOR JIATNTENANCE. _ 
 
 The minimum for maintenance of da}^, part-time, or evening 
 schools is determined by variable factors Avhich must be considered
 
 40 TRADE AITD INDUSTRIAL EDUCATIOIT 
 
 by each State in attempting to fix the amounts necessary for carry- 
 ing out its program and fulfining the aims of each type of school. 
 The size of the community, the difficulty of obtaining efficient teach- 
 ers, particularly of vocational subjects, who have had adequate ex- 
 perience in the wage-earning phases of their occupations will deter- 
 mine the cost of instruction. The salaries of shop and related sub- 
 ject teachers, for which reimbursement is made will be determined 
 largely by the basic salaries of teachers in elementary or secondary 
 schools in each locality. State and local boards should realize that 
 through the use of Federal funds, the burden of the high salary 
 costs necessary to secure efficient teachers may be in part lifted from 
 the local community. The upkeep, replacement, and care of ma- 
 chinery and tools, together with the cost of selecting, buying, and 
 accounting for supplies, are items of maintenance for which no 
 reimbursement from Federal funds may be received. 
 
 Even though the shop is organized on a productive basis, and a 
 salable product made, yet the educative value and aim should be 
 l^aramount.^ It should be evident, therefore, that although the 
 product, whether made for the school or other public institution, 
 or for charitable organizations, or for sale, ma}'^ diminish the gross 
 maintenance cost, yet it can not make a school self-supporting. 
 These facts must be considered in formulating State plans. 
 
 CIIAEACTER AND CONTENT OF COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 No course of study is imposed on any State or local community. 
 On the contrary, the spirit and letter of the law consistently en- 
 courage these agencies to make surA'ej^s of local industries and 
 analyses of occupations, in order to determine the need for classes 
 and the type of instruction to be offered. State plans should be 
 prepared in the light of a continuous surve}', and should set forth 
 the general conditions in accordance with which courses are to be 
 organized. 
 
 In day schools for girls over 14 years of age experience has de- 
 termined the following apportioimient of tim^e as the prevailing prac- 
 tice: (a) At least one-lialf the time to be devoted to practical work 
 on a useful or productive basis, (h) from 30 to 35 per cent to related 
 studies, and (<?) the remainder (15 to 20 per cent) to nonvocational 
 subjects. 
 
 With older groups of women confronted with the immediate i^rob- 
 lem of w^age earning it is desirable to increase the proportion of voca- 
 tional work and decrease tlie time devoted to nonvocational subjects. 
 The Federal Board must require adequate provision for instruc- 
 
 s Principal differentiating characteristics (]) of tlie commercial shop in business, (2) 
 of the school shop conducted on a useful or productive basis. Federal Board Bulletin 17, 
 Trade and Industrial Series, No. 1. Trade aud Industrial Education — Organization 'and 
 Administration, p. 52.
 
 POR GIELS AND WOMEN. 41, 
 
 tion in related subjects to accomplish the purpose of the act, which 
 is not onl}^ to improve <rirls as workers but also to ^ive them an 
 intelligent understanding of the technical and theoretical aspects 
 of tlieir work. 
 
 The character and content of instruction in part-time classes ad- 
 mits of instruction in any subject which will increase the civic or 
 vocational intelligence of girls over 14 years of age who have ent^ered 
 employment. This is comparatively a new field, and is worthy of 
 study and experimentation. Ultimately the needs of the individual 
 must be met, but organization and administration will necessitate 
 the handling of these workers in groups. Age, grade, attainment, 
 occupation in which engaged, dominant interests, instruction desired, 
 and occupation chosen are a few of the factors that may determine 
 both the grouping and the educational program. The latitude of the 
 law is intended to insure the greatest possible flexibility in character 
 of instruction and service rendered- 
 
 The time schedules admit of a great variety of arrangements 
 which are fully discussed in Bulletin No. 17, Trade and Industrial 
 Series, No. 1. Trade and Industrial Education — Organization and 
 Administration, page 75. That the minimum number of hours is only 
 144 is itself indicative of the necessity for making the character and 
 content of each day's instruction purposeful and complete, and ar- 
 ranged fof definite progression in a series, whether it be for general 
 improvement, special vocational training for entrance to an occu- 
 pation, or for promotion. A chart of differences and similarities 
 in the three types of part-time schools Avill be found on page 70 of 
 the above-mentioned bulletin. Part-time instruction is the great 
 field of opportunity for employers, school authorities, and workers 
 themselves, to initiate educational experiments which will make vo- 
 cational education a dynamic social force for national, civic, social, 
 and industrial improvement. 
 
 Since the instruction in evening schools must be related to the 
 day employment the content of courses, whether shop or related 
 subjects, must supplement the daily occupation, and must be deter- 
 ■inined bj- the actual needs of the group. The courses must be de- 
 signed for people with a common background of concrete experience, 
 must be short, intensi-\'e, and j)rogressive in arrangement.^ 
 
 METHODS or INSTRUCTION. 
 
 Effective methods of instruction in day vocational schools must 
 prepare for placement in an occupation at the completion of the 
 course. The length of the course measured back from the age of 
 effective entrance to an employment — whether set bj' law or custom — 
 
 » Evening Industrial Schools — Methods of Instruction, p. 29. Federal Board Bulletin 
 No. 18, Trade and Industrial Series, No. 2.
 
 42 TRADE AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 
 
 should (loteriiiine the minimum age for enroHment of pupils, Avhicli, 
 in turn, modifies the methods of instruction. 
 
 A few o;cneral i)rinciples characteristic of approved methods of 
 instruction are cited for consideration in State plans. A sequence 
 of concrete experiences should be arranged in progressive instruc- 
 tional order. 
 
 Instruction should proceed from the concrete to the abstract. The 
 task, problem, or project should be individual, supplemented with some 
 experience in group planning and execution. Exercise and practice 
 -work is sometimes necessary. At least one-half the time should be 
 devoted to practical work under conditions approximating those of 
 the trade or occupations, and the economic value of the product should 
 be comparable Avith that produced in the shop or factory. A knowl- 
 edge of commercial shops and probationary experience should be re- 
 quired to supplement the trade or occupational instruction. 
 
 The method of teaching in part-time schools will differ according 
 to the wide variety and types of the individuals enrolled. It will also 
 differ according to the aims of the classes, basis of grouping, hours 
 of instruction, and other variable factors. 
 
 General continuation schools should provide a " receiving station," 
 where general improvement classes may help determine the most 
 advantageous assignment of the individual to her group. Departure 
 from conventional methods of teaching is necessary to appeal to the 
 interest and initiative of the girls, and often necessitates personal 
 counsel and assistance. Each lesson shoidd be a unit ; each hour yield 
 the largest possible return ; and the instruction function toward some 
 worth}' end. This is a fertile field for educational experiment. 
 
 The methods of teaching trade or occupational subjects must neces- 
 sarily be modified by the shortness of time. This will correspond- 
 ingly develop the ability of the worker to plan for herself with a 
 minimum of direction and demonstration. 
 
 The methods of instruction in evening classes will vary according 
 to the purpose and aim, whether it be for supplementary skill in the 
 day's task, or for the development of the fundamental principles 
 involved. The short unit course is arranged to yield a maximum 
 of return in a minimum of time. Devices for making this effective 
 are discussed in Bulletin No. 18. Evening Industrial Schools, pages 
 29-32. 
 
 QrALIFJCATIONS OF TKACHKKS IX AI.T.-DAY, PAnT-TIMK, AXI) KVKXIXO .SCHOOI-S. 
 
 Two types of teachers in day trade schools are recognized by the 
 Federal act. Though qualifications may differ according to locality 
 and trade, adequate practical experience is necessary for both shop 
 and related subjects teachers. In trade schools for girls the best 
 results have been achieved in shop work by having the teaching staff
 
 roil GIBLS AiS'D WOISIEiT. 43 
 
 composed partly of trained teachers with trade contact for the ele- 
 mentary division, and for the more advanced divisions the expert 
 trade worker trained in the teacliing processes. 
 
 While related subjects must be strictly vocational and inherent 
 in the trades, the}' are of such a nature that they may be tauj^ht in 
 an ordinary classroom, laboratory, or studio. Technical prepara- 
 tion with commercial experience is almost essential for successful 
 instruction in subjects recjuiring a Iviiowledge of drawing, design, 
 and ait. 
 
 Since the local communities are required to bear the salary ex- 
 pense of the nonvocational teacher, tho board does not require the 
 State to specify standards for such teachers. It would approve 
 standards, however, only in case the minimum requirements speci- 
 fied for State licenses were observed. Successful teachers of grade 
 or high school experience should be secured whenever possible. 
 
 In State plans for part-time schools, also, two general types of 
 teachers are recognized, and their qualifications defined: Teachers 
 of subjects to enlarge the civic intelligence, and teachers of subjects 
 to enlarge the vocational intelligence. 
 
 Teachers of subjects designed to enlarge the civic intelligence 
 should be chosen because of interest, insight, and peculiar personal 
 fitness for dealing with this group of working girls to whom a new 
 educational service is extended. Professional training equivalent 
 to that required in other regular elementary schools is required. In 
 all probability these socially minded teachers can be recruited from 
 the regular staff of the schools. As the upper age limit of compul- 
 sory part-time attendance and the number of hours of instruction 
 differ in the States in which these programs are being inaugurated, 
 there will probably be two types of vocational shop teachers to be 
 recognized in State plans. The teacher who will deal with the 
 j^ounger group in " trade-finding "" activities must be chosen because 
 of her personality, interest, occupational experience, and under- 
 standing of the wage-earning girl. While a high school education 
 is desirable, natural qualifications, leadership, versatility, common 
 sense, and judgment, which come from varied experiences in life, 
 may be accepted in lieu of schooling. The teacher who deals with 
 the trade work must have the same qualifications as a teacher in the 
 day trade school. 
 
 In all probability the teacher who qualifies for the day trade work 
 will be eligible for evening school instruction both in shop and related 
 subjects. It will be necessary, however, at times to bring in teachers 
 who possess a very thorough knowledge of a particular thing to be 
 l^resented to a particular group. The State plans should so clearly 
 indicate the different possibilities that the local community may have 
 a basis of judgment for selection. State plans should provide also
 
 44 TRADE AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 
 
 that before a teacher enters upon evening school employment the 
 approval of the State board be secured, and a full statement of the 
 qualifications of the i)rospective teacher be submitted with the appli- 
 cation for ai)proval. The greatest latitude should be given local 
 communities in rocniiting desirable teachers Avho have had much 
 practical experience or technical training. 
 
 TEACHER TRAINING. 
 
 When any State undertakes the responsibility for a program of 
 trade and industrial edu.cation it likewise assumes the duty of train- 
 ing teachers for the schools or classes established and of supervising 
 their work. 
 
 The State plan should set forth the provisions to be followed in the 
 execution of the scheme of training. The details to be considered in 
 training teachers for shop subjects, related subjects, and general 
 continuation school work are briefly indicated below. 
 
 The sho^) teacher in the day school usually relinquishes the com- 
 mercial pursuit of her trade or occupation and regards teaching as 
 her steady employment. In part-time schools this may or may not 
 be necessary ; in evening schools the instructor regards the teaching 
 as incidental to the day's employment. It is desirable that lier train- 
 ing for teaching follow her trade experiences or be given at the same 
 time she is employed at her work, and continue periodicalh'^ as a 
 means of improvement in service. 
 
 Few successful workers can be induced to leave their occupations 
 and devote their entire time to this preparation, hence the training 
 of teachers for shop subjects, for both day and evening classes, be- 
 comes an evening school problem to be carried out in centers where 
 desirable candidates from the trades or occupations may be recruited. 
 
 It is assumed that the women in this group have at least a common- 
 school education; have already mastered the trade content; have 
 acquired trade skill; and have sufficient maturity to master the 
 fundamental principles of teaching in a limited number of hours of 
 professional training. 
 
 The State may specify the maximum or minimum amount of time 
 to carry out its program. At present this is Aariously approximated 
 at from 50 to 240 hours. A program may be arranged in a two-year 
 course of evening instruction, in two-hour periods twice a week, or 
 for extension or summer courses. These courses may be given at 
 centers of training established by State boards or by the institutions 
 to which they have delegated the responsibility. The course may 
 include a flexible arrangement of material similar to tlie following, 
 which has been set up as a course of minimum essentials, to be sup- 
 plemented by observation and practice teaching :
 
 FOK GIRLS A2s'D WOMEN". 45 
 
 1. An analj^sis and classification of what is to be taught — The 
 trade or occupation. 
 
 2. The teaching process — Methods. 
 
 3. Lesson phinning and teaching. 
 
 4. Principles of laying out courses of study and program making. 
 
 5. Class organization and management. 
 G. Factory training. 
 
 7. General principles of vocational education. 
 
 8. Kinds of vocational schools and classes. 
 
 9. General information — legal regulations. (Occupational stand- 
 ards set by State, factory inspection, health, safety, accidents, etc.) 
 
 It is desirable that the shop teacher return periodically to the trade 
 to keep abreast of the latest practices. Only as many teachers should 
 be trained as may be reasonably sure of placement; the number 
 should be regulated by a careful selection of candidates chosen "svith 
 the assistance of a committee representing the trade Avhich the 
 applicant desires to teach. 
 
 Graduation requirements should be the same as the State standard 
 for vocational certification. Provisional certificates may be issued 
 pending completion of the course. 
 
 It is generally recognized in State plans that a wide technical 
 knowledge is desirable for the teachers of related subjects, and ac- 
 cordingly States have provided a program of professional training 
 to supplement the technical courses in institutions delegated to train 
 teachers. The proportion of subjects is distributed about as follows : 
 Fifty per cent to technical and related subjects, 35 per cent to aca- 
 demic, and 15 per cent to professional subjects. A limited choice is 
 permitted from the following courses : 
 
 1. Theorj'^, principles, and problems of vocational education. 
 
 2. History of industrial education. 
 
 3. Methods of teaching. 
 
 4. Organization and administration of vocational education. 
 (Federal Board Circular Letter 393.) 
 
 5. Surveys for purposes of industrial education. 
 
 6. Vocational psychology and counseling. 
 
 Since a knowledge of related subjects is inherent in the trades, it 
 is highly desirable that the teacher should have actual experience at 
 wage earning under industrial conditions. 
 
 States which have passed part-time compulsory attendance laws 
 (see map, p. 4) are confronted with the jjroblem of training teachers 
 for the work prior to the inauguration of the program. Most States 
 are selecting experienced teachers from the regular teaching staff 
 because of their personal aptitude and social mindedness. Since the 
 success of this educational experiment depends largely on the teaciier, 
 the number of students subject to the laws will necessitate a large
 
 46 TKADE AND IXDUSTEIAL EDUCATION 
 
 bod}' of teachers avIio must be given some idea of the purposes, organi- 
 zation and administration, methods of instruction, and types of 
 service Avhicli may be rendered to the group of working girls. The 
 Avidcst latitude is jicrmitted the general character of the work to be 
 undertaken, and the time devoted to it should be specified in the State 
 plan. Tlie person who is charged with selection of candidates to 
 receive training and responsibility for determining the content of the 
 courses must have not only a practical professional education biit also 
 an intimate knowledge of an industrial occupation and industrial 
 conditions. 
 
 SrPEEVISIOX. • 
 
 Realizi)ig the need for delegating the authority and fixing the re- 
 sponsibility for supervision of trade and industrial education, a 
 ruling of the board (July 11. 1918)^ recognized the advantages of 
 supervision as a means of improvement of teachers in service. Ac- 
 cordingly, 15 per cent of the total teacher-training funds for any 
 v^tate may be used for supervision of trade and industrial instruction, 
 ])rovided the State sets up the qualifications of its supervisors and 
 its plan for supervision. 
 
 The groAvth of this work will require t])e State boards for voca- 
 tional education to encourage the investigation of the needs of girls 
 and women Avorkers in more than an incidental and casual manner. 
 The lack of information about industrial education on the part of the 
 public and the apathy or indifference toAvard industrial employment 
 of women indicate that much preliminary work must be done to edu- 
 cate the public, establish an understanding Avith school adminis- 
 trators, and receive the cooperation of employers and employees. 
 
 "When a Avoman has been appointed to do this Avork for the State 
 board her duties haA-e included the folloAving actiA^ties: 
 
 Cooperating Avith local communities in making preliminary sur- 
 A'eys and iuA'cstigations for determining the need for inaugurating a 
 program for trade and industrial education. 
 
 Outlining courses of study and organizing teaching material; as- 
 sisting teachers in improving Avork b}^ personal conferences and 
 sectional meetings. 
 
 Preparing suitable puldieity material and bulletins explaining the 
 purpose and scope of the AVork as a means of educating the public. 
 
 Giving personal supervision to all schools maintaining trade and 
 industrial courses. 
 
 Inspecting schools or classes applying for Federal and State aid ac- 
 cording to the State plans, and reporting to the State board for 
 ajjproval or disapproval. 
 
 ' Use of teacher-training funds. The A'ocational Summary, A'ol. I, No. 4, p. 12.
 
 rOR GIRLS AND WOMEN. 47 
 
 Supervising teacher-training courses. 
 
 Preparing reports for the State board. 
 
 Engaging in such other activities rehitive to trade or industrial 
 education as the State board may direct. 
 
 It is possible for a State in which the industrial development is 
 limited to employ one person for teacher-training and supervision. 
 The qualifications desirable for this work are the same as for men 
 holding the same position ; two years of collegiate training, two years 
 technical training, and professional training with teaching experience 
 and sufficient contact to be familiar with industrial processes and con- 
 ditions affecting industrial education, 
 
 SUGGESTED STEPS IN THE DEVEl.OPMENT OF A PKOGRAM OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 
 
 In the light of the foregoing anal3'^sis of the provisions of the 
 Federal vocational act a brief summary suggestive of the procedure 
 is submitted by which a local community may determine the kind of 
 instruction needed and organize its Avork to secure the best results 
 possible. It must be reiterated tliat the act was intended to prepare 
 persons for gainful employment, and that all its provisions apply 
 equally to a program for girls or boys and men or women, without dis- 
 crimination. 
 
 There must be positive support of the program for vocational edu- 
 cation by the local school superintendent and the assistant to whom 
 he has delegated the work. It is desirable to secure the assistance 
 and approval of such local organizations as the chamber of com- 
 merce (industrial division), labor organizations, educational com- 
 mittees of the Federation of Women's Clubs, Young Women's Chris- 
 tian Association, employment bureaus, manufacturers' associations, 
 and the like. An advisorj^ council composed of representatives of these 
 organizations, chosen by the organizations themselves, employers, em- 
 •ployees, and business women actively interested in education, should 
 represent the various interests concerned in the program. 
 
 The industrial survey of the community, together with its educa- 
 tional opportunities, should be permanent and continuous, and the 
 facts and figures should be made available through all possible 
 channels of publicity. The local department of vocational educa- 
 tion should assist in the analysis of dominant occupations or indus- 
 tries and should summon to its assistance such advice and help as 
 can be secured from the State staff on problems of industrial educa- 
 tion, Avhether it be concerning classes under public control or training 
 conducted as a private enterprise in an industrial plant. Sugges- 
 tions on making an industrial survey may be found in The Vocational 
 Summary, Volume II, No. 8, page 130; No. 9, page IHO; and in 
 Federal Board C. L. 1G8.
 
 48 tradp: and industrial education 
 
 Vocational classes do not recruit themselves. Aggressive publicity 
 in the press, pulpit, street cars, and shop windows is a legitimate 
 means of advertising. Personal work among groups of people who 
 ma}' be enrolled sometimes secures satisfactoiy results, particularly 
 for niffht-school classes. 
 
 The choice of a desirable teacher and the selection and arrange- 
 ment of the subject matter which is to be taught may call for the 
 assistance of the supervisor and teacher-training department. 
 
 Records should indicate enrollment, attendance, and completion 
 of course. Each State board provides blank forms for requests for 
 reimbursement and assures itself, through its State supervisor, that 
 tlie work has been done in accordance with its agreement with the 
 local community. 
 
 Federal funds may be used by the State board only as reimburse- 
 ment for salaries of teachers under conditions set forth in the State 
 plans. 
 
 It must be recognized by all who are familiar with the field of 
 vocational education that there must be an immense amount of 
 educational propaganda before the organization of classes for girls 
 and women can be effected on an adequate scale. Xo scheme of edu- 
 cation can be successful without tlie Avhole-hearted support of the 
 school administrators and the general public. Securing this sujv 
 port is the first step in the development of vocational education for 
 women. 
 
 VI. Types of Vocational Schools and Training Agencies. 
 
 Any program for vocational education for girls and women pre- 
 supposes an analysis of the needs of the group of present and 
 prospective wage earners. It is evident that these groups in dif- 
 ferent communities vary in age, schooling experience, and opportu- 
 nities for employment. It is consequently evident that attention 
 Avill be directed toward diiferent types of vocational schools or 
 classes according to the paramount interests of the communities 
 and the dominant needs as influenced b}^ the age and development 
 of its workers. The sequence of the historical development of the 
 different types of scliools or classes does not necessarily indi- 
 cate the order of progression of an effective program in any com- 
 munity. It simply indicates that public attention was centered upon 
 the needs of a S])ecial group and a program evolved to meet the 
 emergency. The fact that various commendable enteri:)rises are not 
 subject to Federal reimbursement does not signify disapproval of 
 tliem or underestimation of their service. The Federal Board as a 
 public agency created to stimulate and promote vocational education 
 is interested in all public and private agencies for vocational educa- 
 tion as well as in schemes for training workers in plants. 
 
 I
 
 FOR GIRLS AND WOMEN. 49 
 
 t The use of FeJeral funds is necessarily limited bv the terms of 
 the act and the administrative policies defined under the act. 
 
 The history of industrial education for Avage-earning <rirls and 
 women in the United States dates back less than a (juarter of a 
 century. The efforts of the women who have pursued the first 
 educational experiments in industrial centers were directed toward 
 preemployment training in the day school, which would lift the 
 young wage earner over the unprogressive stages of work and secure 
 for her advantageous entrance into better types of employment. 
 Though generally initiated by private philanthropy, these enter- 
 prises after having passed the experimental stage liave become a 
 part of the regular public-school system in the communities in which 
 established. 
 
 It is a fact that the evening-school pupils join a class with a prac- 
 tical end in view; that employers and workers themselves need in- 
 formation relative to the values of supplementary instruction with 
 definite vocational bearing; that much study and careful experiment 
 is necessary to work out an educational program, which will be sup- 
 plementary in practice or in principle to the day's employment. 
 
 The evening school for industrial workers in many localities at 
 present suffers from a confusion of purposes and a popular impres- 
 sion that evening classes for women workers should partake of the 
 nature of social center activities, while the fundamental purpose, i. e., 
 increasing the efficiency of the worker, demanding instruction with 
 direct and immediate values applied at the point of greatest need, is 
 overlooked. 
 
 By far the largest single group to be reached by Federal aid for 
 vocational education is the young wage earner over 14 years of age. 
 To encourage service to tliis important group the act provides that 
 one-third of the industrial fund allotted to any State, if spent at all, 
 must be spent in providing part-time scliooling for this group. The 
 rulings of the board admit of a flexible program recognizing that the 
 girl who is under the authority of the public school, and is open to its 
 influences of encouragement and direction as well as of instruction, 
 is insured educational progress. Undoubtedly this is a perfectly 
 obvious i^oint for beginning a program in the 19 States which have 
 already passed compulsorj' part-time school attendance laws. The 
 success of this enterprise in States which have pushed the work, even 
 on a voluntary basis, indicates popular recognition of the national 
 importance of this movement. 
 
 Some consideration of the relative advantages and disadvantages 
 of the foregoing types, together with ilkistrations, may be suggestive 
 to different communities of possible fields of development. 
 10787°— 20 i
 
 50 TRADE AND INDUSTRIAL. EDUCATIOIT 
 
 EVENING SCHOOLS AND CLASSES. 
 
 Evening-school classes, as they have developed for working Avomen 
 and girls, serve four important fimctions, the first three of which 
 are a part of a general education program : 
 
 1. To provide opportunity for social and recreational activities 
 such as games, folk dancing, debating clubs, dramatics, supper clubs, 
 sewing clubs, and the like. 
 
 2. To provide training in various activities of home making for 
 personal or family use. 
 
 3. To provide a general educational program which will enable the 
 worker to overcome the deficiencies of early education and complete 
 a definite goal such as the elementary or high school course. 
 
 4. To provide vocational education for wage earners which pre- 
 pares for entrance to occupation, or for progression or advancement 
 in an occupation. 
 
 The Federal vocational education act limits the use of Federal 
 funds in evening schools to trade-extension classes for advancement 
 or progression in an occupation. 
 
 The first of these enumerated fimctions is necessary and desirable — 
 a public responsibility for those numerous groups of industrial work- 
 ers who seek diversion from continuous employment at monotonous 
 routine tasks. The second enables the woman to obtain instruction 
 desirable for personal or home use. The third enables the girl or 
 woman to mend the limitations of separation from educational oppor- 
 tunities and influences resulting from an early entrance upon a wage- 
 earning pursuit. The fourth or vocational function serves the largest 
 group by commercial courses Avhich, after a quarter of a century of 
 pioneering by private schools, have come to be almost the dominant 
 type of evening-school instruction for girls, because it provides a 
 direct approach to a gainful occupation. Technical courses for 
 women have not yet developed extensively. 
 
 The tradition that evening technical courses are not open to women, 
 or that specially diluted technical courses for them and excluding 
 men are necessary, must be replaced by new ideals and standards 
 based upon the successes of carefully selected women students for 
 existing technical courses and for new courses devised to meet the 
 demands of occupations and the needs of workers. This will require 
 painstaking care in selection of pupils, good organization, and ade- 
 quate instruction. 
 
 Sufficient initial enterprises have been inaugurated to indicate the 
 advantages of trade-extension classes for workers and point to a 
 way to further development. It is for the purpose of expanding the 
 opportunities for this group of workers over 16 years of age that Fed- 
 eral funds are made available in evening classes only for that type
 
 FOR GIRLS AXD WOME:sr. 51 
 
 of instruction in trade and technical subjects which rehites to the 
 day emplo^^ment. 
 
 In this evening school group the pupil is a Avnge worker, mature 
 and wanting definite help. What knoAvledge she has is the result of 
 concrete experiences. She does not Avant nor will she utilize abstract 
 information. 
 
 A study of working girls in evening schools^ in New York City 
 in 1910-11 reveals facts having significant bearings on industrial 
 education. Nearly 50,000 Avomen, chiefly wage earners, Avere enrolled. 
 Through no other public agency Avould it be possible to reach as large 
 a group of Avage earners. The total register of Avomen included 
 in the iuA-estigation Avas 89,242. Personal records, secured from 
 13,141, revealed the folloAving facts concerning nationality, age, 
 motiA'CS, present occupations and preAdbus schooling : Sixty-eight per 
 cent Avere born in the United States; 32 per cent Avere betAveen 16 
 and 18 years of age; only 23 per cent had passed their 21st birth- 
 day. That they had joined with a practical end in view Avas evi- 
 dent from the three rival aims rcA^aled in " motiA'es for attending," 
 namely: "In order to change to better Avork"; "to learn for home 
 use '• ; and " to obtain a general education." A comparatively small 
 group desired "help in daily occupation." To quote one conclusion 
 of this study : 
 
 Perhaps the most significant of all problems encountered hy teachers in eve- 
 ning scliools is tlie restless and undirected seeliiug after some kind of training 
 that will enable the girl wage earner to find a better job tlian the one slie now 
 has. 
 
 In general, girls whose schooling was cut short entered correspond- 
 ingly loAv-paid occupations. Domestic employees had the least school- 
 ing ; factory workers came from the higher grades in the elementary 
 school, and commercial workers Avere largely represented in high- 
 school training. 
 
 The number of industriallj'- employed girls exceeded slightly the 
 munber commercially employed, but represented a Avide diversity of 
 jobs for Avhich " employer " and Avorker alike see little scope for sup- 
 plementary training with definite A'ocational bearing. This does not 
 mean that industrial education for women must be abandoned. It 
 does mean educational propaganda and careful experiment. The 
 greater the emphasis placed on A'ocational training the more it neces- 
 sitates seeking out groups of workers with a similarity of experience, 
 discoA'ering their needs and desires, organizing classes Avith a definite 
 aim, and securing a teacher Avho can giA'e expert instruction. The 
 aclA'ancement of the worker is dependent upon her practical knowl- 
 edge, not upon her academic training. The short-unit course, inten- 
 
 * Working Girls ia Evening Schools. Mary A'^aa Kleeck. Russell Sage FouiMiation, 
 1914.
 
 52 TRADE AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 
 
 sive in character, arranged in progressive sequence, economizes time 
 and enables the worker to enter at her point of greatest need. These 
 needs may be discovered in preliminary registration. Instruction 
 may be offered in fundamental principles or in technique of the 
 trade; hence aim, day occupation, age, experience, and ability are 
 factors which may determine a homogeneous group. 
 
 Groups following the custom-sewing trades may comprise those 
 who w^ork at home for private customers, the house-to-house seam- 
 stress, those who ^vork in large or small custom shops, those who work 
 in wholesale dressmaking factories as operatives, apprentice girls 
 eager to learn, helpers who are absorbed in the repetition of simple 
 tasks unable to get any training for advancement within the shop, 
 waist finishers, or other specialists. Courses most desired by these 
 workers are draping, drafting, cutting and fitting, dress designing, 
 and decorative embroidery. 
 
 It is essential to define each course in terms of its aim. A course 
 in pattern drafting plans to teach the principles of line and measure- 
 ment as a foundation for designing. A course in waist draping aims 
 to develop facility and accuracy in modeling a waist from a design 
 shown in a sketch. The following outline is submitted to show that 
 the unit course places emphasis not on practice, which the girls have 
 already had in the shop, but on fundamental j^rinciples which are 
 difficult to obtain in the workroom : 
 
 COURSE IN WAIST DRAPING. 
 
 (3 units, 30 lessons, required for a certificate.) 
 
 1. Study of fasliion plates and discussion of lines in waists. Demonstration 
 and criticism of several models. 
 
 2. Preparing of lining, padding of lining on figure. 
 
 3-4. Practice draping with tissue paper, several different models. 
 5-6. Practice draping (one model) with cambric or cheesecloth in two dif- 
 ferent colors. 
 
 7-8. Fitting net on yoke and collar. 
 
 9-19. Draping waist in cloth. 
 
 20-30. Draping waist in silk, chiffon, and lace. 
 
 Similar analyses of groups of workers and courses of instruction 
 could be made of millinery; of power-machine operating, with its 
 diversity of sj)ecialized machines and products, including curtains, 
 fur, millinery, straw, neckwear, whitewear, corsets, machine em- 
 broidery, and men's and women's clothing, and of textiles, calcula- 
 tions, design, and other subjects, Avhich may be related to these 
 specific occupations. 
 
 Courses related to the preparation and serving of foods include 
 lunchroom or counter service, pantry service, table service, tea-room 
 or cafeteria management and marketing, for groups already in the 
 occupation. Invalid cookery and dietetics may be regarded as trade-
 
 FOR GIRLS AKD WOMEiq", 53 
 
 extension classes for nurses. The following course was planned for 
 part-time and evening courses for hotels and restaurant service. 
 
 COURSE FOR TABLE OR COUNTER SERVICE.^ 
 
 This course of study for table or counter service has been arranged 
 Avith the hope that it may be suitable for use in any kind of table or 
 counter service. Those avIio are familiar with hotel and restaurant 
 service realize how widely different are the organizations and sys- 
 tems in individual establishments. In consec^uence, it will be neces- 
 sary to adapt this outline to the needs of each separate restaurant. 
 Some points will necessarily call for amplification, others will need 
 to be omitted entirel}^ 
 
 Ot'TLINE OF INSTRUCTION. 
 
 I. Orstuiization -of restaurant (2 Iiours) : 
 
 A. I'ersoniiol — 
 
 1 hour— 
 
 1. Kitchen — 
 
 a. Duties of chef, cooks, carvers, servers, pantryp.ien 
 or women, and wliatever employees there 
 may be. 
 
 2. Storeroom — 
 
 a. Duties of steward, storeroom attendants, etc. 
 
 3. Dining room — 
 
 a. Duties of liead waiter or waitress, captains, 
 waitress, bus boys or girls, checkers, cashier, 
 and other employees. 
 
 B. Equipment and supplies — 
 
 1. hour — 
 
 1. Location of linen, silver, glassware, china, condiments, 
 sauces, etc, (oa the job). 
 
 II. Personal address (3 hours) : 
 
 A. Appearance — 
 
 "I hour — 
 
 1. Uniform — 
 
 a. Practicality. 
 
 b. Value to the girl, to the hotel, effect upon the 
 
 guest. 
 
 c. Headwear. 
 
 d. Shoes. 
 
 e. Jewelry. 
 1 hour — 
 
 2. Carriage. 
 
 3. Care of hair. 
 
 4. Care of skin and nails. 
 
 5. Care of teeth. 
 
 B. Approach to guest — • 
 
 1 hour — 
 
 1. Courtesy. 
 
 * State Board for Vocational Education, Austin, Tex. Department of Industrial 
 Education.
 
 54 TRADE AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 
 
 III. Service (G or 7 hours) : 
 1 hoxir — 
 
 A. Preliminaries— 
 
 1. Seating of guests. 
 
 2. Menu card. 
 
 B. Taking tlie order — 
 
 1. Metliod, written or oral — 
 
 a. Device.s for aiding memory. 
 
 2. Guests' preference -in serving of coffee, salad, etc. 
 1 liour — 
 
 C. Setting the table — 
 
 1. Clianging tlie cloth. 
 
 2. Placing of napkin, silver, glasses, etc. 
 
 3. Uses of utensils (silver, china, etc.). 
 
 4. For special occasions. 
 1 hour to 3 hours — 
 
 D. Serving the order — 
 
 1. Use and preparation of tray. 
 
 2. Arrangement of salad, coffee, side dishes, etc, 
 
 3. Method of serving. 
 
 a. Demonstration meals. 
 1 hour — 
 
 E. Removal of dishes — 
 
 1. Method. 
 
 2. Disposal of touched and luitouchcd foods. 
 
 3. Cleaning table or counter. 
 1 hour — 
 
 F. Efficiency — 
 
 1. Speed. 
 
 2. Quality. 
 
 3. Headwork. 
 IV. Miscellaneous: 
 
 1 hour — 
 
 A. Meanings of menu terms, foreign phrases, etc. 
 
 B. Tips— 
 
 1. Attitude toward. 
 
 2. Amounts generally given. 
 
 3. Tips to fellow workers. 
 C Complaints of guests. 
 
 D. Special courtesy to helpless guests. 
 V. Washing dishes (with demonstration), 1 hour: 
 
 A. Glassware. 
 
 B. Silver. 
 
 C. Chiim. 
 
 VI. Service for special dinners and banquets (with demonstration), 1 hour. 
 VII. Carving and pantry service (with demonstration), 1 hour; 
 
 A. Dining-room carving. 
 
 B. Serving of meats. 
 
 C. Pantry service. 
 VIII. Trade ethics, 1 hour — 
 
 A. Relation to fellow workers. 
 
 B. Relation to guests. 
 
 C. Relation to management. 
 
 Note. — Extra lessons to be inserted where needed as a result of observation and coordi- 
 nation work of teachers in individual establishments where classes are being held. 
 
 I
 
 rOE GIRLS AND WOMEX. 55 
 
 Large numbers of women are employed in the lioht rnotal trades, 
 such as the manufacture of automobile parts, locks, computing ma- 
 chines, and other office appliances. For women engaged at the bench, 
 on machines, inspecting, assembling and testing, short unit courses in 
 evening classes may be offered in the use of precision measuring in- 
 struments, machine-shop practice, blue-print reading, and drafting. 
 One industrial community, where the largest group of employed 
 Avomen are engaged in metal trades, developed a course in drafting 
 for women employees in the local plants from specimen plates sub- 
 mitted by the various firms as an index of the type of work desirable. 
 
 The woodworking trades employ women in increasing numbers in 
 furniture making, fine finishing of victrolas, pianos, and other musical 
 instruments. Consequently these workers would be eligible to trade 
 extension classes offering instruction in rod making and reading, 
 gluing and assembling of parts, grains of wood, the use of fillers, 
 stains, varnishes, and finishing, arranged in a sequence of units for 
 evening class instruction. 
 
 Definite thought and investigation directed in this line would de- 
 Aelop opportunities in connection with other employments, such as 
 monotype operating and' proof reading for women in the printing 
 trades, optics for instrument makers, armature winding for electrical 
 workers, and other types of instruction yet to be developed. 
 
 The questions involved in industrial education for women will not 
 be answered until we take account of all the divers trades in which 
 women are employed. In 1913 there were drawn from the record 
 cards of women attending public evening schools in New York City, 
 289 subdivisions of the main occupational groups, and further sub- 
 division was found necessary to count the number of distinct tasks 
 which represented the day's work of the wage-earning women.^° 
 
 In some positions, such as forewomen and instructors, there is need 
 for imagination, organizing capacity, general intelligence, and a 
 kno^vledge of human factors of employment as well as a knowledge 
 of materials, tools, and processes. Evening classes for training fore- 
 women and supervisors are recognized by the Federal Board for 
 Vocational Education as trade-extension courses, while the prepara- 
 tion of women for instructors in schools or plants is regarded a 
 legitimate teacher-training function. 
 
 Diversity of experiment is desirable. Those responsible for the 
 development of this work in any community should endeavor — ■ 
 
 (1) To know the local industrial occupations in relation to their 
 educational possibilities. 
 
 (2) To find out Avhat occupations are represented in the evening 
 school enrollment. 
 
 10 Working Girls iu Eveniug Schools, p. 138. Mary Van Kleeck. Russell Sage 
 Foundation.
 
 5G TRADE A2^D INDUSTRIAL EDUCATI02T 
 
 (3) To bring workers in similar employment together to discover 
 facts concerning their work. 
 
 (4) To study their educational deficiencies and needs as recognized 
 by themselves and their employers. 
 
 (5) To determine whether supplementary training can be given 
 in technique or in fundamental principles. 
 
 With the knowledge gained from the preceding study the following 
 procedure is suggested. 
 
 (1) Define the aim of the course. 
 
 (2) Limit the registration to those already employed in the occu- 
 pation to be taught. 
 
 (3) Provide adequate equipment. 
 
 (4) Secure a teacher who can give expert instruction. 
 
 (5) Enlist the support of an advisory committee selected from the 
 trades taught. 
 
 Publicity campaigns ^^ for recruiting students, registration de- 
 posits or returnable enrollment fees, records of attendance, follow-up, 
 certification of units completed, cost accounting and expense are ad- 
 ministration problems in evening schools. 
 
 Solution of the problem of industrial education requires pupils 
 "with definiteness of aim and similarity of purpose, and a teaclier with 
 knoAvledge of occupations, ability to analyze occupations and organize 
 subject-matter suited to the needs of the group, and ability to devise 
 new methods for new conditions. 
 
 While the aim and purpose of the pupils in the last analysis rest 
 with the individuals that make up the group, the school is a respon- 
 sible party in the attainment of aims to be reached only by carefully 
 selected subject-matter, well-arranged courses and adequate instruc- 
 tion. 
 
 THE ALL-DAY VOCATIONAL SCHOOL OR DEPARTMENT. 
 
 The all-day school for young entrants into the trade serves to lift 
 the girl over the unskilled processes which catch and hold the young 
 workers and to enable her to enter industry at a higher initial wage. 
 When once established in the occupation her advancement will de- 
 pend upon her individual capacity to profit by the opportunities. 
 
 For the girl of limited school expectancy, who can forego wage 
 earning for a longer or shorter period of time in order to prepare for 
 w^ork, the school is under obligation to control the necessary agencies 
 whereby it can set the learner at work on productive projects appro- 
 priate to her chosen occupation and to her stage of development. For 
 her the day vocational school secures the domination of an educational 
 aim during this period of preparation. 
 
 " The Application of Commercial Advertising Methods to University Extension, by 
 Mary Burchard Davis. Bureau of Education, Bui. No. 51, 1919.
 
 FOR GIRLS AND WOMEN. 57 
 
 The place of the day school in the program of vocational education 
 is defended on the following grounds: 
 
 It stands as an institution Avithin the school organization affording 
 public recognition of the educational needs of wage-earning girls. It 
 may serve for an administrative center for the development of part- 
 time and evening classes, coordinating all possible opportunities for 
 educational service relating to employment. It may become a pioneer 
 experimental institution by opening up new lines of employment, by 
 cooperating with industry to secure upgrading of jobs, by analyzing 
 the jobs, by setting up lines of progress, and by training to secure 
 that progression. 
 
 The limitations of the day vocational school likewise are evident. 
 
 The number of girls prepared for entrance to w^age earning is 
 negligible in meeting the demands of labor in communities in which 
 the school is established. The number of occupations taught within 
 the school is likewise limited. The school must compete with the 
 " paid vv'hile learning " jobs, which appeal to the girl who underesti- 
 mates the opportunity for training and thinks in terms of immediate 
 rather than deferred values. The expansion of service is dependent 
 on the ability to establish full faith and credit with employers and 
 with workers. 
 
 The organization of the day vocational school may admit of two 
 types : ( 1 ) A separate school coordinate in rank wdth other secondary 
 schools, with a director and staff of its own; (2) a separate depart- 
 ment in a liigh school with a director, course of study, and staff of 
 vocational teachers, teachers of related and academic subjects being 
 responsible to tlie director of the regular school. Both types have 
 advocates and opponents. 
 
 It is urged by educators who are striving to reorganize and read- 
 just the school curriculum and make " industry a factor in teaching 
 the child" that a separate school under separate supervision is the 
 greatest evil now threatening the democracy of education. 
 
 The fimdamental objections problematically stated are as follows: 
 
 1. The scheme divides and duplicates administrative machinery. 
 
 2. It tends to paralyze the movement for democracy in education 
 now operating for the improvement of existing schools. 
 
 3. These new schools aim at increased efficiency in narrow limits. 
 
 4. The segregation will work disastrously for the true interests of 
 pupils who attend vocational schools. To give pupils a knowledge 
 of industry or any particular occupation in relation to science, art, 
 and society in general w^ould duplicate existing schools; hence this 
 scheme is uneconomical, undemocratic, and unnecessary. 
 
 This controversy can not fail to make the vocational schools a most 
 potent and corrective factor in the reorganization of secondarj^ schools
 
 58 TRADE AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION" 
 
 of the country, in the revision of the curricula and methods of teacli- 
 iug. and in statement of aims. 
 
 The vocational classes organized as a department in a high school 
 suffer from the fundamental unlikeness of tlie aims and purposes of 
 general education to those of vocational education. Under such or» 
 ganization the chief liindrances to success may be summarized as 
 follows : 
 
 1. It is difficult to maintain shop conditions with the distracting 
 extra-curriculum activities and the interruptions which occur in the 
 regular school "work. 
 
 2. It is difficult to allow for the large degree of independence and 
 the indefinite flexibility essential, and for correlation with the in- 
 dustry. 
 
 3. It is difficult to maintain the methods, hours, and atmosphere 
 that approximate trade conditions. 
 
 4. It is difficult to identify the school with the processes, stand- 
 ards, and requirements of the occupation for which training is being 
 given on the one hand and with the organization of the historic school 
 on the other. 
 
 5. It is difficult to get academically minded teachers with a sym- 
 pathetic viewpoint who will study the industrial experiences and 
 projects of their pupils and use them as a basis of concrete approach 
 to the specific training in related subjects. 
 
 G. It is difficult to secure a democratic and unified spirit in organ- 
 ization of the teaching force into a working body. 
 
 7. It is difficult to maintain the public recognition of the integrity 
 of the department as a separate entity in the industrial world, since 
 such departments tend to become academic in spirit and formalized 
 into general industrial and manual arts courses. The vocational de- 
 jDartment in the high school is apt to be satisfied to use a vocational 
 motive with a cultural aim. 
 
 8. With the exception of home economics, where the training for 
 occupations related to the home is a necessary product of any voca- 
 tional course, industrial training for wage earning will best be pro- 
 moted by recognizing it as a new and distinct type or education super- 
 added to the hitherto existing types. 
 
 9. The secondary school can not afford to allow to persist such con- 
 fusion of purposes as hampers the public and students in distinguish- 
 ing betAveen those courses of instruction and training which are de- 
 scribed as " liberal " and those otliers which are intended to lead 
 toward vocational competency. 
 
 Vocational training can not be accomplished once and for all for 
 any given student, but the worker must have the opportunity to 
 return for short or long periods for systematic training with the 
 
 I
 
 FOR GIIILS AND WOMEN. 59 
 
 day school as ca center for administration. This may be done by 
 short unit courses adapted to the immediate needs of the worker and 
 to the time at her disposal, or by dull-season classes for older girls 
 with a distinctly professional attitude toward w^ork, or by evening 
 classes in trade extension for the mature w'orkers. 
 
 There is an increasing tendency to extend technical training by 
 placing the girl in employment at definite stages of progression and 
 pro Abiding instruction during the dull season to alternate with periods 
 of work. In this way trade-extension classes may begin by the 
 trade school or department conducting its own continuation classes 
 for the younger worker employed in the occupations for which train- 
 ing is given in the school. For the mature worker the service may 
 be provided in evening school instruction. 
 
 The largest problem in training is connected with the trades in 
 which highly skilled work brings the highest industrial opportunity 
 and wage, but in which means of securing experience and training 
 Avithin the occupation are limited. Such trades have a recognized 
 place in the all-day school curriculum. Any occupation for Avhich 
 training may advantageously be offered must have teachable con- 
 tent ; must not be highly seasonal ; must offer benefit to the Avorker 
 for increase of skill; and must be potentially able to absorb the 
 number of Avorkers trained. 
 
 Considerable breadth of interpretation should be giA'en the term 
 " trade extension," in order that the girl or woman may progress in 
 employment. 
 
 A course of study in a day vocational school to meet the require- 
 ments of the act must provide for a balance of subjects sufficient to 
 insure a well-rounded course. The program for instruction must 
 under the act require a minimum of 30 hours a Aveek, for 9 months a 
 year ; and it must provide that one-half the time shall be spent in the 
 shop on a useful and productive basis. For older groups of Avomen 
 confronted by the necessity for immediate Avage earnings, it is de- 
 sirable to increase the proportion of vocational Avork and decrease the 
 time devoted to non vocational subjects. 
 
 The Federal Board must require provision for instruction in re- 
 lated subjects adequate to accomplish the purpose of the act, which 
 is not only to improve girls as workers but also to giA'e them an in- 
 telligent understanding of the technical and theoretical aspects of 
 their AVork. 
 
 Trade or industrial subjects taught in public vocational schools, 
 departments, or classes at the present time are listed as f oIIoavs :
 
 CO TRADE AXD IXDUSTKIiVL EDUCATIOH 
 
 Artilk-ial flower and feather -work. Lamp shade iiiakiug. 
 
 reading. Laundry work. 
 
 P>ookl)i ruling. Manicuring and shamptxdng. 
 
 Cafeteria service. Mechanical drafting. 
 
 Commercial art and design. Millinery. 
 
 Dressmaking. Pasting and leather trades. 
 
 Electric-power machine operating on Perforating. 
 
 clothing, embroidery, and straw. I'rinting and monotype keyboard 
 Embroidering designing. operating. 
 
 French edge making. Tailoring. 
 
 Glove making. Telegraphy. 
 
 Junior nursing. Trade design (for costume sketching, 
 Laboratory assistants f chemical, metal, embroidering, etc.). 
 
 and bacteriological). 
 
 Related suhjeets are worked out upon the fundamental princijiles 
 of the trades or occiipations taiioht, and vary somewhat Avith the 
 different courses. Thus, English, which is an academic subject, 
 might become a related subject in the printing trades and salesman- 
 ship in the millinery trade. Trade mathematics, trade science, and 
 trade drawing may take on a variety of forms. In the traditional 
 trades of dressmaking and millinery, the trade or workshop mathe- 
 matics arises from actual problems in the workroom, and includes 
 measurements, estimates, costs, business transactions, transfer of 
 money, credit, discounts, budgets, maintenance, dei^reciation, and 
 the like. 
 
 A study of textiles of value to workers and customers is based on 
 qualities, prices, Avidths, uses, weaves, fibers, shrinkage, permanence 
 of color, variations in standards, adulterations, and tests — supple- 
 mented with such general information relative to cleansing, bleach- 
 ing, dyeing, printing, designing, sources of raw material, and types 
 of finished product as may be usable in trade work. 
 ' Drawing, designing, and art as related to the making of clothing 
 and hats treat of line, proportion, rhythm and balance, light and 
 shade, color combinations, decorations, suitability to the wearer, the 
 use of different fabrics, and means of securing effective results in cos- 
 tume designing. 
 
 Indusfi'kd economics is a term applied to a course which is given 
 to acquaint girls preparing for workshops and factories with the eco- 
 nomic and social problems attendant upon wage earning. It com- 
 prises — 
 
 (1) Laws affecting the employment of girls and Vi'omen. 
 
 (2) Factory inspection. 
 
 (3) Organizations for the betterment of working conditions. 
 
 (4) Facts relating to specific occupations (e. g., hazards, prevent- 
 able diseases). 
 
 (5) Standards of work, wages, hours of emplo^'ment.
 
 FOR GIRLS AND WOMEN. 61 
 
 (6) Types of shop or factory management (e. g., corporation, 
 partnership). 
 
 (7) Empk)yment tests. 
 
 (8) Simple business ethics rehitive to ri<^hts of workers and their 
 responsibilities. 
 
 This knowledge is fundamental to the welfare of every wage- 
 earning girl. 
 
 Academic or nonvocational subjects. — The jiart of a vocational 
 program which is provided by the State or local community and for 
 which Federal money is not available includes such subjects as Eng- 
 lish, civics, inclustrial history, commercial geography, and the mini- 
 mum essentials of homemaking. Physical training and hygiene 
 are of prime importance to the young worker, as physical fitness for 
 a trade and an understanding of the principles of physical care and 
 protection are absolutely essential for entrance upon industial em- 
 ployment. Wherever possible physical deficiencies should be reme- 
 died or corrected. 
 
 One important service of the day trade school is the placement and 
 follow-up of its students. Since the test of the training is iuimediate 
 employment, it is necessary for the school to keep in close touch with 
 the opportunities for placement and requirements upon the workers. 
 
 The following schedules comply with the minimum requirements 
 set up by the terms of the Federal act ( 1 ) and present some types of 
 variations in time distribution possible under the provisions of State 
 plans (2), (3), (4). 
 
 (i) Trade school for (/iris. 
 
 Minimum age of eulranee 14 years or over. 
 
 Length of course 1 year. 
 
 Length of school yeai* 9 months. 
 
 lusti'uction per week 30 hours. 
 
 Shop instruction (50 per cent) 1.5 hours. 
 
 Instruction in related subjects (30-35 
 
 per cent) 9 to 10* hours. 
 
 Instruction in academic subjects 
 
 (15-20 per cent) 4-J to 6 hours. 
 
 Lengtli of daily session 6 liours. 
 
 De]iartments of school comprise : 
 
 Sliop subjects — , 
 
 Sewing trades — 
 Dressmaking. 
 Millinery. 
 Power machine operating. 
 Related subjects. 
 
 Trade arithmetic and accounts. 
 
 Textiles. 
 
 Drawing and design. 
 
 Industrial economics.
 
 62 
 
 TRADE AXD IXDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 
 
 Depurtuients of school comprise — Contiuued. 
 Acjidemic or noiivocational subjects — 
 
 Household scieuce (minimum er-;scntia]s). 
 
 English, 
 
 Civics and business relationships. 
 
 Commercial Geography. 
 
 ludustrial history. 
 Other school activities — 
 
 Physical training. 
 
 Assemblies. 
 
 Suggested schedule of hours. 
 
 First year. 
 
 Second year. 
 
 Minutes 
 
 Hours 
 
 
 Minutes 
 
 Hours 
 
 
 per 
 subject. 
 
 per 
 
 Subject. 
 
 per 
 
 per 
 
 Subject. 
 
 week. 
 
 
 subject. 
 
 week. 
 
 
 900 
 
 15 
 
 Shop. 
 
 900 
 
 1.5 
 
 Shop. 
 
 240 
 
 4 
 
 DraAvintc and applied art. 
 
 240 
 
 4 
 
 Prawing and applied art. 
 
 fO 
 
 1 
 
 Textiles. 
 
 60 
 
 1 
 
 Textiles. 
 
 180 
 
 3 
 
 Trade and worlcsliop mathemat- 
 
 180 
 
 3 
 
 Trade mathematics. 
 
 
 
 ics. 
 
 120 
 
 2 
 
 Commercial geography or indus- 
 
 300 
 
 5 
 
 Civic and English (business 
 
 
 
 trial history. 
 
 
 
 methods.) 
 
 180 
 
 3 
 
 English. 
 
 120 
 
 2 
 
 Household science (minimum 
 essentials supplemental to 
 trades) or Industrial Econom- 
 ics. 
 
 Physica.1 Education. 
 
 Assemblies. 
 
 120 
 
 2 
 
 Household science (minimum es- 
 sentials supplemental Ictradc) 
 or industiial economics. 
 
 Physical ediicaiion. 
 
 Assemblies. 
 
 1,800 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 1,800 
 
 30 
 
 
 TYPE SHOP COURSE. — POAVER irACIIINE OPERATING IN GARMENT TRADES.^" 
 
 Machine operating is an industr}' requiring varying degrees of 
 skill. The degree is determined by the grade of product turned out, 
 and shows five fairly definite stages of Avork "which require (1) 
 mechanical speed; (2) accuracy with speed; (3) accuracy with deft- 
 ness; (4) constructive ability; (5) artistic ability. The different 
 degrees of skill, combined with the speed of the worker and the 
 responsibilty and intelligence required in each, accounts for the wide 
 range of paj. 
 
 ELEMENTAKY POWER itACHINE OPERATING. 
 
 Use and care of single needle machine : 
 Aim^ 
 
 To develop independence and self-reliance in use of machine. 
 Control — 
 
 Starting, stopping — without thread, later with thread — .stitching, spac- 
 ing. 
 Carc^- 
 
 Dusting, cleaning, oiling, without and with removal of parts. 
 
 *2 A complete discu.ssion of a power machine operating course may be found in a report 
 on the organization and administration of a Trade School for Girls. Philadelphia Board 
 of Education, pp. 52-60.
 
 rOR GIRLS AND WOMEN. 63 
 
 Elementary gai'i»eiit construction: 
 Aim — 
 
 To teach fimdameutal processes, and to establish ri^ht luibits of work 
 in use of the power sewing machine, and the liandling of cotton 
 fabrics. 
 Fundamental processes — 
 
 Seams, hems, facings, and plackets, learned on simple garuK-nt 
 problems. 
 Production course in garment making : 
 Aim — 
 
 To familiarize girl with work-room organization, division of labor, 
 value of cooperation, and skill by specialization, as factors in 
 " production." 
 Production problems — 
 
 Garment problems analyzed into operations, planning and routing, 
 inspecting, checking. 
 
 ADVANCED POWER MACHINE OPEEATING. 
 
 Advanced garmeiit making: 
 
 Aim — 1 
 
 To train operator in handling of finer fabrics, the use of attachments, 
 greater variety and more complicated problems. 
 Instruction and production problems — 
 
 Alternation of instruction problems with production problems in 
 variety of types of garments; underwear, plain dresses, shirtwaists, 
 skirts, hospital garments, and the like. 
 Special machine and attachments : 
 Aim — 
 
 To give knowledge and training in the use of more complicated 
 machines with all their attachments and diverse functions, multiple 
 needle, buttonhole, hemstitching, embroidery, bonnaz, zigzag, and 
 others. 
 Production and repetitive problems — 
 
 Minimum i-equiremeuts of operations mastered on common materials ; 
 more complex problems introduced by handling variety of fabrics or 
 bj"^ repetitive work ; acquirement of knowledge of several machines 
 so worker may " fill in " when necessary. 
 Special garments : 
 Aim — 
 
 To determine the problems attendant upon production of a standard 
 product, such as shirts and shirtwaists, pants, lingerie, neckwear, 
 and the like. 
 
 (2) Puhlic school of trades for girls. 
 
 Age of entrance 14 years and over. 
 
 Length of course (approximately) 2 year.s. 
 
 Length of school year 11 months. 
 
 Instruction per week 35 hours. 
 
 Shop instiniction (§ time) 21 hours. 
 
 Instruction supplemental to trade (* time)_ 14 hours. 
 Length of daily session (S.30-12; 1-4.30) 7 hours.
 
 64 TRADE AXD INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 
 
 The course of instruction in eadi trade includes : 
 
 1. Shop practice and trade talks. 
 
 2. Drawing and applied art. 
 
 3. Trade and workshop matlieuiatics. 
 
 4. Englisli and lousiness correspondence. 
 
 5. Household science. 
 G. IMiysIcal training. 
 
 7. Shop inspection trips. 
 
 (3) Trade school for girls. " 
 
 Age of entrance 14 years and over. 
 
 (Eligible for employment certificates.) 
 
 Length of course (1,400 hours instruction) 200 days. 
 
 (Probationary period, 5 months. Experience in 
 trade necessary for certificate, 3 months.) 
 
 Length of school year 11 months. 
 
 Instruction per week 35 hours. 
 
 Approximate apportionment of hours : 
 
 Trade practice (5 hours per day) 2.5 
 
 Instruction nonvocational subjects supple- 
 mental to trades (1* hours per day) 74 
 
 Hygiene and gymnasium (| hour per day)_ 2j 
 
 Length of "daily .session (9-12; 1-5) 7 hours. 
 
 The trade departments of the school comprise: 
 Needle trades. 
 
 Electric power operating machines. 
 Pasting trades. 
 
 Embroidery designing and perforating of embroidery patterns. 
 Supplemental instruction includes : 
 Trade arithmetic and accounts. 
 Textiles. 
 
 Drawing and costume design. 
 Industrial conditions and trade ethics. 
 English. 
 Physical training. 
 
 (.J) Girls' vocational high school. 
 
 Minimum age of entrance 14 years and over. 
 
 Graduation for eighth grade. 
 
 Length of course 2 years. 
 
 Length of school year 40 M'eeks. 
 
 Summer term 6 weeks. 
 
 Instruction per week 324 hours. 
 
 Shop instruction (4 time). 
 
 Instruction in related subjects (i time). 
 
 Instruction in academic subjects (i time). 
 
 Length of daily session (8.30-12; 12.50-3.-50) GA hours. 
 
 Shop subjects include: 
 Dressmaking. 
 Junior nursing. 
 Millinery. 
 
 Power-machine operating. 
 Telegraphy.
 
 FOE GIRLS AXD WOMEi^T. 
 
 65 
 
 Related subjects: Matlieuiatics, science, drawinc 
 Academic subjects : English, civics, history, or 
 Assemblies. 
 Phj-sical training. 
 
 etc. 
 commercial 
 
 geography. 
 
 COURSE OF STUDY IN TELEGRArHY. 
 
 Like other courses ofrered in the clay vocational school for girls the 
 usual length of a course in telegraphy is two years. A one-year course 
 is offered for girls betAveen 17 and 25 years of age, as preference is 
 indicated by employers for applicants of this age in initial placement 
 in branch offices of telegraph companies and in railroad work. Rail- 
 way companies maintaining their own systems of training exercise 
 great care in the clioice of applicants for training in order to secure 
 100 per cent placement. A one-year course for the older group of 
 girls who have had two years of high-school work, or its equivalent, 
 distributes the hours of instruction as follows: 
 
 Hours. 
 
 Telegraphy (telephony) 15 
 
 Tj-pewriting 5 
 
 English and civics 5 
 
 Mathematics 3 
 
 Commercial geography 2 
 
 30 
 
 riiysical training and hygiene. 
 
 Ilours. 
 Telegraphy 15 
 
 Typewriting 5 
 
 English and civics 5 
 
 Accounting 3 
 
 Commercial law 2 
 
 30 
 
 COURSE OF STUDY IN MECHANICAL DRAFTING. 
 
 The following course is outlined as a one-year trade course in me- 
 chanical drafting for girls with at least two years of high-school edu- 
 cation, or its equivalent. It could readily be expanded into two years' 
 work, arranged for part-time instruction, or in units for evening 
 classes. During the war it was impossible to supply the demand, and 
 girls went to work almost as soon as they were able to qualify as 
 tracers and copyists. The distribution of time and content of the 
 course follow: 
 
 Hours. 
 Drafting I5 
 
 Elementary physics, stressing mechanics. ] 
 
 Mathematics, including problems on geometrical construction J "^ 
 
 English and civics 5 
 
 Shop Vv'-ork (elementary) 3 
 
 Industrial history or economics 2 
 
 30 
 
 107S7'— 20-
 
 6G TRADE AND INDUSTEIAL EDUCATION 
 
 Physical training and hygiene. 
 Drafting ; 
 
 1. The use of instruments— scale protractor, slide rule, and calculations — ig 
 
 taught during regular lessons, not as a separate topic. 
 
 2. Lettering practice throughout the course. 
 
 3. Exercises involving the use of standard conventional representations. 
 
 4. Reading of blue prints and drawings. 
 
 5. Tracing on paper and cloth. 
 
 6. Free hand sketching of machines, 
 
 7. Finishing sketches. 
 
 8. Making assemlily drawings. 
 
 9. Making detail from assembly drawings. 
 
 10. Isometric projection, perspective, and development of surfaces. 
 Elementary shop instruction, given in connection with the above course, provides : 
 
 1. Practice in machine shop, including operations on — 
 
 a. Drill press. 
 h. Milling machine. 
 c. Planer. 
 
 d. Shaper. 
 
 e. Lathe, etc. 
 
 2. Practice in simple operations of— 
 
 0. Turning. 
 
 6. Boring. 
 
 c. Thread cutting. 
 
 For the girl, tlie all-day trade school experience is charajCterized 
 by the aAvakening of her industrial consciousness, helping her dis- 
 cover herself and her potentialities as a producer ; and bj?^ the develop- 
 ing of right attitudes toward work and its possibilities for progression 
 and advancement with adequate compensation. 
 
 The all-day school for girls has been slow in groAvth, and has 
 developed under tremendous handicaps and prejudices. That these 
 schools have persisted and at the present time form an integral part 
 of about 20 public-school systems in various localities throughout 
 the United States, indicates that they have mot a need. 
 
 For the smaller cities it is possible to develop a girls' vocational 
 school or department, Avhere instruction may be given in home making 
 and in trades, with due recognition of the difference in courses accord- 
 ing to the aim in view. 
 
 TAKT-TIME SCHOOLS AND CLASSES. 
 THE FIELD FOE PAKT-TIIIE EDrCATIOX. 
 
 From the rapid growth of the movement for compulsory part-time 
 legislation it ma}'^ be inferred that the facts concerning school attend- 
 ance and juvenile wage earning have become conmion knowledge. 
 States are assuming the responsibility for their share of the national 
 problem, which is stated here for the purpose of calling attention to 
 the national need.
 
 rOR GIRLS AXD WOMEIT. 67 
 
 That great numbers of boj^s and girls quit school during the upper 
 elementary grades is proved l^y the distribution of the total school 
 enrollment of the country. The 1917 Report of the Commissioner of 
 Education (p. 7) shows that the total school enrollment of 1915 was 
 21,958,836, distributed as follows : 
 
 Ter cent. 
 
 In elementary schools 91. 03 
 
 In high schools, academies, r.nd secondary schools 7. 13 
 
 In higher institutions 1.84 
 
 The attendance begins a precipitate decline at the end of the fifth 
 grade and at the age of 14 j^ears. According to the Federal census 
 in 1910 the percentage of boj'S and g'irls not in school differed 
 slightly. 
 
 rcrccntagc not in school. 
 
 Boys. Girls. 
 
 At 13 years of age 11. 7 10. 7 
 
 At 17 years of age GG. G 63. 4 
 
 Approximately 2,000,000 children arrive at a given age annually. 
 One-half of the children of IG years and under 17 have left school 
 either in that year of age or at some younger age. Of those 17 and 
 under 18 years, two-thirds have left school, and of those 18 and under 
 19 — that is to say, of those classified in the census as 18 years of age — ■ 
 more than three-fourths have left school. Of all boys 14 and 15 
 years of age, i. e., between the exact ages 14 and 16 years, 41.4 per 
 cent, or two-filths, and of all girls in these ages 19.8 per cent, or one- 
 fifth, are in gainful emplojmients. (Federal Census, 1910, Vol. IV", 
 p. 69.) The number gainfully employed in the ages 14 and 15 
 years has been estimated for 1918 as being approximately 800,000 
 boys and 400,000 girls. 
 
 So far as employment records are available at the present time, the 
 number of girls between 14 and 16 gainfidly emiDloyed varies from 
 one-third to one-half the total number of employed youth. 
 
 Because of the large numbers of children who leave school at an 
 early age, without opportunity for choice of an occupation or an ade- 
 quate understanding of the need of preparation for it, and because 
 these same boys and girls drift into uneducative and unprogressive 
 jobs, it is imperative that the public school extend its responsibilities 
 to meet the needs of youths who have aft-eady entered employment by 
 establishing part-time schools and classes. 
 
 The object of the part-time school is to extend an educational 
 service to boys and girls during the transition from school to work, 
 conserving their education and extending it ; helping tiiem choose a 
 vocation, counseling and following them up in order that their 
 schooling experience may be closely related to their needs and duties 
 as potential citizens and workers. Compulsory part-time legislation
 
 68 TRADE AND I2TDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 
 
 presupposes compulsory school attendance laws, the regulation of 
 work permits, tlie prohibition of employment of minors in occupa- 
 tions dangerous to health and morals, the regulation of hours of 
 labor and of conditions of employment. In most States this social 
 legislation sets more stringent restrictions on girls than on boys. 
 
 By linking up child-labor laws, the compulsory school-attendance 
 laws, and laws providing educational supervision of employed chil- 
 dren it is possible to emphasize the new conception of the child's 
 relation to education and to industry and tlie importance of real 
 preparation for future Avork. It is likevvise possible to establish the 
 principle that the young child is no longer to be regarded as at once 
 attaining the independent status of the wage-earning adult when she 
 enters employment. The continuation school is the direct outgrowth 
 of modern industrial elevelopment, subdivision of labor, introduction 
 of machines, tiie evolution of the factory system, and the growing 
 conviction that the State must look to the future and m.eet the needs 
 of all its children, ^t must bridge the gap between school and work 
 and between juvenile and adult employment. 
 
 Assuming that this measure is socially and economicallyjustifiable, 
 it becomes at once an educational responsibility and opportunity re- 
 quiring the cooperation of the emj)loyer, the worker, the school, and 
 of all other social agencies organized to serve the youth during the 
 formative years. Xo single agency can secure effective results alone. 
 In order to foster a public sentiment favorable to the measure, it is 
 desirable to secure the confidence of parents and employers and con- 
 vince them that the scliool is undertaking a piece of practical work. 
 
 To bring home to parents the significance and possibilities of con- 
 tinuation schools should be the work of an advisory committee. Occa- 
 sion should be made to explain the State law in public meetings, 
 parent-teacher associations, denominational gatherings, social clubs, 
 and political organizations. In this way parents may know what 
 education means to their children. It is not strange that they take 
 short views and consider that the child's wages are of more value 
 to their household than " book learning." When once convinced of 
 the advantage of education in the life of the child the parents become 
 supporters of the program. 
 
 The labor organizations ai% an important influence in conserving 
 and safeguarding the interests of the child, and have always recorded 
 their approval and rendered assistance in an}- constructive program 
 which insures to youth a wholesome balance of education and recrea-v 
 tion as well as work. 
 
 There is no better ally in the enterprise than a public-spirited em 
 ployer wlio serves as a pacemaker in his community. Evei'y effort 
 should be made to enlist the interest and support of every such!
 
 FOR GIRLS AL'D W0J,IE2T. 69 
 
 cmi^loyer and to utilize any assistance he offers. Tliis means inter- 
 views and conferences relative to determining policies and i^ro- 
 grams. It often means reorganization of departments in wliicli the 
 young people are employed and readjustment between their work 
 and their school program. 
 
 ISIost effective cooperation has been obtained by the vocational 
 or advisory committee of a local chamber of commerce through pro- 
 viding a program for a i^ublic meeting prior to the opening of 
 school, at which a brief explanation of the compulsory-education 
 laws, the Federal child labor laAV, the State regulations for issuance 
 of employment permits, and the local program for j)art-time classes 
 may be explained. Not infrequently the result of such meeting is 
 the return of many children to the regular school. 
 
 With the desire to serve the immediate needs of large groups of 
 young workers, the Federal Board has placed a liberal interpretation 
 upon the Federal act as regards the provision, in itself liberal, to the 
 effect that instruction offered in general continuation schools may be 
 any instruction '' to enlarge the civic and vocational intelligence " of 
 workers over 14 years of age. " Federal moneys may be used in part- 
 time schools and classes for salaries of instructors in trade, home 
 economics, industrial, commercial, and general education subjects." 
 In other words, any educational program related to work in the store, 
 the office^ the shop, the factory, or the home, or necessary for general 
 improvement and good citizenship, may be subsidized if it extends 
 over a minimum period of 144 hours per year. If more than 50 per 
 cent of the program is devoted to specific instruction in a definite 
 vocation it becomes a commercial continuation class or a continua- 
 tion class in home economics or a trade and industrial continuation 
 class. 
 
 Although the movement for compulsory part-time schools is of 
 recent origin in the United States, 3-et in Septemher, 1920, the follow- 
 ing 19 States will have schools in operation : 
 
 Arizona. 
 
 Ciiliforuia. 
 
 Illinois. 
 
 Iowa. 
 
 Massachusetts. 
 
 Michigan. 
 
 Missouri. 
 
 Montana. 
 
 Nebraska. 
 
 Nevada. 
 
 New York. 
 
 New Jersey. 
 
 New Mexico. 
 
 Oklahoma. 
 
 Oregon. 
 
 renn.-^ylvania. 
 
 Utah. 
 
 Wasliington. 
 
 Wisconsin. 
 
 In addition to the States which now have legislation for compul- 
 sory part-time school attendajice, Indiana, Ohio, West Virginia, and 
 Connecticut have taken initial stejDs toward the establishment of simi- 
 lar provisions for minors.
 
 70 TRADE AND INDUSTFJAL EDUCATIOlSr 
 
 The provisions of State laws differ in respect to school-leaving 
 age, hours, and place and age of required attendance in part-time 
 classes. The age of compulsory full-time attendance varies from 14 
 to 16 years ; the age of compulsory part-time attendance va.ries from 
 14 to 18; the hours of required instruction per week from 4 to 8 
 in periods of varying lengths. 
 
 The imminent problem confronting the States which are inaugu- 
 rating this program is one of recruiting teachers v.'ith a decidedly 
 social point of view and training them for a new type of service. If 
 the need of the continuation school is realized, it will be self-evident 
 that the good teacher must possess high qualities of character and 
 temperament, sympathy with the desires and aspirations of youth, a 
 comprehension of its qualities and limitations, and a power to explain 
 the interplay of knowledge and life, simply and patiently, and to 
 imj^lant an enthusiasm which will bear fruit. 
 
 More than this, the teacher should become familiar with the work- 
 a-day lives her pupils lead ; with the organization of the oftices, fac- 
 tories, or stores in which their working hours are spent ; with their 
 tastes and habits in times of leisure ; and with the conditions of their 
 home life. Experience as a leader and organizer of girl's clubs or as 
 director of playground and recreational activities will be most help- 
 ful. Industrial experience would enable tlie teacher to make her 
 relations intimate, personal, and human instead of academic and 
 remote. 
 
 However carefully these teachers are recruited, short periods oi 
 special training in the purposes and methods of education and their 
 application to the problems of the continuation schools will generally 
 be necessary. It is needless to say that short recurrent courses for 
 improvement of teachers in service likewise must be worked out par- 
 allel to the development of the enterprise. The experiences of Wis- 
 consin, Boston, and Pennsylvania furnish some background, yet it 
 w^ill be necessary for each State to assume the responsibility of assist- 
 ing its own communities in the appointment of competent staffs of 
 instructors. 
 
 A number of recent publications will be found of assistance in 
 enabling States and localities to work out the details of plans for the 
 establishment of schools. Among those readily available are the fol- 
 lowing : 
 
 Bulletin on Course of Study and Administration for Continua- 
 tion Schools, Harrisburg, Pa, 1918. Eevised 1920. . 
 
 Boston Continuation School, School Document No. 4, 1919. 
 
 Introductory Course in Part-Time Education- — University of 
 California in cooperation Avith State Board of EducatioHj 
 1920.
 
 FOR GirxLS AXD ^VOMElsT. 71 
 
 ISIicliigan State Board of Control of Vocational Education Bul- 
 letin No. 212, May, 1920. 
 
 UniversitA^ of the State of Ncav York Bulletin No. G97, Organiza- 
 tion and Administration of Part-Time Schools. 
 
 In the last analysis the success of any program will depend on the 
 ability of the local organization to meet community conditions. The 
 location of classes, the enforcement of attendance, the making of 
 routine records and forms, the grouping of students, the segregation 
 of classes, the determination of the length of sessions, and the prepa- 
 ration of a program of instruction are responsibilities of the local 
 str.ff. There are certain general facts which may guide in determin- 
 ing the organization. 
 
 It is generally conceded that certain services may be expected in 
 the part-time school besides instruction, such as care of health, voca- 
 tional counsel, placement, and follow-up. 
 
 The factors that determine the classification of pupils in groups are 
 age, school attainment, present occupation, and prospective occupa- 
 tion. In all probability the most expedient basis of organization for 
 instruction is school attainment, but it is one which unfortunately 
 easily leads to the making of the part-time program, one which pro- 
 vides simply for an extension of the regular school work. With the 
 younger group instruction for general improvement will probably 
 dominate. It will be based on an interpretation of working ex- 
 periences and new applications of the fundamentals of a general 
 education. The amount of vocational work will be increased with 
 the age of the pupils, and may be designed to fit the needs of indi- 
 viduals in their present job, or to prepare for promotion, or to change 
 to another position. 
 
 The courses and methods of instruction must take into consid- 
 eration the following items : 
 
 1. That new pupils are entering constantly as old pupils arrive 
 at the age limit and leave. 
 
 2. That the periods of attendance are short, with intervals between. 
 
 3. That the pupils are of varying grades of school attainment. 
 
 ^ 4. That many have left school because of distaste for study and 
 discipline. 
 
 5. That they are experiencing the influences of adolescence. 
 
 C. That they are workers with a first-hand knowledge of life as 
 seen from the shop, the factory, or the store, and the street, expect- 
 ing recognition of the change in point of view which their new 
 experiences have wrought. 
 
 From these considerations it will be evident that the program and 
 methods of teaching must depart from those of the regular day 
 school. Class work becomes difficult and undesirable, and more
 
 72 TRADE A^:D IXDUSTrj.iL EDUCATION 
 
 dependence must be placed on individual instruction. Continuity 
 of subject matter is essential and is best preserved when each lesson 
 is a unit in itself, which can readily be renewed and made the 
 be<rinnino: point for new work. 
 
 The following programs indicate some A^ariations in the time 
 allotment to the subjects included in continuation school programs 
 as mlluenced by the provisions of the different States : 
 
 /. Svffgcsicd sehedttlc of suhjccts and Itours.^' 
 
 (Based on S liours per week, 36 weeks per year.) 
 
 GENERAL COXTIXUATIOX FOR INDUSTRIAL CROUr. 
 
 Hours. 
 
 Enjrlisli — ■ — ■^- 1 
 
 Social sciences (citizenship, industrial history, and economics) ,__ 1 
 
 Arithmetic, includhig shop problems, the personal budget, and thrift 
 
 problems ^. 1 
 
 Health and safety 1 
 
 Industrial subjects, including drawing, study of materials, and industrial 
 
 laws . 4 
 
 For girls in the industrial gi'oup two hours per we^^k should be taken from the 
 above subjects for homemaking courses. 
 
 GENERAL CONTINUATION TOR COMMERCIAL GROUPS. 
 
 Ilours. 
 
 English (business chiefly) 2 
 
 Social sciences (citizenship, industrial history, and economics) __, 1 
 
 Commercial arithmetic, with attention to the personal budget and thrift — 1 
 
 Health and safety 1 
 
 Bookkeeping and filing 3 
 
 Or, 
 
 Shorthand aud typewriting 3 
 
 Or, 
 
 Salesmanship and merchandise study 3 
 
 For girls in the commercial group, two hours per week should be taken from 
 the above subjects for homemaking courses. 
 
 GENERAL CONTINUATION FOR ACADEMIC GROUP, 
 
 Hours. 
 
 Engllsh___ , 1 
 
 Social .sciences (citizenship, industrial history, and economics) 1 
 
 Arithmetic based on work in the home and including thrift 1 
 
 Health and safety 1 
 
 Homemaking subjects, including art and study of household materials and 
 
 foods 1 
 
 Or, 
 
 General study of industry and business 4 
 
 Or. 
 
 General study of industry and business aud varied shopwork , 4 
 
 " The compulsory Part-Time School, Bulletin No. 212, Michigao State Board of Conti-ol 
 
 for Vocational Education, pp. 17-18.
 
 FOR GiELS ai:d VrOilEX. 73 
 
 //. Schedule of subjects and time allotment in general continuation school." 
 
 (Based on S hours per week, 30 weeks per year.) 
 
 Miniifes 
 per week. 
 
 English 80 
 
 Current events 40 
 
 Hygiene (25) and recreation (15) 40 
 
 Industrial geography 40 
 
 Civics (25) and music (15) 40 
 
 Aritmetic 60 
 
 Drawing GO 
 
 Practical work 120 
 
 Trade or industrial. 
 
 Commercial. 
 
 Home economics. 
 
 ///. Oullinc of part-time courses (general contimiation) indicating suitable dis- 
 tribution of /iHlC." 
 
 (Based on 4-8 hours per week, 3G weeks per year.) 
 
 Four- Eight- 
 hour pro- hour pro- 
 gram, gram. 
 
 American history, industrial liistory, civics, and economics 30 60 
 
 English -, 30 60 
 
 Arithmetic and applied mathematics 30 - 60 
 
 Hygiene and physical training 30 GO 
 
 Industrial subjects, as shopwork, drawing, laws relating to 
 
 industries 120 240 
 
 or 
 Homemaking subjects, as cooking, sewing, home decoration, 
 
 household sanitation, millinery 120 240 
 
 or 
 Commercial subjects, as elementary vocational business practice, 
 
 bookkeeping, typewriting, filing, shorthand, and retail selling- 120 210 
 
 IV. General continuation classes in the textile industries of the SoutJiern States." 
 
 (The allotment of time is based upon 4 hours, or 240 minutes, per week for 36 
 Aveeks. The minimum requirement of law— 144 hours per year.) 
 
 Minutes 
 per week. 
 
 English : Reading, composition, oral and writtenl 30 
 
 Spelling and penmanship (15 minutes each per week, or on alternate 
 
 weeks) 30 
 
 Arithmetic 30 
 
 Citizenship, current events, industrial geography (on alternate weeks) 30 
 
 Physical training : Hygiene, safety first, first aid, 15 minutes ; gymnastics, 5 
 
 minutes (games out of regular hours) 20 
 
 i*A Bulletin on Cour.se of Study and Administration — for Continuation Schools. State 
 Board of Education, Bureau of Vocational Education, Ilarrisburs, Pa. 1918. P. 4. 
 
 >5 Organization and Administration of Part-Time Schools. University of the State of 
 New York Bulletin. 1920. Pp. 22-23. 
 
 i» Evening and Part-Time Schools in the Textile Industry of the Southern States, Bulle- 
 tin No. 30, Federal Board for Vocational Education, p. 9G.
 
 74 TKADE AND IXDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 
 
 Minntos 
 per week. 
 
 General science (agriculture and gardening in season; nature siudy) 20 
 
 Sliopwork, boys (according to facilities for instructions), or connnercial 
 
 subjects, typewriting and accounting, or practical home making, girls, 
 
 including general housekeeping, cooking, and sewing 40 
 
 Household mechanics . — 20 
 
 Assemblies (to be used for general talks, confereiices, and group activities)- 20 
 
 V. General continuation class — approximate sclicdiilc of stihjects and time." 
 
 (Based on 4 hours per week.) 
 
 Minutes. 
 
 English — oral and written 40 
 
 Civics 20 
 
 Hygiene 20 
 
 Arithmetic and drawing 40 
 
 Shop or commercial subjects 120 
 
 TI. Gener<il continuation class — approximate schedule of subjects and time}* 
 
 (Based on 4 hours per week.) 
 
 Minutes 
 weekly. 
 
 Citizenship and health (required by law) 40 
 
 Common-school branches, such as reading, writing, arithmetic, an-d spelling, 80 
 Occupational work, including finding courses in agriculture, industry, com- 
 merce or home economics 120 
 
 THE GIRL, THE JOB, AND THE rART-TISIE SCHOOL. 
 
 Educators now recognize the right of working children to part- 
 time instruction, but are apt to slight the working girl in the early 
 stages of organizing continuation classes, partly because their atten- 
 tion is diverted to the nonconformist schoolboy — a greater problem 
 numerically and psychologically. Nevertheless, the girl is just as 
 seriously handicapped by lack of training for a job and is even in 
 greater need of vocational education and relaxation because of the 
 economic pressure of disturbed domestic relationships that sends her 
 forth from home to vs^ork. 
 
 Conditions of the home have more to do with girls' withdrawal 
 from school than any other reason, whereas a boy's reason for with- 
 drawal is usually connected with the school. Girls go to work in 
 response to the economic and physical needs of the home ; seldom from 
 dislike of school or preference for work. Boys may come from homes 
 w^here economic rjid physical needs are not pressing. Courses of 
 study, methods of teaching, and school discipline do not appeal to 
 them, and the mechanically inclined express a preference for Avork. 
 
 "Boston Continuation School — School Document No. 4, 1919. P. 1.5. 
 " Introductory Course in Part-Time Education. University of California in Cooperation 
 with the State Board of Education. P. 44.
 
 FOR GIRLS AND WOMEN. 75 
 
 IMost people fail to ariahv.e the mental states of the girl worker. 
 She is influenced by the popular belief and expectation that wage 
 earning is not a permanent proposition. She wants to go with the 
 throng, do what other girls do, have what other girls have, and, what 
 is more, be seen having it. She is influenced by friends in the choice of 
 school, work, clothes, recreation, etc. She sets the seen above the 
 unseen, the immediate over and against the more remote. She is 
 influenced by the social prejudices toward levels of employment. She 
 is conservative because hampered by the dread of change and shift. 
 She is daring because, having little to lose, she is Avilling to hazard all 
 and get a new job, if necessar3^ 
 
 Usually a high percentage of girl industrial workers live at home 
 or with relatives, especially those under 18 years of age. Boarding 
 homes in connection with industrial jolants indicate an increasing 
 tendency on the part of young workers to leave home for better wages 
 or more congenial emjDlo3'ment. It is very much to be hoped that part 
 of the time in the continuation school will be devoted to learning a 
 real job olTering economic independence at an early age, since the 
 chance of attaining a marital condition in which the wife does not 
 share — if not actually bear — the economic burden of the family is 
 slight. It is very certain that unless vocational instruction is easily 
 accessible and an accepted part of the program, the disposition to use 
 spare time or money for self-improvement is unavailing. 
 
 Girls who withdraw from the public school either resume further 
 schooling, remain at home, or go to work. The public school may 
 accept such instruction as is accorded recognition under the terms of 
 the compulsory attendance hiAvs of the State either for day or part- 
 time classes. 
 
 jMany girls leave the upper elementary grades urged by personal 
 solicitation and attractive literature bidding them to short vocational 
 courses preparing for wage earning in which too earlj an entrance 
 will be a positive handicap throughout their working life. The 
 diverse types of service in connection with the attendance depart- 
 ment, guidance, p^nd placement bureaus may be of advantage to these 
 girls, many of whom- gravitate into cities from small towns and rural 
 communities. 
 
 Girls with home permits should be served, in the main, in such a 
 way as to make their present experience through interpretation and 
 instruction, return to them the greatest possible educational growth, 
 yet they should also be considered in the light of their possible 
 entrance to wage earning. 
 
 Training for a vocation is a valuable training for the future home- 
 makers, and can be made to cover ail the relations of life. To get 
 a job, hold it, and advance in it, and make it worth while, and have 
 it make you worth while is sound philosoph}^ for the shop, the oflice,
 
 76 TRADE AXD IXDUSTRIAL EDUCATIOIT 
 
 or the home. It takes not incidental attention, but phmning, organiz- 
 ing, systematizing, and self-sacrifice. 
 
 There is always some shifting between groups, from the home to the 
 working group, or vice versa, as well as from' the working to the 
 unemployed group. The girl wlTo stays at home to help may be a 
 bona fide housekeeper for the father, a helper in case of illness in 
 the family, a temporary housekeeper and caretaker of the younger 
 children because the mother is at work, or temporarily detained 
 because of her own ill health. As soon as the need for her help at 
 home no longer exists, younger children having arrived at a state of 
 self-dependence, or her health is improved, or as soon as her possible 
 earnings can approximate her mother's, or when her desires exceed 
 the family pocketbook, she, too, will go to work. 
 
 Beside her dominant training for homemaking, in anticipation of 
 this working experience she should be insured a knowledge of the 
 economics of v\^age earning and of the opportunities for the same. 
 Upon these essentials depends her future ability to take care of her- 
 self and thus to become a steady and successful v\'orker instead of a 
 casual worker or dependent. 
 
 The group of girls to whom work permits are issued comprises 
 by far the larger number. The information which may be obtained 
 concerning them through the various school departments and agencies 
 of service should be organized into a body of common knowledge 
 fundamental for the development of the part-time program. 
 
 The continuation school-teacher should have such information as 
 the following: The age and grade of girls at the time of withdrawal; 
 the reason given at school, and the reason alleged by the parent at 
 the time of the girl's application for employment certificate. These 
 will reveal the attitude of the girl toward schooling, her choice of 
 work or further training, physical disability, home responsibilities, 
 and other influencing factors. They likewise may disclose home 
 conditions which can be remedied in order to keep the child in school, 
 such as unemployment in family, sickness, delinquency of parents, 
 low wage, and the like. The kinds of work for which permits are 
 issued will bring to light the occupations q,t which the girls are 
 employed or which may be made available to them. 
 
 The age, initial wage, and earnings at the end of her minority 
 may be significant in determining what assistance may best enable 
 the girl to make the transition from juvenile to adult employment. 
 
 Her expenditures will indicate her economic status, her financial 
 responsibilities to her family, her savings, and the cost of her main- 
 tenance. Home expenses, clothing, food, and recreation are the chief 
 items of expense. Three-fourths of the women workers use a large 
 portion of their earnings to purchase food and one-fourth of the
 
 FOR GIRLS AXD WOMEN. 77 
 
 workers receiA^e food as a part of their wage.^' The lack of proper 
 food not only causes morbid conditions of the body but also increases 
 the hazard of industrial accidents and disease. Personal interest and 
 advice, as well as direct instruction with reference to suitability of 
 dress, health, recreation, public behavior, conduct, and social con- 
 ventions frequently result in marked improvement of the girl. 
 
 The occupations which are open to the 14 to IG year old bo}^ or 
 girl do not differ greatly in responsibilities or opportunities. She 
 "fetches and carries," too, but in a more limited area. A year's 
 record of employment permits in a midwestern metropolis (popula- 
 tion 415,718) records the occupation of the 14 and 15 ^'ear old girls 
 (June, 1918-^May, 1919) as follows : 
 
 Carrier and delivery (inside) 1/3 
 
 Jlercliandisc 1/4 
 
 Mechanical work 1/5 
 
 Clerical 1/5 
 
 Domestic (recorded only when supervision is necessary). 
 
 For counseling and placement purposes, information relative to 
 establishments in which these workers are employed would be de- 
 sirable to have on record, including such points as the following : 
 
 1. Number of workers. 
 
 2. Positions in the firm — 
 
 a. Duties. 
 
 l>. Requirements — physical, mental, technical, knowledge, 
 skill. 
 » c. Wages. 
 
 3. Selection of workers — 
 
 a. Sources, method of hiring, phicing, and releasing. 
 
 4. Organization for promotion and advancement. 
 
 5. Conditions of employment. 
 
 A rough survey of the out-of-school group of girls and the total 
 enrollment in public and private high schools of the country indicates 
 the probability of wage earning for the girl, the extent to which this 
 motive figures in her life, and the recognition which should be ac- 
 corded it in an educational program. 
 
 An approximation of the distribution of the out-of-school group 
 of girls between the ages of 14 and 20 in 1918 signifies the relative 
 numbers gainfully employed and at home by age groups. 
 
 i» Food of Working Women in Boston, Women's Educational and Industrial Union, 
 Mass. State Dept. of Ucalth, 1017.
 
 78 
 
 TRADE AXD INDUSTRIAL EDUCATI03T 
 
 Eslimatcd number of girls in 1918. 
 (Vocational summary, 1918, pp. 5-G.) 
 
 Age group. 
 
 Nof in 
 scliool. 
 
 Gaintully 
 employed. 
 
 At home. 
 
 14 20 
 
 4,.3.V),riO0 
 
 4S(), 000 
 3, 870, 000 
 
 2,400,000 
 
 390,000 
 
 2,100,000 
 
 1, 860,000 
 
 14-15 . 
 
 90, 000 
 
 16-20 
 
 J, 770, 000 
 
 
 
 The report of the Commissioner of Education, 1917, shows that 
 the enrollment in the leading courses of study in public and private 
 high schools in 1915~16 was as follows : 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Total 100.0 
 
 Academic coiii'.ses 6G. -1 
 
 Commercial courses 13. 7 
 
 Technical and manual training courses 6. 9 
 
 Training courses for teachers 2. 
 
 Agricultural courses 3. 4 
 
 Domestic economy 7. G 
 
 It will be seen from the above table that one-third of the students 
 were enrolled in courses somewhat practical in character. It is as- 
 sumed that the bovs dominate in technical and agricultural courses 
 (10.3 per cent) ; and that the courses in teaching and dpmesiic econ- 
 omy are largely confined to girls (9.6 per cent). 
 
 In all probability the number of girls enrolled in practical courses 
 in the high school outstrips the 'number of boys to the degree to 
 which they dominate in commercial courses. 
 
 SPECIALIZED PAKT-TIJIE INSTRUCTION. 
 
 Some beginning experiments have been made in various parts of 
 the country which show possible developments and variations of part- 
 time classes under this most flexible organization. The re<iuirements 
 of the act are (1) that the classes shall be under public supervision 
 and control; (2) that the minimum age of the worker shall be 14 
 years; or (3) that the instruction shall be designed to increase the 
 civic or vocational intelligence and continue for a period of 144 hours 
 as a minimum. 
 
 The following types of classes fulfill these conditions and are sub- 
 sidized from trade and industrial funds : 
 
 1. General continuation schools in connection with the textile in- 
 dustries in the South, developed by a system of pairing the workers. 
 The children are divided into two shifts, alternating five hours' work 
 with three hours' schooling. One of each pair of workers is detailed 
 for the morning in the mill and for the afternoon in the school ; the 
 other pair reversing the schedule. The details of the plan are given in 
 Bulletin No. 30, Trade and Industrial Series, No. 5, " Evening and 
 
 1
 
 FOE GIRLS AND WOMEIST. 7& 
 
 Part-time Schools in the Textile Industry of the Southern States," 
 issued by the Federal Board for Vocational Education. 
 
 2. As a part-time trade preparatory class in a general continuation 
 school, A-ocational instruction was made possible through the coo})era- 
 tion of an interested employer. His motives could not be questioned, 
 as he employed none but mature women in his own factory, which 
 closed for the week at 11 o'clock on Saturdays. A group of continua- 
 tion-school girls desirous of learning the power machine operating 
 trade were organized under the direction of the regular continuation- 
 school teacher and were permitted to use the machines under the 
 supervision of the forewoman and factory instructor Avho gave the 
 work as employees of the public-school system. A similar experi- 
 ment was tried in a shirt and underwear factory, also, in the teaching 
 of knitting, topping, and looping in a hosiery mill. 
 
 3. Trade preparatory instruction. In order to extend a service 
 through industry to the factory operative forewoman and supervisor, 
 the Federal Board has rided that trade preparatory instruction may 
 be given in part-time classes under the folloAving conditions : Workers 
 who are employed or who are under agreement for employment may 
 be given such instruction under public supervision and control as 
 will secure for them advantageous entrance to a trade or industrial 
 occupation provided the instruction period is IM hours and other- 
 wise fulfills the requirements of the Federal act. Classes of this type 
 are in operation in garment factories. The new worker is assigned 
 to a training department where she receives instruction from a teacher 
 employed by the public school. AVhen the learner reaches a certain 
 degree of proficiency she is transferred from the instruction to the 
 production department. Training of women multiplex operators 
 in the telegraph offices is organized on a similar basis and approved 
 for Federal aid. 
 
 4. Cooperative part-time classes, organized on the basis of an alter- 
 nation of employment and instruction. The minimum period of work 
 required is 50 per cent of the total period of attendance and instruc- 
 tion. The time may be divided on a da}'', week, or mont:h basis. For 
 example : The " In and Out " group in a.n advanced class in trade 
 dressmaking, by a system of pairing and alternation provides two 
 weeks' instruction in school followed by two weeks' progressive em- 
 ployment in the trade. Not only is the trade teaching subject to Fed- 
 eral aid but also any other cla'sses formed for specific instruction of 
 this segregated group of workers if it can be shown that the school 
 system incurs an additional expenditure by the operation of such 
 part-time classes. Likewise the salary of the coordinator wdio by 
 follow-up work in the plant correlates the class instruction to the 
 practical experience may be paid from Federal funds. (Vocational 
 Summary, Vol. I, No. 2, p. IC.)
 
 80 TEADE AXD IXDUSTEIAL EDUCATIOIT 
 
 5. During dull season or shutdown periods, part-time general 
 continuation, trade preparatory, or trade extension classes organized 
 for the employees. If the period of instruction covers 144 hours and 
 otherwise complies with the terms of the act it may be approved for 
 aid. Power machine on classes m.ay provide an opportunity for the 
 worker to learn the operation of a new machine, or a new process in- 
 volved in the making of a standard product. 
 
 C. Trade-extension classes for forewomen and " leaders," organized 
 for instruction in subjects relating directly to the production factors 
 or processes. This may be given whollj'- on employer's time ; wholly on 
 the employee's time ; or partlj' on the time of each. When the class is 
 held during the closing hour of the working day and extended on the 
 employee's time it becomes a combination of part-time and evening- 
 class instruction, and the expense is prorated accordingly. The con- 
 tent of evening and part-time courses may be industrial, the classifi- 
 cation depending upon the time of instruction. When given during 
 the regular hours of the working day it is part time ; when outside the 
 scheduled hours of employment it is classified as an evening course. 
 Classes organized by the public school for teaching dietetics and 
 chemistry to nurses in training in local hospitals as trade extension 
 classes admit of either classification and may receive subsidy from 
 the trade and industrial fund. 
 
 The part-time school overcomes the obstacle of cost; overcomes 
 the objection made by parents to keeping their children in school; 
 overcomes the unwillingness on the part of the girl to remain in 
 school; vitalizes teaching by giving it a definite job and illuminates 
 the job. The manufacturer and the merchant frequently provide 
 the plant and some forms of specialized instruction, when desired, 
 since the benefits indirectly accrue to the employer as well as to the 
 worker. Such schools establish intimate and solid relations between 
 the school and the community, emphasizing their interdependence. 
 
 Among the advantages which the Nation may expect to derive from 
 this service may be noted the removal of some of the traces of inade- 
 quate schooling in early years and inadequate training in shop and 
 factory, which characterize large numbers of our adult citizens to-day. 
 We have a limited amount of experience to guide us. Mr. Fisher, 
 president of the British Board of Education, who is responsible for 
 the inauguration of a part-time compulsory school attendance pro- 
 gram in England, says : " We have much to learn ; there is plenty 
 of room for experiment, and we need not be afraid of the method of 
 trial and error." 
 
 TRAINING IN INDUSTRIAL PLANTS. 
 
 AYitli all the commendable agencies organized under public super- 
 vision and control, the great multitude of women workers in in-
 
 FOR GIRLS AND WOMEN. 81 
 
 diistrlal employment can not be reached unless modern industry 
 becomes a party to the training of its workers. Because of bodily 
 and mental fatigue, obligations to family, and other duties, com- 
 X^aratively few mature women are able, even if willing, to attend 
 evening classes. For this reason, if they are to be reached, their 
 daily work must be made a medium for their improvement as well 
 as a means of livelihood. There is no doubt but that industry, the 
 worker, and the loublic alike benefit from training factory operatives 
 within the plant. As yet no line of demarcation has been drawn rela- 
 tive to that part of the training the cost of which the industry itself 
 should bear and the service which the public school can render. 
 
 It is true that every industrial concern has been doing some train- 
 ing, usually in an incidental and unorganized way, to perpetuate its 
 own existence by replacing the constant loss of workers. During the 
 war the problem of increasing production with a constantly decreas- 
 ing supply of experienced workers necessitated the employment of 
 large numbers of women in war-essential industries. This led to 
 experimental training in jDlants engaged in the manufacture of such 
 a wide diversity of products that some definite results were obtained 
 and conclusions reached. The United States Training Service of the 
 Department of Labor, in Bulletins 1-25, has recorded the details of 
 organization of training departments for various women-employing 
 industries and provided training outlines. The rubber industry, 
 garment industries, including women's cloaks, suits, and skirts ; men's 
 suits and overcoats ; men's shirts, overalls, and pants ; the textile in- 
 dustries, including weaving and knitting ; the making of piano play- 
 ers, paper boxes, shoes, electrical machinery, optical instruments, 
 computing machines, automobile parts, aeroplanes, all have experi- 
 mented in training women workers. In many cases during the 
 period of adjustment following the signing of the armistice these 
 departments were discontinued, but they are gradually being revived 
 as permanent educational departments in manufacturing establish- 
 ments rather than on an emergency basis. 
 
 Women still continue to be an increasingly important factor in 
 the industries 'mentioned above, as well as in many other types of 
 light metal and Avood-working trades. Their actual presence and 
 the realization of their possibilities as workers have lead to a realign- 
 ment of tasks, the introduction of automatic-machine devices, and 
 improvement in conditions for workers whether they be men or 
 women. Every attempt has been made to make their work error 
 proof and hazard proof. In many kinds of machine operating, in- 
 specting, testing, and assembling of small parts women have gained 
 a permanent place. 
 
 As a result of the increased number of women in industrial occu- 
 pations, the need of women executives in the employment depart- 
 10787'— 20 6
 
 82 TRADE A^^TD INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 
 
 ment was recognized by the opening to women of tke Go-vernnaent 
 coiu'ses in employment management established during the war. Tlie 
 greater the nnmFjer of inexpierienced workers the greater the number 
 of snpervising for-emen necessary to insure production. It was found 
 that the teaching function could most readily be delegated, though 
 the factory foreman was often reluctant to assign it to any other 
 agency than himself, or to receive workers in any other than, the 
 usual way. Experience proved woKsen instructors most desirable 
 for instructing the girls and women workers entering into employ- 
 ment. Provision was made to develop them within the plants (1) by 
 choosing from among the skilled workers those who could teach and 
 (2) by recruiting groups of educationally trained women who serA'ed 
 a i)eriod of apprenticeship in the different departments within the 
 plant, being transferred from department to department as they 
 reached a certain per cent of production. As an emergency measure 
 training departments were inaugurated, and the function was recog- 
 nized as separate from employment, separate from production, and 
 separate from welfare,, but related to all three. The demand from 
 the factory floor determined the training. Production records dis- 
 closed the need for up-grading training. By up-grading is meant 
 the improving of an employee's output by a brief intensive training 
 in the best methods of performing a single o2:)eration or series of 
 ©Iterations. 
 
 In some industries the wc«nan welfare worker arranged for the 
 instructional service of the foreman to the woman in need of assist- 
 ance. Though this still continties in some plants, yet in the main 
 two types of training schemes developed: (1) A separate department 
 with a follow-up of instruction on the factory floor, and (2) train- 
 ing on special machines on the production floor in industries where 
 the type of automatic machinery prevented the establishment of 
 separate training rooms. The separate traii^ing room is supposed 
 to serve as a " vestibule " or outside factory to meet the demands 
 of production. It is under definite control and supervision with 
 definite relatonships established with the other departments. To it 
 the learner is assigned by the employment department for training 
 according to the^needs of the plant ; the deserving help may be up-- 
 graded for efficiency; workers of good production records who 
 qualify for promotion may be taken into the school to learn opera- 
 tions of a higher grade ; workers of poor-production records may 
 be brought up to standard or shifted to a new job for which they 
 receive training; v.'orkers who are desirous of getting experience 
 for " flj'ing sc^uadron " service may apply for instruction in order 
 that they may have a chance to work in other departments when 
 the season is slack; and applicants who claim to have, experience 
 may be tested out in the job for which they have applied or for the 
 
 I 
 
 I
 
 rOR GIRLS AND WOMEN. 83 
 
 13iirpose of discovering their abilities or disabilities. Another func- 
 tion of the training department is to test out new tools and new 
 methods of operation. The department is concerned in methods of 
 obtaining learners, training, supervising, transferring, and follow- 
 ing up the workers by moans of a corps of advanced instructors. 
 The best results are obtained from training upon production accord- 
 ing to standards set by planning departments. 
 
 Training on the factory floor in shops in which conditions will 
 not warrant a separate training room must be flexible enough to 
 provide for fluctuations in production that occur in the ordinary 
 factory, as the production schedule has the right of way. Certain 
 machines may be set aside or "tagged" for breaking in new help 
 or upgrading those already employed. 
 
 There are decided disadvantages in training on the j)i'oduction 
 floor among the larger body of workers. These are : 
 Discouragement of the learner. 
 Disorganization of routing and shop control. 
 Decreased production. 
 Larger spoilage of product. 
 
 Lack of opportunity to acquaint worker with policies of the 
 plant. 
 
 When placed beside a speedy, experienced operator the new em- 
 ployee is apt to become discouraged at her slowness in attaining 
 equal production. Here the emphasis is on production and the 
 learner whose attention should be focused on the learning process 
 •will have it diverted by the speed of her neighbor. 
 
 The new operator or the old one at a new operation is sometimes 
 discouraged intentionally by statements of associates that she can 
 never hope for a fair income on her new job. This is a frequent 
 source of labor turnover. 
 
 Inexperienced people distributed through the shop retard produc- 
 tion, making planning and scheduling more difficult. The produc- 
 tion of an experienced operator is diminished for every beginner 
 taught. Spoilage of product is also apt to be large, because the 
 learners are not given the consideration accorded in a training room, 
 and an attempt at speed before correct methods have been acquired 
 endangers the qualit}^ of the output. Faulty production methods are 
 perpetuated. 
 
 The training room, or " tagged " machines, should be near to the 
 production floor so that work can be readily transferred. It should 
 be accessible to the emploj-ment department from which it receives 
 the learner, and as quiet as possible for instruction under the best 
 physical conditions. Although production is expected of the train- 
 ing department, its prime object is to train workers, and therefore 
 it is arranged with regard to instruction rather than production. Its
 
 84 TRADE AXD INDUSTRIAL EDUCATIO::^ 
 
 equipment sliould be in prime condition, conducive to the formation 
 of rio-ht habits of work. In some industries the department, how- 
 ever, forms a complete production unit, the stock being routed on the 
 same general plan as in the factory. The director is responsible for 
 the right type of materials to work on, the production assigned to 
 her, and for an output of trained workers. Teachers are selected 
 who have the psychological insight as well as a knowledge of the 
 operations to be taught, the manufacturing processes, the production 
 schedule, the causes for the shifting of workers, and the causes of 
 low production and of waste. Leadership, ability to analyze the op- 
 erations, and to instruct according to the best method are essential to 
 her success. 
 
 The number of learners assigned to a teacher can not be as great 
 as the number of workers assigned to a forewoman, but will depend 
 largely upon the difficulties of the operation taught. 
 
 Eecord charts of the progress of the learner should indicate her 
 production schedule and salvage curve, together with notations of 
 special hindrances. This is important in determining when her train- 
 ing is complete and in placing and upgrading her. 
 
 The unorganized method of training women which prevails at the 
 present time is to place the new worker among experienced workers. 
 There she may learn what the older workers are disposed to teach 
 her. Inasmuch as production is the chief duty of the worker, assist- 
 ing her neighbor means to her loss of time, loss of production, 
 and the training of a possible competitor, thereby diminishing her 
 chances of emploj'ment. To the learner it means spoiled material, 
 bad working habits, lack of incentive, discouragement, and shift of 
 employment. If left to her own devices, the chances are small that 
 she will hit upon the one best v/ay of doing the task assigned. Ap- 
 prenticeship systems for girls in plants have been a matter of time 
 serving rather than training. 
 
 The obligation of the training department to the learner is to bring 
 her in the shortest possible time to the point at which she can earn 
 a satisfactory wage, and to make the training cost her as little as 
 possible. In fulfilling this obligation the department works for the 
 mutual benefit of the plant and the girl worker. 
 
 Not much progress can be made in training in plants, other than 
 those which are large enough to train their own teachers and fore- 
 women, until competent teacher trainers are placed at the disposal 
 of industrial plants as a public educational service. Through the 
 provisions of the Federal vocational act this service is organized for 
 the assistance of industry in ever}^ State. 
 
 Training of operatives is not a distinct and abstract subject which 
 can be worked out along general lines outside the industry. Pro- 
 grams for training necessitate intimate and first-hand knowledge of
 
 rOK GIRLS AXD W0ME2T. 85 
 
 (lie industry. The person who develops such a program must s^^end 
 much time studying : 
 
 (a) Processes. 
 
 (b) Working conditions. 
 
 (c) Methods of production. 
 
 (d) Steps in advancement. 
 
 (e) Machines and their requirements of the worker. 
 
 (f) Technical knowledge required to set up and run the ma- 
 
 chine. 
 
 (g) Type of skill required. 
 
 (h) Kind of supplementary knowledge or training Avliich would 
 increase the intelligence and consequently the capacity of 
 the worker for advancement and higher earnings. 
 
 One substantial means of stimulating and promoting vocational 
 education is for the State and local agencies to induce plants in- 
 augurating systems of training their operatives to utilize the services 
 of State and local directors in making studies to determine the 
 training possibilities in the local industries. A liberal interpreta- 
 tion of that section of the Federal vocational act dealing with part- 
 time education makes the Federal funds available for instruction of 
 persons who are definitely scheduled for employment or under formal 
 agreement to be employed, fitting them for advantageous entrance 
 into a trade or industrial occupation, providing such instruction ex- 
 tends over a period of 144 hours' duration and is given during the 
 regular hours of the working day. 
 
 Because of increasingly important influences in the conduct of 
 business, as well as the inevitable changes in industrial methods 
 which grow out of new inventions, new materials, and new ideas of 
 management, problems of industrial education can be solved only 
 by searching inquiry, experiment, and constant readjustment to 
 changing conditions.
 
 ArPEXDIX A. 
 
 SYNOPSIS. 
 
 A detailed synopsis of tlie contents of tliis bulletin ii3 included to facilitate its 
 use in teaclier-trainiug classes, for ready reference, for assignment, for sum- 
 maries, and for brief reviews. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 1. Attention of public foeusetl sliarply on women wtige earners. 
 
 2. Demand for constructive educational program based on recognition of these 
 
 facts. 
 
 3. Federal vocational act admits of extension of same opportunities to women 
 
 as those outlined for men in Bulletins 17, IS, 19, Organization and Admin- 
 istration of Industrial Schools, and other publications of the Trade and 
 Industrial Series. 
 
 Pakt I. Economic and Social Aspects ov Vocational Education foe Gikls 
 
 A^■D Women. 
 
 I. expansion of opportunittes for vocational education foe gikls and women 
 
 UNDER THE FEDERAL VOCATIONAL ACT. 
 
 1. Act provides educational program for prospective or present employment by 
 
 the apportionment of Federal funds to States for — 
 a. The making of studies to foster the same. 
 h. The establishment of schools or C'las.ses. 
 
 2. Act was passed when war demanded of women — ■ 
 
 a. Conservation—the task fell on home maker. 
 
 b. Production — the task fell on wageworker. 
 
 3. Nece.-jsity for increased production of war essentials resulted in redistribution 
 
 of workers and training — 
 
 a. For workers. ^ 
 
 b. For supervisors of employment, of production. 
 
 4. Types of training for industrial workers recognized at present : 
 
 a. Technical — for experts. 
 h. Supervisory— leaders. 
 
 c. Occupational— operatives. 
 
 5. Opportunities for technical (preparatory) limited; opportunites for super- 
 
 visory and occupational provided for employed group, however, theoreti- 
 cally available to all workers, women and men alike. 
 
 6. All three forms recognized under terms of Federal vocational act. 
 
 II. ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL ASPECTS OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 
 
 1. These factors have at times accelerated or retarded progress which evolves 
 in a cycle. 
 a. Economic stress forces women workers into new fields. 
 h. Society accepts their presence as a fact. 
 
 c. Private enterprise demonstrates possibilities of training. 
 
 d. Public agencies assume service. 
 
 The above stages mark the progress of both commercial and industrial 
 education. 
 
 80
 
 roE GIRLS Ajs^d wome:it. 87 
 
 2. Numerous and intricate problems of .social psychologj- of girl worker are 
 
 educationally conip'ex. 
 
 a. Conditions whicli environ her set limitations. 
 
 b. Social attitudes make lier an opportunist. 
 
 c. Public underrates industrial employment as a field of service to society. 
 
 3. Social workers and economists initiated a program of protective legislation. 
 
 a. To safeguard present interests of worker. 
 
 (1) Minimum wage had economic and social bearings primarily. 
 &. To safeguard tlie future interests of society. 
 
 (1) Compulsoi'y part-time school attendance is primarily a social edu- 
 cational problem. 
 
 4. Educators and sponsors of education must i-ecognize the social and economic 
 
 factors inlluencing the inauguration and operation of a program for voca- 
 tional education for girls and women. 
 
 III. rUNDAMENTAI, UlSTINCTIONS BETWEEN HOME JfAKlXG AND INDUSTP.IAL EDUCA- 
 TION. 
 
 1. Woman has always been a factor in industrial employment, as shown : 
 
 a. In household occupations fast becoming isolated from the home. 
 &. In nonhousehold occupations resulting from use of mechanical appli- 
 ances. 
 
 2. Home continues the consumption of commodities, while production and 
 
 service become isolated and organized. 
 a. Industry becomes organized and specialized, employing skilled and lui- 
 
 skilled workers as directors and operatives. 
 ft. Service becomes organized and specialized, employing professional and 
 
 semiprofessional experts. 
 
 c. Public utilities and common commodities become organized and special- 
 
 ized, employing technical operatives and commercial workei*s. 
 
 d. Interdependence and interresponsibility. 
 
 3. Acknowledgment of differences fundamental to training: 
 
 a. Analysis of homemaking, a composite vocation. 
 
 &. Aim, purpose, and method of training based on preparation for diversi- 
 fied function of the home maker. 
 
 c. Analysis of industrial employment, a specialized trade or group of re- 
 
 lated occupations. 
 
 d. Aim, purpose, and method of training based on intensive preparation for 
 
 successful entrance to employment, progression, and advancement 
 within the chosen field. 
 
 IV. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR GIKLS AND -WOMEN A TWO-1 OLD PKOIiUiM. 
 
 1. Groups not mutually exclusive; same individual a member of both. 
 
 2. Needs to be considered : 
 
 a. Vocational home-umking groups. 
 6. Trade and industrial groups. 
 
 3. Realignment of social attitudes toward productive work for women. 
 
 V. WOMEN IN INDUSTRY AN INCREASINGLY IMPORTANT NATIONAL PP.OBLEM — • 
 ANALYSIS AND FORECAST. 
 
 1. Its scope is indicated by ages and occupations of workers. 
 
 2. Their employment is determined by youth, domestic relationship, labor mar- 
 
 ket; is regulated by organization, social legislation, and standardization of 
 conditions.
 
 88 TEADE AND INDUSTPtlAL EDUCATION" 
 
 3. Their occupations are chra-actcrized by the decline of craft trades and the 
 
 rise of machine industries. 
 
 4. Tlieir presence is recognized; their continuance is dependent upon economic 
 
 need, industrial expansion, labor shortage, and immigration; their place 
 will be determined by their preparation. 
 
 5. Tlie educational needs of girls and women arising fi-om a changing order 
 
 require an educational program providing compulsory general education, 
 civic, and vocational education. 
 
 Part II. Ways and Means of Establishing and Operating a Pkogkam of 
 Vocational Education for Girls and Women. 
 
 I. fundamental principles of federal aid. 
 
 1. To stimulate the undertaking of new enterprises. 
 
 2. To equalize the burden of maintenance by distribution of cost. 
 
 3. To secure uniformity, efficiency, and economy of administration. 
 
 4. To make the knowledge and experience of each available to all. 
 
 5. The Federal vocational act is an application of the foregoing principles to a 
 
 national educational program. 
 
 II. organization for administration to secure the benefits of appropriations. 
 
 Sucli organization and administration involves : 
 
 i. Participation of the Federal Board^for Vocational Education, representing 
 the National Government. 
 
 2. Participation of tlie State board representing the State. 
 
 3. Tlie formulation of a cooperative agreement or contract called a State 
 
 plan. 
 
 III. FUNDS available FOR DISTRIBUTION. 
 
 These funds are allotted : 
 
 1. To States— 
 
 a. For agriculture according to their rural population; 
 
 b. For trade, home economics, and industry according to their urban 
 
 population ; and 
 
 c. For teacher training according to their total population. 
 
 2. Within States— 
 
 a. According to the terms of the act — 
 
 (1) Sec 11. One-third of the trade and industrial fund, if es- 
 
 pendetl, must be for workers over 14 years of age who have 
 entered employment. 
 
 (2) Secs. 3-11. Twenty per cent of the trade and industrial fund 
 
 may be spent for home economics. 
 
 (3) Sec. 11. For each dollar of Federal money tlie State or local 
 
 community, or both, shall expend an equal amount. 
 
 (4) Sec 12. Not more than GO per cent, or less than 20 per cent, 
 
 shall be expended for the preparation of teachers, super- 
 visors, or directors in any one line; agriculture, trade and 
 industry, or home economics. 
 6. According to rulings of the board, 20 per cent of the annual appro- 
 priation for training of teachers in any one line may be used for 
 tbe expense of supervision. 

 
 FOR GIRLS A'KD WOMEIT. 89 
 
 IV. GENERAL ^^>O^^SIO^rS OF THE VOCATIONAL EOUCATION ACT. 
 
 1. Assume : 
 
 a. That vocational choice has been made ))y student. 
 
 b. Tliat genertil education is alivady provided for by the State. 
 
 c. That public schools are controlled and supervised by the State, 
 
 d. That the local community assumes responsibility for initiating the 
 program. 
 
 2. Require: 
 
 ■ a. That classes be under pul)lic supervision and control. 
 
 6. That the controlling puri)ose is to fit for useful employment. 
 
 c. That instruction shall be less than college grade. 
 
 d. That 14 years to be the minimum age of entrance to day or part time 
 classes; IG the mininmra age of entrance to evening classes. 
 
 c. That the Fetleral funds be matched with State or local funds. 
 f. That money be exiiended only for — 
 
 (1) Salaries of qualified teachers, and 
 
 (2) Maintenance of teacher-training courses. 
 
 V. SPECIAL PROVISIONS EOK TUADE AND INDUSTRIAL EDITCATION. 
 
 1. Absolute standards indicated iu tiie act: 
 
 a. In all-day schools — 
 
 (1) Minimum age of entrance — 14 years. 
 
 (2) One-half the time devoted to productive work. 
 
 (3) Length of course — nine months per year (may be modified in towns 
 under 25,000). 
 
 (4) Hours of instruction — 30 hours per week (may be modified iu 
 towns under 25,000). 
 
 b. In part-time schools — ■ 
 
 (1) Minimum age of entrance — 14 years. 
 
 (2) Hours of instruction — 144 per year. 
 
 (3) Subjects to enlarge civic or vocational intelligence. 
 
 c. In evening classes — 
 
 (1) Minimum age — IG years. 
 
 (2) Instruction supplemental to daily employment. 
 
 2. Discretionary standards indicated in the State plan : 
 a. Building and equipment for day, part-time, and evening classes — 
 
 (1) Must be adequate for instructional purposes. 
 
 (2) Must depend upon trades taught. 
 
 (3) Must insure instruction in variety of standard practices. 
 
 (4) Must comply with State laws and regulations for safety and 
 health of workers. 
 
 (5) Must be furnished with standard supplies. 
 h. Minimum for maintenance for all-day, part-time, and evening schools 
 
 indicated in the State plan — 
 
 (1) Must be adequate to fulfill aims of the .school. 
 
 (2) Must cover the cost of upkeep, replacement, and care of machinery. 
 
 (3) Must cover the cost of selecting, buying, and accounting of supplies. 
 
 (4) Must recognize but not depend upon the money returns received 
 from a salable product. 
 
 c. Character and content of course of study— 
 
 (1) Must be determined by survey of local industries and occupational 
 analysis. 
 
 I
 
 90 TRADE AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 
 
 2. Discrctiouary standards indicatetl in the State plan— Continued. 
 
 c. Character aud content of course of study — Continued. 
 
 (2) Must be formulated in accordance with absolute provisions of act 
 lor each type of schools or classes — 
 
 (a) Day trade preparatory couiscHi — One-lialf the day in shop work 
 on a pi'oductive basis, with related aud nouvocational sub- 
 jects to make a well-rounded course. 
 
 (h) Part-time instruction — any subject to increase the civic and 
 vocational intelligence — a charter for educational experi- 
 ment, industrial and social improvement. 
 
 (c) Evening trade-extension classes — any subject inherent in the 
 trade and related to the day's employment — strictly voca- 
 tional instruction for advancement of worker in chosen 
 occupation. 
 
 d. Methods of teaching in all-day, part-time, and evening schools or 
 
 classes — 
 Day schools — ■ 
 
 (1) Must prepare for placement in occupations at completion of 
 
 course. 
 
 (2) Must provide series of concrete experiences arranged in pro- 
 
 gressive instructional order. 
 
 (3) Must be individual, practical, on productive basis. 
 
 (4) Economic value of product should be comparable to product 
 
 of shop or factory. 
 Part-time schools — 
 
 (1) Must aim to reach wide variety of types of individuals in 
 
 groups. 
 
 (2) Must be unconventional, vital, interesting, and admit of per- 
 
 sonal counsel. 
 
 (3) Must develop ability for self-directetl effort. 
 Evening schools — 
 
 (1) Must be supplementary to day's task. 
 
 (2) Must yield a maximum of return in a minimum of time. 
 
 e. Qualifications of teachers in diiy, part-time, and evening classes — 
 
 (1) Day trade classes — 
 
 (a) Shop teachers must have successful trade experience. (Fed- 
 eral Board shares cost with State.) 
 
 (&) Related subjects teachers must have adequate trade contact. 
 (Federal Board shares cost with State.) 
 
 (c) Nouvocational teachers — approved only- when minimum re- 
 quirement for State licenses are observed. (Local com- 
 munity bears cost.) 
 
 (2) Part-time classes — 
 
 (a) Teachers to increase civic intelligence. Must have personal 
 
 qualifications as well as meet local requirements for grade 
 school teacliers. 
 
 (b) Teachers to increase vocational intelligence — 
 
 1. Teachers of trade-finding classes must have breadth of 
 
 occupational experience aud personal fitness for leader- 
 ship of group. 
 
 2. Trade teacliers — must have qualifications of shop or re- 
 lated subjects teachers. 
 
 I
 
 » 
 
 FOR GIRLS AND WOMEN. 91 
 
 2. Discretionary standnrds indicated in the State plan— Cdntinued. 
 
 c. Qualifications of teacliers in day, part time, and evening classes — Contd. 
 (3) Evening classes — 
 
 («) Shop teachers — sam'e as in all day schools — preferably en- 
 gaged in connnercial pursuit of trade. 
 (h) Related subjects teachers usually require more technical 
 knowledge to handle mature groups. 
 /. Teacher training — 
 
 (1) Shop teachers — • 
 
 (a) Requirements for entrance — • 
 
 1. Must have common-school education. 
 
 2. Must have mastered trade content, acquired trade skill. 
 
 3. Must have maturity and ability to grasp instruction. 
 
 4. Must have general qualifications required of other teachers. 
 (h) Length of course — • 
 
 1. Variously approximated at from 14-1 to 2SS hours. 
 
 2. Two-hour periods tv/ice a we<^k. 
 (c) Content of course— 
 
 1. Analysis of occupations. 
 
 2. The lesson plan. 
 
 8. The course of study. 
 
 4. Class organization and management. 
 
 5. Factory training. 
 
 6. Principles of vocational education. 
 
 7. Kinds of schools. 
 
 8. Genei'al information. 
 id) Certification — 
 
 1. Attained on completion of course. 
 
 2. Provisional certificate pending completion. 
 
 (2) Related subjects teachers — ■ 
 
 (o) Requirements for entrance — 1. Must conform to eutrance re* 
 
 quireraents of delegated institution. 
 (&) Length of course — 1. Four years or equivalent. 
 
 (c) Content of course (approximately) — 
 
 1. 50 per cent technical and related subjects. 
 
 2. 35 per cent academic subjects. 
 
 3. 15 per cent professional subjects — chosen from following list : 
 
 Organization and administration of vocational education ; 
 history of vocational schools ; psychology of industrial edu- 
 cation ; methods for industrial education. 
 
 (d) Certification — same as required by State for regular teachers. 
 
 (3) General continuation teachers — 
 (a) Requirem.ents for entrance — 
 
 1. Successful experience as teacher. 
 
 2. Personal aptitude and social mindetlness. 
 {!)) Length of course — • 
 
 1. Brief introductoi'y course. 
 
 2. Supplementary short courses for improvement in service, 
 (c) Content of course — 
 
 1. Analysis of group to be reached. 
 
 2. Aim and purpose of school. 
 
 3. Organization and administration. 
 
 4. Methods of instruction. 
 
 5. Types of service possible. 
 
 6. Programs.
 
 92 TRADE AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 
 
 2. Discretionary standards indicated in tlie State plan— Continued. 
 g. Supervision — 
 
 (1) Responsibility should bo fixed — 
 («) For educating public. 
 
 (l)) For establishing an understanding with school adnnnistrators, 
 (c) For securing cooperation of employers, employees, and public 
 schools. 
 
 (2) Duties outlined give authority — * 
 
 (a) To determine need and program. 
 
 (b) To outline teaching material. 
 
 (c) To assist teachers by conferences and meetings, 
 
 {(1) To supervise and inspect and report on school applying for aid. 
 (c) To prepare material for publication. 
 
 (3) Qualifications— 
 
 («) Two years' collegiate training, 
 (ft) Two years' technical training. 
 
 (c) Professional training and teaching experience. 
 
 (d) Sufficient experience and contact with industrial processes to 
 
 be familiar with industrial conditions affecting industrial 
 education. ^ 
 
 li. Suggested steps in the development of a program of vocational education. 
 
 (1) Local school superintendent or delegated authority responsible 
 
 for initiating a program. 
 
 (2) Cooperation of public agencies and organizations necessary for 
 
 its sanction and support. 
 
 (3) Advisory council, composed of representatives chosen by group 
 
 organizations, assists in determining policies and programs. 
 
 (4) Industrial survey of locality permanent and continuous, indicat- 
 
 ing industrial needs and educational opportunities to meet them. 
 
 (5) Classes recruited by aggressive publicity and personal workers. 
 
 (6) Advisory committee chosen for each trade or occupation taught. 
 
 (7) Teachers appointed, courses outlined, and special training 
 
 planned. 
 
 (8) Classes organized, attemlance and progress recorded, certification 
 
 of completion of course issued. 
 
 (9) Iteimbursement requested from State board for work done ac- 
 
 cording to State plans. 
 
 (10) Supervision a cooperative affair — 
 
 Local : To insure a program adapted to community needs. 
 
 State : To assist in execution of work in accordance with State 
 
 plans and recommend to State board for approval. 
 Federal: To assist State in formulating plans, establishing 
 
 classes, inspecting schools, and other activities necessai'y to 
 
 promote the A\'ork in State in accordance with the Federal 
 
 vocational act. 
 
 (11) Ileimbursement to State paid in quarterly installments. 
 
 VI. TYPES OF VOCATIOKAL SCHOOLS AND TRAIXING AGENCIES. 
 
 1. The establishment of a program for vocational education in any community: 
 
 a. Presupposes analysis of needs of groups of wage earners. 
 
 b. Begins where need is imminent and public attention centered. 
 
 c. Commends, though can not subsidize, forms of emergency training unless 
 
 in accord with terms of the act.
 
 FOR GIELS AKD WOMEN. 93 
 
 Historical development indicative of local interest and enterprise : 
 
 a. Day classes established in industrial centers provide preemploynient 
 
 training for young wage earners. 
 &, Evening school activities of a social and general nature obscure possi- 
 bilities of relating instruction to day employment for mature workers. 
 c. Part-time classes offer most flexible type of program for reaching largest 
 group of young workers over 14 years of age. 
 
 EVENING SCHOOLS OR CLASSES. 
 
 Evening school classes as they have developed for working women serve four 
 important fiuictions : 
 
 a. To provide social and recreatio lal activities. 
 
 b. To provide instruction in activities for home use. 
 
 c. To supplement general education. 
 
 d. To provide vocational education — 
 
 (1) For entrance to an occupation, 
 
 (2) For advancement in an occupation. 
 
 c. Trade extension classes only (supplementary to the day employment) 
 are subject to Federal subsidy. 
 A study of " Working girls in evening schools " reveals significant facts rela- 
 tive to industrial education : 
 a. The patrons of evening schools are chiefly wage earners. 
 h. The largest numbers are — 
 
 (1) American born. 
 
 (2) Under 21 years of age. 
 
 (3) Attend for the purpose of changing to a better job, "learning for 
 
 home use," " obtaining a general education." 
 c. Comparatively few desire " help in daily occupation." 
 Employers and employees alike must be convinced that the school can render 
 a service by — 
 
 a. Seeking out gi'oups of workers with similarity of experience. 
 
 b. Discovering their needs. 
 
 c. Organizing classes with definite aim. 
 
 d. Securing teachers who can give a maximum of expert instruction in a 
 
 minimum of time — 
 
 (1) In fundamental principles of trade. 
 
 (2) In technique of trade. 
 
 c. Types of groups analyzed — workers, needs, type courses— 
 
 (1) Custom sewing trades. 
 
 (2) Hotel or restaurant service. 
 
 (3) Other occupations — 
 (a) Metal trades. 
 
 (&) Woodworking trades, 
 
 (c) Printing trades. 
 
 (d) Forewomen, supervisors, and instructors in plants. 
 School authorities responsible for the development of the program must: 
 
 o. Know educational possibilities in local industries. 
 
 b. Find what occupations are represented in evening school enrollment. 
 
 c. Bring workers in similar employment together to discover facts concern- 
 
 ing their work. 
 
 d. Study their educational deficiencies as recognized by themselves and 
 
 their employers. 
 €. Determine what supplementary training can be given.
 
 94 TRADE AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 
 
 4. Scbool authorities responsible for tlie development of tlie program must^ 
 Continued. 
 f. Provide organization for instruction: 
 
 (1) Define aim. 
 
 (2) Limit registration. 
 
 (3) Provide adequate equipment. 
 
 (4) Secure teacher. 
 
 (5) Enlist support of advisory committee. 
 
 THE ALL-DAY SCnOOL. 
 
 1. Its purpose in the program of vocational education : a. Proomployment train- 
 
 ing to enable girl to nieet industrial conditions, possess a marketable skill, 
 and receive higher initial wage. 
 
 2. Its place in the program of vocational education. 
 
 a. An institution within the school organization affording public recogni- 
 
 tion of the educational needs of women wage earners. 
 
 h. An administrative center coordinating all possible opportunities for edu- 
 cational service relating to employment. 
 
 c. A pioneer and experimental instltut^iou determining what can be done 
 and how to do it. 
 
 (1) Opening up new lines of employment. 
 
 (2) Cooperating Avith industry to secure upgrading of jobs and train- 
 
 ing to meet the upgrading. 
 
 (3) Analyzing tasks and setting up lines of progression. 
 
 3. Its limitations : 
 
 0. Number of girls prepared for entrance to wage earning negligible in 
 
 meeting demands of labor in comnmnities in which established. 
 &. Number of occupations taught within the school likewise limited. 
 
 c. Expansion of service is dependent on the ability to establish full faith 
 
 and credit with employers and with workers. 
 
 d, Psychologj' of girl influenced by — 
 
 (1) Popular belief that wage earning is temporary. 
 
 (2) Associations in choice of school, clothes, friends, etc. 
 
 (3) Immediate returns rather than deferred values. 
 
 (4) Dread of change and shift. 
 
 4. Its organization may admit of two types: 
 
 G. As a separate school — 
 
 (1) Coordinate in rank with secondary schools. 
 
 (2) With director and staff of teachers. 
 
 b. As a separate department in a high school — 
 
 (1) With director, course of study and staff of vocational teachers. 
 
 (2) Teachers of related and academic subjects under direction of 
 
 regular school. 
 
 c. Objections raised to each — 
 
 (1) The organization of all-day schools — 
 
 (rt ) Uneconomical — duplication of administrative machinery. 
 
 (6) Undemocratic— segregation of pupils as to aim. 
 
 (c) LTnnecessary — duplicates type of instruction which 
 
 should be given in regular curriculum. 
 
 (2) The separate department — 
 
 («) Unlikeness of aims. 
 (h) Shop atmosphere, methods and conditions irreconcilable 
 
 Avith extra curriculum activities and interruptions of 
 
 regular work.
 
 FOR GIRLS AXD WOMEX. 95 
 
 4, Its organization may atlmit of two types — Continued. 
 
 c. Objections raised to each — Continued. 
 
 (2) The separate department— Continued. 
 
 (c) Difficult to organize mixed teaching force into unified 
 
 body. 
 ((Z> Diflk'ult to maintain public recognition of its integrity 
 
 in industrial world, 
 (c) Apt to be satisfied with vocational motive, with cultural 
 aim. 
 
 5. Its program must provide opportunities : 
 
 a. For preemploymcnt training. 
 
 h. For conducting continuation classes for .iuvenile workers employed in the 
 trades taught. 
 
 c. For placement of workers in progres.sive levels of employmiMit alternating 
 
 with instructional periotls. 
 
 d. For short units of instruction for mature workers in latest practices of 
 
 trade. 
 ,0. Fundamental characteristics of occupation for which training is offered' 
 a. Must have teachable content. 
 6. Must not be highly seasonal. 
 
 c. Must offer worker benefit for increase of sldll cr knowledge. 
 
 d. Must be potentially able to absorb a considerable niuuber of workers. 
 
 7. Course of study meeting the requirements of the act must provide for : 
 
 a. 30 hours' instruction per week. 
 V. 9 months' session per year. 
 
 c. At least one-half the time spent on shopwork as a useful and productive 
 
 basis. 
 
 d. A balance of subjects to insure a well-rounded course — 
 
 (1) Shop subjects: Listed alphabetically. 
 
 (2) Related subjects: Industrial economics. 
 
 (3) Academic or nonvocational subjects: Drawing, mathematics, sci- 
 
 ence, English, civics, industrial history, commercial geography, 
 physical training. 
 
 (4) Type schedule of subjects and hours. 
 
 (5) Type courses : Po\\er machine operating, telegraphy, drafting. 
 
 8. Its benefits to the girl : 
 
 a. Awakening of industrial consciousness. 
 
 h. Realization of potentialities as producer. 
 
 c. Right attitude toward work and the results of labor. 
 
 9. Its present .status: 
 
 a. Development under treniendous handicaps. 
 
 6. An integral part of at least 20 public-school systems. 
 
 PART-TIME .SCHOOLS AXD CLASSES. 
 
 The field of part-time education. 
 
 1. Education of young workers through part-time schools or classes a national 
 
 need, shown : 
 a. By the distribution of the total school enrollment. 
 h. By out-of-school age groups of workers. 
 
 2. A social economic and educational measui"e: 
 
 a. Arising from results of present-day industrial development. 
 6. Safeguarding youth in transition from school to work or from juvenile 
 to adult employment. i
 
 96 TEADE AND IXDUSTR^y:. EDUCATIOiT 
 
 2. A social economic antl educational measure — Continued. 
 
 c. Conserving and developing potentialities for citizen and worker at ma- 
 
 turity. 
 
 d. Extending school program to include service of health, guidance, place- 
 
 ment, follow-up, as well as instruction. 
 
 e. Requiring cooperation of parents, employees, employers, and all organ- 
 
 ized agencies for conserving youth. 
 
 3. The most flexible measure of the Federal act permits : 
 
 a. Any program of instruction " to enlarge civic or vocational intelligence 
 of workers over 14 years of age." 
 
 6. Specific vocational program when over 50 per cent of work is devoted 
 to instruction in trade, home economics, industry, commercial, or other 
 occupational subjects. 
 5. Present status of part-time program in the United States : 
 
 a. Nineteen States have passed compulsory part-time school attendance 
 laws adapted to the terms of their child-labor laws, compulsory school- 
 attendance laws, and educational laws. 
 
 6. States are providing for selection and training of teachers for new types 
 of service — 
 
 (1) Social and educational qualifications factor in choice. 
 
 (2) Short period of initial training develops viewpoint. 
 
 (3) Recurrent periods of conference and discussion required to meet 
 
 problems as they arise. 
 
 (4) Courses, methods, and program modified by conditions at variance 
 
 with regular day school. 
 
 c. States are assisting local communities in planning the details of organi- 
 
 zation and programs; examples of suggested type schedules of sub- 
 jects and hours of instruction from — • 
 
 (1) Michigan. 
 
 (2) Pennsylvania. 
 
 (3) New York. 
 
 (4) Textile industry of South. 
 
 (5) Boston. 
 
 (6) California. 
 
 d. Local communities responsible for ixltimate adjustment and success of 
 
 program. 
 
 The girl, the jol), and the part-time school. 
 
 1. Educators recognize child's right to part-time instruction : 
 
 a. Girl's neetls overlooked by effort to meet problems of boj\ 
 6. Girl's program temporarily adjusted to a universal home-making pro- 
 gram, 
 c. Girls as seriously handicapped as boys by lack of training for a job. 
 
 2. Girl's mental state affects her attitude toward school and work : 
 
 a. Influenced by fallacious belief in biief period of employment. 
 &. Influenced by friends in choice of employment, school, clothes, and the 
 like. 
 
 c. Influenced by home conditions, desire to help, etc. Boy is influenced by 
 
 attitudes toward school, dislike of program, preference for work. 
 
 d. Opportunities for vocational training must be accessible and urged. 
 
 e. More regular in attendance at school than boys; voluntarily out of 
 
 work less.
 
 FOR GIKLS AXD WOME^^ 97 
 
 Girl's mental state affects lier attitude toward .school and work — Continued. 
 
 f. Girls' need for strong personal influences, leadei'ship, social activities, 
 informal guidance and counsel, as well as instruction, must be met in 
 continuation school. 
 Three groups of girls — characterized by more or less interchanging: 
 
 0. Girls who leave public school for short vocational course in expectation 
 of quick placement in a job — (1) Need follow-up by organized agencies 
 of continuation school to see that obligations are met. 
 
 J). Girls who remain at home to help bear family responsibilities for a 
 shorter or longer period of time — (1) Need home economics supple- 
 mented by a knowledge of the economics of wage-earning and informa- 
 tion concerning opportunities for employment. 
 
 c. Girls who go to work: Facts fundamental to analysis of problem of 
 their needs should be obtained from school, home, and employment, 
 including — ■ 
 
 (1) Age and grade of drop-outs. 
 
 (2) School or department last attended. 
 
 (3) lieasons for withdrawal: Given by girl at school; given by 
 
 parent when daughter applies for a work permit. 
 
 (4) Attitude toward schooling. 
 
 (5) Choice of work or further training. 
 (G) Physical condition. 
 
 (7) Home responsibilities. 
 (S) Family conditions; cause and remedies. 
 
 (9) Kinds of occupations at which employed: Carrying, delivery, 
 merchandise, mechanical, clerical, domestic, miscellaneous. 
 
 (10) Wage: Initial, transition from school to work; at end of minority, 
 
 transition from juvenile to adult employment. 
 
 (11) Economic status: Indicated by expenditures, cost of maintenance, 
 
 saving, spending for clothes, food, recreation. 
 Information concerning employing establishments desirable for continuation- 
 school, program of instruction, guidance, and placement: 
 a. Number of workei'S. 
 
 &. Positions in firm — duties, requirements, and wages, 
 c. Selection of workers — sources of help, method of selection, placing, 
 
 releasing. 
 (7. Organization for promotion and advancement. 
 e. Conditions of employment. 
 A rough survey of girls between the ages of 14 and 20 years indicates: 
 fl. That of the out-of-school age group between 14 and 15, 81 i>er cent are 
 
 employed and 19 per cent are at home. 
 h. That of the out-of-school age group between 16 and 20, 54 per cent are 
 gainfully employed and 40 per cent are at home. 
 
 c. That one-third of the enrollment in public and private high schools in in 
 
 practical courses. 
 
 d. That girls predominate in these courses to the degree to which they out- 
 
 number boys in commercial courses. 
 
 Specialized instruction in part-time classes. 
 
 Variations in part-time classes must conform to minimum standards of the 
 act: 
 
 a. Must be under public supervision and control. 
 
 b. Must require 14 years as minimum age of entrance. 
 10787*— 20 7
 
 98 TRADE a:nd industrial educatioh 
 
 1. Variations in part-time classes, etc. — Continued. 
 
 c. Must offer iustruction desigued to increase civic or vocational intelligence. 
 
 d. Must provide 144 hours instruction per year. 
 
 2. Types of part-time classes indicative of possible development : 
 
 a. General continuation schools in textile industries ; a " two-shift " plan of 
 " paired workers " provides 5 hours in plant, 3 hours in school daily. 
 
 1). Trade preparatory class in general continuation schools ; plant and equip- 
 ment loaned for instruction ; teacher and factory forewom-an tempo- 
 rarily employed by public school. 
 
 c. Trade preparatory class for workers employed or under agreement for 
 employment in plant ; continuous instruction for learner until trans- 
 ferred to production. 
 
 (?. Cooperative part-time classes for " in-and-out'* groups; alternation of in- 
 struction with employment for at least 50 per cent of total time. 
 
 c. •' Dull season " or " shut-down " classes for operatives; to learn new ma- 
 chines or procasses. 
 f. Trade extension classes for supervisors ; instruction relative to produc- 
 tion factors ; may be classified as evening or part-time. 
 
 g. Trade extension classes in chemistry and dietetics for nurses in training 
 departments in local hospitals; may be classified as evening or part- 
 time. 
 
 TRAINING IN IXDUSTniAL ri^\NTS. 
 
 1. Largest group of women workers in lesser skilled industries can only be 
 
 benefited by an educational program which reaches them at their job : 
 a. It is acknowledged that industry, the worker, and the State would 
 
 benefit from the training. 
 6. It is undetermined what part of the cost industry should bear and what 
 
 service the public should render. 
 
 2. Training in plants has heretofore been largely unorganized and incidental : 
 
 a. Apprenticeship training is confined to selected group in few industries. 
 
 h. Some form of training has been necessary to replace constant loss of 
 workers. 
 
 c. Experimental emergency training was inaugurated in war-essential 
 industries to meet production demands with constantly decreasing sup- 
 ply of skilled labor and increasing numbers of wom^i workers. 
 
 3. Continuance of women in these employments has resulted in : 
 
 a. Realignment of tasks. 
 6. Use of automatic devices. 
 
 c. Betterment of conditions for workers. 
 
 d. Introduction of women executives in employment departments. 
 
 e. Establishment of training departments. 
 
 4. Two types of organization of tjfaiuing departments: 
 
 o. Separate training room. 
 
 h. Training on production floor. 
 
 5. Functions of training department are to obtain, train, transfer, and follow- 
 
 up workers : 
 a. New worker received from employment department taught. 
 h. Good worker upgraded for promotion. 
 
 c. Poor worker brought to standard. 
 
 d. Applicants tested out for jobs to discover abilities and disabilities. 
 
 e. New machines, tools, and methods of work tried out.
 
 FOE GIRLS AND WOMEN. 99 
 
 Factors to be considorod in establi.shmont of training department i 
 a. Location in plant. 
 I). Equipment. 
 
 c. Teachers. 
 
 d. Supply of variety of materials and processes. 
 
 e. Production subordinate to instruction. 
 
 f. Records showing atteiulance, production, and salvage. 
 Disadvantages of unorganized training: 
 
 a. Loss of time. 
 h. Spoiled material. 
 
 c. Bad working habits. 
 
 d. Lack of incentive. 
 
 c. Discouragement and labor turnover. 
 
 f. Lack of opportunity to acquaint worker with policies of plant. 
 Development of program for training operatives, forewomen, or supervisors 
 
 necessitates an intimate first-hand knowledge of industry including; 
 0. Processes. 
 h. Working conditions. 
 c. Methods of production. 
 (T. Steps in advancement. 
 
 c. INIachines and their requirements of the worker. 
 f. Technical knowledge required to set up and run machines, 
 r/. Type of skill required. 
 
 /(. Kind of supplementary training which would increase the intelligence or 
 efficiency of the worker. 
 Service may be rendered industrial plants by the organization of classes 
 
 imder public supervision and control in accordance with the terms of the 
 
 Federal act : 
 
 a. In training skilled workers for teaching in plants according to provisions 
 
 for teacher-training classes. 
 
 b. In holding instructional conferences for groups of forewomen as provided 
 
 for in trade-extension classes. 
 
 c. In training workers who are employed or wider agreement for employ- 
 
 luent in accordance with the ruling for part-time classes. 
 
 d. In making studies of industries necessary to keep in touch with their 
 
 constantly changing problems.
 
 Appendix B. 
 
 CLASSIFIED BIBLIOGRAPHY — WOMEN IN INDUSTRY. 
 
 1. General. 
 
 2. Specific Industry or Occupation. 
 
 3. Education and Training. 
 
 4. Economic. 
 
 5. Social. 
 
 G. Bibliograpliics. 
 
 1. Genkral. 
 
 Character and Temperament, J. Jastrow. Appleton, 1915. 
 
 The Creative Impulse in Industry, Helen Marot. Button & Co., 1918. 
 
 The New Position of Women in American Industry. Women's Bureau, U. S. 
 
 Department of Labor. In press, 1920. 
 Fatigue and EfRciency, Josephine C. Goldmark. Survey Associates, 1912. 
 An Industrial Note Boole, Esteile T. Weeks. Research Section, Industrial Com- 
 mittee, War Work Council. National Board, Y. W. C. A., 1919-20. 
 The Possibilities and Limitations of the Employment of Women in Industry, 
 
 Bulletin No. 1, Vol. Y, Series of 1918, Dr. Alice Hamilton. Pennsylvania 
 
 Department of Labor and Industry. 
 The Problem of Selecting the Right .lob, National Association of Corporation 
 
 Schools. Bulletin, June 9, 1915. 
 Sex Differences in IMental Traits. Psychological Bulletin. October, 1914. 
 Selected Articles on the Employment of Women, Edna D. Bullock. H. W. Wilson 
 
 Co., 1914. 
 Standards for the Employment of Women in Industry. Women in Industry 
 
 Service, Department of Labor, 1919. 
 Wage Earning Women, Annie M. McClean. Slacmillan, 1910. 
 The War and the Women's Point of Viev>'. Rhoda McCulloch, 1919. 
 Women in Industry, Alexander Hamilton Institute. New York City, 191S. 
 Women in Industry, Edith Abbott. Aippletou & Co., 1910. 
 
 2. IxDrsTr.Y on Occt^'PATion. 
 
 Artificial Flower Makers, Mary V:ui Kleeck. Russell Sage Foinidation Survey 
 Association, 1913. 
 
 Boot and Shoe Industry as a Vocation for V\'omen, ilay Allinson (Women's Edu- 
 cational and Industrial Union, Boston). Bulletin No. ISO, LT. S Bureau of 
 Labor Statistics, 1915. 
 
 Dressmaking as a Trade for Women, May Allinson. Bulletin No. 193, U. S. 
 Bui-eau of Labor Statistics, September, 1916. 
 
 Garment Making Industries, Cleo Murtlaud. Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce, 
 1917. 
 
 Industrial Home Work in Massachusetts, Amy Hewes. Bulletin No. 101, IMassa- 
 chusetts Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1914. 
 100 
 
 I
 
 FOR GIELS AND WOMEN. 101 
 
 Millinery as a Trade for Women, L. Terry. Longmans, CJreeu & Co., Now Yorlc, 
 1916. 
 
 Occupations — Women in Department Stores, Iris Prouty O'Leary. Clevelanil 
 Survey, lUissell Sage Foundation, 191G, 
 
 Occupations — Women in Dressmaking and Rlillinery, Women in Garment Trades, 
 Edna Bryner. Cleveland Survey, Kussell Sage Foundation. 1910. 
 
 Professional Women Workers, Elizabeth Kemper Adams. Harcourt, Biace & 
 Howe. (In press.) 
 
 A Seasonal Industry (Millinery) — A study of the Millinery Trade in New York 
 City, Mary Van Kleeck. Russell Sage Foundation Survey Association, In- 
 corporated. 1917. 
 
 Twenty-one Occupational Leaflets. The Bureau of Occupations for Trained 
 Women, 1302 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, 191G. 
 
 U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics for U. S. Employment Service and Bureau of 
 Labor Statistics, Descriptions of Occupations. Series 1918. 
 
 U. S. Railroad Administration Division of Labor — Annual Report 1918, Women's 
 Service Section, p. 16 ; Annual Report 1919, Women's Service Section, p. 59 ; 
 Number of Women Employed and Character of Their Employment, in tabular 
 form. 
 
 Vocations for Girls, Mary A. LaSalle and Katherine E. Wiley. Houghton Mifllin 
 & Co., 1913. 
 
 Vocations for Trained Women, E. Martin. Longmans, Green «S: Co., New York, 
 1914. 
 
 Vocations for Trained Women (Opportunities other than teaching). Occupational 
 Series. Women's Educational & Industrial Union, Boston, 1912. 
 
 Vocational Opportunities in the Industries of Ontario : No. 1, General Introduc- 
 tion ; No. 2, Department and Notion Stores ; No. 3, Dressmaking and IMilliuery ; 
 No. 4, Garment Making. Ontario Department of Labor. 1920. 
 
 Wages of Candy Makers in Philadelphia. Women's Bureau, U. S. Department 
 of Labor (No. 4). 1919. 
 
 A^'ar Time Employment of Women in the Metal Trades. Research Report No. 
 8, National Industrial Conference Board, 15 Beacon Street, Boston, 1918. 
 
 War Work for Women (occupations open to women through civil-service regu- 
 lations). Information Department of the Women's Committee of the Council 
 of National Defense, Government Printing Office, Washington, August 1, 
 1918. 
 
 Women in Banking in the City of Minneapolis. Women's Occupational Bureau, 
 204 Transportation Building, Minneapolis, 1919. 
 
 Women in Government Service. Bulletin Women's Bureau, U. S. Department of 
 Labor (No. 3), 1920. 
 
 Women in the Bookbinding Trade, Mary Van Kleeck. Russell Sage Foundation, 
 1913. 
 
 Women in War Industries Series No. 1. The Manufacture of Army Shirts under 
 the Home Work System, JefCersonville, Ind. ; No. 2. Making the Uniforms for 
 our Navy; No. 3. The Employment of Women in the Charleston Navy Yard 
 Factories; No. 4. Women Workers in the Philadelphia Naval Aircraft Fac- 
 tory. Committee on Women in Industry of the Advisory Commission of the 
 Council of National Defense, 1917-18, 
 
 Women Workers in Factories, Anette Mann, Consumers' League of Cincinnati, 
 1918, 
 
 Women's Work in War Times, Operations at which women are engaged in 
 20 industries. Textile Department, The Merchants National Bank, 28 State 
 Street, Boston, 1917.
 
 102 TRADE AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 
 
 3. Education and Training. 
 
 Educational Psycliologj^ E- L- Thorndike. Part III, 1914. 
 ]']ini)loynient Psychology Link. Macmillan, 1919. 
 
 Establishment and Organization of the Trade School for Girls, Report of the 
 work of the school for the year ending Dec. 31, 1918. Board of Public Educa- 
 tion, School District of Philadelphia. 
 Evening School Courses for Girls and Women. Bulletin 23, National Society 
 
 for the Promotion of Industrial Education. 1917. 
 Commercial Work and Training for Girls. Macmillan & Co. 1915. 
 Industrial Education. Report of Committee on Industrial Education of the 
 American Federation of Labor. Senate Document 936, second session, Sixty- 
 second Congress, 1912. 
 Industrial Education. Twenly-fifth Annual Report of the Commissioner of 
 
 Labor, 1910. 
 Industrial Experience of Trade-School Girls, May Allinson. Bulletin No. 215, 
 
 U. S. Bureau Labor Statistics, 1917. 
 Industrial Histoi-y of the U. S., Katherine Coraan. Macmillan, 1910. 
 Industrial Training for Women, Florence Marshall. National Society for the 
 
 Promotion of Industrial Training, 1907. 
 Money Value of an Education, No. 22. Bureau of Education, 1917. 
 Industrial Opportunities and Training for Women, Women's Bureau. U. S. 
 
 Department of Labor (in preparation) 1920. 
 The Making of a Trade School, Mary S. Woolman. Whitcomb and Barrows. 
 
 1910. 
 The Young Wage Earner. Anna Y. Reed. Macmillan. 1920. 
 Opportunities for Vocational Training in Cincinnati for Women and Girls. 
 Association of Collegiate Alumnae, Ohio Valley Branch. Schmidlapp Bureau, 
 Cincinnati, O. 1917. 
 Preparing Girls for Trade.s — Report of Manhattan Trade School for Girls. De- 
 partment of Education, New York City, 1914-15. 
 The Public Schools and V/omen in Office Service, Department of Research, 
 
 Women's Educational and Industrial Union, May Allinson. Boston, 1914. 
 Readings in Vocational Guidance, Meyer Bloomfield. Ginn & Co., 1915. 
 Courses Under Union Auspices. Report of committee appointed by Executive 
 Council American Federation of Labor. Report of the Proceedings of the 
 Thirty-ninth Annual Convention, 1919 (pp. 135-144), 
 A Study of the Dress and Waist Industry for the Purposes of Industrial Educa- 
 tion, C!eo ]Murtlaud, with the collaboration of C. A. Prosser. U. S. Bureau 
 of Labor Statistics, Appendix 1. Bulletin 145, 1914. 
 A Trade School for Girls : A Preliminary Investigation in a Typical Manufactur- 
 ing City. United States Bureau of Education. Worcester, Mass. Bulletin 
 No. 17, 1913. 
 Trade Union Colleges. Report of American Federation of Labor Executive 
 
 Council, 1919. 
 United States Training Service — Training bulletins No. 1-20. Industrial train- 
 ing in representative American industries employing v.'omen with occupational 
 descriptions, outline courses, and bibliographies. U. S. Department of Labor, 
 191S. 
 Vocational Education — A Compilation, Emily Robison. H. W. Wilson Co. 1917. 
 Vocational Education for Girls and Women. Leake. Macmillan. 1918. 
 Vocational Guidance in the Public School. W. Carson Ryan. Bulletin No. 24, 
 U. S. Bureau of Education, 191S.
 
 IBVoeational Guiilauce in Secondary Education. Report of Committee on Ke- 
 orgauizution of Secondary Education Appointed by tlie N. E. A. U. S. Bureau 
 of EducatiO}), Bulletin No. 19, 1918. 
 
 Vocational Guidance Movement. Jolin M. Biewer. IVIacmillan. 191S. 
 
 Vocational Psycliology, witli a chapter on Vocational Aptitude of Women. H. L. 
 Hollingsworth. Appleton. 1916. 
 
 .Wage Worth of School Training (An Analytical Study of Six Hundred W^omen 
 Workers in Textile Factories), Anna Hedges (Talbot). Teachers College, Bu- 
 reau of Publications No. 70, 1915. 
 
 Work of School Cliildren out of School Hours, No. 32. U. S. Bureau of Educa- 
 tion, 1917. 
 
 Working Girls in Evening Schools, Mary Van Kleeck. Ruf^sell Sage Founda- 
 tion, 1914. 
 
 4. Economic. 
 
 Grants in Aid, Sidney Weljb. Longmans Green. 1911. 
 
 History of Labor in the United States, John R. Commons. Macmillan. 1918. 
 
 Industrial Democracy, Sidney and Beatrice Webb. Longman & Co., London. 
 1897. 
 
 Industrial Good Will, John R. Commons. McGraw Hill Co. 1919, 
 
 Instincts in Industry, Ordway Lead. Houghton Mifllin. 1918. 
 
 .The Industrial Replacement of Men by Women in the State of New York. Pre- 
 pared by the Bureau of Won)en in Industry. State of New York. Department 
 of Labor, 1919. 
 
 iabor Problems and Labor Legislation, John B. Andrews. Am. Assn. Labor 
 Legislation, 1919. 
 
 Legal Recognition of Industrial Women, Ellen L. Lattimore, Ph. D., and Ray S. 
 Trent, B. D. Issued by the Industrial Committee. War Work Council of 
 the National Board of Y'oung Women's Christian Associations, 1918. 
 
 Man to Man — A Story of Industrial Democracy, John Leitch. 1919. 
 
 Minimum Wage Connnission's Current Facts, Mary W. Dewson. National Con- 
 sumers League, 44 East 23(1 Street, New York City, Januarj^ 1920. 
 
 National Industrial Conference Board. Research Reports on Industrial Or- 
 ganization, administration problems of production, employment, and well- 
 being of workers, Series 1. Boston, Mass. 1917. 
 
 Probable Economic Future of American Women, David Snoddeu. American 
 Journal of Sociology, Vol. XXIV, No. 5, March, 1919. 
 
 Problems of Industrial Women. War Work Council, National Board, l''oung 
 Women's Christian Associations of the United Stales of America, 600 Lex- 
 ington Avenue, New York City. 1918. 
 
 A Short History of the American Labor IMovement, IMary Beard. Harcourt, 
 Brace & Howe. 1920. 
 
 Standards Governing Employment of Women in Industry, Women in Industry 
 Service, L^^. S. Department of Labor, 1918. 
 
 The Trade Union Woman, Alice Henry. Appleton. 1915. 
 
 Trade Unionism, Robt. F. Hoxie. Appleton. 1917. 
 
 5. Social. 
 
 The Family as a Social a\ui Educational Institution, '\Mllystine Goodsell. 
 
 Macmillan. 1919. 
 The Girl and Her Job, Helen Hoerle and Florence Saltzburg. Henry Holt. 
 
 1919. 
 Italian Women in Industry, LoiiLse Odencranz. Russell Sage Foundation, 191S,
 
 104 TEADE AND INDUSTRIiU. EDUCATION FOR GIRLS AND WOMEN. 
 
 Modern Industry in Relation to tlie Family, Health, Education, and Morality, 
 
 Florence Kelley. Longmans Green, N. Y., 1914. 
 Mothers Who Mu.st Earn, Katherine Anthony. Russell Sage Foundation, 1914. 
 New Day for the Colored Women Workers. Consumers' League, New York 
 
 City, March, 1919. 
 (A Study of Colored Women in Industrial Employment. Consumers' League, 
 
 Y. W. C. A., Women's Trade Union League, New York Urban League, Div. 
 
 of Ind. Studies, R. S. F.) 
 I'rublems of Child AVelfare, Chap. IV. Industrial Education, Mangold. Mac- 
 
 millan, 1914. 
 Young Working Girls, Woods and Kennedy. Houghton Mifflin, 1913. 
 Woman and Social Progress, Scott Nearing and Nellie M. S. Nearing. Mac- 
 
 millan Co., N. Y., 1912. 
 Women Workers and Society, Annie M. I\IcLean. McClurg, 1917-18. 
 
 G. BiDLIOGltAPHIES. 
 
 Bibliography, AYomen in Industry, Bulletin No. 46, pp. 58-60. Bureau of Educa- 
 tion, 1939. 
 
 A Directory of Opportunities for the Vocational Training of Women in the 
 State of Pennsylvania, Mary Ellis Thompson. Bureau of Information Wo- 
 man's Committee, Council of National Defense, Penn.sylvania Division, 1919. 
 
 Opportunities for War Time Training for Women in New York City, Directory. 
 Compiled and published by The Clearing House for War Time Training for 
 Women in cooperation with the Intercollegiate Bureau of Occupation, lDlS-19, 
 
 Social Agencies, Eleanor Lattimore. City Committee, National Board Young 
 Women's Christian Associations, pp. 12-13, 1918. 
 
 Vocational Guidance Bibliography. Books on Choosing a Career, I. David Cohen, 
 director Vocational Guidance Clinic, College of Education of New York, 1920. 
 
 War Emergency Courses for Women, Directory and Bibliography of Books and 
 I'amphlets, edited by Courses of Instruction Committee, Woman's Conunittee, 
 State Council of Defense, 120 West Adams Street, Chicago, 111., 1918. 
 
 Women's Work from Primitive Times to the .Present. Topics and references 
 for the help of discussional groups, Genevieve M. Fox. National Board 
 Y. W. C. A., 1919. 
 
 Women in Modern Industry, An outline and bibliography presenting the subject 
 of employment, wages, hazards to health and morals, protective legislation^ 
 Grace Darling. Stout Institute, 1914.
 
 AVAILABLE BULLETINS OF THE FEDERAL BOARD FOR 
 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 
 
 Annual report. 
 
 The Vocational Summary, publisliod 
 onthly by the Federal Board for Voca- 
 ional Education. 
 
 Bulletin No. 12. Emergency War Train- 
 
 g for' Airplane Mechanics — Engine Re- 
 
 irmen, Woodworkers, Riggere, and Sheet- 
 etal AVorkers. 
 
 Bulletin No. 13. (Agricultural Series, 
 
 ). 1.) Agricultural Education — Organi- 
 sation and Administration. 
 
 Bulletin No. 15. (Reeducation Series, 
 No. 3.) The Evolution of National Sys- 
 tems of Vocational Reeducation for Disabled 
 Soldiers and Sailors. 
 
 Bulletin No. 10. Emergency War Train- 
 ing for Radio Jlechanics and Radio Opera- 
 tors. 
 
 Bulletin No. 17. (Trade and Industrial 
 Series, No. 1.) Trade and Industrial Edu- 
 cation — Organization and Administration. 
 
 Bulletin No. 18. (Trade and Industrial 
 Series, No. 2.) Evening Industrial Schools. 
 
 Bulletin No. 10. (Trade and Industrial 
 Series, No. 3.) Part-time Trade and In- 
 dustrial Education. 
 
 Bulletin No. 20. (Trade and Industrial 
 Series, No. 4.) Buildings and Equipment 
 for Schools and (Hasses in Trade and In- 
 dustrial Subjects. 
 
 Bulletin No. 21. (Agricultural Series, 
 No. 3.) The Home I'roject as a Phase of 
 Vocational Agricultural Education. 
 . Bulletin No. 22. (Commetcial Education 
 Series, No. 1.) Retail Selling. 
 
 Bul'«tin No. 23. (Home Economics Series, 
 No. 1.) ('lothing for the Family. On sale 
 by Supt. of Documents, Gov't Printing 
 Office. 15c. per copy. 
 
 Bulletin No. 24. (Commercial Education 
 Series, No. 2.) Vocational Education for 
 Foreign Trade and Shipping. 
 
 Bulletin No. 25. (Reeducation Series, No. 
 4.) Ward Occupations in Hospitals. 
 
 Bulletin No. 20. (Agricultural Series, No. 
 4.) Agricultural Education — Some Problems 
 in State Supervision. 
 
 Bulletin No. 27. (.Vgricultural Series, No. 
 5.) The Training of Teachers of Vocational 
 Agriculture. 
 
 Bulletin No. 28. (Home Economics Series, 
 No. 2.) Home Economics Education — Or- 
 ganization and Administration. 
 
 Bulletin No. 20. (Reeducalion Series, No. 
 5.) Treatment and Training for the Tuber- 
 culous. 
 
 Bulletin No. 30. (Trade and Industrial 
 Series, No. 5.) Evening and Part-time 
 Schools in the Textile Industry of the 
 Southern States. 
 
 Bulletin No. 31. (Trade and Industrial 
 Series, No. G.) lYaining Courses in Safety 
 and Hygiene in the Building Trades. 
 
 Bulletin No. 32. (Reeducation Series, No. 
 0.) The Agricultural and Industrial Com- 
 munity for Arrested Cases of Tuberculosis 
 and Their Families. 
 
 Bulletin No. 33. (Reeducation Series, No. 
 7.) Productive Vocational Workshops for 
 the Rehabilitation of Tuberculous and 
 Otherwise Disabled Soldiers, Sailors, and 
 Marines. 
 
 Bulletin No. 34. (Commercial Education 
 Series, No. 3.) Commercial Education — 
 Organization and Administration. 
 
 Bulletin No. 35. (Home Ecomonics Series, 
 No. 3.) Use and Preparation of Food. 
 On sale by Supt. of Documents, Gov't 
 Printing OfQce. 20c. per copy. 
 
 Bulletin No. 30. (Trade and Industrial 
 Series, No. 7.) Foreman Training Courses. 
 Part T. 
 
 Bulletin No. 30. (Trade and Industrial 
 Series, No. 7.) Foreman Trainiug Courses. 
 Part II. 
 
 B'alletin No. 37. (Home Economics Series, 
 No. 4.) Survey of the Needs in the Field 
 of Vocational Home Economics Education. 
 
 Bulletin No. 38. (Trade and Industrial 
 Series, No. 8.) General Mining. 
 
 Bulletin No. 30. (Trade and Industrial 
 Series, No. 0.) Coal-Mine Gases. On sale 
 by Superintendent of Documents, Govern- 
 ment Printing OfBce. 5c. per copy. 
 
 Bulletin No. 40. (Trade and Industrial 
 Series, No. 10.) Coal-Mine Timbering. 
 
 Bnlletin No. 41. (Trade and Industrial 
 Series, No. 11.) Coal-Mine Ventilation. 
 
 Bulletin No. 42. (Trade and Industrial 
 Series, No. 12.) Safety Lamps. On sale 
 by Superintendent of Documents, Govern- 
 ment Printing Office. 10c. per copy. 
 
 Bulletin No. 43. (Employment Manage- 
 ment Series, No. 8.) The Labor Audit. A 
 Method of Industrial Investigation. 
 
 Bulletin No. 44. (Employment Manage- 
 ment Series, No. 5.) The Wage-setting 
 Process. 
 
 105
 
 106 
 
 AVAILABLE BULLETHSTS. 
 
 Bullotin No. 45. (Employment Manage- 
 uiont Sories, No. 3.) Joh Spet-iflcations. 
 
 Bulletiu No. 4G. (Employment Manage- 
 ment Scries, No. 0.) The Turnover of 
 Labor. 
 
 Bulletin No. 47. (Employment Manage- 
 ment Series, No. 7.) Industrial Accidents 
 and Their I'rcvention. 
 
 Bulletin No. 48. (Employment Manage- 
 ment Series, No. 4.) Employment Manage- 
 ment and Industrial Training. 
 
 Bulletin No. 49. (Employment Manage- 
 ment Scries, No. 2.) The Selection and 
 Flaccmcnt of Employees. 
 
 Bulletin No. 50. (Employment Manage- 
 ment Series, No. 1.) Employment Manage- 
 ment : Its Rise and Scope. 
 
 Bullotin No. 51. (Employment Manage- 
 ment Series, No. 9.) Bibliography of Em- 
 ployment Management. 
 
 Bulletin No. 52. (Trade and Industrial 
 Series, No. 13.) Theory and practice. Out- 
 lines of Instruction iu Related Subjects for 
 
 the Machinist's Trade (including General 
 Trade Subjects for Certain Other Occupa- 
 tions). 
 
 Bulletin No. 5.3. (Agricultural Series, No. 
 G.) Lessons in I'lant I'roduction for 
 Southern Schools. 
 
 Bulletin No. 54. (Commercial Education 
 Series, No. 4.) Survey of Junior Commer- 
 cial Occupations. Made by the Federal 
 Board for Vocational Education through. 
 State boards for A'ocational education in 
 IG States. 
 
 Bulletin No. 55. (Trade and Industrial 
 Series, No. 14.) Compulsory Tart-time 
 School Attendance Laws. 
 
 Bulletin No. 56. (Agricultural Series, No. 
 No. 7.) Lessons in Animal Production for 
 Southern Schools. 
 
 Bulletin No. 57. (Industrial Behabilita- 
 tion Series, No. 1.) Industrial Itehabili- 
 tation — A Statement of I'olicies. 
 
 Bulletin No. 5S. (Trade and Industrial 
 Series, No. 15.) Trade and Industrial Ed- 
 ucation for Girls and Women. 
 
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