SORGHO AND IMPHEE, 
 
 THE 
 
 CHINESE AND AFRICAN SUGAR CANES. 
 
 A TREATISE UPON THEIR 
 
 ORIGIN, VARIETIES AND CULTURE ; 
 
 THEIR VALUE AS A FORAGE CROP; AND THE MANUFACTURE OP SUGAR, 
 SYRUP, ALCOHOL, WINES, BEER, CIDER, VINEGAR, STARCH AND DYE- 
 STUFFS ; WITH A PAPER BY LEONARD WRAY, ESQ., OP 
 CAFFRARIA, AND A DE--CRIPTION OF HIS PATENTED 
 PROCESS FOR CRYSTALLIZING THE 
 JUICE OF THE IMPHEE. 
 
 TO WHICH ABE ADDED, 
 
 COPIOUS TRANSLATIONS OF VALUABLE FKENCH PAMPHLETS. 
 
 BY HENRY S. OLCOTT, 
 
 Julia Ellujstrattto fottf) Jirafotngs of tfje 6et iKadjtturg. 
 
 NEW YORK : 
 A. 0. MOORE, AGRICULTURAL BOOK PUBLISHER, 
 
 (LATE C. M. SAXTON & CO.) 
 No. 140 FULTON STREET. 
 
 1857. 
 
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1857, by 
 AUGUSTUS O. MOOEE, 
 
 In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, for the 
 Southern District of New York. 
 
 EDWARD O. JENKINS, 
 
 printer antr &tertotsper, 
 26 Frankfort St. 
 
PKEFACE. 
 
 So many wonderful discoveries and inventions have, from time to 
 time, been brought before the American public, and have been so 
 puffed and belauded by their sanguine and imaginative introducers, 
 that a really cautious and sober minded man, mindful of these constantly 
 recurring illusions, is not unnaturally prone to receive with suspicion 
 and even to disbelieve statements, however true they may be, should 
 they seem to promise more than ordinary advantage and profit from 
 the cultivation of a new crop. 
 
 As I am well aware of this existing feeling, I am the more anxious 
 to lay before my readers the fact, that the subject of this work, the 
 Chinese Sugar Cane, has been fairly before the scientific world for 
 some three or four years past ; and its various claims have been sub- 
 mitted to most rigid scrutiny. 
 
 In Europe it has engaged the attention of the most eminent agri- 
 culturists, chemists, sugar makers, and other competent authorities ; 
 whilst in our own land it has been made the study of some of our 
 most respected and trustworthy citizens, who have made fair trial of 
 it, under various circumstances, and have stated the results obtained 
 in various sections of the country, attaching to these statement their 
 names, as a guaranty of their rigid exactness. So vouched for, then, 
 the value of the " Holcus saccharatus" cannot reasonably be con- 
 sidered a doubtful fact, nor one fostered by sanguine minds for inter- 
 
 [33 
 
iy PREFACE. 
 
 ested purposes. I have therefore addressed myself to the task of com- 
 piling all the evidence as yet placed at our disposal, strengthening it 
 by such new facts as have reached me, and thus completed down to 
 the latest moment, present it to the public, in the confident hope that 
 it may prove of some interest. 
 
 Since the commencement of our existence as a nation, there has been 
 no tune more propitious to the introduction of a new sugar bearing 
 plant, nor in which a more generous welcome would have been afford- 
 ed to it, than the present ; for not only are our planters filled with ap- 
 prehensions because of the rapid decline of the Antilles sugar cane in 
 the southern states, but the article of sugar has become so generally 
 an actual necessary of life, and the number of consumers is increasing 
 in such accelerated ratio, as to cause the demand to far exceed the 
 supply, and thus produce a very considerable enhancement in its 
 price. Under the stimulus of this condition of affairs, the manufacture 
 of sugar from the sap of the maple tree, has this year been largely in- 
 creased ; and official statistics at the end of the year will undoubtedly 
 show a crop of maple sugar to have been produced, such as was 
 never before obtained in this country. Bat, although this crop will 
 possibly amount to sixty millions of pounds, yet when we come to con- 
 sider that in the year 1855, the amount of cane sugar consumed in the 
 United States was nine hundred and nineteen millions of pounds, we 
 are made sensible of the national interest in procuring an undiminished 
 annual source of supply, beyond any that could be afforded by a natural 
 increase in the yield of maple sugar. 
 
 The sugar crop of 1855, as compared with that of the previous year, 
 showed a decrease of nearly two per cent., and the evil has since then 
 assumed such magnitude as to influence our General Government to ap- 
 propriate a large sum of money, and to send a ship to the West 
 Indies and other adjacent tropical countries, for the purpose of pro- 
 
PEEFACE. V 
 
 curing a stock of cuttings to renew the exhausted plantations of Lou- 
 siana. 
 
 It can scarcely be a matter of surprise, therefore, that when it be- 
 came bruited abroad, through our public press, that there had been 
 introduced from France, through the United States Patent Office, a 
 new plant, which was said to have been in common use in North China 
 for the production of sugar, and to be capable of immediate acclima- 
 tion, even in our more northern states, one simultaneous desire should 
 have possessed the farmers of all portions of the country to experiment 
 for themselves with the precious seed, and produce, if not for sale, at 
 least for themselves and their families, a supply of the agreeable sugar. 
 
 Thus, then, we have seen the news passed with rapidity, from paper 
 to paper, throughout the land ; enterprising seedsmen have imported 
 large quantities from France, issued their advertisements, and orders 
 and letters of inquiry poured in upon them in one unbroken stream, 
 until the season of planting had passed. The United States Patent 
 Office has itself distributed one hundred thousand papers of the seed ; 
 the large crop of Colonel Eichard Peters, of Georgia, has been dis- 
 posed of in a similar manner ; and considering the other amounts dis- 
 tributed, I think to be entirely within the bounds of moderation in 
 stating, that there are now under cultivation in the United States, //fy 
 thousand acres of Chinese Sugar Cane. 
 
 The interest in the question has been materially heightened, and the 
 hopes of success considerably increased by the arrival in this country, 
 from Europe, of Mr. Leonard Wray, formerly a planter at Natal. This 
 distinguished sugar planter discovered, on the south eastern coast of 
 Africa, fifteen varieties of the Holcus saccharatus, cultivated by the 
 Zulu Kaffirs, under the name Im-Fe, or Imphee, from which he made 
 sugar in large quantities ; and which, after considerable difficulty and 
 expense, he succeeded in introducing to the notice of European agri- 
 
i 
 
 Vi PREFACE. 
 
 culturists. Having discovered an entirely new method, and the only 
 practicable one, of making crystallized sugar from the juice of the im- 
 phee, or African sorgho, he patented his process in Europe, and came 
 to this country with the same object in view, and has recently obtained 
 his letters patent from the Government Office at Washington. To 
 Mr. Wray I am indebted for the very interesting treatise* upon the 
 imphee, which will be found in the body of this work, as also for the 
 letters and historical matter, which will be found accredited to him at 
 the proper place. 
 
 The success of the plant being no longer problematical then, there 
 is immediately created a demand for some critical work upon its origin, 
 culture, and uses ; and to carry on its varied phases of manufacture 
 will call into activity a large amount of capital and industry that has 
 heretofore been diverted in other channels. With no hope of com- 
 pletely filling the existing hiatus, but as having arranged all the avail- 
 able materials to be found in our own, or French publications, this 
 volume is offered to the public. The basis of it is derived from a 
 lecture, written by myself, at the request of a distinguished friend, and 
 delivered, on invitation, at agricultural meetings of the Legislatures of 
 Massachusetts, New York, and Ohio, during the past winter. The 
 flattering reception which it met, and the paucity of information as 
 yet made public in this country, suggested the idea that, perhaps, if 
 enlarged and illustrated with appropriate engravings, it might be of 
 value in the present stage of our experience. 
 
 In the Appendix will be found copious extracts, translated from 
 French pamphlets, which were placed at my disposal by Messrs. 
 Hedges, Free, & Co., of Cincinnati and Philadelphia ; and, accompany- 
 ing them, the interesting correspondence between their house and the 
 
 * This treatise was primed, for private circulation, in London, 1854. 
 
PREFACE. Vii 
 
 Hon. John Y. Mason, our Minister at Paris. To Mr. John W. Keid 
 of this city, I am indebted for electrotypes of the cuts of sugar and dis- 
 tilling apparatus, and for much valuable information. D. Jay Browne, 
 Esq., of the United States Patent office, has kindly sent me an article 
 on the crystallization of the juice of the sorgho, written by him for the 
 next volume of the Agricultural Report, and furnished for this work, 
 in advance of its publication ; and at various times he has assisted me, 
 with advice and information. 
 
 The Complete History of the Culture of the Chinese Sugar Cane in 
 the Southern States, is from the pen of D. Redmond, Esq., Editor of 
 the " Southern Cultivator," to whose labors the American public are 
 in a great measure indebted for the successful introduction of the 
 plant into general cultivation, and for the valuable experiments of 
 Governor Hammond and Colonel Peters, which have so fully sustained 
 the enthusiastic assumptions of its European friends, as to its ability 
 to yield a large quantity of saccharine matter. 
 
 Mr. D. Jay Browne has also kindly placed at my disposal, the 
 article containing the Chemical Researches on the Sorgho, by Dr. 
 Charles T. Jackson, of Boston, one of the State Assayers. The anal- 
 ysis of Dr. Jackson will be of interest to scientific agriculturists, as 
 affording a clue to the proper manner to apply to the sorgho fields 
 when taken in comparison with the quantitative and qualitative analy- 
 ses made at the Imperial School of Engineering. 
 
 The article by Aug. A. Hayes, Assayer to the State of Massa- 
 chusetts, evinces an amount of research and scientific investigation 
 into the composition of the sorgho, not previously equaled in this 
 country, so far as I am aware of. 
 
 Thus aided and encouraged by gentlemen of the highest scientific 
 and practical attainments in their several professions, the author pre- 
 sents this work to the agricultural public, in the sincere desire that 
 
V1U PKEFACE. 
 
 the plants of which it treats may prove to be what we are led to anti- 
 cipate from the experience of Europe, most valuable acquisitions, and 
 an enduring source of wealth to the American former. 
 
 WESTCHESTER FARM SCHOOL, 
 
 MOUNT VERNON, N. Y., 1857. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 ORIGIN AND SUBSEQUENT HISTOEY OF THE CHINESE SUGAR OANE. 
 
 The Cane in China Accounts of Jesuit MissionariesExtracts from Ja- 
 panese Works Its Exhibition at the Great Fair at Moscow Intro- 
 duction into Europe The appearance of Mr. Wray's Imphee 
 Precarious position of the Sorgho To whom is most Honor due Sale 
 of Eight Hundred Seeds to Vilmorin, Andrieux, & Co. Various Ex- 
 periments Attempts of Pietro Arduino, inl 786 Mr. Leonard Wray 
 Introduction of the Sorgho into America Sugar made by Professor 
 Avequin, of Louisiana How Patent Office Seeds should be used. 
 
 15-31 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANT. 
 
 The Confusion among Agricultural Writers Appearance of the Plant 
 
 Height, &c. Comparative Growth of the Sorgho and other similar 
 
 Plants Weight of the Stalk Progressive Growth Pulling out the 
 
 Tufts Ripening Prostration by Wind Storms. 32-45 
 
 1* [9] 
 
X CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 SOIL REQUIRED CULTURE MANURING. 
 
 Should Hilling be Practiced ? Deep Culture Subsoil Plow Soaking 
 Seed Covering Lightly Manures Hybridization Cultivation Cur- 
 ing Fodder Saving Seed Stripping Stacking. 46-56 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 VALUE AS A FORAGE CROP TESTIMONY OP CULTIVATORS. 
 
 Sowing for Fodder Eattooning Cutting Fodder Testimony of D. Jay 
 Browne, Esq. Testimony of Author Testimony of Mr. Gratz, of Ken- 
 tucky Mr. Wray's Remarks at the Farmers' Club Count Beaure- 
 gard's Experience Testimony of G. de Lacoste Of Gov. Gardner, of 
 Mass. Experience of C. L. Flint, of Mass. The Sorgho in Texas this 
 year Ability to withstand Drought Curing Its Nutritive Qualities 
 Size of Stalks in North Africa Testimony of Doctor Turrel, and 
 Lacoste Coloring the Bones of Chickens Yield per Acre of Seed 
 and Forage Should not be allowed to Grow more than one Year. 
 
 57-71 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING A WEST INDIAN SUGAR PLANTATION 
 
 CUTTING CRUSHING BOILING. 
 
 Apparatus Required, Fully Illustrated A West Indian Steam Mill 
 Cattle Mill Horse Mills Stream Trains Ordinary Trains Vacuum 
 Pan Bascule Pan Making a Small Crop of Sugar The Cause for 
 Present High Prices -The "African Apprentice ' ' System. 72-128 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 SYRUP BEST METHODS OF MAKING IT. 
 
 Experience of American Growers The Seed obtained as well as Syrup 
 Apparatus Necessary M. d'lvernois' Syrup made without a Mill Iron 
 
CONTENTS. Xi 
 
 Rollers better than Wooden Rollers Amount of Saccharine Matter 
 Varies in different Cases Necessity of Cleanliness and System Col. 
 Peters obtains 468 Gallons on an Acre. 129-140 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 ALCOHOLIC PRODUCTS. 
 
 Most Approved Method of Making Sorgho Alcohols The French Experi- 
 ments Brandies The French Government Patronage Enthusiasm 
 of Dr. Turrel J. W. Reid's Experiments Distillery Apparatus Il- 
 lustrated with numerous Engravings. 141-168 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 PAPER VINEGAR STARCH DTE STUFFS CEROSIE OR WAX. 
 
 The Quality of Vinegar D. Jay Browne's Testimony Count Mo'ig- 
 nerie's Process Described Dr. Sicard's Experiments, and his Method 
 of Vinegar Making The Value of the Starch Pearling and Hulling 
 the Seeds The Flour Author's Experiments in making the Dye 
 Stuffs Coloring Ribbons Dr. Sicard's Samples of Colors Chemical 
 Treatment to Procure the Tints Pigments Cerosie or Vegetable 
 Wax Making Candles in China Author's Experiments Monsieur 
 Hardy's Calculations Corn Stalk Paper Duret's Specimens Dr. 
 Sicard's Specimens Process of Paper Making. 169-184 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 MR. WRAY'S PROCESS FOR MAKING EXCELLENT SUGAR FROM THE 
 IMPHEE, SORGHO, SUGAR MAPLE, BEET, AND ORDINARY SUGAR CANE 
 DESCRIBED. 
 
 THE IMPHEE. 
 
 BY LEONARD WRAY, ESQ. 
 
 Discovery of the Plant in Caffraria Previous attempts to Make Sugar 
 Unsuccessful Botanical Position of the Imphee The Different Varie- 
 
-Xll CONTENTS. 
 
 ties Their Description and Yields of Sugar Cultivation Manuring 
 The Imphee Compared to the Sugar Beet and Sugar Cane. 
 
 193-228 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Correspondence with the American Minister at Paris Letters of Vil 
 morin and Vattemare, of Paris Article by Mr. Browne, on Crystall 
 lizing the Juice of the Sorgho Analysis and Chemical Researches, by 
 Charles T. Jackson, of Boston French Analysis of Sorgho Stalks, Seed 
 and Soil Paper by Dr. A. A. Hayes, of Boston Mr. Wray's Letter 
 to Author Author's Translations of Pamphlets of F. Bourdais Count 
 Beauregard Dr. Turrel Paul Madinier Duret Louis Vilmorin 
 The Reports to the French Minister of War, by Hardy and Dr. Turrel 
 History of the Sorgho in the Southern States, by D. Redmond, Editor 
 of the " Southern Cultivator "The Sorgho at the South. 231-350 
 
PART I, 
 
 THE SORGHO, 
 
 OR 
 
 ' 
 
 CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 

CHAPTEK I. 
 
 ORIGIN AND SUBSEQUENT HISTORY OF THE CHINESE 
 SUGAR CANE. 
 
 INQUIRIES into the early history of the Chinese Sugar 
 Cane, disclose the fact that we are indebted for this new 
 addition to our agricultural riches, (as for the ordinary 
 sugar cane,) to that mysterious country whose name it 
 bears, and whose agricultural products are only by slow 
 degrees being placed in the possession of the civilized 
 nations of the world. When we consider the jealous 
 exclusion of foreigners, the difficulty of pursuing investi- 
 gations into either the literature, manners, customs, or 
 statistics of China, and the comparatively late date at 
 which any communication has been opened with it, there 
 will be little cause for wonder that the plant concerning 
 which our investigations are about to be made, should 
 have but just been placed within the reach of the 
 American farmer. Nor can we consider the objection as 
 valid, that if it really be rich in a product which at the 
 present day bears a high commercial value, we should 
 certainly have been made acquainted with it before ; for 
 our past experience with Chinese productions certainly 
 warrants the belief, that not only may the Sorgho be 
 
 [15] 
 
.. - v ^ < - 
 
 O 
 
 1&./ ., : t 'THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 fully worthy of the encomiums which have been bestowed 
 upon it by its various European cultivators, but that there 
 may be in use in China other, plants of inestimable value, 
 which have not as yet been brought to our attention at all. 
 
 As a corroboration of this position, we have only 
 to remember the early history of the sugar cane cul- 
 tivated in our southern states. The art of cultivating 
 the sugar cane was practiced in China from the highest 
 antiquity ; and yet, so moderate were the means of 
 intercourse with that nation, that it was unknown to the 
 ancient Egyptians, Jews, Greeks, or Eomans; and it 
 was not until the end of the thirteenth century that it 
 passed into Arabia. From Arabia it was carried by the 
 merchants to Egypt, Nubia, and Ethiopia. The Moors 
 obtained it from Egypt, and the Spaniards from the 
 Moors. In the fifteenth century the cane was intro- 
 duced into the Canary islands by the Spaniards, and 
 subsequently into Madeira by the Portuguese ; thence 
 it found its way into the West India Islands and 
 the Brazils. Previous to the year 1466, sugar was 
 known in Europe only as a medicine, brought, as were 
 costly spices, from the East, and bearing the name of 
 "Indian salt;" and though it was cultivated in a few 
 places on the shores of the Mediterranean sea, still it 
 was not more generally used on the Continent. 
 
 With these historical facts in view, how shall we be 
 authorized in the assertion that the Chinese Sugar Cane 
 should have of right been known to us before ? The fact 
 is, that were it not for the merest accident, even to this 
 day we should not have been called upon to discuss its 
 merits, or have been put in possession of its riches. 
 
OEIGIN AND HISTORY. 17 
 
 From the venerable Father Du Halde we learn that 
 there existed, even in his time, in China, in the province 
 of Se Chuen, situated in the western part of the Empire, 
 a cane which produced excellent sugar, and it is sup- 
 posed by Dr. Sicard that this is the same plant which 
 has been brought to Europe. Ldon de Eosny, a dis- 
 tinguished philologist of France, has, at the request of 
 M. G. de Lacoste, searched the Chinese and Egyptian 
 Archives in the Imperial Library at Paris, and speaks 
 as follows concerning the Chinese Sugar Cane or Sorgho : 
 
 JAPANESE ACCOUNTS OP THE SORGHO- 
 
 " The treatises on agriculture, and various other 
 works, in the Chinese and Egyptian department of the 
 Imperial Library, contain several chapters exclusively 
 upon the sorghos; but their authors do not seem to 
 have divided the varieties in such a manner as to make 
 them correspond with those which we recognize in 
 Europe. Besides the common Chinese and Japanese 
 names, Sorgho is attached successively to other 
 graminea which should not be, according to our system, 
 embraced in this species. The Japanese, who, in respect 
 to Agriculture, are eminently more advanced than all 
 other people, even than the Chinese themselves, cultivate 
 the sorgho to extract from it sugar and alcohol ; but in 
 the works which we possess, no mention is made of the 
 coloring principle which is extracted from its seed. 
 However, it is probable that it is not unknown to them, 
 and that if we had at Paris a richer collection of 
 Japanese books, we would find in them valuable and 
 
18 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 interesting investigations on this head. We must 
 remember, however, that the Chinese and Japanese 
 synonyms of the Holcus saccharatus are not yet clearly 
 established by botanists and orientalists. Nevertheless 
 it seems certain that under the name of Kibi the 
 Japanese designate several species of the sorgho ; that 
 
 the Holcus sorghum corresponds to JH (Tsi) of the 
 
 Chinese, and that sf? (Chu) is probably a Holcus sac- 
 charatus. 
 
 ITS EXHIBITION AT THE PAIR AT MOSCOW- 
 
 We have a further evidence of the fact that it is cul- 
 tivated in China in an article which we find in the 
 journal " L'Utile et 1'Agreable," in its number for the 
 month of April, 1855. The writer says at Shanghae the 
 plant is cultivated under the name of the North China 
 Sugar Cane. The Chinese Tartars value it exceedingly ; 
 and at the Great Exposition at Moscow, in the year 1852, 
 some of the stalks of this same species of sorgho were ex- 
 hibited under the title " Precieux Gaoutlam de la Chine." 
 
 HRST APPEARANCE IN EUROPE. 
 
 Its first appearance in Europe dates back no further 
 than the year 1851, at which time the Count de 
 Montigny, being at that time Consul of France at 
 Shanghae, in China, sent, in compliance with official 
 request, to the Geographical Society of Paris, a collec- 
 tion of plants and seeds which he found in China, and 
 which he thought would succeed in his own country. 
 
ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 19 
 
 Among these was the celebrated Chinese Yam (Dios- 
 corea batatas) and the Holcus saccharatus, under the 
 name of " The Sugar Cane of the North of China." 
 
 THE APPEARANCE OP MR. WRAY'S IMPHEE. 
 
 Curiously enough, there was received in France at 
 about the same time a quantity of seeds of a plant 
 having apparently the same properties and almost the 
 same appearance as the sorgho, which had been dis- 
 covered on the south east coast of Africa, in the 
 country of the Zulu Kaffirs, by Mr. Leonard Wray. The 
 lucid, but truly surprising statements made concerning its 
 virtues by this latter gentleman, at once stimulated in a 
 most lively manner investigations into the properties 
 of the Chinese Sugar Cane, and upon comparing the 
 plants derived from these widely separate sources, the 
 remarkable fact was made apparent, that in ability to 
 yield crystallized sugar, to afford nourishment for stock, 
 and in the requirements of cultivation, and other pecu- 
 liarities, they were almost identical, and much surprise 
 was created that from this double source, and as if cor- 
 roborative the one of the other, a greatly needed sugar 
 plant, and one apparently of high value, should have 
 been given to French agriculture. 
 
 THE PRECARIOUS POSITION OP THE SORGHO. 
 
 It is a curious instance of how upon the slightest 
 thread depend most momentous results, when we con- 
 sider that, of the package of seeds sent by the Count 
 

 20 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 de Montigny to the Geographical Society of Paris, one 
 only, one single seed, germinated in a garden at Toulon ; 
 and if by any attack of insects, by injudicious planting 
 or manuring, by careless cultivation, or by any one of a 
 thousand possible mischances, the plant springing from 
 this seed had been destroyed, France at this day would 
 have been without the Chinese Sugar Cane, and it may 
 be that the same opportunity would not have been again 
 presented for a great number of years. 
 
 . ^ TO WHOM IS MOST HONOR DUE 1 
 
 Much stress has been laid in the French works upon 
 the fact that the Count de Montigny introduced the 
 sugar cane into France, and the learned Dr. Turel, Secre- 
 tary of the Cornice of Toulon struck with astonishment 
 at the wonderful results which the sorgho can give in 
 alcoholic products, its vast importance as filling a void 
 made by the failure of the grape crop, and the gov- 
 ernmental prohibition of the distillation of cereals even 
 goes so far as to claim that to the Count de Mortigny is 
 due as much honor as is awarded to Jenner for his glo- 
 rious discovery of Yaccination. Without wishing to de- 
 tract from the honor due to the illustrious Ambassador, I 
 would respectfully urge the fact that, so far as any account 
 which we have at present goes, the Count sent the seed 
 of the sugar cane as he sent other seeds, because they 
 were said by the Chinese to be valuable, and because he 
 supposed it possible that their excellences might be re- 
 produced, upon experiment, in his own country. The 
 gentlemen receiving the package of seeds planted them 
 
ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 21 
 
 as our American farmers receive and plant the packages 
 sent to them by the Patent Office at "Washington, often- 
 times ignorant and skeptical as to their value. It chanced 
 that into the hand of M. Kobert, Director of the Marine 
 Gardens at Toulon, were confided a few seeds of the 
 sorgho, and he being an intelligent and enterprising gen- 
 tleman and a careful observer, was desirous of knowing 
 if, indeed, the plant would bear out the assumptions of its 
 endorsers. He planted the seeds with care, but, to his 
 chagrin, but one single tiny sprout appeared above the 
 ground ; and from the interest which he took in it, it is 
 to be supposed that he continued its cultivation, and fol- 
 lowed it through the phases of vegetation with no little 
 apprehensions against the chances of failure. His labors 
 were rewarded by a plant of good size, strong and vigor- 
 ous, from the roots of which sprang up six rattoons or 
 suckers. The seeds attained a complete maturity, and 
 were distributed to the Agricultural Cornice of Toulon. 
 
 SALE OP SEEDS TO VHMORIN, ANDRTEUX, & CO. 
 
 A gardener of Hydres, who had received part of these 
 seeds, planted them with care, and the next year gathered 
 eight hundred seeds, which were sold to the house of 
 Vilmorin, Andrieux, & Co., seed merchants at Paris, for 
 eight hundred francs! They had now come into the 
 hands of men fully sensible of their value, capable both 
 by education and opportunity of investigating their worth, 
 and determined to make them available to the public. 
 The seeds were planted by the senior partner of this 
 house, the illustrious M. Louis Yilmorin, and numerous 
 
22 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 experiments were made by him during the season of 
 growth^ the results of which fully established the expecta- 
 tions which he had been led to entertain, and gave him 
 the basis for the work which was published by him in 
 1854, under the title of " Kesearches upon the Sorgho 
 SucreY' or Chinese Sugar Cane. 
 
 VARIOUS EXPERDIENTEKS. 
 
 Experiments were likewise instituted by members of 
 the Imperial Acclimation Society; but by none were 
 they more zealously pursued, nor more successfully 
 carried on, than by the Compte de David Beauregard. 
 This gentleman was so confident of its value, that he 
 made strenuous efforts to increase his stock of seed, 
 planted the greatest possible area of land with it, and 
 succeeded so completely that it is from his third crop 
 that has been derived the major portion of the immense 
 amount that has been planted in the United States during 
 the present year. In France we find it successively 
 spreading in the provinces of la Drome, les Pyrenees 
 Orientales, la Haute-Marne, la Gironde, le Gers, etc., and 
 everywhere exciting the greatest attention among the most 
 distinguished agriculturists ; and thence it quickly finds its 
 way to that prosperous, albeit lately acquired French 
 province of Algeria, where, according to M. Paul 
 Madinier, a company with a capital of several millions of 
 francs is about to be formed to cultivate and manufacture 
 the sorgho. In 1852 there was imported into France 
 from Kussia, by M. Masson, the seed of another sugar 
 sorgho, but the plants which sprung from them were 
 much inferior in every respect to those sent by M. 
 
ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 23 
 
 Montigny. Dr. Sicard says that upon its appearance in 
 Europe, the sorgho was supposed by various persons to 
 be the millet of Caffraria, Pain des Anges, Sorghum 
 saccharatum of Wil, Holcus docna of Forsk, Holcus sac- 
 charatus of Linnasus, Andropogon saccharatus of Kunth ; 
 and somewhat later Mr. Leonard Wray gave to it the 
 name of Imphee. AU 
 
 THE ATTEMPT OP PIETRO AEDUINO. 
 
 Frequent reference is made in all the French works 
 which I have translated, to the attempt made in 1786 by 
 the Signor Pietro Arduino to introduce the Holcus sac- 
 charatus from Kaffirland into Italy ; and to his pub- 
 lished accounts of his experiments in sugar mak- 
 ing. His son collected these fragments of writing, 
 added to them his own reminiscences of his father's 
 experiments, and issued them in a separate volume, 
 in 1808 ; but at the present day it is almost a matter of 
 impossibility to procure a copy of the work, it having 
 passed out of print. Nothing is known, however, it 
 seems to me, to distinctly show that the plants on which 
 Dr. Arduino's experiments were undertaken were the 
 same as the sorgho introduced from China ; for he speaks 
 of the seeds being of a clear light brown color, while the 
 seeds of our Chinese variety are of a very deep purple, 
 almost black. His description, nevertheless, exactly cor- 
 responds with the appearance of the seeds of Mr. Wray's 
 imphee ; and hence we are led to believe that it was in 
 reality the African, and not the Chinese sugar cane which 
 was cultivated by him at Florence. Whether it was be- 
 
24 THE CHINESE SUGAK CANE. 
 
 cause of the troubles which at that time convulsed Italy 
 from one end to the other, because of want of means on 
 his part for continuing the experiments, or because the 
 plants were not adapted to the manufacture of sugar, I 
 am not able to say ; it is probable that all these con- 
 spired to militate against the prosecution of his studies. 
 But I think it very possible that Dr. Arduino procured 
 from Africa the seeds of some one of the varieties of the 
 imphee, which required too long time to ripen to allow 
 of its being grown in the climate of Italy ; and that the 
 small amounts of sugar obtained by him from the plants 
 arose from the fact that the maximum of saccharine mat- 
 ter is only made present in the Chinese or African sugar 
 canes at the moment of their complete maturity. 
 
 M. Louis Vilmorin, in his "Eesearches," mentions that 
 in a package of seeds from Abyssinia, sent to the Museum 
 in 1840, by M. D'Abadie, which contained about thirty 
 species or varieties of the sorgho, he had noticed that 
 some of the plants were particularly distinguished from 
 the others by the sweet flavor of their stalks ; but to all 
 intents and purposes, and so far as any practical result 
 has eventuated, from 1786 until the introduction of the 
 Montigny seed and of that of Mr. Wray from Kaffirland, 
 there is a complete void in European experience with the 
 plant. Considering the question as to whom is due the 
 honor of giving the plant to European agriculturists, 
 there should be no cause for strife between the partisans 
 of the Count de Montigny and Mr. Wray ; for it ap- 
 pearing, upon the testimony of M. Yilmorin, Dr. Sicard, 
 M. Lacoste, and Mr. Wray himself, that the sorgho and 
 imphee are not different varieties of the same plant, but 
 
ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 25 
 
 two different species, the introducer of each plant may be 
 duly credited without in the least depriving the other of 
 appropriate honor. If indeed we base our gratitude 
 upon the amount of research and labor given by the indi- 
 vidual previous to the introduction of the plants, we cer- 
 tainly must agree that Mr. Wray is entitled to greater 
 thanks at the hands of the agricultural world than the 
 Count de Montigny, who took no great labor to dis- 
 cover the properties of the sorgho, but merely sent 
 the seed, as he sent others, to be experimented upon in 
 France. 
 
 MR. LEONARD WRAY. 
 
 Mr. Wray is widely known to the sugar planters of the 
 world, from his authorship of the " Sugar Planters' Com- 
 panion," published in Calcutta in 1843, and the "Practi- 
 cal Sugar Planter," published in London in 1848, and 
 republished in French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Dutch. 
 In 1850, he left the East Indies for the Cape of Good 
 Hope, whence he went to Kaffirland, and found the 
 Zulu Kaffirs cultivating the imphee around their huts, 
 not for the purpose of manufacturing crystallized sugar 
 or obtaining any other of its products with a commercial 
 view, but merely for the purpose of chewing and sucking 
 the stalks. He quickly saw of what value such plants 
 were likely to become to Europe and America, and ap- 
 plied himself to their study, their culture, and manufac- 
 ture into sugar, etc. After having fully satisfied himself 
 on these points, he returned to Europe, and planted 
 patches in England, France, and Belgium; applied for 
 2 
 
26 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 patents in various countries ; addressed the French gov- 
 ernment through Marshal Vaillant, Minister of War; 
 exhibited specimens of sugar and the plants to Mr. 
 Buchanan, then American Minister at London ; and subse- 
 quently established the culture of the imphee in Turkey, 
 Egypt, the West Indies, the Brazils, the Mauritius, Aus- 
 tralia, and finally in this country. Instead of one variety 
 as we have of the Chinese Sugar Cane, he has discovered 
 among the Kaffirs no less than sixteen distinct kinds of 
 imphee, of various degrees of saccharine richness, and 
 differing very widely in the time required for their ma- 
 turity. 
 
 The gift that he has thus made to our agriculture may 
 be estimated when we reflect that we have almost every 
 range of climate known in the world from the torrid and 
 fervent heats of the tropical zone to the most rigorous 
 winters of the North ; and his plants requiring in some 
 instances but ninety days to run through the whole course 
 of vegetation and ripen their seeds, others of greater 
 saccharine richness requiring a more lengthened season 
 than is necessary for the ordinary sugar cane, he has 
 thus given to the farmers of every section of the country 
 the opportunity to select from out his collection of varie- 
 ties some one peculiarly adapted to the latitude in which 
 he resides. Sugar, by this means, supposing his anticipa- 
 tions to be realized, and the experience of Governor Ham- 
 mond and other southern gentlemen to be a prestige of 
 what we can anticipate in future, will become no longer 
 even such a luxury as it is at present, but rather will as- 
 sume its proper position as a cheap, readily obtainable 
 article of common use. It is well to remark in this place, 
 
OEIGIN AND HISTORY, 27 
 
 that in the year 1854, in the month of September, an 
 application from Mr. Wray for a patent on his process 
 was filed at our Government Patent Office by Charles F. 
 Stansbury, Esq., acting in his name ; but an error having 
 been made in his application, it was withdrawn until a 
 more favorable occasion should present itself. In the 
 year 1856, Mr. Wray obtained the large silver medal of 
 the Exposition Universelle at Paris, for his imphee sugar, 
 alcohol, seeds, and plants, and the French government, 
 moreover, granted to him twenty -five hundred acres of 
 land in Algeria, to encourage in that colony the establish- 
 ment of this important cultivation. 
 
 INTRODUCTION OP TUB SORGHO INTO AMERICA. 
 
 In the month of November, 1854, D. Jay Browne, Esq., 
 of the United States Patent Office, returned to America 
 from Europe, bringing with him a quantity of the seed 
 of the Chinese Sugar Cane, which he had procured from 
 M. Yilmorin, the gentleman previously referred to. 
 These seeds were distributed to various persons through- 
 out this country ; but the feeling of suspicion with 
 which all new things are more or less viewed, tended to 
 confine this experiment of cultivation to a few of the 
 more enterprising farmers, until the formal report, ad- 
 dressed by Gen. J. H. Hammond, late Governor of South 
 Carolina, to the Secretary of the Beach Island, South 
 Carolina, Farmers' Club, awakened general attention, 
 by showing the successful results of his own cultivation 
 and manufacture. Upon its history, in the southern 
 states, I do not propose to dwell at length, because tho 
 
28 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 full details are given in the excellent report which has 
 been furnished to me, through the politeness of Mr. 
 Redman. Suffice it to say, that upon the publication of 
 *w circular, containing the experiments of Colonel Peters, 
 \jid the notice of the syrup which was exhibited by him 
 v t the Fair of the United States Agricultural Society, 
 . a October of the past year, the general excitement upon 
 he subject was at once considerably augmented; and 
 ;he subsequent appearance of the reports to the French 
 Minister of War, the experience of American farmers in 
 lifferent parts of the country, the excellent pamphlets 
 Df Mr. J. F. C. Hyde, of Massachusetts, and Mr. Charles 
 F. Stansbury of Washington, all have united in lending 
 this increase to the all-prevalent interest ; and the result 
 has been, that during the present year, the seed of the 
 Chinese Sorgho has been imported by the ton by differ- 
 ent seedsmen, and by the agencies which we have here- 
 tofore mentioned, it has been scattered throughout the 
 length and breath of the land. 
 
 In 1855, 1 received from Paris, the " Researches on the 
 Sugar Sorgho," by M. Vilmorin, and although at that 
 time but very little attention had been directed to the 
 plant, yet presuming, from a perusal of it, that it might 
 have some future value, I translated it, entire, for the 
 " Working Farmer." 
 
 SUGAR MADE BY PROFESSOR AYEQUIN OF LOUISIANA. 
 
 Whilst it was in course of publication, I corresponded 
 with persons in different parts of the United States, de- 
 siring to call their attention to its merits ; and having 
 
ORIGIN AND HISTORY. *{9 
 
 ascertained from Messrs. Parker, White, & Gannett, 
 seedsmen, of Boston, that the editors of the " New Or- 
 leans Bee " had received samples of sugar from Professor 
 Avequin, of Louisiana, I opened a correspondence 
 with that distinguished gentleman, and received from 
 him the editorial notice of the " Bee," and an article, 
 written by himself, for that paper, which I translated, 
 and which will be found in subsequent pages of this 
 work. The editors of the " Bee " clearly acknowledge 
 the receipt of a loaf of sorgho sugar made by Professor 
 Avequin; and I regret much at not having been able, 
 during the past two years, to have communicated with 
 this gentleman, and thus have been enabled to place my 
 readers in possession of all the facts concerning his ex- 
 periments. 
 
 HOW THE PATENT OFFICE SEEDS SHOULD BE USED. 
 
 We have thus narrowed down the circle of our in- 
 quiries to the introduction of the plant, and its domes- 
 tication among us. In considering the slight contingency 
 upon which hung the chance of its having been put in the 
 possession of the French agriculturists, it seems to me a 
 usaful lesson may be derived to guide us in our practice at 
 home. Although the General Government makes but very 
 slight appropriations to the cause of agriculture, barely 
 begrudging a miserable pittance out of the superfluous 
 revenues which it has collected, yet it does appropriate a 
 sum, however small it maybe, for the purchase of seeds and 
 cuttings for distribution to our farmers, and every year 
 this service is performed by the department of the Patent 
 
30 THE CHINESE SUGAE CANE. 
 
 Office. Now if we really, as American farmers, desire to 
 have the Government not only continue its present appro- 
 priations but increase them, we certainly should not take 
 the seeds and cuttings which it now gives to us, and by 
 the most culpable carelessness allow them to be utterly 
 lost, thrown away, and rendered unproductive of any 
 benefits to our farmers. In the majority of cases, seeds 
 received from the Patent Office, with foreign names 
 printed upon the packages, are looked at as curiosities, 
 bitten to see how they taste, placed upon the mantel- 
 shelf for the examination of visitors, and subsequently 
 put into the fire, or thrown into the top of some old 
 closet, because the farmer cannot find time to plant them 
 with care, and investigate their qualities. It is highly 
 possible that among the seeds distributed for the last few 
 years by the Patent Office, there may have been a number 
 which, if they had been properly planted and taken care 
 of, would have been productive of the greatest good to 
 this country. Are we not confined as to cotton-growing 
 to a small section of the southern states ? Would it not 
 be a source of immense wealth to our country if we could 
 find some plant which would be a substitute for the cotton, 
 and which could be produced in the northern and north- 
 western states, as in this instance we have found a new 
 sugar cane having a number of varieties, and some of 
 them specially adapted to the cold climates of the north ? 
 and who can say but that among these seeds which have 
 thus been lost to our farmers, there may not have been 
 some one or more which would have produced a substi- 
 tute for the cotton plant ? Many of the seeds are brought 
 home by the officers of our Exploring Expeditions, and 
 
ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 81 
 
 those connected with ships of war cruising in various 
 parts of the world. They are sometimes obtained by 
 them without the slightest knowledge of their properties 
 or value ; and it may be that from some distant island in 
 the Pacific, or some rarely -visited portion of the African 
 coast, seeds have been brought to this country which 
 would have given us enduring sources of revenue. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANT. 
 
 CONFUSION AMONG AGRICULTURAL WRITERS. 
 
 IN" proceeding to consider the botanical rank of the 
 Chinese Sugar Cane, we find ourselves at once involved 
 in the midst of conflicting assumptions on the part of 
 various investigators. So much confusion has arisen in 
 regard to the plant, that M. Greenland, an associate of 
 M. Yilmorin, has endeavored to extricate us from this 
 confusion, and is at the present time engaged in the pro- 
 duction of an agricultural work, which will set the mat- 
 ter at rest; in the mean time, from the testimony of all 
 observers, we are authorized to accord to the plant the 
 name Holcus saccharatus. Although, as M. Vilmorin 
 says, it is inexact as to its generic character, yet it has 
 the advantage of being known, and of not having been 
 applied to other plants. Our seedsmen and agricultural 
 writers seem bent upon not only maintaining this confu- 
 sion of names, but also of increasing the list of synonyms, 
 by giving to the Sorgho sucrd in turn the names of half a 
 dozen other plants. We must expect this, however; 
 but in the meanwhile, and until the result of M. Green- 
 land's labors are known, we are probably authorized to 
 call it the Holcus saccharatus.* 
 
 * Since writing the above, we have received from Dr. Charles T.- 
 Jackson, one of the State Assayers to the State of Massachusetts, the 
 [32] 
 
THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 M 
 

DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANT. 83 
 
 APPEARANCE OF THE PLANT. 
 
 In comparing the appearance of the sorgho with that 
 of our common maize or Indian corn, we are struck with 
 the superiority of the former, in respect to the exceeding 
 grace of appearance which it presents. Like the latter, 
 
 following paper upon the botanical position of the plant, which was 
 read by Mr. Charles J. Sprague, Botanist to the Boston Society of 
 Natural History, at its meeting of April 15th. By it, it will be seen, 
 that although the plant was by Linnaeus termed the Holcus sacchar- 
 atus, it had undergone subsequent subdivisions ; and, as he says him- 
 self, the specific name is a matter of some doubt, so that it is as well, 
 perhaps, to allow it to retain the name of Holcus saccharatus, until 
 we obtain further advices. 
 
 " The plant was called Holcus saccharatus by Linnaeus ; but when 
 this genus underwent a subdivision by subsequent botanists, this spe- 
 cies was placed by some in that of Andropogon, by others in that of 
 Sorghum. These two genera are closely allied. Some of the best 
 authorities consider the difference so slight as to warrant their union 
 into one. Steudel arranges Andropogon, Sorghum, and Trachypogon 
 all under one head Andropogon. Lindley italicizes Sorghum in the 
 last edition of his " Vegetable Kingdom," and places it beneath Trachy- 
 pogon, evidently considering them equivalent. Dr. Gray retains Sor- 
 ghum for our only native species (S. nutans) in his last edition of the 
 Manual, considering the genus a good one. 
 
 " It is between Andropogon and Sorghum, therefore, that we must 
 choose in reference to this particular species. 
 
 " The differences between them are these 
 
 Andropogon. Sorghum. 
 
 " Inflorescence spicate. " Inflorescence paniculate. 
 
 Spikelets in pairs, only one be- Spikelets in twos or threes, cen- 
 ing fertile. tral one only being fertile. 
 
 Glumes herbaceous or mem- Glumes hard, coriaceous, or in- 
 brauaccous. durated. 
 
 Rachis hairy. Rachis smooth. 
 
 2* 
 
34 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE-. 
 
 it presents a tall straight stalk, marked at intervals with 
 knots or nodes, and from these, on alternate sides of the 
 plant, spring long, spreading, tapering, and drooping 
 leaves. The stalk very gradually decreases in diameter 
 from the base to the top. Its outer coating is smooth 
 and silicious, like the stalks of the maize, which becomes 
 harder as the water and starch and the sugar of the plant 
 become converted into woody fiber, and more silex is 
 deposited on the outside. The seed grows upon the 
 eight or ten separate stems which group together to 
 form the tuft at the top of the plant ; and, unlike the 
 maize, this is the only fruit produced by the plant. When 
 the tassel first emerges from its sheath, the seeds are 
 nothing but a soft green husk, which by degrees, and in 
 
 " If these differences shall eventually render the genera sufficiently 
 distinct to establish a universally recognized separation, then this plant 
 must be placed under that of Sorghum. 
 
 "The specific name is a matter of some doubt. Both S. vulgare 
 and S. saccharatum are recorded as distinct species ; but there is fre- 
 quently a query appended to the latter. Some of our best authorities 
 incline to the opinion that these two are identical, the differences be- 
 tween them being due to the long cultivation which the plant has un- 
 dergone. We know that some of the grasses have sported into nume- 
 rous varieties ; and it is very probable that the Broom Corn, Doura 
 or Guinea Corn, and the Chinese Sugar Cane, are all descended from 
 one and the same stock. 
 
 " If we accept this as a fact, then the plant should be called SOR- 
 GHUM VULGARE, Pers. var. saccharatum, L. ; but as the latter name is 
 so extensively known, and as there is still some doubt as to the ident- 
 ity, it may be as well to continue the name Sorghum saccharatum. 
 
 " The true Sugar Cane, Saccharum officinarum, belongs to the same 
 tribe of grasses, differing in the ample inflorescence, which is paniculate, 
 and drooping with downy pedicles and florets." 
 
DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANT. 35 
 
 like manner to wheat, becomes filled with farinaceous 
 matter, and the grains are plump and hard. The soft 
 green pulp, as the plant approaches maturity, undergoes 
 transitions in color, changing to violet, brown, and 
 finally, to a purple, almost black. When this latter color 
 appears, the plant has reached its last stage of vegeta- 
 tion, and will give its greatest amount of sugar. The 
 stalk, as compared with that of the maize, is more slender 
 and soft. The adhesion of the parts above and below 
 the knots is not so firm, for I have found in the crops 
 which we have cultivated at the Farm School, that a 
 gust of wind would break the plants off at the knots 
 when they attained considerable height, in a wet season. 
 Another peculiarity distinguishing the sorgho stalk from 
 that of the corn, is, that as the plant approaches maturity, 
 we see a whitish effloresence appear upon the parts un- 
 derneath the foot-stalks of the leaf. This is a dry, hard 
 powder, and is known to the French, under the name 
 of cerosie, or vegetable wax. Of its uses and probable 
 value, we will speak in the appropriate place. 
 
 HEIGHT, ETC. 
 
 The sorgho attains different heights as the circum- 
 stances controlling its growth are more or less favorable, 
 and on some soils, the deep black loam for instance, grows 
 to an enormous height, as high as sixteen or eighteen feet, 
 while on poorer soils, on gravels or gravelly loams, or 
 colder soils, it is shorter ; but on dry, poor soils its juices 
 have a greater tendency to crystallize. My own crop 
 averaged the last season eleven feet in height. Some of the 
 
36 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 stalks were full fifteen feet, and but a small proportion were 
 nine and ten. The leaves of the plants being more slender 
 than those of the corn, and the joints being farther 
 apart, it will not give the same amount of green fodder 
 to the acre, if the plants are allowed to attain their com- 
 plete maturity ; but this is only a comparative loss, for 
 by suffering them to stand until this time, we procure 
 what we cannot obtain from the corn a full crop of 
 sugar ; therefore all the forage which we obtain is so 
 much actual profit. The root of the sorgho is exceed- 
 ingly hard and strong. Where the ground has been well 
 disturbed, the roots run to a great depth, and acquire 
 very great strength ; so much so, that it was a matter of 
 great difficulty for a man to pull up a stand of sorgho on 
 our place, even after the plants had been cut off from it, 
 and they had stood for a month or two. There is a very 
 marked difference between the tuft of the Chinese Sugar 
 Cane and some of the varieties of the Imphee ; but there 
 is a curious resemblance between the Shla-goo-va and the 
 sorgho tufts. The stems of the tufts of the Chinese Sugar 
 Cane are some of them four or five inches in length, and 
 when covered with seeds, plump and ripe, by degrees, 
 of course, droop over towards the ground, thus giving 
 the tuft a feathery appearance ; but the seed heads of the 
 Yim-bis-chu-a-pa present a compact bunch of upright 
 growing stems, albeit they are all laden with seeds, and 
 resemble more the pompon of a military cap. 
 
 In judging of the ripeness of the imphee seed, of 
 course the cultivator will not be misguided by any 
 previous experience with the Chinese Sugar Cane ; for 
 while in one ease he would wait for the seeds to turn 
 
DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANT. 37 
 
 black before he would feel authorized to harvest the 
 stalks, on the other hand, the seeds of some varieties of 
 the African Sugar Cane, when they are fully ripe, are not 
 darker in color than a light buff, and its only distinction 
 then would be their plumpness and hardness. 
 
 It would be a matter of impossibility for any body but 
 a most experienced hand to distinguish between a field 
 of sorgho and one of ordinary broom corn in the early 
 stages of its growth ; for in appearance, size of leaves, 
 covering, and general characteristics, it is identical. A 
 difference will be found, however, if rows of corn and 
 rows of sorgho should be planted together. So far as 
 rapidity of growth is concerned, the sorgho is not a fast 
 grower at first, and for this reason it would be very apt 
 to discourage persons experimenting with it for the first 
 time, as it did myself. 
 
 COJTPARATIYE GROWTH OF THE SORGHO AND OTHER SIMILAR PLANTS. 
 
 An instance of the comparative rapidity of growth 
 will be found at page 11 et seq. of the excellent work of 
 Dr. Sicard.* We quote as follows : 
 
 ' We sowed, in a warm bed, upon the same day, at 
 the same hour, on the same kind of soil, seeds of the 
 white sorgho, the Kaffir sorgho, broom corn, and the 
 Chinese Sugar Cane. The seventh day the sorgho was 
 out of the ground, the broom corn appeared in the after- 
 noon of the same day. On the following morning we 
 
 * " Monographic de la Canne a Sucre de la Chine, dite Sorgho a 
 Sucre," par le Docteur Adriea Sicard, Secretary of the Horticultural 
 Society of Marseilles, etc. Marseilles, 1856. 
 
 

 38 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 saw appear the Kaffir sorgho ; and two days later the 
 Chinese Sugar Cane." 
 
 Once out of the ground, the plants develop their leaves. 
 It was not the same with the Chinese Sugar Cane. The lat- 
 ter remained for a long time before developing its leaves, 
 its increase was very slow. Thus we see that, as compared 
 with broom corn, the Chinese Sugar Cane requires three 
 days more to make its appearance above the ground. A 
 great difference is observable in the comparative flexi- 
 bility of the leaves of the sugar cane and those of others 
 of its congeners. The Chinese Sugar Cane leaves can be 
 bent and rebent into perfect circles without breaking 
 them, whilst the others will snap in two. 
 
 WEIGHT OF THE STALK. 
 
 Dr. Sicard, from a desire to relieve the questionings in 
 regard to the comparative weight of the Chinese Sugar 
 Cane and the broom corn, took from each one of these of 
 the same length, about twenty-nine inches, and that there 
 might be no mistake as to the identity of their period of 
 development, measured their diameter. These precau- 
 tions taken, he weighed them, and found that the broom 
 corn weighed thirty-five grammes, and the sugar cane one 
 hundred and thirty-seven grammes. Let those, then, who 
 say that the Chinese Sugar Cane is no more than broom 
 corn, that the juice of the one is as good as the other, 
 compare this result, which, from our experience of the 
 comparative weight of the two plants, (though we have 
 made no precise experiment,) we should think would be 
 a faithful indication of the differences, in the vast majority 
 
 
^ DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANT. 39 
 
 of cases. Dr. Sicard gives in his book a very interesting 
 and minute account of the growth of the sugar cane, from 
 the putting forth of the first radicle until the complete 
 maturity of the plant. Our space prevents our following 
 him in detail, as we should be pleased to do. 
 
 PROGRESSIVE GROWTH. 
 
 The first effort at vegetation is, of course, the swelling 
 of the seed, the separation of the valves enclosing the 
 germ of the plant, and the putting forth of a little root. 
 This root, unlike the others surrounding it, is of a violet 
 hue. Its covering is impregnated with a tint on the in- 
 side of the hull. The surrounding roots are of a yellow- 
 ish color. The plant rarely springs up on a single stalk. 
 A short time after the appearance of the stalk, suckers 
 are formed, which commence to grow upwards. The 
 cane throws out in rudiments each one of the internodes 
 that it must subsequently develop, and each one of these 
 bears a leaf, which acquires dimensions larger or smaller, 
 according to the soil upon which it is grown. The time 
 required for the cane to acquire its full development, is 
 about five months; but it will be more protracted or 
 brief, as the soil is suited to its nature. In this respect, 
 the planter will be subject to the same vicissitudes as he 
 now has in the cultivation of the ordinary sugar cane ; 
 and we opine that, like this latter plant, the Chinese cane 
 will be found to grow exceedingly well on the soil of a 
 certain plantation, and on the one immediately adjoining 
 it, give but meager results. 
 
 The present season is, perhaps, as unfavorable a one 
 
40 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 for the institution of experiments with the new plants as 
 we- could have had; for, whereas, the plant requires a 
 warm, dry, season to develop its excellences, and to 
 attain a rapidity of growth, we have this year been 
 subjected, since the earliest portion of spring, to a con- 
 tinued series of drenching rains and untimely showers. 
 The soil, in consequence, has been kept cool and moist, 
 and the temperature of the air has been so reduced that 
 even the corn crop in the vicinity of our farm is very 
 much more backward than it should be at this season of 
 the year. One of the largest planters in the southern 
 states informed me, a short time since, that he had 
 frequently seen corn in the month of June, so tall that 
 the tassels would be above his head when he rode 
 through the field on horseback ; but that in July of the 
 present year, his crop was but four feet high. 
 
 There will, therefore, necessarily be much apprehen- 
 sion existing among the experimenters of the sorgho, as to 
 its maturity, and it may even be that, in case the frosts set 
 in earlier than usual in the fall, a large proportion of the 
 plants throughout the United States will not ripen their 
 seed-heads ; but because they do not, it is no index of 
 what we must expect, were the season but auspicious. 
 The experiment has been tried in France of using 
 excessive irrigation to produce an increased growth of 
 stalks; and as in that case, although the growth was 
 obtained, yet the proportion of the sugar in the juice 
 was in consequence materially reduced, we may like- 
 wise expect that the rain of the present season will pro- 
 duce, should we have warm and, favorable weather till 
 the close of the season, a great growth of stalks, but a 
 
 
DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANT 41 
 
 diminished richness in the juice. When the panicle 
 commences to put forth its flowers, the portion of the 
 stalk, immediately under it, contains a quantity of sugar, 
 equal to that which may be found later in the lower 
 portions of the plant ; but in ratio, as maturity of the 
 seed is produced, this upper part of the stalk loses its 
 sweet principle, which seems to descend by its specific 
 gravity toward the root, slowly, it is true, but surely, 
 and at the time of harvesting the cane, there is a marked 
 difference between the comparative saccharine richness 
 of the upper and lower portions. In noticing this fact, 
 Dr. Sicard shows the analogy between it, and what 
 occurs in the case of grapes. " The latter in fact com- 
 mence by giving verjuice. In proportion as the ripen- 
 ning advances, they become more and more sweet ; and 
 if you only know enough to gather them at the proper 
 epoch, and the temperature of the atmosphere is pro- 
 pitious, you will obtain wines of a quality, by as much 
 more superior as the juices of the grape are more 
 elaborated, that is to say, arrived at a more perfect 
 maturity." 
 
 PULLING OUT THE TUFTS, ETC.-RIPENING. 
 
 It has been observed by Mr. "Wray, as quoted by the 
 French authors, that it is the practice among the Zulu 
 Kaffirs to pull out the panicles on the stalk, at the time 
 that they are appearing, for the purpose of concentrating 
 the juices and obtaining more sugar ; but upon this sub- 
 ject, Dr. Sicard says, that in taking off the panicle of the 
 seed, when it commences to show itself, we win arrive 
 
42 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 at an effect contrary to what is desired. He says, that 
 he had some canes of which the stalk was broken, at 
 different periods of its development, and that he had re- 
 marked, that according to the color of the seed, that is 
 to say, according to the more or less continued progress 
 of the process of ripening, the internodes the nearest to 
 the upper portion of the plant, were more or less sweet. 
 Thus, he says, the colors most removed from that of the 
 ripe seed coincided with the greater quantity of sugar 
 in the internodes nearest the panicle ; but the more the 
 plants approached the term of maturity, the more did the 
 saccharine matter travel downwards in the stalk. In 
 ripening, the Chinese sugar-cane takes on a yellowish 
 tint, striped in places with red. Some of them continue 
 to preserve an apple-green color, marked likewise with 
 red. These colors generally indicate the term of matur- 
 ity ; if the red passes into carmine the cane is too ripe, 
 and cultivators should notice this thing, in connection 
 with the color of the seeds. At the commencement of 
 our experience with this new plant, it is well to mention 
 the fact, that it is subject to different maladies, some of 
 which attack the root, and some the pith of the stalk. 
 Dr. Sicard has made, upon this point, extensive in- 
 vestigations, and at page 65 of his book says, " The 
 roots, especially the upper ones, those which we have 
 called secondary, take on sometimes a deep violet color. 
 If you cut these roots thus degenerated, they present in 
 the interior the appearance of a purplish red color, 
 which continues even as far as the radicles. The plants 
 which have these roots, languish, take on a chlorotic tint, 
 and end by their dying, or producing insignificant 
 
 

 DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANT. 43 
 
 panicles; they contain scarcely any sugar. If we ex- 
 press the juice from these canes, and allow it to stand 
 for a while, there will be found at the bottom of the 
 vessel a considerable portion of fecula, with a reddish 
 tint, which subsequently passes into a violet tint by con- 
 tact with the air. There is developed, sometimes, on the 
 plant, much before its maturity, reddish points. If we 
 cut into this part of the cane, it will be found to be pass- 
 ing from a red into a violet; having no more sweet 
 juice, but a species of vinegar, of a very disagreeable 
 flavor, (which is due to the ferments which are developed 
 from the juice under the influence of the air). We have 
 found, likewise, the larvae of insects in the interior of 
 the cane. Unfortunately they were lost before I could 
 experiment upon them. We are in possession of a stalk 
 which had received a bruise at the middle of one of its 
 internodes. This wound, which only seemed to the 
 naked eye a simple dot or point, controlled the violet 
 color in all the internodes which had acquired the defects 
 above indicated; but what is most remarkable is, that 
 the principal nodes did not participate in any way 
 in this alteration. This same coloring was observed 
 upon all the canes injured by hailstones." 
 
 PROSTRATION BY WIND-STORMS. 
 
 It unfortunately happened to us, that as our crop of the 
 last season was just approaching the time of the putting 
 forth of the panicles, a violent storm prostrated the 
 whole field. In our dilemma, ignorant of what was 
 best to be done, we tried various methods of raising 
 
44 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 them. We straightened up a number on opposite rows, 
 inclined them towards the center, and bound them 
 together by wisps of straw, or by strings, thinking that 
 by treating the whole field in this manner, we might 
 save a considerable portion of our crop ; but we soon 
 found that the knots on the canes were so tender that 
 a very large number of them broke in two at the joints, 
 and were thus rendered entirely useless. We discon- 
 tinued the experiment, after having satisfied ourselves of 
 its inefncacy. On the portions of the field which we 
 left untouched, the plants were mingled together in 
 much confusion upon the ground, and we found to our 
 surprise, that no fermentation occurred ; nor did the plants 
 beneath die out because of the superincumbent masses, 
 but like corn under similar circumstances, the stalks 
 began to grow with a curve upward. In some cases, 
 the upper ones' partly elevated themselves. The ones 
 beneath struggled to get to the light and air, in some 
 cases protruding their panicles where an opening occurred. 
 But Dr. Sicard, who met with a similar accident at the 
 time when they had not thrown out their seed-heads, 
 says, " At the end of several days they made efforts to 
 raise themselves. The canes which were on top were 
 nearly successful ; but not so those which were buried. It 
 seemed as if conscious that they could not overcome the 
 weight which rested upon them, they twisted their stalks 
 upwards, and in that prostrated condition developed 
 their flowers in the usual way. One of them which was 
 completely buried, and which could not reach the light, 
 had thrown out from each one of its nodes, shoots which 
 formed large panicles and yielded a rich harvest of 
 
DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANT. 45 
 
 seeds. The canes have suffered nothing from this mi- 
 propitious position. It was only those which were com- 
 pletely flat upon the ground and in contact with the 
 soil, which were unfit for the extraction of sugar. They 
 had been almost completely converted into feculent 
 matter. "We should observe that we had taken the 
 precaution to hill these sugar canes, which were thus 
 thrown upon the soil by storm. It is to be remarked 
 that the plants which were sown alone by themselves, 
 which were not hilled, had not been thrown down by 
 the wind, which corroborates the opinion previously 
 advanced by us of the uselessness of hilling. It now 
 seems to us proved that in letting the plant take care 
 of itself, without coming to its aid by artificial appliances, 
 the cultivation would be easier, and the harvest more 
 sure. Too much care given to certain products of the 
 soil are oftentimes more hurtful than useful." Unlike 
 Dr. Sicard's plants, my own were not in hills, but were 
 sown in drills at two, and two and a half feet apart. 
 I find that some rows of canes which were planted at 
 a distance of about a foot apart, in the row, in a more 
 exposed position than the field which was prostrated, 
 not only were not thrown down by the wind, but ripened 
 their seed-heads; and from our own experience we 
 learned the useful lesson that the Chinese Sugar Cane, 
 like our common corn, should not be planted so near 
 together, as, when they acquire their development, 
 to partially exclude the free access of air and sunlight 
 to every portion of the stalk. In fact the planting and 
 cultivation should, in all their details, be similar to 
 that given in the most approved practice to the corn crop. 
 
CHAPTEE III. 
 
 SOILS REQUIRED CULTURE MANURING. 
 
 WHEN we say that the Chinese Sugar Cane can grow 
 upon all soils on which a fair crop of Indian corn can be 
 raised, we have almost covered the entire question, and 
 given the desired information ; but inasmuch as upon 
 certain soils only can the best results, so far as the pro- 
 duction of sugar is concerned, be obtained, we deem it 
 expedient to record a few facts which have been gathered 
 from the observations of cultivators in all parts of the 
 world. The experiments which have been made upon it 
 in Algeria, France, and this country, have proved the 
 fact that the best results are obtained on loose, deep soils ; 
 but it has been demonstrated that the juices of plants 
 grown upon soils largely composed of vegetable detritus, 
 is more abundant in fecula, and the sugar manifests a 
 somewhat weaker propensity to crystallize than upon any 
 others ; but in such cases, as it contains a large quantity 
 of fecula, it can be readily converted into alcohol. There 
 seems to be a peculiar difference bet ween the juices of the 
 imphee and of the Chinese Sugar Cane, which is a fair 
 representation of the difference between the juices of 
 the Chinese Sugar Cane itself when produced under two 
 different conditions of soil ; and thus, for instance, in the 
 Chinese Sugar Cane there is a larger proportion of fecula 
 than in the imphee, and it is consequently necessary for 
 the planter to take more care in his attempts to produce 
 
 [46] 
 
SOILS REQUIRED CULTURE MANURING. 47 
 
 the sugar. " The juice of the Imphee," says Mr. Wray, 
 "is naturally more limpid, more free from extractive 
 matter, and proportionably easier to defecate." In cases 
 where the Chinese Sugar Cane has been grown on 
 swampy land, very large plants have been produced ; 
 but the juice contains sometimes several per cent, less of 
 crystallizable sugar, than when grown upon dry, warm 
 uplands. The canes grown upon warm, dry soils, situ- 
 ated so that they can be irrigated at pleasure from a 
 neighboring brook, according as the summer heat be- 
 comes more or less severe, will give the desired develop- 
 ment of stalk, and they will also have much purer juices ; 
 and hence, as we before observed, the effects of the con- 
 stant rains of this season will doubtless be to produce the 
 results which have been mentioned by Professor Heuze* 
 of Grignon, as resulting from the practice of excessive 
 irrigation. 
 
 M. Paul Madinier says, in his little pamphlet, that for 
 it are especially suitable light, sandy soils, and calcareous 
 soils ; but particularly those formed from alluvial depos- 
 its. That in nearly every case, especially in Algeria and 
 the southern part of France, very excellent results will 
 be attained by the employment of irrigation during the 
 early stages of its growth, and when it is most rapidly 
 developing itself; but that if employed at a later date, 
 when it is approaching maturity, it proves deleterious, by 
 impeding the elaboration of the saccharine principle, and 
 rendering the canes too watery. M. Hardy, the intelli- 
 gent director of the Government Nursery in Algeria, 
 says that the sorgho flourishes extremely well on soils con- 
 taining carbonate of lime, and he advises frequent liming 
 
4:8 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 of such soils as are deficient in it. This recommendation 
 finds its explanation in the astonishing success of the 
 sorgho on the chalky soils of Champagne, where, other- 
 wise, they obtained very mediocre results ; but, says M. 
 Madinier/ if calcareous applications seem desirable, it is 
 by no means the same of such other saline manures as 
 have been found by experience to be unfavorable for the 
 sugar cane and the sugar beet. 
 
 Lacoste urges upon his readers to avoid attempting the 
 sorgho culture on soils where the soluble, inorganic mat- 
 ters are very abundant, because they would thus be ex- 
 posed to the undesirable perplexity of producing juice in 
 their plants of a saline character, and completely unsuit- 
 able to the extraction of sugar. 
 
 Count Beauregard says that the sorgho will flourish 
 well on almost all soils, if they be underdrained and irri- 
 gated ; but his experience shows him what would be sup- 
 posed by any sensible man, that the best results are ob- 
 tained on soils of the best quality that are best cultivated. 
 . We may mention in respect to the soils, that one of 
 the French writers speaks of having procured fine crops 
 of sorgho from a soil on which he thinks he would not 
 have have got a fair crop of any other forage plant ; 
 and the acre of plants which I raised myself last year, 
 was on a coarse, gravelly loam, resting on a pure gravelly 
 subsoil, so hard that it was a matter of difficulty to plow 
 it, and subsoiling was almost impossible. From the ex- 
 perience of all the cultivators with whose writings I have 
 met, I should advise the choice of land of medium qual- 
 ity, and between a black loam and a pure gravel, and of 
 a moderate richness. 
 
SOILS REQUIRED CULTURE MANURING. 49 
 SHOULD HILLING BE PRACTICED? 
 
 There are in our own country, advanced by various 
 cultivators, conflicting opinions relative to the practice of 
 hilling corn. Some maintain its superior efficacy in 
 causing the appearance of extra roots, which serve to pro- 
 tect the plants from prostration by storms, and others as 
 strenuously urging that the very effort thus forced upon 
 the plant is an unnatural one, and is met by the penalty 
 of diminishing its strength. This same adversity of 
 opinion has been manifested in respect to the sorgho cul- 
 ture. Mr. Hardy, of Algiers, hills his plants three feet 
 apart, and irrigates them by making alongside each row a 
 slight surface furrow with a corn plow, and turning in it 
 a gentle streamlet of water from his brook or reservoir ; 
 but Dr. Sicard maintains that hilling is very unadvisable, 
 because the Chinese Sugar Cane has need of roots com- 
 mencing on the stalk above the surface of the ground ; 
 that, by their free contact with the atmosphere, there 
 may be absorbed carbonic acid and other nutritive gases, 
 and the just starting sap being thus early acted upon by 
 gases and sunbeam, is made more prone to crystallize at 
 a later period of its elaboration. His assumptions, he 
 maintains, were fully borne out by the comparative ex- 
 periments made on the hilled and flat cultivated, plants 
 on his field. Without assuming the right or ability to 
 settle the vexed question as to the chemical principles 
 involved, I would merely give my preference to the sys- 
 tem of cultivating flat and in drills on fair soils, for with 
 the improved implements which are so easily obtainable 
 at this time, and without which no farmer can really 
 3 
 
60 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 afford to cultivate his crops, the whole ground can be 
 effectually stirred up to the very foot of each plant, and 
 the double labor of turning at the end of rows crossing 
 each other be avoided ; the plants being spaced in the 
 rows at a suitable distance apart, are not overcrowded as 
 they are in hills, and they thus have greater tendency to 
 ripen their seed-heads. I should recommend planting at 
 three and a half feet apart, the plants in the row thinned 
 out to twelve inches apart. 
 
 DEEP CULTURE -SUBSOIL PLOWING. 
 
 The land should, of course, be well worked and deeply 
 stirred, and the use of the subsoil plow has on our 
 farm been attended with the happiest results. By its 
 disturbing influence upon the subjacent particles of the 
 soil, not only are spaces made through which in infinite 
 numbers are insinuated the delicate radicles of the grow- 
 ing plant, but at the same time sunlight, and the trick- 
 ling dew drops, and the gases of the atmosphere, descend 
 through the interstices and conspire to assist the develop- 
 ments of vegetable life. To a plant which is so tardy in 
 acquiring a rapidity in growth as the sorgho, it is espe- 
 cially desirable to give assistance in its early stages. 
 The swelling of the parent seed, the putting forth of the 
 first radicle, and the progressive accretions of matter, 
 are all expedited by a sufiicient contact with air, heat, 
 light, and moisture. When the soil remains quite com- 
 pact, by reason of much moisture present, the air, and 
 consequently warmth, is to a great extent excluded, and 
 the seed lying in the soil is not brought in contact with 
 
SOILS REQUIRED CULTURE MANURING. 51 
 
 the degree of warmth, which is necessary to aid the pro- 
 cess of germination, and thus, in many cases, will rot in 
 the ground. The subsoil plow, running as it does 
 deep beneath the surface, disturbs the relations of the 
 particles from the lowest portion of its path of travel up 
 to the topmost layers, and if its aid be called in when 
 the seed is first germinating, or when the tiny shoot is 
 but first above ground, the air, the dew, and the sun- 
 light are enabled to act directly upon its roots, and they 
 acquire great vigor and strength. 
 
 It is our practice at the Farm School to use a small 
 subsoil plow, with one horse* to mark out our rows of 
 sorgho and corn in place of the small plow, marker, or 
 chain commonly employed. By so doing, we thoroughly 
 loosen the soil directly under our row of plants, and pre- 
 pare for the deposit of the seed in a most thorough and 
 excellent manner. If the subsoil plow be subsequently 
 run between the rows once or twice during the season, the 
 whole ground will have been disturbed. 
 
 SOAKING SEED. 
 
 I think very favorably of the practice of soaking the 
 seed of the sorgho for twenty -four hours before planting. 
 It has been found by direct experiment that seeds deprived 
 of the hulls will germinate much sooner than those planted 
 at the same time but not so treated. Dr. Sicard, to try 
 the experiment, planted two lots of seed, one with, the 
 other without the hulls, and the latter were out of the 
 
 * This admirable instrument is manufactured by Nourse, Mason, 
 & Co., of Boston, from plans furnished by Professor J. J. Mapes. 
 
52 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 ground in ten days, five days before the other. This 
 method of procedure will be specially commendable in 
 those latitudes where the warmth of summer is of brief 
 duration, and every day that can be saved in the earlier 
 stages of growth is highly valuable. In warm soils, 
 which are likewise moist, the greatest rapidity of germi- 
 nation will be observed, and it behoves us to in some 
 manner imitate these desirable conditions by soaking the 
 seed for twenty -four hours in tepid water, to which is 
 added a small quantity of saltpeter, say about one ounce 
 to six gallons of water. Previous to sowing, it should be 
 rolled in plaster. 
 
 COVERING LIGHTLY. 
 
 It is a well known fact that it is highly unadvisable to 
 cover the seeds of certain of our vegetables, the carrot 
 for instance, too deeply, lest they rot. The sorgho is not 
 an exception to the rule, and the planter should beware 
 lest his hands carelessly cover the seed with more than 
 a light covering of earth ; for if continued moist weather 
 follows the planting, the seed will certainly rot in the 
 ground. 
 
 MANURES. 
 
 In considering the question as to which manure is 
 most suitable for the sorgho, we must recall the fact pre- 
 viously noticed in this work, that if the canes be grown 
 on soils in which either naturally or by artificial appli- 
 cation there are present excessive quantities of soluble 
 saline matter, so much will be absorbed by the plant as 
 
SOILS REQUIRED CULTURE MANURING. 
 
 53 
 
 to seriously impair the crystallizability of the sap. 
 Horse manure being violent in its action, and yielding a 
 large proportion of ammonia, is more unsuitable than 
 that of horned cattle, but the latter, even, is inferior 
 to the plowing in of clover, and other green crops. 
 From the analysis given by M. Avequin, of New 
 Orleans, which will be found in the Appendix, it will be 
 seen that the most important ingredients in the ash of 
 the sorgho are the phosphates of lime and magnesia, 
 acetate, muriate, and sulphate of potash, together with 
 hydrated silica and oxides of iron and manganese. 
 Lacoste gives in his pamphlet the following analysis by 
 M. Hetet, from the "Kevue Coloniale," 1856, page 164. 
 
 "Water, 
 
 Salts, 
 
 Sugar, 
 
 Woody fibre, 
 
 Albumen, 
 
 Fatty matter, 
 
 Cerosie, 
 
 70-000 
 0-537 
 
 29-463 
 
 100-000 
 
 The 0-537 contains 
 
 Silica, 0-062 
 
 Chlorine, 
 
 Sulph. Acid, 
 
 Phosph. " 
 
 Carbonic " LO'475 
 
 Potash, 
 
 Lime, 
 
 Magnesia, 
 
 > 0-537 
 
 The water given in the Sorgho analysis, he thinks some- 
 what less than it should be, say two per cent. 
 
 The bagasse, or crushed canes that have passed 
 through the mill, should be returned to the field and 
 plowed under, for like those of ordinary sugar cane they 
 will prove highly advantageous. Sicard mentions the 
 fact that one M. Lautier sowed some Chinese Sugar 
 
54 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 Cane in a field of potatoes, and with good results so far 
 as obtaining a crop of large canes was concerned. Each 
 potato had received, when planted, a handful of pigeon's 
 dung, and the sugar canes were planted when the po- 
 tatoes had attained the size of a pigeon's egg. The 
 canes given to the Doctor were of a fine size and ap- 
 pearance, but he found their juices quite unfit for sugar 
 making, because of the presence of foreign matters 
 therein contained ; thus clearly demonstrating the in- 
 jurious effects of an application of ammoniacal manure. 
 We have reason to regret that in sending the seed from 
 Shanghae, the Count de Montigny was not at the same 
 time able to advise us as to the details of cultivation 
 and manuring practiced by the Chinese. Probably no 
 country in the world can show such scientifically pur- 
 sued agriculture as China, and it is a most untoward 
 circumstance that during the present year anything 
 should have occurred in our relations with that country 
 to retard a closer intimacy with her people. It would 
 confer great riches upon our farmers if some explorers 
 could but report in detail upon the systems of 'husbandry 
 employed in China, for they would be shown so su- 
 perior to our own practices that they should necessarily 
 be imitated to a considerable extent. 
 
 CULTIVATION. 
 
 As soon as the rows can be seen and this would 
 be hastened by dropping a radish seed in each hill of 
 sorgho the cultivator, or horse-shoe, should be run 
 through the piece, to destroy any weeds while they are 
 
SOILS KEQUIKED CULTURE MANUEING. 55 
 
 small and tender. As soon after this as it is possible 
 to spare time, we run the one horse subsoil plow 
 twice between the rows, going up alongside one row, 
 and down by the other. The subsequent cultivation 
 is only a repetition of this practice. 
 
 HYBRIDIZATION. 
 
 It must be remembered, that the Chinese Sugar Cane is 
 a congener to broom corn, Guinea or chocolate corn, 
 Doura and Egyptian millet, and must not be planted 
 anywhere near any one of these, for in such case it 
 would most undoubtedly hybridize with them and lose 
 a great part of its sugar-bearing qualities. It is thought 
 by many extremely probable that the above varieties 
 are only hybridizations of the same original plant. 
 
 ^ I CUEING FODDER. 
 
 Considerable care should be taken in curing the fall 
 crop for stacking. Mr. D. Jay Browne recommends cut- 
 ting the stalks when the thermometer stands at 40 to 50 
 degrees Fahr., for it is then less likely to sour. The 
 method of cutting practiced by Dr. Eobert Battey, of 
 Georgia, is as follows : " The fodder (leaves) should be 
 stripped, as is corn, by the first set of hands ; another set 
 cut off one and a half to two feet of the top of the stalk 
 with the seed, while others cut the cane at the ground 
 and throw it into piles, from whence it is hauled to the 
 press." It will scarcely be necessary, I trust, to urge 
 the necessity of having got the mill and boilers in readi- 
 
56 THE CHINESE SUGAE CANE. 
 
 ness to crush, and boil, before commencing the harvest of 
 the crop. The canes should be allowed to lie but a 
 short time before being worked up, and hence it will be 
 advisable to commence by cutting and crushing the canes 
 which ripen before the major part of the crop, and each 
 day cutting up only as much as can be disposed of con- 
 veniently. 
 
 SAYING SEED. 
 
 The seed heads, with the two feet of stalk attached, 
 should be made into small bundles, and laid up or hung 
 up in the loft to dry. At a convenient season, the seed 
 should be stripped off with a broom-corn machine, a 
 comb, or by some other good method.* Mr. Wray has 
 removed his seed by putting the heads into a bag, and 
 threshing it with .flails. There is a demand now created 
 for a sorgho seed threshing machine, and it will not be 
 long before it is supplied. The seed may be cleaned by 
 rubbing briskly between the hands, and winnowing in a 
 strong wind. The leaves stripped from the canes should 
 be cured and stored for fodder. 
 
 * A suggestion for a cylinder-hatchel, for stripping the seed, will be 
 found in the Appendix, in letter of Hedges, Free & Co. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 VALUE AS A FORAGE CROP TESTIMONY OF CULTIVATORS. 
 
 THE plan I purpose to pursue in discussing the claims 
 of the sorgho to the attention of our farmers, is entirely 
 different from those of other investigators who have pre- 
 ceded me; for I shall at first consider its value as a 
 forage crop and a cereal, and endeavor to show that, even 
 if we could not make from it sugar, syrup, alcohol, or any 
 other of its products, we still have reason for congratu- 
 lating ourselves upon its introduction. If this be success- 
 fully accomplished, it is plain that, whatever may be the 
 fluctuations in its other .yields of profit, it will have a 
 regular commercial value as a means of fattening stock, 
 and in this single department be a source of large wealth 
 to the nation. It may possibly be that some of my more 
 speculative readers may prefer to omit the sober consid- 
 erations of this chapter, and at once pass over to the 
 more alluring phases of the following one ; but I have 
 too vivid a recollection of former vegetable wonders not 
 to seek to prove to our farmers that, in cultivating the 
 Chinese Sugar Cane, they will be more fortunate than 
 they were with the Morus multicaulis, which, after the 
 subsidence of the silk fever, was found to be unfit for 
 anything, except an application of the pick ax and plow. 
 Although I think the sorgho is destined to rank alongside 
 the sugar cane, Indian corn, cotton, and hemp, in the list 
 of our industrial plants, I firmly believe that it will be con- 
 
 [57] 
 
58 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 demned and abused by hundreds who are cultivating it 
 this year. Not because of any fault in the plant, but be- 
 cause the most extravagant notions of turning a small 
 garden patch into a rich sugar plantation have been en- 
 tertained, and the hope has been unwisely put forth by 
 some, that, without any of the proper apparatus, even 
 without the necessary conditions of growth, large quan- 
 tities of crystallized sugar could easily be obtained. As 
 I know by personal communication, in many instances 
 these dreams of inordinate wealth have been cherished 
 by persons of considerable intelligence, and I sincerely 
 trust that should these lines fall under the notice of any 
 such, they will not intemperately throw aside a really 
 wonderful plant after a single year's imperfect trial, but 
 with me be content to assume more conservative grounds. 
 
 SOWING FOR FODDER. 
 
 In cultivating the sorgho for its forage, it should be 
 sown in drills two feet apart, letting fall about fifteen to 
 twenty seeds to the foot. I think this method much pre- 
 ferable to sowing broadcast, for whilst I believe the 
 aggregate weight of fodder would be more considerable, 
 it gives a marked superiority in allowing a " root cleaner" 
 to be run between the drills, and the growth of enormous 
 crops of weeds, which might spring up in broadcast 
 sorgho, would be entirely prevented. In addition to this, 
 the field presents a more regular and orderly appearance, 
 the crop is easier to cut, not so liable to lodge, and in 
 cutting off a first crop, the sunlight and air is more freely 
 admitted to the roots and stubble, and the second crop of 
 ) or new shoots, is more likely to be a full one. 
 
VALUE AS A FOKAGE CROP. 59 
 
 RATTOONING. 
 
 In speaking of rattooning, we have touched upon a 
 property of the sorgho, which materially distinguishes 
 it from corn fodder, and shows its superiority. The 
 life-principle of the sorgho is so active, that if the plants 
 be cut down when they are either small or large, and 
 the stubble is suffered to remain undisturbed, there will 
 immediately spring up from the old stocks a new set of 
 canes, or rattoons, and if the season be long enough, the 
 new plants will, like their predecessors, run through all 
 the phases of growth, and bear and ripen seed. 
 
 CUTTING FODDER. 
 
 Hence, when cultivated for fodder, the crop should be 
 mowed down as soon as it is large enough to feed to 
 stock ; and according to the length of the season, two, 
 three, four, and even Jive crops can be obtained. Mr. D. 
 Jay Browne speaks of having known of five cuttings for 
 fodder, in' Florida, last year; the last crop perfecting its seed. 
 
 M. Ch. d'lvernois says, in a letter addressed to the 
 President of the Imperial Zoological Acclimation Society, 
 that the result of his extended experiments satisfies him 
 that the sorgho is a plant of immense value. He has 
 taken at Hyeres, during the last season, five abundant 
 cuttings on a soil light and fertile, but not capable of 
 being irrigated, and upon which he claims that scarce 
 any other forage crop would have given a result at 
 all analogous. The fodder was greedily eaten by all his 
 cattle. He thinks that the sorgho will be an acquisition 
 of surprising value as a fodder crop for the district of 
 
60 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 Provence, where so very few fodder plants can withstand 
 the four and a half months of absolute drought. He 
 believes that, as to the crop of seed, the more northern 
 districts of France cannot hope to compete with the 
 southern, but that it would be profitable if cut for fodder 
 before the ripening of the grain, as a cheap and abundant 
 supply of seed could always be obtained from more 
 southern latitudes. 
 
 TESTIMONY OF D. JAY BROWNE. ESQ. 
 
 Mr. Browne, at the last meeting, at Washington, of 
 the United States Agricultural Society, being called 
 upon by the Chair, gave a most interesting history of 
 his investigations and experience with the plant. He 
 mentioned that in Kentucky, he knew of nine tons of 
 fodder being raised on an acre, the weight taken after 
 three months drying. As a fodder crop, he thought its 
 geographical range would correspond to Indian corn, as it 
 had been grown as far north as St. Paul, Minnesota, and 
 fully ripened its seeds in Massachusetts and Illinois. He 
 cited instances of cows which had been fed upon this 
 cane exclusively, giving a diminished quantity of milk, 
 but of increased richness of quality. He had seen two 
 stock cows, not giving -milk, which had subsisted en- 
 tirely upon it for six weeks, and were in good condition 
 for the butcher. Animals fed upon it in the green 
 state throve remarkably well, affording excellent milk, 
 without exhibiting symptoms of "hoven," or flatulency, 
 which are sometimes produced by feeding upon succu- 
 lent clover or corn. 
 
VALUE AS A FOKAGE CROP. 61 
 
 TESTIMONY OP ASA WHITNEY. 
 
 Mr. Wliitney, "the Kailroad Napoleon," whose dairy 
 farm is near the city of Washington, found that if the 
 morning's milk of cows fed upon the sorgho were put in 
 a bottle or laid on the ice to keep it cool, by night it 
 would have become so thickened with cream as to be 
 removed from the bottle with some difficulty. A gentle- 
 man in Massachusetts informed me that he had experi- 
 mented with sorgho in feeding a number of cows, and 
 that it not only augmented the richness of the milk, but 
 the quantity likewise. 
 
 TESTIMONY OP AUTHOR. 
 
 We have on our farm a pair of large Conestoga horses, 
 which are kept constantly at hard work throughout the 
 season. Last year we fed them for about six weeks on 
 sorgho stalks, with nothing else except a little timothy 
 hay ; and we found that, although they were continually 
 plowing, hauling stones and lumber, and performing such 
 laborious duty, yet at the end of the time they were as 
 sleek and fat as could be desired. 
 
 TESTIMONY OF MR. GRATZ, OF KENTUCKY. 
 
 Benjamin Gratz, Esq., of Lexington, Kentucky, Presi- 
 dent of the County Agricultural Society, informs me in 
 a recent letter, that his SOD, a large planter, tried some 
 experiments in feeding his mules on sorgho, and that 
 " they consumed it with great avidity, leaving no residue. 
 lie also gave a portion to his hogs, with the same result. 
 
62 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 He is under the impression that it will prove very valu- 
 able for stock generally." 
 
 Mr. J. F. C. Hyde, of Newton Centre, Massachusetts, 
 says at page 32 of his book, " I used the seed cane stalks 
 and leaves for fodder ; cut up the stalks and fed to horses, 
 cows, and swine, and they would eat it with the greatest 
 avidity, even like shelled corn." 
 
 Doctor Bowman, of Illinois, has fed the stalks to his 
 horses, and writes me in the most enthusiastic manner of 
 its value for forage. 
 
 MR. WRAY'S REMARKS AT THE FARMERS' CLUB. 
 
 At a recent meeting of the Farmers' Club of the Ameri- 
 can Institute, Mr. Wray gave some account of his discov- 
 ery of the imphee, and, among other things of his expe- 
 rience, mentioned-the fact that it had been his practice to 
 feed the green plants to his animals. He cuts them into 
 pieces and sprinkles upon each mess a handful of salt. 
 Under this treatment he finds all descriptions of stock to 
 keep in good working condition, and increase in fat. 
 The Kaffirs told him not to feed to his animals the bag- 
 asse ; and, disregarding their advice, he lost several head 
 of cattle, from the fact, as he learned by opening their 
 bodies after death, that the bagasse when taken into the 
 stomach formed itself into large balls, from the succes- 
 sive accumulations of which death had ultimately been 
 caused. This undesirable result is not attained when the 
 planter takes the precaution of adding to the bagasse the 
 scum removed from the boilers. 
 
VALUE AS A FORAGE CROP. 63 
 
 COUNT BEAUREGARD'S EXPERIENCE. 
 
 The illustrious President of the Agricultural Assembly 
 of Toulon, Count Beauregard, mentions the fact that he 
 had " sustained for a month and a half sixty head of 
 stock with the produce of a hectare (about two acres), 
 which had yielded sugar sorgho the previous year, and 
 which, by a circumstance independent of my wish, had 
 not been resown this year, and had received but one light 
 plowing, and no manure. This hectare was so well pro- 
 vided with vigorous plants springing from the seeds 
 which had been spilled at the harvest, that I did not feel 
 willing to turn them under, and thus we were enabled 
 throughout the entire month July and half of August, to 
 give to our animals an excellent nourishment, and one on 
 which they throve marvelously well." And, further- 
 more, he says, " The only thing which my very consider- 
 able experience of the past three years constrains me to 
 add is, that this plant, contrary to what might be feared, 
 robs and deteriorates the soil to a much less extent than 
 many others with which I am acquainted ; for I have 
 harvested three crops in three consecutive years from the 
 same field, with but a slight manuring in each case, and 
 the yields have been more and more excellent." 
 
 TESTIMONY OF G. DE LACOSTE. 
 
 Lacoste says, p. 26 of his book, that if fed green to 
 cows, the sorgho will cause an increased flow of milk, 
 and that every portion of the saccharine stalk is eaten 
 with avidity by cattle, and that it seems specially adapted 
 to nourishing them. 
 
64: THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 GOVERNOR GARDNER, OF MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 Hon. H. J. Gardner, Governor of Massachusetts, in a 
 letter to Mr. J. F. 0. Hyde, enumerates the following 
 facts : 
 
 "As a green fodder it produces more food for cattle 
 on the same space, and at the same cost as corn. Cattle 
 prefer it to corn fodder; for 'I repeatedly gave it mixed 
 with corn stalks to cows, and it was amusing to see them 
 carefully select the sugar canes from the other. It is 
 more juicy and nutritious for milch cows than any other 
 fodder, for it is well known that sugar contains more 
 nourishment than almost any other vegetable production 
 in daily use." 
 
 EXPERIENCE OF C. L FLINT, OF MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 Chas. L. Flint, Esq., Secretary of the Massachusetts 
 State Board of Agriculture, in his letter to Mr. Hyde, 
 says that he knows instances where cattle picked it out, 
 stalk by stalk, from bundles of corn stalks ; and further, 
 " there seems every reason to believe that, as a forage 
 plant, it will very rapidly come into general favor, and 
 help us essentially through our summer drouths." 
 
 CURING. 
 
 Any one of my readers who has grown our common 
 corn for fodder, will understand that considerable care 
 must be taken in curing the green succulent stalks of the 
 sorgho. It should be cut in the morning, when the dew 
 is off the plants, and suffered to lie on the ground and 
 
VALUE AS A FORAGE CEOP. 65 
 
 become well dried before it is bound up. The bundles 
 should be small, and before putting them in stack, or in 
 the barns, should be set up in groups in the field to cause 
 a further quantity of water to be evaporated. The stack 
 should, of course, be built on rails or other convenient 
 poles, to allow of a circulation of air beneath, and to 
 carry out this requisition to a greater extent, it is well to 
 build the stack around rails set up on end, and leaning 
 inwards towards the center ; by which plan, of course, 
 the interior of the stack is in direct contact with the 
 atmosphere, and thus heating will not so soon occur. 
 The extra trouble of curing is repaid by the increased 
 quantity of product, as compared with hay ; but even 
 taking considerable precautions, it may occur that an 
 inexperienced person will not be able to save his crop in 
 good condition on a first trial. 
 
 THE SORGHO IN TEXAS THIS YEAR. 
 
 The newspaper accounts from Texas, which have 
 recently appeared, state the fact, that in all parts of that 
 state the Chinese Sugar Cane has manifested its superi- 
 ority to sowed corn in withstanding the drouth. 
 
 ITS ABILITY TO WITHSTAND DROUTH. 
 
 This entirely agrees with my experience of it last 
 summer ; for the sorgho did not manifest its real rapidity 
 of growth until the commencement of the two months 
 "heated term" which we endured. When our corn 
 plants drooped and curled their leaves, the sorgho wa-s 
 not only unaffected by the heat, but daily grew in beauty 
 
00 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 of appearance and height. "When the great profits of 
 sowing a piece of corn for fodder, to be cut up and fed to 
 the stock in their stalls, shall have become generally 
 appreciated, we may confidently look for the universal 
 practice of replacing it in great part by the sorgho, both 
 because of its multiplied cuttings, its nutritive properties, 
 and its superior ability to withstand the scorching suns 
 of midsummer. 
 
 ITS NUTRITIVE QUALITIES. 
 
 It may perhaps be well in this connection to refer 
 to the fact that in Cuba the negroes, and the animals 
 employed on the sugar plantations, are at no time of 
 the year compelled to undergo more unremitting toil 
 than during the boiling season ; they are compelled to 
 keep mills and boilers at work night and day, for the 
 season allowed them to work up the crop of canes is 
 brief, and they must employ their time to the best ad- 
 vantage. It is customary to work the hands in "gangs," 
 who relieve each other alternately, one gang being at 
 work while the other rests. Yet with all this it is a fact 
 evident to every one who has visited an "Ingenio," or 
 sugar plantation, that both negroes and animals, by 
 reason of drinking the juice, and eating the stalks of 
 the cane, are more sleek and healthy than at any other 
 season of the year. Now this increase in fat is chemically 
 explained by the presence of large quantities of carbon 
 in the form of sugar, and as every one knows, sugar 
 and fat are made of ingredients entirely the same, viz., 
 carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. If this be borne in 
 mind, then it will be no more than fair to anticipate 
 
VALUE AS A FOBAGE CROP. 67 
 
 what is really the fact, that animals fed upon the sorgho 
 stalks, should be quickly brought into a sleek, fat 
 condition. 
 
 SIZE OF STALKS IN NORTH AFRICA. 
 
 F. Bourdais, the distiller, at Constantine, Algeria, says, 
 and he calls upon Mr. Hardy to testify to the fact, that on 
 his place he has had a number of sorgho plants which sent 
 up sixteen and eighteen suckers to a height of twelve feet, 
 and measured four inches and three quarters in circum- 
 ference at the base. Numbers of others sent up ten and 
 twelve shoots ; and the average of his field was six and 
 seven shoots from a single seed. 
 
 TESTIMONY OF DR. TURREL AND LACOSTE. 
 
 Dr. Turrel, in his article to the Bulletin Mensuel de la 
 Societe Imp. Zobl. $ Acclimation, says, that his pigs 
 crunch the succulent and sweet stalks of the sorgho with 
 delight. They devour the seeds, and thrive on them. 
 Grellet Balquerie maintains that sorgho seed can be fed 
 to horses in place of oats. 
 
 Lacoste, in a lettter to the Imperial Society, says, that 
 "the seeds fattened poultry, and for feeding to horses, 
 will profitably replace barley; and for this one thing, 
 pay all costs of cultivation." According to Professor 
 Thompson,* of Glasgow, the barley contains 11.31 per 
 cent of nutritive matter. 
 
 * Thompson's " Food of Animals." N. Y., C. M. Saxton & Co. 
 
68 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 THE VOTE OP THE JURY OP ANIMALS. 
 
 Animal instinct is, after all, the best test of the com- 
 parative value of different substances for forage ; and, 
 taking this view of the case, we can establish beyond 
 cavil the fact that sorgho seed is good feed for poultry 
 and birds of all descriptions. Sundry of the French 
 experimenters lament their inability to protect their 
 sowings of seed from the voracious attacks of sparrows ; 
 and in one of our southern states the entire crop of seed, 
 on a small plot in a gentleman's garden, was made way 
 with by his chickens and pigeons. 
 
 THE COLORING MATTERS IN THE SEED. 
 
 The coloring matter in the hulls is so easily separated, 
 and carried with the fluids of the animal body, that the 
 flesh, and even the minute cellular structure of the bones 
 of poultry, fed upon sorgho seed, becomes actually dyed 
 purple. Mr. Wray says, he has seen in Count Beaure- 
 gard's poultry-yard, the droppings of chickens fed on 
 the seeds, that could at once be distinguished, by their 
 purplish hue, from those of the other inmates of the yard. 
 I have been shown, by that gentleman, a piece of 
 pigeon's dung that had, by accident, been packed in a 
 case of his sorgho seed-heads, and been received in this 
 country, direct, from Hyeres, which was as purple as a 
 mulberry stain. Of course it will be understood, that 
 this coloring matter is entirely without taste, and no 
 injury is done to the fowl. In fact, it may become a 
 fashionable thing to pay extra for purple broiled chicken. 
 
i VALUE AS A FOKAGE CROP. 69 
 
 YIELD PER ACRE OE SEED AND FODDER. 
 
 In respect to the yield of seed per acre, the north, says 
 M. d'lvernois, cannot hope to equal the south, where 
 sixty bushels are produced. This result was obtained in 
 the neighborhood of Hy&res. In our own country, 
 Col. Peters, of Georgia, obtained twenty-five bushels per 
 acre, of thirty-six pounds per bushel. Gov. Hammond, 
 of South Carolina, weighed a peck after three days' 
 drying in the sun, and found the weight to be thirty- 
 eight pounds per bushel. I have weighed several lots 
 from Yilmorin, Andrieux, & Co., of Paris, and Count 
 Beauregard, and found the weight to vary from forty to 
 forty-eight pounds. Mr. Hyde says the yield is from 
 twenty-five to fifty bushels to the acre. 
 
 Thus we see that on partially exhausted wheat soils, 
 or alluvial soils, both of which are specially adapted to 
 the sorgho, instead of a poor yield of wheat, we may 
 plant the former, and, not taking anything else into con- 
 sideration, obtain a crop of from twenty-five to sixty 
 bushels of seed. 
 
 In the early portion of this chapter, I mentioned that 
 Mr. Brown said that nine tons of dry fodder had been 
 cut in Kentucky last season : Hon. Marshall P. "Wilder, 
 president of the United States Agricultural Society, tells 
 me that he knows one instance where 19.844 Ibs. of 
 fodder had been obtained, the weight taken after a three 
 months' drying. The weight of the green stalks varies 
 from seven to forty tons, according to circumstances. 
 The Director of the Government Nursery at Hamma, 
 Algiers, in his report to the Minister of War (see 
 
70 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 appendix), says lie got a result of 83,250 Ibs. of green 
 forage, per acre. Our own Patent Office Report, for 1855, 
 says, u Aside from other economical uses, its value for 
 feeding to animals alone, in every section of the Union 
 where it will thrive, cannot be surpassed by any other 
 crop, as a greater amount of nutritious fodder cannot be 
 obtained so cheaply in a given space within so short a 
 time ; and without wishing to present the question in an 
 extravagant light, it may be stated, that this crop is 
 susceptible of being cultivated within the territory of the 
 United States, to an extent equal to that of Indian corn, 
 say 25,000,000 acres per annum; and estimating the 
 average yield of dry or cured fodder to the acre at two 
 tons, the yearly amount produced would be 50,000,000 
 tons, which, to keep within bounds, would be worth at 
 least $500,000,000, besides the profits derived from the 
 animals in milk, flesh, labor, and wool." 
 
 SHOULD NOT BE ALLOWED TO GROW MORE THAN ONE TEAK. 
 
 It is not at all desirable to suffer the stubble of canes 
 sown for fodder to remain all winter and throughout the 
 subsequent summer, to raise a second year's crop of 
 fodder or sugar ; for the experience of Mr. Hardy shows 
 that the shoots of the second year are not larger than 
 one's little finger, and attain oDly a feeble growth, the 
 third season they are contemptible in size. The farmer 
 may well be contented with the fodder of the first year's 
 production, for if it be thought profitable practice to 
 keep land in grass that cuts only a ton or a ton and a half 
 per acre, what should be our estimate of a fodder crop as 
 
VALUE AS A FORAGE CROP. 71 
 
 good as hay, and giving ten tons of dried nutritious matter, 
 with but light manuring ? 
 
 If a farmer has a field lying so that he can irrigate it 
 by clamming the waters of some small creek or brooklet, 
 and by means of a flood-gate turning the water at will 
 into small plow furrows, running alongside each row, 
 it certainly would be very judicious practice to put it 
 into sorgho fodder ; for as his desire is not to make 
 crystallized sugar, or other of the products of its sweet 
 juices, excessive irrigation will not only do no harm to 
 his crop, but will cause magnificent growths of plants in 
 every way suitable for nourishing his stock. 
 
 It must not be supposed that because Monsieur Hardy 
 and others have obtained ten tons of dried forage from an 
 acre of sorgho, the labor of every farmer, without res- 
 pect to peculiarities of practice, soil, or climate, will be 
 rewarded to an equal extent. If the proper soils be 
 selected, and the proper method of culture be pursued, it 
 lies within the reach of all to duplicate his success. With 
 this culture in all its phases, forage, syrup, sugar, or any 
 other, good judgment and perseverance will always win 
 the prize. 
 
CHAPTEE Y. 
 
 SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING. 
 
 A WEST INDIAN SUGAR PLANTATION-CFTTING-CEUSHING-BOILING. 
 
 IT is useless to conceal the fact, that, despite its great 
 excellence as a forage crop, and despite its other manifold 
 uses, the public are looking to the sorgho as a SUGAR 
 PLANT with more expectation and apprehension than in 
 any other light. Until the present feverish excitement 
 shall have subsided into more reasonable and practical 
 channels, it must be expected that when the vivid dreams 
 of sugar planting in garden spots and on five acre corn 
 fields, now, alas, so prevalent, are dispelled, and men 
 begin to realize that a good sugar plantation, with appro- 
 priate buildings and machinery, costs a vast deal of money, 
 much dissatisfaction will be experienced and publicly 
 manifested. For this reason, and to shield from, blows 
 and insults a promising agricultural staple, I have chosen 
 to consider it, first, as a forage crop. 
 
 As yet, the sugar made from the juice of the sorgho 
 has been in a very small way not more than a few 
 ounces, at most, at one time and as this chapter is writ- 
 ten before the earliest of this season's crops have been 
 worked up, I cannot speak of sorgho sugar making on 
 a large scale, but must defer such remarks to appear in 
 the Appendix, after I have been to South Carolina and 
 
 [72] 
 
SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING. 73 
 
 witnessed the extensive operations on the place of Gover- 
 nor Hammond, which, I trust, will occur in time to per- 
 mit their insertion in the first edition of this work. 
 Should the season, however, continue as inauspicious as 
 it has been heretofore, it may be necessary to issue the 
 first edition to fill the numerous orders already received 
 in advance, and defer until the second edition the report 
 on the southern experiments. 
 
 I have given in this chapter full details for the best 
 processes of sugar making, and engravings of suitable 
 apparatus, furnished expressly for the work by Mr. John 
 "W. Eeid, of No. 11 Old Slip, 'New York, and made from 
 drawings of articles which he furnishes to planters, so 
 that in case it is proved that on our soil and in our cli- 
 mate either the sorgho or the imphee may really rank as 
 sugar-producing plants, our farmers and planters may be 
 intelligently advised as to the steps necessary to pur- 
 sue to institute sugar making experiments on a large or 
 small scale. 
 
 THE CAUSE FOR PRESENT HIGH PRICES. 
 
 Speaking of the great need which is felt for a new 
 sugar plant, the "New York Tribune" remarks as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 " The recent general enhancement of the current prices 
 of sugars, though stimulated and swelled by speculation, 
 has a genuine basis. In the first place, there is an in- 
 crease of several per cent, in the population of the civil- 
 ized world within the last quarter of a century, insuring 
 a like increase in the natural demand for sugar. Then it 
 is not doubtful that, in the general absence of wars, the 
 4 
 
74 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 proportion of people able to purchase and consume sugar 
 and other luxuries to the extent of their desires, has like- 
 wise increased. It is further true that the general manu- 
 facture and use of preserved fruits, &c., is rapidly increas- 
 ing. But the successive, failures of the grape for several 
 years past has led to the diversion of the beet crop of 
 France, which is very large and important, from the 
 production of sugar to that of brandy the French 
 brandies, formerly made of the juice of the grape, bear- 
 ing a reputation and a price throughout the world which 
 render this conversion highly profitable. Hence France, 
 which, from Napoleon's coronation to Louis Phillippe's 
 dethronement, had been steadily advancing toward the 
 point of producing her own sugar, has recently been fall- 
 ing rapidly back to a position of dependence for her 
 supply on the tropical, cane-growing Indies. It is under- 
 stood that the production of sugar in the British West 
 Indies has fallen off since emancipation ; the liberated 
 negroes finding employment more to their taste than the 
 severe labor of the cane-field and sugar-mill ; though in 
 British Guiana the production of sugar has recently been, 
 and is still, rapidly increasing. California and Australia 
 have had some part in producing the general result, those 
 countries producing little or no sugar while consuming 
 largely, and at the same time increasing the world's bul- 
 lion, and thereby enhancing the prices of nearly every- 
 thing but gold. 
 
 "It is clear that the annual production of sugar must 
 be increased ; but where, and how ? The severe cold 
 of last winter destroyed a great deal of cane, and practi- 
 cally diminished the area of tropical cane-growing soil, 
 
SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING. 75 
 
 India, and the adjacent regions of Southern Asia, might 
 produce more sugar ; but their people are very slow to 
 change the direction of their industry, while those of 
 Spanish America have little industry of any sort. There 
 is more sugar land in the West Indies, but it is mainly 
 wilderness, which can only be converted into cane fields 
 at heavy cost and by severe labor of course, quite 
 slowly. 
 
 " In view of these facts, inquiry has very properly 
 been made for saccharine plants adapted to the temperate 
 zone, and which may be profitably employed in the pro- 
 duction of sugar. Until some plant of this sort is found 
 and extensively cultivated, it is not probable that the 
 price of sugar, as measured by that of wheat, beef, and 
 other edibles, will be essentially reduced. With the 
 prospect of an active demand and a high price for sugar 
 through several years ahead, it seems but reasonable that 
 the sugar-producing area should be enlarged, if that be 
 found practicable. 
 
 " That there is no lack of plants from which sugar may 
 be made, is well known. Indian corn, the rock maple, 
 and some other trees, the beet-root, and sundry other 
 esculents, contain and yield sugar, but generally at a cost 
 above that at which it can be extracted from the cane. 
 There is, therefore, a real and realized demand for a 
 sugar-producing plant which may be grown in temperate 
 latitudes, and which will yield nearly or quite as bounti- 
 fully, in view of their relative cost, as the cane." 
 
76 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 THE ''AFRICAN APPRENTICE" SYSTEM. 
 
 There is another problem presented for solution to 
 the world, through the Government of the Emperor 
 Napoleon, and subsequently by the British Parlia- 
 ment, in which, it seems to me, the sorgho and imphee 
 are destined to have an important influence. "This 
 proposition, when calmly examined, turns out to be 
 nothing more or less than a project for developing the 
 resources of the French West Indian Colonies, by the 
 immediate introduction of large bodies of negro laborers, 
 to be engaged on terms similar to those under which 
 the coolies of China are now, and have for some time, 
 been transported in very considerable numbers to the 
 colonial territories of Great Britain." The cause for 
 this remarkable proposition, which in reality amounts 
 to a revival of the African slave trade, under a white- 
 washed exterior, is found in the greatly augmented 
 demand for sugars ; and the simple problem has been 
 forced upon the world : in what way can a sufficient 
 staff of producers be most speedily thrown upon the soil 
 of the great sugar-growing countries? Now, if it can be 
 demonstrated that by cultivating the imphee and the 
 sorgho, the sugar fields can be so widened as to embrace 
 the countries throughout the whole Temperate Zone, 
 of course supply at once runs parallel with demand, 
 and the present alarming scarcity gives way to plenteous 
 abundance. Although it is warmly urged by sugar 
 planters, that free labor cannot compete with slave labor 
 in sugar growing, yet this assertion must be received cum 
 grano sails, for whilst tropical climates may raise sugar 
 to the exclusion of more northern ones, when price:? 
 
SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING. 77 
 
 are so low as to make white labor more productive in 
 other branches of industry, yet if put in possession of 
 plants suited to their latitudes, the greatly augmented 
 price of sugar, at any time, would withdraw these la- 
 borers from other employments to turn producers of 
 sugar, for their families first, and, from their surplus, to 
 supply neighbors and friends. Thus the strife between 
 the two is no longer one of latitude, but has become one 
 of prices. 
 
 The common sugar cane of the tropics, " Saccharum 
 officinarum" being of the same family with the 'plant 
 now treated of, and its juices for the manufacture of 
 syrup, or sugar, requiring almost an identity of treatment, 
 as illustrating this part of my subject I append the 
 following description, with illustrations, of the mode of 
 cultivating cane and manufacturing sugar on the island 
 of Cuba, from the pen of Mr. Eeid, who has become 
 thoroughly conversant with the matter by a residence 
 in those countries. 
 
 THE CULTIVATION OF SUGAR IN THE ISLAND OF CUBA. 
 
 On the island of Cuba, farms or plantations, are di- 
 vided into three distinct classes: the "Ingenio," or sugar 
 estate, (pronounced Inhaneo) ; the " Cafetal," or coffee and 
 orange estate, (pronounced Caftal) ; and the " Potrero," or 
 farm, where stock, grain, or vegetables are produced. It 
 being with the first of these only that our subject has to 
 do, I will confine my remarks to the " Ingenio " alone ; 
 and if, in the sequel, I should at any time mention the 
 word "potrero," it is to be understood as referring, 
 
78 . THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 not to an estate exclusively set aside for the purposes 
 mentioned, but merely as relating to that portion of 
 every sugar estate, necessarily set apart for the raising of 
 cattle, and for such crops of grain or fodder as are 
 intended for its own consumption. 
 
 There are about two thousand five hundred sugar 
 estates, large and small, to be found on the island of Cuba, 
 ranging in size from the one having only fifty, to the 
 one with over fifteen hundred acres of cane field under 
 cultivation. These are the extremes, however ; the aver- 
 age of the whole island would not exceed one hundred 
 and fifty to two hundred acres of growing cane to each 
 estate ; requiring to cultivate these, and carry on profita- 
 bly the business of the plantation, without overworking 
 the negroes, about one negro to every two acres. Many 
 planters, however, manage to get along with fewer hands 
 than this; but where a good field hand is worth from 
 eight hundred to one thousand dollars, it must be evident 
 that the over-work which ensues from planting more cane 
 than the gang can conveniently handle, in the end proves 
 the most expensive economy the planter can adopt. 
 
 SOIL. 
 
 The soil of Cuba has two marked characteristics of 
 color, depending upon the locality where each is found : 
 the one, and most striking, is of a deep red or Spanish 
 brown hue, which pigment it much resembles, soiling 
 every thing which it touches of a ruddy tint the legs of 
 the horses and cattle, as well as the clothes of the culti- 
 vators; the other soil is a rich black mould or humus, 
 
SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING. 79 
 
 evidently the remains of old swamp or morass. . This 
 latter is to be found chiefly in the valleys and level 
 tracts, while the other occupies more elevated ground. 
 The island is evidently of coral formation, upheaved by 
 some convulsion of nature from the depths of the ocean ; 
 and the red land, as it is called in contradistinction to the 
 black land, seems to consist of decomposed coral rock, 
 mixed with vegetable carbon and a metallic oxide, prob- 
 ably iron, which gives it the appearance referred to. 
 Cubans do not show preference for either soil, but in my 
 opinion, the black soil grows better sugar, the canes be- 
 ing in every way superior. 
 
 Although the soil of the island is wonderfully fertile, 
 producing, without apparent diminution, crop after crop 
 of sugar, without other manure than the cane trash left 
 on the ground, yet even on " the ever faithful island " 
 this exhausting process cannot and does not go on for 
 ever. This is evidenced by the fact that the older plan- 
 tations are no longer what they were in the memory of 
 those still living; they are beginning to wear out;, the 
 canes are becoming short, thin, and sparse ; and in a few 
 years will no doubt cease to yield sugar at all, unless 
 the proper remedy of manure be applied. But as an evi- 
 dence of the wonderful fecundity of these estates, it may 
 be interesting to know that some of them are over one 
 hundred years old. 
 
 CULTIVATION. 
 
 As regards the agricultural processes followed by the 
 Creole planters, they are of the simplest kind; for, al- 
 
80 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 though a few of the most enterprising, as well as a few 
 planters of foreign birth, use the subsoil plow and other 
 labor-saving machines, yet the great bulk merely scratch 
 the soil with hoes, or small, rude surface-plows ; giving as 
 a reason for going no deeper, that if the soil be turned 
 up, it will produce fever and cholera to destroy their 
 negroes. So strong is this belief, that when a friend of 
 the writer, some years ago, imported subsoil plows from 
 the United States for use on his plantation, his neighbors 
 remonstrated, and threatened a law suit ; he persisted, 
 however ; subsoiled an old patch nearly worn out, planted 
 his seed, and was rewarded with the finest crop of cane 
 that had been seen in the district for years ; no fever or 
 cholera resulted, and the prejudice was eradicated in that 
 part of the country at all events. 
 
 PLANTING-RATTOOMNG. 
 
 It is not necessary in the West India Islands, as in 
 Louisiana, to plant canes every year ; there being no frost 
 there to kill the roots, they continue to throw up fresh 
 shoots for many years, which shoots are equally good, as 
 if sprung from canes planted each season. This habit is 
 called rattooning, the canes so growing are called rattoons, 
 and the roots, in favorable soil, will continue to rattoon 
 every season for a long time. As an instance of this, the 
 writer on one occasion, in Cuba, was riding with a planter, 
 viewing his estate ; we came to a fine field of cane, each 
 cane with at least seven to eight feet of sap, and thick in 
 proportion. The planter drew up his horse, and, point- 
 
SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING. 81 
 
 ing to the field, asked rne what I thought of it. I exam- 
 ined it more critically, and although the joints were 
 pretty close, I came to the conclusion that it was cane of 
 the third or fourth year, and very good at that. I said 
 so to my friend, who commenced laughing, and told me 
 to guess its age, assuring me that it was more than three 
 years planted. I guessed seven, ten, fifteen, and even 
 twenty years, with no better success. It turned out that 
 this field had been planted by the father of my friend, 
 before he himself was born, and had yielded a good crop 
 every year since. My friend, at the time, ' was over 
 thirty years old. 
 
 In Louisiana, canes are planted generally in rows, six 
 feet apart between the rows. In Cuba, four feet is the 
 distance allowed between each row. A furrow, or series 
 of holes, is made, four or five inches deep, and two joints 
 of cane put in side by side, so that in case one joint fails 
 to germinate, the other may supply its place. The earth 
 is loosely drawn over the seed, and, with the exception 
 of occasional weeding till the plants are strong enough 
 to take care of themselves, little more is required either 
 for young plants or rattoons. Latterly the Louisiana 
 method of planting six feet apart has been introduced on 
 some estates with good results ; and there can be little 
 doubt but that, if the same energy and intelligence pre- 
 vailed in Cuba as are to be found in Louisiana, this 
 wonderfully fertile island might be made to produce 
 sufficient sugar to supply the whole world, so rich and 
 recuperative is its soil, and so admirable its climate. 
 This is owing, no doubt, to its situation in the middle of 
 that ocean current of warm water called the Gulf Stream. 
 Here frost never comes, and the thermometer is seldom 
 
82 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 known to descend lower than 65 Fahrenheit in the 
 open air. 
 
 BUILDINGS. 
 
 Situated as near as possible in the center of the planta- 
 tion, is found "the mill and boiling-house," with their 
 appurtenances- of negro-house, cattle-sheds, bagasse 
 house, &c., &c. A central position for these is selected, 
 BO as to be equally distant from all the cane fields, unless 
 some equally important objection against it should arise. 
 Such might be the absence of water, &c. This is first to 
 be looked for before putting up the buildings, which are 
 generally stone structures, with a large chimney, sixty to 
 ninety feet high, into which all the flues of the boiling- 
 house and engine lead. The chimney is the most im- 
 portant part of the whole establishment. If this should 
 be too small, or should not draw properly, it puts a stop 
 to everything. Steam cannot be got up in the boilers, 
 therefore the mill cannot work ; the sugar trains only 
 partially boil, and general consternation prevails. Such 
 a calamity, however, seldom happens, unless a planter 
 should have foolishly added an additional train of kettles 
 to an already overtaxed flue, or changed his machinery 
 from a cattle mill to a steam mill, without enlarging his 
 chimney, or building a separate one for his boilers. The 
 remedy in the first case is easy ; in the second, an ad- 
 ditional chimney has to be run up with all speed. Acci- 
 dents like these are great annoyances to planters, being 
 seldom discovered until the last moment, and when every 
 day is valuable. 
 
SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING. 83 
 
 PREPARING FOR CROP. 
 
 For a month or three weeks before the crop or grinding 
 season commences, the sugar-house presents an animated 
 scene. A general overhauling of the whole concern is 
 going on. The cattle pump is drawing water from the 
 river or large well, as the case may be, and it is being 
 used plentifully everywhere; the engine and mill are 
 being taken to pieces by the engineer (generally an 
 American), and carefully examined, to see that no 
 injury has been sustained during last 'crop. The kettles 
 are being scrubbed out ; the coolers tightened up and 
 cleaned ; the molasses tanks purified from the cock- 
 roaches and rats that have met an untimely end in them ; 
 and the whole buildings, so far as practicable, are being 
 whitewashed with lime. In short, the sugar house has 
 been in a state of slow fermentation since last crop, and 
 must be sweetened by plentiful doses of lime and water, to 
 render it fit for new operations. This being effected, the 
 engineer informs the overseer, or mayoral, that he is 
 ready to commence grinding. The mayoral, on his part, 
 has examined the condition of the various cane fields, and 
 made up his inind what field he will cut first. A day is 
 appointed to commence grinding, probably the 10th to 
 the 20th November. Until then a general lull takes 
 place, and every one, from the " mayoral " to the latest 
 imported " Bozal nigger" enjoys himself according to his 
 taste. The negroes choose sleeping, dancing, or beating 
 the "gumbo," and the white Creoles gambling at monte, 
 or attending the nearest ' ( baile," or ball. 
 4* 
 
84 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 COMMENCING WORK. 
 
 The important morning at length arrives. The field 
 gangs are told off by the mayoral, at daybreak, and, armed 
 with their machetes, or cane knives (Figures 1 and 2), they 
 
 start for the point decided upon, followed by a string of 
 bullock carts, to bring the cane to the mill as soon as it 
 is cut. Each field gang has its negro mayoral, or over- 
 seer, armed with a long, gayly mounted machete, in place 
 of a sword, and provided with a stout whip to keep 
 loafers in order, but which, I must say, is very little 
 used. The field being reached, those provided with 
 machetes (generally two thirds of the gang), attack the 
 canes. Seizing them with the left hand, they draw the 
 cane slightly towards them, and with one blow sever it 
 close to the root, strip off its leaves in a twinkling, top 
 it, and cut it into two or three lengths, as the case 
 requires, and throw it behind them, in less time than it 
 has taken to describe. Women and children gather the 
 scattered canes into heaps, from which they are loaded 
 into the bullock carts and carried off to the mill. Arriv- 
 ed there, they drive under the cane shed, and deposit 
 their loads close to the cane carrier, which is an endless 
 chain, carrying a series of slats, or boards, leading direct 
 
SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING. 85 
 
 to the feed-board of the mill, arid moving on rollers with 
 the motion of the machine, but so arranged as to be 
 stopped when required, independent of the mill. On the 
 other side of the mill which consists of three horizontal 
 iron rollers, set two alongside each other, and one on the 
 top, held in place by a very strong cast iron frame, which 
 is bolted down firmly to the foundation is seen another 
 similar arrangement, for carrying away the crushed canes, 
 or bagasse, after the juice has been crushed out. This is 
 called the bagasse-carrier, and delivers the crushed canes 
 directly into an ox or mule cart set beneath it, which 
 carries it away to its appropriate receptacle. An admirable 
 representation of the three roller horizontal cane mill, with 
 its cane and bagasse carriers, drawn from one actually in 
 use, may be seen by reference to the frontispiece 
 
 CRUSHING. 
 
 Nearly enough cane having been cut to yield juice 
 sufficient to fill all the kettles and clarifiers, fires are 
 lighted under the steam boilers for the purpose of pro- 
 curing the power to start the mill. 
 
 Steam is soon generated by the sharp, clear flame of 
 last year's bagasse, which has been stored away on pur- 
 pose, and is dry as tinder, and by this time there is a 
 sufficiency of cane under the shed to make a commence- 
 ment. The engine is set in motion, and with it the mill, 
 the rollers of which are brought very close together by 
 means of large screws fixed in the iron frame for that 
 purpose. The distance between the first and second is 
 generally one eighth or three sixteenths of an inch, while 
 
86 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 between the second and third, if the engineer can get the 
 blade of his knife between, he considers it about correct. 
 The negroes throw the canes on to the carrier, which 
 delivers them to the mill, they pass between the rollers 
 slowly, while the juice spurts and streams down between 
 and in all directions into the "juice pan," from whence 
 it flows by a canal either direct to the clarifiers or is 
 pumped up into a receiver, and thence distributed where 
 required. Meanwhile, the canes that have been crushed 
 are no longer canes, but bagasse they are received from 
 the carrier as before stated, and spread to dry in the sun, 
 to be subsequently stored away in appropriate sheds for 
 the fuel of next year. 
 
 THE BATTERY. 
 
 We have now " commenced crop ;" the juice tank is 
 full, and we must commence boiling ; but, before doing 
 so, we must describe the " battery " or " train " of kettles, 
 how they are placed, and what is the object of each; as 
 also the preliminary 'operation of " testing " the juice. 
 The juice generally stands at a strength of seven to eight 
 degrees in November, and ten to eleven in March and 
 April. 4. , 
 
 TESTING THE JUICE. 
 
 Immediately on the first juice running from the mill, 
 the planter, if he be a working man, and there are many 
 such even in Cuba, may be seen anxiously testing the 
 amount of saccharine matter, or sugar, in his juice, for 
 
SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING. 
 
 87 
 
 on this depends the value of his crop. To find out this, 
 he uses a small instrument called a "saccharometer," either 
 of brass or glass, as shown at figures 3 and 4, as al.-:o a 
 small copper test dipper, figure 5, in which he floats the 
 saccharometer. 
 
 K/s.3. 
 
 The instrument most in use is that of Beauine*, of 
 Paris. This is marked in degrees from Q , which repre- 
 sents water, up to 50. Each degree represents, by 
 weight, nineteen parts in a thousand of the solution of 
 sugar and water in which it is placed. If, therefore, the 
 juice in November marks 8, it shows that we have 
 eight times nineteen parts in a thousand, or 15 2_ per 
 cent, of sugar. If in March it marks 11 on the saccha- 
 rometer, then we know that we have eleven times '019, 
 or 20 per cent, nearly, of sugar in the juice. When the 
 juice exceeds 11 or 12 by boiling, *018 is nearer the 
 amount of sugar to a degree Beaume than *019, and 
 ought to be taken instead as a basis in making the cal- 
 culation. Thin cane juice, hot or cold, will mark the 
 same on the saccharometer, but when it is in the state of 
 syrup, it will mark much more cold than hot ; therefore, 
 when you test boiling syrup, add three degrees to the 
 
88 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 saccharometer to represent the true density cold. With 
 molasses, add/owr degrees. 
 
 The range of open pans or kettles used to evaporate 
 the expressed juice of the cane to the necessary consist- 
 ency at which granulation takes place, and crystallized 
 sugar is formed, is termed "the train," and is either a 
 "steam," or an "ordinary" train, according as steam or 
 fire is the medium of evaporation. Steam trains are 
 arranged in such a variety of ways, that they possess no 
 general character, whereas the old fashioned sugar train 
 is the same as it was fifty years ago, with a few slight 
 alterations, and of this alone, shall I give a description ; 
 for, after all, when properly managed, it is as good as 
 the other for " Muscovado " sugar, and much more avail- 
 able in many situations. 
 
 SETTING THE TRAIN. 
 
 The latest and most improved method of setting a 
 train, is as follows: First, suppose a straight flue, say 
 forty feet long, one end entering the great chimney, and 
 the other end supplied with furnace, grate bars, ash pit, 
 and an opening, with or without doors, for pushing in 
 the bagasse used for fuel. This flue runs along one of the 
 side walls of the building, so that the mouth of the fur- 
 nace is outside ; the flue is so arranged that the upper 
 edges of the pans, when set, shall stand about two feet, 
 or thirty inches, above the floor of the boiling house ; 
 this puts the furnace under ground, so an area, as it 
 were, is cut round that side of the house, into which the 
 dry bagasse, for fuel, is discharged from a cart which 
 
SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING. 89* 
 
 brings it from the bagasse house. It thus lies convenient 
 to be picked up by the fireman, and pushed, by the arm 
 full, into the furnace mouth. 
 
 The pans are arranged in a line along this flue, ex- 
 cepting the oblong sheet iron or copper defecators ; these 
 come last, and stand side by side. The flue, before 
 reaching them, spreads, and is divided by party walls 
 into three parts or parallel flues, each the size of the 
 main flue ; each of these passages is supplied with a 
 sliding damper, hung and balanced by a weight, so that 
 the fire on its way to the great chimney may be shut off 
 from one or other of them at will, by dropping the damper 
 in front of it. The center flue has nothing over it, and 
 is the regular course the fire would take in going direct 
 to the chimney. Over the other two flues the defecators 
 are set, so that by dropping the damper in the middle 
 flue, and raising one of the side ones, the fire is turned 
 aside, and passing under the defecator, the damper of 
 which has been raised, heats its contents. It may then 
 be turned under the other by the same means. When 
 both are heated, the fire may be shut off at the instant, 
 and allowed to follow its old course to the chimney. 
 
 It is well to understand the proper setting of these 
 defecators, as on them, in a great measure, depends the 
 success of future operations. The flue is so built as to 
 allow the defecators, which are shallow, never over 
 eighteen or twenty inches deep, to discharge their con- 
 tents, by a pipe, into the first "clarifier," which is dis- 
 tant sufficiently to allow of a free passage between it 
 and the defecators ; these have a platform of stone or 
 brick around them, to allow a man to walk about and 
 
90 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 remove the scum and feculencies. Each defecator ought 
 to contain as much as the clarifier into which it dis- 
 charges itself. 
 
 CLARIFIERS. 
 
 The first and second clarifiers are two iron pans set 
 deep in the brick work, which is lined with light sheet 
 copper ; so as to add to the size of the pans, a sort of gut- 
 ter surrounds these two. The second, which may be a 
 little the smallest, should stand about two inches higher 
 than the first, so that when it overflows in boiling, its 
 contents may be able to flow back into the first kettle, 
 but none from the first flow forward into it ; the gutter 
 which surrounds these two isolates them from the two 
 next pans, and has an opening on one side leading to a 
 scum, or overflow kettle, set alongside the train and fur- 
 nished with a pump, but has no fire under it, being 
 merely intended as a recipient for the scum and feculen- 
 cies which have not been entirely removed in the 
 defecator, and which are swept and skimmed from these 
 two pans during rapid ebullition. The overflow is 
 pumped back into the clarifiers as soon as it settles, by 
 the pump referred to. The peculiar arrangement of the 
 the gutter, it is almost impossible to describe without 
 diagrams. 
 
 EVAPORATORS. 
 
 Next to the second clarifier comes the first evaporator, 
 placed deep in the brick work, and having a sort of curb 
 
SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING. 91 
 
 or collar of jght copper, riveted to its rim ; this flares 
 considerably, and comes clear up to the level of the 
 brick work, which, arrangement nearly doubles the 
 capacity of the vessel, and allows of the rise of the fluid 
 and froth during the strong ebullition which occurs in 
 this pan. \ 
 
 Last, and directly over the furnace, is placed the " ta- 
 cho," or teach, arranged precisely like the preceding, but 
 its copper curb raised an inch or an inch and a half higher ; 
 so that should it boil over, the syrup might run back 
 into the evaporator, while the thinner liquor of the 
 evaporator, should it in turn boil over, could not run for- 
 ward into it. 
 
 Lastly, the kettles being all set, the brick work is cov- 
 ered with a board frame work, like a billiard table or 
 bagatelle board, only the edges are not so high. Holes 
 are cut for the various pans, and the whole covered 
 nicely with light sheet copper ; the purpose of this 
 arrangement being, that suppose all the kettles to boil 
 over, one after the other, or all at once, the overflow from 
 the teach would run down the inclined plane into the 
 evaporator, the overflow from the evaporator would 
 run in turn into the second clarifier, and this into the first, 
 which would relieve itself into the scum kettle. 
 
 Leading from the juice pan of the mill which, for 
 convenience, should be raised high enough, to give the 
 necessary inclination a wooden canal conveys the juice, 
 and delivers it into a wooden " juice receiver," sometimes 
 lined with copper or lead, placed somewhere near but 
 above the level of the defecators, to one or other of which 
 a connection may be made by a moveable trough, or suit- 
 
92 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 able pipes. This receiver should hold sufficient to fill 
 both clarifiers, as well as the evaporator arid teach, al- 
 though, except at the start, it is only required to supply 
 the two defecators. 
 
 THE TRAIN AT WORK. 
 
 Suppose now that the juice tank is full^the movable 
 wooden gutter is directed to each pan in succession, and 
 fills them all nearly full of juice. The fire is lighted and 
 the train is started ; when the juice gets a little warm, a 
 small portion of shell lime, or cream of lime, is added, 
 according as the judgment of the sugar master may dic- 
 tate, in order to neutralize the free acid present in the 
 juice, and assist in coagulating the vegetable albumen, 
 which has been expressed from the canes along with the 
 juice, by the action of the mill. As the heat increases, 
 this forms a thick scum, which is taken off as fast as it 
 rises, by a skimmer, while the froth is beaten down by a 
 long wooden instrument, like a cavalry saber on a large 
 scale, the handle being prolonged two or three feet. 
 
 Ebullition soon commences all over the" train, but, of 
 course, most rapidly in those kettles nearest the furnace, 
 and which are, besides, the smallest. As the juice re- 
 duces in the teach, it is supplied by bailing from the 
 evaporator into it, which in turn receives from the second 
 clarifier, while the first is filled -up from the defecator. 
 This is the mode of starting the train, but owing to the 
 kettles being all empty at the beginning, the juice has 
 had no regular defecation, and in consequence, should the 
 first strike not turn out well, little anxiety is felt by the 
 planter. 
 
SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING. 93 
 
 So far, neither of the defecators have come into play, 
 enough juice has been collected in the receiver to fill one 
 of them. The cock of the receiver is opened, and while 
 it is running in, the sugar master takes a little of the 
 juice in a glass, and tests it with litmus paper, which, 
 from a deep blue, changes in an instant to a deep red, 
 when dipped into the juice, should an excess of acid be 
 present. The juice is always acid, more or less, therefore 
 the question is not whether he will add lime or not, but 
 how much. Having before prepared lime water, or mixed 
 some cream lime on the spot, the damper being raised, and 
 the fire playing on the bottom of the defecator, he stirs in 
 small portions of the lime water or cream of lime, till the 
 litmus paper, which at first became bright red on being 
 immersed, now shows only a faint rose color. Here he 
 stops, the juice is nearly neutral, neither too acid nor too 
 alkaline, requiring but heat to make a good defecation, 
 or separation of its albuminous and other feculencies, 
 which, as the heat increases, rise to the top in the form of 
 a thick, dirty crust, leaving the clear juice underneath. 
 The moment the first signs of ebullition are perceived, 
 the damper is let down, and the juice allowed to rest for 
 fifteen or twenty minutes, when it may be drawn off un- 
 derneath, clear and bright, leaving the dirty scum to be 
 cleaned out when the defecator is washed for the next 
 charge. After the train has been started, one or other 
 of the defecators is always full, while the other is being 
 cleaned out, and so on during the crop/ 
 
 Figure 7, represents the section of a train, such 
 as has been described, viz., four pans and two defe- 
 cators. 
 
[94] 
 
SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING. 
 
 95 
 
 A is the defecator, B the first clarifier, C the second 
 ditto, D evaporator, E teach, strike pan, or second evapo- 
 rator, F the damper of the defecator, G a small ridge in 
 the frame of the train, to prevent the concentrated juice 
 from the evaporator and teach, in cases of overflow, run- 
 ning back to the clarifiers ; H is the furnace, 1 1 1 1 the 
 flue leading to the general chimney. 
 
 The following cut (Figure 8) shows a transverse section 
 of the train, to illustrate the setting of the pans : 
 
 When once the train is started it goes on night and 
 day, with an occasional stoppage of a day, now and 
 then, to wash up, clear out the juice tanks and gutters, 
 and do any little repairs that may be necessary, as well 
 also as to give the negroes a holiday, which at this time 
 they employ in sleep ; not getting too much of the "latter 
 while crops last, especially if sugar is high, and it is an 
 object to get it soon to market. 
 
 Belonging to every estate there are a few old hands 
 experienced in sugar-boiling, who can make just as good 
 a strike of sugar as any sugar master, and to them is in- 
 trusted the operations of the " battery," with the sugar 
 
96 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE, 
 
 master to overlook them. But, it may be said, if these 
 negroes boil so well, why employ a sugar master at so 
 much expense every year? The fact is, there is no 
 dependence to be placed on the negro, for just at the most 
 critical point when the sugar ought to be "struck" into 
 the cooler it is very probable, if left to themselves, they 
 would lie down and go to sleep, not from fatigue, but 
 laziness, or thoughtlessness, and yet they take consider- 
 able interest in their owner's concerns. 
 
 At the commencement of crop, when the first strike 
 is nearly finished, all the interest of the sugar-house cen- 
 ters in the lazy, rich, golden fluid in the teach, which has 
 ceased to froth or bubble, and from which the steam is 
 now escaping in short puffs. The old negro, who has 
 probably boiled at that train for twenty years, and knows 
 exactly how the juice of the estate works, after taking a 
 little of the syrup between his finger and thumb, and 
 watching what string it made, informs the sugar master 
 that the sugar is ready to strike into the coolers. He, 
 who probably has never boiled on the estate before, and 
 has yet to learn how its juice must be treated, has wisely 
 left the matter in the hands of the negro. However, it 
 will not do to let Sambo suppose "that he knows more 
 than his master. So the sugar master, who knows that 
 half a minute will not make much difference, delays the 
 strike for that time, pulls out his watch, if he has one, 
 looking very wise, and at length consents to let Pancho 
 or Pedro adjust the gutter, from the kettle to the cooler 
 ten feet distant, and discharge the pan. The fireman is 
 bawled to to stop the fire, and the sugar is bailed into the 
 gutter to be conducted to the cooler. 
 
SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING. 
 
 97 
 
 The annexed cuts represent the appliances for skim- 
 ming, dipping, bailing, and striking. 
 
 Figure 9 is the common dipper ; used for almost all the 
 purposes of handling small portions of juice or syrup. 
 
 Figure 10 is the bailing dipper, holding five or six 
 gallons, and used to remove the charge of one kettle into 
 another, as also to strike the charge into the coolers. 
 
 Figure 11 represents the ordinary skimmer, for remov- 
 ng the Bourn from the clarifiers. 
 
 Fitfs.9 
 
 fO, 
 
 Tilt COOLERS. 
 
 These coolers are generally oblong wooden troughs, 
 made of two inch pine wood, ten feet long, five feet broad, 
 and ten to twelve inches deep. They are set parallel 
 with the train in a double row, six in each row. Each 
 cooler holds three "strikes," which are not made one 
 over the other directly, but as follows : three strikes are 
 made in three separate coolers, then commencing with 
 the first again.. This is to give the first strike an oppor- 
 tunity to cool. While the sugar is cooling, the sugar 
 master takes a light wooden instrument, like a small rake 
 without teeth, and hauls it up and down the cooler so as 
 to agitate the mass and promote crystallization; once 
 5 
 
98 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 after each strike is often enough to do this, and in a few 
 hours the sugar ought to set, or grain. 
 
 On the second or third day it is usual to empty the 
 coolers ; two big stout negroes, bare all but a " breech 
 clout," get into them with shovels, and dig out the sugar : 
 not so easy a job, now that the crystal has got set. A 
 dozen women get their small copper basins or tubs 
 filled with the melado, or unpurged sugar, and carry it 
 on their heads to the purging house, where hogsheads, 
 with holes duly perforated in the bottom, have been pre- 
 pared beforehand. They empty their basins into the 
 nearest until it is full, and so on to the next. 
 
 PURGING. 
 
 The sugar when it goes into the cooler, is a dark, 
 brown-looking substance, being composed of sugar and 
 molasses, mixed in the proportion of say sixty of the for- 
 mer to forty of the latter. This, when put into a hogs- 
 head with a perforated bottom, soon begins to drip or 
 purge, provided the place be moderately warm. The 
 floor of the purging house is nothing more than joists 
 without boards, while underneath is a large tank or tanks 
 of wood or concrete, to receive the molasses as it drops 
 down as the hogshead purges. The sugar settles, and 
 this has to be supplied by fresh additions either of 
 purged sugar from other hogsheads, or by more melado 
 from the coolers. After about thirty days, it is headed 
 up, and taken out of the purging house, and either put 
 into the storehouse, or, with another hogshead on a bul- 
 lock-cart, it is sent to the nearest seaport. 
 
SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING. 99 
 
 THE CLAYING PROCESS. 
 
 On some estates only a portion of the sugar is made 
 into Muscovado, which is the process I have been de- 
 scribing. To make " clayed " sugar requires a little dif- 
 ferent treatment; it is a follows: 
 
 Conical moulds, of tin, zinc, or sheet iron, with an aper- 
 ture at the small end, are provided for large estates to 
 the extent of many thousands. These are set on the 
 floor of the purging house, on perforated boards, which, 
 receive the small end and keep them upright. The aper- 
 ture at the bottom, which is three quarters of an inch to 
 one inch wide, is stopped either with a piece of wood pre- 
 pared for the purpose, or, as is often done, a joint of cane 
 is used as a plug. The sugar, being boiled a little stiffer 
 than if intended for the cooler, is first put into a wooden 
 box running on wheels, rather deep and long, in which 
 it is agitated with a short oar for some time, until it has 
 cooled somewhat, and crystals have begun to form. It 
 is then filled into the moulds, the box being wheeled 
 alongside of them. These moulds contain from eighty to 
 one hundred and twenty pounds of hot sugar. In a day 
 or two, when the sugar master considers that the con- 
 tents of the moulds are well crystallized, the plugs are 
 removed, and the molasses soon begins to separate from 
 the crystals and run out. The operator to hasten this, 
 however, and, as it were, to wash the crystals as clean as 
 possible, gets some good porous clay, mixes it well into 
 a thin, creamy paste with water, and pours it over the 
 top of the sugar in the mould. The clay remains on the 
 top of the sugar, while it allows the water to percolate 
 
100 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 down through the loaf, and thus wash the crystals free 
 from their mother liquor, or molasses. When the water 
 has all left, the clay may be lifted off the mould like a 
 large brown cake of gingerbread, without soiling the 
 hands or injuring the sugar. This is what is termed 
 " claying," and produces the " clayed " sugar of com- 
 merce. 
 
 If the sugar is desired to be very white, claying may 
 be repeated two or three times, but each time at the ex- 
 pense of the crystal, which is washed away just in pro- 
 portion as the sugar whitens. When well purged, the 
 sugar is got oat of the moulds by knocking them upside 
 down on a clean floor. The loaf of sugar will be found 
 of three grades white at the top, yellow in the middle, 
 and brown towards the bottom, whilst the tip or extreme 
 end remains a " magma " of sugar and molasses. 
 
 DRYING-BOXING-SHIPPING TO MARKET. 
 
 As the moulds are knocked out, the different grades of 
 sugar are separated, by breaking the loaves across by a 
 blow with a machete, which is the instrument of all work 
 in the hands of the negro ; the broken loaves of sugar are 
 then either passed between rollers, or pounded with mal- 
 lets, to break up its consistence. After which, it is either 
 spread over hot tiles, in a room prepared for the purpose, 
 with fires underneath, or exposed, on boards, to the rays 
 of the sun. Here it is dried to powder, and afterward 
 packed in oblong boxes of rough pine board, held 
 together by strips of raw hide ; which being nailed on 
 the box when moist, contract on drying, and bind the 
 
SUGAR AND SUGAR MAEitfG* , , j i ' 
 
 box together in the firmest manner. These are what are 
 known in trade as "boxed" or "clayed" sugars, and are 
 much sought after by refiners. 
 
 CATTLE MILL. 
 
 Besides the many sugar mills which are driven 
 by steam engines, there are a large number of the 
 original vertical cattle mills, with wooden frames, still 
 in use, in situations where water is scarce, or the crop 
 does not justify the expense of steam machinery. One 
 of these is represented at Figure 12. 
 
 ABC are the vertical iron rollers, and E the spout con- 
 ducting the juice from the pan to the canal or gutter 
 
102 : < ^THE 'CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 leading to the juice tank. In cattle mills this gutter is 
 put under ground, so that the cattle may pass over it 
 without obstruction. Attached to the upper part of the 
 center roller may be seen a cast iron cross-head with 
 sockets, into which wooden bars are fitted, to which are 
 harnessed the oxen, mules, or horses, as the case may be. 
 Large mills of this kind, require sixteen oxen. 
 
 The frame f of the mill berrig of wood, it necessarily 
 gives somewhat to the extreme strain upon it, conse- 
 quently the canes are never so thoroughly crushed as 
 with the iron frame mill, but the juice, though less 
 in quantity, is invariably better in quality. The reason 
 for this is, that the tissues of the cane not being so com- 
 pletely broken up, as in the former case, less of the 
 albuminous and extractive matter is obtained in the 
 operation ; the juice is purer, clarifies easily, and makes 
 very bright sugar, commanding an advanced price. It 
 is a question, however, whether the advance in price 
 which such sugar generally commands, makes up for the 
 loss in the quantity of the juice, which the employment 
 of the cattle mill necessarily entails. 
 
 SMALL TWO ROLLER MILL. 
 
 A small two roller vertical mill, suitable for farmers 
 planting one or two acres of sorgho, and which may be driv- 
 en by two men, or one horse or mule is shown at Figure 
 13. This little mill is fastened securely in the ground by 
 means of its uprights, which renders it convenient for 
 farmers. 
 
SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING. 
 
 103 
 
 c. 
 
 FT/. 
 
 STEAM TRAIN. 
 
 Hitherto I have only treated of sugar trains which 
 evaporate over the naked fire, but there are a large num- 
 ber of the more extensive estates where steam is employ- 
 ed throughout, while there are others where the two 
 systems are united. I shall finish my remarks on sugar 
 boiling, therefore, by a brief notice of these methods. 
 
 I have observed, with others, that nearly the whole of the 
 color imparted to cane juice in the act of boiling over the 
 naked fire, is received in the two last pans, after the fluid 
 has become comparatively dense, and retaining but little 
 water to carry off the heat. Steam does not discolor the 
 sugar nearly so much as fire, therefore steam trains have 
 been extensively adopted, and great expense has' fre- 
 quently been incurred in altering the arrangement of the 
 
104 
 
 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 boiling-house to suit the new regime. A steam train will 
 cost twice as much to run and keep in order as a com- 
 mon train will, to say nothing of first expense; therefore, 
 to make use of only so much of the steam train as is 
 absolutely necessary to effect the end required must be 
 an object. 
 
 Cane juice, containing the large proportion of water 
 which it does, until it is evaporated to 30 or 32 of 
 Beaume's saccharometer, remains so lively and changes 
 its position so readily in the pan, in the act of boiling 
 
 o 
 
 over the naked fire, that no danger of discoloration need 
 be feared, till it reaches the stage referred to ; here, how- 
 ever, it should be changed to the steam pans and 
 finished. 
 
 I think the reasons given are sufficient for retaining 
 the old and inexpensive train, for the purpose of evapo- 
 rating the juice to 30 B., after which the process may be 
 continued in suitable pans having coils of copper steam 
 pipe in the bottom, as represented in section at Figure 14. 
 
SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING. 
 
 105 
 
 Or " McCracken's Patent Evaporator" may be employed 
 in place of the worm or coil. These evaporators have 
 the property of boiling with immense rapidity, requiring 
 comparatively low pressure of steam, say 30 Ibs. to the 
 square inch, thus uniting in themselves those properties 
 which constitute the best sugar apparatus, viz., great 
 speed with low temperature. With the ordinary coil, 75 
 and 100 Ibs. are the usual figures. This system is shown 
 at Figure 15, of which A A is the pan, of iron or copper ; 
 
 B, the evaporator, consisting of a case, or cylinder, full 
 of tubes, into which the steam enters, and surrounds the 
 tubes ; C is the steam pipe from the boiler ; D the condense 
 water pipe, and E the cock where the sugar is discharged. 
 By means of this system the pipes are surrounded ~by the 
 steam, instead of surrounding or containing it, as in the 
 old way ; and so the juice flows into those pipes both at 
 5* 
 
106 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 top and bottom. It will be perceived that the whole 
 force of the steam is applied to small portions or columns 
 of liquor at a time ; thus an immediate evaporation takes 
 place almost as soon as the steam enters the tube cylin- 
 der, while all danger of overheating is avoided, by the 
 well known tendency of liquids to rise when heated. 
 A current sets up through the tubes, the cooler portion 
 entering below, heating as it rises, and flowing out at the 
 top, until, when the whole mass gets thoroughly heated, 
 the juice in ebullition takes the form of a fountain, and 
 vaporization goes on with wonderful rapidity. This pan 
 is fast coming into favor, and that it will ultimately su- 
 persede all other methods of open evaporation by steam, 
 is the opinion of planters who have it in use. 
 
 BOILING IN VACUO. 
 
 Besides the preceding, there is yet another method of 
 evaporating, the apparatus for which is more complicated 
 and expensive than either of the others ; this is boiling 
 "in vacuo," and was invented by Lord Howard, a scien- 
 tific Englishman, many years ago. So complete was the 
 apparatus he adopted, that, with a few minor additions, 
 his pan remains in principle unaltered to this day. 
 
 The principle involved in the vacuum pan is that by 
 which watery liquids may be made to vaporize in a 
 vacuum at a much lower temperature than in the open 
 air. Thus, water boils in the open air at 212, while in 
 vacuo the same takes place at 90. Advantage is taken 
 of this in sugar boiling to extract the water from solutions 
 of sugar at a low temperature, and so preserve its color. 
 
SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING. 
 
 107 
 
 The vacuum pan is merely a closed metallic vessel, hav- 
 ing a coil of steam pipe in the bottom, and a condenser 
 to condense the steam as fast as it rises, while an air- 
 pump removes the atmospheric pressure and water of 
 condensation. This pan is shown in elevation at Fig. 
 16, of which A is the pan ; B, the belt ; C, the cover, or 
 
 dome ; D, the cap and collar ; E, the condenser, to which 
 a cold water pipe is attached at K, while the condenser 
 discharges at L, connecting by another pipe with the air 
 pump, which is worked by water power or steam engine. 
 F is the discharge . valve, or gate ; Gr, a barometer, to 
 show the extent of the vacuum, and a thermometer to 
 indicate the heat of the pan : H is an eye glass, another 
 being on the opposite side of the dome, for the purpose 
 of observing the ebullition of the " charge ; " I is a small 
 cup -faucet, or grease-cock, to introduce a little oil when 
 
108 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 it is required to check the froth in the pan, serving also 
 to admit air when the sugar is ready to be discharged ; 
 J is the proof-stick, by which a small quantity of sugar 
 may be withdrawn from the pan at pleasure, so that the 
 operator may know, from time to time, how the charge is 
 progressing. 
 
 The method of operating with the vacuum pan to best 
 advantage on a sugar estate, is to boil the sugar as I 
 have before advised in the old train, till it reaches a 
 density of 30 or 32 Beaume, after which, introduce 
 and boil in vacuo to the crystallizing point. It 
 would be too tedious, as well as too expensive, to boil 
 down raw cane juice in this way. Kellieux, however, 
 by means of three closed pans, operates on the raw juice 
 in this way; with what economy I cannot say, never 
 having examined the process thoroughly. His train is 
 very costly, of course. 
 
 Unlike boiling in the open air, owing to its low tem- 
 perature, granulation, to a considerable extent, takes 
 place in the vacuum pan, if the operation be properly 
 conducted, and the vacuum well preserved, to do which, 
 like everything else, requires practice in the operator. 
 The sugar, when discharged, instead of resembling thick 
 syrup, as it would if boiled in the open pan, resembles 
 thin mortar, being full of grain, and requiring but a 
 slight decrease of temperature to become solid. 
 
 THE FEENCH BASCULE PAN. 
 
 At figure 17, I give a representation of the old French 
 Bascule pan, which was superseded by Howard's process. 
 
SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING. 109 
 
 For the purpose of evaporating sorgho j nice, on a limited 
 
 scale, I think it would do good service ; the fire only 
 strikes the bottom, and the syrup, or sugar, is discharged 
 at a moment's notice. I should recommend it to such 
 farmers as do not intend putting up a full train. 
 
 BAG FILTERS. 
 
 Where white pure sugar is wanted direct from the cane, 
 a refining process is required, similar to that employed in 
 refineries in the city. The cane juice, after defecation and 
 clarification, at a density of 12 or 13 B. or even as 
 high as 24 or 25 B., is run through lag filters, which are 
 made of a peculiar kind of cotton duck ; they consist, 
 simply, of a large bag, usually a yard wide, and five or 
 six feet long. This is gathered together closely, and 
 drawn through a sheath of the same length, (like a cut 
 of leather hose pipe, only made of porous flax bagging,) 
 
110 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 the open end of the cotton bag being all "puckered up," 
 is tied on to a brass tube, which, being fitted with a 
 screw, is screwed into a small shallow cast iron or 
 wooden tank, large enough to contain twenty-five to 
 fifty of these brass tubes ; the tank, besides serving to 
 hang the filters, (which hang like so many sausages,) 
 serves to contain the syrup which is to pass through the 
 tubes into the bags, through which it percolates, and 
 emerges clear and bright, free from feculencies and ex- 
 traneous matters, and ready for the carbon filters. 
 
 BONE BLACK FILTERS. 
 
 These latter are large square or circular sheet iron 
 tanks, which should be at least five feet in diameter, and 
 six or eight feet deep. These have a false bottom per- 
 forated with holes ; over this a blanket is laid, and the 
 tank filled up evenly with animal charcoal or bone black. 
 A small air-tube generally runs from beneath the false 
 bottom to the top. Over the top of the bone black the 
 bag-filtered liquor is permitted to flow, which soon filters 
 down through the false bottom ; the cock of the filter is 
 then opened, and the first running kept apart, being 
 black and smutty from the small particles of charcoal 
 dust which it contains. This is thrown on again at the 
 top to be refiltered. The stream, however, soon runs 
 clear, and, according to the length of time the syrup is 
 left in contact with the bone black, does the decoloriza- 
 tion sought for take place. If the stream be kept small 
 the liquor may be drawn off colorless as water, and so 
 
SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING. HI 
 
 darker, in proportion to the speed with which it is run 
 off. 
 
 Filtering in this way is a very expensive process even 
 in large cities where labor is cheap, the bone black requir- 
 ing to be reburned as soon as it has filtered three times 
 its own weight of sugar. I would not, therefore, advise 
 the use of niters on a sugar estate or farm ; the true 
 policy of which ought to be to make good Muscovado, 
 and leave refining to the cities, where all the facilities 
 exist for doing it to advantage, and with an economy 
 which the planter or farmer may seek in vain to imitate. 
 The syrup, after passing through the filters, is ready for 
 the vacuum pan. 
 
 In the preceding remarks on the various apparatus for, 
 and processes of, manufacturing sugar, I have not at- 
 tempted clothing my subject with any of the elegances 
 of language, but more to convey in as simple a manner 
 as possible the information required, in the hope that it 
 might assist in developing a new branch of industry in 
 the community, and so add to the wealth and prosperity 
 of the country at large. 
 
 GROUND PLAN EOR STJGAR ESTATE BUILDINGS. 
 
 The following cut represents the ground-plan of build- 
 ings for a sugar estate, with the engine house, boiling 
 house, cooling and purging house, arranged on a combi- 
 nation of the best features, gathered from various sugar 
 estates of Louisiana and Cuba ; 
 
 As will be seen in the cut, the engine house, boiling 
 house, and cooling and purging house, are all built sepa- 
 
112 
 
 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING. 113 
 
 rate, with a space between each ; the gable walls of these 
 buildings ought to have no windows, and the doors com- 
 municating should be of iron, so that in case any one of 
 the buildings caught fire, the conflagration would be con- 
 fined to the place where it originated, and thus the valu- 
 able stock or machinery in the other buildings be saved. 
 
 CHEAP AND SIMPLE PROCESS FOR MAKING SUGAR OR SYRUP ON A 
 SMALL SCALE. 
 
 For the benefit of a large class whose facilities or incli- 
 nations have this year induced them only to plant a 
 small patch of Chinese Sugar Cane, by way of experi- 
 ment, yet who, nevertheless, are desirous of making a 
 trial of syrup or sugar making on their own account, 
 without waiting for the voluminous reports which will 
 be forthcoming at the end of the season, I subjoin the 
 following description of a process by which, at a trifling 
 expense, both syrup and sugar may be manufactured in 
 a small way for family use, by any farmer or householder 
 who has but a few canes growing in his garden, and 
 which may be applied to any operation on from five to 
 twenty -five gallons of juice. 
 
 Of course, the first thing is to permit the sorgho to 
 fully ripen, as in that condition it makes the best syrup, 
 and will be free from the grassy flavor complained of in 
 previous experiments. This, as has been previously 
 said, is known by the seeds becoming black and hard. 
 When fully ripe, then, with a corn-cutter, a large carving 
 knife, or, what is better, a small hatchet, cut the canes off 
 close to the roots, strip off their leaves as far as the joints 
 
114 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 extend, and chop off the rest of the stalk, saving the 
 seeds for future planting, if the cane proves to be of good 
 quality ; if not, give them to the chickens. 
 
 The next thing is to extract the juice from the stalks 
 or canes. This must be done b y pressing them between 
 rollers. If there is a cider mill on the premises, it will 
 be all-sufficient ; pass them through it just as you would 
 crush apples, catching the juice in some clean vessel with 
 as few chips or dirt in it as possible. 
 
 A VERY CHEAP MILL. 
 
 If there be no cider mill in the neighborhood, you 
 must make a shift to construct one yourself, or get the 
 nearest carpenter to do so ; nothing but wood being re- 
 quired for all you have to do. The way to go about it 
 is as follows : Choose some straight pieces of maple, or 
 any hard wood, twelve or fourteen inches across, and 
 saw one piece off thirty inches long, and the other forty- 
 eight inches. These are to make your two rollers, and 
 as nearly round as you can get the log, so much less 
 trouble will there be to fashion the work. Having got 
 your wood, take the blocks to the nearest carpenter, and 
 tell him to make you two journals on the ends of the 
 shortest piece, two and a half inches less in diameter than 
 the block will be when made perfectly round. If he has 
 a turning lathe he will be able to do it all in a couple of 
 hours. Let him make the axles or journals seven inches 
 long each. You have now one roller finished ; the other 
 is like it, only after making a journal on one end, he 
 measures along the same length as the other roller, which 
 
SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING. 115 
 
 will be sixteen inches, and then cuts into the block 
 another journal like the others, leaving beyond it 
 eighteen inches of sound wood to spare, of the same girth 
 or diameter as the roller part. Through this eighteen 
 inches that you have left over, cut a square hole or 
 socket, large enough to put a good stiff wooden lever in 
 or through it, so that when your rollers are set up on end 
 in a frame, like a windlass, you can walk round with the 
 lever, and so turn the mill. If there is a blacksmith in 
 the neighborhood, it would be well to get him to. put 
 an iron hoop above and below the lever hole or socket, 
 to prevent the strain, which will be considerable, from 
 splitting the top. You have now the rollers complete ; 
 the next step is to make the frame that holds them 
 together. Take two pieces of timber, nine feet long and 
 nine inches square, if you have them ; if not, round, 
 barked timber will do ; dig two holes in the ground six 
 feet deep and four feet apart wherever you wish your 
 mill to stand. Put the posts into them, and fill the earth 
 in again, beating it down so as to hold these uprights as 
 stiff and immovable as possible. These are the supports 
 of your mill, and have to bear all the strain, so you must 
 see that they are strong and firm. Now, get a slab of 
 wood, six feet long, sixteen inches broad, and eight 
 inches thick, set your two rollers on it, standing upright, 
 and close together ; mark the two holes for the lower 
 journals, and cut them out six inches deep. You must 
 now cut a couple of notches at the ends of the slab, fit 
 these notches between the two posts, and pin them tight. 
 Now you have the bed plate of your mill. Set the 
 rollers upright on it, with the journals in the holes you 
 
116 THE CHINESE SUGAE CANE. 
 
 have cut for them, and proceed to fit the upper frame 
 plate in the same way, except that it must be made in 
 two halves, owing to the socket part where the lever 
 goes preventing your slipping it over both journals, as 
 was done in the other case. For the upper frame plate, 
 taking two pieces, six feet long, nine inches broad, and 
 seven inches thick, fit them nicely together round the 
 journals, and fix as before. To keep the two pieces from 
 spreading when the strain conies, either clamp them to- 
 gether with wooden clamps and wedges, or hold them 
 together with a dovetail tie. The mill is now complete ; 
 put in the lever, and you are ready to crush the canes. 
 Cut a small gutter round the roller in the wood of the 
 bed plate, leading to a spout, to prevent the juice from 
 running all round and being lost. The above need not 
 cost a farmer ten dollars where wood is plenty, is suf- 
 ficiently strong, and will crush a hundred gallons of juice 
 per day, if required. 
 
 Of course, it will be understood that a mill like that 
 described above, is merely a make-shift for experiment- 
 ing with, for you could only get one half the juice by it, 
 that an iron one of the same construction would yield. 
 Another mill, of simple construction, is figured on the 
 following page, and is the one used by Colonel Peters in 
 his syrup making experiments of last season. Instead 
 of being made of wood, the rollers are cast iron. 
 
 CRUSHING OUT THE JUICE. 
 
 Having brought your canes to the mill, and adjusted 
 your lever, either let a man walk round with it, or 
 attach a horse or pony. Pass the canes through, two at 
 
SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING. 
 
 117 
 
 a time, till you have sufnc'ent juice for a boiling, say 
 ten gallons or fifteen gallons ; which should be crushed 
 out in half an hour. Now build a fire-place with stones, 
 or set up two forked poles, an 1 put another across, on 
 which sling your pot, which may be of sheet tin, but had 
 better be of cast iron. Let it hold, say ten gallons. Get 
 a small tin skimmer at a tinsmith's shop, and you are 
 prepared to commence boiling. 
 
 BOILING AND CLARIFYING. 
 
 Everything being ready, slack a teacup full of lime, 
 mix it to the consistency of cream, and set it by for use. 
 Light your fire, with charcoal if you have it, for it makes 
 
118 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 no smoke, but if you have none, use dry kindling wood. 
 If possible, so arrange your rude fire-place as to let the 
 fire reach no more than half way up the sides of the 
 pot. Put five or six gallons of juice into the pot, set it 
 on the fire, and when it becomes milk warm, add one 
 large tablespoonful of the cream of lime, and mix it 
 thoroughly through the juice. Now take the whites of 
 two fresh eggs, beat them up with a teacupful of the 
 juice from the pot, and when thoroughly mixed, pour 
 back, and stir them well through the mass, bring it to 
 the boil as soon as possible, but the moment you see the 
 first signs of boiling, lift the pot off the fire ; set it on the 
 ground, and let it remain quiet for fifteen or twenty 
 minutes. You will have perceived that after adding the 
 cream of lime and eggs, as the simmering went on, a 
 thick scum began to rise ; this you must not disturb, but 
 allow to gather on the top, till you take the pot from the 
 fire as directed, and allow it to settle fifteen or twenty 
 minutes. At the end of this time, carefully remove the 
 scum, and you will find if you have carefully followed 
 these directions, that the juice has become clear and 
 bright, ready to boil down to the consistence you require, 
 whether of syrup or sugar. Having removed the scum, 
 empty the contents of your pot into some clean vessel, 
 which have convenient. Fill up your pot again with the 
 raw juice, and proceed as before. This is the process of 
 clarifying or defecating, and is absolutely necessary, if 
 you do not wish to have a dark, dirty syrup, tasting of 
 cane stalks, and almost unfit for use. 
 
 After clarifying and skimming the second pot full, as 
 directed, set it back on the fire, and boil down as rapidly 
 
SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING. 119 
 
 as possible. As the quantity reduces by boiling, keep 
 adding fresh j uice from the first clarification, so as not to 
 let the syrup get too low in the pot, or it will get burned. 
 If any scum rises, remove it with your skimmer ; and 
 by following these directions, you cannot fail to make 
 good syrup. 
 
 The preceding remarks suppose that you have only one 
 pot to operate with ; but it is very much better to have 
 two, as it will save twenty minutes' time, and fuel, with, 
 each kettle of syrup you make ; because, as I have shown, 
 you have to wait twenty minutes after taking the pot from 
 the fire, to allow the scum to rise and settle ; so, if you 
 have not another pot full of fresh juice to put on, it is 
 so much time and fire wasted. With two pots in use, 
 you replace the first on the fire as soon as you take the 
 other off, and proceed to boil down. 
 
 SYRUP OP EXTRA QUALITY. 
 
 Should you wish to make a very extra syrup for table 
 use, get a flannel bag, of almost any shape, sufficient to 
 hold two or three gallons, and filter the juice through it 
 after you have skimmed it ; then boil down as before. 
 
 HOW TO KNW WHEN THE JUICE IS BOILED ENOUGH. 
 
 It is a matter of importance with those who have never 
 boiled syrup to know when the juice is boiled enough. 
 There being nothing like experiments, I would advise 
 such to procure a cup full of molasses, heat it, and taking 
 up a small quantity on a spoon, to watch how it runs 
 
120 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 down, and when the drops come, how they elongate and 
 break in the middle, the upper half springing back with 
 a jerk, and the lower forming a ball and falling into the 
 cup again. Three cents in money, and the expenditure 
 of five minutes' time in this way, will go farther in edu- 
 cating the eye to a good judgment, than an elaborate 
 series of directions. 
 
 I will give one other method, however, of knowing 
 when syrup is cooked enough. Dip your skimmer into 
 the boiling liquid, take it out and allow the syrup to run 
 off it ; a few drops will remain on the edge, falling at in- 
 tervals. If these break with a long string between, which 
 at the break" jerks back to the dipper again, and which 
 when taken between the finger and thumb feels like 
 molasses, it is fair to suppose your syrup is sufficiently 
 boiled, and you may take it from the fire. 
 
 REDUCING TO SUGAR. 
 
 For making sugar, it will be necessary to boil this 
 same syrup down till the steam escapes from it in little 
 puffs, and when the skimmer is dipped into it, the fall- 
 ing drops break short and fall solid. These simple tests, 
 and perhaps a few failures, will enable one to make good 
 sugar. When enough has been boiled, pour it into a 
 wooden box or tub to cool slowly, standing it in a warm 
 place. Let the box be large enough to allow of the 
 sugar standing only 1| inches deep; boil another lot, 
 and pour over the top of the first, and a third over the 
 top of the second, mix them all together, and allow the 
 contents to cool. If, by the next morning, there should 
 
SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING. 121 
 
 be no signs of crystals, take a handful of raw sugar and 
 stir it in ; in all probability it will start crystallization ; 
 but if it should not do so immediately, do not despair, for 
 it may stand for an entire fortnight, and then suddenly 
 strike into sugar. 
 
 The above simple and valuable directions have been 
 kindly furnished for this work by an experienced sugar 
 boiler, and will recommend themselves to those who de- 
 sire to experiment in sugar making on a limited scale. 
 
 To give my readers some idea of the amount of capital 
 requisite to carry on the operations of a large sugar plan- 
 tation in the State of Louisiana, I will, in concluding this 
 chapter, append the following extract from a valuable 
 article, written by my friend, Colonel T. B. Thorpe, for 
 the November, (1853,) number of Harper's Magazine : 
 
 REFINERY AND PLANTATION OF ST. JAMES. 
 
 "The tract of land connected with this estate, contains 
 nine thousand acres, one thousand five hundred of which 
 are under cultivation, and divided as follows: eight 
 hundred acres in cane; two hundred and ninety-four 
 acres in corn ; one hundred and fifty acres cultivated by 
 the negroes for their own use ; ten acres in olives ; the 
 remainder of the fifteen hundred acres alluded to as un- 
 der cultivation, is taken up by potatoes, building lots, 
 pasturage, and gardens : remainder of the nine thousand 
 acres is in forest, from which is taken the fuel consumed 
 in manufacturing and refining, and the timber for the 
 casks used in packing the sugar for market. 
 
 "The buildings consist of the proprietor's dwelling 
 6 
 
122 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 repairs of machinery and buildings. The weekly rations 
 and out-houses ; twenty-four negro houses, with veran- 
 dahs in front, each cabin is forty feet square, and con- 
 tains four rooms, and has a garden and fowl house 
 attached ; a hospital sixty-four feet square, containing 
 seven rooms, and an immense verandah ; a nursery fifty 
 feet square, store-houses, overseer's or manager's house, 
 stables containing one hundred stalls, two wood houses, 
 each four hundred feet long by one hundred wide ; one 
 sugar house five hundred and seventy feet long, by 
 seventy-five feet wide, thirty -four feet high between the 
 floor and ceiling ; and a ' double saw mill.' 
 
 "The machinery consists of steam saw mills and 
 pumping engine at the river for supplying the sugar 
 house with water, steam engine of eighty horse power, 
 and sugar mill for grinding cane ; engines, vacuum pans, 
 and a complete apparatus for making and refining 
 twenty-five thousand pounds of sugar every twenty -four 
 hours direct from the cane juice, and doing this entirely 
 by steam. 
 
 "The stock upon the plantation consists of sixty -four 
 mules, twelve horses, sixteen oxen, one hundred and 
 forty-five sheep, eighty head of cows and 'beeves,' two 
 hundred and fifteen slaves among which are one hun- 
 dred and seven field hands, two coopers, one blacksmith, 
 two engineers, four carpenters, twenty house servants, 
 four nurses, eleven old men and women that attend to 
 the stables, and sixty-four children under five years of age. 
 
 "The cash expenses of this estate are twenty thousand 
 dollars annually, paid to managers, sugar-makers, en- 
 gineers, and for food and clothing for the negroes, and 
 
SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING. 123 
 
 of each negro are five and a half pounds of mess-pork, 
 best quality, with as much meal and potatoes as they 
 choose to take in addition to which every one has his 
 pigs and his poultry ; for all adults have not only the 
 chicken-yard, but also their garden, which they are 
 obliged to cultivate for their own benefit the surplus 
 of vegetables and poultry being purchased by their 
 master, and paid for in gold and silver, and amounted, 
 in the year just past, to one thousand five hundred and 
 sixty dollars this sum not including the money ob- 
 tained by sales of poultry, pigs, eggs, and fruits, to 
 chance customers. In addition still, the negroes annu- 
 ally receive two suits of clothes, two pairs of shoes, a 
 blanket, and hat. 
 
 " The value of the estate of St. James, and of its pro- 
 ductions for the year 1852, are as follows : 
 
 VALUE OE THE ESTATE, 
 
 Land, 9,000 acres, at $40, l - - $360,000 
 
 Buildings, 100,000 
 
 Machinery, -- > 60,000 
 
 Slaves, - 170,000 
 
 Stock, -7 - S :'; - v> 11,000 
 
 Total, - - $701,000 
 
 PRODUCTIONS OP THE ESTATE IN 1852. 
 
 Sugar, 1,300,000 Ibs., at 6 cts., - - $78,000 
 Syrup, 60,000 gallons, at 36 cts., 21,600 
 
 99,600 
 
124 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 Brought forward, *. -;:- $99,600 
 Corn, 9000 barrels for consumption on the es- 
 tate; wood: 3000 cords for the engine house. 
 Estimated value . ~ * : ' * -i 14,400 
 
 Total products of the estate, - $114,000 
 " This plantation shows the average production of the 
 best class of sugar estates in Louisiana, the largest of 
 which, in 1852, yielded a revenue of one hundred and 
 fifty-two thousand and fifty dollars ; but these estates 
 increase the value of their products by the aid of costly 
 machinery, not used on the ordinary plantations." 
 
 This article being written four years ago, does not, of 
 course, give a true idea of the profits of the same estate 
 the present season ; for, whereas the running expenses of 
 the estate are about equal to the above, the prices of sugar 
 and syrup have greatly increased, and the gross receipts 
 must be by so much the same augmented. 
 
 THE NEW SUGAR MILL OF MESSES. HEDGES, PREE, & CO. 
 
 Messrs. Hedges, Free, & Co., of Cincinnati and Phila- 
 delphia, who so kindly forwarded to me the pamphlets 
 received by their house from the Honorable John Y. 
 Mason, and which have proved so extremely valuable to 
 the elaboration of this work, have recently invented a 
 three roller vertical mill for expressing the juice of the 
 sorgho and imphee, and in reply to a request to furnish 
 cuts to illustrate this work, I received the following : 
 
SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING. 125 
 
 " PHILADELPHIA, August 14th, 1857. 
 H. S. OLCOTT, 
 
 DEAK SIR, In reply to jour inquiries as regards our 
 mills, boilers, &c., for the purpose of expressing and con- 
 centrating the juice of the Chinese and African Sugar 
 Canes, we take pleasure in saying that the cut we send 
 you represents our vertical three-roller horse-power mill, 
 that has met with very ready sale here, and at Cincin- 
 nati, Ohio. They are so simple of construction that they 
 can be set up in a single day by two hands, and are pro- 
 vided with a convenient arrangement for feeding, so as to 
 spread the cane over the whole length of the roller 
 equally, causing it to pass through in a direct horizontal 
 line a desideratum never before attained, but very es- 
 sential to horse-power mills. As we construct our mills 
 with iron frame work entirely, we have not only strong 
 ones, but durable, and free from the bad effects that must 
 result where the juice comes in contact with woodwork. 
 We have mills differing in capacity, of the same general 
 construction, but greater length of roller. For steam- 
 power we furnish mills, with horizontal rollers, arranged 
 upon the approved plans of such mills. 
 
 " Our mills vary in prices from $100 to $500. 
 
 " We are prepared to furnish pans, clarifiers, filters, 
 ladles, skimmers, and all other apparatus and fixtures, 
 with diagrams and instructions complete. 
 
 " Those west of the mountains order from us at Cin- 
 nati, Ohio ; those east, from this city. 
 
 " HEDGES, FEEE, & CO., 
 " Office, No. 633 Market Street, Philadelphia." 
 
126 
 
 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
SUGAIl AND SUGAR MAKING. 
 
 127 
 
 For tlie more extensive operations of planters, Mr. 
 Hedges has constructed a more powerful mill, a repre- 
 sentation of which is given herewith. 
 
 HORIZONTAL THREE ROLLER 
 
 SUGAR MILL FOR PRESSING 
 
 CHINESE CANE. 
 
 MACHINE FOR STRIPPING THE SEED. 
 
 The following plan for a seed-stripping machine, offered 
 by Mr. Hedges, is doubtless a close approximation to 
 what is needed : 
 
 " For cleaning the seed, we would recommend the use 
 of a cylindrical hatchel, or hackel, (often used for broom 
 corn,) made of staves turned upon wooden heads, about 
 two feet diameter, and of a length to suit the amount to be 
 done and power to drive it. For teeth, use large wrought 
 spikes, set through the staves before putting on the 
 bands. These teeth may be about three inches apart, 
 and so distributed as to cover the whole surface in re- 
 
128 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 volving; cast-iron flange, with stem for journal and 
 crank, bolted on the heads ; finish cylinder one four 
 feet long would, if turned by two hands, clean fifty to 
 seventy -five bushels per day. A plank breastwork should 
 be set up for the cleaners to rest their hands on while 
 grasping as much as convenient to hold, and the cylinder 
 rolling over from them will strip off rapidly all the seed. 
 This should be done before the boiling is commenced, so 
 that the seed can be mixed into the hot scum taken from 
 the clarifier and kettles, which combined, will fatten hogs 
 or cattle, beyond doubt, more rapidly than any other feed 
 known. The starch in the seed, added to the sugar in 
 the scum, must constitute capital food. Should there 
 prove to be a surplus, it may be preserved for a consider- 
 able time in cisterns well cemented and deep, where fer- 
 mentation will be slow j but the mass must be allowed to 
 get cool before being put in. Such cisterns will become 
 useful for storing the syrup, should it prove profitable as 
 an alcohol crop, as they would be cheap and safe reposi- 
 tories for it until the season and market demanded it, 
 when it could be raised by pump, and with one set of 
 casks, hauled away and emptied, returned, and refilled, 
 thereby saving much expense for casks. In this manner 
 I learn syrups are often kept in the large sugar districts 
 of the West Indies." 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 SYRUP. 
 
 BEST METHODS OF MAKING IT-EXPERIENCE OF AMERICAN GROWERS. 
 
 WHILST contending chemists have alternately sung 
 the praises of, and decried against, the sorgho as a sugar 
 producing plant, and opulent sugar refiners have trem- 
 bled at the threatened invasion of their accustomed mo- 
 nopolies, all have united in the opinion that it is indeed 
 a plant capable of affording an abundant and excellent 
 crop of syrup. 
 
 The American public received a most unexpected and 
 agreeable surprise in the month of October last, by the 
 publication of a circular from Colonel Richard Peters, of 
 Atlanta, Georgia, which gave the remarkable results he 
 had obtained in making syrup from the juice of the 
 sorgho. So complete, so triumphant was his success, and 
 so full was it of magnificent promise for the future, that 
 with one accord it was caught up from press to press and 
 scattered to every quarter of the Union. The papers of 
 Maine and Texas, of Maryland and Utah, discussed its 
 probable importance, and with but little delay Mr. Peters 
 became one of the most widely known men of the country. 
 The result was, that from that day to this, he is in the 
 receipt of a vast number of letters of inquiry, and in self- 
 defence was obliged to issue a pamphlet of directions for 
 
 [129] 
 
130 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 the cultivation of tlie plant and manufacture of its syrup. 
 He has, besides this, he informs me, written a thousand 
 or more letters of reply. Samples of his sorgho syrup 
 were given to him by a number of persons in all sections 
 of the country ; and amongst others, a keg of it was 
 kindly sent to myself. 
 
 The success of Mr. Peters being made known early in 
 the season, induced many farmers in the northern and 
 north-western states, who had small patches under culti- 
 vation, to endeavor to make a little syrup themselves ; 
 and in no case, so far as I have seen reported in the 
 public papers, was the attempt unsuccessful. By per- 
 sonal correspondence, I know of syrup having been made 
 in thirteen states and territories. And I doubt not that 
 Mr. D. Jay Browne, and Colonel Peters, could add con- 
 siderably to the list. 
 
 As might have been expected, when we consider the 
 rude method employed in expressing the juice and 
 boiling it, the syrups in some cases were of questionable 
 excellence; but where more care was taken, the most 
 gratifying results were attained. Colonel Peters' syrup 
 was boiled in a common iron " cow-pot," and from inex- 
 perience or carelessness of the hands employed in the 
 operation, it was not only suffered to become scorched, 
 but it was not properly neutralized with alkalies, and 
 kept from exposure to the air. Another reason for its 
 imperfect quality was, that the barrel from which the 
 specimen samples were taken, was made from frosted 
 canes. In fact, so imperfect was it compared to what it 
 might have been, that, judging from its quality, Mr. 
 Peters is now convinced, that if he but takes ordinary 
 
SYRUP. 131 
 
 precautions with, this season's crop, he will be able to 
 make a syrup worth one dollar per gallon. The syrup 
 which we made at our own place, was of better color and 
 superior taste to the Georgia specimen ; and I have seen 
 samples from other states, which much surpassed our 
 own. One, especially, made by Mr. Boylston, Editor of the 
 " Amherst Cabinet," New Hampshire, was equal, if not 
 superior to Stewart's syrup. 
 
 Doctor A. A. Hayes, of Boston, one of the Assayers to 
 the State of Massachusetts, told me, recently, that he was 
 convinced that excellent syrup could be made from the 
 sap in considerable quantities. And at a recent meeting 
 of the Farmers' Club of the American Institute, Doctor 
 Charles T. Jackson, of Boston, the associate Assayer with 
 Dr. Hayes, said "the syrup of this new sugar plant, prop- 
 erly refined, and mixed with a small per centage of honey, 
 is equally delicious as honey from the hive." This 
 gentleman informs me, that the specimens made by him 
 from the canes furnished by the General Government, 
 were c6mpletely colorless. 
 
 All these facts go to prove that the best results are 
 always obtained by careful management, and whilst the 
 climate and soil of various localities doubtless exercise 
 no inconsiderable influence, yet we may rest assured, that 
 either at the North or South an intelligent and experi- 
 enced operator and a suitable apparatus, will always 
 command greater profit and better quality of product, 
 than a shiftless experimenter. 
 
132 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 THE SEED MAY BE GATHERED WHEN CROWN FOR A SYRUP CROP. 
 
 It has been sufficiently well proved that the ripening 
 of the seed of the sorgho does not interfere with the ex- 
 traction of the full richness of the saccharine matters in 
 the juice, and the farmer who is desirous of growing 
 enough of a crop to make the molasses for his family 
 use, will be furnished with a further inducement to do so 
 from the fact, that at the same time he can be cultivating 
 a prolific crop of seed for feeding to his poultry, and a 
 large amount of green forage, in the leaves, for his 
 horses and stock. 
 
 APPARATUS NECESSARY. 
 
 To persons who merely desire to make a few gallons 
 of syrup for their family use, a complete apparatus is not 
 of paramount importance ; but if it is in contemplation 
 to duplicate such extensive practice as that of Mr. Peters, 
 it will be a matter of positive economy to procure a mill 
 and boilers that will extract the greatest possible amount 
 of sap from a given quantity of stalks. The juice last 
 expressed from the cane is the richest, and it is therefore 
 desirable to procure a mill of sufficient strength to ex- 
 stract nearly the whole sap. Small farmers and planters 
 can, of course, only approximate to this end, because of 
 the great grinding capacity and very large expense of 
 the more powerful mills ; but I do not think that a farmer, 
 with a crop of only five or ten acres, should use a wooden 
 roller mill when he can procure one with iron rollers for 
 or thrice the money. The canes of the sorgho are 
 
SYRUP. 133 
 
 hard, both because of being so very full of sap, and from 
 the large quantity of silex in their outer coating ; and a 
 wooden roller mill could scarcely be depended upon to 
 last through a season without breaking, or, if it should, 
 the rollers would most probably be crushed and badly 
 indented by the hard canes. Another argument in favor 
 of iron rollers is, that the saccharine juice of the sorgho, 
 when taken up by the pores of wood, is exceedingly 
 likely to become sour, and thus injures the portions of 
 juice successively passing through the mill. 
 
 M. D'lVERNOIS' SYRUP. 
 
 It is possible to make syrup from the sorgho without 
 the use of any mill or crushing apparatus whatever. 
 Thus, according to an article by M. d'lvernois, trans- 
 lated from the Bulletin of the Imperial (French) Accli- 
 mation Society, by Hon. H. Meigs, Secretary of the 
 American Institute, all that is necessary is to select the 
 butts of mature stalks, cut them into pieces of about an 
 inch in length, and boil them in pure water in an iron 
 pot. When the water has become charged with the 
 sweet juices of the cane clippings, it should be .strained off 
 and clarified in the usual way, with a little cream of lime, 
 whites of eggs, bullock's blood, or skimmed milk. After 
 another boiling, to reduce it to proper consistency, it may 
 be put into stone jars or pots and tightly covered, like 
 ordinary preserves. This practice is at best an imperfect 
 one ; for, not only is the saccharine matter in the stalks 
 boiled out, but, at the same time, all the other soluble, 
 
13-1 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 organic matters, such as wax and chlorophyl,* which, 
 impart a disagreable taste to the syrup. 
 
 *, 
 IRON ROLLERS BETTER THAN WOODEN ROLLERS. 
 
 An idea may be had of the imperfection of Colonel 
 Peters' mill, when we reflect that whilst with it he ob- 
 tained but fifty percent, of juice, Dr. Eobert Battey, by 
 pressing and subsequent evaporation, got 84| per cent, of 
 sap and only 15i of woody fiber. It is found by numerous 
 experiments, that with proper machinery, seventy per 
 cent, should be obtained as an average product, and 
 when we consider that with only fifty per cent. Mr. Peters 
 actually worked up an average crop of 407 gallons of 
 syrup per acre, my reader will doubtless agree with me 
 that the difference on a single acre between the syrup 
 from thirty or forty and seventy per cent, of sap would 
 more than warrant the substitution of an iron roller for a 
 wooden roller mill. 
 
 AMOUNT OF SACCHARINE MATTERS YARY IN DIFFERENT CASES. 
 
 The different writers on the sorgho, who have experi- 
 mented with the sap, give various accounts of its richness. 
 
 * This chlorophyl (green coloring matter) injures the qualitv of the 
 juice expressed from the sorgho in the large processes of manufacture, 
 and therefore as, both in the West Indian Cane and the Chinese Sugar 
 Cane, the greater saccharine richness lies in the lower parts of the 
 stalk, those nearest the butt, it is advisable to cut off about two 
 and a half or three feet of stalk, when the seed heads are removed : 
 and all the leaves of stalks intended for sugar or syrup making should 
 be removed. 
 
SYRUP. 135 
 
 Thus, a sample grown near Washington gave Mr. Browne 
 fourteen per cent, of dry saccharine matter, but another 
 from the Arsenal, near Boston, yielded twenty -three per 
 cent. Vilmorin's proportions varied ten to sixteen per 
 cent. Dr. Turrel's from ten to twenty. Mr. W ray's 
 imphees sixteen per cent, of sugar. Mr. Avequin's, in 
 Louisiana, was a little over ten. The densities were also 
 different. Dr. Battey, of Georgia, found his superior to Yil- 
 morin's, the latter ranging from 1'050 to 1'075, whilst the 
 former's uniformly stood at 1'085. Avequin's was 1'064, 
 reaching almost to 9 Beaume'. Mr. Hardy's, in Algiers, 
 stood at 8|. 
 
 If we accept even the lowest per centage shown above, 
 we still shall have a sacchariferous plant much superior to 
 the sugar beet, which in 1854, in France alone, employed 
 three hundred and thirty-two manufactories, producing 
 158,000,000 pounds of sugar, besides molasses. In this 
 same year (1854) there were consumed in the United 
 States over fourteen million gallons of molasses, which, 
 at thirty cents, cost us $4,200,000, and as we approach the 
 threshold of 1858, the price is doubled. Who, then, will 
 have the temerity to say that even if the sorgho had not 
 proved its capacity to furnish good, crystallized sugar, 
 that as a molasses-producing plant, it would not have 
 proved a source of vast wealth ? 
 
 SYRUP BOILING. 
 
 The process of reducing the sap to the consistency of 
 syrup, is so simple as scarcely to demand very protracted 
 instructions. The farmer, having cut his canes as near 
 the ground as possible, stripped off the leaves and remov- 
 
136 THE CHINESE SUGAK CANE. 
 
 ed the tufts, carts them to the mill as fast as he can con- 
 veniently grind them. The juice runs through a tin 
 pipe into a tub, or box, painted on the inside, or a large 
 wooden reservoir, lined with tin, lead, or sheet copper, 
 either of which should at all times be kept scrupulously 
 clean. In this, those only using Mr. Wray's patent can 
 add the lime to clarify the juice in the cold state, and from 
 thence pump or bail it into the boiler, where, as the heat 
 rises to from 120 to 180 Fah., the dilute infusion of pow- 
 dered nutgalls is introduced. The syrup is then carried to 
 the boiling point, when the fire is at once checked, the 
 syrup stands for about fifteen or twenty minutes, to give 
 the scum a chance to rise and be skimmed off ; the fire is 
 then urged again. The syrup then is kept boiling until 
 reduced to the proper consistency. This precise degree 
 is ascertained by the insertion of a little glass or metallic 
 instrument called a " syrup guage." These may be had 
 of Messrs. Pike and Son of New York, opticians, or Mr. 
 Jno. W. Eeid, or any other respectable sugar-apparatus 
 maker. My friend, Dr. Robert Battey, has prepared a 
 syrup guage, on which he has marked but one degree, 
 and it is thus rendered so extremely simple that any 
 farmer, or farmer's laborer, can always tell the exact 
 moment of its arriving at the " proof point." The draw- 
 back to it is that it is made of glass, and is thus liable, un- 
 less securely packed, to be broken in being transported, 
 and when in use, otherwise the idea is an excellent one. 
 
 For the benefit of such as do not wish to purchase 
 the right to use Mr. Wray's patent, which all should, 
 I subjoin the directions given by Dr. Battey in Mr. Red- 
 mond's pamphlet : 
 
SYKUP. 137 
 
 BOILING DOWN. 
 
 "The fires should be so arranged that they maybe 
 under good control, to be forced or withdrawn, as occasion 
 may require. When the juice is placed in the boiler, the 
 fire should be gradually increased to a simmering heat, 
 (not to active boiling,) and maintained at this tempera- 
 ture until a thick green scum rises to the surface, and 
 forms into puffs, seeming ready to crack. This scum, 
 when fully formed, should be removed clean from the 
 surface. The heat may now be raised to boiling, and 
 kept in an active state of ebullition until the bulk is re- 
 duced one half. The fire may be removed from one 
 kettle, and its contents be transferred to the other, when 
 the heat must be gradually moderated, as the syrup be- 
 comes more concentrated, to avoid the danger of scorch- 
 ing, which injures the color and flavor. Should more 
 dirty green scum rise to the surface after the first skim- 
 ming, it should likewise be removed. 
 
 " In regard to the precise degree of concentration to 
 which the syrup should be brought, it is exceedingly dif- 
 ficult to lay down any precise and simple rule which 
 shall meet every case. The plan for determining it, in use 
 on the sugar plantation, and which was adopted by Gover- 
 nor Hammond and Mr. Peters, is based upon the judg- 
 ment of the eye, in respect to the consistence of the syrup, 
 when poured from the ladle, and cooled as it drops from 
 its edge. This test- is evidently very defective, since the 
 temperature of the atmosphere regulates the consistence 
 which the syrup must assume on cooling down so that 
 a syrup boiled on a cold day will necessarily be thin and 
 
138 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 watery as the weather moderates, and a syrup finished 
 at night will differ materially from that of the noon-day. 
 Although a good approximation, it is not exact enough 
 for the tyro to secure a desirable uniformity in the con- 
 sistence and value of the product, or to obviate the 
 danger of fermentation and loss. To remedy this uncer- 
 tainty, and secure a uniform result at all times, I have 
 constructed a simple instrument which determines readily, 
 and with certainty, the precise moment when the syrup 
 should be removed from the fire and transferred to the 
 barrels. 
 
 " It is a prevalent opinion that lime should always be 
 added to the juice, as soon as it is pressed out, and the 
 idea has been advanced that it could not be clarified 
 without lime. This is undoubtedly a mistake ; the juice 
 alone, under my hands, clarifies itself more readily with- 
 out lime than with it. The latter answers no useful pur- 
 pose, so far as the syrup is concerned, save to neutralize 
 the free acid (phosphoric) which exists naturally in the 
 cane. Lime darkens the color, and, to my taste, detracts 
 from the peculiar grateful flavor of the syrup. Many 
 would, perhaps, object to the slight acidity. To such I 
 would say, use the lime, but use it sparingly. To pre- 
 pare it for use, take a half peck of lime, slake it in a bucket 
 of water, gradually added, stir up well, and strain the 
 milk through a cloth ; let it settle for half a day, pour 
 off the water and dry the powder. Of the latter, you 
 may use from half a teaspoonful to two teaspoonful for 
 every five gallons juice, after the scum has been removed." 
 
SYRUP. 139 
 
 NECESSITY EOfi- CLEANLINESS AND SYSTEM. 
 
 One requisite to ensure the production of good, clean 
 syrup, is that the greatest cleanliness should be observed 
 throughout every stage of the manufacture. The mill, 
 boilers, ladles, buckets, troughs, reservoir, and every piece 
 of apparatus, and each implement used in the syrup mak- 
 ing should be cleaned off as soon as they are no longer in 
 actual use. The canes should be stripped clean of all dry 
 or green leaves, and when convenient, any lumps of dirt or 
 other impurities be knocked off, before the canes are passed 
 through the mill. Only ripe and sound canes should be 
 used ; and the ground about the mill should be neatly 
 swept, and all rubbish removed. If the boiling is done 
 under a shed, or in a building, it should be as neatly 
 maintained, and all things should be as systematically 
 arranged as if it were a private parlor ; for not only is 
 the introduction of impurities into the syrup prevented, 
 but the operator and his assistants can, at the desired 
 moment, at once lay hands upon any one of the instru- 
 ments needful at the various stages of the operation. 
 
 COLONEL PETERS' RESULTS. 
 
 The yield of juice and of syrup obtained by Colonel 
 Peters, were as follows : 
 
 BEST EIGHTH OF AN ACRE. 
 
 Yield of juice from 3315 canes, -. 253 gallons. 
 
 Yield of syrup from 253 gallons juice, - 58 gallons. 
 
 Eate of syrup per acre, - - 468 gallons. 
 
140 THE CHINESE SUGAft CANE. 
 
 POOEEST EIGHTH OF AN ACKE. 
 
 Yield of juice from 2550 canes, - 179 gallons. 
 
 Yield of syrup from 179 gallons juice, 43^ gallons. 
 Eate per acre, of syrup, 346 gallons. 
 
 Weight of thirty select canes, - - 49-^ pounds. 
 
 Weight of juice pressed out, 25| pounds. 
 
 Weight of crushed cane, - - 23 pounds. 
 
 Loss in crushing, . . j pounds 
 
 Weight of crushed cane dried in sun, - 9^ pounds. 
 
 Or, in other words, he made an average crop, four hundred 
 and seven gallons of syrup ; and even then obtained only 
 five sevenths of which he actually should, if he had been 
 in possession of perfect machinery. 
 
 With such results as these for consideration, how for- 
 tunate, nay, how providential must it seem, that just as 
 short crops, combination of capitalists, and increase of 
 consumers threaten us with an alarming advance in the 
 price of an article which is no longer a luxury, but a 
 necessary of life, a new sugar plant is given to us, of such 
 prolific resources as this Chinese Sugar Cane. 
 
CHAPTEE VII. 
 
 ALCOHOL. 
 
 ITS IMPORTANCE AS AN ARTICLE OF MANUFACTURE. 
 
 ALCOHOL, at the present day, occupies a very import- 
 ant place in the domestic economy of every family ; not, 
 it may be, in the form with which it comes to us from 
 the distillery, but disguised under the familiar cognomen 
 of many articles in daily consumption, it performs its 
 useful functions, unchallenged and unsuspected even by 
 the members of the Temperance Society. 
 
 In the materia medica we are indebted to it for chloro- 
 form and ether, and many of our most valuable vegetable 
 extracts and essences could not be obtained without it 
 In the arts we require its aid to dissolve the refractory 
 gums and resins; while in the shape of camphene, or 
 spirit gas, it yields, with other ingredients, a brilliant and 
 economic means of illluminating our dwelling-houses and 
 workshops. 
 
 It is true that alcohol, in its abuse as a beverage, is the 
 cause of much individual suffering from time to time ; 
 instances of this, however, are small compared with the 
 universal benefit which it affords ; and seeing that it is 
 not in the light of a beverage exclusively that I mean to 
 treat of it, but also as an important item in our national 
 economy, I trust that even the most fastidious will hold 
 me blameless if, in the course of my remarks, I endeavor 
 
 [141] 
 
142 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 to impart to others what little knowledge and experience 
 I may possess in regard to this most important manufac- 
 ture. 
 
 THE CEREALS NO LONGER NEED BE EMPLOYED TO MAKE ALCOHOL. 
 
 Hitherto molasses from the cane, and the cereals, corn, 
 barley, and rye, have furnished the bulk of the spirit so 
 extensively needed, but a new era seems about to dawn 
 upon us ; the cereals may return to more legitimate chan- 
 nels of consumption, while a new plant, useful it would 
 seem, besides, for other purposes, supplies their place 
 the discovery of which, and introduction to our country, 
 deserves to be classed among the most important events 
 of the age, while every endeavor ought to be used to 
 develop, rather than to retard, through a mistaken and 
 narrow-minded philanthropy, its application to the manu- 
 facture of spirit, which, I have shown, has now become 
 an article of large consumption among us. 
 
 WHAT IS ALCOHOL? HOW MADE? 
 
 Alcohol may be termed, practically, pure spirit, the 
 result of vinous fermentation in certain bodies capable of 
 assuming this condition, from which it is obtained by dis- 
 tillation. A few of these bodies are wine, cider, beer, 
 and cane juice. When either of these liquids has under- 
 gone the vinous fermentation, and is subjected to vapor- 
 ization in a close vessel with a suitable condenser, alco- 
 hol is obtained as a result, more or less pure according to 
 the apparatus employed and the skill of the operator. 
 
 Kum, gin, brandy, and whiskey, are nothing but alco- 
 hol more or less dilute and flavored with the essential 
 
ALCOHOL. 143 
 
 oils, which give them character. Thus rum is alcohol 
 flavored with the essential oil of the sugar cane ; gin with 
 the oil of the juniper berry; brandy with the oil of the 
 grape ; while whiskey owes its peculiarity to the well- 
 known fusil oil inherent in grain. By depriving either 
 of these liquors of the essential oils, coloring matters, and 
 volume of water they contain by means of rectification, 
 we obtain from them pure alcohol, or the well known 
 spirit of wine of the apothecaries' shops. 
 
 To obtain absolute alcohol, or a spirit perfectly free from 
 water, is impossible by any of the distilling apparatus yet 
 invented, alcohol having too great an affinity for water, 
 to be separated entirely by mechanical means. Yet a 
 spirit sufficiently pure for all commercial purposes may 
 be produced by a variety of distillatory arrangements, 
 which it shall be my duty to refer to in the proper place. 
 Spirit containing only five per cent, of water may be manu- 
 factured by a good apparatus. 
 
 It being the purpose of this work to treat only of the 
 sorgho and its products, it is to the manufacture of sorgho 
 spirit only that I shall refer. But as in the case of the 
 manufacture of sugar from the same source, I considered 
 a description of a West Indian plantation and apparatus 
 best calculated to elucidate the subject, so, as regards the 
 manufacture of sorgho rum or spirit, a short detail of the 
 methods practiced in Cuba and the Windward Islands, 
 together with a few illustrations of improved apparatus, 
 will best serve the purpose, feeling assured judging 
 from a sample of sorgho syrup received from Mr. Olcott 
 that the products of the cane and sorgho are alike, and 
 required similar treatment to obtain like results. 
 
144 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 Distillation being an operation which requires prepar- 
 ation in the fluid to be operated upon, before proceeding 
 to distil we must first understand how to prepare the 
 wash so as to obtain the largest amount of alcohol from 
 a given amount of sweet liquor. Where grain is the 
 substance employed to form the wort or wash, the mani- 
 pulations are complex and various, requiring long expe- 
 rience to understand thoroughly ; but when, as in the 
 present case, the fluid is already in a forward state of 
 preparation, by reason of its nature, and requiring to 
 undergo but one preparative operation previous to distil- 
 lation, the subject becomes simplified, and less difficult to 
 describe or comprehend. 
 
 FERMENTATION. 
 
 To produce the vinous or alcoholic fermentation in a 
 fluid, it is a first requisite that that fluid be sweet. This 
 sweetness may either be the result of chemical combi- 
 nation, brought about by art,' as in the case of worts made 
 from grain, or it may be the natural condition of the 
 fluid, as in the case of the expressed juice of the sorgho. 
 
 When fermentation takes place, several phenomena not 
 to be mistaken make their appearance. The juice seems 
 to boil, minute globules of carbonic acid gas come to the 
 surface, like the effervescence of champagne when viewed 
 through a glass, the temperature rises several degrees 
 above that of the atmosphere, an aromatic, rummy smell 
 is evolved, and a scum of yeast gathers on the top. To 
 the tongue, the previous sweet flavor has given place to 
 a slightly acid, pungent taste, and when the fermentation 
 
ALCOHOL. 145 
 
 has been brought successfully to a close, the wash, which 
 before fermentation was commenced marked 8 to 10 
 Beaume, will now be found to mark little over 1 
 Beaume, showing that nearly all the saccharine matter 
 has been changed into alcohol. If left twelve hours after 
 this, the acetic or vinegar fermentation commences, and 
 the alcohol gradually disappears, to the serious loss of 
 the distiller. 
 
 In the West Indies, the mixture of the materials, or 
 what is termed setting the wash, varies with the season. 
 When crop has just commenced, or just finished, it is 
 different from what it is in winter, as the rainy season is 
 called ; besides, the scientific distiller varies his mixtures 
 to suit circumstances. The same proportions that are 
 suitable for one state of the atmosphere may be unsuit- 
 able for another, and it is the capacity to judge what is 
 best for the season that constitutes the valuable overseer 
 to the still house. 
 
 Owing to its liability to conflagration, the still house 
 is generally set apart, but in the vicinity of the boiling 
 house, so that too much labor may not accrue from 
 having to carry to it the scum of the kettles and molasses 
 for conversion into alcohol. 
 
 If the still be a small one, the planter usually contents 
 himself with a mere shed for a still house, and a few 
 rum puncheons, with a square hole cut on the side where 
 the bung-hole has been, for fermenting vats, But if rum 
 is intended to be one of the regular products of the estate, 
 the matter is gone into more carefully. A regular stone 
 still house is built, and proper fermenting tuns of oak or 
 white pine provided. 
 7 
 
146 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 The still house is generally of two stories, each pretty 
 high ; the second story consisting of a floor extending 
 up to the place where the still is set. Here it is cut 
 away, and the space is left clear from the ground to the 
 roof; this is to allow of the various appurtenances of the 
 still being elevated to the proper height, free from ob- 
 struction from joists or other interferences. 
 
 In extensive distilleries, however, such as that of the 
 Messrs. Belchers, in Matanzas, Cuba, the still house is of 
 several stories, and special arrangements x are made to suit 
 circumstances. Here as many as thirty or forty large 
 fermenting tuns are employed, each capable of contain- 
 ing from two to three thousand gallons, so arranged that 
 no more of the mosta, or wash, shall mature each day 
 than is capable of being distilled within twenty -four hours. 
 
 Underneath the ground floor of the still house a mixing 
 tub ought to be placed, and grated over with a wooden 
 grating level with the floor, so that a molasses puncheon 
 may be rolled over it, the bung taken out, and its contents 
 let down through the bars, to save labor. This tub or 
 vat ought to contain a charge for one or more of the 
 fermenting vats employed. The mixture of the ingre- 
 dients for fermentation is made in it by agitating them 
 together by means of wooden rakes or oars. When 
 completed, the wash is pumped up into the fermenting 
 tubs, tuns, vats, or backs, as they are called irrespectively 
 according to local usage, where it undergoes the vinous 
 or alcoholic fermentation, and in turn is distilled into 
 rum or low wines. As many as twenty pipes of rum, of 
 one hundred and twenty gallons each, are made on some 
 1 arge estates each day during crop. 
 
ALCOHOL. 147 
 
 So far the arrangements of West India still houses have 
 proved appropriate and applicable to the distillation of 
 the sorgho, but here the applicability ceases ; for the 
 West Indian mode of setting the wash, and the time 
 allowed for fermentation there, is quite unsuited to the 
 variety of the cane family we are at present considering. 
 I will, therefore, now proceed to describe the process 
 best suited to the new plant, so as to obtain the best 
 results, taking my data from the various French reports 
 which have been made on the subject. 
 
 THE ALCOHOLIZATION OF THE SORGHO. 
 
 In France there have been quite a number of experi- 
 ments made on the conversion of the sweet juices of the 
 sorgho sucre into various liquors, such as rum, brandy, 
 wine, and beer. We find Vilmorin in 1854, Alphandery 
 in 1855, Bourdais, Sicard, and Madinier in 1856, and 
 Detur in 1857, publishing reports on the subject, to 
 which I shall refer. 
 
 Alphandery reports that he made very good brandy 
 by concentrating the juice of the sorgho slightly (12 B. ?) 
 and putting it into a barrel, where it fermented a week, 
 then distilling it. The eau de vie, says he, thus 
 obtained, is incontestibly superior to that made from 
 wine (real brandy.) Also, that if some of the juice be 
 taken during fermentation, and bottled close, it makes a 
 very agreeable drink. 
 
 It is evident from the above that the circumstances 
 under which M. Alphandery fermented his juice were 
 unfavorable, as the sorgho almost always, when properly 
 
148 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 cared for, finishes fermentation in three days at most. 
 Nevertheless, his testimony is valuable as to the quality 
 of the product. 
 
 M. Madinier endorses the statement of M. Hardy, 
 that the juice of the sorgho contains naturally a fermen- 
 tative principle, sufficient for perfect alcoholization, but 
 thinks it best to throw in with the juice a few of the fresh 
 crashed canes, which greatly accelerates the attenuation. 
 He also advises very wide and shallow fermenting 
 cisterns, so as to expose as much surface to the air as 
 possible, and to set the cisterns at a temperature of 
 twenty or twenty-five degrees centigrade, equal to 
 seventy-seven Fahrenheit. M. Sicard, in his work, 
 merely collates the experiences of others, among which 
 are Beauregard, Fissiaux, and Eaoul. One point, how- 
 ever, they all agree upon, that is, that the wash ought to 
 be kept in a room, the temperature of which is eighteen 
 degrees centigrade, or say sixty -four Fahrenheit. 
 
 M. F. Bourdais, however, a distiller in Algeria, at 
 length, in 1856, treats the matter in a thoroughly prac- 
 tical and scientific manner ; he gives us facts, not theories, 
 and proves most conclusively that the sorgho is perhaps 
 the best alcohol-producing plant yet discovered. 
 
 The operations on which he based his calculations and 
 deductions were all on a large scale, and therefore less 
 liable to error than the laboratory experiments of most 
 of his predecessors in this field. He planted five hectares, 
 say ten acres, with sorgho, and professes to give results 
 with scrupulous exactitude. 
 
ALCOHOL. 149 
 
 COST TO PRODUCE A GALLON ALCOHOL PROM SORGHO, NINETY-POUR 
 PER CENT. STRENGTH. 
 
 He found that to cultivate and prepare for 
 grinding one hectare, or say two acres, of 
 sorgho cost him 685 francs, or say - $137 00 
 
 But of the green fodder stripped from the canes 
 he sold seventy-eight quintals, or say 17,000 
 Ibs., at three francs for 100 kilogrammes, 
 which is sixty cents per 220 Ibs., t .-- 4680 
 
 $90 20 
 
 Of prepared canes he obtained ready for the 
 mill, 520 quintals, or 114,920 Ibs., making 
 cost of production per quintal of 220 Ibs., 
 about 17 cents. 
 
 Each quintal (220 Ibs.) yielded, on distillation, 
 5 litres 20 centolitres, or say lj gallons, alco- 
 hol, at 94, thus costing per litre of If pints 
 15 1, or about - 4 cents 
 
 To which add cost of crushing, maceration, fer- 
 mentation, yeast, distillation, and rectification, 10 cents 
 
 Cartage to town, - v 1-J- cents 
 
 Cost per litre (If pints) of alcohol, 94, 15 cents 
 
 or say 71 cents per gallon, nearly. 
 
 DETAILS OP THE MANUFACTURE OF ALCOHOL PROM SAT PIVE HECTARES, 
 OR TEN ACRES, OF SORGHO, AS GIVEN BY BOURDAIS. 
 
 The canes, stripped of their leaves, are passed through 
 a cane mill, the juice runs into a tank capable of holding 
 
150 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 forty hectolitres (eight hundred and eighty gallons), the 
 bagasse ; or crushed canes, still retaining a considerable 
 quantity of juice, are steeped in hot water. Nine hundred 
 and fifty kilogrammes (two thousand six hundred Ibs.) 
 of these yield twenty hectolitres (four hundred and forty 
 gallons) of juice and water at 3 Beaume, while the juice 
 first expressed stands 10 Beaume. 
 
 On finding it was going to cost him too much to cut 
 and gather the grain from his sorgho, he determined not 
 to do so, but after choosing sufficient of the best seed for 
 next year, he left the grain attached to the stalks, and 
 crushed all together. 
 
 When he came to macerate with hot water, the heat 
 immediately acted upon the starch of the corn, and. deter- 
 mined its transformation to sugar. He thus obtained, 
 by the same operation, both the saccharine of the grain 
 and the residue of the juice from the canes. 
 
 The juice, on leaving the steeping vats at 3 B., must be 
 enriched with pure juice till it marks 5 B. Eight hecto- 
 litres of this (one hundred and seventy-six gallons), at a 
 temperature of 30 centigrade (86 F.) are mixed in a fer- 
 menting vat with five litres (one and one eighth gallons) 
 brewers' yeast ; this he calls the foot. In an hour it is in a 
 high state of fermentation, and he then fills up the vat with 
 twenty-two hectolitres (four hundred and eighty-four 
 gallons) also at 30 cent. (86 F.) ; in another hour the whole 
 is fermenting. He states the above from his own expe- 
 rience, and remarks that the fermentation proceeds 
 regularly, requires no attention, is never too rapid, and 
 always falls to zero on the areometer in twenty, or at 
 most twenty-four hours. It is then ready for distillation, 
 
ALCOHOL. 151 
 
 and will yield eight litres (one and three fourths gallons) 
 alcohol for each hundred litres (twenty-two gallons) juice 
 at 10 B. 
 
 From these statements it would appear that, however 
 little success may attend the attempt to produce crystal- 
 lized sugar from the sorgho, that there need be no diffi- 
 culty, at all events, in making good domestic rum, 
 alcohol, and other kindred products from its juice. The 
 following instructions for setting a vat are not, however, 
 to be taken as based upon the result of my own expe- 
 rience, for as yet I have only been enabled to experiment 
 upon a small quantity of syrup, which was over a year 
 old, badly defecated and burned, and withal considerably 
 acid. I have nevertheless carefully perused the reports 
 of the French operators, and extracted what I considered 
 best from each, which was applicable to our climate and 
 national habits. 
 
 TO SET A VAT. 
 
 
 
 If the farmer be manufacturing syrup from his cane, 
 let him select the most perfectly ripened and healthy 
 canes for this purpose, setting aside those which have 
 only partially ripened, or have been frosted, for the 
 manufacture of rum or alcohol ; by this means, and sav- 
 ing all the scum of the pans for the same purpose, he 
 may thus be enabled to use all his product to advantage, 
 and waste nothing. 
 
 Supposing him to have determined on making rum 
 or alcohol only, let him cut his canes, grind them, and 
 put his juice into a pan to evaporate slightly. If the juice 
 
152 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 marks 8 B. no evaporation need take place, but the pan 
 be used to raise the temperature of the liquid to say 80 
 Fahrenheit, then discharge the contents of the pan or pans 
 into a vat suited to the quantity the farmer desires to 
 ferment, fill this vat to within a foot or nine inches of the 
 top, and, if you can get it, add by measure one gallon of 
 brewers' yeast to every hundred gallons in the vat, first 
 take four or five gallons of the warm juice, mix the yeast 
 well up in it, and return it to the vat, agitating the whole 
 well together. In a couple of hours or so, if the weather 
 be propitious, the contents of the vat will seem alive or 
 boiling, owing to the bubbles of gas which are rising to 
 the surface, and an aromatic flavor will begin to arise. 
 The vat is now fermenting. The door of the room or 
 shed where the vat or vats are placed, must be kept shut 
 or open, as the case may be, so as to keep the tempera- 
 ture of the air about 65 or 70. In winter a stove will 
 be necessary, for if the juice should get chilled, in all 
 probability it would stop fermentation, and give trouble. 
 Examine the vat from time' to time, to see that all is 
 going on well ; in twenty-four hours after the fermen- 
 tation has begun, take out sufficient to float Beaume's 
 saccharometer, and insert a thermometer in the vat 
 You will find, in all probability, that the wash has be- 
 come attenuated to a certain degree, and has risen in tem- 
 perature to 80 or 82. That which yesterday marked 
 8 B. now perhaps marks only 5' or 4 B., in which 
 case you may be sure your vat is progressing as it ought 
 to do. Had you set your wash with common molasses, 
 instead of sorgho, it would not have attenuated one 
 degree in so short a time, and the fermentation would 
 
ALCOHOL. 153 
 
 only be commenced. This is a peculiarity in the sorgho 
 greatly to its advantage in making alcohol. 
 
 Attenuation is the term applied to that action in sac- 
 charine fluid mixtures by which they gradually lose part 
 of their gravity in fermentation, and it attains perfection, 
 if the wash can be brought to the same specific gravity, 
 or less, than water itself. Before fermentation, the mix- 
 ture being much heavier than water, is shown by the 
 areometer. This change in density is owing to the sugar, 
 which is denser than water, changing into alcohol, 
 which is lighter ; and as a mixture of alcohol with water 
 must, from the difference of gravity between the alcohol 
 and the water, render a given bulk of such mixture 
 lighter than the same bulk of pure water, it follows that 
 as the sugar in the wash changes into alcohol, the mass 
 changes its gravity, or attenuates. 
 
 In forty- eight hours, in warm weather, after the wash 
 commences to ferment, examine it by pushing the head 
 or scum on one side, if it has not already sunk to the 
 bottom, and if you find that the bubbles cease to rise, 
 and that the temperature has gone down to 70 or 75, get 
 your still ready and distil the spirit as soon as possible. 
 If you leave it twelve hours after this, the vat will have 
 commenced the acetic fermentation, and be ip. process of 
 making vinegar at the expense of your alcohol. 
 
 Since commencing this article on alcohol, I have been 
 enabled to test, to my own satisfaction, the capability of 
 sorgho syrup, even in an advanced state of acidity, foi 
 making spirit. The quantity experimented upon being 
 small was against the success of the operation, especially 
 in the fermentation. Yet, nevertheless, I obtained a 
 
154 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 very strong, well-flavored spirit, infinitely superior to 
 whiskey, and giving evidence that, had the syrup been 
 fresh, a sorgho brandy would have been made, which 
 would have compared favorably with any of the French 
 brandies in quality. I am not aware that sorgho spirit 
 has been previously made in America; it may, there- 
 fore, prove interesting to give the details of my experi- 
 ment. 
 
 On Tuesday, the 17th of August, I secured from 
 Mr. H. S. Olcott a little over a quart of sorgho syrup, 
 part of a small quantity sent to him by Mr. Peters, 
 of Georgia, the product of last year's experiment ; it was 
 extremely acid, having been imperfectly defecated and 
 clarified, burned in the boiling, and contained much 
 extraneous matter ; its color was a dirty yellowish-brown, 
 and its density, by Beaumd's saccharometer, was 35. 
 
 I commenced operations upon it at 2 P. M., on the 
 18th, by mixing in a pail five quarts of water, heated to 
 100 Fahrenheit, with one quart of the syrup ; when the 
 mixture was effected, the temperature of the whole stood 
 90. I set the temperature thus high, owing to the small- 
 ness of the quantity, being doubtful as to the fermenta- 
 tion proceeding fast enough. I also made the density, 
 which was 9, one or two degrees higher than would be 
 necessary in larger quantities. Having stirred the whole 
 thoroughly, I took out a small portion in a tumbler, into 
 which I put one quarter of a pint of fresh brewer's yeast ; 
 this I beat up with a spoon, and when well mixed I 
 poured it into the pail with the rest, and stirred the whole 
 together. The temperature of the room being 75, I left 
 it undisturbed for a time. On examining it two hours 
 
ALCOHOL. 155 
 
 subsequently, I found that a lively fermentation had set 
 in, and that the temperature had fallen to 77 ; at ten 
 P.M. it was in a high state of fermentation, the tempera- 
 ture had risen 2, and the wash had attenuated 1| 
 Beaume. In twenty-four hours from the time of starting, 
 the temperature was 80 F., and the density 4 B. In 
 forty-two hours the temperature was 2 lower, the 
 density 2 B., and the fermentation less lively. In 
 forty-eight hours the temperature had fallen to 76 F. 
 Fermentation had almost ceased, and the wash marked 
 only J Beaume', which was a very good attenuation 
 under the circumstances. 
 
 I now distilled the whole in a small copper still, a 
 model of Figure 3 of the distillery cuts. The foreshot, or 
 first runnings, I set aside ; as also the faints, or last run- 
 nings, the balance about 1| pints was a pleasant aro- 
 matic spirit, resembling brandy, containing 55 per cent, 
 alcohol. 
 
 This distillation having been made in nearly a simple 
 still, over the naked fire, was the severest test the sorgho 
 syrup could be put to ; for had there been any disagreea- 
 ble peculiarities inherent in it, they would have appeared 
 in the spirit run in this way. As was to be expected 
 by so imperfect a process of distillation as the simple still 
 and worm affords, a good deal of essential oil came over 
 with the spirit, as well as water. So I determined to re- 
 distil the 1 pints at a low heat, in order to see what 
 improvements could be effected. The small still I used 
 being intended for experiment, was so arranged as to 
 interpose, when required, a stratum of water between 
 the fire and the substance under distillation, which, by 
 
156 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 this means, was preserved during the operation at a tem- 
 perature not exceeding 212. 
 
 Having filled the bath of the still with water, and 
 urged the boiling, the spirit soon came over ; as before, 
 I rejected the foreshot and faints, in this case returning 
 the foreshot to the still ; the result was about of a pint 
 of pure, well flavored spirit, of 72^ strength. 
 
 Such results are encouraging and full of promise for 
 the future ; for it must be remembered the stock in this 
 case was imperfectly cured to begin with ; had been kept 
 in a demijohn over a year fermenting, and had thus lost 
 part of its alcohol before it came into my hands. Yet, 
 nevertheless, I will venture to say, that the spirit pro- 
 duced from Mr. Peters' first experiment in sorgho syrup, 
 will rank favorably with many samples of spirit in the 
 market. 
 
 Having got so far, the only question that remains, is 
 the important one of apparatus. Of course, the size must 
 be proportionate to the quantity of brandy, low wines or 
 alcohol, the planter intends to manufacture ; but, as many 
 circumstances have got to be considered in arranging a 
 distillery, besides the mere size of the still, I would recom- 
 mend that the planter, before taking steps in the matter, 
 state his case to some competent person and obtain his 
 advice. 
 
 To farmers and others, who do not intend to make a 
 regular business of distilling, except at times when no 
 other occupation occurs, as in winter, I would recom- 
 mend to defecate and clarify their juice as directed in the 
 chapter on syrup and sugar, using, say two pans, 
 when the juice is well cleaned. Then boil down to 35 
 
ALCOHOL. 
 
 157 
 
 or 36 B., allow to cool, and barrel it up for winter 
 distillation; the juice treated in this way will keep for 
 years, if well defecated and kept in a cool place. The 
 form of still they ought to use, should be the simple still 
 and worm, either with or without a wash heater. The 
 following cuts represent the common still ; Figure 1 in 
 elevation, Figure 2 in section : 
 
 M 
 
 Fi/.J 
 
 In the above cut, the brick work, body and goose neck 
 of the still are shown. L, is the offshot of the worm ; 
 M, the worm tub, full of cold water ; it should have a 
 stream of water supplied to it, to prevent its getting too 
 hot; IS", is the drip pipe of the worm. A section of this 
 form of still is shown in the following page, at Figure 2, 
 of which A is the body of the still, B the cap or capital, 
 
168 
 
 THE CHINESE SUGAK CANE. 
 
 C the goose neck, leading to the condenser worm D. ' E 
 is the discharge cock of the still, F the brick work, Gr the 
 opening of the flue into the furnace, H the same flue 
 going round the still, I the furnace bars, J the ash pit, 
 
ALCOHOL. 
 
 159 
 
 This 
 
 and K the charging screw, where the still is filled, 
 still makes low wines. 
 
 By adding a wash heater to the above, a great saving 
 in time and fuel is effected, besides, a purer and stronger 
 spirit is obtained. This still is shown at Fig. 3, page 158, 
 of which A is the still, B the heater of the wash for the 
 
160 
 
 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 next charge, and C the worm. To operate with this 
 still, fill the still through the heater, and then fill the 
 heater. When the charge in the still is run over, draw 
 off the spent wash, and fill up again from the heater. 
 
 When a pure spirit, standing 80 to 90, is wanted, a 
 still like Fig. 4, on page 159, is required ; of which A is the 
 still, B the doubler, C the heater, D the check cylinder, 
 E the worm. 
 
 Alcohol 95 may be obtained by a distillery similar to 
 
 In this A is the still, B the heater, with a peculiar 
 arrangement inside, C the doubler, D the separator, E 
 the pump to feed the heater with wash, F the separator 
 pipes, G the drip pipe, H a thermometer to tell tempera- 
 ture of wash. 
 
 Where the quantity of sorgho planted is large, a very 
 
ALCOHOL. 
 
 161 
 
 good rum or low wine still is shown at Fig. 6, together 
 with the general arrangement of the still house. 
 
 A is the mixing tub, B the pump to raise the wash to 
 the gutter C, which supplies the fermenting vats D. E is 
 the pipe leading from the vats to the heater shown at F, 
 Gr is the still. This still may be so arranged as to ruu 
 very strong spirit. 
 11 
 
162 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 By means of stills without columns or separators, low 
 wines only are made with advantage. These are named 
 in contradiction to high wines above 65. 
 
 The stills hitherto represented have been of the inter- 
 mittent kind, but in the cut on the opposite page a con- 
 tinuous brandy or alcohol distillery is shown. These stills 
 have a continuous stream of spent wash running out at 
 the bottom, while a corresponding stream of live wash 
 runs in at the top. They are rather expensive, and re- 
 quire some practice to operate. 
 
 The apparatus represented in the cut is on the princi- 
 ple of Durosne & Gail, of France, who got it up some 
 years ago for the purpose of distilling brandy from wine. 
 It is extensively used in France, and there are a few in 
 use in the United States. I refrain from any description 
 of this still, as it would be too tedious, and perhaps, after 
 all, prove incomprehensible in mere words. Suffice it to 
 say that it yields a pure spirit, and of any required proof 
 under 95. 
 
 To planters and farmers, many of whom will doubtless 
 this year order distilleries and other apparatus for their 
 various operations on sugar, I would advise that they 
 stipulate beforehand with the manufacturer, for a full 
 written description of the proper mode of erecting and 
 working each apparatus, otherwise there will be trouble 
 and expense before it is finished. 
 
 One half of the failures in apparatus on sugar estates, 
 are owing in the first place, to the mechanic who under- 
 takes to make a machine or a distillery, while, in the 
 meantime, he is ignorant of the first principles of the pur- 
 pose to which such still or machine is to be applied ; and 
 
ALCOHOL. 
 
 163 
 
164 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 in the second place, it is due to the person giving the 
 order,' who, probably, is little able or willing to enlighten 
 him : in either case dissatisfaction and loss is the result. 
 
 In the manufacture of alcohols from the sorgho for the 
 market, it is well for the farmer to know what is required, 
 as regards strength and quality, so as to be guided in 
 making an article which will find ready sale ; and first 
 and foremost, doubtless, he would like to know what is 
 considered the market proof of spirits in America. By 
 proof is meant the strength in alcohol which a liquor in- 
 dicates on the areometer, and is derived from the English 
 excisemen, who proved each cask as it came from the dis- 
 tiller or importer, levying a heavy duty per gallon on 
 the amount of alcohol contained; when it passed the 
 officer's hands, he gave a certificate of its strength, which 
 wasp-roof to the customer, the bung being sealed up and 
 stamped. 
 
 In America usage has designated a certain per centage 
 of alcohol in liquors, as the standard strength on which 
 the price is to be calculated, and according as the per- 
 centages exceed or fall short of this, the spirit is above or 
 below proof. This standard is composed of one half 
 water and one half spirit, marking 50 on the guage or 
 areometer, at the temperature of 60 Fahrenheit. 
 
 Of course, if the farmer be far from his market, the 
 less water he transport in his casks the better, and he 
 ought in this case to make high wines or alcohol, now so 
 much used for camphene, &c., whilst the one who is under 
 less charges for transportation, may be guided by the 
 demand, whether it shall be low wines, high wines, alco- 
 hol, brandy, or rum that he produces from his juice all 
 
ALCOHOL. 165 
 
 these various liquors being merely the result of a little 
 difference in the mode of fermentation and distillation. 
 
 Before taking leave of the subject, I would state that 
 the sample of Mr. Peters' syrup, referred to before, on 
 being offered in the market as rum, was appraised at 90 
 cents to $1 a gallon, Porto Eico rum being worth $1 10. 
 In the shape of brandy, $1 to $1 50 was offered, while in 
 the shape of 95, alcohol, 65 cents was the price. 
 
 Now, the farmer, so soon as he knows what it costs 
 him to make a gallon of sjrrup, can tell at once what these 
 prices indicate in the shape of profit, by adding eight 
 cents per gallon, which is an over estimate of the cost of 
 conversion into spirit. Supposing him to obtain only 
 200 gallons, whereas he ought to get 400 gallons syrup 
 per acre, and it costs him fifteen cents per gallon to make 
 it, his brandy would stand him in twenty-three cents, 
 and be a purer and more wholesome article than most of 
 the trash palmed off upon us as French cognac. 
 
 Say, 200 gallons syrup, per acre, 15 c., $30 00 
 Cost to ferment and distil, 8 c., . 16 00 
 
 $4600 
 Keturns 200 gallons proof brandy, at $1, 200 00 
 
 Profit per acre, . . $154 00 
 
 Besides fodder and seed, worth, say, . 50 00 
 
 Net profit, .'.",' . . $20400 
 
 On reading over the foregoing, I see that I have omitted 
 mention of the means by which, in the absence of yeast, 
 fermentation may be induced in the wash, or preserved 
 
166 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 from year to year, as also the use to which the spent wash 
 may be applied where water is scarce, or at a distance. 
 
 As a general thing, well water, if good, is better than 
 river water for mixing with syrup, or other substances to 
 be fermented, inasmuch as it holds in solution less vege- 
 table matter. Spring water, which has lime in solution, 
 is very good, provided it does not contain other minerals 
 unsuitable for the purpose. Trial in every case can 
 alone settle this authoritatively. 
 
 If the reports of the French chemists apply to the 
 sorgho of this country, there need be no anxiety as to 
 the success of its fermentation, possessing, as it does, a 
 strong tendency towards alcohol even unaided. In all 
 cases, however, I would add to the vat, as directed, one 
 quarter per cent, of fresh crushed canes as a ferment. 
 This, as in the case .of grape stalks on wine, secures the 
 result. If a brewery be near, by all means get fresh 
 yeast from that. 
 
 After one vat or cask has been put into fermentation, 
 it will be easy to inoculate all the others from it, for on 
 the bottom will be found, on drawing off, a grayish sub- 
 stance, which will induce fermentation wherever it is 
 applied to saccharine solutions. 
 
 By many, the best flavors of the West India rums are 
 attributed to the mixture with the wash of a certain 
 amount of spent wash of previous distillations ; this is 
 done generally in the proportion of one third or fourth ; 
 and in case this plan be found favorable to the sorgho, I 
 will give a few simple directions on this head, which 
 may be varied as experience dictates, when sorgho dis- 
 tillation has become an institution among us. 
 
ALCOHOL. 167 
 
 The scum of the sugar train, during crop, is used to 
 mix in the vats, six gallons of scum being considered 
 equal to one gallon of syrup or molasses. Twelve or 
 fifteen per cent, of saccharine matters, whether of scum 
 or syrup, is a common mixture, as, for instance, eighteen 
 gallons scum, ten gallons syrup, thirty-six gallons spent 
 wash, and thirty-nine gallons water, will do very well ; 
 say thirteen per cent, of saccharine, or twelve gallons 
 syrup, may be used, so as to make fifteen per cent, sac- 
 charine. 
 
 When the planter has got through with his distillation 
 for the year, he leaves his vats fall of spent wash, in order 
 to prevent their leaking, as well also as to preserve the 
 fermenting principle which the wash acquires before next 
 season. After standing a short time, the wash throws to 
 the surface a thick, crust or scum, which protects it from 
 the air, leaving the fluid underneath clear as sherry wine. 
 This method I would advise our farmers or planters to 
 adopt with their vats for sorgho, or wash them well 
 with lime, and fill with pure water, which, if followed 
 with the other suggestions I have given, will no doubt 
 place us in a better position as regards alcohols than any 
 other country in the world, inasmuch as, for the produc- 
 tion of alcohol at all events, the sorgho will become suf- 
 ficiently ripe throughout the Union, from Maine to Texas, 
 and thus give us unrivaled facilities, not only for sup- 
 plying our own markets, but those of the world, with this 
 useful solvent. 
 
 For the preceding remarks on alcohol, I am indebted 
 to the same gentleman who furnished the illustrations 
 and descriptions of sugar-making. He, as well as my- 
 
168 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 self, takes great interest in the development of our new 
 plant, which, both as fodder, cereal, saccharine, spirit, 
 beer, and wine, seems destined to add so largely to our 
 
 wealth as a nation. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GROUND PLAN. 
 
 See p. 112. 
 
 IN the cut representing the plan of a sugar house, A represents the 
 steam boilers outside of the building ; B the cane shed, built of brick 
 or stone, with wide archways ; 0, the mill-house, having two floors, 
 the mill on second floor ; D, the boiling-houses, with two trains, and a 
 small office which overlooks both the mill and boiling houses ; E, the 
 cooling house ; and F the purgery. These two latter are in a separate 
 building connected by a railroad, both to avoid risk of fire and admit 
 of being kept locked up to prevent pilfering, G is the distillery, about 
 one hundred yards removed from the other buildings. 
 
 a shows the cane carrier ; 6 the mill and engine on the second floor, 
 supported on solid masonry ; c a shute which takes the place of the 
 bagasse carrier, and delivers the crushed canes into a mule cart under- 
 neath, outside ; d are juice tanks, to receive juice from mill ; e are 
 oblong defecators attached to the trains ; f are the trains of pans ; g 
 railroads to carry the syrup to the coolers, and the sugar from coolers 
 to purgery ; h are the coolers ; i are the alley ways, level with furnace 
 mouths ; k, furnace mouths ; /, sugar hogsheads in purgery. 
 
CHAPTEE VIII. 
 
 VINEGAR. 
 
 Like all other saccharine juices, the sap of the sorgho, 
 raw, and the wines and cider made from it, will rapidly 
 pass into the acetous fermentation. As soon as the cut 
 end of the stalk is exposed to the atmosphere, the oxygen 
 attacks it, and the fermentation commences. I have 
 found the sap of stalks which had lain in stack on our 
 place for two months, to be as acid as the best vinegar, 
 and although I have had no personal experience in vine- 
 gar manufacture, I still should not be afraid to testify, 
 with no other facts corroborative, that the sorgho is a 
 vinegar-producing plant. 
 
 The Count Moigneric, says Dr. Turrel in the Imperial 
 Society's Bulletin, of September, 1856, made vinegar by 
 watering the bagasse, already crushed, with fresh juice 
 of the sorgho. He obtained the acetous fermentation 
 and a perfect vinegar. 
 
 Mr. D. Jay Browne, in his remarks before the United 
 States Agricultural Society, said that he believed fifteen 
 hundred gallons of vinegar could be made per acre from 
 the sorgho. He had a specimen at his house in Washing- 
 ton, and pronounced it very good. 
 
 Lacoste says likewise at page forty -four of his book, 
 
 "that the juice of the sugar sorgho submitted to the 
 
 acetous fermentation, will produce vinegar of excellent 
 
 quality ; and it will also be profitable to submit to this 
 
 8 [1C9] 
 
170 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 transformation the weaker alcohols arising from the final 
 distillations." 
 
 The methods for the production of vinegar are so 
 simple, as to be familiar with almost every one of my 
 readers, and it will, consequently, be useless to occupy 
 much space in detailing them at length. I would simply 
 recommend that the practice usually employed in treating 
 the juice of apples, of the sugar maple, and the various 
 other saccharine fluids commonly employed for the manu- 
 facture of vinegar, be applied to the juices of the sorgho 
 and imphee as they come from the mill. 
 
 Sicard says that he has been in the custom of making 
 vinegar of the knots of the cane stalks, and of addi ng to 
 them such canes as were more or less spoiled. His pro- 
 cess is extremely simple, and is as follows : 
 
 " Bruise the pieces in the mill, put them in contact with 
 a sufficient quantity of water to cover them a few inches, 
 let them ferment then all alone until the liquid has ac- 
 quired the qualities desired for good vinegar. It is in- 
 dispensable to draw this vinegar off once or twice, with a 
 view to removing from it all foreign substances." He 
 says that his vinegar is of a yellowish white color, and of 
 a very agreeable acidity. He has sometimes allowed the 
 knots to ferment before covering them with water, and in 
 this way has obtained a vinegar very deeply colored. 
 For the purpose of making vinegar, he has likewise made 
 use of the cider or piquette of the sorgho, by adding to it 
 a slight quantity of tartaric acid. He says vinegar can 
 likewise be obtained by putting into a barrel the residue 
 of canes from which the juice has been extracted for the 
 manufacture either of sugar or alcohol. In this case he 
 
VINEGAK. 171 
 
 left them without disturbance until they had acquired a 
 heat, of which he was made sensible by putting the hand 
 in the mess ; he then added to it water, and let it ferment 
 as before mentioned. 
 
 STARCH OF THE SEED. 
 
 The consumption of starch in the United States, at all 
 times large, has recently increased, owing to causes, 
 among which may be enumerated the present universally 
 prevalent custom of our females wearing stiff skirts ; and 
 much more starch is eaten than formerly, prepared in 
 various forms for the table, such as starch, farina, tapioca, 
 &c. The seed, deprived of its envelope, has been sub- 
 mitted to numerous experiments by Mr. Wray, Count 
 Beauregard, Dr. Sicard and others, chemists and amateurs, 
 and has been found to yield forty-five per cent, of pure 
 starch of very excellent quality. In fact, it only needs for a 
 person to cut in two a fully matured seed, to be convinced 
 of the possibility of causing starch manufacturers to be 
 considerably interested in this plant, when the area under 
 cultivation shall be such as to bring down the prices of 
 the seed to a moderate rate. On taking off the outside 
 envelope of the seed, the one in which is contained a 
 very deep purple dye tint, we see adhering to the starchy 
 matter, another of a clear brown color, and somewhat 
 unctuous to the touch. So intimately is it a part of the 
 composition of the seed proper, that we anticipate an im- 
 possibility to separate it, except by the process applied to 
 barley, which is known as pearling, and in this way the 
 desired result will be easily attained. What will be a 
 
172 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 cheap and expeditious method for removing the seed 
 hulls, we cannot at present say. If it can be shown that 
 the hulls, are valuable for the dyes which they will yield, 
 ingenuity at once will be stimulated to produce a hulling 
 machine ; and if, as we think very probable, it shall be 
 found the starch of the seed can be readily made use of, then 
 again the same causes in operation will demand such a 
 machine. But, at present, Dr. Sicard has made his ex- 
 periments, as I have made my own with the hulls, by 
 rubbing the seeds together in such a manner as to cause 
 the hulls to separate of their own accord. Dr. Sicard 
 made an experiment with about 175 Ibs. of the seed to 
 determine the proportions of coarse bran, middlings, and 
 fine flour, and obtained thirty-three pounds of each of the 
 two former, and about ninety-five pounds of the latter. 
 The coarse bran and middlings were both of a violet tint, 
 arising from the coloring matter impregnating the outer 
 lining of the hull. The fine flour itself offered to the eye 
 an appearance of violet slightly bordering upon a rose 
 color, and even after having been passed through a silken 
 sieve, was still of a very pale rose color. To assure him- 
 self that the coloring matter which thus tinted the fine 
 flour was merely contained in the outside covering of the 
 seed, he undertook very minute experiments, completely 
 removing all the hull and the two successive interior 
 coatings before passing the seed through the mill, and 
 even made use of chemical agents to remove the color. 
 The result, it is true, was the production of a starch of 
 very brilliant whiteness, but his experiments proved to 
 my mind that the production of pure white starch will 
 be a matter of considerable difficulty . It will have a pale 
 
VINEGAR. 173 
 
 rose color, which may, or may not, militate against its 
 general introduction. He made from the starch at diffe- 
 rent times bread and cakes, and in the different cases 
 varied success, some being palatable and others not. 
 The flour of the sorgho is of an inferior quality as com- 
 pared with wheat flour, and others of the finer grains, 
 and any mixture of that with wheat flour is a fraud upon 
 the stomach, giving a quantity of inferior aliment with 
 an accompaning bribe of a better one, as quack physicians 
 will make palatable to their patients nauseous pills by 
 surrounding them with a coating of sugar. In speaking, 
 however, of starch and the various forms of food to be 
 made from the Chinese Sugar Cane. I would not be 
 understood as embracing in the same category those 
 which the imphee may furnish, for, because of the absence 
 of any coloring matter from its hull, the peculiar plump- 
 ness of the seed, and the large quantity of starch found to 
 be present, I have reason to believe that it will indeed 
 be a valuable acquisition, and its culture be duly under- 
 taken with this simple object in view. Be that as it may, 
 we cannot alter the composition of the starch, nor of the 
 other components of the sugar. Whither tinted rose 
 color, or as white as the driven snow, it still will have its 
 own unchanging proportions of carbon, oxygen, and hy- 
 drogen, which will represent a certain nutritive value, and 
 for animals it cannot but prove, as indeed experience has 
 already proved it to be, a very excellent fodder crop. 
 
 Madinier says, at page 10, that the seed contains 10 to 
 12 per cent, of nitrogenous matter gluten and about 
 60 per cent, of starch, which would make it, so far as the 
 proportions of nitrogen are concerned, to resemble our 
 
174 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 common corn ; but where he obtained his analysis, I am 
 not informed. He says that the real use of the sorgho 
 is not for bread-making, but it should be eaten on the 
 farm in the form of broth and soups for the laborer, or to 
 be boiled up in quantities and given for fattening pigs 
 and cattle. 
 
 DYE STUFFS. 
 
 Previous to the receipt of the pamphlets from Messrs. 
 Hedges, Free, & Co., which were sent to them by his 
 Excellency our Minister at Paris, I had seen in my re- 
 searches after the facts collated by French experimenters 
 and published in the French journals, occasional mention 
 of the experiments of Dr. Sicard of Marseilles, in pro- 
 curing from the hulls of the seed a tint for dyeing ; but 
 not the slightest clue was given as to how the dye was 
 produced. Thinking it an interesting aspect of the 
 sorgho culture, I was anxious to duplicate, if possible, 
 his success ; and to this end made various laboratory 
 experiments with alcohol, sulphuric ether, the various 
 acids, boiling the hulls in a retort with oxalic acid, 
 muriate of tin, alum, dilate acids, and plain water, and 
 obtained a number of tints of greater or less brilliancy. 
 Of these one was a deep purple, obtained by simply 
 boiling the hulls in pure water for about fifteen minutes ; 
 another, a beautiful rose colored fluid, was made by 
 boiling the hulls of another sample (received from 
 France) in very dilute sulphuric acid, a few drops of the 
 acid to a pint of water being sufficient. And, by dropping 
 into the pure water in which the hulls were being boiled 
 
VINEGAR. 175 
 
 a few drops of nitric, muriatic, or acetic acids, as the case 
 might be, I obtained different shades of red. I inserted 
 in the liquid strips of cotton and silk fabrics, and .set 
 them with alum. In one case, I took a piece of white 
 ribbon, and by boiling it in the tinted solution for a few 
 moments, obtained a very deep color. In another case, 
 in a weaker solution, a ribbon was colored pink. Being 
 entirely unacquainted with the principles of dyeing, of 
 course my experiments were but imperfect, and were 
 useful only as proving the fact, that in the hulls was 
 actually contained a tint, which might be very easily 
 separated. They led me to believe that, under proper 
 circumstances, this dye could be extracted and made into 
 pigments with profit. 
 
 In Dr. Sicard's " Monograph of the Chinese Sugar 
 Cane," he has introduced a specimen of twenty-one colors 
 obtained by him from the seed, and for which he has 
 received letters patent. They range through all tints, 
 from a light buff to a very deep purple, but do not, of 
 course, present the brilliancy which they do when repro- 
 duced on different fabrics. " In fact," as he says himself 
 in his Postscript, " it would be difficult, by these speci- 
 mens, to give the slightest idea of the beauty of the tints 
 which may be obtained on silk, woollen, or cotton 
 stuff. The first substance has especially a very great 
 affinity for the coloring matters obtained from the plant 
 which has occupied our attention; but if silk has more 
 affinity for all the colors in general, there are others 
 which show remarkable beauty on woollen and cotton 
 stuffs. The coloring principles which we have obtained 
 are to the number of nine, entirely independent from 
 
176 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 each other, and capable of giving colored salts perfectly 
 crystallized. By combining our coloring principles with 
 different chemical substances, there are obtained not only 
 a number of known colors, but, furthermore, tints on the 
 stuffs which are unknown in France, and like which we 
 have no specimens except the beautiful embroideries 
 which we receive from China. We sincerely hope that 
 the Government, comprehending all the importance of 
 these discoveries, shall publish the results obtained. It 
 is impossible that a plant which, in the hands of a single 
 individual, has given results so extraordinary and so 
 varied, should not be called to play a great part in all 
 branches of industry." 
 
 I translate as follows the account of his curious 
 researches : " The hulls which envelope the seeds 
 of the sorgho are tinted with a reddish brown so 
 deeply that they appear black. The tint is due to a 
 complex coloring matter condensed in this part of the 
 seed, but which also exists in the radicular fibers at their 
 origin, and in the young suckers. This coloring matter 
 is insoluble in cold water. Boiling water dissolves it, 
 with a red violet color. Alcohol, even cold, takes it from 
 the hulls, and becomes colored with a deep red. Ether 
 dissolves it, and takes on a bright red tint. A boiling 
 solution of alum takes on a reddish lilac color. Concen- 
 trated sulphuric acid dissolves it with a deep reddish 
 color ; chlorohydric acid with a reddish orange color ; 
 the alkalies with a brown. 
 
 " The acid solutions in water, caused to precipitate a 
 substance of a deep reddish brown tint. Alkaline solu- 
 tions precipitated by acids brown flakes, which redden 
 
VINEGAR. 177 
 
 upon repeated washings. The supernatant fluids are 
 yellow. The alcoholic tincture evaporated, gives crys- 
 talline scales, which seem black when viewed in a mass, 
 and that a fatty substance renders brilliant ; the liquor 
 and the waters from the washings are of a yellow color. 
 
 "Tincture of ether gives, likewise, by evaporation and 
 an addition of water, a red precipitate, upon which floats 
 a yellow liquor. 
 
 " There are, then, in the hulls of the sorgho, two color- 
 ing principles ; the one red, slightly soluble in water, 
 and soluble in alcohol, ether, the acids, and alkalies; 
 the other, yellow, very soluble in water, and in the 
 other solvents, which is not precipitable from its solu- 
 tions like the red matter. 
 
 " The red matter, which we may call purpurholcine, 
 presents itself under the form of a reddish violet powder, 
 so deep in color that it appears black ; it has no smell ; 
 its taste (very weak) is a little bitter and astringent. 
 Heated in a closed tube it does not volatilize, but gives 
 empyreumatic vapors, which condense themselves into 
 yellow oily drops. In presence of potashed lime it 
 gives, under the influence of heat, alkaline vapors. It 
 is then an azotized substance, and of which we will, 
 further on, determine the atomic composition. The pur- 
 purholcine is but little soluble in water, but dissolves 
 readily in boiling water, in alcohol, cold and warm, and 
 in ether, with a reddish color: sulphuric acid and chlo- 
 rohydric acid dissolve it with an orange color. Potash, 
 ammonia, lime water, and the water of baryta, communi- 
 cate to it an intense color ; alum, a red violet. It is not 
 soluble in fixed oils ; it can be prepared by several pro- 
 
178 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 cesses. First, treat the seeds with concentrated sulphuric 
 acid ; allow them to remain in contact with it one or two 
 days ; then it is mixed in a large quantity of water ; the 
 whole is thrown upon a filter and washed until the 
 liquor is no longer acid ; the carbon which remains upon 
 the filter, mixed with the color ing 'matter, is treated by 
 warm alcohol, and gives a tint, which it is only neces- 
 sary to distill, and add to it water, to obtain the purpur- 
 holcine, in brilliant scales, tinged with a little fatty mat- 
 ter. The liquid retains the yellow substances, and a 
 little of the purpurholcine. 
 
 " Second : The seeds can be treated directly by alcohol 
 and operated with, as above given for the alcoholic 
 tincture ; ether conduces to the same effect. 
 
 " Third : We can furthermore employ a solution of pot- 
 ash ; it makes a brown magma, which is to be filtered ; 
 and in the liquor put with care some chlorohydric acid; 
 brown flakes are precipitated, upon which will float a 
 yellow liquid. These are to be separated, washed well, 
 redissolved in alcohol, and the latter gives, by evapora- 
 tion, the purpurholcine. 
 
 "Uses: This coloring matter can be used for dyeing. 
 By varying the dissolvents and the mordants, are ob- 
 tained, upon cotton, woolen, and especially upon silk 
 stuffs, beautiful tints, which vary as much as can be de- 
 sired in the browns, the grays, the reds, the oranges, 
 and lilacs. Our conviction, in this respect, is based 
 upon dyeing experiments, on a small scale. 
 
 " The yellow matter, which we shall call xaniholcine, is 
 very soluble in water, either cold or warm. Soluble in 
 acids, which cause it to become an orange yellow ; the 
 
VINEGAE. 179 
 
 alkalies preserve its colors. It forms with, different 
 metallic oxides, red and orange lakes. 
 
 "The stuffs, with the use of mordants, take on various 
 tints of yellow and of orange, brown, and rose color It 
 is obtained at the same time as the red matter, and re- 
 mains in solution in the different liquids where the 
 purpurholcine is precipitated ; but it is not pure, and is 
 mixed with the red matter. The best process to isolate 
 it, is to make use of potash. It can be purified, by 
 making use of the process indicated by Kullmann, for 
 the yellow matter of the madder which this chemist has 
 named Xanthine. Thus the seeds of the sorgho contain 
 two coloring matters, which applied to dyeing, can re- 
 place madder and give all the shades which are ob- 
 tained from the roots of this plant. The purpurhol- 
 cine differs from the red matters of the madder by its 
 non-volatility. The Xantholcine seems identical with 
 the Xanthine." 
 
 Dr. Sicard's process having been made public, has 
 created considerable interest in the city of Lyons among 
 the large silk manufacturers, and experiments are being 
 made to test the value of his coloring matters, the result 
 of which will settle the question as to its practical 
 utility. 
 
 CEROSIE ; OR, THE VEGETABLE WAX ON THE STALKS OF THE 
 SORGHO. 
 
 In a previous place, I mentioned that as the plant ap- 
 proaches maturity, a white efflorescence makes its ap- 
 pearance upon the outside of the stalks, accumulating, 
 
180 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 in the greatest proportion, under the footstalks of the 
 leaves. This vegetable wax cerosie, the French call 
 it is similar in its composition to the wax produced by 
 bees ; it is, however, dry, hard, and may be pulverized ; 
 fusible at 90, and if mixed with purified tallow, and 
 made into candles, burns with a clear brilliant light. It 
 is employed for this purpose by the inhabitants of 
 the north of China. Mr. Hardy, the Director of the 
 Government Nursery in Algiers, makes a calculation as 
 to its value per acre, by which he shows a net profit of 
 thirty-six dollars, to be added to the other profits given 
 by the cultivation of the sorgho ; but I do not see how 
 we can, for a moment, adopt these views as applicable to 
 our conditions of climate and prices of labor. In Algiers, 
 Mr. Hardy could secure the service of Arab boys and 
 women at a very low price ; and in China ; the labor of 
 a man is remunerated with only a few cents per day; 
 but in our country, we cannot hire a laborer for less 
 than a dollar a day. It seems to me that, taking into 
 consideration the fact that the cerosie is not secreted by 
 the stalks so abundantly as it is in Algiers, we cannot 
 spare the laborers from more important duties, to go over 
 the field and carefully scrape the wax from the outside 
 of the stalks. To obtain a small quantity, to illustrate 
 my lectures before the Legislatures last winter, I em- 
 ployed one of our pupils, for nearly half a day, and the 
 little success that he met with, convinced me at the time, 
 that any calculations of its becoming an important com- 
 mercial commodity in our own country, were futile, un- 
 less, perhaps, by either steaming the stalks in a vat after 
 they were cut, or by the use of some machinery, the wax 
 
VINEGAR. 181 
 
 could be removed more expeditiously, and in greater 
 quantity than it was in this instance. 
 
 Any one of my readers can satisfy himself that it is 
 indeed a wax, and burns exactly like wax candles, by 
 collecting a small quantity of it into a heap and setting 
 fire to it with a match. The flame is very white and 
 beautful, so long as it lasts. 
 
 Professor Gray, at page 60, section 86 of his " Botani- 
 cal Text-Book," supposes from the fact that bees produce 
 wax from sugar, and that the wax of the sugar cane 
 sometimes passes into sugar, that the vegetable wax found 
 in plants is formed of sugar, or similar products. The 
 Ceroxylum Andicola, or Wax-bearing Palm, is an instance 
 of the considerable secretion of wax by a vegetable. 
 Mr. Hardy has been attacked in various French journals 
 for his unwise championship of this novel product ; but 
 with a persistence either the result of constitutional pro- 
 clivity, or because warranted by the facts which he has 
 actually arrived at in his Algerian experience, he writes 
 to Count Gasparin that he desires his investigations to be 
 remembered, and his assertions to be put on record for 
 future reference, that he is more convinced than ever 
 that the wax of the sorgho will indeed be one of its most 
 valuable products. 
 
 SORGHO PAPEK 
 
 In the books of M. Duret and Dr. Sicard are pasted 
 specimens of paper, respectively obtained by them from 
 the pulpy sorgho stalks, of which that in Dr. Sicard's 
 book is, I think, the best. It presents the appearance 
 
182 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 and texture, to a great extent, of fine parchment, and is 
 naturally sized, so that it is pleasant to write upon. It 
 is quite strong, and for that reason suitable for wrapping 
 paper. Of it he says, excusing himself for its unfinished 
 quality, "I think it better to give this product in all its 
 primitive purity, rather than to color it. Its composition 
 presents doubtless defects, which explain themselves 
 easily when it is remembered that this paper has been 
 made by a person entirely unacquainted with paper- 
 making, in want of all objects necessary for this industry, 
 and aided simply by my little son ; it will be understood 
 by the result obtained, how much can be obtained under 
 proper conditions from this plant." 
 
 Duret gives the process for making paper from corn 
 stalks, as follows : " One hundred and twenty-five pounds 
 of pulp of the stalk, which is yet moist, and from which 
 the saccharine matter has been separated, are put in a 
 copper, with about fifteen pounds of quick lime and a 
 sufficient quantity of water to form of it a sort of clear 
 paste. The mixture is moistened from time to time, and 
 after several days of contact the pulp is triturated in a 
 cylinder mill, as is the custom with common rags. After 
 having reduced into paste the residue of the stalks, as we 
 have just explained, it was mixed with twelve and a half 
 pounds of paste of coarse rags ; and the mixture was then 
 submitted to a new trituration. This one hundred and 
 twenty-five pounds of the stalk mixed with twelve and a 
 half pounds of coarse rags have yielded sixty-three 
 pounds of wrapping paper, well sized. 
 
 M. Hudelist thinks that, with fifty per cent, of com- 
 mon paste, he could have obtained a paper very strong 
 
VINEGAR. 183 
 
 and very well sized, by giving no more care to the tritu- 
 ration than in working on rags. 
 
 M. Felix Yospette has also made paper with the stalks 
 of corn by a process analogous to the preceding ; but in 
 place of ten per cent, of the pulp of rags, used in the 
 experiment made by M. Hudelist, he made use of 
 twenty per cent., and has obtained, with but little trouble, 
 the same proportion of paper. If, in the place of using 
 his corn pulp moist, that is to say, immediately after it 
 had been pressed, he had let it dry before turning it unto 
 paper, it would have been necessary to boil it to resoften 
 it, and submit it afterwards, as we have above mentioned, 
 to the successive action of lime water and of the cylin- 
 der. The paper made by M. Yospette is pliant, close in 
 texture, very solid, of a pale shade, and made without 
 other odor than that of the stalk from which it was made ; 
 it is naturally sized, for, in writing on it, it is impenetrable 
 to common ink. 
 
 The quire of twenty-five sheets weighs one pound six 
 ounces ; consequently the ream, which has twenty quires, 
 gives a weight equal to twenty-seven pounds. The pulp 
 of the stalks loses by desiccation nearly two thirds of its 
 weight. Twenty pounds of this pulp, very dry, pro- 
 duced twenty pounds twelve ounces of manufactured 
 paper. There would then be an advantage in making 
 cornstalk paper with the moist pulp, which would be 
 impossible in a large manufacture, where the mass of 
 matter to be worked up should be dried in order that it 
 might be manufactured as it was wanted. For the mili- 
 tary service, cartridges have been made with this stalk 
 paper, and it has been proved that it resists humidity 
 
184 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 more, and is less combustible than that which is usually 
 employed for the same purpose. 
 
 As yet, of course, no experiments have been made in 
 making paper from the sorgho stalks in this country, but 
 from the specimens in the books of Dr. Sicard and M. 
 Duret, I think it possible that our manufacturers will 
 apply themselves to experiments in this respect, and 
 doubtless improve upon the results of the French inves- 
 tigators. 
 
 Thus, through all its different aspects, have we traced 
 this wonderful plant ; which, although so lately introduced, 
 has created such very general interest with those who 
 have had any experience in its cultivation. It now only 
 remains for me to present the result of my labors to the 
 American farmers and planters, and to express the wish 
 that the Chinese Sugar Cane may realize the flattering 
 promise which it now gives, and prove itself worthy of 
 adoption into the list of our most valued economical 
 plants. 
 
CHAPTEE IX. 
 
 LEONARD WRAY, OF LONDON, England. Letters Patent, 
 No. 17,713, Dated June 30, 1857. Patented in Belgi- 
 um, June 20, 1854. 
 To all whom it may concern : 
 
 Be it known unto all men, that I, Leonard Wray, of 
 the City of London, in the United Kingdom of Great 
 Britain and Ireland, have discovered a new process or 
 method of making crystallized sugar, syrup and molasses, 
 from all the African and Chinese varieties of the " Im- 
 phee" or " Hokus saccharatus" of Linnaeus, often denom- 
 inated " Sugar millet, " "Sorghum saccharatum" " Sorgho 
 sucre" etc. ; which process is also applicable to the man- 
 ufacture of the same products from the juice of the 
 maize, broom corn, the sugar maple, etc. 
 
 The process constituting my said invention, may 
 briefly thus be stated : I take the stalks of the said 
 plants, and obtain the juice contained in them by any 
 ordinary and well known method. This raw saccharine 
 juice I then treat with lime, or cream of lime, until it has 
 lost all trace of acidity, and even becomes sufficiently 
 alkaline to affect, in a slight degree, turmeric paper, or 
 other equally sensitive test paper ; when I at onfje remove 
 the said juice into a suitable filtering or other apparatus 
 for separating the feculencies or coagulated matters from 
 the juice, so as to obtain a clear bright liquor or juice, 
 without having subjected it to any heat whatever. This 
 
 [186] 
 
186 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 clear bright juice or liquor, I then put into a suitable 
 vessel, and apply heat until the temperature rises from 
 120 to 180 degrees Fahrenheit, when I treat it with a 
 dilute infusion of powdered nut galls, or other substance 
 containing tannin, neutralizing any excess of tannin that 
 may have been accidentally given, or any acid which 
 may have become liberated, by the addition of a little 
 lime, cream of lime, or lime in any other suitable com- 
 bination ; I then urge the heat until the liquor has 
 arrived at the boiling point, at which it should be kept 
 for a few moments, when the heat is withdrawn, and the 
 liquor is again filtered and rendered clear. 
 
 This clear defecated liquor is next evaporated, and if 
 in open pans, the scum is taken off as it rises, and the 
 evaporation is continued, either in open pans or in any low 
 temperature apparatus, until the liquor is sufficiently con- 
 centrated to permit of its granulation or crystallization 
 taking effect in proper receptacles, into which it is placed 
 for that purpose. If it should so happen, that the said 
 concentrated juice exhibits a disinclination to granulate 
 or form crystals, then the addition of a few ounces of 
 well grained dry sugar may be had recourse to, which 
 will immediately cause a granulation of the concentrated 
 syrup. It must be well understood, that I make use of 
 charcoal once, twice, or thrice, in the filtration and decolor- 
 ization of the juice and syrup; or, on the other hand, I 
 do not use it at all, just as I may see fit and expedient. 
 When the new sugar is properly granulated, its molasses 
 is separated from it by the usual methods now employed. 
 
 It must be distinctly understood that the mere idea of 
 cold filtration is not unknown, because numerous attempts 
 
ME. WBAY'S PROCESS. 187 
 
 have from time to time been made to filter the raw juice 
 of the sugar cane, before applying heat thereto, and 
 small quantities of lime have been put into the said raw 
 juice, before filtration, in order to prevent the acidifica- 
 tion and fermentation of the juice during filtration, and 
 before it could reach the boilers and be boiled ; but my 
 distinct and well proved method, is that of adding lime, 
 or cream of lime, to the raw juice until it loses all traces 
 of acidity, and it becomes sufficiently alkaline to affect 
 slightly the color of turmeric paper, or other equally sen- 
 sitive alkaline test paper. The chemical principle in- 
 volved in this process, I will now explain, so as to 
 demonstrate the very peculiar and distinctive character 
 of my treatment ; distinguishing it, therefore, from all 
 other methods. 
 
 The juice as it comes from the mill, I have always 
 found to be palpably add; the first effect of the lime, 
 therefore, is to neutralize the juice ; secondly, to regulate 
 (by a further addition of lime) as large a quantity of the 
 feculencies as possible, by saturating the acids which 
 hold them dissolved in the juice. When the lime has in 
 this manner combined with the acids, and liberated the 
 feculencies, whatever lime may be in excess, tends to 
 make the juice alkaline, which the turmeric paper imme- 
 diately denotes, showing the necessity of instant filtration, 
 which yields a beautiful clean, clear bright juico, without 
 any heat having been used, leaving in the filtered juice, 
 besides the sugar and water, only a little dextrine, caseine 
 and saline matter. By this simple process, a host of 
 troublesome albuminous, glutinous, gummy, waxy, and 
 mucilaginous matters combined under the general head 
 
188 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE. 
 
 offeculenties, are got rid of entirely, before they can act 
 injuriously upon the sugar contained in the juice, which 
 they infallibly do the moment we apply heat to the undef- 
 ecated mass. Having thus obtained this bright raw 
 juice, I next treat it in the manner already specified, 
 with heat, infusion of nut galls (or other analogous 
 substance containing tannin,) and cream of lime, lime 
 water, or other suitable combination of lime, and then 
 filter, so as to get rid of the dextrine and caseine, or 
 as much of them as is possible, previous to subjecting the 
 juice to continuous heat. 
 
 The mere idea of using an infusion of nut galls or 
 other tannin substances in sugar making, is not new; 
 inasmuch as these substances have been recommended 
 and even been tried by W. J. Evans, M. D., of London, 
 in whose work, the " Sugar Planter's Manual," (1847,) 
 it may be found at page 101 ; but it will be at once ob- 
 served; that the manner of employing it, or them, as laid 
 down therein by Doctor Evans, is ENTIRELY DIFFERENT 
 from my own method ; for he applies the infusion of nut 
 galls to the raw green juice in the clarifier, just as it 
 comes from the mill, and previous to any other defecation 
 having taken place. Whereas, I, on the contrary, first 
 defecate the cold raw green juice, by means of lime, cream 
 of lime, or other suitable preparation of lime, (as herein 
 before set forth); and then filter the juice so treated, 
 thereby getting rid of the great mass of green feculent 
 matter contained in it, and obtaining a clear, bright and 
 almost colorless juice or liquor, previous to applying any 
 heat whatever, and previous to the venturing upon any 
 application of the infusion of nut galls or other tannic 
 
MR. WRAY'S PROCESS. 189 
 
 substances; thus forming a totally distinct method of 
 using and applying the said tannic substances to the juice. 
 
 My process, therefore, consists first in the cold defeca- 
 tion of raw juice by means of lime, or other suitable com- 
 bination of lime, immediately followed by filtration, as 
 hereinbefore particularly detailed ; and secondly, the treat- 
 ment of the clear bright juice or liquor resulting from 
 this cold defecation, with infusion of nut galls or other 
 suitable tannic substances, aided by heat in suitable ves- 
 sels and subsequent filtration, as hereinbefore described : 
 together, making as a whole, one plain consecutive 
 process, which I have herein fully and faithfully ex- 
 plained and set forth ; and which has never been sug- 
 gested nor employed by any one else before. 
 
 These comprise the whole of my treatment; and I 
 submit that they constitute an entirely distinct and new 
 process, being one whereby excellent crystallized sugar 
 has been, and can always be made from the plants I have 
 before named. And I therefore claim the process, as 
 herein set forth, and desire to secure the same by Letters 
 Patent. 
 
 L. WEAY. 
 CHAS. L. ALEXANDER, 
 THOMAS C. CONNOLLY, 
 
PART II. 
 
 THE 
 
 ZULU-KAFFIR IMPHEE, 
 
 OB, 
 
 "SWEET EEED," 
 
 (THE Holcus Saccharatus OF LINN.EUS,) 
 
 COMPRISING A DESCRIPTION OF ITS NUMEEOUS VARIETIES, ITS MODE 
 
 OF CULTIVATION, AND THE MANUFACTUBE OF SUGAR 
 
 AND OTHEE PRODUCTS FROM ITS RICH 
 
 SACCHARINE JUICE. 
 
 BY LEONAED WEAY, 
 
 AUTHOR OF " THE PRACTICAL SUGAR PLANTER/' " THE SUGAR PLANTER'S 
 COMPANION," ETC., ETC. 
 

THE 
 
 OB 
 
 AFRICAN SUGAR CANE. 
 
 THERE can be no question that many useful arts and 
 manufactures, known and practiced by the ancients, have, 
 from certain untoward causes, been lost to the world, and 
 continue so to this day. Many, again, have been redis- 
 covered from time to time, and are thus restored to the 
 present generation; holding rank, however, more fre- 
 quently in the character of new and original discoveries 
 and inventions, than as mere restorations to human 
 knowledge. 
 
 Not a few have been restored to us by purely acci- 
 dental circumstances ; others have been strictly the dis- 
 coveries and inventions of practical and gifted men of 
 modern times, the results of sagacious observation, skill- 
 ful experiments, and practical deductions, apart from any 
 previous traditionary ideas on the subject ; whilst others, 
 again, have been the valued reward of intense study and 
 unwearied endeavors to obtain those results which tradi- 
 tion, or perhaps, even existing specimens, told them had 
 been accomplished in bygone ages, and by which they 
 were incited to attempt their rediscovery. 
 
 9 [193] 
 
194 THE AFRICAN SUGAR CANE. 
 
 Amongst the many, two articles, namely, glass and 
 iron, suffice to furnish, us with numerous familiar instances 
 of lost processes rediscovered ; and even of lost manufac- 
 tures not yet restored to us, although sought after by 
 many really practical men. We may, moreover, go beyond 
 these remarks, and assert that there are some, if not many, 
 arts and manufactures known and carried on by the 
 Chinese, which certainly are not understood and prac- 
 ticed by Europeans. 
 
 Not a few of their simple inventions and ingenious 
 contrivances are either totally unknown to us, or if 
 slightly mentioned by travelers rather more observant 
 than others, their accounts have been so inaccurate and 
 deficient in detail, that the principle and consequent value 
 of these inventions have remained unappreciated and un- 
 adopted. 
 
 Who would be so hardy as to assert that much valu- 
 able knowledge in various particular branches of art (of 
 which we ourselves are ignorant) does not exist in the 
 islands of Japan ? I fancy that no reasonable man would 
 venture upon such an assertion. All this serves to teach 
 us, that in bringing forward anything as a NEW DIS- 
 COVERY of our own, we must not be disconcerted if, on 
 careful examination, we find that we are, in reality, 
 merely rediscovering, and giving to our own generation 
 and country, in a practical form, that which has been 
 known and attempted, if not actually used, in by-gone 
 times ; or perhaps by a far distant and scarcely known 
 people of our own day. 
 
 It is a principle, however, most wisely recognized by the 
 law of almost every civilized nation of the present age, that 
 
INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 195 
 
 any individual making such a rediscovery, or reinvention, 
 or even introducing a useful invention, so' as to utilize or 
 turn it to a useful purpose, should be, to all intents and 
 purposes, entitled to the benefits and advantages accruing 
 from a patent, or protective grant, during a period of 
 years, varying according to the laws of the different 
 countries wherein such patent is granted. 
 
 Were this wise and enlightened view of the case not 
 taken, how many hundreds of useful and important dis- 
 coveries and inventions would now still continue hidden 
 in the dormant state to which, in ages past, the accidental 
 death, even the poverty, of the original inventor and dis- 
 coverer, a slight mischance, or a local difficulty, might 
 perhaps have consigned them. "We even see, in our own 
 day, how many really useful inventions are suffered to 
 languish and become inoperative for lack of energy, want 
 of encouragement, &c., or the thousand and one chances 
 and obstacles to the successful introduction of modern im- 
 provements and inventions. We can well understand, 
 therefore, how strongly all these, and other causes, may 
 have operated in less advanced, less enlightened, and less 
 enterprising ages. 
 
 I have been led to these few introductory observations 
 by the reflections which have been forced upon my mind 
 within the last few months, whilst following up the sub- 
 ject matter involved in the history of sugar manufacture, 
 from the earliest records to the present day ; and of the 
 plants from which the natives of various countries ex- 
 tracted a kind of sugar or jaggery, before the sugar cane 
 was so universally diffused over the globe. 
 
 In the year 1847, whilst I was engaged in writing my 
 
196 THE AFKICAN SUGAR CANE. 
 
 work, " The Practical Sugar Planter," my mind became 
 strongly impressed with the idea (an impression almost 
 amounting to conviction) that "the reed," the "sweet 
 reed," so frequently made mention of by ancient authors 
 as being used by the natives of Morocco, Ethiopia, 
 Egypt, Arabia, and India, for the purpose of making 
 sugar or jaggery, did not really in all cases mean, or apply 
 to, the sugar cane, but that some other reed-like plant 
 was more particularly referred to, which in process of 
 time had been gradually displaced by the true sugar cane. 
 But with no satisfactory authority, and with no corro- 
 borative evidence to support the idea I had formed, it by 
 degrees lost its hold upon my mind, and eventually was 
 scarcely remembered. However, on visiting a colony in 
 Natal, in Africa, in 1851, I found there, in the plant 
 called by the Zulu-Kaffirs Imphee, "the sweet reed," 
 which might well have been alluded to by the ancient 
 writers. My mind, at that time, was so occupied by other 
 subjects, that I paid but small attention to this interest- 
 ing plant, and some time elapsed before I directed my 
 thoughts to it, and thus became aware of its immense im- 
 portance to Europe and America, and, indeed, to the 
 world at large. 
 
 I heard that some very intelligent colonists had tried 
 to make sugar from its rich juice, but that they had, one 
 and all, entirely failed in doing so. 
 
 No way discouraged, I sent my most intelligent Kafir 
 servants long distances to collect me seed of all the dif- 
 ferent kinds of imphee known amongst themselves, and 
 thus obtained fifteen kinds, more or less differing from 
 each other, but all known under the general native name 
 
INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 197 
 
 of Imphee, and comprised in botany under the name Hoi- 
 cus saccharatus (Linnaeus.) 
 
 All of the seeds I planted, and made sugar from the 
 whole fifteen different kinds, which enabled me to ascer- 
 tian not only the saccharine value of each, but likewise 
 the distinct peculiarities of the growth, seeding, etc., etc. 
 
 The results of my observations and long-continued study 
 of their habits and relative value will be found in the 
 succeeding pages ; but my manufacture was so complete- 
 ly successful, that I left Natal and came to Europe to 
 prosecute my discovery, and introduce to the notice of 
 the world the vast importance of the plants for sugar 
 manufacture. 
 
 In recently looking over various botanical works, I 
 find that attempts have been made by Signor Arduino 
 and others to introduce varieties of this plant into Euro- 
 pean cultivation, for the purpose of making sugar, but 
 from some cause or other they had hitherto been perfectly 
 unsuccessful. 
 
 Nor am I any way surprised at these failures, believing 
 that its success in Europe very essentially depends upon 
 the particular kind of imphee that is planted, and the 
 next, upon a peculiar method employed in treating the 
 juice. 
 
 I also find it stated that the inhabitants of northern 
 China use it in making a kind of sugar. 
 
 This really may or may not be the case, for, in point 
 of fact, almost the whole of northern China, together with 
 the major portion of the great interior of that immense 
 empire, may be fairly denominated a terra incognita to us ; 
 a country so effectually sealed up, that, as I before ob- 
 
198 THE AFRICAN SUGAR CANE. 
 
 served, numerous arts and manufactures may be there 
 existent at the present moment, which are nevertheless 
 wholly unknown to us, or perhaps have been heard of 
 only through the medium of unauthenticated and unsatis- 
 factory rumors. 
 
 In the manufacture of crystallized sugar, and other 
 products, from the imphee and Holcus saccharatus, I have 
 had the most signal success, and in the following pages 
 I will endeavor to set the value of these plants in a true 
 light before the public, hoping very soon to present to 
 the attention of my kind readers, a much larger and more 
 comprehensive edition of this work. 
 
 BOTANICAL NOTICE AND HISTORY. 
 
 It is indeed most difficult for me, not being a botanist, 
 to give a botanical description of the Zulu- Kaffir Imphee 
 that could be deemed altogether satisfactory ; for, after 
 the most careful research among the best botanical works, 
 and after consulting very eminent botanists personally, 
 I can come to no other conclusion than that the most sin- 
 gular uncertainty and confusion reign among them all 
 in their several accounts of this species, arising, evidently, 
 from the fact of no sufficiently competent botanist having 
 yet thoroughly investigated the differences existing be- 
 tween the several kinds of imphee and the several kinds 
 of Mabaalee or Kaffir corn. 
 
 This lamentable state of things will, however, be ter- 
 minated, I trust, in a few days, as I have now flowering 
 in England three kinds of real imphee, besides my dried 
 specimens, which will enable me to obtain from Dr. 
 
BOTANICAL NOTICE AND HISTORY. 199 
 
 Thompson (a distinguished botanist) their true botanical 
 description ; although we certainly have no plants of the 
 Kaffir corn, or Guinea corn, with which to contrast 
 them. 
 
 I will, however, venture to' say, that I entirely agree 
 with Linnasus, Brown, and others, in the botanical name 
 which they have bestowed upon the Imphee, namely, Hol- 
 cus saccharatus, the Kaffir or Guinea corn being Sorghum 
 vulgare, or Sorghum, halapense, or Sorghum andropogon, 
 as its several kinds are called by various authors. 
 
 In a work entitled " Hortus Americanus," published very 
 many years ago, in Jamaica, by Dr. Barham, the Guinea 
 corn, so universally cultivated in the island for its grain, 
 is described as " Holcus Sorghum, or Sorghum vulgare; 
 native habitat, Coast of Guinea, Africa ; natural order, 
 Oraminea; class, Polygamia ; order, Monwcia;" and the 
 general account therein given of it agrees in every respect 
 with my own observations. 
 
 Many other sorts of the same grain are grown by the 
 Zulu-Kaffirs, on the south-east coast of Africa, but are all 
 comprised under the one general name of Mabaalee, al- 
 though much difference exists between them, not only in 
 the peculiarities of the seed-heads, etc., but likewise in the 
 juice of the stalks, being slightly sweet in some, whilst in 
 others scarcely a trace of sweetness can be detected. They 
 are all cultivated for their grain, and for that alone; 
 whereas, the imphee, or Holcus saccharatus, is grown only 
 for its sweet juice, and never, to my knowledge, for its 
 grain, which the Kaffirs say cannot be used as human 
 food, in explanation of which I must state that they never 
 grind their Mabaalee to extract the flour, but boil it whole, 
 
200 THE AFEICAN SUGAR CANE. 
 
 in which form they consider the grain of the imphee to 
 be highly deleterious. 
 
 The great and essential differences really existing be- 
 tween the Sorghum andropogon and the Holcus sacchara- 
 tus are certainly not those 'unluckily relied upon by some 
 of our modern botanists, and shown in the following : 
 
 " But most botanists seem to agree that there are only 
 two main types, to which all the others are subordinate. 
 Sorghum vulgare has an oval, rigid, more or less compact, 
 panicle or head of flowers, with ascending branches, while 
 Sorghum saccharatum* has a loose panicle, with lax, 
 elongated, weak, and sometimes pendulous, branches." 
 
 For at least three or four sorts of imphee, namely, 
 Joom-ba-na, Shla-goon-dee, and Oom-see-a-na, have pani- 
 cles as rigid and compact, with branches erect, and as 
 short and stiff as can well be. 
 
 The "two main types" therefore, are entirely fanciful 
 and valueless, forming no criterion whatever. 
 
 Another writer says : " Millet seed, the produce of 
 Holcus saccharatum, is imported largely into this country 
 (England) from the East Indies, for the purpose chiefly 
 of making puddings ; and by many persons it is preferred 
 to rice." Of this I may simply say, that it is nothing of 
 the kind ; it is quite a different millet. 
 
 To make confusion worse confounded, some botanical 
 writers likewise call the broom corn, Sorghum sacchara- 
 tum, making upon the whole a nice medley of those 
 really simple distinctions. 
 
 In spite of all these scientific complexities, however, I 
 think we may safely hold the imphee (of all kinds) to be 
 
 * Meaning, of course, Holcus sacchamtus.L. W. 
 
BOTANICAL NOTICE AND HISTORY. 201 
 
 actually the Holcus saccliaratus, a perfectly distinct tribe 
 of plants, and not a Sorghum at all!, 
 
 It is said that seed of this plant was introduced (for 
 what purpose is not stated) into England in 1759 ; but 
 seeing the botanical confusion existing on the subject, I 
 very firmly disbelieve it> and consider that it was much 
 more likely to have been some kind of sorghum, intro- 
 duced for the sake of its grain. 
 
 There can be no doubt, however, that Professor Pietro 
 Arduino, of Florence, became acquainted with one or 
 more sorts of the Holcus saccharatus, perhaps as early as 
 1766 ; and 1786 he published an account of his experi- 
 ments in sugar making from it. It would seem that he 
 endeavored to establish its cultivation in Tuscany ; but 
 for causes which have never been clearly given, he did 
 not succeed in doing so. 
 
 From his time, it may be said to have remained in total 
 obscurity, (as far as Europe is concerned,) down to the 
 year 1854. 
 
 So much has this been the case, that although I have 
 been a sugar planter so many years of my life, and 
 have, as an author, had to look closely into all informa- 
 tion connected with the production of sugar, in both 
 ancient and modern times ; yet I can truly say, that I 
 knew nothing of this plant until I resided in the colony of 
 Natal, on the south-east coast of Africa, where it grows 
 in abundance. Nor was it until I reached England this 
 year, that I could obtain the works of scientific authors, 
 from which to learn its botanical character, and what 
 efforts had been made, if any, to introduce it to notice. 
 
 It was with the utmost difficulty that I was enabled to 
 
202 THE AFRICAN SUGAR CANE. 
 
 obtain the whole fifteen sorts of imphee that I now have; 
 and I never should have acquired anything like accurate 
 knowledge of the individual peculiarities and value, had 
 I not cultivated them on a sufficiently large scale; 
 thoroughly studied them during their growth, and ulti- 
 mately made a large quantity of sugar from them. The 
 seed I obtained from this cultivation, I have now in Eng- 
 land with me ; and it is capable, with care, of planting 
 some hundreds of acres. Some plants grown in England 
 this year, have already ripened their seeds, which are 
 full and plump. 
 
 I have grown it in Belgium and several other parts of 
 the continent this year, and it has succeeded remark- 
 ably well. 
 
 But if we look back from our own times to very 
 remote ages, and search for any very authentic records 
 of the imphee or Holcus saccharatus among the writings 
 of ancient authors, we must confess the unsatisfactory 
 result of our inquiry ; for the notices of the "sweet reed,' 
 contained in their writings, have long ago been seized by 
 Porter and other authors, and appropriated by them as 
 forming part and parcel of the history of the sugar cane. 
 
 But if we examine somewhat minutely into the mat- 
 ter, we shall find abundant reason for believing that the 
 Holcus saccharatus was frequently alluded to instead of 
 the sugar cane, more especially by the Eoman writers ; 
 thus Lucian, (Book iii, page 237,) has the line 
 
 " Quique bibunt tenerd dulces ab aruudine succos."* 
 which can scarcely be supposed to apply to the large, 
 coarse, hard stock of the sugar cane. 
 
 * " And those who drink sweet juices from the tender reed.' 
 
BOTANICAL NOTICE AND HISTORY. 203 
 
 Besides this, we all know that the Komans had a very 
 excellent general knowledge of the products of Ethiopia, 
 in which varieties of the Holcus saccharatus are to be 
 found ; and they, no doubt, knew that the natives ate, or 
 rather chewed, its stalks, for the " sweet juices " contained 
 in them. 
 
 The native traders who took a coarse kind of goor, or 
 jaggery, to Muciris and Ormus, always said that they ob- 
 tained it from a "reed;" and I have no doubt that they 
 did really obtain it from this reed-like plant, until the 
 sugar cane superseded it in their estimation, and was 
 cultivated in its stead. 
 
 I could enlarge much upon this interesting question, 
 had I the space to do so ; but the confined limits of this 
 treatise compels me to bring this chapter to a conclusion 
 as soon as possible. 
 
 I venture to consider the Holcus saccharatus as the 
 connecting link between the sugar cane and the grain- 
 yielding sorghums ; and so strong an impression did 
 my mind receive when I first saw the extremely tall 
 " Yim-bis-chu-a-pa" and " E-a-na-moo-dee,"* that I al- 
 most persuaded myself that they were in reality hybrids, 
 between the sugar cane and the Kaffir corn (Sorghum 
 vulgare.) 
 
 Such, however, is not the case ; but it remains to be 
 
 * The two largest of the imphee kind. 
 
 Note. Wilkinson says, that the Holcus saccharatus (Arabic name 
 DoJchn,) is grown about Assouan, in Nubia and the Oasis. 
 
 Of sorghums, there are, in Egypt, six kinds, namely, Doura sayfec, 
 or baalee ; D. humra, D. kaydee, D. byood, or dimeree ; D. 
 owaygeh, D. saflra. 
 
204 THE AFRICAN SUGAR CANE. 
 
 seen whether we can, by adopting proper measures, 
 obtain hybrids between the imphee and the sugar cane. 
 
 DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF THE IMPHEE, ETC. 
 
 I am acquainted with fifteen varieties of the Holcus 
 saccharatus, although I doubt not there are yet others 
 in different parts of the world that have not come under 
 my notice. 
 
 I shall, therefore, confine my remarks to the fifteen 
 varieties ; and to prevent the constant repetition of their 
 botanical name, I shall, throughout these pages, use their 
 Zulu-Kaffir name of Imphee alone. 
 
 Among Europeans residing in South Africa no dis- 
 tinction is known in regard to the varieties, and there 
 they will be much surprised at learning that there are 
 really fifteen different kinds of imphee growing before 
 their eyes, and constantly being eaten by them. 
 
 There is certainly that degree of similarity between 
 them when seen growing together which is quite suffi- 
 cient to puzzle any one who has not thoroughly studied 
 them ; and this is so much the case that there are very 
 few male Kaffirs even who can discriminate between 
 some of the varieties ; in consequence of which I had 
 very frequently to call in the superior agricultural knowl- 
 edge of the old Kaffir women, until I had learned to dis- 
 tinguish between them with certainty myself. 
 
 When I had attained this first most desirable step, I 
 had next to learn their several peculiarities and value ; 
 which I was able to do with greater exactness by plant- 
 ing the seed, watching them daily during their growth, 
 
VARIETIES OF THE IMPHEE. 205 
 
 and eventually testing the saccharine value of their 
 juices, and making sugar from them all in large 
 quantities. 
 
 " Vim-bis-chu-d-pa" This is the largest size, and the 
 tallest of the whole ; whilst it is full of juice, and very 
 sweet. When planted in rich alluvial soil it attains its 
 greatest size and most perfect development, requiring 
 from four to five months to arrive at maturity. It grows 
 to a height of from ten to fifteen feet, is from one and a 
 half to two inches in diameter at the lower end of the 
 stalk, and usually cracks or splits as it ripens. By 
 means of a most primitive and ill-constructed little wooden 
 mill, I obtained sixty per cent, of juice from the stalks. 
 This juice was clean and clear, and the saccharometer 
 showed it to contain fourteen per cent, of sugar, after I 
 had removed the feculas by means of cold defecation. 
 The sugar it yielded was fully equal to the best cane 
 sugar of the West Indies. The stalks, carefully weighed, 
 were found to vary from one and a half to two and a 
 half pounds English weight each, trimmed ready for the 
 mill. The seed-head, which is very large and beautiful, 
 is generally from twelve to eighteen inches in length, 
 containing many thousands of fine plump seeds, of a 
 sandy yellow color, strongly held by a sheath which 
 partially envelops them. 
 
 " E-a-na-moodee" is the next in size, and is very simi- 
 lar, both in habit and value, to the last. It attains a 
 height of twelve to thirteen feet, but is not so coarse in 
 appearance, nor does it contain so much woody fiber as 
 the Yim -bis-chu-a-pa, but it is rather softer and more 
 juicy, I having obtained from it sixty -four per cent, of 
 
206 THE AFRICAN SUGAR CANE. 
 
 juice, containing fourteen per cent, of sugar. The stalks 
 weigh from one to two pounds when trimmed ready for 
 the mill, and I have cut as many as eleven such stalks 
 from one root or stool. The seed-heads are large, but 
 stiff and erect, containing quantities of large round, 
 plump seeds, of a clear yellow color. In general, they 
 may be said to ripen two weeks earlier than the last 
 named. Like the Vim-bis-chu-a-pa, this variety rattoons 
 in about three to three and a half months after the first 
 cutting. 
 
 " E-engha" This is a fine, tall kind, being from ten to 
 twelve feet high when full grown, but it is more slender 
 than either of the foregoing, and exceedingly graceful in 
 appearance. It begins flowering in ninety days, and is 
 fully ripe three weeks after ; we will therefore class it at 
 four months. I have had stalks weighing as much as 
 one pound fourteen ounces each. The largest commonly 
 obtained may then be estimated at two pounds weight ; 
 yielding, by my poor little mill sixty-eight per cent, of 
 juice, containing fourteen per cent, of sugar. I have 
 obtained ten stalks from one stool. They rattoon in 
 three months after cutting. The seed head of the 
 E-engha is large and very pretty, the seed being upon 
 long slender foot stalks, which are bent down by the 
 weight of the seed, forming a graceful drooping. The 
 seeds, which are of a dull, yellow color, are rather long 
 and flat than round and plump. 
 
 " Nee-d'Za-nd " is held, by the Zulu-Kaffirs, to be the 
 sweetest of all the imphee kind ; but I found the Boom- 
 vwa-na and the Oom-see-a-na quite as sweet, and, in 
 my estimation, their juices are superior to it in some 
 
VARIETIES OF THE IMPHEE. 207 
 
 points. My Zulus have told me, that under favorable cir- 
 cumstances, the Nee-a-za-na frequently ripens in seventy- 
 five days ; and my head man (a most intelligent native 
 plowman) declares that he has had them from his own 
 laud as sweet as any sugar c'ane. From my own actual 
 experience, I found that they ripened in about three 
 months, and that they were the softest and most abound- 
 ing in juice of any. With my mill 1 obtained sev- 
 enty per cent, of juice, much still remaining in the trash, 
 and the saccharometer showed fifteen per cent, of sugar 
 after cold defecation. This then for European culture, 
 is a perfect gem of a plant, one which will be anxiously 
 sought after, and very generally cultivated, throughout 
 Europe at least. In two months after the first cuttings, 
 I have had the rattoons six feet high and in flower. The 
 Nee-a-za-na is a very small sized variety, but tillers out 
 greatly, having sometimes fifteen stalks for one root. I 
 have had its stalks varying from four ounces to upwards 
 of twelve ounces in weight ; but they do grow rather larger 
 than this. It always appeared to me that their juice was 
 more mucilaginous and abounding in feculae than the two 
 varieties I have just mentioned. The seed-head is very 
 bushy and bunchy, and when thoroughly ripe, the seeds 
 are large, round and plump. 
 
 " Boom-vwci-na " is a most excellent and valuable va- 
 riety ; of which I have eaten single pieces, containing cer- 
 tainly two or three per cent, more sugar than the average 
 juice obtained from large bundles of stalks, taken as 
 they come. This average juice never contained less than 
 fifteen per cent, of sugar, as indicated by the saccharom- 
 eter, after the raw juice had been -cold defecated; and 
 
208 THE AFRICAN SUGAR CANE. 
 
 there is a clearness, a brightness, and a genuine sugar- 
 cane sweetness in the juice of this variety, and of the 
 Oom-see-a na, that I very much admire. In its growth 
 and general appearance, it is very much like the E-en- 
 gha ; but its stalks are brighter and more slender : its 
 leaves are not so broad, and its seed vessels are upon 
 shorter and stiffer foot stalks. The stalks have a pinkish 
 red tint, which increases as they approach maturity, and 
 the seed cases have a pink and purple hue mixed with 
 the general yellow ground. The Boom-vwa-na tillers 
 very much, giving from ten to twenty stalks for one root, 
 but they seldom weigh more than one pound each. I 
 have obtained seventy per cent, of juice, which is easily 
 clarified, and makes a beautiful sugar. The plant reaches 
 perfection in from three to three and a half months. 
 
 " Oom-see-a-na" is a peculiarly marked variety, in 
 consequence of the purple or black appearance of its 
 seed-heads, arising from the sheath or seed cases being 
 of this color, and not the seed itself. The seed head is 
 very stiff and erect, with short, strong foot stalks, and 
 the seed is large, round, and full. In time of growth, 
 and goodness of juice, it is very similar to the Boom-vwa- 
 na ; its stalks are small, but numerous. They both rat- 
 toon well, in three months, from first cuttings. 
 
 " Shla-goova " is slightly inferior to the three last men- 
 tioned varieties, but is nevertheless very valuable, and 
 much prized by the Zulus. It takes three and a half 
 months to ripen, and becomes a tall, good sized plant ; 
 but its chief distinction is the exceeding beauty and ele- 
 gance of its seed heads. The foot stalks are extremely 
 long, which causes them to have a graceful drooping, 
 
VARIETIES OF THE IMPHEE. 209 
 
 while the seed cases or sheaths, vary in color from a del- 
 icate pink to a red, and from a light to a very dark pur- 
 ple, but each color very bright and glistening, forming 
 on the whole an extremely beautiful appearance." 
 
 " Shla-goo-ndee." This is a sweet and good variety, 
 and under favorable conditions produces fine sized stalks. 
 The seed heads are very stiff and erect, and the seed 
 vessels are compact, and very close. It usually takes 
 three and a half months to reach maturity, and it rattoons 
 very quickly, as the following memorandum of my diary 
 will show : 
 
 " December 13th. Cut down a small patch of imphee, 
 and dug up the ground for the purpose of planting arrow- 
 root, but some of the imphee not being entirely eradicated 
 sprung up afresh, some roots having fifteen stalks each. 
 On the 18th of February, one of them (Shla-goon-dee) was 
 upwards of six feet in height, with a thick stalk, and the 
 seed head just thrown out, being only two months and five 
 days from its being cut down and apparently destroyed." 
 This bunch of seed I gathered during the first week in 
 March, and I have it now in England. 
 
 " Zim-moo-ma-na." This is likewise a sweet and good 
 variety, with seed heads upright and compact, and fine 
 plump seeds, very numerous. 
 
 " E-boih-la," " Boo-ee-ana," " Ebom-ba-na," " See-enyla," 
 u Zimba-za-na" and u E-thlo-sa" form the remainder of 
 the fifteen varieties, each differing slightly from the others 
 in its saccharine qualities as well as in appearance, 'but 
 still easily distinguished from each other by any one 
 who has studied them. I do not see the necessity of 
 entering at present into further detail in regard to the 
 
210 THE AFRICAN SUGAR CANE. 
 
 shades of difference, as the larger edition of this work 
 will contain all such particulars. 
 
 I have before remarked, that all the varieties are 
 known (from the Cape Colony to Delagoa Bay) under 
 the general Zulu-Kaffir name of Impliee, which name is 
 likewise generally used by the Europeans, who some- 
 times also call it the Kaffir Sugar Cane, from the circum- 
 stance of the Kaffirs growing it round their kraals, to 
 eat, as they do the real sugar, cane ; but I never met a 
 single European who could tell one description of imphce 
 from another, not even among those who have been 
 in the Colony ten or twenty years. 
 
 The following points are particularly striking, namely 
 1st. The Zulus never (to the best of my knowledge and 
 belief) cultivate it for its grain, or for any other pur- 
 pose than for its sweet juice, which they obtain by 
 chewing the stalk. 
 
 2d. Whilst ripening its seed the birds never attack it 7 
 whereas it requires great vigilance to preserve the 
 seeds of the Kaffir Corn (Guinea Corn) or Sorghum 
 vulgar e, from their pertinacious voracity. So much is 
 this the case, that I do not think I lost a single seed 
 from the birds, whilst from the Kaffir Corn there is 
 no keeping them off. The Kaffirs say this is always 
 so. 
 
 As the Kaffirs cultivate the imphee merely for its 
 juice, they never allow any more to ripen than is neces- 
 sary for the next year's planting ; but soon after the seed 
 head appears, they pull it off, by giving it a smart jerk 
 upwards. By this means they argue that the plant per- 
 fects the elaboration of its juices and becomes much 
 
VARIETIES OF THE IMPHEE. 211 
 
 sweeter, instead of forming seed at the expense of its sac- 
 charine matter. 
 
 This, no doubt, is to a certain extent perfectly reason- 
 able, and would be very successful, if the plant could be 
 prevented from expending its saccharine strength in its 
 natural efforts to reproduce itself, but so imperative is the 
 great law of nature that immediately the seed is removed, 
 the eye or bud belonging to every joint along the stem 
 begins forthwith to swell, and in a few short days will 
 have shot out a foot or more in length, crowned with 
 small seed heads, having three or four, some three to six, 
 side-shoots with seed heads along the stalk, to replace the 
 one main head removed. 
 
 My own experience therefore led me to doubt very 
 much the expediency of thus running counter to nature's 
 laws ; and eventually I abstained altogether from remov- 
 ing the seed heads, fancying that I gained rather than 
 lost in saccharine quantity by my noninterference. I 
 then removed, in many instances, these eyes with my 
 penknife, but the plant forthwith sent up a number of 
 fresh sprouts from the roots to balk me, so I gave it up. 
 A knowledge of this fact is very important in studying 
 the subject of rattooning. 
 
 The description I have given will suffice to show the 
 comparative value of the different kinds of imphee, and 
 it will be apparent to the meanest capacity that the suc- 
 cessful cultivation of this plant for sugar making in the 
 greater portion of Europe, depends almost entirely upon 
 the selection of the proper variety. 
 
 The capricious character of the summer in Europe is 
 well known. Very hot and even tropical weather may 
 
212 THE AFRICAN SUGAR CANE. 
 
 at times be suddenly varied by a few days of cold, raw, 
 wet, and windy weather, throwing back and greatly re- 
 tarding the growth of these plants, thereby changing the 
 three, and three and a half, or four months required 
 under altogether favorable circumstances into a much 
 longer time, and thus perhaps obtaining really no 
 thorough ripening of the plant after all. 
 
 But, on the other hand, if we plant only of those vari- 
 eties requiring from two and a half to three months of 
 continuous warm weather, we render the success of the 
 cultivation as nearly certain as we well can. 
 
 The introduction of unsuitable varieties into Europe 
 has been, in my estimation, the one great reason of their 
 failure hitherto ; and in this belief, I hold the ISTee-a-za-na, 
 Boom-vwa-na, and Oom-se-a-na to be peculiarly valuable 
 for our European cultivation. 
 
 The imphee is a tall, slender, and very elegant plant, 
 its foliage being light and graceful, and its tints bright 
 and varied in the different stages of its growth. It ex- 
 hales a perfume at once strong and agreeable, with some- 
 thing approaching that of rich new honey. 
 
 CULTIVATION, INCLUDING SOILS, CLDTATE AND SEASONS. 
 
 CLIMATE. It may be safely stated 'as an indisputable 
 fact, that wherever maize or Indian corn will grow and 
 ripen its seed, imphee will likewise grow and elaborate 
 its juice so as to be suitable for sugar making, bearing in 
 mind always that in as much as the maize comprises va- 
 rieties which require five months, and others which 
 require only three months, so in like manner does the 
 
CULTIVATION. 213 
 
 imphee include those varieties requiring four and a half 
 months, and others again which ripen in two and a half 
 and three months only. 
 
 This is a very essential fact to be remembered in order 
 to adapt in all cases the variety to the peculiar character 
 of the locality ; and I believe that no explanation, how- 
 ever lengthy, could more accurately define the climatic 
 range of the imphee than simply classing it with maize 
 in this respect. 
 
 In Northern Europe, and in numerous other parts of 
 the world, no kind of maize can be profitably cultivated 
 but those which ripen their seed within ninety days 
 from planting ; and it will be found that in all such 
 localities no other variety of imphee can be successfully 
 employed but such as ripen their juices within the same 
 short period. But what truly enormous range does this 
 climatic adaptation give us ! It comprises, in fact, every 
 country of the earth that can afford three months of hot 
 summer weather. It does not even exclude Canada or 
 Eussia. 
 
 But as we draw nearer and nearer to the equator, the 
 gradual lengthening of the summer season, until indeed 
 winter is unknown, affords a longer and longer growing 
 time,, so that at last, instead of one crop, we can obtain 
 two, three, ay, and even four crops in one year. 
 
 It is evident, likewise, that the longer the summer or 
 warm weather extends, the greater scope exists for the 
 cultivation of the larger and more productive varieties 
 that require a longer time for their perfect development. 
 
 The small measure of temporary success which is said 
 to have attended the attempts made in 1785, by Signer 
 
214 THE AFEICAN SUGAR CANE. 
 
 Arduino, of Florence, to introduce varieties of the IIolcus 
 fSaccharatus into European cultivation, and their ultimate 
 failure and consequent total disuse, arose from the simple 
 circumstance of his having unfortunately lighted upon 
 varieties which required too long a period for their per 
 feet maturity to suit the short and variable summer of 
 Europe. 
 
 I cannot impress this important point too strongly 
 upon the attention of my readers, for on it, in fine, de- 
 pends the success or failure of the whole cultivation for 
 the purposes of sugar making. In tropical climates the 
 planter is of course free to choose whichever variety his 
 fancy or his experience in time to come, may lead him 
 to prefer : nor can any set rule be laid down which he 
 must of necessity follow. 
 
 It is to be supposed that he will select those varieties 
 which will not only yield him a large return per acre, 
 but will afford him an extended period for his manufac- 
 turing operations, instead of all becoming ripe together. 
 
 SOIL. Imphee will grow well and produce sugar 
 abundantly in a great variety of soils ; and in this res- 
 pect it is very similar to the real sugar cane ; but among 
 the many advantages which it has over its great rival, 
 the perfect immunity it enjoys' from the attack of white 
 ants is one much too important to pass over without 
 remark. 
 
 In the colony of Natal, on the south-east coast of 
 Africa, the white ant is as numerous, and fully as des- 
 tructive, as it is in India ; consequently, none but low- 
 lying, swampy grounds can be used in that colony for 
 sugar cane cultivation ; and this fact places a restriction 
 
CULTIVATION. 215 
 
 upon its extensive culture in Natal, which no human art 
 can overcome. But such an affliction does not extend to 
 the imphee. On the contrary, the white ants (although 
 swarming in the soil) never touch these plants. I have 
 grown a fine crop of imphee on a sandy hill top, where 
 it would have been utterly impossible to grow sugar 
 cane, on account of the white ants. 
 
 This seems a small matter to dwell upon, but in reality 
 it is of the utmost importance to Natal, India generally, 
 the Straits (Malacca) settlements, and to every other 
 country wherein that insect scourge exists ; because it 
 admits of sugar being produced from the' imphee on 
 millions and millions of acres which are totally unsuited 
 for the sugar cane. 
 
 This simple fact alone is calculated to enhance the 
 price of land in Natal and the Cape Colony to an immense 
 extent, and it will have the same effect in many other 
 countries. 
 
 I have introduced the subject of white ants in this 
 place, because in trying of soils suitable for the sugar 
 cane, it is absolutely necessary to exclude all those in- 
 fested by white ants, whereas in the culture of the imphee 
 their presence is of no consequence. 
 
 In rich alluvial soils, in good light brick mold, in 
 loamy soils, and, indeed, in almost every good soil in 
 which there is a fair admixture of vegetable mould, the 
 imphee delights, and will grow famously with sufficient 
 moisture. 
 
 Plenty of vegetable mold, strong heat and light, and 
 considerable moisture, form the great essentials to the full 
 development of the plant, and the perfect elaboration of 
 
216 THE AFRICAN SUGAR CANE. 
 
 its juice, so as to yield its maximum quantity of saccha- 
 rine matter. 
 
 If, after a season of long-continued showery weather, 
 a period of dry weather occurs just as it ripens, then 
 the juice is more especially abundant, and rich in 
 sugar. 
 
 Soils highly manured with animal manure, or, in fact, 
 with any which abound in ammonia and other saline 
 substances, tend to the formation of a large, luxuriant 
 plant, but its juice under such circumstances is so muci- 
 laginous and saline as to render it extremely unsuitable 
 for sugar manufacture, hence such treatment should be 
 studiously avoided. 
 
 The same rule applies in the case of the sugar cane, 
 beet root, and other sugar-yielding plants ; and if it be 
 violated, the result is certain to be disappointment and 
 vexation. 
 
 MODE OF CULTURE. I have, in some instances, soaked 
 the seed of the imphee for twenty -four and even forty- 
 eight hours, in warm water, previous to planting them, 
 in order to expedite their germination, as seeds so treated 
 will, in warm, moist weather, be up in four days after- 
 wards ; whereas, being planted (during showery weather) 
 without this assistance, they usually take six or seven 
 days for sprouting. If, after planting, dry weather sets 
 in, they will, however, require ten or even fourteen days 
 to appear above ground; but by being well soaked 
 beforehand this casualty is materially obviated. Hence 
 I hold the practice to be a prudent one. 
 
 The seed requires to be very lightly covered ; for, if 
 deeply set, it is liable to rot, should much rain occur 
 
CULTIVATION. 217 
 
 immediately after ; but lightly covered, it will not be 
 injured by even constant rain. 
 
 I have lost a great deal of seed by planting too deeply, 
 and I shall, therefore, be very cautious never to commit 
 the same error again. If soaked in warm water for 
 twenty-four hours, then planted in a bed, and care taken 
 to keep them properly moist, we may always calculate 
 with certainty on having them an inch above ground in 
 four days (warm weather.) 
 
 This first start is a great point wherever the warm 
 weather lasts only a short time ; but in no case is it alto- 
 gether unimportant ; and it becomes a question of no 
 small moment, whether in England and some parts of 
 Northern Europe it would not even be quite worth while 
 to sow the seed under glass in the first instance, and then 
 plant out the young plants, before they are a month old, 
 in the open ground, where it is intended they shall remain 
 for crop. 
 
 In this case, very little more labor is required than is 
 now universally bestowed on the Continent in making 
 the beet root nursery beds, and subsequent transplanting 
 of the young beets. . My own experience this season, in 
 England, has shown me that even in a small greenhouse, 
 a prodigious number of young plants may be raised 
 without any artificial heat whatever, and the plants are 
 so hardy that they bear transplanting admirably. 
 
 By this simple plan we get over the difficulties opposed 
 to us in England by late frosts and cold, nipping winds, 
 for we can commence transplanting in June, and thus 
 allow June, July, August, and part of September, if 
 needed, for their growth, which my experiments this 
 10 
 
218 THE AFEICAN SUGAK CANE. 
 
 season have clearly demonstrated to be quite sufficient. 
 If it be objected that this plan entails more than ordinary 
 trouble, I answer it also insures the safety of a valuable 
 crop, a consideration of no small importance. 
 
 It must be remembered that every seed will, under 
 favorable circumstances, " tiller " out so largely as to 
 have from ten to twenty stalks or canes (as I shall hence- 
 forth call them) forming a large stool, and occupying 
 a considerable space. 
 
 I have found that rows three feet apart, with plants 
 twelve inches from each other along the rows (being 
 about 14,000 per acre), in most cases, was a very suitable 
 distance to plant them; but the ever- varying circum- 
 stances of soil, climate, and seasons, added to the differ- 
 ences between the larger and the smaller varieties of the 
 imphee, must naturally suggest corresponding differences 
 in the planting distances. 
 
 I have had the ISTee-a-za-na in rows only two feet, and 
 again in rows two and a half feet apart ; but I will not 
 venture to say that in all cases such close planting is 
 proper. 
 
 In planting along the rows, wherever the plants are 
 too thick, they can always be thinned out during their 
 early growth. 
 
 The great objection to the adoption of close rows is the 
 very serious one arising from the difficulty of cleaning 
 and digging between them, which is so desirable and so 
 very conducive to their vigorous growth and perfect 
 development; for, in common with almost all other 
 plants, the imphee likes to have the soil loosened and 
 moved about around its roots. 
 
CULTIVATION. 219 
 
 I suppose that it is almost unnecessary to observe that, 
 although it likes abundance of moisture in the soils 
 whereon it is growing, yet it has a decided objection to 
 stagnant water being around its roots. As the plant . 
 progresses towards maturity, it throws up its graceful 
 flower, which very speedily is transformed into a seed 
 head, most abundantly covered, or rather laden, with grain. 
 
 In the last chapter I alluded to the Kaffir custom of 
 removing these seed heads shortly after they appear, and 
 I can only repeat the doubt I there expressed, whether, 
 by so doing, we may not really lose more than we gain. 
 
 "When allowed to perfect its seeds, the grain is gene- 
 rally plump and full of fine, white flour, which I believe 
 is wholesome and nutritious, and might enter largely 
 into general consumption. 
 
 This, in itself, constitutes a feature much in favor of 
 allowing it to ripen its seed; and, in a more general 
 sense, is highly important. 
 
 Notwithstanding my numerous unsuccessful attempts 
 some years ago to impregnate or fecundate the flowers of 
 the sugar cane, so as to obtain a seed which would ger- 
 minate and produce sugar cane, yet I cannot help cling- 
 ing to this plant (imphee) as the only remaining hope we 
 now have of effecting this interesting object. I have al- 
 ready taken measures to have new flowers of the sugar 
 cane brought into immediate and continued contact with 
 those 'of the imphee, so as to ascertain for a certainty 
 whether the sugar cane will thereby be induced to perfect 
 its seed, and, on the other hand, whether the pollen of 
 the cane flowers will produce any beneficial or other 
 change in the character of the imphee seed. 
 
220 THE AFEICAN SUGAR CANE. 
 
 This is a question of sufficient interest to engage the 
 attention of every scientific and inquiring mind, as it com- 
 prehends that which is interesting, and that which may 
 be of great practical utility to the world at large. 
 
 When the seeds of the imphee are ripe or perfectly 
 full, it is the custom of the Zulu-Kaffirs to string them up 
 in the sun and air for a few days, then to hang them up 
 in their huts, so that they may have the full benefit of 
 the smoke, which serves to keep them entirely dry, and 
 likewise preserves the seed from the attacks of insects, so 
 that they may be thus kept perfectly good for a series of 
 years, if necessary. I like this plan so much that I 
 adopted it in all its integrity, and can honestly recom- 
 mend it to others.* 
 
 THE PLANT: ITS PRODUCTION AND ITS VALUE. 
 
 It will seem, from what I have already said, that the 
 canes of the imphee are much smaller and much lighter 
 than the stalks of the real sugar cane ; bat at the same 
 time, it must be remembered that the foliage is not nearly 
 so large nor so dense as that of the sugar cane ; conse- 
 quently, the plants can stand very much closer together 
 on the land, and thus make up in number for their 
 smaller weight individually. 
 
 Thus, on an acre, if we have only 14,000 roots or 
 stools, each stool will produce from five to twenty canes, 
 varying in weight from a quarter of a pound to 1 
 
 * It is worthy of remark that the natives of Upper Egypt call the 
 sorghums Baalee or Doura ; whereas, the Zulu-Kaffir name for the 
 same plant is Mabaalee, the ma being simply a prefix which they give 
 to a great number of their proper names. 
 
PRODUCTION AND VALUE. 221 
 
 pounds, each affording, on a low average, therefore, we 
 will say, 84,000 canes, weighing 65,000 pounds, capable 
 of yielding seventy -five per cent, of juice ; but if taken at 
 only seventy per cent., then giving 44,100 pounds of 
 juice, containing fifteen per cent, of sugar. 
 
 If from this quantity of juice the manufacturer cannot 
 manage to produce two tons of good, dry, fair-colored 
 sugar, then he must be unskillful indeed. 
 
 One English acre of imphee, grown under favorable 
 circumstances, will yield fully two tons of dry sugar, and 
 even more ; but I will not estimate the average return at 
 more than 1 tons of fair, dry sugar, per acre, which it 
 should most undoubtedly produce as an average crop. 
 
 For the information of those planters who are com- 
 pelled to use their cane trash or bagasse, I may say that 
 the trash of the imphee can be used precisely in the same 
 manner, although its proper use really is as a manure to 
 return to the soil. 
 
 The leaves and long tops of the plants form excellent 
 food for horned cattle, horses, mules, sheep, etc., being 
 much more delicate than the coarse leaves of the sugar 
 cane. 
 
 If the plants are suffered to mature their seed, an acre 
 of land would furnish a large quantity of grain, which 
 may be used merely as grain for feeding animals and 
 poultry, or in the form of flour, of excellent quality, as 
 food for mankind. 
 
 I consider twenty bushels of this grain per acre a very 
 low average crop, but it is by no means an item to be 
 overlooked in calculating the value of the plant to Europe 
 and to the world generally. 
 
222 THE AFRICAN SUGAR CANE. 
 
 Having shown the value of one crop of imphee, per- 
 haps it would be well to repeat that this one crop of im- 
 phee is off the ground in from three to four months from 
 the day the seed was planted ; and that, as this cornes off, 
 another crop is immediately springing up from the same 
 roots, (if the weather will permit), to be ready in another 
 three months ; and even a third crop will be produced, 
 provided the weather is warm enough. 
 
 We must now compare the imphee with its European 
 rival, the beet root, which is at present so largely grown 
 for its sugar. 
 
 I find that there is now manufactured throughout the 
 whole continent of Europe about 160,000 tons of beet- 
 root sugar, obtained from about 400,000 English acres of 
 land, forming an average of something like eight hun- 
 dredweight of good sugar per English acre. 
 
 Besides the sugar obtained from the beet root, we must 
 take into consideration its other products, such as potash 
 and alcohol, yielded by its molasses, and the quantity of 
 food for cattle, furnished by its leaves and by its refuse 
 pulp. 
 
 France alone has now three hundred and thirty-two 
 manufactories of beet-root sugar, producing this year 
 about 75,000,000 kilogrammes, (rather more than 
 158,300,000 pounds English) of syrup, besides molasses. 
 M. Du Brontfaut declares, that by a certain process of his 
 own, there may be obtained from this molasses (after the 
 alcohol has been taken from it by distillation) a quantity 
 of potash equal in weight to one sixth of the sugar pro- 
 duced from the beet root. 
 
 It is, however, q;iite evident that this quantity of pot- 
 
PRODUCTION AND VALUE. 223 
 
 asli can only exist in. these roots by reason of the excess 
 of saline matter in the soil whereon they are grown. In 
 the great majority of cases this injurious excess of saline 
 substance arises from the quantity of manure administered 
 to the soil, with a view of obtaining a very large and 
 heavy crop of beets a result certainly realized, but at a 
 great sacrifice of saccharine matter in the beets. 
 
 Viewing all these products, however, in the most favor- 
 able light possible, still no reasonable being can maintain 
 for one moment that the produce obtainable from one 
 acre of beet root is any way equal to that derivable from 
 an acre of imphee, namely 1-j- tons of fair sugar, and its 
 proportionate quantity of molasses, equal in every respect 
 to the cane sugar molasses. 
 
 The next point of comparison is the expense of culti- 
 vation and manufacture ; and I am firmly convinced that 
 these are entirely in favor of the imphee, for, at the pres- 
 ent moment, the practice is almost universal on the con- 
 tinent of sowing the seed, in the first instance, in a seed 
 bed, or nursery, from which they are afterwards drawn 
 and planted out in the fields. I do not say that this 
 common practice is imperative, nor do I object to it on the 
 score of economy or any other grounds, but I merely state 
 that such is the usual custom. The period from sowing 
 the seed to harvesting the beets, varies, according to my 
 information, from seven to eight months, a space of time 
 just double that required for the perfect maturity of the 
 imphee. 
 
 This prolonged period naturally requires a correspond- 
 ing addition of labor in the cultivation over and above 
 that demanded by the latter. 
 
224 THE AFRICAN SUGAR CANE. 
 
 But in the manufacture of the two a still greater dif- 
 ference exists in favor of the imphee. The beets have to 
 undergo a careful washing, and have their crowns and 
 roots cut off before they are fit for the manufacturer's 
 operations ; then they are either rasped by machinery into 
 a complete pulp, which is afterwards put into a canvas 
 cloth and subjected to the action of a hydraulic or other 
 press, to get out all the juice ; or they are cut into very 
 thin slices, and these are treated by sundry peculiar pro- 
 cesses, in order to obtain the sugar they contain in as 
 pure a state as possible. The saccharine liquor, or ex- 
 pressed juice from the canvas bags, is next chemically 
 treated to effect its defecation, and is afterwards evaporated 
 to a certain density, run through animal charcoal filters, 
 and finally concentrated, but only to undergo a further 
 refining, or perhaps double-refining, 'as the raw beet root 
 sugar (such as we may call beet root muscovado) is unfit 
 for general purposes, and therefore cannot be used for 
 common consumption as sugar-cane muscovado sugars are. 
 
 There are certainly many other highly scientific modes 
 of obtaining the sugar from beets, among which the ele- 
 gant chemical process (at present only partially applied) 
 of Du Bronfaut is deserving of all honor; but I confine 
 my remarks especially to those best known and so gene 
 rally used on the continent. 
 
 The manufacture of imphee is, on the other hand, ex- 
 tremely simple ; and the sugar produced, whether mus- 
 covado or white, is not distinguishable, even by the best 
 judges, from the cane sugar of similar qualities ; while 
 the expense of manufacture is much less than that of 
 beet root. 
 
\ PRODUCTION- AND VALUE. 225 
 
 The main result of this comparison, apart from ex- 
 penses for cultivation and manufacture, may then be 
 stated : 
 
 Imphee. Time of growth, three to four months ; sugar, 
 per acre, thirty cwts. ; molasses equal to cane molasses. 
 
 Beet root. Time of growth, seven to eight months ; 
 sugar, per acre, ten cwts. ; molasses very inferior. 
 
 This, too, is on the broad supposition that the value 
 of the molasses, fodder, etc., of the one, equals that of the 
 other. I venture to say that the comparative value is so 
 entirely in favor of the former, that beet root culture will 
 gradually be relinquished until it becomes at length 
 totally neglected. 
 
 We next turn to the sugar cane as its great rival ; and 
 I dare say I shall be considered very bold in venturing 
 a comparison, but facts are stubborn things, and no really 
 sensible man will come to a decision until he has care- 
 fully weighed the evidence on both sides. 
 
 The sugar cane is a plant too well known to need any 
 description here ; but there are some peculiarities in re- 
 gard to it which must be recited, although they are actual 
 truisms : 
 
 1. It takes, according to circumstances, from twelve to 
 sixteen, to eighteen or to twenty months, from the crop 
 being planted to its ripening. 
 
 2. Some very soft, juicy canes, do really contain, 
 chemically speaking, only about ten per cent, of woody 
 fiber ; but an overwhelming majority of sugar canes do 
 most certainly contain, practically, a much greater pro- 
 portion, some eren as much as thirty per cent. I 
 
 10* 
 
226 THE AFRICAN SUGAR CANE. ^ 
 
 3. Fine, average cane juice contains eighteen per cent. 
 of sugar, not more. 
 
 4. A good average crop of sugar canes will weigh from 
 twenty-five to thirty tons per acre. 
 
 5. Canes ^are apt to degenerate so fast, that constant 
 recourse is had to the expedient of exchanging plant 
 tops between estates very distant from each other. 
 
 6. The cane rattoons in twelve months, generally, from 
 the time of cutting ; and each time it rattoons the canes 
 are less juicy, and contain a greater amount of woody 
 fiber in proportion. 
 
 These points must be well considered : 
 
 1. During the eighteen months' growth what casualties 
 may not occur to destroy, or, at least, very much injure, 
 the crop : storms, severe drouth, fire, and lastly, white 
 ants ! And what sugar planter knows not the dire ex- 
 tent of these liabilities ? 
 
 2. The large proportion of woody fiber contained in 
 rattoons, and even in plant canes, naturally reduces very 
 much the per centage of juice; but all rattoons do not so 
 abound in woody fiber. 
 
 3. So alarming was the degeneracy of the sugar cane 
 in Jamaica, that its Koyal Agricultural Society and the 
 Society of Arts in London sought all over the world for 
 sugar cane seed, in the hopes of remedying this threaten- 
 ing evil. 
 
 Now, on the other hand, let us look at the imphee in 
 respect to those identical points. 
 
 1. It takes, as I have already said, from three months 
 to four and a half months, according to the kind planted, 
 
PRODUCTION AND VALUE. 227 
 
 from the time of sowing the seed until it arrives at ma- 
 turity; and it will rattoon twice or three times after- 
 wards, at intervals of three months between each cutting, 
 provided, of course, that the warm weather permits their 
 continued rattooning. 
 
 2. It is much more juicy than the generalty of sugar 
 canes, and contains far less woody fiber, which does not 
 materially increase in the rattoons. 
 
 3. Fine, average imphee juice, contains fifteen per cent, 
 of sugar. 
 
 4. A good average crop of imphee stalks or canes will 
 weigh twenty-five tons per acre. 
 
 5. Imphee is produced from the seed; therefore, no 
 deterioration can occur, as in the sugar cane ; and the 
 seed may be sown by means of a drill. 
 
 6. It will yield a crop of rattoons six to seven months 
 from the time of the seed being first sown, being, there- 
 fore, two crops in that space of time ; and will continue 
 rattooning, if the seasons are favorable. 
 
 All these points I have abundantly proved to be cor- 
 rect ; and, when they are acknowledged by the world at 
 large to be really true, what, may I ask, will become of 
 the sugar cane ? 
 
 What tropical planter will eventually refuse to lessen 
 his field risks arising from the casualties I have named, 
 and simplify his cultivation, knowing, at the same time, 
 that his crops come to bear a money value in the market 
 in the short space of three to four months? 
 
 I venture to think that he will, of necessity, be com- 
 pelled to adopt the imphee and discard the sugar cane, 
 as a mere matter of self preservation ; for, although in 
 
228 THE AFKICAN SUGAR CANE. 
 
 Europe we can, perhaps, obtain only one crop from the 
 land each year, yet the cheap modes of cultivation and 
 the skillful manufacture which will be brought to bear 
 upon it, will be quite sufficient to run the sugar planter 
 off his legs. 
 
 From Canada to New Orleans, in America, we have a 
 magnificent range for the growth of the imphee; and in 
 the southern states two crops a year will be obtained, in 
 lieu of the one miserable crop of cane sugar now realized. 
 
 I think that even these extremely brief remarks will 
 be sufficient, for the present, to show the comparative 
 value of the imphee, sugar cane, and beet root for sugar 
 making. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 IN the following appendix will be found a number of 
 papers which, by reference to the table of contents, on 
 the preceding page, will be seen to be of much value, 
 coming as they do from some of the most distinguished 
 American and French investigators. 
 
 The very interesting work of Doctor Adrien Sicard, of 
 Marseilles, has been so embodied in the foregoing pages 
 that it has seemed to me useless to occupy space in fur- 
 nishing a complete translation of its contents. I have 
 contented myself by giving a most valuable chapter, 
 embracing his minute and philosophical studies into the . 
 intimate composition of the stalk of the Chinese Sugar 
 Cane, which will commend itself to the attention of every 
 intelligent reader. 
 
 The French weights and measures of kilogrammes, 
 hectares, metres, litres, &c., have been reduced into the 
 American weights and measures, so as to be readily 
 understood by all. 
 
 CORRESPONDENCE. 
 
 Copy.] LEGATION OF THE UNITED STATES, 
 
 PARIS, May 13, 1857. 
 
 GENTLEMEN, Your esteemed favor of the 28th March last was 
 received and submitted to M. Alexandra Yatternare, the indefatigable 
 friend of international exchange, especially with our country. 
 He has addressed to, me a letter, and placed in my hands eight 
 
 [231] 
 
232 APPENDIX. 
 
 pamphlets, which I send you. I hope that you will find that they con- 
 tain all the information which you desire. I cannot add to it. With 
 best wishes for your complete success in your laudable efforts to 
 introduce into the United States a plant which will add to the valuable 
 products of the country, 
 
 I am very respectfully, - 
 
 Your obedient servant, 
 
 J. Y. MASON. 
 
 HEDGES, MOCKBEE & Co., Philadelphia. 
 
 Copy.] PARIS, April 20, 1857. 
 
 His Excellency JOHN Y. MASON, United States Minister. 
 
 DEAR SIR, Immediately on the receipt of your favor, containing 
 inquiries relative to the sorgho sugar plant, and the possibility of 
 crystallizing its sugar, I called on the gentlemen here who could give 
 me the best information upon this important subject. I enclose copy 
 of a letter I received last night from M. Louis Vilmorin, one of the 
 most learned (theoretically and practically) agriculturists of Europe, 
 who has made a particular study of the sorgho plant, and is the best 
 authority, I think, upon which we may rely. 
 
 To his letter, M. Vilmorin has added the accompanying eight 
 pamphlets relative to the cultivation and .extraction of alcohol, sugar, 
 etc., which were published at Paris, Marseilles, Toulon, and also at 
 Constantine, in Algiers, in 1855, 1856, and 1857. I trust that these will 
 answer your purpose. Should you want further explanations, I will 
 be most happy to procure them for you ; yet I think that these will 
 be sufficient to prove that sorgho sugar can be crystallized, and that the 
 sorgho in its other products also is destined to render immense services 
 to mankind. 
 
 Placing myself at your disposal for any information tending to the 
 spread of useful knowledge and international courtesy, 
 
 I have the honour to be your Excellency's 
 Very humble and obd't serv't, 
 
 ALEXANDKE VATTEMARE. 
 
CORRESPONDENCE. 233 
 
 Translation.] PARIS, April 20, 1857. 
 
 To M. ALEXANDRE VATTEMARE. 
 
 SIR, The crystallization of the sugar of the sorghum, it seems, 
 should be easily obtained in all cases where the cane can be sufficiently 
 ripened ; and as the proportion of the sugar is an unfailing index of 
 ripeness, it follows that we could always be sure of obtaining a good 
 crystallization of juices whose density exceeds 1-075, while weaker 
 ones would not yield satisfactory results after concentration. I 
 attribute this peculiarity to the fact that the sugar is preceded in the 
 juice by a gummy principle, which seems to be transformed at a late 
 date, for its proportion diminishes in exact correspondence with the 
 increase of the sugar. The uncrystallizable sugar, or glucose, under- 
 goes the same changes ; that is to say, it is more abundant before 
 than after the complete maturity, but its action seems less prejudicial 
 to the progress of crystallization. The gummy principle obstructs it 
 in two ways ; for, beside being a serious obstacle to the commence- 
 ment of crystallization, it afterwards renders it almost a matter of 
 impossibility to purge the crystals if obtained. However, as I 
 observed, this difficulty only presents itself in the employ of unripe 
 canes ; for, as soon as the juices acquire a density of 1-080 and more, 
 they contain but little else than crystallizable sugar, and their treatment 
 presents no difficulty. The lime employed, even to a slight excess, is 
 not detrimental, it seems to me, in practice, as theory would perhaps 
 indicate. Perhaps a slight fermentation, which is inevitable, may 
 disengage enough carbonic acid to destroy the uncrystallizable com- 
 pound formed by its union with the sugar. The fact is, that the best 
 crystallizations obtained have been had in those experiments in which 
 I feared to have used too much lime. I should remark that heretofore 
 my operations have been but on a small scale, and it is necessary to 
 be very prudent before applying the experiments of the laboratory to 
 practical operations ; but at all events, it seems to me, after all these 
 trials, that the crystallization will not meet with serious obstacles where- 
 ever the plant attains a complete maturity. 
 
 (Signed) VILMOKIN. 
 
234 APPENDIX. 
 
 CRYSTALLIZATION OF THE JUICE OF THE 
 SORGHO SUCRE. 
 
 BY D . JAY BROW NE. 
 
 THE sugar of commerce, it is well known, is a crystalline substance 
 principally obtained by evaporating the juice of a gigantic grass 
 (gramen) called " Sugar-cane," which is extensively cultivated for 
 this purpose in regions within and adjacent to the tropics, where the 
 climate admits of advantageous cultivation to the plant ; although 
 sugar, nearly identical in character, is manufactured in considerable 
 abundance from the beet-root and maple, in countries of the northern 
 temperate zone ; and there is a fair prospect of success in producing 
 an article of equal, if not superior quality, in the same regions, from 
 another gramineous plant, the Sorgho sucre, already introduced. As 
 doubts have been entertained by some as to the susceptibility of 
 crystallizing the latter, the following facts and principles are pre- 
 sented, not only to throw light upon the subject, but to dispel the 
 skepticism of those who are thus willfully or ignorantly groping in 
 the dark. 
 
 The manufacture of sugar from the sorgho, as well as from the 
 tropical cane, is beset with difficulties arising not only from the 
 extreme liability and rapid change of the juice from exposure to the 
 atmosphere, as it runs from the crushing mill, but often from the 
 unripe state of the plant itself. Hence, in order to insure success, it 
 is necessary that the process be conducted under certain conditions of 
 temperature, modes of neutralizing the free acids contained in the 
 juice, and the removal of the albuminous matter previous to evapora- 
 tion and crystallization. 
 
 A fresh, thin, transverse section of ripe cane is diaphanous, resem- 
 bling a similar slice of an apple or turnip, when seen by the naked 
 eye. Under the microscope, it exhibits a cellular structure, the 
 cells containing a transparent fluid, but presenting no appearance of 
 crystals nor opaque matter. If the slice be dried, it becomes altered 
 in its appearance, being no longer homogenous, as seen through a 
 common magnifying glass or with the unaided eye ; little dots of 
 opaque, whitish matter are visible, protruding, apparently, from the 
 
CRYSTALLIZATION OF THE JUICE. 235 
 
 divided longitudinal tubes and transparent cells, as seen surrounding 
 these opaque dots, in which, when placed in sunshine, glittering 
 crystals are observable, which it may be inferred are sugar, formed 
 in consequence of the evaporation of the aqueous part of the juice 
 of the cells. These facts would seem to prove that the saccharine 
 matter of the cane exists in it, in a state of solution, according to the 
 commonly received opinion. 
 
 In the manner in which cane juice is usually obtained by the pres- 
 sure of rollers, it consists of a compound, not only of what it holds 
 in solution, but whatever it contains in suspension. However care- 
 fully expressed, it is never at this time transparent, but colored and 
 turbid, in a slight degree. If viewed under a microscope of high 
 power, innumerable granules will be seen floating in the fluid, vary- 
 ing in diameter from -00010 to -00015 of an inch. By careful 
 filtration through bibulous paper, most of these granules will be 
 separated, and the liquid will be rendered nearly "transparent. The 
 matter of which they chiefly consist, it is believed, is of the nature 
 of gluten, and has the power of exciting fermentation, even if kept 
 a year. It is a question not fully determined whether this glutinous 
 matter exists suspended in the juice, when contained in the cells ; 
 whether it is separated from the walls of the cells, or is produced by 
 the minute fragments of the longitudinal tubes of the cane, by the 
 pressure employed. It may here be remarked that, besides gluten, 
 there may be other proximate principles suspended in fresh cane- 
 juice, such as starch, gum, wax, &c.; but their presence, in the 
 minute quantities in which they occur, is probably of little importance 
 in practice. 
 
 As to the question whether the saccharine matter contained in 
 cane juice is altogether susceptible of being crystallized into sugar, 
 or in part consists of other varieties of sugar, which are not crystal- 
 lizable, or only so with difficulty, it may be stated that various 
 opinions have been expressed by chemists in this respect. M. Hervey, 
 of France, contends that there is no uncrystallizable sugar in pre- 
 existence in the cane, and that the formation of glucose (grape sugar) 
 or molasses is only owing to the action of the salts contained in the 
 liquid during the manufacturing process. Be this as it may, it is 
 
236 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 certain that the greater portion of the saccharine matter of the juice 
 is crystallizable, and may be obtained in the state of crystals, if, after 
 rapid boiling and filtering, the clear fluid be quickly evaporated, the 
 latter operation being a condition of absolute necessity in sugar 
 making, as, by slow boiling, at a temperature of 212, or even 
 exposure for a considerable time to a temperature below the boiling 
 point, glucose may be formed from the purest crystallized sngar dis- 
 solved in water. On the contrary, if the concentrated solution of 
 sugar be heated beyond 230 F., it undergoes alteration, and is 
 changed, at least in part, into uncrystallizable sugar, or saccharine 
 mucilage. When we consider how nearly allied these varieties of 
 sugar are, and likewise how nearly allied in their composition they 
 are to other substances, such as gum, starch, woody fiber, &c., we 
 cannot be surprised either at the conversion of one kind of sugar into 
 another, or into these substances, or at the formation of sugar from 
 them. The above-named substances are chemically isomeric ; that is, 
 nearly identical in composition, so far as their elements are concerned, 
 and the proportions of these elements, though the substances, gum 
 and sugar, are so different in their properties. These reflections 
 may be applied with as much force to the results obtained in the 
 elementary analysis of various kinds of sugar, presented in the follow- 
 ing table : 
 
 Carbon. Oxygen. Hydrogen. 
 
 
 ( 42-47 
 
 50-63 
 
 6-90 
 
 Gay-Lussac and Thenard. 
 
 Cane sugar, . 
 
 ^42-22 
 
 51-17 
 
 6-60 
 
 Berzelius.* 
 
 
 
 ( 42-85 
 
 50-71 
 
 6-44 
 
 Prout. 
 
 
 Grape sug. (glucose,) 
 
 36-71 
 
 56-51 
 
 6-78 
 
 Saussure. 
 
 
 Sugar of starch, . 
 
 j 37-29 
 ( 36-20 
 
 55-87 
 56-75 
 
 6-84 
 7-05 
 
 do. 
 Prout. 
 
 
 Sugar of honey, 
 
 36-36 
 
 56-58 
 
 7-06 
 
 do. 
 
 
 
 i 38-53 
 
 54-60 
 
 6-87 
 
 Saussure. 
 
 
 Sugar of manna, . 
 
 1 38-70 
 
 54-50 
 
 6-80 
 
 Prout. 
 
 
 
 ( 44-10 
 
 49-76 
 
 6-13 
 
 Henry and 
 
 Plisson 
 
 Glycerin, . . . . 
 
 40-08 
 
 51-00 
 
 8-92 
 
 Chevreul. 
 
 
 
 ( 38-82 
 
 53-83 
 
 7-24 
 
 Gay-Lussac 
 
 and Thenard. 
 
 Sugar of milk, . . 
 
 1 45-26 
 
 48-34 
 
 6-38 
 
 Berzelius. 
 
 
 
 ( 40-00 
 
 53-36 
 
 6-63 
 
 Prout. 
 
 
 * The first analysis published by Berzelius differs considerably from this, being 
 carbon, 44-2; oxygen, 4001; hydrogen, 6-78; Berthellot and Saussare obtained 
 results corresponding with those of Guy-Lussac. 
 
CRYSTALLIZATION OF THE JUICE. 237 
 
 In comparing these numbers, it will be seen that cane sugar, which 
 can be considered as the prototype, may be represented chemically by 
 an atom of carbon and an atom of water ; and that the proportion of 
 water increases as the sugar becomes less capable of compact crystal- 
 lization. Accordingly, the sugar of grapes, of starch, of honey, &c., 
 has less carbon and more water than cane sugar. The results of the 
 different analyses are also the more discordant as the sugar is less 
 regularly crystallizable and associated with a greater number of 
 foreign substances, as in the sugar of manna and the sugar of milk. 
 And the analysis which exhibits the greatest proportion of hydrogen 
 is precisely that of the sweet matter, (glycerin,) which is procured 
 from the most highly hydrogenated of all these substances, namely, 
 oil and fatty matters. 
 
 Although the principles of sugar making are simple, the practice, 
 as before stated, is beset with difficulties and attended with loss and 
 injury of material, arising from the extreme susceptibility to change 
 of the cane juice itself. The latter, as it runs from the crushing mill, 
 is nearly colorless ; but a very brief exposure to the atmosphere, in 
 warm weather, hastens decomposition, which, unless checked, rapidly 
 advances,- and in a short time converts this sweet-tasted, bland liquid 
 into a spiritous or acescent product, turbid from insoluble suspended 
 matter, and wholly unfit for the purpose to which it was intended to 
 be applied. To guard against this evil, the operator always endeavors 
 to conduct the first part of the process, at least, as expeditiously as 
 possible. But instead of heating the freshly expressed juice of the 
 sorgho, in order to insure its crystallization, in a large vessel to blood- 
 heat, or upward, and adding a little slaked lime, as is usually the 
 case, to neutralize the free acids, which are always present in the juice 
 of the sugar cane, the lime should be applied while the liquid is cold, 
 conformably to the method discovered by Leonard Wray, of London, 
 and recently patented by him in Europe and elsewhere. The lime is 
 employed for the purpose of saturating these acids, which should be 
 done as quickly as possible, in order to restore the gluten contained in 
 the liquid to its original insolubility, so that it may immediately coag- 
 ulate, and, in this manner, envelope in its volume all those substances 
 consisting of green and gummy matters. Let it be borne in mind, in 
 
238 APPENDIX. 
 
 connection with this process, that the lime will absorb a greater 
 quantity of free acid, and this more rapidly, in a cold than in a warm 
 state, in a similar manner as cold water will dissolve more lime than 
 warm. After this proceeding, the liquid is strained through cloths, 
 and then clarified with nut-galls, or other tannic substances, aided 
 by the action of heat, when it is again strained or filtered, and then 
 boiled down to a proper consistency for granulation, conformably to 
 the method patented by Mr. Wray. 
 
 In a letter from M. Louis Yilmorin, of Paris, bearing date of April 
 20, 1857, he says : " The crystallization of the sugar of the sorgho, it 
 seems, should be easily obtained in all cases where the cane can be 
 sufficiently ripened ; and, as the proportion of the sugar is an unfailing 
 index of ripeness, it follows that we could always be sure of obtaining 
 a good crystallization of juices the density of which exceeds 1'075, 
 whilst weaker ones could not yield satisfactory results after concen- 
 tration. 
 
 " I attribute this peculiarity to the fact that the sugar is preceded in 
 the juice by a gummy principle, which seems to be transformed, at a 
 later date, for its proportion diminishes in exact correspondence with 
 the increase of the saccharine matter. 
 
 " The uncrystallizable sugar, or glucose, undergoes the same 
 change ; that is to say, it is more abundant before than after the 
 complete maturity ; but its action seems less unfavorable to the pro- 
 gress of crystallization. The gummy principle obstructs it in two 
 ways ; for, besides being a serious obstacle to the commencement of 
 crystallization, it afterward renders it almost a matter of impossibility 
 to purge the crystals, if obtained. 
 
 " However, as I observed, this difficulty only presents itself in the 
 employment of unripe canes ; for, as soon as the juices attain the 
 density of 1-080 and more, they contain but little else than crystalli- 
 zable sugar, and their treatment presents no difficulty. 
 
 " The lime employed, even to a slight excess, is not so detrimental, 
 it seems to me, in practice, as theory would perhaps indicate. Per- 
 haps a slight fermentation, which is inevitable, may disengage enough 
 carbonic acid to destroy the uncrystallizable compound formed by its 
 union with tho sugar. The fact is, that the best crystallizations 
 
CRYSTALLIZATION OF THE JUICE. 239 
 
 obtained have occurred in those experiments in which I feared to 
 have used too much lime." 
 
 Subjoined is an extract of another letter from M. Madinier, of 
 Paris, on the same subject : 
 
 " Up to the present time, the making of sugar from the sorgho has 
 received but little attention, in France, owing to the present state of 
 commerce, which makes it much more advantageous to convert the 
 cane into alcohol than into sugar. Aside from this fact, it. is certain, 
 that from this plant crystallizable sugar can be extracted similar in 
 every respect to that made from the cane of the tropics. Of this, I 
 entertain the highest conviction, which is supported by authentic, 
 though not very numerous, facts. * * * * * The stalks of the 
 sorgho contain crystallizable sugar, without furnishing a greater 
 quantity of molasses than the cane. An experiment made at Ver- 
 rieres, with Clerget's apparatus, showed the juice to contain 16 per 
 cent, of sugar, of which there are only 10i per cent, crystallizable, 
 and 5f per cent, uncrystallizable ; yet we can by no means depend 
 upon a result gained from plants grown in the Department of the 
 Seine and Oise, in a climate altogether beyond the range adapted to 
 the sorgho." 
 
 Thus it will be seen that the making of sugar has been much aided 
 by science. It was a philosophical chemist who first introduced the 
 vacuum-pan method into use, by which such facility was given, with a 
 remarkable reduction of the price of the article, to the refining of 
 sugar. It has been by the application of chemical science in France 
 that the sugar from the beet root, the produce of that country, has 
 been able to compete with cane sugar, affording a remarkable instance 
 of the conquest, and it may be said, the triumph, effected by science, 
 as the proportion of saccharine juice of that root is only about half 
 as much as that of the cane, and is mixed with substances more diffi- 
 cult of separation, and more injurious in their reaction. Let the 
 same skill, directed by science, be applied to the making of sugar 
 from the Sorgho sucre, and we may reasonably expect the happiest- 
 results. 
 
240 APPENDIX. 
 
 CHEMICAL RESEARCHES ON THE SORGHO SUCRE. 
 
 BY C. T. JACKSON, M. D., OF BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 ON the 29th of October, 1856, 1 received from the Patent Office a 
 bottle of expressed juice of the Sorghum saccharatum, procured from 
 plants raised upon the government grounds in Washington. This 
 juice, after being strained through fine linen, had a specific gravity of 
 1-062 ; and, after boiling and the separation of an albuminous scum, 
 1-055. Three and a half fluid ounces of the strained juice, evaporated 
 at 212 F., until it became a dense straw-yellow syrup, too thick to 
 run, when cold gave 217 grains of saccharine matter. That portion 
 of the juice which had been freed from albuminous matter and filtered 
 through paper, gave, on evaporation of a fluid ounce, 78 grains of 
 thick yellow syrup, which, being dissolved in absolute alcohol, left 9 
 per cent, of mucilaginous substances containing starch. The alcohol 
 took up 69 grains of saccharine matter. This is equal to 14-36 per 
 cent, on the juice. 
 
 Other portions of the juice were operated upon by lime water and 
 bone black, and filtered and evaporated to syrup. A small proportion 
 of crystallized sugar was obtained from the bottom of the vessel, in 
 which the syrup had stood for some days. A part of the juice, 
 diluted with warm water, with the addition of a little yeast, fermented 
 and produced spirit, which, on being separated by distillation, was 
 found to be an agreeably flavored alcohol, having, as M. Vilmorin has 
 stated, a slight noyau taste. Good judges declared that it would 
 make excellent brandy spirit. According to the experiments of Vil- 
 morin, the amount of absolute alcohol obtained from the juice is a 
 fraction over 6 per cent. 
 
 On the 3d of November I also received from the Patent Office two 
 parcels of the sorghum plant, in different stages of ripeness. That 
 with quite ripe seeds was by far the sweetest; while the green one, 
 which was just in flower, contained but very little saccharine matter. 
 One thousand grains, taken from the middle of the ripe stalk, when 
 peeled, gave 670 grains of pith, from which the juice was separated. 
 
CHEMICAL RESEARCHES. 241 
 
 The latter, on being evaporated to a thick syrup, gave 90 grains of 
 saccharine matter, or 9 per cent, on the weight of the stalk. Another 
 sample gave from 2 ounces of the pith, 217 grains of thick syrup, or 
 12 per cent. Thus we have from 180 to 240 pounds of saccharine 
 matter, in the form of a dense syrup, to a ton (2,000 pounds) of the 
 stalks. By means of a screw press, I separated the juice from some 
 of the canes, which had a specific gravity of 1-0987. 
 
 Being desirous of ascertaining the saccharine value of the sorghum 
 raised in Massachusetts, I obtained from Capt. R. A. Wainwright, of 
 the United States Arsenal, at Watertown, in this state, five plants, 
 which had been cultivated on the arsenal grounds. Sixteen ounces of 
 one of these plants, nearly ripe, gave 94 ounces of clear pith, which I 
 exhausted of its saccharine matter by means of boiling, distilled water, 
 and pressure. This liquid,^ou evaporation, gave 742 grains of thick 
 syrup, too dense to pour from the vessel when cold. The yield of 
 saccharine matter in this case was 10 1 per cent. 
 
 Another and riper sample, from the same parcel, yielded from 1,000 
 grains of the stalk 640 grains of pith, and 146 grains of thick syrup, 
 or 14 1 per cent, of saccharine matter. On expression, the plant 
 yielded a clear, sweet juice, having a specific gravity of 1-0975. 
 
 Analysis of the Bagasse. One hundred grains, dried at 212 F. and 
 burned in a platinum vessel, left 1 per cent, of gray ashes. Having 
 thus determined the proportion of inorganic matter in the bagasse, I 
 burned a larger quantity for further experiment. It was found that 
 the ash consisted of the following ingredients : 
 
 Per cent. 
 Silicic acid -------- 14-40 
 
 Phosphoric acid 13-42 
 
 Sulphuric acid - -;' 28-70 
 
 Chlorine - -; '"-"-' 3-70 
 
 Potash - - 8-10 
 
 Soda 9-60 
 
 Lime 11-80 
 
 Magnesia -------- 9-80 
 
 Traces of oxyd of iron, a little carbonic acid, and loss % 68 
 
 100-00 
 11 
 
242 APPENDIX. 
 
 This analysis shows that gypsum (sulphate of lime) will operate 
 favorably as a fertilizer on this plant ; and it is evident that the 
 bagasse ashes would serve as a good manure for the crop. 
 
 THE CRYSTALLIZED SHGAK QUESTION. 
 
 MY readers will perhaps remember, that in the chapter on Soils and 
 Manures, the proposition was distinctly laid down, that in cases where 
 the sorgho had been grown on soils containing large proportions of sol- 
 uble saline matters, or when manures of a nitrogenized nature had 
 been applied to the plant, the juices were rendered averse to crystal- 
 lization, but were not deteriorated, so far as the production of alcohol 
 or syrup is concerned. I mention these facts in this connection, as, 
 perhaps, affording some light upon the vexed question as to whether or 
 no the sorgho juice will give perfect crystals of cane sugar, and as 
 prefatory to the conflicting opinions of Doctors Hayes and Jackson, 
 both gentlemen of the highest acknowledged ability as chemists, and 
 one of them, at least, practically acquainted with sugar making. 
 
 I have the highest respect for the professional position of Dr. Hayes, 
 and esteem him as a private gentleman, but cannot print his very able 
 paper without expressing the hope that future experience may prove 
 that the canes and syrup upon which his experiments were undertaken 
 were raised under the ' unfavorable application of manures containing 
 much nitrogen, or on soils of the character above indicated ; and, from 
 personal communication with that gentleman, I know he would rejoice 
 as much as any one if success shall prove my supposition to have been 
 a just one. 
 
 From the " New Orleans Bee " we have most unequivocal testimony 
 as to the actual presentation to the editors of crystallized sugar made 
 by Prof. Avequin ; and as corroborative of that fact, I append the 
 following extract from the official report of the meeting of the Cornice 
 Agricole of Toulon, held December 5th, 1854 : 
 
 " The honorable President presented to the Assembly a detailed re- 
 port upon the Culture of the Sorgho, its Uses and Products. This 
 report, of a very high degree of interest, will be inserted in the follow- 
 
CRYSTALLIZED SORGHO SUGAR. 243 
 
 ing number of the Keport of the Assembly. M. DE BEAUREGARD (the 
 President) PRESENTED TO THE ASSEMBLY RUM AND CRYSTALLIZED 
 SUGAR EXTRACTED FROM THE SORGHO " A. PELLICOT." 
 
 The report of the Count made its appearance according to the above 
 announcement, and the Count speaks as follows : 
 
 " I have likewise been able, gentlemen, (thanks to the obliging and 
 intelligent assistance of M. Verignon, a chemist at Hyeres.) to make 
 attempts to obtain the crystallization of the syrup from the juice of 
 
 the holcus saccharatus After practical boiling, losing the 
 
 hope of seeing in form the crystals, we left upon a shelf the con- 
 centrated syrup without disturbance for a while, and we have been 
 most agreeably surprised to find, on again looking at it, that the entire 
 inside surface of the vessel containing it was studded with very beautiful 
 crystals, which I have the pleasure of exhibiting before you to-day." 
 
 At the sitting of May 1st, 1855, was presented a paper, entitled, 
 " Documents Nouveaux sur la Culture du Sorgho a Sucre," in which 
 occurs the following : 
 
 " We have recently learned from a manufacturer at Lyons, M. 
 Doney, that he has, the past year, obtained from a small quantity of 
 sorgho stalks, treated by him, beautiful cubic crystals of sugar. His 
 process is as follows : The clippings of sorgho stalks are submitted to 
 maceration ; then they are pressed, and the juice obtained is reduced 
 by boiling. Treated by lime which is purified of salts, defecated by 
 means of ox blood, clarified with animal black, the juice evaporated 
 
 gave BEAUTIFUL CRYSTALS OF CANE SUGAR." 
 
 Testimony stronger than this could not be made. In his official re- 
 port to the Minister of War, Dr. Turrel distinctly states, that experi- 
 ments made by a Commission of the Imperial Acclimation Society had 
 " resulted in their obtaining magnificent cubic crystals of sugar." 
 
 Thus supported, then, my readers will, doubtless, unite with me in 
 the previously expressed wish, that indeed by the 1st of January we 
 may be able to offer a complete refutation to the opinion advanced by 
 Dr. Hayes. It must be remembered that, in making beet-sugar, the 
 manufacturer is sometimes obliged to wait as long as a fortnight before 
 the syrup will strike into crystals. 
 
 Doubtful as has been the question as to the crystallization of tho 
 
244 APPENDIX. 
 
 sorgho juice, the paper of Mr. Wray entirely sets at rest any doubt as 
 to the possibility of sugar making with the imphee juice ; and if the 
 former be found wanting in this season's trials, the effect will be, to 
 augment the demand for the imphee, and largely extend its culture. 
 
 ON THE SACCHARINE MATTER FOUND IN THE 
 VARIETY OF SORGHUM, CULTIVATED IN NEW 
 ENGLAND AS A SOURCE OF SUGAR. 
 
 By AUGUSTUS A. HAYES, M. D , Assayer to the State of Massachusetts. 
 
 EARLY after the ripening of this plant the stalks were sent to me for 
 a chemical examination of the kind of sugar produced from the juice. 
 Samples of the syrup, from several places in the northern states, and 
 one sample made by Colonel Peters, of Georgia, were also given to me. 
 
 The research was deemed important in its economical bearings, and 
 interesting in a chemical view. The course was, therefore, made to 
 embrace a knowledge of the sugar as it naturally existed in the stalk, 
 in its appropriate cells, and of the sugar extracted by the refined 
 methods of modern chemistry. 
 
 Sugar in the Cells. The horizontal and angular sections of the 
 pith of various samples of the sorghum plant, produced from the 
 black, or French variety of seed, were found, when viewed by the 
 microscope, to show perfectly-formed cells, with every character of 
 maturation. 
 
 In these cells, isolated from other principles, a fluid sugar could be 
 seen and experimented on easily. 
 
 When withdrawn from the cells it did not crystallize, even after long 
 exposure. Recent pith, carefully dried by absorbents, did not exhibit 
 any crystallized sugar. Slips of the common sugar cane, under the 
 same exposure, showed crystals of sugar formed, and, as it dried, bril- 
 liant, colorless, and beautiful groups formed in the cells, without the 
 apparent presence of any other matter. A minute drop of the fluid in 
 the cells of the common sugar cane, soon after exposure, became a 
 
CRYSTALLIZED SOKGHO SUGAR. 245 
 
 mass of crystals ; and no two secretions are more unlike than the fluid 
 sugar of the sorghum and the crystallizable juice of the common sugar 
 cane. The fluid sugar of the sorghum in the cells became brown when 
 treated with potash. It did not become dark in sulphuric acid. It 
 readily dissolved in alcohol, and left, by evaporation, a syrup ; no 
 crystals. A minute drop, when warmed, instantly reduced the tartrate 
 of copper, dissolved in potash, to protoxide of copper. These are the 
 characters of glucose ; and so far as observation and tests can serve 
 us, we must conclude that the saccharine matter in the cells of the 
 sorghum plant is glucose, in the state of a syrup, without the presence 
 of true sugar. 
 
 At this point of the examination I supplied Prof. John Bacon, of 
 the Medical College, with samples of the stalk, who, with his usual 
 accuracy and skill, after a minute examination, failed in detecting any 
 cane sugar, and pronounced the matter to be glucose, as secreted by 
 the plant. 
 
 Sugar Extracted. The clean pith was bruised in contact with 
 pure animal charcoal, and the saccharine part extracted by cold 
 and pure alcohol, which was evaporated at the ordinary temperature 
 of the air, and left a fluid, colorless, sweet glucose. This could be 
 dried over sulphuric acid to a paste ; but it attracted moisture from 
 the air, and returned to the state of a syrup on exposure. It contained 
 a trace of a lime salt, but was neutral. The animal charcoal was then 
 boiled in successive portions of alcohol, and the solutions obtained 
 afforded only the syrup of glucose ; no crystallized sugar. 
 
 A quantity of the pith was crushed in mixture with some pure car- 
 bonate of lime, animal charcoal, and water, at the common temper- 
 ature of the air. The colorless, neutral syrup, was rapidly withdrawn, 
 and one portion evaporated, by the heat of steam, to a thick syrup, 
 and closed from the air. It remained a syrup after fourteen days, and 
 when spread thin on plates of glass, gave a few microscopical crystals 
 of saline matter united to glucose. Another portion of the colorless, 
 pure juice, was evaporated in a current of warm air ; it dried to a 
 thick varnish, without a trace of any crystals being seen. These are 
 the characters of glucose, physically. 
 
 An analysis of a portion of the pure juice was made by reducing 
 it to a nearly dry mass and treating it with alcohol saturated with 
 
246 APPENDIX. 
 
 cane sugar, in which it dissolved, excepting a mere trace of a lime 
 salt ; proving that no true sugar exists in the juice, chemically. 
 
 Samples of Sorghum Sugar. These, as specimens of the product 
 obtained by boiling to the state of a dense syrup the expressed 
 juice of the plant, were all impure ; differing much, in this respect. 
 They exhibited, after repose, some brilliant grains as a deposit. After 
 separation, these grains proved to be in large part, transparent, mi- 
 nute fragments of pith cells mixed with some crystals, which, contain- 
 ing chlorine, sulphuric acid, lime, and alkaline base, were considered to 
 be compounds of sugar and alkaline salts. The fluid sugar was, in 
 every case, acid, and exhibited a strong tendency to ferment, after it 
 had been a few hours mixed with water. It was, therefore, in every 
 case subjected to the usual process of refining before the application 
 of the tests was made. Neither of the samples, when subjected to 
 the tests which have been named, exhibited any traces of true sugar ; 
 and the characters of solubility, and freedom from tendency to crys- 
 tallize, place the fluid sugar obtained in the usual way, among the fruit 
 sugars, as varieties of glucose. 
 
 After long exposure to air, the pure glucose, chemically obtained, 
 forms mammilary concretions made up of radiating prisms, and then 
 becomes the variety of glucose called dry fruit sugar : adding another 
 distinctive character of fruit sugar. 
 
 I purposely excepted from my trials all unripe or decayed stalks. 
 Some subsequent observations show that the unripe stalks afford much 
 saline matter which mixes with the syrup. 
 
 When we consider the definiteness and reliability of the chemical 
 tests for glucose, the clear and certain manner in which they distin- 
 guish all its varieties from ordinary sugar, we may conclude that, as 
 far as physical and chemical means permit, the question in relation to 
 the kind of secretion in the sorghum of the northern states is settled. 
 This plant cannot, by any known process, be made to yield any other 
 saccharine matter than glucose, and there is no method known to 
 chemists by which glucose has been converted into sugar. 
 
 Generally, those persons skilled in the manufacture of sugar from 
 the maple sap, who have failed in producing sugar from the sorghum, 
 have attributed their want of success to a difference of composition iu 
 
LETTER FROM MR. WRAY. 247 
 
 the juice, as compared with maple sap. This is the true view, and 
 reflects no discredit on the ability or judgment of those enterprising 
 persons who have endeavored to add another to our resources of an 
 agricultural kind. Some few persons have boldly asserted that they 
 have obtained sugar from the sorghum of the northern states, and an 
 impression has been fostered that some new process of manufacture 
 would enable us to obtain a supply of sugar from this source. It is a 
 part of the duty of men of science to point out what can be done, and 
 thus direct attention to resources around us ; it is no less a duty on 
 their part to draw the broad line of distinction between what can and 
 what cannot be accomplished. No dairy man or dairy woman would 
 accept the proposition of converting at will butter into cheese, or 
 cheese into butter ; yet this may be done as easily as the glucose of 
 the sorghum can be converted into sugar. 
 
 While the variety of sorghum produced from the French seed in our 
 northern states contains in its cells only glucose, which can be easily 
 separated and exhibited with all its properties, we have before us a 
 positive fact : those who suppose sugar to exist in the plant are sup- 
 porting a negative, until they present us that product in a tangible 
 form. 
 
 16 Boylston Street, Boston, April, 1857. 
 
 LETTER FROM MR. WRAY TO THE AUTHOR. 
 
 CANADA, July 4th, 1857. 
 HENRY S. OLCOTT, ESQ. 
 
 MY DEAR SIR, In reply to your inquiry, I beg leave to make the 
 following remarks upon the statements put forth in Boston by Doctors 
 Hayes and Bacon, relative to the character of the sugar contained in 
 the Chinese Sorgho, which is now so generally denominated the 
 Chinese Sugar Cane. 
 
 That small quantities of crystallized sugar (identical in all respects 
 to that of the sugar cane, and not grape sugar) have from time to. 
 time been produced in France, and even in this country (North 
 America) is an established fact, admitting of no denial, and, as such, 
 quite sufficient to prove that the Chinese Sorgho docs, under certain 
 
248 APPENDIX. 
 
 favorable conditions, contain, and will, by a peculiar mode of manu- 
 facture, yield a proportion of real cane sugar, however small that 
 proportion may be. 
 
 The remarkable assertions of Messrs. Hayes and Bacon must, there- 
 fore, in my opinion, have arisen from two causes, of which those gentle- 
 men were not aware, viz., 
 
 1st. The sorgho stalks, or canes, which they examined were, in all 
 probability, either unripe, or past the stage at which crystallizable 
 sugar existed in their juice ; or, again, those canes might have been 
 grown on such rich lands as did not permit of their juices being per- 
 fectly elaborated. 
 
 2d. The " very carefully prepared syrup of Col. E. Peters, of 
 Georgia " had, in reality, been boiled down in the rudest manner, in a 
 large iron cow-pot, after a constant exposure to a great heat for a 
 period of from seven to eight hours. 
 
 It might be an interesting and highly instructive experiment to 
 such chemists (and others who know nothing of sugar making) if they 
 would try the effect of from seven to eight hours continuous boiling 
 (or simmering) on a simple solution of pure lump sugar and water ; 
 always remembering that a large iron cow-pot (hung in a very primi- 
 tive manner) is the vessel to be employed. What do these gentlemen 
 imagine would be the product resulting from the action of such a 
 long continued heat on this simple solution of pure cane sugar ? What 
 would be the proportion of crystallizable sugar remaining, and how 
 much glucose would they have achieved? I should like them to 
 make this trial, and favor the public with a statement of their results. 
 
 I beg you, my dear, Sir, to believe that I do not for a moment call 
 in question the ability and honest purpose of such well educated and 
 respectable men as Doctors Hayes and Bacon ; but as a dabbler in 
 chemistry, and as an old sugar planter, I well know how easily men 
 of the highest order of intelligence may be deceived in such investi- 
 gations, and may omit to make due allowance for unknown circum- 
 stances, which may, nevertheless, exercise an entire controlling influ- 
 ence on the result of their experiments. 
 
 So far, therefore, in answer to your inquiries respecting the Chinese 
 Sorgho, which I hope may be satisfactory ; but in speaking of the 
 
LETTER FROM MR. WRAY. 249 
 
 real " Imphee " of Kaffirland, which I have introduced to the notice of 
 the world from south-eastern Africa, you must be good enough to 
 understand that I draw a very marked distinction between them and 
 the plants known under the name of Chinese Sorgho, in regard to 
 their value as sugar producing plants. 
 
 The juice of the Zulu-Kaffir imphee is much more limpid, and much 
 less mucilaginous than that of the Chinese sorgho ; and is conse- 
 quently very easily induced to crystallize. 
 
 The African plant, under ordinarily favorable circumstances, so 
 perfectly elaborates its juice that I have generally found it to contain 
 almost as large a proportion of cane sugar as that of the real sugar 
 cane itself grown in the tropics. 
 
 The samples of sugar made from the imphee, and in your possession, 
 have been pronounced to be equal to the best clayed Havanas ; but, 
 farther than this, I may tell you that I have submitted them to my 
 honored and revered friend Justus Liebig, the great chemist of our 
 age, and he has found them identical in all respects to the sugar from 
 the West Indian and Javanese canes. 
 
 I do not think I need say more, for in a month hence I shall com- 
 mence manufacturing my imphee crop, and I hope then to give you 
 the fullest proofs that whatever the Chinese Sorgho may yield, my 
 African Imphee will at least come up to the character it has earned, 
 and yield sugar abundantly. 
 
 And I remain, my dear Sir, 
 
 Yery faithfully yours, 
 
 LD. WEAY. 
 
250 APPENDIX. 
 
 MONOGRAPH OF THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE, 
 CALLED THE SUGAR SORGHO. 
 
 BY DOCTOR ADRIEN SICARD, 
 
 Secretary of the Marseilles Horticultural Society, Member of the Imperial 
 Acclimation Society, etc., etc. Marseilles, 1856. 
 
 CHAPTER Y. 
 
 Studies in the Structure and Intimate Composition of the Chinese 
 Sugar Cane. 
 
 LET us take a joint of the cane, deprived of the clasping part of 
 the leaf, designated by the name petiole or footstalk, and let us study 
 it from exterior to the interior. 
 
 Immediately beneath the footstalk we find a deposit of cerosie, 
 which completely covers the epidermis of the cane. This deposit, 
 which is but slightly apparent midway between the knots, under the 
 footstalks is considerable enough, on the contrary, from its being pro- 
 tected from the contact with the air. Some canes will even manifest 
 this same substance on their leaves. This is called cerosie because of 
 its resemblance to wax (cire.) 
 
 The cerosie being passed, we come to the epidermis, or outside coat ; 
 this is thin, very strong, tinted usually with colors of straw color, 
 yellow, apple green, and rose color, passing into a violet when the cane 
 is too ripe. If a piece of this epidermis be magnified to five hundred 
 diameters, it appears to the eye like the bark of the elm as seen in 
 nature by the naked eye, especially if the examination be made on the 
 portion covered with cerosie. If the fragment of epidermis be turned 
 so as to present the interior face, there will be seen angular protuber- 
 ances, which correspond with the joints of the cells, and filaments 
 running in a direction from above to below, or from knot to knot, of 
 the stalk. Whatever pains be taken to separate the epidermis of the 
 cane, some fragments of cells will always be seen adherent. 
 
 I submitted the epidermis to the action of pure sulphuric acid* ; 
 
 * All my studies of organic chemistry -with the view of discovering the intimate 
 structure of the Chinese Sugar Cane have been made under the microscope. 
 
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. 251 
 
 it assumed in this liquid a deep yellowish color, and the appearance of 
 the very rough bark of a tree, marked with black spots and streaks. 
 By the addition of a drop of anhydrous alcohol, there was immediately 
 formed, in the liquid, a movement of oscillation ; the fragment of 
 epidermis was borne by the current in the liquid from left to right. 
 At the end of some minutes the yellow color had entirely disappeared, 
 but the piece preserved the original appearance. Submitted, then, 
 to the action of tincture of iodine, the epidermis preserved its trans- 
 parency ; except that the more deeply tinted parts assumed a very 
 light blue color, surrounding plates and cells which were completely 
 white. At a magnitude of one hundred diameters the objects of our 
 previous study can be seen, but in this case the piece of epidermis 
 looks like the bark of the plane tree. 
 
 It is difficult, at this magnitude, to recognize the details above 
 mentioned ; still with a great experience in microscopic study it may 
 be done. 
 
 If the piece of epidermis belongs to a cane long time previously 
 ripened, or the experiments be made with the knots nearest the ground, 
 it will be found that the cerosie always will adhere to the epidermis, 
 even though it may have been scraped to remove the former ; the ad- 
 dition of sulphuric acid can determine the yellow color ; but anhydrous 
 spirit of wine subsequently added, does not produce so strong a sudden 
 oscillatory movement as in the former experiment. The decoloration 
 of the tissues does not take place ; they always preserve the yellow 
 color, and the disposition of the fibers is the same, except that the 
 most prominent tubes are particularly distinct. The tincture of iodine 
 added to the solution does not give any color changes, except that the 
 deep color of the epidermis becomes clearer. Some fragments of cells 
 are visible. 
 
 The epidermis is now removed. We next come to the dermis, or 
 inner coating.* Submitted to a glass of five hundred diameters, it pre- 
 sents an assemblage of tubes all disposed side by side in manner accord- 
 ing to the height of the plant. Submitted to the action of pure 
 sulphuric acid, the deep color soon passes into a red brown ; numerous 
 
 * This piece of derma was taken from the last joint of a cane of large size, and it had 
 remained on the stalk after its ripening. 
 
252 APPENDIX. 
 
 cells of rounded form show themselves under the tubes. The addition 
 of anhydrous alcohol causes a very slight movement of oscillation ; the 
 yellowish-red-brown color brightens up and becomes yellow ; but the 
 longitudinal tubes are perfectly apparent, and upon these are seen at 
 intervals rounded cells. These cells are unequal, and of three dimen- 
 sions ; large, medium sized, and small. In the liquid are seen floating 
 perfectly white crystals. 
 
 The addition of the tincture of iodine produces, in time, in certain 
 portions of the tubes, a slightly violet hue ; but the little cells have 
 become colored a deep violet. As to the crystals, of which we have 
 previously spoken, they preserve all their whiteness. 
 
 Let us continue our researches. The epidermis and dermis have 
 been removed. We next find between the knots long threads of a 
 yellowish color, running from one knot to the other, and which may 
 be easily removed by hand : they are united together by a kind of pith. 
 A specimen of these threads was submitted to the microscope, (magni- 
 fied to one hundred diameters,) and despite all my efforts, it was im- 
 possible to completely deprive it of its covering of pith. Under -the 
 glass the appearance it presented was that of a magnificent column of 
 stalactite of the most beautiful whiteness. Sulphuric acid colors this 
 fart of the plant yellow on the edges, and reddish brown throughout 
 the rest of its surface ; a continuance of about a quarter of an hour in 
 the liquid produces the disaggregation of little grains almost white, bnt 
 bordered with a more roseate hue. 
 
 The addition of anhydrous alcohol produces the complete decolora- 
 tion of the portion formed by the separation of the small grains above 
 mentioned ; they may be distinguished perfectly isolated from each 
 other, and preserving by their arrangement the form of the bark of a 
 tree, or, rather, of a lace of dazzling whiteness. As to the portion 
 which has not been detached, it preserves its original form and color. 
 
 The addition of a strong proportion of tincture of iodine has not 
 changed the color of the grains of which we have spoken ; only the 
 liquid in which they are held, becomes strongly tinted yellow ; the 
 surface seems to have assumed a slightly bluish tint. As to the cells, 
 and the portion of the specimen which was not separated, they have 
 taken on a bluish violet. Besides this, there is seen the yellow color 
 in portions of the cell not changed to blue. 
 
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. 253 
 
 If we remove with great care, by means of a piece of silk paper,* 
 the liquids in which we steeped the piece of sugar-cane used in our 
 experiments, and if we replace it by water, suS'ering the piece of cane 
 to steep for some minutes, we remark that the tissues become more 
 transparent ; but the violet color always remains in the thicker por- 
 tions, especially in the cells. These have a hole in their center. 
 
 If we deprive of water f the specimen of Chinese Sugar Cane under- 
 going experiment, and replace this water by anhydrous alcohol, we 
 observe a decoloration of the tissues and the separation of the portion 
 which had formed the lace ; this detaches itself from the piece, lets 
 escape a large number of entirely colorless crystals, and ends by taking 
 on the appearance of a hempen thread, which should be placed in the 
 field of the microscope and examined at the magnitude which was em- 
 ployed by us at the commencement. We shall find, floating in the 
 liquid, some violet cells, which have preserved their rounded form. As 
 to the piece which did not dissolve, it maintains the appearance indi- 
 cated in the preceding experiments. 
 
 Another piece of filament, taken from the same place, and submitted 
 to the same magnifying power of five hundred diameters, has seemed 
 to us organized ; it represents a fragment of hemp, with the exception 
 that the latter is white throughout the greater part of its length. 
 Submitted to the action of pure sulphuric acid for about an hour, we 
 observe the separation of the cells ; the filaments take the appearance 
 of threads of hemp seen by the naked eye, and placed beside each 
 other we observe some disaggregated cells ; the filaments have a black 
 color. 
 
 No change caused by the addition of anhydrous alcohol. The tinc- 
 ture of iodine added to the mixture, makes to appear slight violet or 
 bluish spots. The general tint is observed to be diminished in inten- 
 sity. The entire liquid is sprinkled with white crystals. 
 
 The specimen which we are about to study is taken from the center 
 of the cane. We were at pains to separate it entirely from the threads 
 which we have just dissected ; it presents to the naked eye the appear- 
 
 * It will readily be conceived that it is impossible to accomplish the entire removal 
 of all foreign matter. 
 
 t We cannot say but that a little water has actually remained after all our precau- 
 tions. 
 
254 APPENDIX. 
 
 ance of elder pith, except that on pressure it permits to escape a very 
 sweet juice. 
 
 Under the microscope, at a magnitude of one hundred diameters, the 
 specimen which is the object of our study resembles a grain of sugar 
 seen with the naked eye, and of which the appearance is of a brilliant 
 whiteness ; the crystallization is like that of the most beautiful sugar. 
 We remark on the edges a whitish liquid which oozes from it ; in it 
 we see some small cells, which are doubtless those which have permit- 
 ted to escape the liquid which we have just noticed. 
 
 Some moments' rest in pure sulphuric acid changes the appearance 
 of the specimen which we study ; the edges are yellow, the center rep- 
 resents a bunch of grapes, of which the grains are perfectly distinct, 
 and of a violet red color ; some grains separated from the bunch have 
 an appearance identical to those which we have observed in the pre- 
 ceding experiments, except their violet red color ; they are all perfo- 
 rated with a hole in the middle. Some crystals are seen in the 
 liquid. 
 
 Anhydrous alcohol, added in the segment of sphere, produces a 
 slight movement of oscillation from right to left ; the violet red color 
 is unaltered ; the edges only have assumed a tint much less yellow, and 
 which has a tendency to disappear. As to the crystals disseminated 
 throughout the liquid, they are always incolorous. 
 
 The addition of the tincture of iodine gives, after a contact of some 
 minutes, a color less deep ; one would say that in place of coloring the 
 substance, the iodine had, on the contrary, lightened it. However, by 
 regarding it with the greatest attention, we distinguish little veins of 
 an infinitesimal dimension, which appear colored violet. 
 
 The piece of Chinese Sugar Cane submitted to the above experi- 
 ments, was now taken from the liquid, then placed in the segment of 
 a sphere, with anhydrous alcohol that we had increased with water. 
 A portion of the fragment was dissolved ; at the bottom of the liquid 
 we see a great quantity of white crystals. As to the mass itself, it is 
 found at the bottom of the liquid, and presents the appearance of a 
 mixture of empty cells, of crystals and granules, the whole seeming 
 white by refraction, and tinted violet by reflection. 
 
 A fragment imperceptible to the naked eye, submitted to a magni- 
 tude of five hundred diameters, is completely identical with crystals of 
 
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. 255 
 
 sugar in the perfect state ; they are surrounded by an incolorous liquid. 
 This fragment has stripes very light and blackish in color." 
 
 Pure sulphuric acid has entirely changed the appearance of the 
 fragment which we are studying ; it has taken a blackish color in the 
 surface of the crystals, which have become more deep. 
 
 Anhydrous alcohol, added to the mixture, seems to dissect the crys- 
 tals. 
 
 An addition of tincture of iodine lessens the coloring. By refrac- 
 tion, the crystals are completely white. 
 
 We have taken at the center of a knot, a portion of the substance 
 which it contains, seeking to separate, as much as possible, from it the 
 filaments which, in this plant, run from the ground to the top of the 
 .stalk, bending, it must be remarked, at each knot. It is, so to speak, 
 compressed, and in the experiments which I have made on these threads, 
 they have always broken at this part. 
 
 The portion above mentioned was placed under the microscope. At 
 a magnitude of one hundred diameters, it resembled a piece of certain 
 plants seen with the naked eye. Placed in concentrated sulphuric 
 acid, the specimen becomes broken apart, and takes on a black color, 
 bordered by a reddish tint. The cells are apparent, someof them sep- 
 arated. Anhydrous alcohol produces no other effect than to detach 
 some flakes of cells, and some rare white crystals, the whole floating 
 on the liquid. 
 
 We then took a portion of the knot which had served us for the 
 above experiments, and placed it in water, but its appearance did 
 not change from that of woody fiber, corroded by sulphuric acid. 
 
 A portion of knot which we endeavored to completely isolate from 
 the filaments, was magnified to five hundred diameters. Placed in 
 contact with sulphuric acid, it was disorganized, numerous cells made 
 their appearance, and the whole was colored black, mixed with deep 
 yellow ; the addition of anhydrous alcohol has made apparent to us 
 woody fiber, in the condition in which it is when it has been in contact 
 with sulphuric acid. 
 
 From the experiments which we have thus made, it follows : 
 
 That the Chinese Sugar Cane is composed from outside inwards, 
 first of a layer of cerosie or wax, and an inert epidermis. The dermis 
 contains gums, filaments, fccula, and some portions of sugar. 
 
256 APPENDIX. 
 
 The interior part of the cane is composed, in very great proportion, 
 of sugar and filaments. It is in the most central portion of all that 
 are found the sacchariferous products. 
 
 If the cane be deprived of its epidermis and dermis, it will be placed 
 in the best condition possible to furnish sugar of good quality, and of 
 easy extraction. Such, at least, is our opinion, which is based upon 
 the practical studies which we have made with this precious gramine- 
 ous plant. 
 
 FROM F.BOURDAIS, DISTILLER, AT CONSTANTINE, 
 ALGIERS. 
 
 BUT however great seem the probable results of the introduction of 
 the sorgho into France, and however great the enthusiasm which has 
 arisen in 1Jie minds of its cultivators, they still look upon the new 
 colony of Algiers as the country in which, both on account of climate, 
 soil and the peculiar adaptedness of the plant, the most remarkable 
 results can be obtained. There, it will be recollected, that M. 
 Hardy, the chief of the government nursery, at Hamma, in his report 
 to Marshal Yaillaint, certifies to having allowed his canes to stand upon 
 the ground where they grew, first having removed the tufts and leaves, 
 throughout the whole winter, the climate being so very mild. The 
 immense importance of such an aid to the manufacture will be seen 
 on a moment's reflection, for he may pursue his manufacture throughout 
 the whole year without interruption, and thus not be obliged to greatly 
 increase his expenditures for labor and considerable machinery to 
 harvest and work up his crop in the short space of time which is 
 absolutely required by the changes of the American climate. 
 
 M. Bourdais, a large distiller at Constantine, in the province of 
 Algiers, has written a pamphlet called, " Guide to the Distiller of the 
 Sorgho Sucre," in which he gives the result of his extended experi- 
 ments. He seems to have been a careful experimenter, and his book is 
 entirely practical ; indeed, he says himself, "All the eloquence of our 
 writings, rests upon tlie figures offered" We quote his language, as 
 follows : 
 

 M. BOURDAIS' STATEMENT. 257 
 
 My first experiments were most satisfactory, and I should not hesi- 
 tate a single moment to pursue with new zeal, in consideration of the 
 initiative taken by M. Hardy, and with the appearance of a new plant 
 capable of giving in alcoholic products according to the figure of this 
 philosophic experimenter, a net profit .of about $1,662 64. Let us re- 
 mark in passing, that Messrs. Madinier & Lacoste, in the new pamphlet 
 which they have just published, under the title of " G-uide to the Culti- 
 vator of the Sorgho," carry this figure as high as 9241 fr. Let us re- 
 mark the enormous discrepancy between these two computations, 
 amounting to $185 30. 
 
 " By taking this figure of 9241 fr. as a basis, it is evident that a 
 planter should, with a capital of $20,000, distil in six or seven months, 
 the product of fifty acres, and realize thus the enormous profit of 
 $37,000. Twelve acres were quickly planted by me. Agreements 
 with other persons permitted me likewise to count upon the yield of other 
 estates upon which the sorgho culture had been undertaken. One may 
 judge exactly by the following figures what are the results. The calcu- 
 lation has been made to a most scrupulous exactitude : 
 
 COST OF CULTIVATING ONE HECTARE (ABOUT 2J ACRES). 
 
 1. CULTIVATION 
 
 Plowing, - - $16 
 
 Hoeing, - 8 
 
 Making irrigation furrows, - 4 
 
 Sowing, 9 
 
 Watering, - . 10 
 
 Manures, 20 
 
 Hoeing, and subsequent cost of cultivation, - 20 
 
 2. FIRST COST OF MANUFACTURE. 
 
 Cutting the canes at maturity, - - $14 
 
 Stripping the leaves (done by Arab children, at 1 fr, per day) 28 
 Transportation of the canes to the manufactory, - 8 
 
 $50 
 $137 
 
258 APPENDIX. 
 
 By following successive weighings, made with conscientious exact- 
 ness, I learned the fact that 2 acres well managed, with the desirable 
 conditions of good culture, yields 
 
 1,520 metrical quintals of canes, deprived of their leaves. 
 
 278 " " green leaves, very excellent. 
 
 For the nourishment of stock, and representing, at sixty 
 
 cents the 250 Ibs., a sum total of $47 
 
 Adopting, as a starting point, the first cost of culture and 
 
 manufacture, the result above given would be - 137 
 
 My expenses were thus reduced by "_.- '- - 47 
 
 Giving $90 
 
 I had already a sure basis. Ninety dollars was my entire expense 
 for the product of 520 quintals of cane. I obtained the sum of 84 c. 
 as a representative value for the production per metrical quintal. I 
 will detail in another place the different operations which preceded the 
 distillation. It will be sufficient to say that a metrical quintal of canes 
 yielded, on distillation, 5-2 quarts of alcohol at 94, being 0.15.1 of 
 raw material for a quart of alcohol at 94. 
 Thus, then 
 
 The cost of raw material being, r. $0 03 
 
 The cost of crushing, maceration of the bagasse and of the 
 seeds, fermentation, yeast of beer, distillation, rectifica- 
 tion, about, - 10 
 Cutting and transporting to the still, 02 
 
 I obtain, as the cost at Constantine, for the 3|6* reduced 
 
 to 94, - $0 15 
 
 This will, doubtless appear a high price, but taking into considera- 
 tion the extravagant price for manual labor in the province of Con- 
 stantine, the explanation will be sufficient. In fact, a workman em- 
 ployed either on the farm or in the distillery does not have less wages 
 than seventy to eighty cents per day, for ten hours' work. I have been 
 
 * A technical expression, used in France to signify a certain strength of alcoholic 
 liquors. It cannot bo translated. 
 
259 
 
 compelled to raise the salary of the chief distiller to $1 GO a day, which 
 in France is not higher than $1. It is the same with respect to the fire- 
 man, whose wages here are forty cents higher than they are in France. 
 The English bituminous coal which I use costs me at the distillery about 
 $1 75 per 250 Ibs. It will be urged, doubtless, that the native labor 
 would be less costly. The objection would be a valid one, if it were 
 possible to employ the Arabs in any other department than that of 
 manual labor. At a later day, when the culture of the sorgho has 
 become much more extended, and when they have become familiar with 
 it, we may possibly find among them those who would be able to fill 
 the more important places. 
 
 I have shown that about a quart of " 3| 6 " reduced, costs me for 
 hand labor about ten cents. This price may appear a high one, but it 
 is not very remarkable. I will show by the following figures that a 
 very large profit can be realized from it in the Algiers market, because 
 of the economy of transportation and other expenses. This economy 
 is not less than 40 cents. Let us calculate upon the exportation of 
 a pipe of 3|6 of about 150 gallons, to France, at sixty cents per gallon, 
 supposing it put in the hands of a commission merchant in Marseilles. 
 We will have, firstly, then, to deduct for commission, 3 per 
 
 cent., - - v> ^w;^'-.^.-^.^-^ ^v.-^v -4 - $648 
 Storage, carting, guaging, etc., .... '-..<; 1 20 
 
 Insurance, 4 u L - - 1 08 
 
 Freight by steam vessels, 3 80 
 
 Commission for transportation to Phillippeville, and various 
 
 expenses, - - - - - - - - -120 
 
 Leakage, and other accidents of the journey, 10 litres, at 
 
 $1 80, 3 62 
 
 Transportation, Phillippeville to Constantino, at $2 50 per 
 
 50 gallons, 9 20 
 
 $26 58 
 
 It will be seen that the expenses for an order of 150 gallons are 
 very rapidly increased, before the merchandise can be put into the 
 storehouse, to the enormous figure of $24 54, about 16 cents per gallon, 
 which would be an entire profit if sold in the interior of Algeria. 
 
260 APPENDIX. 
 
 In fact, the net price, which we know to have been fifteen cents, is 
 reduced four, and then stands at eleven cents. 
 
 For the same reason the price of hand labor is reduced to about 
 seven cents. 
 
 It will be remarked that I have abstained from speaking of the seed 
 of the sorgho, when detailing above the productions of this grain. I 
 have made the best employment of this seed the object of a special 
 study, and I believe that I have discovered its most profitable use, 
 taking all things into consideration. It seems to me an undoubted 
 fact, that there is a large profit from changing into sugar the starch con- 
 tained in the seed of the sorgho, by submitting it to a vigorous and 
 warm maceration, along with the canes. 
 
 I previously said, that a metrical quintal of canes yielded me on dis- 
 tillation about five quarts of alcohol at 94. 
 
 In this was included the juices expressed from the seed of the sorgho 
 by means of maceration. 
 
 I have passed without notice the so-called product to be obtained 
 from the bagasse, because, like the seed, I submit them to the same 
 maceration, in order to extract from them all the saccharine matter 
 which has escaped the action of the cylinder. I find a further profit 
 in this, since the bagasse, deprived of all its nutritive matter, after the 
 completion of the process of maceration, should not be eaten by stock, 
 as I have proved in my experience. As to a second crop being able 
 to give an additional amount of alcoholic products, it seems to me 
 little probable. We may count certainly upon a second crop, which 
 can give a large quantity of forage to be cut up and eaten. 
 
 All the writers who have discussed the sorgho sucre, have also men- 
 tioned as one item of production, the cerosie, which covers the stalks of 
 the cane. To my mind it is not worth while to engage in an opera- 
 tion so costly by itself, when the profits resulting from it are very 
 problematical. 
 
 The computations I have given are the results of distillation under- 
 taken with about twelve acres of crops made on alluvial soils, or river 
 bottoms, which can be irrigated at high water, and naturally manured 
 by the detritus of the old swamp, where my distillery has been located 
 for a number of years. 
 
 The truly surprising results which I have obtained, have been ad- 
 
M. BOUKDAIS' STATEMENT. 261 
 
 mired by the Director of the Government Nursery of Algiers, on the 
 occasion of a visit which he was good enough to accord me. He has 
 frequently noticed the existence on my place, of hills of sorgho, tiller- 
 ing from sixteen to eighteen stalks of twelve feet in height, which 
 often were five and a half inches in circumference at their base. In 
 other instances ten to twelve stalks have been very commonly noticed ; 
 the average is from six to seven. 
 
 It is commonly known that M. Hardy is one of the first who has 
 occupied his time with the culture of saccharine plants, and very espe- 
 cially with the Chinese Imphee. The intelligent experiments which he 
 has undertaken, upon a small scale it is true, (about half an acre,) and 
 as he says himself, deprived of favorable conditions, that is to say, not 
 having at his disposition any other instrument for distillation than 
 Saleron's still retort ; these trials, I say, although not permitting him 
 to arrive at results completely satisfactory, have not however suffered 
 him to have any doubt upon the future of a culture which promises to 
 be an inexhaustible source of riches and prosperity for Algeria. 
 
 Although it has been necessary for me to cultivate my grounds at 
 great expense, (at first with the pick, to eradicate all the stumps and 
 stubble of the old swamp ; afterwards with the plow, to bury as deeply 
 as possible by very arduous labor ; and finally to make ditches and 
 drains, for the aeration of the soil,) the result has amply repaid me for 
 all these labors attending the first cultivation. I will now confine 
 myself to the details relative to the fabrication of the wines of the 
 sorgho, to their distillation, and finally to the rectification of the bran- 
 dies which have been obtained from it. I will explain as clearly as 
 possible different methods I have employed ; and I shall deem myself 
 happy if these reflections can open the way to other investigators. 
 
 DETAILS OF MANUFACTURE. 
 
 The canes, stripped of their leaves, are submitted to the energetic 
 action of a cylinder, with three rollers moved by steam, and making fifty 
 revolutions in a minute. The vesou, or juice, runs into a vat of a capacity 
 of about one thousand gallons, placed under the cylinder. This first 
 operation finished, the bagasse passed out of the cylinder contains still a 
 large quantity of saccharine matter, which can be extracted in scarcely 
 
262 APPENDIX. 
 
 any other way than by maceration. This new operation is, however, 
 more indispensable, as the saccharine part remaining in the bagasse 
 gives in maceration for 2500 Ibs. of these latter, 500 gallons of juice, 
 weighing 3 by the areometer of Cartier. 
 
 Thus, then, 260 Ibs. of canes yield, in reality, seventeen gallons of 
 vesou, at a density of 10, or, as we have already said, five quarts of 
 alcohol at 94, being two gallons of alcohol to twenty-five gallons of 
 juice. But it is impossible to obtain these results if recourse is not 
 had to maceration. Thus there will be seen the motives which have 
 induced me to seek for the better employment of the seed of the 
 sorgho. 
 
 When I perceived that the cutting and stripping cost me so much, 
 I caused to be made in the fields of the plants which were growing, a 
 choice of the finest grain for my sowings of the following year ; and I 
 left the panicles adhering to the stalk. Of the remainder, the panicles 
 and leaves should be crushed in the cylinder and afterwards subjected 
 to the process of maceration with the bagasse. The action of the warm 
 water determining immediately the transformation into sugar of the 
 starch contained in the grain, I was able to obtain by a single opera- 
 tion the saccharine residue escaped from the cylinder, and to save thus 
 the cutting off, the seed, stripping, the grinding of the grain, and the 
 trouble of the preparation of a certain quantity of malt to assist in the 
 fermentation. The possibility of leaving for some time standing in the 
 field the plants of the sorgho, has considerably assisted me in this ex- 
 periment ; for, as M. Hardy judiciously observes, the stalks of the 
 sorgho preserve themselves not only uninjured for several months after 
 their maturity upon the ground as they grew, but even increase in the 
 proportion of sugar. I find proof of that in the specific weight of the 
 juice, which in September last weighed 9 and now has increased 
 to 10. 
 
 FERMENTATION. 
 
 The juice as it passes out from the vats from maceration, is enriched 
 by the addition of pure juice, and arrives in the fermenting vat with 
 a density of 5. I have made what is technically called the " foot ;" 
 that is to say, by turning into a vat 200 gallons of juice at a tempera- 
 ture of 30; with this 5 quarts of brewer's yeast should be mixed ; an 
 
M. BOUKDAIS' STATEMENT. 263 
 
 hour afterwards this " foot " is in full fermentation. I then filled my 
 vat with 500 hectolitres, at a temperature of 30. An hour after these 
 quantities pass themselves iiito fermentation. Let us remark that this is 
 the result of our own experience ; that this fermentation progresses 
 regularly, has no need of being watched, is never violent, and falls 
 always to zero of the areometer, in 20 hours at least, and 24 hours at 
 most. It is very true that the juice of the sorgho contains naturally 
 its own ferment. M. Hardy has considered it sufficient to produce 
 the alcoholic fermentation without the addition of any stimulant ; and 
 in this latter case this fermentation progresses very gently, much 
 too gently even, since it requires less than 6 to 8 days to fill ; and 
 finally it cften happens that it ceases before the sugar is entirely 
 transformed. Then the wines weigh still 1, and sometimes l, by the 
 areometer. 
 
 DISTILLATION. 
 
 I distil my wines by steam, and by means of a column still, after 
 the system of M. Dubrunfaut. 
 
 RECTIFICATION Of BRANDY. 
 
 The rectifying column of which I have made use is that of M. 
 Dubrunfaut, comprising two analyzers, whose purpose it is to spread 
 the liquid of the condensation and the vapors, which are obtained 
 simultaneously. The 3|6 obtained are of a strength of 94, and fine 
 in flavor. It now only remains to present a summary view of the 
 figures which have appeared in the foregoing remarks, and to draw 
 the attention of the reader to the following conclusions : they speak 
 for themselves, and have no need of comments. "We have seen that 
 about 2 2 acres can produce 58,240 Ibs. of stripped stalks ; and that a 
 hundred kilogrammes (225 Ibs.) of these same stalks may give about 1 J 
 gallons of alcohol at 940. The hectare (2 J acres) yields then about 700 
 gallons 3|6 at 94, worth in the Constantine market about $1 50 per 
 
 gallon, say $1,081 60 
 
 We know that the litre of 3|6 costs, all expenses included, 
 
 0.74.1, say for 200 gals. 400 73 
 
 There remains, per hectare, a net profit of . . . $680 87 
 
264 APPENDIX. 
 
 In the preceding calculations we have examined the question of the 
 sorgho in all its relations, both as to the process for the transforma- 
 tion of its product, and the farm which gives them. In a word, it is 
 certain that an establishment thus constituted can distil in the space of 
 six or seven months a crop of about 50 acres, and produce by an ex- 
 pense of $20,000, (in which is comprised about $17,000 fixed capital, 
 represented by the apparatus and works,) a profit of $12,000, or 
 thereabouts. We have said the sorgho not only furnishes to industry 
 a precious element ; but furthermore, it can profitably be employed 
 as a forage crop. One acre cultivated in sorgho costs less for culture, 
 and pays incomparably more than the best artificial meadow. They 
 have already comprehended this in the north of France, as is shown 
 in one of the pamphlets previously quoted ; but in those countries 
 where the sorgho does not ripen, planters have to overcome difficulties 
 which do not exist for us, and are far from being able to obtain, not- 
 withstanding all their efforts, results equivalent to those which come 
 in this country without other assistance than native labor. [From 
 " Guide du Distillateur du Sorgho a Sucre." F. Bourdais. 
 
 REPORT OF THE COUNT DE DAVID BEATJREGARD, 
 
 TO THE AGKICULTURAL ASSEMBLY OF TOULON, UPON THE ALCOHOLIZA- 
 TION OF THE JUICE OF THE SORGHO SUCRE. TOULON, 1857. 
 
 WE are aware of the fact that the juice of the sorgho, whose intro- 
 duction we owe to M. Montigny, has within itself all the ferment 
 necessary for the transformation of its saccharine matter into alcohol. 
 It ferments with such activity under a sufficiently elevated tempera- 
 ture, the formation of a great quantity of alcohol is so rapid that this 
 reacts upon the ferment, of which a portion precipitates itself before 
 having had time to accomplish its useful transformation. 
 
 Thus it often happens that one, two, and even three degrees of sugar 
 remain still in the wine of the sorgho at the moment when the fermen- 
 tation ceases. To this first cause of loss there is frequently added 
 another, when large vats are made use of. 
 
KEPOKT OF COUNT BEAUKEGAKD. 265 
 
 The temperature, under the influence of this tumultuous fermenta- 
 tion, arises in these great masses, even so far as to acquire, in warm 
 weather, from 35 to 40 degrees centrigrade, which occasions a still 
 further loss of a considerable quantity of alcohol. 
 
 Desirous of avoiding the viscous fermentations which cause so much 
 loss in sugar beet distilleries, when the proper degree of heat for the 
 ferment is wanting, I heated my juice to 25 before putting it in the 
 vat, which I rapidly filled, and added to its various ferments. I not 
 only accomplished my purpose, but even got more than I desired. 
 The fermentation proceeded with great violence. The imaginary 
 inconvenience which I wished to avoid occasioned me a serious and a 
 real one. The heat and ferment only aggravating the conditions of 
 the operation, and I was not slow in perceiving that we obtained as 
 much less alcohol as the fermentation had been more lively, and that 
 there remained finally in the wine as much more of sugar in an 
 unchanged state. 
 
 I have since then been led to follow an entirely opposite course, 
 seeking to render the fermentation as mild as possible, but however to 
 make it complete by sustaining it at every moment. I avoided all 
 use of ferment in the juice of the canes, and I have made my vat of a 
 temperature as near as possible from 10 centigrade to zero. 
 
 To obtain this temperature when the weather is warm enough, in 
 September or October, it is well to treat only the canes cut the even- 
 ing before, and which are stacked against the north side of a wall to 
 profit by the moisture of the night. The juice likewise should be 
 caused to run into the vat in a continuous thread. Into the vat is also 
 introduced, at the same time, a thread of fresh river or spring water, and 
 if this should not be had, water from clean well-built wells.* The diame- 
 ter of this thread of water should be calculated, so that the mixture of 
 the two liquors shall mark 60 on Beaume's Glucometer. If the 
 machine discharges more of juice than is necessary to obtain this 
 density and this temperature, the necessary number of vats to regulate 
 that should be simultaneously filled. When frost comes it is necessary 
 
 * The mode of feeding can be altered. After a first vat full, in place of water, 
 vinasse taken from the still retort can be used, or, better still, the results from tho 
 maceration of the bagasse. 
 
 12 
 
266 APPENDIX. 
 
 to warm the mixture to obtain this initial temperature of 10 centi- 
 grade. In this case the water added is heated, and not the juice. It 
 is necessary also, when the temperature of the juice is below 10, to 
 elevate the temperature of the water, so that it shall exceed 10 above 
 zero as much as it lacked of arriving at this point during the night 
 preceding the filling of the vats. 
 
 Despite this low temperature, fermentation commences even on the 
 first day, and thanks to the manner in which it commences and to the 
 mode of feeding, it is maintained mild and regular, transforming every 
 day into alcohol a sixth part of the sugar contained in the mass, and 
 making it gain two degrees of heat from the initial temperature,* so 
 that on the seventh day, my vats, of a capacity of about 250 gallons, 
 contained nothing but a liquid marking zero on the glucometer of 
 Beaume, and 22 of heat on the centigrade thermometer. 
 
 If it has gained only two degrees of heat in twenty four hours, it 
 will be found that the transformation of the sugar into alcohol is 
 diminishing, and the water should be heated to cause the mass to arrive 
 at the desired temperature during that day. 
 
 This will only happen when the outside temperature is very low. It 
 will be seen that the thermometer and the spirit guage are two instru- 
 ments which must be employed, unless the operator wishes to go blindly 
 to work. 
 
 The sixth day, that is to say, as soon as my vat is filled, I stir up 
 the mass with the hand, to replace in suspension whatever portion of 
 the ferment remains unappropriated. The next morning the transform- 
 ation is perfect. My wine is made ; but to abstract from the alcohol 
 a slight peculiar taste, due to the presence of certain essential oils 
 which it contains, I throw that day into the vat two kilogrammes of 
 powdered quick lime, (about five and a half pounds, troy,) previously 
 slacked with twenty litres of water, (six gallons,) and again rapidly 
 stir it up with the hands. 
 
 The lime unites with the essential oils to form an insoluble com- 
 pound, which is precipitated. 
 
 We will let the fluid remain quiet for two days, and we then distil 
 
 * On the morning before recommencing the distillation, the state of the fermenta- 
 tion and the temperature of the vat should especially be examined 
 
REPORT OF COUNT BEAUREGARD. 267 
 
 it in the Derosne apparatus, and obtain in alcohol "3|6" of an 
 agreeable taste, reminding one somewhat of kirsch, almost as strong 
 per cent, as the juices indicated of degrees on the Beaume glucometer, 
 say usually from eight to ten per cent. 
 
 This result, which I invariably obtained since my change of system, 
 seems to me of such a nature as to give confidence to those who, up to 
 this time, have not dared to undertake the culture of the sorgho, and 
 also to favor the establishment of distilleries, where the profitable 
 manufacture, on a large scale, of the crops brought in by the farmers 
 of the neighborhood can be undertaken. 
 
 But in this regard, gentlemen, and to enlighten those who would be 
 tempted to organize an enterprise of this nature, I believe it is useful 
 to add some words on the method I have employed up to this time, to 
 extract the juice of the cane. By mentioning the advantages and dis- 
 advantages of my process, I can enable others to profit by the experi- 
 ence, and do better. 
 
 You already know, gentlemen, that to extract the juice of the canes, 
 I pass them between plate cylinders, as is done in the colonies with 
 tropical sugar cane. This mode of extraction, sanctioned by long 
 custom, has seemed to me, more prudent to use at first ; but in order 
 that none of the juice may be lost, it is requisite to key up the cylin- 
 ders very closely, which requires the employment of a strong motive 
 power. 
 
 When the operator can make use of a strong and natural force, a 
 fine waterfall, for instance, the inconvenience which we notice is no 
 longer met with ; but if this cannot be obtained, it would be well to 
 try some other mode of extraction, requiring less motive power. A 
 crusher, a stalk or straw cutter, or other similar instruments, can ac- 
 complish the end desired. 
 
 The state in which the canes are found, according to the mode 
 adopted for dividing them, will naturally necessitate particular ar- 
 rangements in the work for the extraction of the juice, their fermenta- 
 tion and their distillation ; but this is not the place to enter into the 
 details of the subject. I wish simply to guard you against the idea 
 that the crushing cylinders will be found to be, in all circumstances, 
 
268 APPENDIX. 
 
 and in every case, the most suitable method of extraction to be 
 employed. 
 
 * # * * # 
 
 Of the other aspects of the culture of the Sorgho, I shall not speak 
 at present, but having confined myself to the particular department of 
 alcohol manufacture, on which much light was needed, I shall esteem 
 myself happy, gentlemen, if I can contribute to extend the culture of 
 a plant which, for many reasons, seems to be one of the most precious 
 which Providence has ever placed at our disposal. 
 
 COUNT DB DAVID BEAUREGARD, 
 President of the Agricultural Assembly of Toulon. 
 TOULON, Dec. 2, 1856. 
 
 ON THE SUGAR SOKGHO AND THE IMPHEE. 
 
 BY DR. TUEEEL, SECEETAEY OF THE ASSEMBLY OF TOULON. 
 [From the Bulletin of the Imperial Acclimation Society.] 
 
 THE question of the sugar sorgho has taken an importance in agri- 
 culture, not only because of the yield in alcohol of its sweet stalks, but, 
 still further, because of the coloring matter of its seed, and of its pro- 
 duction of seeds which are capable of serving as means of food for 
 man, and for fattening cattle. 
 
 It is, then, perfectly natural that persons should occupy themselves 
 with this cultivation ; but, however, we would not wish that an incon- 
 siderate haste should make us lose sight of the conditions on which it 
 is dependent for being largely remunerative. These conditions seem 
 to us essentially to be - 
 
 1. A combination of rural industry and agriculture. 
 
 2. Large cultivation. 
 
 3. The remoteness of sufficient markets for usual crops. 
 
 The cultivation of the sorgho as a source for the production of al- 
 cohol, cannot be undertaken without a manufactory connected with the 
 
SOEGHO AND IMPHEE. 269 
 
 farm, because the raw matter is very cumbrous, difficult of transport- 
 ation ; and supposing even the establishment of a central distillery in 
 the middle of an agricultural district fit for the culture of the sorgho, 
 it is probable that the cost of transport would be very high, and that 
 because of the rapid change of the saccharine matter by spontaneous 
 fermentation in the masses of the stalks, the greater part of the 
 saccharine richness would be lost for the producer and to the manu- 
 facturer. 
 
 It is in the field that the sorgho preserves most completely its prop- 
 erties, a precious peculiarity for Algeria, as the different reports of 
 M. Hardy prove ; for Guadaloupe, as M. Grellet Balguerie writes to 
 us ; and in similar climates. 
 
 Cultivation on a large scale* seems to me fitting for making profit- 
 able the cultivation of this plant. This opinion is the irresistible con- 
 clusion to which we arrived. The cultivator on a large scale can 
 afford the cost of manufacture : plate cylinders, hydraulic presses, fer- 
 menting vats, and still retorts. Small culture would be entirely un- 
 able to make similar expenditures ; and on this scale sorgho should be 
 cultivated only for the production of seeds that is to say, in the light 
 of a product less remunerative than the cultivation of vegetables, or, 
 very exceptionally, for the extraction of the fermentable saccharine 
 matter, as a sort of recompense or substitute needed because of the 
 grape disease in vine countries, where wine is no longer grown. 
 
 With this view, in the districts near Toulon the landholders have 
 mixed in their vintages and fermented with grape juice the liquid ex- 
 tracted from the sorgho, and obtained wine more abundant, and with- 
 out any unpleasant flavor. This mixed wine, whose production has 
 been very limited, was unfortunately consumed at home by the fam- 
 ilies of the cultivators. 
 
 Further, cultivation on a large scale could not be undertaken with 
 
 * We are In position to affirm that a society, important because of the honorable 
 names attached to it, has been formed in Paris, with a view of making experiments on 
 a large scale. This year, even, it will undertake the manufacture of about 85 acres of 
 sorgho, which have been cultivated in the neighborhood of Bayonne. We might quote 
 the names which are at the head of this Association, called an Experimental and Pro- 
 tective Imphee Association, which has a great future ; but we prefer to wait until we 
 are able to quote the facts arrived at, and that will not be a long time. 
 
270 APPENDIX. 
 
 the sorgho, except when there was no readily obtainable market suffi- 
 cient to warrant richer crops and of less difficult production. 
 
 In the arrondissement of Toulon, for example, the crops on the re* 
 claimed swamps, and the fruits cultivated in irrigated soils, give an 
 average net profit of 500 francs to the hectare. 
 
 It is difficult to guarantee to the culturer of the sorgho a greater 
 profit in the absence of a distillery devoted exclusively to the manu- 
 facture, on a large scale, of this plant, when the cost attending it are 
 taken into consideration. 
 
 Far from the city, on the contrary, and where grazing of cattle can 
 be undertaken on a large scale, the sorgho sucre can become as an 
 average plant when the price of alcohol has decreased : of very great 
 importance, because it is greedily sought after by cows and horses. 
 
 Pigs even craunch with delight its succulent and saccharine stalks. 
 They devour the seeds, which, M. Grellet Balguerie thinks, can be 
 given to horses in place of oats. Finally, in the form of flour, this 
 seed will become, because of the abundance of its yield, an excellent 
 means of fattening cattle for the butcher. 
 
 It is especially because of this peculiarity that we think favorable 
 notice should be taken of a new species of sorgho sucre, whose intro- 
 duction into Provence we owe to M. Grellet Balguerie, of Guadaloupe. 
 This sorgho, which has been the object of the studies of Mr. Leonard 
 Wray, under the name of imphee, or Kaffir sorgho, is, in all proba- 
 bility, the one upon which, in 1766, Pietro Arduino made his experi- 
 ments in Italy. This is the opinion of M. Grellet Balguerie. " The 
 description of Pietro Arduino," says our correspondent, " seems to 
 apply very exactly to the imphee, which we cultivate in the Antilles." 
 
 M. Grellet Balguerie specially congratulates himself upon the yield 
 in seed of the imphee, which is much superior, in this regard, to the 
 sugar sorgho; the latter, however, being preferable, because of its 
 more early maturity. 
 
 In Martinique, M. Hayot cultivates, with profit, the imphee, simply 
 to feed his Indian coolies with the flour of its seeds, which he finds 
 preferable to coolie rice, and with more nutrition in an equal quantity. 
 He gives its leaves to his cattle, which are fond of it ; and manu- 
 factures of its saccharine juice an excellent taffia. 
 
 The sorgho sucre and the imphee, then, recommend themselves in the 
 
SORGHO AND IMPHEE. 271 
 
 three different points of consideration the production of alcohol ; as a 
 forage plant ; and as a food by their seeds, which, if it is desired, can 
 also be converted into alcohol in prolific seasons. But the sugar 
 sorgho offers to industry a new and rich product. The coloring matter 
 extracted from its seed is of a beautiful solid carmine, and the Lyonese 
 manufacturers are seeking it for tinting their silks. This is a new 
 source of riches for the agriculturist, if he knows how to make use of 
 them. 
 
 We cannot accept as serious the calculation of M. Hardy, which 
 shows, as one of the profitable products of the North China sorgho, the 
 cerosie, or vegetable wax, which develops itself upon the surface of the 
 stalk. The same waxy substance is found upon all the sorghos, upon 
 the sugar cane. However, it has never been sought, to make use of it, 
 except in the laboratory, and for the gratification of chemical analysis ; 
 for, supposing that the costs of extraction were sufficiently covered by 
 the product, the scarcity of labor, which is especially felt in the farm- 
 ing districts, would form an invincible obstacle to its being undertaken, 
 especially in Algeria. 
 
 One of our honorable correspondents of Turin, M. le Count Moign- 
 erie, has made vinegar by watering the bagasse, already crushed, with 
 the juice of the sorgho. He has obtained the acetous fermentation, 
 and, according to his own testimony, a very perfect vinegar. 
 
 Count de Beauregard has gathered about 135,000 pounds of stalks 
 to the hectare (2 j- acres). He has extracted from it about 7,600 gal- 
 lons of saccharine juice. 
 
 M. Raoul has obtained about 100,000 to 112,000 pounds of stalks, 
 and has obtained from them from 50 to 55 per cent, of juice. 
 
 From the preceding observations, it follows that it is especially de- 
 sirable for our agriculture to accomplish the distillation in the shortest 
 possible time comprised between the last days of September and the 
 first of November ; for frosts, by congealing the juices in the stalk, 
 alter and destroy the greater part of the saccharine matter, which 
 ferments without giving profit, when the stalks, cut at maturity, re- 
 main crowded together under sheds. It is always more profitable to 
 treat them at the moment when they are cut. In this point of view 
 Algeria offers an immense advantage to its agriculturists, since the 
 
272 APPENDIX. 
 
 sorgho can there remain on the field, without freezing, for the whole 
 winter. 
 
 It is evident that in the vine countries, the harvesting and manu- 
 facturing of the sorgho sucre, coinciding with the time for the vintage 
 which occupies all the desirable forces, would there offer to cultivators 
 great difficulties to be overcome. 
 
 The saccharine richness of the stalks not seeming to diminish by the 
 fact of the maturity of its grains, it is very much to the interest of the 
 cultivators to allow it to ripen, and the yield in seeds may be estimated 
 at nearly 150 bushels to the two and a half acres (sixty bushels to 
 the acre), weighing each from 175 to 200 Ibs. We will conclude by 
 a statement much exaggerated as to cost, much moderated as to profits, 
 upon the culture of the sorgho on about two and a half acres of ground. 
 
 Cost of culture and manuring, about $60 
 
 Cost of distillation per hectolitre of alcohol, at six dollars 
 
 per fifty-eight bushels, - 120 
 
 Topping and stripping of 125 acres of seed, - 20 
 
 Total costs per hectare, .' -/ $200 
 
 PROFITS. 
 
 Twenty hectolitres of alcohol, at about $7 15, 
 
 145 bushels of seed, at about $1 45 per bushel, 200 
 
 Coloring matter of the seeds ? 
 
 Total cost receipts, - $600 
 
 Total expenses, ">.,' - - 200 
 
 Net profit to the hectare, 
 
 This sum of $400 in net profit, which results from the figures of 
 the cost, comprising the interest on the capital employed in the in- 
 dustrial manufacture, represents a profit sufficiently high to encourage 
 the industrial cultivation of the sorgho, wherever an addition of the 
 suitable machines can be made to a farm. We have purposely 
 avoided mentioning the value of the leaves as a forage, in order to 
 make better understood the particular interest the Zoological Acclima- 
 tion Society takes in the extension of this culture. 
 
THE SUGAR SOKGHO. 273 
 
 THE SUGAR SORGHO. 
 
 CULTURE, HARVESTING, USE OF THE SEED, EXTRACTION OP THE SWEET 
 JUICE, DISTILLATION. By PAUL MADINIER. Paris, 1857. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 CULTURE. 
 
 FOR several years past, French agriculture, stimulated on all sides 
 by intelligent and industrious men, who work without Relaxation for 
 the improvement of the system of agriculture in our country, has been 
 occupied especially with the grave question, not new, it is true, but 
 which had not arrested the attention of the masses before : the natural- 
 ization among us of the sugar sorgho. This is a subject of great 
 interest for all, and more especially to the laboring man, with whom it 
 is actually a luxury, used by him only in cases of sickness. There is 
 room for astonishment at the dearness of this alimentary substance, 
 since the investigations of science have found it so largely prevalent in 
 the vegetable world, more especially because the prospect of abundant 
 supply should apparently make a proportionally good market for it, 
 by inducing greater numbers of persons in moderate circumstances to 
 become purchasers, who otherwise could not. 
 
 In fact, we may say, other things being equal, that the price of a 
 product is not so much a matter of pure conventionality, that specu- 
 lation alone can materially change it. The price of an article of 
 merchandise rests on its greater or less abundance, and, at the same 
 time, on the amount of work needed for its production. This last con- 
 dition is very important, for the more the methods of extraction and 
 preparation are perfected and simplified, by so much the more does it 
 become possible to furnish it at a lower price. However, when we 
 find a substance very rare, which after a protracted search gives 
 moderate returns, the simplification of the process of manufacture does 
 not produce a very marked reduction in price, and for very obvious 
 reasons. Thus, to apply this reasoning to the subject in hand, the 
 12* 
 
274 APPENDIX. 
 
 nitrogenized products, very rare, are exceedingly dear, whilst carboniz- 
 ed matters (starch and sugar) are sold at a much lower price, by reason 
 of the profusion with which they are found in all the vegetable kingdom 
 
 If we dwell somewhat at length upon these considerations, it is to 
 show that the high price of sugar is a profound anomaly, contrary to 
 the universal laws of production, and which should certainly disappear 
 after a short time. And this anomaly is so well understood, that it is 
 with a lively enthusiasm that the appearance of this sugar sorgho has 
 been greeted, and that the alcoholization of topinambour and sweet 
 corn has been adopted. Thus, what a haste is shown in all France to 
 commence the cultivation of this Chinese sugar cane ; how everywhere 
 each makes a trial ; this one on whole hectares, that one on small 
 plats, even upon the corner of his garden. 
 
 Nevertheless, up to the present time, the sugar sorgho has not been 
 used nor manufactured to any considerable extent, except as an alcohol 
 producing plant. Decisive experiments will not long be lacking to 
 decide upon the yield of sugar. But even admitting, which we are 
 very far from believing, that the sorgho cannot give crystallizable 
 sugar, it still will exercise a wide influence upon the production of 
 saccharine matter. It is easy to be understood that the South under- 
 taking the alcoholization of a plant much superior to the beet, would 
 so interfere with our departments of the North, that they would be 
 obliged to restrain themselves entirely to the manufacture of sugar. 
 
 Although highly supported, the sorgho has not failed to have de- 
 tractors ; for example, they reproach the sugar sorgho with being a 
 very exhausting plant. They say that its enormous profit is very 
 greatly reduced the moment that you deduct the cost of gathering, 
 manufacturing, and the damage done to the soil by its culture. Fortu- 
 nately, it is not difficult to meet these objections, and to show their 
 slight weight. It will suffice us for that to rest simply upon the au- 
 thentic facts already known, and upon others more recent, but not less 
 irrefutable. Let us endeavor to apply to the sugar sorgho, the rules 
 in use with the different scientific agriculturists to determine the action 
 of vegetables upon the soil. We see that the sorgho is a plant of 
 rapid growth, is but lightly shading, and as a gramineous plant, may, 
 in truth, be ranked among those which take much from the soil ; on 
 
THE SUGAR SORGHO. 275 
 
 the other hand, we observe that this vegetable, poor in nitrogenized 
 matters, should not much impoverish the soil of the most precious 
 ingredients, for the leaves of the sorgho, being eaten by cattle, pro- 
 duce manure. The canes, deprived of their sweet juice, may serve as 
 long manure, or even for forage, and the seeds, which will be profit- 
 ably consumed on the farm, in the form of soups and broths for man, 
 or for fattening animals, will also furnish its proportionate return. In 
 a word, it is clear that the nitrogenized matters are returned to the 
 soil, and it is only the carbonaceous matters which are employed for 
 manufacture, consequently there are in the cultivation the most re- 
 markable conditions of an improving and progressive agriculture. 
 
 We will here add the following results to explain this mooted 
 question of the exhaustive action of the sorgho. Admitting for a 
 yield the figures of M. Hardy, we find, 
 
 CROP. 
 
 Stalks, 215,000 pounds ; dry matter, about 64,000 pounds 
 
 Leaves, 54,000 " " " 16,000 Ibs. Troy. 
 
 Seeds, 96,000 " " " 9,400 
 
 89,000 Ibs. Troy. 
 
 Admitting that the impoverishment of the soil by the sorgho be 
 fifty per cent, of the dry matter, we have 45,000 Ibs. of impoverish- 
 ment, which requires 400 of manure for 100 of impoverishment, say 
 180,000 Ibs. of natural manure. 
 
 We should deduct from this total the amount of manure furnished 
 by the crop itself. We have 
 
 Roots left in the soil, * 8,000 Ibs. Troy. 
 Bagasse (supposing that it is deprived of its 
 
 water of vegetation), - :- 175,000 " 
 
 Leaves, - - : * T* 54,000 " 
 
 Total, - .- 250,000 Ibs. Troy. 
 
 Which we may consider to be worth 60,000 of hay (taking the equiva- 
 lent of 400 of the millet), giving, at least, 122,000 Ibs. of manure. 
 Thus, on the 175,000 Ibs. to rise upon the two and a half acres for the 
 cultivation of the sorgho, there is of manure 122,000 Ibs., which are 
 
276 APPENDIX. 
 
 produced gratis, while the transformation of the forage which this 
 quantity gives, results in a still further profit in the nourishment for 
 cattle. It is, then, 56,000 Ibs. of manure that we really pay to obtain 
 the seed and the saccharine juice of the sorgho. 
 
 M. De Gasparin estimates that two thousand seven hundred and 
 seventy pounds of manure are necessary to produce 2-84 bushels of 
 Indian corn (seeds and stalks.) Supposing that the sorgho is more 
 exacting, and needs two thousand nine hundred and thirty-five pounds 
 Troy for 2-84 bushels, that would make for a yield of nine thousand 
 six hundred pounds of seed to 2J acres, 160,000 pounds of manure 
 necessary. 
 
 Let us consider finally the testimony of a person who is certainly 
 the most competent upon this matter, M. Beauregard, who for the 
 past three years cultivated the sorgho upon the same land, without 
 having experienced any diminution in its yield. We will now consider 
 the choice of the soil which is most suitable to the sorgho, and also 
 pass in detail the methods of cultivation most appropriate. This plant 
 flourishes in light soils, sandy and calcareous, and particularly in allu- 
 vial formations. It needs a certain moisture, but is averse to it in the 
 extreme. Almost always, both in Algeria and the Mediterranean dis- 
 trict of France, excellent results will be obtained from the employment 
 of irrigation, both during the early and more advanced stages of the 
 growth of this plant ; but as it approaches the ripening of the seed, it 
 is not so profitable to employ irrigation, and is even detrimental, by 
 hindering the elaboration of the saccharine principles, and causing the 
 canes to be watery. Mr. Hardy, the illustrious Director of the Gov- 
 ernment Nursery at Algiers, tells us that the sorgho delights in soils 
 containing carbonate of lime, and he advises frequent liming of those 
 which need it. This recommendation is explained by the astonishing 
 success of the sorgho upon the chalky soils of Champagne, where they 
 have obtained but very slight crops. If the use of lime seems benefi- 
 cial, it is not the same as regards the employment of salts, of which we 
 know the depressing influence upon the sugar cane and the beet. As 
 a fertilizer, the excrement of horned cattle is very excellent. Manur- 
 ing with green crops cannot be too much recommended in this cultiva- 
 tion. They increase the fertility of the soil, render more assimilable 
 
THE SUGAR SORGHO. 277 
 
 the materials which compose it, and preserve in it a more constant 
 moisture. In general, the fertilizers formed by vegetable matters un- 
 dergoing decomposition, are more efficacious for sacchariferous plants. 
 The land destined for the sorgho should be well prepared by deep 
 plowing and deep harrowing. It is necessary that it should be a cer- 
 tain depth. The plant thus gains a stability, and finds itself to make 
 a more rapid growth, besides having at its disposal more moisture. 
 The plantation can be made in two different ways by sowing in a 
 hot-bed and transplanting, and by sowing in the field. In Algeria 
 and the south of France this last method will be preferred. For a 
 great number of localities in the center of France, the Chinese method 
 of replanting will be more profitable, but with the condition that labor 
 shall be abundant.* 
 
 The field sowings should be made when the late frosts are no longer 
 to be feared ; that is to say, in Algeria during the month of April ; in 
 France, from the middle of April to May, according to the position, 
 more or less northern, in which we find ourselves. It is good to sow 
 when the earth is a little moist on the surface, because then the seed, 
 which requires to be slightly covered, germinates more rapidly, and 
 grows very vigorously. It would even be well to water the ground if 
 it was too dry at the time of planting. 
 
 It is the practice to sow in lines of different width, according to the 
 situation, in Algeria. Mr. Hardy has adopted three feet two inches as 
 his width. In Provence, several agriculturists have chosen a width of 
 about three and a quarter feet. But this is a matter of choice and 
 locality. Sowing in the hot bed is done in March and in April, upon 
 a border sheltered from cold winds. The plants are transplanted 
 when they have acquired a height of about fourteen inches. For the 
 field sowings, the first hoeing is given as soon as the sorgho has at- 
 tained about fourteen inches of height, and at the same time is thinned 
 out from fourteen to sixteen inches in the rows. The superfluous plants 
 can be fed to cattle. In the course of the vegetation of the sorgho, 
 
 * M. Iticr, who has recently given us the details of the culture of the sorgho in 
 China, recommends strongly the adoption in France of the system of transplanting. 
 For our part, we do not believe it will succeed ; at least, that it will not be adopted as 
 the profitable practice of cultivating sorgho in the thickly populated districts of tho 
 North. ****** 
 
278 APPENDIX. 
 
 -there could be given frequent hoeings and cultivations. These are 
 necessary to obtain good results ; for, as we have previously seen, the 
 gramineous plants, which harden the soil, exact, as a condition upon 
 which they will yield the best results, a very complete and thorough 
 cultivation. 
 
 For irrigating, you make little furrows at the foot of the lines of the 
 sorgho, and water is caused to run through them as often as the state 
 of the plant and the season admits. Arrived at this point of the 
 growth of the vegetable, an important question presents itself for our 
 examination. Should we hill, or should we not hill ? M. Hardy tells 
 us that hilling is necessary to insure to -the plants the means of resist- 
 ing winds, and to favor the growth of advantageous roots, which are 
 thrown out by the sorgho, as with the corn, at the bottom of the stalk. 
 Dr. Sicard thinks on the contrary, that hilling is dangerous. He ex- 
 plains his opinion by this fact, that the Chinese Sugar Cane has need 
 of roots elevated above the soil, taking from the atmosphere the food 
 furnished, without doubt, by the superincumbent air, and an elabora- 
 tion of the sap, which is due to the contact of its roots with the soil. 
 The comparative experiments made upon the same field of sorgho had 
 been entirely favorable to the canes which were not hilled. 
 
 In reality, in a soil in good condition, the roots of the plant can 
 penetrate so deeply that they can resist the effect of the wind. Upon 
 the question of adventitious roots and the hilling, we cannot defini- 
 tively decide, because of our want of decisive experience. However, 
 we believe, since its roots are provided with spongioles or suckers, that 
 burying them cannot be injurious if hilling is moderately used, so as 
 only to cover a little of these roots in such a manner that the air, being 
 absorbed by the soil, can stimulate them, and aid in the decomposition 
 of materials that they may absorb. We know that the roots of the 
 cereals are so superficial that they take away from the soil much, be- 
 cause they grow in a limited circle, and that the loosening of the soil 
 augments its permeability for the atmosphere, and the gases favorable 
 for vegetation which are contained in it give an activity much greater 
 for the growth of the plants whose products are found considerably 
 increased by these means. We believe, then, that these adventitious 
 roots may be covered by hilling, if only we do not suffocate them under 
 
THE SUGAR SORGHO. 279 
 
 too great a mass of earth, and that we cover them, as much as possi- 
 ble, with soil of a good quality, in order that their power of asssimila- 
 tion may better develop itself, and produce the greatest benefit to the 
 plant. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 HARVESTING-USE OF THE SEED-EXTRACTION OF THE SWEET JUICE. 
 
 THE sorgho should be gathered when the seed is completely ripe, that 
 is to say, when it shows a deep chestnut color ; when it turns to car- 
 mine, the commencement of fermentation is indicated. Plants are cut 
 in a rough way, (while we are waiting for the invention of machines for 
 the harvesting of sorgho upon the plan of those which already exist in 
 the United States for the corn,) and then transported to the sheds or 
 to the manufactory where they are to be worked up. They are stripped, 
 aud then deprived of their tufts in various ways. One of the best con- 
 sists in placing the bundles of canes on a platform, by the side of which 
 they place some kind of a box or other receptacle. The workman, 
 drawing towards him the stalks, cuts off successively the tufts, which 
 fall to his right in the box. These are then taken away, and placed to 
 dry with care. The least moisture which shows itself will deteriorate 
 the seed. 
 
 The separation of the seed is accomplished with flails, or thrashing 
 machine of some sort. The heads which bear the grain being of a 
 very woody nature, may be employed as kindling to feed the fire under 
 the boilers. The canes of the sorgho, when the season is propitious, 
 that is to say, when it does not rain, may be preserved some consider- 
 able time. It is much better, in this case, to leave them with their 
 tufts, and not to strip them, except at the very time when they are to 
 be used ; or, as in Algeria, the plants may be left in the field where 
 they grew, as also in the southern district of France. In that case the 
 panicles are removed for fear of loss of the seed. Unfortunately, these 
 means are not sufficiently general and positive. They can never place 
 at our disposal more than two months of time, and that generally is 
 
280 APPENDIX. 
 
 not sufficient for the manufacture. It is to be hoped that experiments 
 may be undertaken for the preservation of the canes in pits or by 
 other methods. The preservation of the juice as M. Vialle practices, 
 merits some commendation, and offers a great field for research, and 
 much reward for the labors bestowed upon it. After several years of 
 experiment, it is probable that experience on one part, and researches 
 and investigation on the other, will resolve, in a satisfactory manner, 
 this problem of prolonging, for four or five months, the season for dis- 
 tilling the sorgho. 
 
 It has been said, with a certain degree of reason, that in the South 
 and Algeria, the harvesting and treatment of the sorgho coinciding 
 with the vintage, which occupies all the hands, there would, in that 
 case, be for our farmers a great difficulty to be overcome. Let us ob- 
 serve, however, that the harvest of the sorgho is very simple, that it 
 will be very much lightened by the addition of mechanical appliances, 
 and that, after all, it is possible, though, in some degree, restrained, to 
 retard the epoch for manufacture. Finally, as to suitability of soils, 
 the sorgho will not find itself adapted to exactly the same localities, 
 and thus the difficulty would be obviated. 
 
 Finally, admitting the fact that a real embarrassment is caused by 
 the coincidence of the time for these two harvests, there will not result 
 from it other than a very good effect. The introduction into the 
 South of agricultural machines for taking care of the sugar sorgho ; 
 for every one hearing this plan spoken of, and wishing to profit by the 
 advantages which it brings, will be obliged to make use of machines 
 to be drawn by animals. On the other hand, the other cultivations 
 will be simplified at the same time, and the vine and the sorgho will 
 profit by it ; whilst, in the other case, the gathering of the crop bunch 
 by bunch, and the numerous difficulties which manufacturers would 
 have, would remain almost the same as now. On this subject we will 
 remark, that it is well to understand that the most minute manual 
 operations gain vastly by being executed in a systematic manner ; and 
 the grains of these two harvests, so similar in pecuniary profit, will com- 
 pel a simplification and systemization heretofore overlooked. In bad 
 processes of manufacture, with bad utensils, with directors and labor- 
 ers lacking intelligence, a large portion of time, at the period of harvest, 
 
THE SUGAR SORGHO. 281 
 
 is lost. But what a different appearance does a well regulated farm 
 present. 
 
 Before entering upon the details of the application of the sorgho to 
 general purposes, we will say some words upon the improvement of 
 wine, by means of this plant. 
 
 It is the custom in bad years, when the latter end of the summer 
 has been rainy, to add some glucose to the vats, which are in fermen- 
 tation, for the object of supplying the lacking proportion of sugar, 
 which has not been elaborated in the grape in a suitable quantity. 
 To this end, a few have tried, in 'different cases, to replace the dregs 
 by canes of sorgho rudely broken, and very excellent results have 
 been obtained by this means. We think it useful to recommend this 
 custom in all cases when the harvest may have turned out bad in the 
 localities situated near the North. We know, for example, that the 
 wines of the neighborhood of Paris, contain little of alcohol or acid, 
 and do not keep well. As to their earthy taste, sometimes very 
 marked, it generally arises from the excessive quantity of manure, 
 and not of the best, that is applied to the vine. With the sorgho the 
 amount of alcohol will be increased, and we will be assured of a longer 
 keeping if we will perfect the quality of the wine, and very likely 
 abolish this disagreeable taste of which we have spoken. But to ac- 
 complish this transformation, this real revolution in the vintages of 
 Parisian life, what is necessary ? Simply to sow in April, some sorgho 
 in a hot-bed, or in a warm border, replant it in the middle of May, in 
 a well sheltered corner of the field, exposed to the sun, or even in a 
 somewhat more exposed situation, if there is not much reason to fear 
 the effect of the wind. You certainly will not gather from that the 
 seeds, but you will have good, and very fine stalks, containing, at least, 
 ten to twelve per cent, of marc ; but the possibility of this latter is 
 proved in the perfect success of the experiments on the sorgho of M. 
 Jomard, at Lozere, near Palaiseau, and of M. Yilmorin, at Yerries. 
 
 As a forage plant, the sorgho has a great interest. From the South 
 to the farthest northern extremity of France, it will be cultivated with 
 profit for this crop, which it yields in such great profusion. In the south- 
 ern departments and in Algeria, by the assistance of irrigation, it will 
 caquire a great importance, by reason of the abundance of its yield, 
 
282 APPENDIX. 
 
 because it will suit exactly by its composition for the nourishment of 
 milk cows, for which it will undoubtedly replace the beet. It will 
 compose the food for the females of the races of our working cattle, 
 which are very poor milkers, almost incapable of nourishing their calves, 
 and for which it is necessary to furnish, during the time of suckling, the 
 kind of fodder adapted to the secretion of milk. 
 
 The seed, of an elongated spheroidal form, is enveloped in its firmly 
 adhering valves, which are impregnated with a very intense coloring 
 matter, found even -in the interior portion of the seed. It contains 
 from ten to twelve per cent, of nitrogenized matter, and about sixty- 
 six per cent, of starch ; a composition which, upon the consideration 
 of the amount of nitrogen, reminds one of Indian corn. The yield of 
 seed is large, but not exactly established at the present time ; but we 
 know enough of it to be assured that it could not be inferior to that 
 of the millets, and of the common kinds of Sorgho, such as broom corn. 
 We may then calculate upon eighty five to one hundred and forty bushels 
 (probably, per hectare, two and a half acres,) in ordinary circumstances, 
 but with good cultivation we may obtain very much more. However, 
 it is necessary to make, in this respect, an important distinction in the 
 yield of the seeds of the sorgho. According to the observations of 
 science and practice, the saccharine plants are excellently well grown 
 in the soils composed of vegetable detritus, or humus, not too rich in 
 mineral salts ; plants bearing seeds for food, do not require lands too 
 much charged with humus, but they allow of the presence of a notable 
 quantity of mineral salts. Those of the first sort can receive, without 
 great inconvenience, excessive manuring, provided that they contain 
 but little of animal and mineral matters. The second, on the other 
 hand, profit entirely from the presence of these substances, but they do 
 not require strong manures. The excessive use of these latter, com- 
 monly results in producing a great excess of straw. From these con- 
 siderations, it is evident that the sorgho, cultivated especially for its 
 saccharine principles, will produce seed in quantity very different, ac- 
 cording as it is cultivated in a soil favoring more or less this crop ; 
 and everything goes to prove that a culture perfect for the elaboration 
 of the saccharine principles of the vegetable would be singularly in- 
 jurious for the formation of seed. It is thus that we explain the very 
 
THE SUGAR SOKGHO. 283 
 
 dissimilar appearance of the tufts coming from soils of different nature, 
 and the great dissimilarity in the yield of seed of the sorgho, as stated 
 by the different persons who have cultivated it.* 
 
 The bulk of the seed of the sorgho sensibly diminishes, when they 
 are used for feeding ; the hull which surrounds them causes a de- 
 crease of about one third when removed ; but this is far from 
 being a loss. Mr. Sicard has obtained by hulling nearly three bushels 
 (weighing 175 pounds Troy) one hundred and twenty pounds Troy, of 
 clean seed, and forty pounds of hulls. Thus a yield of 145 bushels 
 will divide itself in six thousand two hundred pounds of seed, deprived 
 of their envelope, and two thousand pounds of shells. As this shell is 
 susceptible of assuming an important value, it will be always necessary 
 to remove it from the seed before grinding. The flour obtained would 
 be much whiter. M. Sicard shows the following result from the 
 grinding of 2-84 bushels, weighing 174 pounds Troy, the seeds not 
 hulled: 
 
 Coarse Bran, - - - :* * - 35 pounds. 
 
 Middling, - - - - - - 35 pounds. 
 
 Fine Flour, 100 pounds. 
 
 This flour has a violet hue, very apparent. If bolted with the 
 greatest care, it is made completely white ; but as it is raised it forms 
 a dough in which the violet color becomes apparent again. The bread 
 made from it is also tinted with this disagreeable color, nevertheless it 
 digests very well, and is very pleasant to the taste. The flour of the 
 sorgho, mixed with that of wheat, gives a bread of better color, better 
 raised, with a less gummy feeling when broken than pure sorgho, and 
 comparable in every point to the ration (?) bread, the color of which 
 it very much resembles, a fact which will militate against it, by reason 
 of the habit the public have of according to bread excellence in pro- 
 portion to its whiteness. Generally speaking, this is entirely wrong, 
 
 * Thus Mr. "Wray gives 3750 pounds, Troy, of seed from 195,0'fO pounds of cane. 
 In Georgia, United States, they have likewise obtained a product of 3750 pounds; 
 Mr. Hardy, six thousand seven hundred from two hundred and twenty thousand 
 pounds; Mr. Sicard, eight thousand two hundred from one hundred and sixty thous- 
 and pounds ; M. Itier, 8,838 pounds from 114,000 ; M. Turel, nine thousand three hun- 
 dred pounds of seed; M. Hetet, nineteen thousand pounds from eighty thousand 
 pounds; M. Vallarino, twenty four thousand from 256,000 pounds. 
 
284 APPENDIX. 
 
 and the bread from coarse flour, (which appears inferior to the inhabi- 
 tants of cities,) is in fact the most nutritious and the most healthy that 
 can be used. 
 
 Bat the real use of the seed of the sorgho is not for bread-making ; 
 it should be consumed upon the farm, in the form of soups and broths, 
 for the men, or used for fattening cattle. We repeat it, that this plan 
 may become really profitable, it is necessary that all that part which 
 is not alcohol, sugar, or dye-stuff, should remain and be returned to the 
 land, by being used for food and otherwise. The cultivator will ulti- 
 mately hull his seed and sell the product, which will prove a conside- 
 rable source of profit. As to all these experiments of mixing the 
 flours, they have no value. They only indicate the real embarrassment 
 a miserable condition. Once for all, let us understand then, well, 
 that all inferior food, (and the varieties of food of which we are treating 
 are inferior, since we make an effort to have them pass into use under 
 the cover of a richer species of food,) should only be consumed indi- 
 rectly, after having been transformed by cattle into meat, milk, and 
 cheese. It is well to invent a thousand ingenious artifices, but the 
 result obtained will only be in proportion to the matters experimented 
 upon ; and it will never result, by adding to the flour of wheat a third 
 of the flour of barley or of sorgho, that we will have the value of a 
 pure flour. Bread made from wheat and barley, from wheat and rye, 
 is not certainly bad, but it is not of the same degree of excellence as 
 that from wheat alone. The richness of a food does not depend entirely 
 upon its composition of azotized matters or fatty matters. It depends 
 also upon the proportion in which these principles are found associated. 
 For example, every one knows that the great difficulty in the forma- 
 tion of a food for stock, resides not only in the choice of the ingredients 
 which should enter into it, but especially upon the quantity of the dif- 
 ferent elements introduced. But nature prepares this association in a 
 manner the most judicious, and according to the laws which, although 
 little known, are not the less admirable. If then, we break this har- 
 mony of the proportions of the ingredients of food, we do not do less 
 than destroy a portion of its nutritive power. The flour of the sorgho 
 should be given to cattle both cooked and while still warm. Care 
 must be taken not to feed the seed when rudely broken and cooked 
 
THE SUGAR SORGHO. 285 
 
 afterwards, for the dying principle of the hulls has the property of 
 coloring the bones of the animal, as has been proved by M. de Beau- 
 regard. 
 
 Reserving for the end what we have to say about the dye stuffs from 
 the hulls of the sorgho seed, we will now pass to the consideration of 
 the extraction of the sweet juice from its stalk. 
 
 We will speak in the first place of the process of M. de Lacoste, by 
 which small cultivators can make use of their canes for preparing the 
 molasses necessary for household uses. The stalks being gathered, 
 they are cut into small pieces, put to boil in a moderate quantity of 
 water, until they arrive at the consistence of marmalade. The juice 
 is extracted by pressure, then put back upon the fire, and clarified by 
 milk of lime, or better, by powdered lime, using about 660 grains to 
 the kilogramme of juice ; then the defecation is finished by using the 
 whites of eggs. This syrup, thus treated, is put for keeping in earthen 
 pots, in a place which is neither moist nor warm. This easy and simple 
 process is especially valuable to small operators ; when it is proposed 
 to act upon a large scale, such means are necessarily very insufficient. 
 In the United States, a planter of Georgia has obtained an average 
 of 407 gallons of syrup to the acre (say 4617 litres to the hectare). 
 He estimates that the price of manufacture should not exceed 10 to 15 
 cents a gallon, (54 to 81 centimes, for 4 litres,) say llf. 88c. to 17f. 
 82c. the hectolitre of syrup.* 
 
 The extraction of the sweet juice of the sorgho has for its end the 
 transformation into sugar and alcohol. We will not occupy ourselves 
 at this time with the detail of the method for extracting juice after it 
 has been treated of in our other book, the " Guide to the Cultivator of 
 the sorgho." At the time of writing that, however, we had not suffi- 
 ciently conclusive facts to base a preference for either the one or the 
 other processes mentioned. Now it is quite different, and it is with a 
 conscientiousness that we offer the maceration as much preferable to 
 all other systems in use. We will not enter into the details of this 
 operation. The limits of this little work prohibit it, and besides they 
 are mentioned in numerous works upon distillation It will suffice 
 merely to present the most important points. 
 
 * Hunt's Merchants' Magazine, Nov. 1856. 
 
286 APPENDIX. 
 
 Before submitting the canes to maceration, it is necessary to prepare 
 them. They are readily broken and then submitted to the action of 
 stalk-crushers, which increase their state of division, and tear apart the 
 fibers containing the sweet juice. Then the latter is carried to the 
 maceration vat. We recommend for this operation the employment 
 of the dregs, that is to say, of the liquid remaining after the distillation 
 of the juice previously treated. By this particular method, almost all 
 the saline matters and the (?) immediate principles, fix themselves in 
 the residue, which increase the elementary richness, at the same time 
 that the acids contained in the dregs acting upon the bruised canes, 
 facilitate the displacement of their sweet juice. Finally, an economy 
 of water is made which is insignificant in consideration ; but what 
 merits more attention is, that we have no longer to fear the influence 
 of waters charged with sulphate of lime, so destructive to fermentation. 
 
 The residues arising from the system of Champannois, (maceration 
 with the use of dregs,) are most precious for agriculture, and much 
 preferable to the bagasse of the mills, containing more of sugar, it is 
 true, but less of salts and of fatty matters, and besides being more 
 woody. With maceration, the fibers by the action of heat and acid, 
 cause the commencement of a change which renders them more assimi- 
 lable for cattle. The residues may be used by mixing them with dry 
 forage and leaving them for a day, or a day and half, in a tub, until a 
 slight fermentation is commenced, which flavors the mass. We have 
 thus a very agreeable forage for cattle, and particularly excellent for 
 fattening stock. To complete our remarks upon the extraction of the 
 juice of the sorgho, we will say a few words concerning the process of 
 F. Bourdais, an intelligent distiller from Algeria. He allows the pan- 
 icles to remain upon the stalks, and causes the entire plants to pass 
 under the cylinders of his mill, and then submits them all to maceration. 
 The action of warm water then determining the transformation into 
 sugar of the starch contained in the seed, he is enabled to make it of 
 use for the production of alcohol, and by a single operation, at the 
 same time that he economizes the cutting of the tufts, the stripping, 
 moving, carting, and the trouble of the preparation of a certain quan- 
 tity of malt to assist in fermentation. 
 
THE SUGAR SORGHO. 287 
 
 CHAPTER HI. 
 
 DISTILLATION. 
 
 THE sweet juice or vesou being obtained, we propose now to give 
 directions for transforming it into alcohol. Under the head of distil- 
 lation, we will remark, at first, that this operation is divided into two 
 separate ones, entirely characteristic the one from the other, although 
 closely united, namely, fermentation and distillation. From habit, the 
 first is commonly considered as a very secondary matter, as spontane" 
 ously rising without need of much care, whilst in reality it demands 
 close attention, and it is only upon its being well conducted that the 
 success and the profit of the whole speculation depends. We may be 
 very certain that a bad process of fermentation will never give an ex- 
 cellent result, however much may be the perfection of the apparatus 
 made use of for the manufacture. In all matters, the end is commen- 
 surate with its antecedents, and a fault is much more grave as it is 
 committed nearer to the beginning of a process. 
 
 Thus we have fermentation, having for its end the transformation 
 into alcohol of the saccharine matter ; the second distillation having 
 for its end the extraction and concentration of the alcohol. A 
 good fermentation demands as its first conditions : 1st. That it should 
 be rapidly accomplished, providing that we avoid the ill effects of an 
 injurious precipitancy. 2d. That it may be continued in such a way 
 that the distillation can proceed with uniformity. 3d. That the juice 
 shall not be too dense nor too watery. 4th. That the liquid possesses 
 sufficient heat, but we must strictly guard against such conditions as 
 will produce a too great elevation of temperature. We will remark 
 here, that the danger of acetification of the juice increasing with the 
 fermentation more rapid, we should in this case make use of quite shal- 
 low vats, with a large surface, with which a minimum of heat is neces- 
 sary to accomplish the conversion of the sugar into alcohol. As to 
 what concerns the particular dispositions for the process of the opera- 
 tion, they should be necessarily subordinate to the fundamental rules 
 
288 APPENDIX. 
 
 which we have laid down, and never to depart from the perfection of 
 detail which is suggested by practice. 
 
 The ferment to make use of admits of certain discrimination ; for, 
 although it may be proved that the juice of the sorgho maintains its 
 fermentable principles in itself, as its action is too weak, it is 
 indispensable to hasten it by artificial means. Brewers' yeast, which 
 is made use of commonly, has the fault of often giving a bad taste to 
 the products arising from distillation, an effect which is lessened, 
 it is true, by a continuous system ; but the juice of the sorgho, as we 
 learn from M. Pezery, reproduces a large quantity of yellowish 
 ferment, presenting a great analogy to the yeast of beer in the form 
 of its globules, and possessing also the same stimulating properties. 
 Here, then, we have a ferment already to our hand, which may be 
 made use of, not only for its legitimate end, but the surplus of which 
 can be profitably used by bakers. We cannot conclude our notice of 
 the matters which relate to the fermentation, without saying a word 
 upon the use of sulphuric acid. It is well understood to-day, that the 
 addition of this acid in the proportion of one half thousandth part to 
 one and a half thousandth parts, favors the transformation of the 
 sugar into glucose,* and prevents the viscous fermentation. This last 
 property should be taken into consideration, when, at the end of the 
 season, we have upon our hands only canes which are more or less 
 damaged, one is obliged to operate upon juices of which the fermen- 
 tation is irregular, and sometimes causes very prejudicial accidents. 
 Finally, experience has proved that the residues of fermentation, 
 where the sulphuric acid is employed, are more profitable for cattle. 
 Let us remark further, with M. Beaudement,f that all fermentation 
 cannot be carried on without acid or its equivalent ; if it is not put in, 
 it forms itself at the expense of the sugar and of the alcohol ; and so 
 positive is this, that the fermentations made without the addition of 
 acid are more acid at the end than those where it has been added. 
 The sugar of the juice having been changed into alcohol, it is neces- 
 
 * M. Du Bronfaut, who since 1825 has known this influence, apprises us also that 
 the acids have a favorable action upon the reproduction of an energetic yeast, capable 
 of being used in the other fermentations of juices. 
 
 + Report upon the Beet Distilleries, 1855 and 1856, made to a Commission of the 
 Society of Agriculture, by M. Beaudement, p. 58. 
 
THE SUGAK SOKGHO. 289 
 
 sary then to extract the product by means of a distilling apparatus. 
 Here presents itself the important question of the choice of an appa- 
 ratus. We acknowledge our great perplexity in resolving this 
 question, being quite ready to acknowledge that we do not know the 
 apparatus answering to all the exigencies of the manufacture upon 
 the farm ; but, however, we will say, procure a simple apparatus, 
 economising fuel, accomplishing much, and at a relatively low price. 
 Avoid, by all means, too great cheapness. It is often accompanied by 
 very grave evils, which reveal themselves without any room for 
 improvement, at the most critical time. All things being equal, and 
 taking into account the particular situation of a distillery next to a 
 farm, it is much better to spend a little more, and have a good useful 
 apparatus. 
 
 Manufacturing industry may find in the collection of Messrs. 
 Derosne, Du Bronfaut, &c., a most perfect apparatus, but rural 
 industry, perhaps, will not admit of the employment of such perfect 
 instruments. They require more simplicity, even although the yield 
 may be less complete. It is but a short time since much attention 
 has been paid to this rural distillation, and consequently all the details 
 of this interesting manufacture cannot be considered perfect ; the 
 success which the Champonnois system has attained is a result sig- 
 nificant of an attractive future. We do not hesitate to mention to 
 farmers, as the most perfect system at present used, since it embraces 
 all the conditions which we have previously used as the funda- 
 mental principles of a good distillation. It is especially in the 
 extraction of the juicy maceration with the dregs, and in fermentation, 
 that the superiority of the Champannois system appears. As to 
 distillation, which is done with the apparatus of Cellier Blumenthal, 
 perfected by Derosne, it is far from having been carried to that state 
 of perfection of which it is capable. 
 
 We will proceed to notice certain other details bearing upon the 
 products of the distillation of the sugar sorgho, their rectification, and 
 use ; but this will only be a consideration of comparatively slight 
 value, since it will not be based upon other than very limited facts ; 
 and, besides, we have mentioned this subject at length in our " Guide 
 to the Cultivation of the Sorgho." 
 13 
 
290 APPENDIX. 
 
 Before passing to the economic part of our subject, we will speak 
 of some special products furnished by the sugar sorgho. The researches 
 of many intelligent observers have evinced in this plant certain 
 coloring principles, susceptible of acquiring a certain importance that 
 is very likely, so far as regards the hull of the seed ; but as to the 
 stalk, it is not possible to hope it having a good result in practice. 
 But in advancing this opinion we hope that we will not be understood 
 as being hypercritical upon the scientific laborers who, analyzing 
 matter, have extracted from it its most hidden secrets ; thus again 
 proving that man, thanks to the sources of his intelligence, finds in 
 everything a part worthy of his attention, and that he has only to 
 interrogate to obtain all he needs ; that, in a word, there is nothing 
 in the whole realm of nature whicfi is entirely without value. We 
 may repeat the preceding remarks in considering the cerosie, a waxy 
 efflorescence which is met with upon some large cereals, the obtain- 
 ment of which is not more possible in the case of the sorgho than with 
 the sugar cane ; nevertheless, it is a substance which merits being 
 studied, and it is necessary to know it more intimately to follow it 
 through the different elaborations which it undergoes in the saccharine 
 stalk. 
 
 EXPENSES AND PROFITS OF THE INDUSTRIAL CULTURE OF THE 
 SORGHO. 
 
 In the following table we have not the pretension to fix in a peremp- 
 tory manner, a result which the sorgho may give under all circum- 
 stances. "We wish only to present the probable results of a good 
 culture, with a soil suitable to its growth, and endowed with certain 
 fertility. 
 
 RAW PRODUCT. 
 
 1. Sixteen thousand pounds of stalks, which, treated by 
 maceration, will yield at least seventeen gallons of juice to 
 two hundred and seventy pounds, say ten thousand three 
 hundred gallons of juice, susceptible of giving eight per 
 cent, of alcohol (in the south of France and in Algeria ; 
 seven and six per cent, in our central departments) upon 
 distillation. This, then, is a yield of about eight hundred 
 
THE SUGAR SORGHO. 291 
 
 and twenty gallons of alcohol, at the price of about seventy- 
 five cents per gallon - . - .' ;" - ^ - ' X.- : . V. . $625 
 
 2. Thirty-two thousand pounds of leaves, furnishing a very 
 excellent green forage, at two francs a quintal, - 48 
 
 3. Eighty thousand to ninety-five thousand pounds of the 
 residue after maceration, at one franc fifty centimes the 
 quintal, about - - - - ; - - . -. ' ''*' ^- '*"< 95 
 
 4. Seed, one hundred and seventy-four pounds. Three 
 thousand nine hundred pounds of hulled seed at twenty-five 
 
 francs the hundred kilogrammes, 74 
 
 One thousand two hundred and sixty pounds of hulls for 
 
 dyeing, at fifteen francs the hundred kilogrammes, - - 14 
 
 Total, - .-;' - . - ' ' . - ;.'. r * / -/ - $856 
 
 EXPENSES. 
 
 1. Cost of good culture, with manure and irrigation, compris- 
 ing the cost of gathering, of cartage to the manufactory, 
 about one hundred dollars to one hundred and forty 
 dollars, average - -"'" "".' f '';'^" V *- '" .-, $120 
 
 2. Cost of distillation and rectification, at six dollars to 
 
 the twenty-six gallons, 187 
 
 3. Hulling the seed, at the price of about twenty cents per 
 bushel, - - - - ' - >> "':--'>- - - 18 
 
 Total, - *-.,. .^Mv[^::. ^W^v-^-u $325 
 
 Eaw product, - - - ,__,' ' . - s . - ;"""". - V"- " X $856 
 Expenses, 325 
 
 Net profit, * i - $531 
 
 Now if, in place of putting twenty dollars, or about seventy-five cents 
 per gallon, as the price of the alcohol, we take its actual value in our 
 market, that is to say, $1 05 to $1 12, that is at once an increase of 
 the profit of not less than $240. Admitting that the price of alcohol 
 may descend to $12 in a few years, still the industrial manufacture of 
 it by the farmer will bring in a net profit per acre of about $111. 
 
 One is tempted, in view of these figures, to think it a species of 
 
292 APPENDIX. 
 
 exaggeration ; but, after all, do we not see the distillery of the sugar 
 beet give $400 to $600 per two and a half acres ? How, then, should 
 it be a matter of surprise that the sorgho, much more rich in saccha- 
 rine principles, and which, besides, produces seed, should give a profit 
 much more considerable ? The inevitable conclusion then is, that we 
 must expect a very considerable reduction in the value of alcohol. 
 
 As to a yield in forage, we will say that M. Niviere has obtained 
 to an acre, (in the department of L'Ain,) 80 quintals dried sorgho 
 fodder, at $1, worth $80. This is a magnificent result, and we doubt 
 it will be duplicated in the most of cases. 
 
 CONCLUSION. When a culture like that of the sugar sorgho, im- 
 planting itself in a country, commences to be really popularized, 
 the question is immediately agitated what influence it may exercise 
 upon the agriculture of that country ; if it furnishes products of a 
 commercial character. The question is mooted if it takes more than 
 it leaves, that is to say, makes other cultures tributary to itself, at the 
 same time particular consideration should be given to the state of the 
 district where it must localize itself. 
 
 We have already sufficiently established that the sorgho leaves in 
 the farm the greatest and most valuable portion of itself, since it is 
 only the carbonaceous matters which are exported for manufacture. 
 It remains to show in what manner it will influence the agriculture of 
 the south of France. 
 
 From the progressive tendencies, and the great popularity which 
 the sorgho is destined to acquire, we may affirm in advance that the 
 inhabitants will make a considerable sacrifice for its culture. It is 
 probable that much attention will be given to obtaining residues from 
 the distillery, the most suitable for feeding stock. Cows supplied 
 with this forage, and especially with the green sorgho, will be better 
 milkers and more able to bring up their young ; and this cannot be 
 without its notable influence upon the gradual improvement of their 
 stock. The farmers will find themselves supplied with a very prolific 
 and excellent substitute for the pasture-fields and meadows. These 
 suppositions may appear measurably problematical; but look at 
 them in what light we may, we cannot be blind to the fact that the 
 sorgho is destined to exercise a certain reaction, which, under the 
 influence of favoring circumstances, will eventuate in much good 
 
ALCOHOLIZATION. 293 
 
 The exigencies of the case will demand the establishment of suitable 
 distilleries organized upon the plan of those already existing in the 
 southern departments. We are happy to be able to announce that 
 projects of this kind are already in process of execution, and that a 
 large company has been formed whose operations would be as profit- 
 able as they are vast. 
 
 A further advantage of the Chinese Sugar Cane, which it is only 
 needful for us to make generally understood, is that it will cause the 
 distillation of wines to completely disappear. Sorgho alcohol once 
 coming into use, there will be no longer any reason for burning infe- 
 rior wines, but rather they will necessarily be driven to improving 
 them, before being able to make them enter into general consumption. 
 To conclude our work, we call attention to the great effects which the 
 sugar sorgho is destined to produce in all countries where it is propa- 
 gated, not only in France, Algeria, Lombardy, Tuscany, but still in 
 Kussia for its southern provinces ; and in the United States it is a 
 question whether this precious plant may not replace the sugar cane. 
 One of the large planters of Alabama, Dr. Terrill, is making this 
 year a plantation of some twenty acres. The future presented by the 
 sorgho is a vast one. Its influence upon our agriculture is marked, 
 and the efforts of this general company for manufacturing the sorgho 
 will have a great influence upon the success of the sorgho, and at the 
 same time we may say upon the progress of southern agriculture, so 
 backward until now, causing it to become, if not the first of our 
 country, at least one of the most rich and flourishing. 
 
294 APPENDIX. 
 
 ALCOHOLIZATION OF THE STALKS OF INDIAN 
 CORN AND THE SUGAR SORGHO. 
 
 BY DTJRET, CHEMIST, PARIS, 1857. 
 ***** *** 
 
 THE plant known under the name of sorgho, has been cultivated for 
 a long time in France, but is not designated under that name in the 
 west. It has been known under the name of broom corn, and under 
 the name of millet, in Gascony and the department of Landes. In 
 the early stages of growth, our indigenous sorgho differs very little 
 from corn ; has the some appearance, same leaf, same rapidity of 
 growth. In proportion as the plant grows, the peculiar appearance 
 of each is manifested. The leaves of the sorgho are less developed, 
 its stalks more hardy, more woody, grow to a greater height, whilst 
 those of the corn, more tender and full, preserve the appearance of 
 the sugar cane. This circumstance, which is met equally in the new 
 sugar sorgho, causes us to think that it would be without doubt 
 preferable to corn for the manufacture of sugar, because its juice 
 should contain less mucilage. Every one knows that this vegetable 
 product is injurious in the manufacture of sugar. The following 
 article upon the sugar sorgho we find in the journal L'utile et 
 I'agreable, for the month of April, 1855 : 
 
 " The sugar sorgho (holcus saccharatus) has been introduced into 
 France by M. Montigny, who has brought this plant from China, 
 where it is cultivated like grain. It is there designated under the 
 name of sugar cane of the north of China. The Chinese Tartars 
 make great use of it. At the great exposition of Moscow, in 1852, 
 some of the stalks of this kind of sorgho were exhibited under the 
 title Precieux Gaoutlam de la Chine gramine. Various experiments 
 in the cultivation of this plant have been made in several of our depart- 
 ments, from which it has been proved that it ripens perfectly in the 
 south of France. 
 
 "A report of the Agricultural Assembly of Toulon, to the Minister 
 of War, has communicated curious details upon the sugar sorgho in 
 respect to the agricultural industry, and to the manufacture of sorgho, 
 
ALCOHOLIZATION. 295 
 
 and also of distillation. The different experiments made in Le Var 
 have given very important practical results, proving that the vesou or 
 juice obtained from the sorgho is endowed with an alcoholic richness 
 much superior to that of all other substitutes for the vine. 
 
 " The sugar beet contains 8 to 10 per cent, of saccharine matter. 
 The sorgho, as has been proved by the experiments at Yerrieres, by 
 M. Yilmorin, have given 1.6 to 20 per cent., from which can be 
 obtained 8 to 10 litres of pure alcohol, appropriate for all industrial 
 and domestic use ; and as this precious cereal, an excellent nourishment 
 for the stock, which eat it greedily, developes itself with extreme 
 rapidity, the same where irrigation is rare and difficult, it will be 
 readily understood that this is destined to play an important part in 
 our cultivations, and especially in those of Algeria. M. Turrel, the 
 author of the report, says that in accepting for France the yield 
 obtained at Yerrieres by M. Yilmorin, with the sorgho cultivated on 
 his estate, we would have the following result. The sorgho furnishes 
 at a minimum of 50 per cent, weight of its stalks in sweet juice. As 
 a minimum yield, calculated according to the result at Yerrieres, would 
 be about 30,000 kilogrammes to the hectare. From it could be 
 extracted at least 21 hectolitres of alcohol of a value of 3,780 francs, 
 which would give to the hectare a yield that no other agricultural 
 product can hope to equal. Let us add, that the yield in Provence 
 and in Algeria would be probably more considerable than that 
 obtained at Yerrieres. M. Yilmorin notices a remarkable superiority 
 of the sorgho : the purity of its juice is such that brandies of the 
 first quality coining from it are sufficiently pure to be directly put into 
 manufacture. M. De Beauregard, in a recent report to the Assembly 
 of Toulon, has shown that having distilled the juice of the sorgho 
 fermented by the assistance of the grape stems, or of the bagasse of the 
 cane itself, he has obtained an alcohol of excellent flavor, which has 
 been sold in the Marseilles market at the ordinary price of other 
 alcohols (200 francs the hectolitre of 316). Several cultivators, of 
 Haute Marne are also undertaking the extensive culture of the sorgho. 
 One of them, M. Ponsard, has made for three years experiments upon 
 this plant. ' From it,' says he, ' I have arrived at the conviction that 
 the holcus saccharatus cannot in the climate of Paris be cultivated 
 on a large scale for manufacture. It will have an enormous yield as 
 
296 APPENDIX. 
 
 a forage, but as a sugar plant it will only be very lucrative at the 
 south. This has been well understood by the seedsmen of Paris, who 
 have sowed in Provence their stocks of seed for sale. This plant is 
 very prolific in seed. It is probable that in a very little time it will 
 be sold at as low a price as that of the common sorghos. Of an 
 easy culture and extraordinary hardiness ; considerable yield in three 
 different respects, seed, forage, and sugar ; these are the advantages 
 presented by this plant. 
 
 " Its syrup is without any unpleasant taste ; its alcohol very pure, 
 and without a trace of empyreumatic oils, so abundant in the alcohol 
 of the beet. The fermented juice makes a very agreeable drink. M. 
 Vilmorin has made of it a cider quite analogous to the cider from 
 apples. He has mixed with it, in variable quantities, various other 
 ciders and drinks made from fruits, and always with a decided advan- 
 tage. 
 
 " From the necessity of not covering the seed of this plant too deep, 
 in order to facilitate the germination, the sowings should be made on a 
 hot-bed, to preserve them from the birds, and other thieving animals."* 
 
 M. Ponsard adds : " It is to be hoped, and I am shortly expecting 
 this result to happen, that the cultivation in the climate of Paris will 
 render this plant more precocious, and that some varieties will be dis- 
 covered which will perfectly ripen their seed in this latitude. Under 
 these conditions, the holcus saccharatus will take its appropriate and 
 important position. From the cultivation of a small plot of this seed, 
 a person could have seeds for his poultry, forage for his cow, and an 
 agreeable and abundant drink for himself." 
 
 We will mention, in concluding our remarks concerning the trials of 
 the cultivation of the sorgho, which have been made at Hyeres by M. 
 Eautonnet : " The plant, in ordinary conditions, has furnished 30,000 
 kilogrammes of juice to the hectare a yield which exceeds that of the 
 beet. One stalk, of 450 grammes, gives 150 grammes of juice, con- 
 taining 10 to 15 per cent, of sugar." 
 
 * We do not agree with M. Bensart, that the culture of the sorgho, which is entirely 
 like that of broom corn, should he protected in the same manner. The transplanting 
 of it will injure its ulterior development. To preserve the seed against birds, it is 
 much better to watch the crops, as is the custom with other seeds, until the plant 
 comes out of the ground and has acquired sufficient strength to defend itself against 
 their voracity. To expedite this matter, the seed may be steeped before sowing. 
 
ALCOHOLIZATION. 297 
 
 Before going further, it appears to us useful to compare the different 
 sugar-bearing vegetables, to glance at their yield of sugar. 
 
 1. The sugar cane gives, by the old process - 14 per cent. 
 By the new apparatus, perfected by Derosne 
 
 & Kyle - - . , - - - 20 
 
 2. The sorgho cultivated in the South - - 20 " 
 
 3. Maple tree - - - - .... .... >^. 4 " 
 
 4. The beet- - >V ; ; - . ; -v ?> ,'-! 10 " 
 But, in practice, obtain only - - - *# ;V 6 " 
 
 5. The Jerusalem artichoke, from 15 to 16 per 
 
 cent. .... ; . r : ,- - 15 
 
 6. Corn cultivated at Paris - .:..*' 10 " 
 
 7. Corn cultivated at New Orleans - - 17 " 
 
 If this last figure is reliable, which we do not greatly doubt, the 
 corn cultivated in the south of France will give a result almost equiv- 
 alent. It will be understood that their conditions of growth are 
 similar in the corn as in the sorgho. In rainy seasons, a juice con- 
 taining more of water, should, by that very fact, contain a less pro- 
 portion of sugar ; which explains the remarkable differences between 
 the analysis made by different experimenters. Here, then, we are in 
 possession of two plants equally interesting and equally productive of 
 sugar ; for there exists between them some differences upon the score 
 of yield. This would only be matter of greater or less quantity ; but 
 their expressed juices are, chemically, the same. These two varieties 
 have between them a relationship so similar, that it should not be an 
 astonishing matter to see them giving similar products. We have 
 seen, in the article extracted from the journal, L'utile et I' Agreeable, 
 that M. Vilmorin has made with the fermented juice of the sugar 
 sorgho a cider of good quality. The fermented liquor of corn would 
 be quite similar to it. What confirms this fact is, that in Chili, and 
 in a part of South America, according to the saying of travelers, 
 they make with the stalk of maize a species of fermented liquor called 
 chica, which has, they say, the appearance and taste of a real cider 
 from apples. They add, that it is in common use in the households ; 
 and that, distilled, it furnishes a brandy very agreeable, which has 
 quite a similarity to rum. With these facts before us, then, we advise 
 13* 
 
298 APPENDIX. 
 
 the reader, that in the following considerations we will not distinguish 
 between the two plants in all that respects the time of their maturity, 
 their leafing, the grating of their stalks, the pressure of the pulp, and 
 the use of the residues. They should be treated in the same manner 
 
 throughout And seeing all the good that is said of the sugar 
 
 sorgho and the articles published in its praise, we do not understand 
 why maize is passed by unnoticed. Is this a matter of speculation, or 
 a furor for a new product, such as is produced every day with all new 
 things. We are ignorant on the subject. We are far from dissuad- 
 ing agriculturists from undertaking the cultivation of the sugar sorgho. 
 We are much pleased, on the contrary, to give it a decided support, 
 and we place it in the first rank among our recent agricultural acquisi- 
 tions ; but these advantages should not hinder us from rendering to 
 each other product, of a similar nature, the justice which is their due. 
 While awaiting, then, the generalization of the culture of the sorgho 
 in our southern provinces, we beg that the cultivators will distil the 
 stalks of the corn. Besides the product in brandy, they will find in 
 the residue the means of increasing the food for their stock, in a 
 country where it is generally scarce and dear. Let proper attention 
 be given to both maize and the sugar sorgho ; the results will be about 
 the same. The capital point to obtain complete success is to seize 
 the exact favorable moment for gathering the stalks. If too soon, 
 the plant contains too much mucilage and gum ; if too late, the seed 
 has consumed part of the sugar contained in the stalk ; at least, it is 
 so in the maize. 
 
 It is probable that, at a subsequent day, there will be erected in 
 the southern districts manufactories for treating the sugar sorgho, 
 which we believe fully to be more appropriate for the manufacture of 
 sugar than corn, because we judge that its juice contains less of 
 mucilage and gum.* The yield of the sugar sorgho being equal to 
 
 * Our author has here made a very important distinction between the maize and 
 the sorgho. The sugar of the corn, after the ripening of the seed, is very rapidly and 
 considerably reduced; but with the sorgho, if we may judge from the experiments 
 made in Algiers by M. Hardy, not only does it not lose in its proportion of sugar by 
 etanding in the field after it has attained a complete maturity, but, if the tufts be cut 
 off, the juice will actually show on the saccharometer a perceptible increase in 
 strength. H. 8. 0. 
 
ALCOHOLIZATION. 299 
 
 that of the sugar cane, the planters of the south can, with profit, 
 compete against the sugars from the beets and from the colonies. 
 Undertakings of this sort would give very large profits, doubtless. 
 Not only is the sugar sorgho more rich than the beet, but it ripens 
 much more rapidly than the sugar cane. The agreeable use that can 
 be made of the molasses and the pulps of this plant, place it, in this 
 regard, in a position unequaled by others. 
 
 What we have said concerning the erection of manufactories of 
 sugar in the south of France for working up the crops of sugar sorgho, 
 should be considered more as a hope than as a prophecy to be immedi- 
 ately realized. In these unenlightened districts, ingenious ideas applied 
 to agriculture are so scarce that we have but small hope of a speedy 
 realization of enterprises such as these. * * * * 
 
 EXTRACTION OF THE JUICE OF THE MAIZE AND OF THE SUGAR SORGHO. 
 
 To extract juice of sugar bearing plants, there is, independent of the 
 pressure of which we have already spoken, an expeditious process. 
 This is maceration. This system has been applied with success in the 
 manufacture from the beet. It has been found that those treated thus 
 are purer, ferment better, and suffer less change than when they are 
 obtained by prolonged pressure. Independent of regularity, which is 
 the distinct property of maceration, the treatment of beets by this 
 method is an excellent one in more ways than one. On the one hand, 
 the acidulated liquid boiling increases the sugar in the beets, sacchari- 
 fying them. On the other hand, it raises the temperature of the juice, 
 and disposes them to undergo a good fermentation. Maceration, then, 
 is particularly advantageous and applicable to the beet distilleries, 
 nearly all of which are in operation at the North, and at work on the 
 coldest days of the year. But it is entirely different with the maize 
 and the sorgho, as to distillation. Being accomplished at the South, 
 and oftentimes with the greatest heat of weather, the warming of the 
 juice is not necessary, any more than saccharification. The sugar 
 being entirely formed in these plants, maceration in cold water would 
 have the effect of weakening these juices. It is just upon these points 
 of consideration that the press is preferable for it, because they yield 
 then the sweetest and densest juices. In this condition they present 
 
300 APPENDIX. 
 
 less obstacle to fermentation and distillation ; although, it may be known 
 that the more sugar is dissolved in water, the more prompt and complete 
 is its conversion into alcohol, nevertheless, this absence of water can be 
 compensated for by a temperature more elevated, with the addition of 
 an increase of ferment. As the still retorts already in operation in the 
 vine districts operate mildly, and as we do not wish to change them, 
 it is much preferable, it will be understood, to distil the juices ferment- 
 ed at ten to twelve degrees of the saccharometer, than liquors of five to 
 six degrees, like those of the beet, obtained by maceration. 
 
 FERMENTATION. 
 
 The juice of the sugar sorgho contains truly its ferment in but small 
 quantity. It is well, then, to add to it, and even to force the quantity 
 to operate with more rapidity. This celerity is especially necessary 
 when the liquor is destined to be put to immediate distillation. It 
 would be quite the contrary, though, if this kind of cider is desired to 
 be preserved for a long time. The quantity of the fresh yeast of beer 
 to use, is about 500 grammes to the hectolitre of juice in fermentation. 
 
 In those districts far removed from the cities, it will often be diffi- 
 cult to procure the yeast of beer fresh enough, because the brewers are 
 very scarce. To obviate this inconvenience, which may present itself 
 in spite of all possible precautions, we propose to replace it with 
 the lees of wine, red or white, pressed and putrified a little, that may 
 be dissolved in the juice in the same proportion as would be the yeast. 
 It is well to notice that white lees have less action than red ones, and 
 that, consequently, there would be needed a greater quantity of those 
 to produce the same effect. Yeast, when it can be procured, should 
 be preserved in a cool place until the moment of using it ; otherwise 
 it will pass into putrefaction, and will no longer be good for use. 
 
 The fermentation of the juice may be sufficiently well done in the 
 great tuns used for wine in distilling districts. It is well to remark 
 that fermentation is accomplished more readily and completely in ves- 
 sels of great capacity, than in those which are smaller. A more ele- 
 vated temperature is also necessary for this latter. However, in the 
 absence of the first, we may make use of the second, but it is necessary 
 to practice the method employed for wines destined for the boiler. 
 
ALCOHOLIZATION. 301 
 
 These wines are fermented naturally, and without the use of dregs, in 
 the large vats, which are partially filled. This process presents two 
 advantages : the first is escaping the loss of the liquid, which wastes 
 nothing at the bung during the tumultuous fermentation ; the second 
 is rendering the fermentation more prompt, by reason of the sweet 
 liquid being found in contact with a larger mass of air. This circum- 
 stance is very important for the production of alcohol. Every one 
 knows that if wine preserves its sweetness at the moment of introduc- 
 ing it in the still retort, there is a loss for the distiller. This circum- 
 stance indicates that all the sugar is not decomposed, that is to say, not 
 converted into alcohol. When the tumultuous fermentation is termi- 
 nated, it is not proposed to distil the liquor immediately ; it may be 
 drawn from the tuns and transferred into the casks, in order to escape 
 the evaporation which would take place in large vessels but partially 
 closed. 
 
 FERMENTING HOUSES. 
 
 We will say but little upon these fermenting rooms. Their tempera- 
 ture should be maintained at about twenty-five to thirty degrees. In 
 the summer it would be well to take certain precautions not to suffer 
 this to be exceeded. For this purpose, it will be well to open the 
 doors and windows during the night, and closing them at an early 
 hour in the morning. In order to maintain the fermenting room at a 
 constant temperature, it should not be entered except when absolutely 
 necessary, and kept tightly closed. It is well understood that all we 
 say here only applies to distilling practice in the summer time, upon 
 the maize and sugar sorgho, intended to be fed to cattle afterwards, 
 of which the juice are extracted previously to make them ferment and 
 distil This manufacture, beginning in the month of June, should con- 
 tinue throughout the months of July, August and September, and be 
 completed about the end of October. 
 
 As to the distillation of the maize and the sugar sorgho, from which 
 the seed is removed, as it is doue in the fall, it will be no longer neces- 
 sary to guard against an excessive temperature. It may be useful in 
 certain cases to warm the place artificially, and even to warm the juice. 
 
302 APPENDIX. 
 
 To avoid the constant purchase of new quantities of beer yeast, it 
 would be well to fit against the vats some box or receptacle in such a 
 way that the ferment which escapes from the bunghole can be received 
 in the vessel placed below it. . This ferment will do for subsequent 
 fermentations, in place of wine lees or beer yeast. On the same princi- 
 ple, the ferment which floats on the surface, in the large vats, may be 
 employed ; and the whole of this should be kept in a cellar until the 
 moment of using them. "When it is thought proper to wash the pulps, 
 or parenchymas, in place of pure water, vinasse, or others, should be 
 employed, and then the pulps should be again put in press. These 
 wines, and those cooled containing their ferment, will permit of 
 diminishing by so much as the quantity is judged necessary for a good 
 fermentation. To warm the juice of the maize and of the sugar sorgho 
 when it is judged necessary, a large cauldron will be suitable, such a 
 one as is frequently found on estates. In the opposite case, the caul- 
 dron which is used for distilling wines would be made use of, always 
 taking, however, the precaution of making it perfectly clean before 
 using it. 
 
 In place of selling the ciders of the sorgho manufactured for the 
 still retort, to professional distilleries, it will be much more profitable 
 for the planters to distil it themselves. We recommend, then, all wLo 
 shall undertake this industry, to purchase apparatus of the kind we 
 notice in another place. This practice is much preferable to that in 
 use at the South. There the planter is obliged to take care of his 
 wines, and experience the loss resulting from the presses up to the 
 very moment of giving them to the distiller. Furthermore, the costs 
 of transportation, even to the distillery, are to be met by him, all of 
 which diminish by so much his profits. The prices of the proper stills 
 are quite moderate, and they give excellent yields of brandy. As they 
 are not at all complicated, or liable to get out of order, the most 
 ordinary hands will usually be able to conduct them after a few days' 
 practice. 
 
 The method which we have adopted for the distilling of the sorgho 
 is so simple, that we really believe that its general adoption presents 
 but very slight difficulty. Each one can, with our work in his hand, 
 undertake this industry. A reference to the list of utensils indis- 
 
ALCOHOLIZATION. 303 
 
 pensable for the work, will show to our readers that tl?e expenses to be 
 met are really insignificant. 
 
 List of Apparatus necessary for the Distillation of the Sorgho, in those 
 countries where the Still Retorts are already in operation. 
 
 1. A rasping mill, such as is used in the sugar beet factories, 
 
 but supplied with stronger teeth, because of the stalks 
 
 of the sorgho being harder $50 00 
 
 2. A centigrade thermometer 60 
 
 3. A saccharometer 70 
 
 4. An alcohol meter 70 
 
 About - $52 00 
 
 Thus the principal expense will be confined to the rasping mill, of 
 which the price is moderate, and within the reach of almost every one. 
 For small cultivators, a mill at the price of thirty dollars to thirty- 
 two dollars will be sufficient. 
 
 Agricultural Distilleries. 
 
 The still retorts, with which the cognac brandies are made, are, 
 with trifling alterations, those which have been used for a hundred 
 years past. They consume much fuel, and perform their work very 
 slowly. Still, in spite of these defects, it must be that they offer, in 
 practice, a real superiority as to the qualities of the brandies, since 
 the merchants, the supreme judges in these matters, continue to prefer 
 the products of these still retorts to those of more perfect apparatus. 
 What contributes to maintain and perpetuate the existence of these 
 alembics in the vine districts, is their simplicity and their low price 
 advantages which cover up all their defects. Thus, to these two cir- 
 cumstances, the distillation has taken a wide range in the departments 
 of which we speak. There is scarcely a single small operator making 
 50 to 60 casks of wine who does not purchase a little still, with which 
 he converts his wine into brandy. These circumstances have urged us 
 
304 APPENDIX. 
 
 to advise their general adoption ; but to do away with a portion of 
 the inconvenience attendant upon their use, we have caused the ap- 
 paratus to undergo an improvement which, without making them lose 
 anything of their primitive simplicity, procures two important results 
 an economy, more or less, of fuel ; and a double production of 
 brandy in the same space of time. By this new plan our still gives 
 brandy of 20 to 22 of the first quality, while the old way only 
 gives these results after two successive distillations of the same pro- 
 duct. The capacity of the apparatus is thus doubled, by an expense 
 which does not exceed two hundred francs on an average. 
 
 Expense attending the purchase and erection of an Improved Agricul- 
 tural Distillery. 
 
 1. A cucurbite, or copper cauldron, containing 80 gallons, 
 
 about $92 00 
 
 2. A copper wine heater, of the same capacity - 14 00 
 
 3. A copper condenser, of 150 quarts - - - - 54 00 
 
 4. A wooden cooler, bound with iron - - - - 12 00 
 
 5. A copper worm 40 00 
 
 6. A little pump, to introduce the fermented juice into the 
 
 cauldron 8 00 
 
 7. A rasping mill and its apparatus - - - - 50 00 
 
 8. Cost of erection 20 00 
 
 Total .... $290 00 
 
 With this apparatus, which should operate night and day, according 
 to established custom, three heatings a day of twenty-four hours would 
 be made, and about 240 gallons of liquid distilled ; but, as our maize 
 and sorgho wines contain double the alcohol as those of the beet, it is 
 about 475 to 500 gallons that would be worked up in this lapse of 
 time. This quantity of fermented juice would give about 16 per cent, 
 of sugar ; an average for the sorgho of about 38 gallons of brandy, 
 at 50 degrees centesimal ; and for corn, about 12 per cent., about 30 
 gallons of brandy of the same quality. 
 
ALCOHOLIZATION. 305 
 
 For the Distillation of 2,500/65. of Sorgho Stalks, per day of twenty-four 
 
 hours. 
 
 To gather the stalks, cleanse them, rasp them, press them, 
 ferment the juice, and carry on the retorts, there will 
 be needed an overseer - ; .-_.* , 4 _,,- - ... - :..v; $0 60 
 An intelligent workman - : "- t ----- 50 
 
 A laboring man --------- 40 
 
 Two women, at 1| francs each 50 
 
 A little boy, 15 or 18 years old 30 
 
 Interest on the material used, at 10 per cent., calculated on 
 $400, (the season being about 150 days,) an average, 
 
 per day 20 
 
 Wood or coal 40 
 
 A hectare, (about 2 k acres,) sown in sorgho, should give a 
 minimum of 160,000 Ibs. Troy of stripped stalks. We 
 value 2,500 Ibs. at 4 00 
 
 Total expense per day - - - - - $6 90 
 
 265 Ibs. of stripped stalks would give, according as the season 
 had been dry or wet, from 50 to 60 per cent, of juice 
 that is to say, 130 to 160 gallons, which, added to the 
 water necessary for liquefying the pulps, would carry 
 the quantity of liquid to about 275 gallons, which would 
 furnish 45 gallons of brandy, at 19 degrees of Cartier. 
 This brandy, by reason of its quality, may be estimated 
 at about 55 cents per gallon ** ; >^ -.-\ - - 2400 
 
 Deduct the expenses, $6 90, profit per day - - - 17 10 
 
 Multiply by 150 days, the profit during the season - - $2565 00 
 
 Distillery of Cognac Brandies. 
 
 We have mentioned that the distillation of cognac brandies is done 
 with very simple and cheap apparatus. We give here the description 
 
306 APPENDIX. 
 
 and the price, to afford an idea of what may be done with very little 
 capital. 
 
 Cost' of Purchase and- Erection of the Distilleiies in Saimtogne and 
 I'Angoumois. 
 
 A copper cauldron of about 65 gallons, .... 
 A wash heater, of same capacity, of wood bound with iron, 
 
 A copper worm, " . 
 
 A wooden cooler, bound with iron, 
 
 4 wooden tubs to receive the products of distillation,. 
 Cost of erection, . . 
 
 $140 00 
 
 With this apparatus, three charges a day of 24 hours can be made, 
 which is about three barrels of 46 gallons. For fuel, only wood or peat 
 can be used. Peat charcoal cannot be used for this purpose, because 
 in burning it throws a very large quantity of heat, and would burn, 
 on the bottom of the cauldron, the leaves, seeds, and other heavy 
 matters which it is the custom to leave in the wine. These foreign 
 matters, precipitated by their specific gravity to the bottom of the 
 still, would be carbonized, and would give to brandy an empyreumatic 
 taste. In spite of the evident imperfection of this apparatus, not- 
 withstanding the time and fuel which they require, they accomplish 
 their work in a satisfactory manner, and give good results results 
 which are generally appreciated : for all the Cognac brandies are 
 made with an apparatus of this sort. We, however, beg the planters to 
 avoid the use of the wooden wine heater, because of the loss of alcohol 
 which it would evidently suffer to be made by the escape of the 
 steam through the staves. It would be well to replace this with a 
 copper vessel, or at least one of iron, which would be more reasonable 
 in price. With this modification, this apparatus can be employed 
 wish profit in the small manufactories. They can distil three hun- 
 dred barrels of about sixty-five gallons in the space of a season of 
 about five months, or a hundred and fifty days in duration. 
 
ALCOHOLIZATION. 307 
 
 Price of an improved distillery for operators on a small scale. 
 
 Copper cauldron of about 55 gallons, 
 Sheet-iron wine heater of the same capacity, 
 Copper worm, 
 
 Copper condenser of 14 gallons, ;/,-, 
 A small pump, -.'"" '. '.'-. 
 
 A wooden cooler, - - 
 
 A rasping mill and its apparatus?, - 
 Cost of erection, - 
 
 Total, - - $220 00 
 
 Thus for $200 to $240, a small distillery could be had, "embracing 
 all the advantages of that which we propose in another place, but 
 which would do one third less w r ork, in consequence of the reduced 
 size of the apparatus. 
 
 Cider of the Sugar Sorgho, or the Maize, for Consumption and 
 for Commerce. 
 
 Those who wish to undertake this manufacture, should give more 
 care to the production of these sorts of cider, in order to give them 
 the property of keeping, equal to that of wine. 
 
 Below we give our formula. We can be certain that it will give 
 good results. We suppose the juice at 8, 10, or 12 degrees of 
 density, and the cask of a capacity of about sixty gallons. In this case 
 especially, the operator should be provided with a thermometer and 
 saccharometer, to weigh the juice and to assure himself of their tem- 
 perature before putting them into fermentation. 
 
 RECIPE. 
 
 1 kilogramme, 500 grammes (3 pounds) of good pulverised argols, (the 
 raw tartar scraped from the cask of either red or white wine) ; 500 
 
308 APPENDIX. 
 
 grammes, equal to about 1 Ib. of grapes coarsely bruised ; about 2 Ibs. 
 8 oz., Troy, of fresh yeast of beer, or an^qual quantity of good wine lees, 
 white or red, a little putrefied. When the lees of wine are used for 
 supporting fermentation, the dose of raw tartar is lessened, and 
 in this case would be reduced one kilogramme, 2 Ibs. 8 oz. only. 
 
 METHOD OF MANUFACTURE. 
 
 Put the tartar and the rapes in a hundred quarts of juice, that you 
 carry to the boiling point, (in warm weather it is not necessary to make 
 the juice boil.) After some boilings throw the whole into a receptacle 
 of a capacity of 65 gallons, and finish by filling with cold sorgho juice. 
 Before putting it into the fermentation, let the temperature fall to 
 25 or 30 degrees centigrade. Assure yourself of the actual degree 
 by the use of the thermometer. The next step is to take from the 
 vessel two or three quarts of liquid, add to it the two and two third 
 pounds Troy, of fresh yeast form a mixture of it and throw it back 
 into the vessel. With a stick stir it all up together. 
 
 Some days after the fermentation shall have ceased, it is necessary 
 to draw of the cider, which already will have fermented in the large 
 vat, and place it in the cask, which should be entirely filled. 
 
 A month, or two months afterwards, the cider should be sealed up 
 and then drawn off with care to deprive it of its lees. Under such 
 conditions these ciders will be of very excellent quality, and can be 
 preserved like white wines, to which they bear considerable resemblance. 
 Like them they will gain in quality by becoming older. 
 
 If it is desired to give these ciders a flavor which they do not have, 
 there may be introduced into the barrel, either before or after the 
 fermentation, two ounces of powdered iris,* to 65 gallons ; or four 
 ounces of elder berries, or some vanilla. Many farmers may possibly 
 find this method of manufacturing cider, complicated and embarrass- 
 ing. To boil a portion of the juice before putting it into fermentation, 
 seems to them a useless and superfluous thing. However, I insist 
 upon this portion of our recipe, if it is desirable to operate with cer- 
 tainty. We are of the opinion, that the same process should be 
 
 * Fleur de Us, flag flower. 
 
ALCOHOLIZATION. 309 
 
 employed for wines in cool seasons. It is evident that this trouble 
 may be avoided in the summer, because the end which it is proposed 
 to accomplish by carrying the juices to boiling, is to make them 
 ferment at 25 or 30 degrees, the temperature necessary for a good 
 fermentation. This degree, we repeat it, is especially necessary for 
 casks of a small capacity. The larger the vats are made, the less 
 elevated a temperature is necessary. Thus for tuns of a capacity 
 of twenty-five to thirty hectolitres, 14 to 15 degrees would be ne- 
 cessary for a good fermentation. 
 
 Recipe for making a very agreeable beer with the juice of the sorgho 
 or of Maize. 
 
 The juice is boiled with about one Ib. of hops per twenty-five gallons, 
 or ten oz., Troy, according as it is preferred to be more or less bitter. 
 The juices are cooled to 25 or 30 degrees centigrade. Then they are 
 put in contact with the yeast, (as we have mentioned for the cider,) 
 one Ib. of quite fresh yeast to the twenty-five gallons. 
 
 As soon as the tumultuous fermentation is quiet, the liquid is 
 drawn offj and the second operation is ready to proceed in the same 
 manner as for the cider. 
 
 Then it is clarified with gelatine, or the white of an egg, in the ordi- 
 nary matter. 
 
 As will be seen, this process is very simple, and nothing can be more 
 economical. In this manner will be obtained, at a very low price, a 
 fermented drink very healthy and agreeable, which will present the 
 appearance and flavor of the most approved white beers. It suffices 
 simply to add to it a little caramel. 
 
 New Process of Fermentation, and preservation to an indefinite time, 
 maturing after several days. 
 
 The manufacture of the cider at a low price, with a preservative 
 quality, and that is made by age like wine, will have so important 
 results for the well being and richness of our agricultural public, that 
 we have decided to treat it with all the detail that it is deserving of. 
 
810 APPENDIX. 
 
 We have already mentioned elsewhere, that the beer manufacturers 
 of Bavaria were in possession of this secret. Chance, aided by the 
 very low and suitable temperature of the climate, seemed to have been 
 the accidental cause of this interesting discovery. Its practical ope- 
 ration is very simple. It consists in carrying on the fermentation of 
 the sweet juice at a temperature of nine or ten degrees centigrade, in 
 shallow vessels with large surface, which are left without any other 
 care than from contact with atmospheric air. 
 
 By these processes, beers, ciders, and wines, acquire a great preserva- 
 tive quality. They are not at all affected with the variations of the 
 temperature ; and what is remarkable, they are as perfect some weeks 
 after fermentation as if they were two or three years old. 
 
 To thoroughly comprehend upon what law these good results depend, 
 it is indispensable to know the phenomena which occur in the alcoholic 
 and acetic fermentations. The ferments, which are the producers of 
 the fermentations, are azotized substances, in condition to unite with 
 oxygen, for which they possess a great affinity. They have, further- 
 more, the faculty of transmitting the action with which they are 
 endowed, that is to say, the fermentation, to the sweet alcoholic 
 liquids with which they are placed in contact ; but the degrees of tem- 
 perature necessary for these transformations are not the same for these 
 two different fluids. The degree the most favorable for the conversion 
 of the alcohol into acetic acid (vinegar), by means of a ferment, lies 
 between twenty-five and thirty degrees of centigrade ; at nine and ten 
 it loses completely this faculty, and it is no longer in action upon the 
 alcohol. On the contrary, the oxidation of the ferment at this low 
 temperature, does not experience any obstacle not more than that of 
 the sweet liquid to which it imparts its action, converting it into alcohol 
 by means of oxidation or fermentation. 
 
 Let us now apply this principle, deduced from the attentive observa- 
 tion of facts, to the manufacture of wines, as it is practiced. As soon 
 as the expressed juice of the grapes comes in contact with atmospheric 
 air, its ferment combines with the oxygen, and it produces at the same 
 time in the sweet liquid a like phenomenon. A part of the carbon of 
 the sugar unites with the oxygen of tlie air, and escapes in the state 
 of carbonic acid gas. The other part is converted into alcohol. This 
 
ALCOHOLIZATION. 311 
 
 transformation is accomplished very rapidly at a temperature of twenty- 
 five to thirty degrees ; but to deprive the ferment of its power to pro- 
 voke in the alcohol, in ratio as it is formed, the acetous fermentation, 
 one is obliged to diminish the access of the exterior air, by using a 
 vessel more or less closed. The fermentation being completed, if one 
 should continue to keep the wine at this same temperature, the ferment 
 would react upon it, and produce acetous fermentation. To avoid this 
 result, we hasten to fill up the vessels and to place them in a room hav- 
 ing a low temperature. In the meanwhile, the ferment remaining in the 
 wine, not being able to satisfy its tendency to unite with oxygen when 
 contained in a partially closed vessel, continues to oxidize itself mildly 
 by means of the small quantity of air which comes to it through the 
 staves. This action continues thus two or three years ; and little by 
 little, in ratio as the wine grows old, the ferment which completes its 
 oxidation, falls into the insoluble condition, that is, the condition of 
 lees, at the bottom of the receptacle. 
 
 In the fermentations usually made, one is embarrassed, then, by two 
 opposing difficulties. On 'the one hand, it would be necessary to put 
 the ferment in contact with the greatest volume of air possible, to make 
 it arrive, in the shortest space of time, at a complete oxidation, and to 
 force it in this manner to precipitate itself in the insoluble condition 
 of lees. On the other hand, this measure would have the effect of pro- 
 voking in the liquor the acetic fermentation, that is to say, its conrer- 
 tion into acetic acid. By the employment of the new process, we are 
 about to see that in a very rational manner we will satisfy these two 
 essential conditions. 
 
 When the sweet juices are put to ferment at a temperature of nine 
 to ten degrees centigrade, in shallow vessels, exposing a large surface, 
 where free access of air could be obtained, the complete oxidation of 
 the ferment is accomplished in the shortest time, as well as that of the 
 sweet liquid in which it is merged. In proportion as this action goes 
 on, the ferment falls to the bottom of the vessel in the unsoluble state, 
 the state of lees. 
 
 Fermentation terminated, it is only necessary to decant the wine sepa- 
 rate from its lees, to have it as perfect, as old as it would have become by 
 the old process after two or three years of age. The act, the phenomenon 
 
312 APPENDIX. 
 
 which has been accomplished in a wine which has acquired some age, 
 in truth consists precisely in this complete precipitation of the ferment 
 in the insoluble state of lees. The only difference, we repeat it, which 
 exists, is that its precipitation is immediately accomplished in the new 
 process, at the same time with the conversion of the sugar into alcohol ; 
 while, in the old process, the deposit is only produced slowly, after a 
 long time, and with the great labors of repeated rackings, etc. This 
 new method of fermentation is applied even to red wines ; and what 
 facilitates it in practice, is that usually the temperature is sufficiently 
 low at the time of the vintages. The ciders and the bers made 
 according to these rules, are not liable to sour, nor to turn in warm 
 seasons very important results, which recommend themselves to the 
 attention of manufacturers. 
 
 As every one will be convinced, the new process is simple. It does 
 not offer any difficulty other than that of a choice of the place capable 
 of being maintained at a constant temperature of nine or ten degrees 
 centigrade. "Vaulted cellars, on the north side, naturally present all 
 these conditions. We beseech wine growers, manufacturers of cider 
 and beer, to make experiments after the manner we have indicated. 
 They can thus assure themselves if the results by them obtained have 
 been those which are advanced as facts upon the testimony of the 
 celebrated Liebig. In truth, this chemist has first made known this 
 new process as practiced in Bavaria. It is applicable alike to all 
 fermented liquor. The high reputation of learning and responsibility 
 which attaches itself to this name, illustrious in the sciences, assures 
 us that the experiments I advise will not result in disappointment. 
 
 By way of recapitulation, we say that, with the juice of the sugar 
 sorgho and the maize, we can, with small expense, obtain the following 
 products : 1. By distillation, a good brandy, or alcohols, of the first 
 quality. 2. Ciders and beers, for commerce and household use. 
 3. Syrups, capable of profitably replacing the syrups of fecula, and 
 for the improvement of the wines in bad seasons. 4. Artificial wines, 
 of the nature of those manufactured by the city of Oette. 5. Vine- 
 gars, of a remarkable quality, almost equal to the best wine vinegars. 
 
 6. The nourishment of cattle with the stalks used in the press. 
 
 7. The manufacture, from these same stalks or other pulp, of a good 
 wrapping paper, which is naturally sized. 
 
M. VILMOBIN'S KESEAKCHES. 313 
 
 EESEARCHES ON THE SUGAR SORGHO * 
 
 BY M. LOUIS VILMORIN. 
 Translated for the " Working Farmer," by H. 8. Olcott 
 
 THIS grass, which seems destined to occupy an important position in 
 the list of our industrial plants, has, as well as the " Igname de la 
 Chine," been introduced by M. de Montigny, and was included in the 
 same package addressed to the Geographichal Society.* We still 
 hesitate as to the botanical name by which it should be known. That 
 of Holcus saccharatus is manifestly an error ; not but that the plant is 
 probably the same as the one previously known under this title, but 
 because the portion of this genus characterised by the presence of a 
 little male spikelet, pedunculated, by the side of each fertile spikelet, 
 has been rejected long since from the Holcus family, in the genus An- 
 dropogon or Sorghum. In all probability, the species Sorghum vul- 
 gar e (Andropogon Sorghum,) should include in the number of its varie- 
 ties, the plant in question, as well as the Andropogon, cafra, bicolor, 
 &c., of Kunth. A recent, and still unpublished work by Mr. Wray, 
 which he has had the kindness to send me, notices, as growing on the 
 south-west coast of Caffraria, about fifteen varieties of this plant ; and 
 we ourselves recollect, that in a collection of the grains of Abyssinia 
 sent to the Museum in 1840, by M. d'Abadie, and which contained 
 about thirty species or varieties of the sorgho that certain plants at- 
 tracted our particular attention by the sugary taste of their stalks. 
 Here, as you see, are many causes of confusion, and, at the same time, 
 the elements of a critical work, with which my colleague, M. Green- 
 land, is, at my instigation, occupying himself. 
 
 I trust that his researches, aided by the comparative cultivation of 
 different known varieties, will enable us to assign these different varie- 
 ties to the botanical types whence they are derived. In the meanwhile, 
 the name of Holcus Saccharatus may be provisionally adopted, since, 
 
 *See the -"Eevne Horticole," February, 1854, Holcus Saccharatus; July, 1854^ 
 " Igname de la Chine ;" "Bulletin du Cornice Agricole de Toulon," 1853, "Liste de 
 1 'envoi Montigny " 
 
 14 
 
314 APPENDIX. 
 
 although evidently inexact as to generic characteristics, it has the ad- 
 vantage of being known, and of never having been applied to other 
 plants. 
 
 The plant on which were undertaken the experiments made at Flor- 
 ence in 1766, by Pietro Arduino, for the manufacture of sugar, did, 
 very probably, belong to the same species, but must have been another 
 variety, since he describes the seeds as being of a clear brown, whilst 
 those of this newly imported plant are black, and in appearance en- 
 tirely identical with the black sorgho of the older collections. 
 
 The sugar sorgho is a tall and slender plant, attaining the height of 
 two or three metres, or more, in rich ground (a metre is thirty-nine 
 inches. 0.) The stalks are straight and smooth, the leaves flexible 
 and drooping ; in appearance it is much the same as the Indian corn, 
 but much more graceful. It ordinarily forms a top, composed of eight 
 or ten separate stems, each terminated by a tuft of conical shape, and 
 covered with blossoms, green at first, then passing through different 
 shades of violet, to acquire a deep purple hue when completely matured. 
 
 It is probably an annual, and its cultivation and time for ripening 
 agree with corn (maize). In the climate of Paris it must be sown as 
 soon as the ground is warm, that is, at the time for the first sowing of 
 beans (haricots) ; the maturity of the seeds will be more probable, if 
 the plant has been grown in a sheltered nursery, or, better still, in a 
 hot-bed ; but, for the extraction of sugar, it will be sufficient to sow it 
 in the open field, provided the soil be light and moderately warm. 
 
 The product of the sugar sorgho, consists in the sap contained in 
 abundance in the pith of the stalks, which furnishes three important 
 products : sugar, alcohol, and a fermented beverage similar to cider.* 
 
 In truth, this juice, when one has obtained it with care, in a small 
 quantity, by depriving the cane of its green envelope, is nearly color- 
 less, and contains, so to speak, simply water and sugar. Its density 
 varies from 1-050 to 1-075, and the proportion of sugar from ten to 
 sixteen per cent. I include here the total of the two sugars, crystal- 
 lizable and uncrystallizable, of which the latter sometimes makes a 
 third of their mixture. It is to this quantity of uncrystallizable sugar, 
 
 * See the " Moniteur Universel " of 13th November, 1854; " Eeveue Horticole," 16th 
 November; "Journal d' Agriculture Pratique," 20th November. 
 
M. VILMORIN'S RESEARCHES. 315 
 
 that the juice of the sorgho owes the readiness with which it ferments, 
 and the large product in alcohol which it gives, compared to the 
 amount of sugar observed directly in the saccharometer. 
 
 Considered in relation to the manufacture of sugar, the sorgho seems 
 to me to have small chance of success in the northern and central por- 
 tions of France that is to say, in the tracts of country where the cul- 
 ture of the beet is entirely successful. The strong proportion of un- 
 crystallizable sugar which it contains, is not merely so much loss in 
 this manufacture, but it becomes an impediment to the extraction of 
 the other sugar. It is not, however, because the products of the sorgho 
 are poor or difficult to be obtained, but simply that their nature ren- 
 ders them, under similar circumstances, more prolific in alcohol than 
 sugar ; and if, in the present state of the market, it is profitable to 
 distil the beet root, which, by the most skillful processes, does not 
 afford an amount of alcohol correspondent to the proportion of sugar 
 which may be extracted, how much more potent reasons are there in 
 favor of the sorgho, whose juice yields more than the equivalent of its 
 extractable sugar. 
 
 It will be the same if we consider the sorgho in those warmer regions 
 where the beet cannot grow in competition with it. Some experiments 
 made with the stalks of sorghos cultivated in Algeria, sent to me by 
 M. Peschard of Ambly, Mayor of Phillipeville, produced sugar decidedly 
 superior in quality to that yielded by my plants raised in the environs 
 of Paris. The long time occupied in the transmission of the package, 
 caused a partial change to occur, which prevented my determining 
 with accuracy the comparative values of the two kinds of sugar in 
 the sorgho of Algeria ; but the nature of the sap, as well as the obser- 
 vations communicated to me by Mr. Wray formerly a planter in 
 Natal, Cam-aria lead me to think that the proportion of crystalliz- 
 able sugar will at once become greater where the climate permits the 
 sorgho to attain a complete maturity. This plant, therefore, will fill, 
 in the production of sugar, the void existing between the tropical 
 regions alone suitable for the cultivation of the sugar cane and the 
 fourty-fourth parallel, which seems to be the southern boundary to the 
 profitable cultivation of the beet root. Beyond this limit, the latter 
 
 
316 APPENDIX. 
 
 will probably excel in the production of sugar, while the sorgho, par- 
 ticularly iii the provinces of the west and northwest of France, will gain 
 decidedly upon it in the yield of alcohol. 
 
 As a sugar producing plant, the sorgho will offer as a recommenda- 
 tion, the ease of its culture and treatment of its sap. Its raw product 
 is probably greater than the sugar cane in countries such as Louisiana, 
 where the latter is known as an annual plant. Like the cane, it fur- 
 nishes in its leaves and tops an abundance of excellent green fodder. 
 Finally, its molasses, similar to that from the cane, may be used in the 
 manufacture of rum, and the residuum for a similar but inferior liquor. 
 The great difficulties to be met are, the preservation of the stalks, and 
 especially the short season suitable for its manufacture. But beyond 
 these geographical limits which have been heretofore indicated, the 
 warmth of climate willl allow of successive plantings. I am told by 
 Mr. Wray, of whom previous mention has been made, that in the 
 vicinity of Natal, the Zulu-Kaffirs keep the stalks sound for a long 
 time by pitting them, as there the ground is warm and moist. 
 
 We have just seen that for the manufacture of alcohol the sorgho 
 had the advantage of large proportions of uncrystallizable sugar, which 
 in sugar making is entirely lost. Another advantage is the purity of 
 its sap, which accounts for the fact that the alcohol made from it, as 
 also brandy of first quality, is sufficiently pure for immediate use. 
 
 Alcohol, distilled but once, and that imperfectly, which I obtained 
 with very incomplete laboratory apparatus, was absolutely deprived 
 of all foreign flavors, and even my finest liquors, ranging from forty to 
 fifty per cent., have quite an agreeable taste, similar to our nayau, and 
 would doubtless be useful to take precedence over the similar products 
 of the beet. When pure, their taste is infinitely less coarse and dis- 
 agreeable than that of rum ; after becoming old they would be very 
 superior. 
 
 I have said above, that, besides alcohol and sugar, the sap of the 
 sugar sorgho might furnish a drink similar to cider. In an article in- 
 serted in the " Moniteur," November 13, 1854, I essayed to draw 
 attention to the advantages to be obtained from the manufacture of 
 these fermented drinks. This question is still entirely new, and on 
 
M. VILMORIN'S RESEARCHES. 317 
 
 can scarcely tell to what it may lead ; but after the results I have ar- 
 rived at in my experiments, made under most unfavorable circum- 
 stances, I can but think that it has a profitable future. 
 
 The cultivation of the sorgho will "probably not be difficult, as it 
 closely resembles that of maize and some millets. The obstacles to be 
 encountered will probably arise in giving it its place in the rotation ; 
 in this repect, there is, I think, more to lose than gain in its introduc- 
 tion, while the beet has constantly increased the aggregate yield of the 
 districts where it has been introduced. The sorgho, as well as maize, 
 is thought to be an exhausting plant ; the experiments I have hitherto 
 made, have been too few to allow my deciding on it from personal ob- 
 servation, but I entirely coincide with the established opinion on the 
 subject, and certainly the species to which this plant belongs, makes it 
 improbable that it could fill the same place in a rotation as the beet. 
 
 The value of produce that we may expect from the sorgho is diffi- 
 cult to determine in this state of the question ; my experiments have 
 been made on quite a small scale. The following is the result furnished 
 to me, and the deductions we may draw from it. The small plot of 
 sorgho which I have cultivated open field at Verrieres, in a sandy soil 
 of medium quality, was harvested 30th October. We gathered from 
 it as often as we needed it for the different laboratory experiments, 
 besides which one corner was much stunted by the shade of a large 
 tree, and another spot was reserved for a comparison between topped 
 plants and others on which we had left the tufts. The area cut the 
 30th of October, was 58m40, the yield was (weighed the day after 
 cutting), 
 
 Stalks and leaves, ''' - ", 285k400 
 
 Stalks, without leaves or heads, ''-.;' 179k250 
 
 The lot was so irregular, and so badly covered, that I wished to 
 make another trial ; so in the part farthest removed from the trees I 
 measured a square plot, where, although the plants were not very tall, 
 they were of average growth and covered the ground well. The 
 dimensions of the square were about 5m32, the yield (weighed the day 
 after cutting) was, 
 
 Stalks and leaves, - 41kllO 
 
 Stalks, without leaves or heads, - - 26k230 
 
318 APPENDIX. 
 
 I think that this latter portion may be considered as representing 
 a good average crop, equal to forty-five thousand kilogrammes of 
 beets to the hectare. It is on these figures that I institute my com- 
 parisons. 
 
 For this plot the plants had been raised in a bed, and the plantation 
 was made during the early part of May. 
 
 In another plot, which was sown broadcast on the 18th May, merely 
 a few blades made their appearance. They had greatly needed weed- 
 ing during the early stages of their growth, and had been, in conse- 
 quence, much retarded. The yield was on a basis of 38,000 kilo- 
 grammes to the hectare. 
 
 A third plot, raised in a bed, and planted in the garden, was not 
 weighed ; it was gathered from time to time, as wanted in the experi- 
 ments for determining the periods of the development of the sugar ; 
 but I do not fear to deceive myself, in rating its yield, according to 
 the appearance of the plants, at about half that of the 5m32 lot before 
 mentioned. 
 
 I have obtained as a result from the stalks, without leaves, an 
 amount of juice equal to fifty or sixty per cent. Of course, if the 
 tops are closely trimmed, or if we experiment simply on the selected 
 stalks, a much larger proportion will be obtained. With proper ma- 
 chinery it should easily touch seventy per cent. In the trial of 
 October 30th, (made with the village cider press,) on 215 kilogrammes 
 of stalks, large and small, from which only the tops and last joints had 
 been trimmed, 106 litres of juice were obtained, showing a density of 
 1-052. I calculate at least fifteen litres as lost in dampening the sur- 
 faces of the stone and press. 
 
 I have none of the sugar from the sorgho ; have simply made some 
 trials with the saccharometer, decided usually by an evaporation and 
 a comparison with alcohol. 
 
 The following is the proportion of sugar in the sap of the plant 
 gathered at Yerrieres : 
 
 13th Oct., 1853, - - - 10-04 for 100 of sap. 
 28th Nov., 1853, - ... 13-08 
 Do. do., second trial, - 14-06 
 
M. VILMORIN'S RESEARCHES. 319 
 
 13th Oct., 1854, - <.,?; 10-14 without inversion* 
 
 ) of which was uncrystal- 
 14th Nov., 1854, - - - 16 V lizable 11 f. 
 
 ) crystallizable sugar 4|. 
 
 The amount of alcohol has been determined by a direct fermentation. 
 The following are the figures in the order of trial : 
 
 The figures express the absolute yield of alcohol per litre, in the 
 cubic centimetres. 
 
 Sorgho at Yerrieres : 
 
 28th Sept., 1854, - - L ..., '.'. V. 41. 
 
 4th Oct., 1854, - - - - 54. 
 Sorgho of Algiers : 
 
 1st fermentation, 17th Oct., 1854, - 70. } by the Salleron 
 
 2nd trial some hours afterwards - 74. J . apparatus. 
 
 70-52 on distill. 1 litre 20. 
 
 2nd fermentation 18th Oct., 1854, - 79-52 ; 
 Sorgho at Yerrieres : 
 
 20th Oct., - - -..--: - 72-51 on distillation! litre 
 
 16th Nov., 63-26 tops removed. 
 
 17th Nov., - - - - 60-67 tops not removed. 
 
 If we withdraw from this table the yield of the 28th September, 
 which applies to plants evidently too young, and the four others relat- 
 ing to the Algerian sorgho, I find as an average for our climate, 6.3 
 per cent, in value, or 63 cubic centimetres of alcohol to the litre of 
 sap : an amount which, as one may see, is very encouraging, especially 
 if we consider the excellent quality of the products. 
 
 Establishing our calculation for yield on the basis previously given, 
 we have for a hectare planted with sorgho : 
 
 Stalks and leaves, - - ;A>-^-> 77-270k. 
 
 Stalks alone, - -~ ; -- : : -v ;*** f 49-300 
 Sap at 55 per cent, of the weight of the 
 
 stalks, - ,.-4 - - - 27-115 lit. or 271 hectols. 
 
 * Inversion. This word is left in the original, because we cannot translate it liter- 
 ally, and make proper sense. It means, in this case, without the addition of foreign 
 matter. 
 
320 APPENDIX. 
 
 Sugar, calculated at 8 per cent, of sap, 2-169k. 
 Absolute alcohol, calculated at 6-3 per 
 
 cent, of the sap, - - - 1-708 lit. 
 
 The best will give, in proportion with these figures : 
 Boots, in weight per hectare, -^ '''''*** * a ^i-- HU ' ^.^.-^ 46-000 
 Sap, at 80 per cent, of weight of roots, r V : * > -*J i "* . 36-000 
 Sugar, at 6 per cent, of sap, - " : i' a ",> : -'"I 1 M* >; . ; ; 2-160 
 Pure alcohol, at 3 per cent, of the beet, - - - 1-350 lit 
 
 The calculation of eight per cent., on which I base the relative pro- 
 portion of sugar in the sorgho, may be thought too moderate ; but it 
 here refers simply to the extractable and crystallizable sugar, and I do 
 not think I have valued it at too low a figure. If it were proposed to 
 establish a comparison between the sorgho, and the sugar cane of more 
 southern countries, I am convinced that the sum of products in sorgho 
 should be much raised ; but the conditions necessary for such com- 
 parison are not in my possession, nor for those which might be made 
 between the same plant and the grape vine, topinambour, Ihe grains, 
 and even the asphodel, in respect to the production of alcohol. 
 
 After having examined the advantage that the general cultivation 
 of the sorgho presents, and the considerations which favor the adoption 
 of this plant, it remains to me to cite some of the results yielded by 
 our first experiments, and which may be suggestive for further studies, 
 or as an index for the first attempts in manufacture. 
 
 One of the first points that I have sought to determine, without 
 being able to do so in an entirely satisfactory manner, was to know at 
 what epoch in the growth the stalks commenced secreting sugar, and, 
 as a consequence, at what moment to commence to manufacture. It 
 seemed to me that this period coincided with the development of the 
 head ; but the proportion of sugar in the stalk continues on the in- 
 crease until the grain is in the milk. In a plant in flower, I have re- 
 marked, that the richness in sugar diminished between the joints in 
 proportion as we go higher up the stalk, and that, in like manner, the 
 lower portion of each joint was younger and less sugary than the upper 
 part. In this condition, because of the small dimensions and hardness 
 of the smaller joints, it is the central portion of the stalk which is 
 found to be the most rich. I suppose without having been able to 
 
M. VILMORIN'S RESEAECHES. 321 
 
 decide certainly that at a later stage of growth the lower joints be- 
 come poorer, or, at least, if the sap does not become poorer in quality, 
 it is manifestly less abundant. 
 
 The ripening of the seeds did not seem, at least in our climate, to 
 diminish the yield of sugar ; but as this does not happen with us until 
 the extreme limits of the season, and as our plants have been contin- 
 ually enriching themselves in proportion as their growth continues, 
 the influence of the ripening in these phenomena cannot be determined. 
 It is only in these countries where the plant can attain the maturity 
 of its grains in a continuously warm season, that the matter can be 
 definitely settled. According to the report addressed by M. de Beau- 
 regard to the Chamber of Toulon, the ripening did not have with his 
 plants an injurious effect, and he considered the seed and the sugar as 
 two products which may be obtained conjointly ; then, again, accord- 
 ing to Mr. Wray, the Zulu-Kaffirs are accustomed to break off, by 
 a slight rapid movement, the tuft of their plants at the time it makes 
 its apjpearance, and thus increase the saccharine quality of the stalks. 
 This matter, however, is of no importance in France, where the ripen- 
 ing does not ensue sufficiently early to prove at all unfavorable. 
 
 The saltish taste of the very lowest knots has led me to think that, 
 in some cases, the salts might accumulate in predominance ; I have 
 had the intention, but not the opportunity, to satisfy myself of this by 
 incinerations. The fact would be in conformity to analogies, and de- 
 serves attention. Of no importance as to the manufacture of alcohol, 
 it still would have very much in that of sugar. 
 
 The ability to determine as to the richness in sugar of the juice, is 
 quite limited when recourse is not had to a polarizing saccharometer, 
 and, even with this instrument, inversion is absolutely necessary for 
 the juice of the sorgho, which always contains a greater or less pro- 
 portion of poorly made or uncrystallizable sugar. However, if this 
 instrument cannot be made use of, a tolerably good approximation 
 may.be arrived at by the following process : After having determined 
 the density of the sap as it passes from the press, it should be caused 
 to ferment with care, and as completely as possible, at a temperature of 
 25 to 30 degrees, by the use of a very small quantity of the yeast from 
 beer ; the original volume, having been previously marked by a guage, 
 
322 APPENDIX. 
 
 should be renewed, after the fermentation, by pure (or better, distilled) 
 water ; then a new volume, measured, of the fermented liquid should 
 be reduced to one half by evaporation, in order to abstract all the 
 alcohol, and again brought to its original bulk by means of water. 
 The areometrical quality of this liquid, taken after the above pre- 
 cautions, will be very nearly a true indication to the amount of cor- 
 rection to give to the density of the juice, provided always that it 
 shows its amount of sugar. We should, at the same time, determine, 
 and separately, the correction due to the small amount of yeast 
 employed. 
 
 The process which consists in evaporating the sap to dryness at a 
 temperature of 100 to 110, in taking it back to the alcohol at 85, 
 and again evaporating (a simplification of the Peligo process) may, in 
 many cases, give results with sufficient exactness for general practice. 
 
 To know the amount of alcohol which the sap can furnish, no other 
 method has succeeded better with me than the direct experiment. In 
 operating upon a litre, and even a half litre, of sap, at a constant tem- 
 perature of 30, with the addition of eight to ten grammes of yeast of 
 new beer to the litre of sap, I have frequently had, in eighteen or 
 twenty hours, fermentations sufficiently marked to cause the density 
 of the sap to fall, in this space of time, from 1-060 to 0-997. These 
 figures at once show how easily the sap of the sorgho ferments, and 
 how small amounts of foreign matters it contains, since, during a 
 similar experiment, the juice of the beet root never goes lower than 
 1-007 or 1-008. This fermentation finished, the alcohol is determined, 
 either by means of Salleron's apparatus, or, what I consider more 
 reliable, by reducing a litre or half a litre of liquid. I have always 
 found the results obtained by this latter process perfectly concordant, 
 and I think we may look upon them as exact. If one has kept a 
 record of 'the different volumes, as is done in the SaUeron apparatus, 
 the residuum after evaporation, are sufficient, as we have shown, to 
 determine the influence which the foreign matters in the sugar exert 
 upon the original density of the sap, and thus we obtain two calcu- 
 lations which prove one another. 
 
 The extraction of the sap does not present any difficulties. "When 
 it is proposed to determine its proportion, we may employ either of 
 
 14* 
 
M. VILMOEIN'S RESEARCHES. 323 
 
 two methods : 1st. Cut the stalks into small pieces, chop coarsely or 
 abr.ade, press them ; this process gives us figures which approximate 
 to the yield in manufacture. 2nd. Cut into small pieces, wash and 
 dry ; this gives the exact figures by comparison. 
 
 The extraction of the juices for their treatment, may be accom- 
 plished in many ways. In my first trials I made use of a small 
 rolling mill (laminoir) of which the work was so imperfect that I was 
 compelled to repass the stalks under a small percussion press of 
 sufficient power. In this way I obtained from fifty-five to sixty per 
 cent, of juice, in proportion as I used canes more or less alike or hard. 
 In another experiment I made use of a cider mill and an ordinary 
 press. The action of the rollers upon the stalks had liberated much 
 chlorophyl, and my sap flowed out much charged with green feculous 
 matter ; the yield was the same as above shown ; but a considerable 
 loss (about fifteen per cent.) due to the size of the apparatus as com- 
 pared with the mass of matter on which I operated, carried these 
 figures higher than they should have gone. Without doubt, the use , 
 of more powerful methods, such as crushing or hydraulic presses, as at 
 present successfully employed with sugar cane, would give greater 
 results, and such as would quickly meet the considerable expense of 
 commencing them. In those cases where only the distillation is looked 
 to, maceration might perhaps be resorted to with success, as a very 
 economical method, as well as the process which consisted in causing 
 the direct fermentation of the coarsely crushed canes. This latter 
 process would, however, have greater probabilities of success, as will 
 be shown, the crushed stalks constitute an excellent ferment for the 
 juice of the sorgho. 
 
 In the laboratory experiments I have always used as a ferment the 
 yeast of beer, because this is the most rapid and the best process for 
 quantitative experiments ; it, however, has the inconvenience of im- 
 parting a disagreeable odor to the products of distillation . However, 
 the number of substances which are adequate to inducing fermentation 
 is almost illimitable. The Count de Beauregard, who has made, in the 
 neighborhood of Toulon, experiments on an extensive scale, employed 
 with complete success according to what I have been told by Dr. 
 Turrel the crushed stalks of the sorgho itself to induce the fer- 
 mentation of the juice. 
 
324 APPENDIX. 
 
 All the fruits may be used for the same purpose ; a bunch of grapca 
 crushed between the hands is sufficient to ferment a large vat of several 
 hectolitres, the juice of the sorgho containing naturally a sufficiency of 
 azotized matters to cause fermentation to continue naturally after be- 
 ing thus started ; a ferment of paste, made of the inner part of bread, 
 may take the place of the yeast. In the case where juice largely 
 charged with sugar and derived from very dry stalks, (and of course 
 almost deprived of those younger parts which yield nitrogenous mat- 
 ter) experience a too mild or incomplete fermentation, a little of the 
 flour of French rice will be sufficient to give it all the activity desired. 
 
 Once let the movement be established, it is probable that the method 
 of continuous fermentation so happily .applied to the distillation of the 
 beet, and which consists in the constant introduction of a fine thread- 
 like stream of sweetened liquid into a vat where fermentation is already 
 active, might be adopted, and thus dispense with all anxiety as to the 
 procuring of different ferments. This method has the additional ad- 
 vantage, that it can perfectly regulate the fermentation, and thus obvi- 
 ate, as much as it is possible, the formation of acetic acid. 
 
 It is requisite, in order that the fermentation may be regular, that 
 the temperature should be maintained between 18 to 25 centigrade. 
 This precaution is especially necessary in the small experiments of the 
 laboratory, for which a constant temperature of 25 has always suc- 
 ceeded with me. I have made mention of a process of purification based 
 upon the use of oak-wood shavings, and which entirely destroys the 
 taste of the green matter arising from the crushing of the bark of the 
 stalks by the rollers.* I have observed since then, that, if they are 
 used in excess, either by too prolonged an ebullition or by increasing 
 the proportion of shavings, (which should never exceed 200 grammes 
 to the hectolitre of juice,) this method actually opposes the fermenta- 
 tion. We should therefore give some attention to the proper method 
 of employing it, the more, because for distillation the juices obtained 
 from the rolling mill are so clear as not to have a disagreeable flavor, 
 even when they are put to ferment in their raw state. Perhaps other 
 processes, such as the use of white wood and the coal of wood, might 
 be successfully employed for the defecation or clarification of juices. 
 
 * See Journal ^Agriculture Pratique, (No. of 25th November, p. 420.) 
 
M. VILMORIN'S RESEARCHES. 325 
 
 Lime, which perfectly clarifies the juice, cannot be applied to distilla- 
 tion, because of the disagreeable odors which it develops. 
 
 Relative to the cultivation, there will remain certain points to be 
 decided upon. According to the observation communicated to me by 
 M. Ponsart, the grain requires, for perfect germination, to be very 
 slightly covered, which requires some care in the field sowings ; for, in 
 this case, a large number of seeds will be lost, because of the fact that 
 the harrow covers them with too thick a layer of earth. This explains, 
 perhaps, that in the countries where they cultivate the common sorgho, 
 it is customary to use one decalitre to one and a half decalitres for the 
 drill crops, and from five to six decalitres for broadcast sowing ; whilst 
 the enumeration of the seeds contained in a kilogramme would show, 
 by calculation, a quantity of grains five or six times less. 
 
 The plants should necessarily be cultivated in drills, in order to give 
 them thorough cultivation and proper care ; these are indispensable, 
 especially during the infancy of the plant, which is sometimes quite 
 protracted. The plan proposed by M. Ledocte to associate with 
 the plant we cultivate, when it germinates or develops slowly, another 
 of rapid growth, such as colza, lettuce &c., so that in a very short time 
 the eye of the farmer may distinguish the lines or plots occupied by 
 the plants which his cultivator should spare seems worthy of being 
 recommended in this case ; because the fine sprouts of the sorgho, 
 being confounded with grass, renders the operation of the first cultiva- 
 tion very difficult. The layering of the branches proposed by M. 
 Heuze, seems to me but slightly practicable. It is only in September 
 that they have become strong enough to be layered, and the plants 
 thus procured would not attain, even in a year's time, a development 
 which would warrant their cultivation. I shall have an analogous 
 observation to make on the separation of the plant raised in a bed ; 
 by decreasing the branching, this process would oblige one to plant 
 closer, which would compensate for all the advantages to be derived 
 from it. 
 
 The experiments relative to the preservation of the stalks, merit 
 above all to be followed with attention. I have herefotore noticed the 
 use of covered pits in Caffraria ; a commencement of drying by the 
 sun, having the effect of concentrating the sap in the stalks, might 
 
326 APPENDIX. 
 
 make their preservation more certain and easy ; finally, the prepara- 
 tion of small clippings artificially dried, might perhaps pay for the extra 
 expenses which their preparation would cause, by enabling us to manu- 
 facture throughout the entire year. All the questions which attach 
 themselves to this order of facts, are so much more important to study, 
 because if they obtain a good solution, they would result in remedying 
 what may at present be regarded as the weakest point of the sorgho 
 the preservation of the stalks during a sufficiently long time to accom- 
 plish a regular manufacture.* 
 
 THE SORGHO IN AMERICA. 
 
 Wishing to know something of the results of experiments instituted 
 upon this plant in our own country, I have written to Messrs. Parker, 
 White, & G-annet, seedsmen, of Boston, who are correspondents of 
 Monsieur Vilmorin, and have the seeds of the sorgho for sale, and they 
 answer as follows : 
 
 BOSTON, November 22, 1855. 
 ME. H. S. OLCOTT, 
 
 Dear Sir, We have ourselves cultivated the Hokus saccharatus 
 the past season, for the purpose of supplying ourselves with seed. It 
 grows readily, and ripens the seed with as much certainty as Indian 
 corn. 
 
 There is very little probability that it will be grown in New Eng- 
 land for the purpose of making sugar, but we esteem it highly as an 
 article for feeding cattle, cutting it up for a green crop as soon as it is 
 four or five feet high, when it has more foliage than corn, and is full 
 of sweeter juices. 
 
 We believe it can be profitably grown for the production of sugar 
 in some of the northern slave states, and may possibly, when it shall 
 have been once fairly introduced, take the place of the common cane 
 
 * This tendency to decay Is the chief objection urged by those who oppose the cul- 
 tlvAtion of green corn for fodder, and it seems reasonable to suppose that those precau- 
 tions which ensure the preservation of the corn stalks, would be equally applicable to 
 the sorgho. TRANS. 
 
M. VILMOKIN'S RESEARCHES. 327 
 
 in some of the present sugar growing sections. Enclosed is an item 
 which we have picked up. 
 
 " M. Avequin, the distinguished chemist, says the N. 0. Bee, has 
 exhibited to us a specimen of very fine, well grained sugar, obtained 
 from the plant known to botanists as the Holcus saccharatus, and com- 
 monly styled ' Sorgho.' It is a species of corn, producing a small 
 grain like millet, and is very easily cultivated. The sugar is extracted 
 from the stem or stalk, and the yield is quite large. One acre of 
 ground in cultivation, will produce from eight hundred to one thousand 
 pounds of sugar. The sorgho has the advantage of ripening in sum- 
 mer, so that the grinding can be effected from the close of July to the 
 middle of September. The stalks and entire plant afford excellent 
 forage for cattle." 
 
 Eespectfully yours, 
 
 PARKER, WHITE, & GANNET. 
 
 I then wrote to M. Avequin, and through his politeness received his 
 letter addressed to L' Abeille de la N. Orleans (N. 0. Bee], a transla- 
 tion of which is annexed : 
 
 To the Editors of the Bee : 
 
 You have published at different times during the past year, some 
 facts concerning the sorgho sucre, Holcus saccharatus, called the 
 Chinese Sorgho. These communications failing to give anything 
 exact as to the value of this plant, as an object of culture in Louisiana, 
 or as to the amount of sugar to be extracted from it, allow me to add 
 something to what is already known of it, and thus assist in arriving 
 at definite conclusions 
 
 For some two years past the seed has been sown by several planters 
 in small quantities, and with favorable results ; but I know of none 
 who have attempted to extract the sugar in large quantity. Still, this 
 plant is quite important ; it ripens three months before the sugar cane, 
 and it can be crushed from the early part of August, and throughout the 
 whole of September, or still later even. This is at once a decided 
 advantage. But those who have written upon the sorgho have, to my 
 
828 APPENDIX. 
 
 mind, a little exaggerated it sugar producing qualities, and its yield 
 per acre. 
 
 * * * * * The sorgho that I examined towards the middle 
 of September, had arrived at full maturity, perhaps a little past ; it 
 had been sown in good season. 
 
 The expressed juice of the sorgho is somewhat more turbid than 
 cane juice, but it is clarified by milk of lime as readily as is the latter. 
 The green froths which arise from it are nearly analogous to those 
 from the juice of the cane. This sap had a density of 1064 ; it reached 
 almost 9 Beaume, and had an acid reaction similar to that of all the 
 juices of canes. This property it owes to the acid phosphate of lime 
 which it contains. This same salt exists to an equal degree in the 
 sugar cane. 
 
 The sap of the sorgho contains a trifle more of salts of potash, acid 
 phosphates of lime, and phosphate of magnesia, than any equal quan- 
 tity of cane juice at least I have found it so in the sap of the sorgho 
 which I analyzed ; it may possibly be that other specimens would 
 contain less. 
 
 A litre of the sap of the sugar -sorgho contains 7-50 grammes of 
 salts of potash, acetate of potash, muriate of potash, and sulphate of 
 potash. A gallon of it contains 28 - 38 grammes, or little more than 
 an ounce. 
 
 A litre of the sap gives 2-18 grammes of acid phosphate of lime and 
 of phosphate of magnesia. A gallon contains 8*23 grammes. A litre 
 has given 0'12 grammes of hydrated silica, mixed with oxide of iron 
 and manganese. A gallon contains 0'45 grammes. These matters are 
 all in solution in the sap of the sorgho, together with other organic 
 matter, such as albumen, vegetable fibrine, chlorophyl, &c. These 
 latter substances offer no impediment to the extraction of the sugar 
 from the sorgho. 
 
 The sorgho, from a given weight, affords less sap than the sugar 
 cane, at least such is indicated by my experiments. It may be that if 
 taken when less ripe, the sorgho would give a larger yield of sap. 
 From several stalks of sorgho of good quality and fully ripe, I have 
 only obtained 42 per cent, of juice by expression, whilst I have readily 
 obtained 64 per cent, from the cane by the same process. 
 
M. VILMORIN'S RESEARCHES. 329 
 
 When a litre of sap of the sugar sorgho weighs 1064 grammes, 
 about 9 Beaume, a gallon of this same sap weighs 4 kilogrammes 0-31 
 grammes, or 8 Ibs. 14 oz. 2 drachms 14 grains, English weight. This 
 gallon of sap contains 652 grammes of sugar, salts, and organic mat- 
 ters, or 1 Ib. 7 oz. 4 gr , English weight. 
 
 It gives per 1000 parts, in weight : 
 
 Sugar - ; ,,r, ^ f,^- -> , s ; i Vyft'tf^**. 152 
 Salts and organic matters 10 
 
 Water - - \ <. *,\.-;-~ \ -> *J ,-+'*. -r-; - - 838 
 
 1000 
 
 To make one thousand Ibs. of unrefined sugar, cleansed and well 
 dropped, with sap of the sorgho of a density of 1064, requires 1250 
 to 1300 gallons of sap. This sugar is of the same kind as that ex- 
 tracted from the cane. 
 
 The sugar of the sorgho will give almost as much molasses as the 
 cane sugar in Louisiana, perhaps a little less, because it has a density 
 a trifle more than the average of the cane in Louisiana, at least that 
 which I have examined. 
 
 One thousand pounds of this sugar thoroughly clarified, will not 
 give less than fifty-five gallons of molasses ; in some instances the molasses 
 would be in much greater proportion. In this respect the sorgho will 
 share the vicissitudes of the sugar cane succeeding years would not 
 give equal results. 
 
 An arpent (six sevenths of an acre) of sorgho, well cultivated, with 
 a good yield, might give eight hundred to one thousand Ibs. of raw 
 sugar, clarified and saleable. The experiments which I have made 
 upon the subject show this clearly enough. Certainly the sorgho cannot 
 supersede the sugar cane in Louisiana ; but it has great advantage 
 over the cane, in that it can be crushed from the early part of August, 
 and throughout September, whilst the cane cannot be crushed until 
 about the first of November. It remains to be known if this ad- 
 vantage can reconcile itself with the other interests of the planter ; 
 this I have cot sought to establish. 
 
 The sap of the sorgho, after having been clarified, as do all the 
 
330 APPENDIX. 
 
 sugary juices, can take on the alcoholic fermentation ; it is almost 
 needless to mention this here. It may be distilled, and will yield tafia, 
 the same as that from the sugar cane. The molasses dripping from 
 the raw sugar of the sorgho juice may likewise produce rum or 
 alcohol, as desired ; but these alcoholic liquors have nothing of the 
 flavor of Cognac brandies, and cannot replace them in their various 
 uses. 
 
 We will conclude this notice by saying that the sugar sorgho makes 
 an excellent forage for animals, preferable to corn stalks. Cows, 
 horses, mules and oxen devour the leaves and the entire stalk, even to 
 the last particle. "We ask of the planters to make trial of this plant, 
 either as a green fodder, or for the extraction of sugar. An experi- 
 ment upon twenty-five or thirty acres would be no great expense for 
 them. 
 
 Agree, gentlemen, &c., AVEQUIN. 
 
 REPORT 
 
 Addressed to his Excellency MARSHAL VAILLAINT, Minister of War in 
 France, upon the Culture of the Sugar Sorgho, by DOCTOR TURREL, 
 Secretary of the Assembly of Toulon, fyc., fyc. Translated by HENRY 
 S. OLCOTT, Westchester Farm School, Mount Vernon, N. Y. 
 
 (From " SUGAR CANE AND SUGAR MAKING," by Chas. F. Stansbury. A. 0. Moore, N. Y.) 
 
 MAY IT PLEASE YOUR EXCELLENCY, The sugar sorgho (Holcus 
 saccharatus] is a botanical species not entirely unknown to more 
 southern countries. It was cultivated in the 15th century in Italy, 
 where it had probably been introduced by the Venetians and Genoese 
 at the period of the development of their maritime commerce. At 
 the commencement of that century, and as a consequence of the 
 Continental war, we notice in Italy large experiments with the sugar 
 cane ; but, whether on account of their process for the extraction of 
 the sugar not being sufficiently perfect to warrant the idea that it 
 could exclude other colonial products of an analogous nature, or 
 
REPORT OF M. TURREL. 381 
 
 because their variety was not as rich in sugar as the new stock, its 
 culture was abandoned. 
 
 The Botanic Garden at Toulon has for a long time possessed a speci- 
 men of this plant in its collections. M. Bobert, who was the director, 
 cultivated it at one time, but neglected, and finally lost it entirely. 
 
 These historic facts go, your Excellency, to substantiate the strong 
 claims which M. de Montigny has upon the gratitude of the entire 
 country. 
 
 It is through the means of the Geographical Society that I had 
 the pleasure of receiving, in 1851, a small specimen of ten grammes 
 of seeds of the sorgho. M. Jomard, President of the Society, sent 
 me a package of thirty-two kinds of grains or roots, and I should, 
 as Secretary of the Assembly, acknowledge the zealous cooperation 
 of my colleagues in the experiments made with them. 
 
 It is to M. Eobert that is due the honor of propagation of the 
 sugar sorgho ; a single seed ripened with him in 1851. 'Tis the plant 
 springing from this single seed which has produced all the seeds dis- 
 tributed by him in the department. It is by means of the seeds thus 
 obtained by M. Kobert, that M. Eantonnet has been able to make 
 his extensive experiments. 
 
 The Sugar Cane of the North of China, which is the name by which 
 we are acquainted with this plant, was recognized, immediately on its 
 development, as botanically identical with the Holcus saccliaratus, or 
 sugar sorgho. As soou as the crop could be gathered, one of my 
 colleagues, Doctor Ardoin, experimented with the juice which he 
 obtained by expression, and he presented to the Assembly, in the 
 month of August, a specimen of molasses of a brownish yellow color, 
 the flavor of which was beyond doubt strongly saccharine. 
 
 The committee on which I had the honor to serve with Messrs. 
 Hugolin, Letscher, Ardoin, de Beauregard, and C. Burle, divided 
 amongst themselves the various experiments, and the results arrived 
 at confirmed the hopes awakened by the first experiments by Dr. 
 Ardoin. 
 
 We obtained from 50 to 60 per cent, of sweet juice from stalks 
 stripped of their leaves and put through the press, and in this juice 
 we found a per centage of saccharine matter varying from 10 to 20 
 per cent. The liquid was not examined in the polarizing apparatus ; 
 
332 APPENDIX. 
 
 but the opinion of one of us was that the sugar in the sorgho was 
 identical with grape sugar, and of course unciystallizable. 
 
 However, this opinion was not accepted in the absence of proof, 
 although advanced by an able chemist ; and M. Beauregard, our 
 president, aided by M. Verignon, a chemist at Hyeres, undertook new 
 experiments, which resulted in the procuring of magnificent cubic 
 crystals of sugar, similar to the crystals of cane sugar, formed in the 
 center of a liquid when it is dissolved. But this laboratory experi- 
 ment possesses only a secondary interest, compared to the trials made 
 by M. Beauregard, and whose result seriously affects the industry of 
 our country. 
 
 So strong an analogy as that which had been supposed to exist be- 
 tween the sugar of the holcus and the grape, would strongly suggest 
 this question Whether the sorgho sugar ought not to be transformed 
 into alcohol as readily as is that of the grape. We owe it to the 
 honor of our Assembly, and to M. Beauregard, the president, to 
 record the fact, that the question of the production of alcohol from 
 the sorgho was first entertained and practically demonstrated by that 
 gentleman. 
 
 The grape disease, by exhausting for a long time, perhaps, the 
 most abundant source of alcoholic productions, has forced our industry 
 to seek for other means for the extraction of alcoholic products. 
 Hence, the beet is no longer used for sugar, but for alcohol ; hence we 
 have distilled the cereals, in which alcohol had been produced, by the 
 assistance of a chemical agent. In view of the high price of the 
 cereals, and of the impending scarcity that bad harvests threaten, the 
 government is justly alarmed and has prohibited the distillation of 
 grain. This provision, thanks to our Assembly, will shortly be 
 entirely useless, for the sugar sorgho is endowed with greater profu- 
 sion of alcohol than all the other substitutes for the vine. M. de B., 
 in a report made to the agricultural assembly of Toulon, at the session 
 of November Cth, 1854, has shown that, having distilled the juice of 
 the sorgho, fermented by the assistance of the grape cluster stalks, or 
 even of the bagasse of the cane itself,* he has obtained, by means of 
 
 * May not the bagasse be treated with sulphuric acid, as is done with wood and rags, 
 to transform them into glucose ; thus obtaining alcohol, by the fermentation of the 
 sugar produced in this manner ? 
 
REPORT OF M. TURREL. 333 
 
 very imperfect apparatus, five per cent, of pure alcohol. This alcohol 
 is of very fine flavor ; and he considers it comparable to our excellent 
 tafia ; furthermore, he has produced a wine quite similar in flavor to 
 the cider of Normandy. S. Yilmorin obtains with the common cider 
 mill, 50 per cent, of juice, an average density of 1050 to 1070, which he 
 concentrates by evaporation. He adds about two hundred grammes 
 of oak shaving to a hectolitre of juice ; ebullition reduces the liquid 
 to a half, which he finds completely purified by the precipitation of 
 the albuminous matters which combine with the tannin of the shav- 
 ings. The purification may be obtained with cherry shavings ; and 
 to the wine obtained by fermentation can be given, by using a little 
 yeast, different flavors, by infusing in the liquid during fermentation 
 flowers of elder, hops, fir buds, or berries of the juniper. 
 
 In continuing the evaporation of part of the juice, a caramel syrup 
 is obtained, which is added to the juice after the first frothing or fer- 
 mentation. A slightly saccharine liquid is thus obtained, which is 
 made sparkling by putting it in bottles, before the fermentation is 
 entirely completed. 
 
 When the sap is intended for distillation, it is necessary, adds M. 
 Vilmorin, that nearly the whole of it should be fermented with the 
 presence of oak shavings. 1-20 only of the juice will be ample to expe- 
 dite and regulate the fermentation, which one can determine, for the 
 first time as needed, by the addition of a small quantity of yeast. 
 M. de B. has made the juice of the sorgho ferment without previous 
 working in his wine vats, by means of grape stems of his vintage. 
 He has obtained, from the distilled juices, an alcohol of first quality, 
 in which it is impossible to distinguish the slightest herbaceous flavor ; 
 for he has sold his products, in the MarseiUes exchange, at the current 
 price of the ordinary alcohols. 
 
 By adopting for all France, the result obtained at Yerrieres by S. 
 Yilmorin with the sorghos cultivated in his estate, we would have the 
 following result : the sorgho yields a maximum of 50 per cent, of the 
 weight of its stalks in saccharine juice ; the minimum production cal- 
 culated from the yield at Yerrieres, would be thirty thousand kilo- 
 grammes of juice to the hectare ; we could extract from it twenty-one 
 hectolitres of alcohol, worth three thousand seven hundred and eighty 
 
334 APPENDIX. 
 
 francs, which would be a yield, per hectare, that no other agricultural 
 product can equal. 
 
 The culture of the sugar sorgho needs, as for all annual plants of 
 considerable growth, a soil rich and considerably improved. In Pro- 
 vence and Algeria, the sorgho could not ripen its seed and pass through 
 all the stages of its growth without the assistance of irrigation. 
 However, in the rainy seasons, we can hope for its complete maturity ; 
 for in 1853 several of our colleagues of the Assembly have obtained 
 magnificent sorghos, and harvested good grains on a soil quite dry, 
 and where irrigation was not practicable. Wheat soils, and alluvial 
 ones, would suit it especially. We have seen it attain rich growth on 
 a stony and light soil. 
 
 We have already mentioned that the sorgho attains a height of 
 three or four yards. Each plant produces four to six stalks, of which 
 each one is surmounted by a panicle weighing two hundred to three 
 hundred grammes, and of which each one may yield two hundred to 
 three hundred grains. The panicle of the main stalk is the first to 
 arrive at maturity ; the secondary panicles ripen at about the same 
 time, and even the subsequent ones ripon their seed when the autumn 
 is not too severe. 
 
 About the end of September, the panicles begin to ripen ; and it is 
 at the transition from the milk state, that the saccharine richness of 
 the plant is carried to its highest degree. 
 
 This fact, so interesting as regards the reproduction of the plant 
 and the yield of grain, has been proved by our honorable President, 
 M. de Beauregard. 
 
 M. Yilmorin has moreover observed, that the saccharine matter in 
 the stalk decreases gradually, from the base to the top ; and it is in 
 the spaces between the lower joints that it is the most marked. 
 
 The plant is essentially rich in hydro-carbon products (sugar, alco- 
 hol) ; it is therefore improbable that nitrogenized manures will be as 
 indispensable to its growth, as to plants abounding in gluten (wheat, 
 barley, oats) ; in this view of the case, the crop would not be an 
 exhausting one. 
 
 It is not without design that we introduce into the consideration of 
 an industrial plant, its value as a fodder crop. 'The rearing of cattle, 
 
REPORT OF M. TURREL. 335 
 
 indispensable on the well cultivated farm, cannot be profitably under- 
 taken, without the aid of fodder crop ; and if the plant which occu- 
 pies our attention demands simply the manures which cattle furnish, 
 it gives, on its part, for their nourishment, a remarkably large crop 
 of fodder. 
 
 In truth, stock greedily eat the leaves of the sorgho, which can bo 
 fed to them green, at the time when the meadows have ceased to yield 
 cuttings ; and as they can be gathered from September to December, 
 it follows that, during four months, the sorgho will furnish an agreea- 
 ble and nutritious fodder. Horses and mules are exceedingly fond of 
 it : it can be cured for winter. 
 
 We have only adverted to the possibility of the economical extrac- 
 tion of the sugar from the sorgho ; but the discoveries which we owe 
 to the talent of M. de Montigny, of the production of sugar from 
 this plant by the inhabitants of the north of China, authorise the 
 belief that, when their processes of extraction become familiar to us, 
 the sugar sorgho, by reason of its saccharine richness, can profitably 
 replace, in Provence and Algeria, the beet, whose culture for sugar is 
 not expedient in warm climates. 
 
 In truth, the sugar beet, which contains only eight to ten per cent, 
 of sugar, cannot be compared, in saccharine richness, with the sugar 
 sorgho, which has from sixteen to twenty per cent. And, further- 
 more, if we consider that beet juice yields but three to four per 
 cent, of alcohol and that unsuitable for wine making whilst the 
 juices of the sorgho yield from six to ten per cent, of excellent alco- 
 hol, appropriate for all industrial and economical purposes ; we shall 
 have the most just and least exaggerated idea of the future of the 
 plant upon which I have sought to lay before you the facts practically 
 demonstrated. It but just appears above the agricultural horizon ; 
 and while it already recommends itself by precious qualities, it causes. 
 us to cherish most flattering hopes. Thus, your Excellency, have I 
 endeavored to enumerate its strong claims to yonr enlightened atten- 
 tion, for its bearing upon the interests of Algeria. 
 
 I am, with respects, Sir, &c. &c.. 
 
 S. TUEEEL, 
 
 Secy, of the Agricultural Assembly of Toulon. 
 
836 APPENDIX. 
 
 Table of French weights and measures, referred to in the prece- 
 ding and succeeding reports. 
 
 Kilogramme, ** ,/r?. / ~ 2 Ibs. 62 drachms. 
 
 Hectare, 2J acres. 
 
 Gramme, ;.^ ^ ";,f^;>\^.*- . dr. avoirdupois. 
 
 Litre, --,%;" - 2 1-9 wine pints. 
 
 Centimetre, - .*. wtf '&.**. " 39-100 of an inch. 
 
 Decalitre, .^n^.^-*''-? -.> about 2 gallons. 
 
 Metre, 39 inches. 
 
 EEPOET 
 
 Addressed to his Excellency the Minister of War, upon t/te Culture of the 
 Sugar Sorgho, by M. HARDY, Director General of the Government 
 Nursery at Hamma, in Algeria, Member of the Imperial Society of 
 Acclimation. Translated for this work by H. S. OLCOTT, of the 
 Westchester Farm School, Mount Vernon, N. Y. 
 
 (From " SUGAR CANE AND SUGAR MAKING," by C. F. Stansbury A. O. Moore.) 
 
 ON the 18th of May last, I sowed plots of sorgho sucre, comprising 
 a total area of about sixty-five square rods, (Eng.,) of a nearly uniform 
 quality of soil. The ground had been deeply worked and fully man- 
 ured. The seed was sown in drills eighty centimetres apart. When 
 the young plants had become sufficiently strong, I thinned out, leaving 
 them at thirty to thirty-five centimetres apart in the drill. The plan- 
 tation received during the season three hoeings and three slight irriga- 
 tions, which consisted in turning a small stream of water through an 
 open trench running alongside each row. Not more than four hun- 
 dred cubic metres of water were necessary to the hectare. At the 
 last hoeing the dirt was drawn to the foot of the plants, in such man- 
 ner as to form a slight hill, both for the purpose of protecting the 
 plants against the wind and to favor the development of extra roots 
 which spring from the stalk, as is the case with Indian corn. 
 
EEPORT OF M. IIAKDY. 337 
 
 The majority of stalks attained a height of four or live yards ; a 
 great number did not exceed a thickness of ten to eleven centimetres. 
 The seed ripens about the middle of September ; and despite the at- 
 tacks of sparrows, the sixty-five square rods gave me four hundred 
 aud twenty-five kilogrammes of seed, which would equal two thousand 
 five hundred kilogrammes per hectare. 
 
 I have also cut the stalk, to make comparative weighings from 
 various marked portions of the three plots. It was noticed that the 
 plants had usually from three to seven stalks, (suckers,) or an average 
 of five. The stalks stripped clean of their leaves, then deprived of 
 the upper ends, which contain little or no saccharine matters, were 
 reduced to an average length of 2 % 5 metres (a little over eight 
 feet). From these pieces I obtained by weight a yield of 83,250 kilo- 
 grammes of saccharine stalks to the hectare. 
 
 The preceding year, in my first experiment with the sugar sorgho, I 
 had planted it in groups about two and a half feet apart each way. 
 The stalks grew nearly like the crop of the present year ; but, crowded 
 too much by this close planting, they did not attain the weight and 
 diameter of this year's stalks. Their yield per hectare was scarcely 
 forty to forty-five thousand kilogrammes.* The spacing and mode of 
 planting, in 1855, seemed entirely suitable for soils of good fertility, 
 the only ones on which the sorgho culture should be attempted, if it 
 is desired to obtain its full development and greatest possible yield. 
 This wide culture likewise enables us to make use of horse tools, such 
 as the horse-shoe for cultivation, and the light plow to make trenches 
 for irrigation. 
 
 The stalks bruised in a mortar after having been cut into small 
 pieces, and then submitted to strong pressure, yielded sixty-seven per 
 cent of sap. 
 
 The juices had at the end of September, at the time of gathering 
 the seed, a density of 8| Beaume, which would indicate an approxi- 
 mative saccharine richness of thirteen per cent. I distinctly say an 
 approximative richness, not actual, for I have no saccharometer at this 
 
 * NOTE BY TBANS. The crop of sorgho raised during the last season 1856 at the 
 Farm School, was planted in this manner 2]-s 3 feet six stalks to the hill. The 
 plants attained an immense height, but were so weak as to be prostrated by a wind 
 etorin, and the Beed did not ripen in consequence. H. S. O. 
 
 15 
 
338 APPENDIX. 
 
 place ; and this is the only instrument which enables us to determine 
 the per centage of uncrystallizable or grape sugar. It is, therefore, 
 to the polarizing saccharometer that we must look to determine this 
 important point. But supposing the entire sugar to be crystallizable, 
 the hectare would give the following result : 8 ff 5 50 X 67 = S 5 ^ 77 X 
 13 = 7254 kilogramme of sugar, or the equivalent for one portion of 
 uncrystallizable sugar. 
 
 The sap containing grape sugar, or uncrystallizable, is not less sus- 
 ceptible of alcoholization than if it had none but crystallizable. But 
 I will again refer to this matter. 
 
 The stalks which had been robbed of their seed heads having been 
 left standing in the field, I had the satisfaction to see them two mouths 
 after the gathering of the seed still standing, untouched by the wind, 
 and safe from the attacks of worms, and, moreover, retaining their 
 original sweet taste. Thus we see that not only does the sweet prin- 
 ciple develop itself at the time of ripening the seed, but it continues 
 to exist, unchanged, in the stalks long after the seed tops are removed ; 
 and it is absolutely proved that in Algeria we may use the seeds of the 
 sorgho when they are fully ripe, without lessening the crop of the sac- 
 charine matters contained in the stalk. 
 
 The sorgho seed has at present an inordinate value, because of its 
 rarity ; but this will be but of short duration, and the price will rap- 
 idly descend to a level with the ordinary cereals, the yield being so 
 very prolific as to quickly surpass even the most unusual demands for 
 planting. 
 
 Besides the foregoing uses, this seed will bear a certain industrial 
 value, and have other employment than the rearing of poultry or pigs, 
 like the seed of the broom corn. Doctor Sicard, of Marseilles, has 
 discovered, during the past year, that the seed of the sorgho sucre 
 contains in the outer coating a very beautiful red color, from which 
 he has obtained all the various tints ranging from red to violet. M. 
 Chevreul has likewise noticed the remarkable and entirely character, 
 istic facility of this dye for tinting silk.* 
 
 * I have repeated the experiment of Dr. Sicard and M. Chevreul with entire success. 
 The hulls, stripped from the seed, and boiled for about fifteen minutes in pure water, 
 yield a deep purplish red solution, in which I have dyed cotton and silk fabrics. The 
 tints range from deep purple to a splendid opal. The dye, I find on microscopic exarn 
 
KEPOKT OF M. HARDY. 339 
 
 For my part, I have extracted from the stalks a product which will 
 not be without its uses, and of which I will speak again. 
 
 The sorgho sucre is, so to speak, perennial, for I have plants which 
 are now at the end of their second year of growth and are commenc- 
 ing to grow for the third season, and giving every evidence of an in- 
 tention to again complete the maturity of their growth. But I do 
 not suppose it would be useful to preserve a plantation throughout 
 several seasons. I believe that the attempt would prove more trouble- 
 some than profitable. The second year the stalks scarcely attain a 
 height of one and a half or two yards. 
 
 These first experiments which I lay before your Excellency are not 
 the only ones undertaken by me ; I have made diligent study of its 
 virtues, and obtain the following results : 
 
 The stalks which had been topped to gather the seed, were allowed 
 to stand as they grew until the month of February last. I made ex- 
 tractions of juice at various periods. 
 
 First attempt (made in the latter part of September at the gather- 
 ing of the seed). Obtained sixty-seven of juice for one hundred of 
 stalks ; this juice showed a density of eight and three quarters. 
 
 November 28, 1 obtained fifty-two per cent, of juice ; density nin- 
 and a half. 
 
 January 31, obtained fifty-one per cent, of juice of a density of 
 eight and a half. 
 
 Finally, February 16, last trial, I obtained 49 % 5 per cent, of juice, 
 with a density of eight degrees. 
 
 Thus, from the end of September until the end of November, the 
 stalks standing in the field lost nothing of their proportion of saccha- 
 rine principle ; for if the quantity of juice had diminished some fifteen 
 per cent., representing 0*66 per cent, of alcohol, on the other hand, 
 this juice had gained some 0'75 per cent, in richness, representing 
 
 ination, is contained in the fibers which make up the inner part of the seed hull, and 
 in the compact silicious structure of the hull itself. The fibers look like hemp fibers 
 dyed. The hull, after being subjected to p r o!onged boiling, is not unlike in appearance 
 a piece of sheet India rubber. The color of the seed covering is not black, as is gen- 
 erally supposed, but a very deep purple. From the readiness with which the dye 
 separates f . om the hull, it seems as if this feature of sorgho culture would prove far 
 from unimportant. 
 
840 APPENDIX. 
 
 nearly the equivalent of alcohol ; whence it follows, that the saccha- 
 rine or alcoholic richness had on the contrary increased. 
 
 From the close of November to the middle of February, the dimin- 
 ution in weight and quality has not arrived at such a degree as to 
 prevent the economical manufacture of products throughout this long 
 lapse of time. This is of great moment. In fact, whilst in the mid- 
 dle of France the frosts have destroyed the stalks of the sorgho as 
 early as the end of October, in Algeria these stalks may be preserved 
 without alteration, so to speak, and without expense, throughout 
 almost the entire winter, for the use of the distilleries. 
 
 The trials for alcohol producing, were made on the juice extracted 
 January 31. I put in two globes of glass, two litres of juice, with 
 the addition of a little brewer's yeast, somewhat old and slightly sour ; 
 and two other litres, without yeast. Then I boiled some cuttings of 
 the sorgho, which I then peeled and pressed. This juice was put in a 
 third globe. The three glasses were put in the green house for young 
 plants (serre aux boutures) the temperature ranging from twenty-two 
 to thirty degrees centigrade. 
 
 The next day, the juice which had been mixed with no foreign ingre- 
 dient, and which I call the plain juice, commenced fermenting. Num- 
 erous bubbles of carbonic acid gas arose ; but neither in the boiled 
 juice, nor in that mixed with yeast, were any signs of fermentation 
 manifested. 
 
 The 3d February, I made a trial with the Salleron apparatus. 
 The plain juice, gave two and a half per cent, of alcohol ; juice 
 with yeast, gave ; boiled juice gave 0. 
 
 February 6th, second trial made. Plain juice, gave 6-20 per cent, 
 of alcohol ; juice, with yeast, gave ; boiled juice, gave 0. 
 
 February 8th, third trial. Plain juice, gave 10-30 per cent, of 
 alcohol ; juice, with yeast, gave ; boiled juice gave 1 per cent. 
 
 February 10th, fourth trial. Plain juice, gave 9'90 per cent, of 
 alcohol ; juice wiih yeast, gave ; boiled juice, gave 3-20 per cent. 
 
 February 12th, fifth trial. Plain juice gave 9*30 per cent of alco- 
 hol ; with yeast gave 1 ; boiled, gave 5-40. 
 
 February 14th, sixth trial. Plain juice gave 8-60 per cent, of alco- 
 hol ; with yeast, gave ; boiled, gave 2-40. 
 
REPORT OF M. HARDY. 341 
 
 February I6th, seventh and last trial. Plain juice, gave 7*90 per 
 cent, of alcohol ; with yeast, gave ; boiled juice gave 1-90. 
 
 This series of experiments seems conclusive, and proves that the 
 juice of the sorgho carries in itself a fermentative principle ; and that 
 it is not necessary to add to it any yeast to obtain the alcoholic fer- 
 mentation, if it be simply submitted to the proper temperature. The 
 addition of yeast, which, besides being of bad quality, neutralized 
 the action of the natural ferment of the albuminous matter in the 
 juice, and hastened rapidly the acidulous fermentation. The boiled 
 juice did not experience a thorough fermentation, because the albumin- 
 ous fermentable principle was coagulated by the cooking. 
 
 At the end of eight days, the fermentation of the plain juice of 'the 
 sorgho arrived at its maximum of alcoholization, and at this point 
 it should be submitted to distillation ; two days after, its alcoholic 
 richness diminished, and it passed to acidification. 
 
 The seed of the sorgho is equally as susceptible of giving a notable 
 per centage of alcohol, as the other cereals ; I myself have, as yet, 
 made no experiment in this direction ; but, by analogy, one is natu- 
 rally led to conclude that it should be so. The seed of the common 
 sorghum, (broom corn,) according to M. Bassel, gives 24' 75 per cent, 
 of its weight in alcohol ; that of the sugar sorgho should not yield 
 less ; whence it follows, that the two thousand five hundred kilo- 
 grammes that one hectare produces, should give six hundred and 
 eighteen kilogrammes, and seventy-five grammes "of alcohol. This 
 would, perhaps, be the best use to put it to, whenever the supply shall 
 exceed the demand for planting. 
 
 When the sorgho stalk has arrived at perfect maturity, a waxy 
 efflorescence develops itself on the surface, similar to that of several 
 varieties of sugar cane, and which is simply cerosie. Cerosie, or vege- 
 table wax, is dry and hard, and may be pulverized ; it is fusible at 
 ninety degrees ; mixed with a little purified tallow, it may be made 
 into candles, which give a beautiful bright light. 
 
 I scraped the cerosie from a number of stalks, and found that a 
 hectare should give one hundred and eight kilogrammes, four hundred 
 grammes of this substance costing an average price of two hundred 
 and fifty-two francs for hand labor in gathering it. Beeswax being 
 
342 APPENDIX. 
 
 sold at four francs per kilogramme cerosie should be worth three 
 francs fifty cents; this would give a receipt of three hundred and 
 thirty francs sixty-two cents, and a net profit of eighty-eight francs 
 sixty- two cents, to be added to the other net profits of the sorgho 
 culture. This item would moreover assume a new importance, if we 
 find (as I doubt not we shall) processes of extraction of the wax, 
 more economical than the one employed by me, which consists in 
 scraping the stalk with a knife, in a similar manner to the process 
 employed with the wax bearing palm tree. 
 
 The forage for stock which may be obtained on a hectare, both by 
 stripping the leaves and by the after-math, has a determined value, 
 and it is no exaggeration to estimate it at two hundred metrical 
 quintals* when the stalks have been dried, and this, at four francs 
 per quintal, would yield eight hundred francs. 
 
 The total profit and expense of a well cultivated hectare of sorgho 
 Sucre (molasses and syrup not being considered) would be as follows : 
 
 7954 litres, 68 of alcohol, at 140 fr. per hectolitre, the actual 
 price in the principal markets of France, deducting 10 fr. per hecto- 
 litre for transportation, waste, and expenses of all kind, would be 130 
 fr. per hectolitre, 10,341 
 
 108 kil. 400 grammes cerosie, at 3 fr. 50 c. per kil. - 330 62 
 
 20,800 kilogrammes forage, at 4 fr. per quintal, - - 800 
 
 11,471 62 
 
 EXPENSES. 
 
 Labor, 80 fr. ; cultivation, 40 fr., - - - 120 fr. 
 
 Sowing, 30 
 
 Hoeing, weeding, thinning out, 90 
 
 Irrigations, 40 
 
 Manure used, - * s- . , <-. >^ 6C 
 Harvesting,- - ~- . - * 80 
 
 Rent of ground, - ' - : - - . 100 
 Cost of extracting wax, 252 
 
 772 
 * Quintal, 112 Ibs. 
 
REPOET OF M. ITAEDY. 343 
 
 Cost of distilling, at 30 fr. per hectolitre, 
 including hand labor, fuel, casks, 
 general expenses, interest on capital 
 employed, keeping of material, &c., - - 2386-40 
 
 Total expenses to be deducted, - ,',1- r ,- ... - - 315840 
 
 Net profit, - Fr. 8313 22 
 
 Or, $1662 65 
 
 This enormous profit would be due to the actual high price of alco- 
 hols ; but, supposing even that this should fall to 70 francs per hecto- 
 litre, which is certainly the lowest point it could reach, the total net 
 profit per hectare would still be 3,350 40 francs. It is hence readily 
 seen that the production of alcohol from the sugar sorgho in Algeria 
 will be a leading industry of such nature as to resist all crises, and 
 which cannot be too sedulously fostered. 
 
 The sugar sorgho needs, to pass through all the phases of its vege- 
 tation from the planting of the seed to the maturity of its grain, 2,760 
 degrees of heat. The middle of the month of May is the most favorable 
 time for planting and to secure fine growth. If sown at that time, the 
 plant would ripen about the 15th September, and consume 122 days 
 from planting to ripening of seed. This period is, undoubtedly, the 
 most favorable to obtaining seed for planting. However, the growth 
 may be made at a lower temperature, say an average of 12 to 15 
 (cent.) ; this would enable us to commence planting about the 1st 
 April. The seed planted at this time would produce plants ripening 
 their seed towards the 13th August, at the end of 135 days of growth. 
 Thus successive plantings might be made until the middle of July ; the 
 latter would ripen seed in the latter part of November, after 143 days 
 of growth. 
 
 The last mentioned date is, I think, the very latest on which plant- 
 ing may be done, with any certainty of ripening the stalks. Judging 
 from the marked peculiarity possessed by the stalks of the sorgho, of 
 remaining unchanged for several months, it is certain that distilleries 
 can be kept working on them for six months of the year. 
 
 They have seemed to fear, in the south of France, that in the long 
 
344 APPENDIX. 
 
 run the sugar sorgho, if propagated exclusively from its seed, would 
 surely degenerate, and it has been recommended to propagate by 
 suckers. Their fears might be realized if this species were cultivated 
 without any foresight, in the immediate vicinity of some of its con- 
 geners, broom corn for instance. Degeneration might in some cases 
 result, but there is nothing to be apprehended if the sorgho be kept 
 entirely separate and distinct. The propagation by suckers and shoots 
 would scarcely be practicable on a large scale ; besides, such pro- 
 ceeding would result in producing a feeble offspring ; the new plant 
 would be less vigorous and profitable. Nevertheless, to test this point, 
 I have made a small plantation of suckers of the sorgho sucre, and 
 intend to make precise experiments during the coming season. 
 I am, your Excellency, &c., 
 
 HARDY, 
 
 Director of the Imperial Central Nursery, 
 Hamma, Algeria, 1856. 
 
 That our readers may make the necessary allowances in comparing 
 the results set forth by M. Hardy with those in our climate, it 
 would be well to remember that Hamma, in Algiers, lies near the 
 latitude 36, which corresponds with Raleigh, N. C., Nashville, Ten- 
 nessee, and Fayetteville, Arkansas. Inasmuch as in Algiers the 
 sorgho gives the largest yield of all its products, it follows that its 
 culture in the United States will probably be found most remunerative 
 in the territory lying between 40 and 29, bounded on either side by 
 Baltimore and New Orleans. TKANS. 
 
SOKGHO IN THE SOUTH. 345 
 
 HISTORY OF THE SORGHO IN THE SOUTHERN 
 STATES. 
 
 BY D. KEDMOND, 
 Associate Editor of the "Southern Cultivator." 
 
 [The following valuable communication from D. Redmond, Esq., 
 was not received in time for insertion in the body of this work, which 
 accounts for its appearing in the Appendix.] 
 
 IN the winter of 1854-5, 1 obtained, per mail, through a seed im- 
 porting house in Boston, two ounces of what was then denominated 
 " Chinese Sugar Cane, or Holcus saccharatus." I am not aware that 
 any of this seed had been distributed from the Patent Office in this 
 neighborhood, up to that time ; nor had I then any other evidence 
 of its value than the newspaper advertisement which induced me to 
 send for it. I have since learned, however, that the Patent Office 
 distributed a small quantity of -seed in the spring of 1854 ; and that, 
 prior even to that time, the plant had been tested to a limited extent 
 by a few gentlemen in the vicinity of New Orleans. Nothing satis- 
 factory, however, was known of the plant here at that time ; and 
 wishing to have it thoroughly tested, I sent small samples, per letter, 
 to various agricultural and horticultural friends in Georgia, and the 
 adjoining states, requesting them to communicate to me the result 
 of their experiments with it. For myself, I merely planted seven or 
 eight hills, in rather poor ground, in my garden, and watched its 
 growth with considerable interest. At first I was disappointed, and 
 quite ready to rank it among the many humbugs of the day, as it 
 came up very weakly, like grass or Egyptian millet, and grew off 
 quite slowly. In a few weeks, however, it began to shoot upward 
 with great rapidity, and in less than three months attained the height 
 of ten feet, with large and well-filled heads of seed. When these 
 seeds were nearly ripe, I incidentally cut one of the stalks, peeled off 
 the hard outer husk, and was quite surprised to find a solid pith or 
 core, of about three fourths of an inch in diameter, crisp, brittle, and 
 15* 
 
346 APPENDIX. 
 
 of an exceedingly sweet and pleasant flavor entirely unlike any thing 
 of the corn stalk family that I had ever tasted. It was, in fact, ready 
 made candy ; and as soon as the younger members of the family and 
 the negroes " got the taste " of it, I was obliged to interdict its further 
 use, in order to save seed. When the latter were fully ripc% I cut off 
 the heads and saved them carefully, noticing, with some surprise, that 
 the leaves or blades of fodder were still as fresh, green, and succulent 
 as ever. The stalks were then cut off near the ground, and fed, leaves 
 and all, to my horses, mules, and milch cows ; all of which ate of it 
 with the greatest apparent relish and avidity. Considering that crop 
 disposed of for the season, I paid no more attention to the stubble or 
 stumps, until I happened to notice that, millet-like, they were shooting 
 out anew, and pushing on for a second growth. This growth I 
 watched with some interest, until the first frosts checked it ; at which 
 time the stalks were six feet high, full of broad and juicy leaves, and 
 with the second crop of seed just making its appearance above the 
 "boot." 
 
 Convinced by this time that it was valuable at least for the produc- 
 tion of soiling forage and dried fodder, I next turned my attention to 
 its saccharine properties, and fortunately induced my friend, Dr. Robt. 
 Battey, of Eome, Ga., who was at that time pursuing the study of 
 experimental chemistry in the well-known laboratory of Prof. Booth, 
 of Philadelphia, to test it. As the result of his experiments, Dr. 
 Battey sent me three small phials one containing a fine syrup ; one a 
 sample of crude, brown sugar, ; and the other a very good sample of 
 crystallized sugar. This, I believe, to be the first crystallized sugar 
 made in the United States, from the juice of the sorgho sucre ; and, 
 as Dr. Batty's opinion of its value as a sugar plant, fully agreed with 
 the reports of the French savans, who had investigated its properties, 
 and with my own convictions, I disseminated the seed more widely 
 during the year 1856, and planted nearly two acres, for the purpose of 
 raising the seed largely, and more fully testing the saccharine property 
 and the ability of the plant to bear repeated cuttings, like the Egyp- 
 tian and other varieties of millet. It was planted very late, on thin 
 land, and received but imperfect culture , and yet, I that year cut it 
 three times, and saved a late crop of fodder from it in addition. The 
 
SORGHO IN THE SOUTH. 347 
 
 present year (1857) I have cut it four times, up to the present date, 
 August 26. 
 
 During the summer of 1856, particular attention was called to the 
 syrup making properties of this plant, by the Eeport of Governor 
 Hammond, of South Carolina, whose experiments had been most ably 
 and carefully conducted. 
 
 This Report was read before the " Beach Island (S. 0.) Farmers' 
 Club," and was followed by that of -Colonel Peters, of Atlanta, and 
 others, all of which were published, and presented such satisfactory 
 results that the agricultural community generally were aroused to the 
 importance of the new " Sugar Cane," and desirous of giving it a trial. 
 The largest growers of the p]ant, at this time (1856) were, Absalom 
 Jackson, Esq., of Montgomery, Ala. ; Colonel R. Peters, of Atlanta ; 
 Dr. Whitten, of Hancock Co.; Dr. Daniell, of Decatur, Ga., 
 and the writer. The seed raised by these persons was, we believe, 
 nearly all saved, and very widely disseminated over the Union, but 
 principally through the southern states, where, unquestionably, the 
 plant attains its fullest and most perfect development. Twenty or 
 thirty thousand packages of the seed alluded to were scattered over 
 the country ; and, in the South alone, probably thousands of acres 
 are now growing. A large number of the growers are preparing to 
 convert the juice of the sorgho into syrup and sugar ; and if an easy 
 and economical process for crystallizing the latter can be employed, 
 this plant will at once become one of our most important staple pro- 
 ductions. I have, within the past two months, received letters from 
 gentlemen in nearly every one of the southern states, who were rais- 
 ing the cane from seed which I furnished, and the terms of praise, and 
 even enthusiasm, with which they dwell upon its good qualities, are 
 truly gratifying to me. Upon the whole, therefore, the sorgho may 
 be considered a decided success, in the South, and the results obtained 
 may be briefly summed up as follows : 
 
 1. An acre of the stalks, properly cultivated, on fair land, will 
 yield from three hundred to six hundred gallons of excellent syrup, 
 equal to the bestNew Orleans, and worth, at present prices, from 
 forty-five to seventy cents per gallon. 
 
 2. If planted early, it will fully ripen two crops of seed, and two 
 
348 APPENDIX. 
 
 crops of cane for crushing as new shoots are invariably thrown out, 
 from the roots, and attain full development after the first cutting, 
 which takes place about the 25th of July, in this latitude, in favorable 
 
 3. From 25 to 100 bushels of seed can be raised to the acre, which 
 seed, for all feeding purposes, is at least as valuable as oats. 
 
 4. It bears repeated cutting when green, and is inferior to no other 
 plant for "soiling." 
 
 5. The seed and fodder are fully equal in value to an ordinary corn 
 crop, thus leaving the canes and their juice a clear profit to the cul- 
 tivator. 
 
 6. It withstands our long droughts much better than common corn, 
 retaining its green color and succulence even after the seed matures. 
 
 The various economical uses to which the sorgho may be applied, 
 are so fully adverted to in other portions of this work, that it is 
 unnecessary to enter farther into detail ; and I will close by expressing 
 the conviction that, wherever the climate is suitable to its proper 
 development, this plant will fully realize all its most sanguine friends 
 have ever claimed for it. D. REDMOND. 
 
 Augusta, Ga., August 26, 1857. 
 
 EXTRACT FROM THE EXPERIMENTS OF L'ECOLE 
 IMPERIALS DES PONTS ET CHAUSSEES. 
 
 Specimens of the Stalks, Seeds, and Products of the Sugar Sorgho sent 
 by M. Raoulx. 
 
 ANALYSIS OP SOIL ON WHICH THE PLANTS WERE GROWN. 
 
 Hygrometric water, lost at 130 - - - 3-220 
 
 Water of combination, organic matters, and carbonic acid 10-320 
 
 Nitrogen 0-201 
 
 Silica and clay, insoluble in chlorohydric acid - 74-900 
 
 Alumina - , 3-250 
 
 Peroxide of iron .-..._ 0-320 
 
ANALYSES. 349 
 
 Lime - - 6-750 
 
 Magnesia - -u' - 0-190 
 
 Alkalies 0'034 
 
 Sulphuric acid - 0-223 
 
 Phosphoric acid - - - - a trace. 
 
 Chlorohydric acid - - 0-041 
 
 Loss ^ 0-551 
 
 100-000 
 
 This composition denotes a good soil, but of which the fertility is 
 nothing remarkable. 
 
 2d. ANALYSIS OF THE STALKS. 
 
 The stalks were cut in small pieces, and the analysis made of a 
 mixture of all portions of the stalk. 
 
 Thus prepared, they gave 
 
 Hygrometric water lost at 130 - * '-' 26-07 
 
 Organic matters and water of combination - - 71-93 
 
 Ash - 2-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 The analysis of the ashes gave 
 
 A. Water and Organic Matter. 
 
 Hygrometric water lost at 100 - - 26-070 
 
 Carbon 37-529 
 
 Oxygen - - - 28-330 
 
 Hydrogen 5-269 
 
 Nitrogen 0-802 
 
 98-000 
 
 B. Ashes. 
 
 Silica - - 0-082 
 
 Lime 0-021 
 
 Alkalies (partly in state of carbonate) - - 0-463 
 
 Sulphuric acid - - 0*050 
 
 Chlorohydric acid -*-' - . 0-156 
 
350 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 2d. Matters soluble in Weak Azotic Acid. 
 Alumina and peroxide of iron 
 Lime - - - . 
 
 Magnesia - ... 
 
 Alkalies - - ... 
 
 Phosphoric acid - ... 
 
 1st. Matters insoluble in Water or Nitric Acid. 
 Silica and a little clay 
 Carbonic acid and loss 
 
 0-132 
 0-209 
 0-099 
 0-102 
 0-107 
 
 0-493 
 
 0-086 2-000 
 
 100-000 100-000 
 
 3d. ACID OF THE SORGHO. 
 Hygrometric water lost at 130 
 Organic matters and water of combination ; not including 
 
 nitrogen - . 79 . 298 
 
 Nitrogen - . 2 . 052 
 
 Ashes 3-800 
 
 By a treatment with ether, the seed was found to yield 3-13 per 
 cent, of oil. Signed> 
 
 HERVE MANGON. 
 Countersigned, 
 
 CAVALIER. 
 
All thf. 
 
 ana Treatment or Disease and Lameness of Horses, embracing the most recent and ap- 
 proved methods, according to an enlightened system of veterinary therapeutics, for 
 the preservation and restoration of health. With Illustrations. 
 
NOTICE 
 
 THE PUBLISHER would announce, that owing to the unusual back- 
 wardness of the present season, the crops of sorgho and imphee, even at 
 the South, are not in a sufficiently advanced state to admit of obtaining 
 in time for the first edition of this work,' the results of the experiments 
 of 1857. 
 
 To delay, even for one week, the publication of the work, would be to 
 deprive a large number of those whose crops are now ripening, of the 
 valuable instructions and suggestions contained in the book, at the time 
 they most need them. 
 
 The Author, Mr. H. S . Olcott, is now engaged in visiting the extens- 
 ive plantations of Governor Hammond of South Carolina, and Richard 
 Peters, Esq. of Georgia, and finds there the highest satisfaction with 
 the appearance of the crop, which is nearly ready for the mill, and the 
 greatest enthusiasm every where prevails as to the value of these new 
 Sugar Canes. 
 
 As soon as the results of the experiments for the present year are 
 satisfactorily known, a full account will be published jn circular form, 
 and transmitted, post paid, to all purchasers of the book, who will send 
 us their names and post office address. 
 
 New York, August 28th, 1857. 
 
 A. O. MOORE, 
 
 AGRICULTURAL BOOK PUBLISHER, 
 
 140 Fulton Street, New York. 
 
All the Books on this Catalogue sent by mail, to any part of the Union, free 
 of postage, upon receipt of Price. 
 
 CATALOGUE OF BOOKS 
 
 ON 
 
 AGRICULTURE AND HORTICULTURE, 
 
 PUBLISHED BY 
 
 A.. O. M O O HE, 
 
 (LATE C. M. SAXTON & COMPANY,) 
 No. 140 FULTON STREET, NEW YORK, 
 
 SUITABLE FOR 
 
 SCHOOL, TOWN, AGRICULTUKAL, AND PRIVATE LIBRARIES. 
 
 THE AMERICAN FARMER'S ENCYCLOPEDIA, - - - St 00 
 
 EMBRACING ALL THE RECENT DISCOVERIES IN AGRIULTURAL CHEM- 
 
 istry, anl the use of Mineral, Vegetable and Animal Manures, with Descriptions and 
 Figures of American Insects injurious to Vegetation. Being a Complete Guide for the 
 cultivation of every variety of Garden and Field Crops. Illustrated by numerous En- 
 gravings of Grasses, Grains, Animals, Implements, Insects, &c. By GOTTVERNEUB 
 EMERSON, of Pennsylvania, upon the basis of Johnson's Farmer's Encyclopedia. 
 
 DOWNING'S (A. J.) LANDSCAPE GARDENING, 3 50 
 
 A TREATISE ON THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GAR- 
 
 dening. Adapted to North America, with a view to the improvement of Country 
 ^Residences ; comprising Historical Notices and General Principles of the Art, direc- 
 tions for Laying out Grounds and Arranging Plantations, the Description and Cultiva- 
 tion of Hardy Trees, Decorative Accompaniments to the House and Grounds, the 
 Formation of Pieces of Artificial Waters, Flower Gardens, &c., with Eemarks on 
 Kural Architecture. Elegantly Illustrated, with a Portrait of the Author. By A. J. 
 DOWNING. 
 
 DOWNING'S (A. J.) RURAL ESSAYS, .... 3 00 
 
 ON HORTICULTURE, LANDSCAPE GARDENING, RURAL ARCHITECTURE, 
 
 Trees, Agriculture, Fruit, with his Letters from England. Edited, with a Memoir of 
 the Author, by GEORGE WM. CURTIS, and a letter to his friends, by FREDERIKA BRE- 
 MER, and an elegant steel Portrait of the Author. 
 
 DADD'S ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HORSE, Plain, 2 00 
 Do. Do. Do. Do. Colored Plates, 4 00 
 
 WITH ANATOMICAL AND QUESTIONAL ILLUSTRATIONS ; Containing, 
 also, a Series of Examinations on Equine Anatomy and Philosophy, with Instructions 
 in reference to Dissection, and the mode of making Anatomical Preparations ; to which 
 is added a Glossary of Veterinary Technicalities, Toxicological Chart, and Dictionary 
 of Veterinary Science. 
 
 DADD'S MODERN HORSE DOCTOR, , V - 100 
 
 CONTAINING PRACTICAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE CAUSES, NATURE 
 
 and Treatment of Disease and Lameness of Horses, embracing the most recent and ap- 
 proved methods, according to an enlightened system of veterinary therapeutics, for 
 the preservation and restoration of health. With Illustrations. 
 
Books Published ly A. 0. MOORE. 
 
 , v ^^V'-^%/*^W^1SW~-x-^^^'V/^'Wy .w~^~^~WVXX 
 
 DADD'S (GEO. H.) AMERICAN CATTLE DOCTOR, - - $1 00 
 
 CONTAINING THE NECESSARY INFORMATION FOR PRESERVING THE 
 Health and Curing the Diseases of Oxen, Cows, Sheep, and Swine, with a great variety 
 of Original Eecipes and Valuable Information in reference to Farm and Dairy manage- 
 ment, whereby every man can be his own Cattle Doctor. The principles taught in 
 this work are, that all Medication shall be subservient to Nature that all Medicines 
 must be sanative in their operation, and administered with a view of aiding the vital 
 powers, instead of depressing, as heretofore, with the lancet or by poisoa. By G. H. 
 DADD, M. D., Veterinary Practitioner. 
 
 TEE DOG AND GUN, 50 
 
 A FEW LOOSE CHAPTERS ON SHOOTING, among which will be found 
 some Anecdotes and Incidents ; also, instructions for Dog Breaking, and interesting let- 
 ters from Sportsmen. By A BAD SHOT. 
 
 MORGAN HORSES, 1 00 
 
 A PREMIUM ESSAY ON THE ORIGIN, HISTORY, AND CHARACTERISTICS 
 of this remarkable American Breed of Horses; tracing the Pedigree from the original 
 Justin Morgan, through the most noted of his progeny, down to the present time. 
 With numerous portraits. To which are added hints for Breeding, Breaking, and 
 General Use and Management of Horses, with practical Directions for training them for 
 exhibition at Agricultural Fairs. By D. C. LINSLEY. 
 SORGHO AND IMPHEE, THE CHINESE AND AFRICAN SUGAR 
 
 CANES, 1 00 
 
 A COMPLETE TREATISE UPON THEIR ORIGIN AND VARIETIES, CULTURE 
 
 and Uses, their value as a Foraee Crop, and directions for making Sugar, Molasses, 
 Alcohol, Sparkling and Still Wines, Beer, Cider, Vinegar, Paper, Starch, and Dyo 
 Stuffs. Fully Illustrated with Drawings of Approved Machinery ; With an Appendix 
 by LEONARD WRAY, of Caffraria, and a description of his patented process of crystalliz- 
 ing the juice of the Imphee ; with the latest American experiments, including those of 
 1857, in the South. By HENRY S. OLCOTT. To which are added translations of valu- 
 able French Pamphlets, received from the Hon. JOHN T. MASON, American Minister 
 at Paris. 
 
 THE STABLE BOOK, 1 00 
 
 A TREATISE ON THE MANAGEMENT OF HORSES, IN RELATION TO 
 
 Stabling, Grooming, Feeding, Watering and Working, Construction of Stables, Ventra 
 tion, Appendages of Stables, Management of the Feet, and of Diseased and Defective 
 Horses. By JOHN STEWART, Veterinary Surgeon. With Notes and Additions, adapt- 
 ing it to American Food and Climate. By A. B. ALLEN, Editor of the American 
 Agriculturist 
 
 THE HOESE'S FOOT, AND HOW TO KEEP IT SOUND, 50 
 
 WITH CUTS, ILLUSTRATING THE ANATOMY OF THE FOOT, and contain- 
 ing valuable Hints on Shoeing and Stable Management, in Health and in Disease. By 
 WILLIAM MILES. 
 
 THE FRUIT GARDEN 1 25 
 
 A TREATISE, INTENDED TO EXPLAIN AND ILLUSTRATE THE PHYSI- 
 
 ology of Fruit Trees, the Theory and Practice of all Operations connected with the 
 Propagation, Transplanting, Pruning and Training of Orchard and Garden Trees, as 
 Standards, Dwarfs, Pyramids, Espalier, &c. The Laying out and Arranging different 
 kinds of Orchards and Gardens, the selection of suitable varieties for different purposes 
 and localities, Gathering and Preserving Fruits, Treatment of Diseases, Destruction of 
 Insects, Description and Uses of Implements, &c. Illustrated with upwards of 150 
 Figures, representing Different Parts of Trees, all Practical Operations, forms of Trees, 
 Designs for Plantations, Implements, &c. By P. BARRY, of the Mount Hope Nurseries, 
 Rochester, N. Y. 
 
 FIELD'S PEAR CULTURE, GO 
 
 THE PEAR GARDEN ; or, a Treatise on the Propagation and 
 Cultivation of the Pear Tree, with Instructions for its Management from the Seedling 
 to the Bearing Tree. By THOMAS W. FIELD. 
 
Books Published ly A. 0. MOORE. 
 
 \s**s***r**~*s**s*+s***r^s**s***^^ 
 
 BRIDGEMAN'S (THOS.) YOUNG GARDENER'S ASSISTANT, $1 50 
 
 IN THREE PARTS, Containing Catalogues of Garden and Flower 
 Seed, with Practical Directions under each head for the Cultivation of Culinary Vege- 
 tables and Flowers. Also directions for Cultivating Fruit Trees, the Grape Vine, &c. ; 
 to which is fdded, a Calendar to each part, showing the work necessary to be done in 
 the various departments each month of the year. One volume octavo. 
 
 BRIDGEMAN'S KITCHEN GARDENER'S INSTRUCTOR, i Cloth, 50 
 
 " Cloth, 60 
 
 BRIDGEMAN'S FLORIST'S GUIDE, - . * - i Cloth, 50 
 
 " " " Cloth, 60 
 
 BRIDGEMAN'S FRUIT CULTIVATOR'S MANUAL, - i Cloth, 50 
 
 " " Cloth, 60 
 
 COLE'S AMERICAN FRUIT BOOK, 50 
 
 CONTAINING DIRECTIONS FOR RAISING, PROPAGATING AND MANAG- 
 ing Fruit Trees, Shrubs and Plants ; with a description of the Best Varieties of Fruit, 
 including New and Valuable Kinds. 
 
 COLE'S 'AMERICAN VETERINARIAN, .... 50 
 
 CONTAINING DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS, THEIR CAUSES, 
 Symptoms and Eemedies ; with Eules for Kestoring and Preserving Health by good 
 management ; also for Training and Breeding. 
 
 SCHENCK'S GARDENER'S TEXT BOOK. .... 50 
 
 CONTAINING DIRECTIONS FOR THE FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT 
 of the Kitchen Garden, the Culture and Use of Vegetables, Fruits and Medicinal Herbs. 
 
 AMERICAN ARCHITECT, 6 00 
 
 THE AMERICAN ARCHITECT, Comprising original Designs of Cheap 
 
 Country and Village Eesidences, with Details, Specifications, Plans and Directions, 
 and an Estimate of the Cost of Each Design. By JOHN W. BITCH, Architect. First 
 and Second Series, 4to, bound in 1 ^ol. 
 
 BUIST'S (ROBERT) AMERICAN FLOWER GARDEN DIRECTORY, 1 25 
 CONTAINING PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS FOR THE CULTURE OF PLANTS, 
 
 in the Flower-Garden, Hot-House, Green-House, Eooms or Parlor Windows, for every 
 Month in the Year ; with a Description of the Plants most desirable in each, the nature 
 of the Soil and Situation best adapted to their Growth, the Proper Season for Trans- 
 planting, &c. ; with Instructions for Erecting a Hot-House, Green-House, and Laying 
 out a Flower Garden ; the whole adapted to either Large or Small Gardens, with In- 
 structions for Preparing the Soil, Propagating, Planting, Pruning, Training and Fruit- 
 ing the Grape Vine. 
 
 THE AMERICAN BIRD FANCIER, ..... 
 
 CONSIDERED WITH REFERENCE TO THE BREEDING, REARING, FEED- 
 ing, Management and Peculiarities of Cage and House Birds. Illustrated with Engrav- 
 ings. By D. JAY BROWNE. 
 
 REEMELIN'S (CHAS.) VINE DRESSER'S MANUAL, - - 50 
 
 AN ILLUSTRATED TREATISE ON VINEYARDS AND WINE-MAKING, 
 
 containing Full Instructions as to Location and Soil, Preparation of Ground, Selection 
 and Propagation of Vines, the Treatment of Young Vineyards, Trimming and Training 
 the Vines, Manures, and the Making of Wine. 
 
 DANA'S MUCK MANUAL, FOR THE USE OF FARMERS, - 1 00 
 
 A TREATISE ON THE PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF 
 
 Soils and Chemistry of Manures ; including, also, the subject of Composts, Artificial 
 Manures and Irrigation. A new edition, with a Chapter on Bones and Superphos- 
 phates. 
 
 CHEKICAL FIELD LECTURES FOR AGRICULTURISTS, - 1 00 
 
 By Dr. JULIUS ADOLPHUS STOCKHAEDT, Professor in the Royal 
 Academy of Agriculture at Tharant. Translated from the German. Edited, with 
 notes, by JAM 8 E. TECHEMACHEB. 
 
Books Published by A. 0. MOORE. 
 
 >^^^^^^^^u^^^^^r^^^^^ 
 
 BUIST'S' (BBOERT) FAMILY KITCHEN GABDENER, - $0 75 
 
 CONTAINING PLAIN AND ACCUEATE DESCRIPTIONS OF ALL THTC PIF- 
 
 ferent Species and Varieties of Culinary Vegetables, with their Botanical, English, 
 French and German names, alphabetically arranged, with the Best Mode of Culth ating 
 them in the Garden or under Glass; also Descriptions and Character of the most Select 
 Fruits, their Management, Propagation, &c. By ROBERT BTTIST, author of the " Am- 
 erican Flower Garden Directory," &c. 
 
 DOMESTIC AND ORNAMENTAL POULTRY, Plain Plates, - 1 00 
 
 Do. Do. Do. Colored Plates, - 2 00 
 
 A TREATISE ON THE HISTORY AND MANGEMENT OF ORNAMENTAL 
 
 and Domestic Poultry. By Rev. EDMUND SATTL DIXON, A.M., with large additions by 
 J. J. KERB, M.D. Illustrated with sixty-five Original Portraits, engraved expressly for 
 this work. Fourth edition revised. 
 
 HOW TO BUILD AND VENTILATE HOT-HOUSES, - 1 25 
 
 A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE CONSTRUCTION, HEATING AND 
 
 Ventilation of Hot-Houses, including Conservatories, Green-Houses, Graperies and 
 other kinds of Horticultural Structures, with Practical Directions for their Manage- 
 ment, in regard to Light, Heat and Air. Illustrated with numerous engravings. By 
 P. B. LETTCHARS, Garden Architect. 
 
 CHORLTON'S GRAPE-GROWER'S GUIDE, - - 60 
 
 INTENDED ESPECIALLY FOR THE AMERICAN CLIMATE. Beins? a 
 
 Practical Treatise on the Cultivation of the Grape Vine in each department of Hot- 
 House, Cold Grapery, Retarding House and Out-door Culture. With Plans for the 
 Construction of the Requisite Buildings, snd giving the best methods for Heating the 
 same. Every department being fully illustrated. By WILLIAM CHORLTON. 
 
 NORTON'S (JO'HN P.) ELEMENTS OF SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE, 60 
 OR, THE CONNECTION BETWEEN SCIENCE AND THE ART OF PRACTICAL 
 
 Farming. Prize Essay of the New York State Agricultural Society. By JOHN P. 
 NORTON, M.A., Professor of Scientific Agriculture in Yale College. Adapted to the 
 use of Schools. 
 
 JOHNSTON'S (J. F. W.) CATECHISM OF AGRICULTURAL CHEIvI- 
 
 ISTRY AND GEOLOGY, 25 
 
 BY JAMES F. W. JOHNSTON, M.A., F.R.SS.L. arid E., Honorary 
 
 Member of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, and author of "Lectures on 
 Agricultural Chemistry and Geology." With an Introduction by JOHN PITKIN NOR- 
 TON, M.A., late Professor of Scientific Agriculture in Yale College. With notes and 
 additions by the author, prepared expressly for this edition, and an Appendix compiled 
 by the Superintendent of Education in Nova Scotia. Adapted to the use oi Schools. 
 
 JOHNSTON'S (J. F. W.) ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURAL CHEM- 
 ISTRY AND GEOLOGY, - - - - - 1 00 
 
 With a Complete Analytical and Alphabetical Index and an 
 
 American Preface. By Hon. SIMON BROWN, Editor of the "New England Farmer.' 
 
 JOHNSTON'S tf AMES F. W.) AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY, 1 25 
 
 LECTURES ON THE APPLICATION OF CHEMISTRY AND GEOLOGY TO 
 Agriculture. New edition, with an Appendix, containing the Author's Experiments 
 in Practical Agriculture. 
 
 THE: COMPLETE FARMER AND AMERICAN GARDENER, 1 25 
 
 RURAL ECONOMIST AND NEW AMERICAN GARDENER ; Conta'niner 
 
 a Compendious Epitome of the most Important Branches of Agriculture and Rural 
 Economy; with Practical Directions on the Cultivation of Fruits and Vegetables, in- 
 cluding Landscape and Ornamental Gardening. By THOMAS G. FESSENDEN . 2 vols. 
 in one. 
 
 FESSENDEN'S (T. G.) AMERICAN KITCHEN GARDENER, - 50 
 
 CONTAINING DIRECTIONS FOE THE CULTIVATION or VEGETABLES AND 
 Garden Fruits. Cloth. 
 
Books Published by A. O. MOORE. 
 
 *'"''*-^-'^-^'XX^^^X-rv^-^/%,-N^W/-*-'X^^^ 
 
 HASH'S (J. A.) PROGRESSIVE FARMER, - - - - $0 60 
 
 A SCIENTIFIC TREATISE ON AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY, THE GE- 
 
 ology of Agriculture, on Plants and Animals, Manures and Soils, applied to Practical 
 Agriculture ; with a Catechism of Scientific and Practical Agriculture. By J. A. NASH. 
 
 BRECK'S BOOK OF FLOWERS, >;; ;' - - - - 100 
 
 IN WHICH ARE DESCRIBED ALL THE VARIOUS HARDY HERBACEOUS 
 Perennials, Annuals, Shrubs, Plants and Evergreen Trees, with Directions for their 
 Cultivation. 
 
 SMITH'S (C. H. J.) LANDSCAPE GARDENING, PARKS AND PLEASURE 
 GROUNDS. > ; f ;.-. 125 
 
 WITH PRACTICAL NOTES ON COUNTRY RESIDENCES, VILLAS, PUBLIC 
 
 Parks and Gardens. By CHARLES H. J. SMITH, Landscape Gardener and Garden 
 Architect, &c. "With Notes and Additions by LEWIS F. ALLEN, author of " Eural 
 Architecture." 
 
 THE COTTON PLANTER'S MANUAL, ,./**.- - - 1 00 
 
 BEING A COMPILATION OP FACTS FROM THE BEST AUTHORITIES ON 
 
 the Culture of Cotton, its Natural History, Chemical Analysis, Trade and Consumption, 
 and embracing a History of Cotton and the Cotton Gin. By J. A. TEENER. 
 
 COB3ETFS AMERICAN GARDENER, .... 50 
 
 A TREATISE ON THE SITUATION, SOIL, AND LAYING-OUT OF GARDENS, 
 
 and the making and managing of Hot-Beds and Green-Houses, and on the Propagation 
 and Cultivation of the several sorts of Vegetables, Herbs, Fruits and Flowers. 
 
 ALLEN (J. FISK) ON THE CULTURE OF THE GRAPE, - 1 00 
 
 A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE CULTURE AND TREATMENT OF THE 
 
 Grape Vine, embracing its History, with Directions for its Treatment, in the United 
 States of America, in the Open Air and under Glass Structures, with and without 
 Artificial Heat. By J. FISK ALLEN. 
 
 ALLEN'S (R. L ) DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS, - 75 
 
 BEING A HISTORY AND DESCRIPTION OF THE HORSE, MULE, CATTLE, 
 
 Sheep, Swine, Poultry, and Farm Dogs, with Directions for their Management, Breed- 
 ing, Crossing, Bearing, Feeding, and Preparation for a Profitable Market ; also, their 
 Diseases and Remedies, together with full Directions for the Management of the Dairy, 
 and the comparative Economy and Advantages of Working Animals, the Horse, Mule, 
 Oxen, &c. By R. L. ALLEN. 
 
 ALLEN'S (R. L.) AMERICAN FARM BOOK, - - - 1 00 
 
 THE AMERICAN FARM BOOK ; or, a Compcnd of American Agricul- 
 ture, being a Practical Treatise on Soils, Manures, Draining, Irrigation, Grasses," Grain, 
 Roots. Fruits, Cotton, Tobacco, Sugar Cane, Rice, and every Staple Product of the 
 United States ; with the Best Methods of Planting, Cultivating and Preparation for 
 Market. Illustrated with more than 100 engravings. By R. L. ALLEN. 
 
 ALT EN'S (L. F.) RURAL ARCHITECTURE ; - - 1 25 
 
 BEING A COMPLETE DESCRIPTION OF FARM HOUSES, COTTAGES, AND 
 
 Out Buildings, comprising "Wood Houses, "Workshops, Tool Houses, Carriage and 
 Wagon Houses, Stables, Smoke and Ash Houses, Ice Houses. Apiaries or Bee Houses, 
 Poultry Houses, Rabbitry, Dovecote, Piggery, Barns, and Sheds for Cattle, &c., &c., 
 together with. Lawns, Pleasure Grounds, and Parks ; the Flower, Fruit, and Vege- 
 table Garden; also useful and ornamental domestic Animals for the Country Resident, 
 tc., &c Also, the best method of conducting water into Cattle Yards and Houses. 
 Beautifully illustrated. 
 
 TARING'S ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE ; - - . - , 75 
 
 A. BOOK FOR YOUNG FARMERS, WITH QUESTIONS FOR THE USE OF 
 
 Schook 
 
Books Published by A. 0. MOORE. 
 
 \S**S**S**S+*s~*s**S^r*^~*s**^^ 
 
 PARDEE (R. G.) ON STRAWBERRY CULTURE ; GO 
 
 A COMPLETE MANUAL FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE STRAWBERRY , 
 
 with a description of the best varieties. 
 
 Also, notices of the Baspberry, Blackberry, Currant, Gooseberry, and Grape ; with 
 directions for their cultivation, and the selection of the best varieties. "Every process 
 here recommended has been proved, the plans of others tried, and the result is here 
 given." With a valuable appendix, containing the observations and experienc ; of 
 some of the most successful cultivators of these fruits in our country. 
 
 GUENON ON MILCH COWS ; 60 
 
 A TREATISE ON MILCH Cows, whereby the Quality and Quantity of 
 
 Milk which any Cow will give may be accurately determined by observing Natural 
 Marks or External Indications alone ; the length of time she will continue to give 
 Milk, &c., &c. By M. FRANCIS GUENON, of Libourne, France. Translated by NICHO- 
 LAS P. TKIST, Esq. ; with Inti eduction, Eemarks, and Observations on the Cow and 
 the Dairy, by JOHN 8. SKINNER. Illustrated with numerous engravings. Neatly 
 done up in paper covers, 37 cts. 
 
 AMERICAN POULTRY YARD ; 100 
 
 COMPRISING THE ORIGIN, HISTORY AND DESCRIPTION of the different 
 
 Breeds of Domestic Poultry, with complete directions for their Breeding, Crossing, 
 Bearing, Fattening, and Preparation for Market ; including specific directions for 
 Caponizing Fowls, and for the Treatment of the Principal Diseases to which they are 
 subject, drawn from authentic sources and personal observation. Illustrated wiih 
 numerous engravings. By D. J. BROWNE. 
 
 BROWNE'S (D. JAY) FIELD BOOK OF MANURES ; - 1 25 
 
 OR, AMERICAN MUCK BOOK ; Treating of the Nature, Propertirs, 
 
 Sources, History, and Operations of all the Principal Fertilizers and Manures in Com- 
 mon Use, with specific directions for their Preservation, and Application to the Soil 
 and to Crops ; drawn from authentic sources, actual experience, and personal observa- 
 tion, as combined with the Leading Principles of Practical and Scientific Agriculture- 
 By D. JAY BROWNE. 
 
 RANDALL'S (H. S.) SHEEP HUSBANDRY; - - - 125 
 
 WITH AN ACCOUNT OF THE DIFFERENT BREEDS, and general direc- 
 tions in regard to Summer and Winter Management, Breeding, and the Treatment of 
 Diseases, with Portraits and other Engravings. By HENRY S. RANDALL. 
 
 THE SHEPHERD'S OWN BOOK ;.---- 2 CO 
 
 WITH AN ACCOUNT OF THE DIFFERENT BREEDS, DISEASES AND MAX- 
 
 agement of Sheep, and General Directions in regard to Summer and Winter Man- 
 agement, Breeding, and the Treatment of Diseases; with Illustrative Engrav ngs, by 
 YOUATT & KANDALL ; embracing Skinner's Notes on the Breed and Management of 
 theep in the United states, and on the Culture of Fine Wool. 
 
 YOUATT ON SHEEP ; - - - .... . 75 
 
 THEIR BREED, MANAGEMENT AND DISEASES, with Illustrative En- 
 gravings; to which are added Eemarks on the Breeds and Management of Shoep in 
 the United States, and on the Culture of Fine Wool in Silesia. By WILLIAM YOUATT. 
 
 YOUATT AND MARTIN ON CATTLE; - -, ' - - * ? ' 5 
 
 BEING A TREATISE ON THEIR BREEDS, MANAGEMENT, AND DISEASES, 
 
 comprising a full History of the Various Eaces ; their Origin, Breeding, and Merits ; 
 their capacity for Beef and Milk. By W. YOTTATT and W. C. L. MARTIN. The whole 
 forming a Complete Guide for the Farmer, the Amateur, and the Veterinary Surgeon, 
 with 100 Illustrations. Edited by AMBROSE STEVENS. 
 
 YOUATT ON THE HORSE ; 1 25 
 
 YOUATT ON THE STRUCTURE AND DISEASES OF THE HORSE, with 
 
 their Remedies. Also, Practical Eules for Buyers, Breeders, Smiths, &c. Edited by 
 W. C. SPOONER, M.E.C V.S. With an account of the Breeds in the United fctates, by 
 HENBY iS. KANDALL 
 
Looks PullisJied by A. 0. MOORE. 
 
 ~*******^r^*^^r**r*s**s****r>^^*s~*s^s>^^ 
 
 YOUATT AND MARTIN ON THE HOG ; - - - - f?0 75 
 
 A TREATISE ON THE BREEDS, MANAGEMENT, AND MEDICAL TKEAT- 
 ment of Swine, with Directions for Salting Pork, and Curing Paeon and Hams : y 
 WM. YOUATT, V.S , and W. C. L.MAKTIK. Edited by AMBBOBE STEVENS. Illustrated 
 with Engravings drawn from life. 
 
 BLAKE'S (EEV. JOHN L.) FARMER AT HOME ; I 25 
 
 A FAMILY TEXT BOOK FOR THE COUNTRY ; being a Cyclopedia of 
 
 Agricultural Implements and Productions, and of the more important topics in Do- 
 mestic Economy, ^ cience, and Literature, adapted to Eural Life. By Eev- JOHN L. 
 
 BJAKE,DD. 
 
 MUNN'S (B.) PRACTICAL LAND DRAINER; - ,.;>:'/ - 50 
 
 BEING A TREATISE ON DRAINING LAND, in which the most approved 
 systems of Drainage are explained, and their differences and comparative merits dis- 
 cussed; with full Directions for the Cutting and Making of Drains, with Bemarks upon 
 the various materials of which they may be constructed. "With many illustrations, i y 
 B. MUNN, Landscape Gardener. 
 
 ELLIOTT'S AMERICAN FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE IN ORCHARD 
 AND GARDEN;- - ;- - - ' - - - 125 
 
 BEING A COMPEND OF THE HISTORY, MODES OF PROPAGATION, CUL- 
 
 Jure, Ac., of Fruit Trees and Shiubs, with descriptions of nearly all the varieties of 
 Iruits cultivated in this country ; and Notes of their adaptation to localities, soils, and 
 a complete list of i'ruits worthy of cultivation. Ey F. R. ELLIOTT, Pomologist. 
 
 I'RACTICAL FRUIT, FLOWER, AND KITgHEN GARDENER'S COM- 
 PANION; 1 00 
 
 WITH A CALENDAR. BY PATRICK NEILL, LL.D., F.K.S.E., Secre- 
 tary of the Eoyal Caledonian Horticultural Society. Adapted to the United States 
 from the fourth edition, revised and improved by the author. Edited by G. EMEF.SON, 
 M D., Editor of " The American Farmer's Encyclopedia." With Notes and Additions 
 by E. G PARDEE, author of "Manual of the Strawberry Culture." With illustrations 
 
 STEPHENS' (HENRY) BOOK OF THE FARM; 4 CO 
 
 A COMPLETE GUIDE TO THE FARMER, STEWARD, PLOWMAN, CAT- 
 tleman, Shepherd, Field W.orker, and Dairy Maid. By HENRT STEPHENS. With Four 
 Hundred and Fifty Illustrations ; to which are added Explanatory Notes, Eemarks, 
 &c., by J. 8. SKINNER. Eeally one of the best books a farmer can possess. 
 
 PEDDERS' (JAMES) FARMERS' LAND MEASURER; - 50 
 
 OR, POCKET COMPANION ; Showing at one view the Contents of any 
 Piece of Land from Dimensions taken in Yards. With a set of Useful Agricultural 
 Tables. 
 
 WHITE'S (W. N.) GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH; - - 1 25 
 
 OR, THE KITCHEN AND FRUIT GARDEN, with the best methods for 
 
 their Cultivation ; together with hints upon Landscape and Flower Gardening; con- 
 taining modes of culture and descriptions of the species and varieties of the Culinary 
 Vegetables, Fruit Trees, and Fruits, and a select list of Ornamental Trees and Plants, 
 found by trial adapted to the States of the Union south of Pennsylvania, with Garden- 
 ing Calendars for the same. By WM. N. WHITE, of Athens, Georgia. 
 
 EASTWOOD (B.) ON THE CULTIVATION OF THE CRANBEERY ; 50 
 WITH A DESCRIPTION OF THE BEST VARIETIES. BY B. EASTWOOD, 
 "Septimus" of the New York Tribune. 
 
 AMERICAN BEE-KEEPER'S MANUAL ; - - - - 100 
 
 BEING A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE HISTORY AND DOMESTIC 
 
 Economy of the Honey Bee, embracing a full illustration of the whole subject, with 
 the most approved methods of managing this Insect, through every branch of its 
 Culture ; the result of many years' experience. Illustrated with many engravings. 
 By T. B. MINBB. 
 
Books Published by A. 0. MOORE. 
 
 ^S**^*-**-**r*^**^^*s**,r**s**s^^ 
 
 THAER'S (ALBERT DO AGRICULTURE * - - $200 
 
 THE PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE, by ALBERT D. TIHER ; trans- 
 lated by WILLIAM SHAW and CUTHBEET W. JOHNSON, Esq., F.R.S. With a Memoir 
 of the Author. 1 vol. 8vo. 
 
 This work is regarded by those who are competent to judge as one of the most 
 beautiful works that has ever appeared on the subject of Agriculture. At the same 
 time that it is eminently practical, it is philosophical, and, even to the general reader, 
 remarkably entertaining. 
 
 BOUSSINGAULT'S (J. B.) RURAL ECONOMY, - 1 25 
 
 IN ITS EELATIONS TO CHEMISTRY, PHYSICS, AND METEOROLOGY : 
 
 or, Chemistry applied to Agriculture. By J. B. BOUSSINGATJLT. Translated, with 
 notes, etc., by GEORGE LAW, Agriculturist. 
 
 " The work is the fruit of a long life of study and experiment, and its perusal will 
 aid the farmer greatly in obtaining a practical and scientific knowledge of his profes 
 sion." 
 
 MYSTERIES OF BEE-KEEPING EXPLAINED ; - - - 1 00 
 
 BEING A COMPLETE ANALYSIS OF THE WHOLE SUBJECT, consisting 
 of the Natural History of Bees; Directions for obtaining the greatest amount of Pure 
 Surplus Honey with the least possible expense; Eemedies for losses given, and the 
 Science of Luck fully illustrated; the result of more than twenty years 1 experience in 
 extensive Apiaries. By M QUINBV. 
 
 THE COTTAGE AND FARM BEE-KEEPER ; 50 
 
 A PRACTICAL WORK, by a Country Curate. 
 
 WEEKS (JOHN M.) ON BEES -A MANUAL ; 50 
 
 OR, AN EASY METHOD OF MANAGING BEES IN THE MOST PROFITABLE 
 manner to their owner; with infallible rules to prevent their destruction by the Moth. 
 With an appendix, by WOOSTER A. FLANDERS. 
 
 THE ROSE ; 50 
 
 BEING A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE PROPAGATION, CULTIVATION, 
 
 and Management of the Rose in all Seasons; with a list of Choice and Approved Varie- 
 ties, adapted to the Climate of the United States; to which is added full directions for 
 the Treatment of the Dahlia. Illustrated by Engravings. 
 
 MOORE'S RURAL HAND BOOKS, 1 25 
 
 FIRST SERIES, containing Treatises on 
 
 THE HOUSE, THE PESTS OF THE FARM, 
 
 THE HOG, DOMESTIC FOWLS, and 
 
 THE HONEY BEE, THE Cow, 
 
 SECOND SERIES, containing 1 25 
 
 EVERT LADY HER OWN FLOWER GARDENER, ESSAY ON MANURES, 
 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE, AMERICAN KITCHEN GARDENER, 
 
 BIRD FANCIER, AMERICAN Boss CULTURIST. 
 
 THIRD SERIES, containing _____ 1 25 
 
 MILES ON THE HORSE'S FOOT, VINE DRESSER'S MANUAL, 
 
 THE RABBIT FANCIER, BEE-KEEPER'S CHART, 
 
 WEEKS ON BEES, CHEMISTRY MADE EASY. 
 
 FOURTH SERIES, containing . r ; '& - 125 
 
 PERSOZ ON THE VINE, HOOPER'S DOG AND Guir, 
 
 LIEBIG s FAMILIAR LETTERS, SKILLFUL HOUSEWIFE, 
 
 BROWNE'S MEMOIRS OF INDIAN CORN. 
 
 RICHARDSON ON DOGS : THEIR ORIGIN AND VARIETIES. . 50 
 
 DIRECTIONS AS TO THEIR GENERAL MANAGEMENT. With numerous 
 
 original anecdotes. Also, Complete Instructions as to Treatment under Disease. By 
 ir 1). RICHARDSON. Illustrated with numerous wood engravings. 
 This is not only a cheap work, but one of the best ever published on the Dog. 
 
Books Published by A; 0. MOORE. 
 
 +s*s>*s^-*s**s*~r**r*+s~^^ 
 
 LIESIG'S (JUSTUS) FAMILIAR LECTURES ON CHEMISTRY, 50 
 
 AND ITS RELATION TO COMMERCE, PHYSIOLOGY, AND AGRICULTURE. 
 Edited by JOHN GABDENEE, M.D. 
 
 EEMENT'S (C. N.) RABBIT FANCIER; .... 50 
 
 A TREATISE ON THE BREEDING, BEARING, FEEDING, AND GENERAL 
 
 Management of Babbits, with remarks upon their diseases and remedies, to which are 
 added full directions for the construction of Hutches, Babbitries, &c., together with 
 recipes for cooking and dressing for the Table. Beautifully illustrated. 
 
 THOMPSON (R. D.) ON THE FOOD OF ANIMALS 75 
 
 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES ON THE FOOD OF ANIMALS AND THE 
 
 Fattening of Cattle ; with remarks on the Food of Man. Based upon Experiments 
 
 undertaken by order of the British Government, by EOBEBT DUNDAS THOMI SON, M.D., 
 
 Lecturer on Practical Chemistry, University of Glasgow. 
 
 THE WESTERN FRUIT BOOK; 125 
 
 BEING A COMPEND OF THE HISTORY, MODES OF PROPAGATION, CUL- 
 ture, &c., of Fruit Trees and Shrubs, &c., &c. By F. E. ELLIOTT. 
 
 THE SKILLFUL HOUSEWIFE; - - 50 
 
 OR COMPLETE GUIDE TO DOMESTIC COOKERY, TASTE, COMFORT, AND 
 
 Economy, embracing 659 recipes pertaining to Household Duties, the care of Health, 
 Gardening, Birds, Education of Children, &c., &c. By Mrs L. G. ABELL. 
 
 THE AMERICAN FLORIST'S GUIDE ; 75 
 
 COMPRISING THE AMERICAN ROSE CULTURIST AND EVERY LADY HER 
 own Flower Gardener. 
 
 EVERY LADY HER #N FLOWER GARDENER ; 50 
 
 ADDRESSED TO THE INDUSTRIOUS AND ECONOMICAL ONLY ; containing 
 simple and practical Directions for Cultivating Plants and Flowers; also, Hints for the 
 Management of Flowers in Booms, with brief Botanical Descriptions of Plants and 
 Flowers. The whole in plain and simple language. By LOUISA JOHNSON. 
 
10 Books Published by A. 0. MOORE. 
 
 MOORE'S 
 
 fiaifo ioflfcs of peal utto gflmtstit 
 
 .4ZZ arranged and adapted to the Use of American Farmers. 
 
 PRICE 25 CENTS EACH. 
 
 HOGS ; 
 
 THEIR ORIGIN, VARIETIES AND MANAGEMENT, with a View to Pro- 
 
 fit, and Treatment under Disease; also Plain Directions relative to the most approyed 
 modes of preserving their Flesh. By H. D. EICHARDSON, author of "The Hive and the 
 Honey Bee," &c., &c. "With illustrations 12mo. 
 
 THE HIVE AND THE HONEY BEE; 
 
 WITH PLAIN DIRECTIONS FOR OBTAINING A CONSIDERABLE ANNUAL 
 
 Income from this branch of Eural Economy; also an Account of the Diseases of Bees 
 and their Eemedies, and Eemarks as to their Enemies, and the best mode of protecting 
 the Hives from their attacks. By H. D. EICHARDSON. With illustrations. 
 
 DOMESTIC FOWLS ; 
 
 THEIR NATURAL HISTORY, BREEDING, BEARING, AND GENERAL 
 Management By II. D. KICHABDSON, author of " The Natural History of the Fossil 
 Deer," &c. With illustrations. 
 
 THE HORSE ; 
 
 THEIR ORIGIN AND VARIETIES ; WITH PLAIN DIRECTIONS AS TO THE 
 
 Breeding, Eearing, and General Management, with Instructions as to the Treatment of 
 Disease. Handsomely illustrated 12ino. By H. D. EICHABDSON. 
 
 THE ROSE ; 
 
 THE AMERICAN ROSE CULTURIST ; being a Practical Treatise on the 
 Propagation, Cultivation, and Management in all Seasons, &c. With full directions for 
 the Treatment of the Dahlia. 
 
 THE PESTS OF THE FARM ; 
 
 WITH INSTRUCIONS FOR THEIR EXTIRPATION; being a Manual of 
 
 Plain Directions for the certain Destruction of every description of Vermin. With 
 numerous illustrations on Wood. 
 
 AN ESSAY ON MANURES ; 
 
 SUBMITTED TO THE TRUSTEES OF THE MASSACHUSETTS SOCIETY FOE 
 
 Promoting Agriculture, for their Premium. By SAMUEL H. DANA. 
 THE AMERICAN BIRD FANCIER; 
 
 CONSIDERED WITH REFERENCE TO THE BREEDING, REARING, FFED- 
 
 ing, Management, and Peculiarities of Cage and House Birds. Illustrated with Engrav- 
 ings. By D. JAY BROWNE. 
 
 CHEMISTRY MADE EASY ; 
 
 FOR THE USE OF FARMERS. By J. TOPHAM. 
 ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE ; 
 
 TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH, and Adapted to the use of American 
 Farmers. By F. G. SKINNEB. 
 
Books Published by A. 0. MOORE. 11 
 
 THE HORSE'S FOOT AND HOW TO KEEP IT SOUND ; 
 
 WITH CUTS, illustrating the Anatomy of the Foot, and containing 
 valuable hints on shoeing and stable management, both in health and disease. By WIL- 
 LIAM MILES. 
 
 THE SKILLFUL HOUSEWIFE; 
 
 Or, Com] 
 omy, embraci 
 deniiig, Bi 
 
 THE AMERICAN KITCHEN GARDENER ; 
 
 CONTAINING DIRECTIONS FOE THE CULTIVATION OP VEGETABLES and 
 Garden Fruits. By T. G. FESSENDEN. 
 
 CHINESE SUGAR CANE AND SUGAR MAKING ; 
 
 ITS HISTORY, CULTURE, AND ADAPTATION TO THE SOIL, CLIMATE, 
 
 and Economy of the United States, with an account of various processes of Manufac- 
 turing Sugar. Drawn from authentic sources by CHARLES F. STANSBUEY, A.M., late 
 Commissioner at the Exhibition of all Nations at London. 
 
 PERSOZ' CULTURE OF THE VINE ; 
 
 A NEW PROCESS FOR THE CULTURE OF THE YINE, by PERSOZ, Pro- 
 fessor to the Faculty of Sciences of Strasbourg; directing Professor of the School 
 of Pharmacy of the same city. Translated by J. O'C. BABCLAY, Surgeon U. S. N. 
 
 THE BEE KEEPER'S CHART; 
 
 BEING A BRIEF PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE INSTINCT, HABITS, and 
 
 Management of the Honey Bee, in all its various branches, the result of many years' 
 practical experience, whereby the author has been enabled to divest the subject of 
 much that has been consideed mysterious and difficult to overcome, and render it 
 more sure, profitable, and interesting to every one, than it has heretofore been. By 
 E. W. PHELPS. 
 
 EVERY LADY HER OWN FLOWER GARDENER; 
 
 ADDRESSED TO THE INDUSTRIOUS AND ECONOMICAL ONLY ; containing 
 
 Simple and Practical Directions for Cultivating Plants and Flowers ; also, Hints for 
 the Management of Flowers in Kooms, with brief Botanical Descriptions of Plants and 
 Flowers. The whole in plain and simple language. By LOUISA JOHNSON. 
 
 THE COW ; DAIRY HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE BREEDING. 
 
 By M. M. MILBURN, and revised by H. D. KICHARDSON and AMBROSE 
 
 STEVENS. "With Illustrations. 
 WILSON ON THE CULTURE OF FLAX ; 
 
 ITS TREATMENT, AGRICULTURAL AND TECHNICAL ; delivered before 
 
 the New York State Agricultural Society, at the Annual Fair at Saratoga, in Septem- 
 ber last, by JOHN WILSON, late President of the Koyal Agricultural College at Ciren- 
 cester, England. 
 
 WEEKS ON BEES: A MANUAL. 
 
 OR, AN EASY METHOD OF MANAGING BEES IN THE MOST PROFITA- 
 
 ble manner to their owner, with infallible rules to prevent their destruction by the 
 Moth ; with an Appendix by WOOSTEB A. FLANDEBS. 
 
 REEMELIN'S (CHAS.) VINE DRESSER'S MANUAL ; 
 
 CONTAINING FULL INSTRUCTIONS as to LOCATION and SOIL ; Prepara- 
 tion of Ground ; Selection and Propagation of Yines ; the Treatment of a Yonng 
 Vineyard ; trimming and training the vines ; manures and the making of wine. Every 
 department illustrated. 
 
 HYDE'S CHINESE SUGAR CANE; 
 
 CONTAINING ITS HISTORY, MODE OF CULTURE, MANUFACTURE of the 
 Sugar, <fcc. ; with Reports of its success in different parts of the United States. 
 
12 Books Published by A. 0. MOOKE. 
 
 BEMENT'S (C. M.) RABBIT FANCIER ; 
 
 A TREATISE ON THE BREEDING, BEARING, FEEDING, AND GENERAL 
 
 Management of Babbits, with remarks upon their diseases and remedies; to which 
 are added full directions for the construction of Hutches, Babbitries, &c., together with 
 recipes for cooking and dressing for the table. 
 
 RICHARDSON ON DOGS: THEIR ORIGIN AND VARIETIES: 
 
 DIRECTIONS AS TO THEIR GENERAL MANAGEMENT. With numerous 
 original anecdotes. Also Complete Instructions as to Treatment under Disease. By 
 H. D. BICHAKDSON. Illustrated with numerous wood engravings. 
 This is not only a cheap, but one of the best works ever published on the Dog. 
 
 LIEBIG'S (JUSTUS) FAMILIAR LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY ; 
 
 AND ITS RELATION TO COMMERCE, PHYSIOLOGY, and AGRICULTURE 
 Edited by JOHN GAKDENBE, M.D. 
 
 THE DOG AJD GUN; 
 
 A FEW LOOSE CHAPTERS ON SHOOTING, among which will be found 
 some anecdotes and incidents. Also instructions for Dog ^Breaking, and interesting 
 letters from Sportsmen. BT A BAD SHOT. 
 

M1488S6 
 
 C 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY