TH UNIVERSITY Of CALIFORNIA LIBRARY 5C L.1BR1S *1 History of the English Language and Literature from the Earliest Times until the Present Day including The American Literature, with a Bibliographical Appendix, by F. J. Bierbaum, Ph. D. Professor at the Ladies' High-School in Karlsruhe. Second Thoroughly revised and enlarged Edition. Student's Edition. Heidelberg. Georg Weiss, Verlag. London. New -York. J. W. Kolckmann. B. Westermann & Co. 1889. Dedicated to Professor Dr. Richard P. Wiilker as a slight token of esteem and gratitude. \. - r- * * . Preface to the second Edition. This little work, which has met with a most favourable reception since its first appearance, is again presented, in a some- what altered shape, to the students of English Literature, for whom it is intended to become a guide and instructor during their first steps into this vast and fertile domain. In order to make it a truly practical manual, the author has not limited himself to consult his own experience and the best English and German literary sources, but has availed himself of the kind assistance of a number of learned German, English, and Ameri- can men of authority, whose inestimable contributions deserve his heartiest thanks, and will, no doubt, secure to the work the attention and estimation of students of English Literature. He is greatly indebted to Professor Dr. R. Wiilker of the Uni- versity of Leipzig and to Professor J. H. Chamberlin of Marietta College, Ohio, America, for their kind corrections and most valuable contributions, the former to various parts of the English Literature, the latter to the Literature of America; to the Kev. the Warden Robert Rice, M. A., of St. Columba's College, Dublin, to Mr. Charles Brown, Heidelberg, and to Dr. L. Proescholdt, Oberlehrer at Homburg v. d. H., for their kind and indefatigable corrections of the proof-sheets and their numerous and important suggestions and additions to the work. Besides, the many critics of the first edition have con- scientiously been taken into consideration, although some of their demands could not be complied with from being either unfounded or exaggerated. VI Preface. As to the "Bibliographical Appendix", it will probably offer a propitious ground for criticism, as the views on the extent of the requirements for beginners may be widely differing. It does not pretend either to completeness or perfection; its only object is to facilitate information and to save that great loss of time and trouble always attending the first steps into unknown re- gions. Corrections and kind suggestions will ever be thank- fully accepted. Karlsruhe, July 1888. The Author. NB. ! The outer numbers of the pages refer to the 'Student's Edi- tion', the inner numbers to the 'School-Edition'. The * refers to the Bibliographical Appendix. Contents. The outer numbers of the pages refer to the 'Student's-Edition'. Page Introductory Survey 1 Chapter I. Historical Survey. Elements of the Language 2 Chapter II. Anglo-Saxon Period. Epic Poetry. Prose-Writing 9 Chapter III. Old English Period. The Age of Transition (Semi-Saxon). The Early English Period 16 Chapter IV. The Age of Chaucer (Middle English). Chaucer. Minor Poets. Scotch Poets. Prose Writers 26 Chapter V. The Protestant Reformation or the Revival of Learning. Poetical Literature. The Ballad. Prose Literature. Ecclesiastical Liter- ature 39 Chapter VI. Modern English Period. Elizabethan Era. Earlier Poets. Kise and Development of the English Drama. The Old English or Eliza- bethan Drama. Theatres and Actors. Early Dramatic Writers. William Shakespeare. Ben Jonson and his School. Miscellaneous Poets. Prose Literature 49 Chapter VII. Civil- War Period. Poetical Literature. Milton. Metaphysical Poets. The New English Drama. Prose Literature. Theological Writers 82 Chapter VIII. The Classic Age of Queen Anne. Poetical Literature. Poets of Transition. Prose Literature 103 Chapter IX. Return to Nature. Poetical Literature. Prose Literature. The No- velists. Historical Writing. Epistolary Writing 121 VIH Contents. Chapter X. The Nineteenth Century. Poetical Literature. Poets of Transition. The Lakists. Minor Poets. Prose Literature. Essayists and Critics. Novelists. Historians 145 Chapter XI. The Victorian Age. Poetical Literature. Dramatists. Novelists. Novels for the Young. Historians. Essayists and Philosophers 190 Chapter XII. The American Literature. Introduction. The Colonial Period. The Age of the Eevolution. The National American Literature. Poetical Literature. Prose Literature. Essayists 223 Index .... 253 Bibliographical Appendix , 158 1. INTRODUCTORY SURVEY. The language and literature of England, being closely con- nected with the political history of the nation, will be best traced and studied in connexion with the latter; for which end the political events will furnish, as far as possible, the leading features of the present outline. According to this principle, the history of the English language and literature may be di- vided into the following periods and ages: 1. The Anglo-Saxon Period, from c. 6001100. 2. The Old English Period, from 11001580. Four subdivisions may be distinguished in it: a. The Age of Transition (Semi-Saxon): 1100 1250; b. The Early English Period: 12501360; c. The Age of Chaucer (Middle English): 1360 1450; d. The Protestant Reformation or Revival of Learning: 14501580. 3. The Modern English Period, from 1580 till the present time, including also the literature of America. Here again, six distinct eras may be marked in the general aspect of literature: a. The Elizabethan Era, 15801625, till the death of James I.; b. The Civil-War Period, 16251688; from the ac- cession of Charles I. till the second Revolution; C. The Classic Age of Queen Anne, 1688 1745; from the accession of William of Orange till the death of Pope (1744) and Swift (1745); d. The Return to Nature, 17451800; e. The Nineteenth Century, from 1800 till the pre- sent day, comprising: aa. The Revival of Romantic Poetry, 18001830, till about the death of Byron (1824) and Scott (1832); bb. The Victorian Age. f. The American Literature. Bierbaum, Literature. Student's Ed. CHAPTER I. 2. HISTORICAL SURVEY UP TO THE YEAR 1066.* The earliest known inhabitants of Britain or Albion 1 belonged to the Celtic race, spread over the western parts of Europe. They were a predatory nation, and divided into two great branches, the Gael and the Cymry, the former inhabi- ting the Highlands of Scotland and Ireland, the latter the principality of Wales. Their religion was a kind of paganism, called Druidism, embodying a considerable part of their govern- ment institutions; their chief sanctuary was the Isle of Mona, now Anglesea. Traces of their customs and worship still linger in Eng- land 2 and relics of their race are found in Wales, the Highlands of Scotland, the western and southern parts of Ireland and the Isle of Man, where Celtic dialects continue to be spoken to the present day. Their intercourse with the Phoenicians remains doubtful. These ancient inhabitants came for the first time into con- tact with a civilized nation in the year 55 B. C., when Julius Caesar invaded their country with two of his legions. From the time of a second great incursion of Britain by the Romans under Claudius in 43 A. D., many bloody battles were fought, until at last the Celts, though obstinate and ferocious, were overcome by the superior skill and military discipline of the Romans, and their country made a Roman province by Agricola (78 85 A. D.). The conquerors erected several walls to pre- vent the ravages of the savage northern tribes, divided the land into six provinces, and endeavoured to introduce their customs, 1 Albion, a Celtic word, meaning "White Island", connected with "albus" and "Alp". - The "May-day"; the fires of "Midsummer-eve"; "Harvest-home"; the cutting of the ''Mistletoe" at Christmas, which, however, are by some ascribed to Germanic origin. Historical Survey up to the Year 1066. 3 laws, and civilisation. Frequent inroads, however, from these northern inhabitants, and troubles from the Barbarians l at home, caused the Emperor Honorius to withdraw his legions; and with them all signs of Roman authority ceased in the year 409 A. D. after a dominion of about 400 years. After the departure of the Romans, the Picts and Scots, the inhabitants of the mountainous regions, descended to harass the romanized parts of the population, and to destroy the works of civilisation. The appeal of the latter to Rome not being answered, they called to their assistance the warlike race of the Saxon pirates or "sea kings", who came from their homes in Jutland, Sleswic and Holstein, and from the shores of the Baltic to subdue the invaders. As a reward they are said to have received the province of Kent. During a century or more, fresh hordes of Saxons continued to pour in, gradually conquer- ing the lowland territory and driving the inhabitants back into their mountain districts; part of them, the Bretons, took posses- sion of that western portion .of France, which was then called Armorica, but now, after them, Brittany (Bretagne). These Ger- manic tribes called themselves Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. The Angles seem to have been the most powerful, for they afterwards gave their name to the whole country, although the name of the "Sekxas" is still mentioned for a long time. According to legendary traditions, the most celebrated opponent of these new invaders was Arthur, king of South- Wales. With his officers, the sixty "Knights of the Round Table", he won twelve battles, until he was slain by his treacherous nephew Mordred in 542. In the course of time, the Saxons founded seven kingdoms, called the "Saxon Heptarchy:" Kent, South- Saxons (Sussex) , West-Saxons (Wessex) , East-Saxons (Essex), Northumbria, East-Anglia, and Mercia which comprised the Mid- land counties. One of these seven kings, the wisest and might- iest, called "Bretwalda" (powerful king), had always the ascen- dency over the rest. In 596, St. Augustine, sent by Pope Gregory the Great, introduced Christianity among the Anglo-Saxons; the Celts had turned Christians before. The first royal convert was Aethelberth, who built a church at Canterbury which became the metropolis of Christianity in England, although the kingdom of Northumbria was its most powerful seat, as it was likewise that of culture 1 Alaric, king of the Visigoths, conquers Rome 410. 4 Historical Survey up to the Year 1066. and learning. Under the influence of Christianity, the English or Englis, as they called themselves now, made great progress in the arts of civilisation. Egbert, king of the West-Saxons, finally united the seven kingdoms into one in the year 827. From this time till the middle of the eleventh century, English history is full of fierce strife and bloodshed. Scandinavian freebooters, especially the Danes, made frequent inroads into England, trying to subdue the country, and at last succeeded in founding a Danish dynasty on the eastern coast. This district, reaching from the Thames to the Tweed, was named the "Danelagh" A . The brightest figure of these times is Aelfred the Great (871901), the youngest son of Egbert. He fought several battles against the Danes, in which, though defeated at first, he finally was successful in checking their progress and forcing them to acknowledge his authority. Aelfred greatly improved the material and intellectual condition of his people: he trans- lated Latin works for the use of the lower classes, gave a code of laws, built strong castles and towns, made a division of the lands, and improved and enlarged the fleet. His son and suc- cessor, Edward the First, assumed the title of "King of the Anglo-Saxons" ("Anglosaxorum rex" or as "totius gentis An- gulsaxorum gubernator") , and is the reputed founder of the University of Cambridge. Under the following kings, the Danes occasionally renewed their ravages, and in the year 1016, Canute established the Danish rule in England, which, however, lasted only 26 years (1042). With Edward the Confessor, the Saxon line was restored and continued for a short time under his successor Harold II., until in the year 1066, England was conquered by William, Duke of Normandy. 3. CELTIC, SCANDINAVIAN, LATIN, AND OTHER ELEMENTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.* The language of the ancient Britons was divided into two branches, the Gaelic, or the Erse, representing the oldest state of the language, dialects of which are still spoken in Ireland, Scotland, and the Isle of Man (the Manse), and the Cymric Daneleah, from leah (to lay), a camp. Celtic, Scandinavian, Latin, and other Elements of the English Language. 5 or Welsh, which was spoken at the time of the Roman in- vasions and is still surviving in Wales, Cornwales, and Brittany. Very scanty traces, however, are left in the literary language. These relics, consisting only of scattered words, are chiefly names of implements, or terms relating to agriculture and do- mestic occupations 1 , with a considerable number of familiar expressions 2 , and a few proper names. 3 In this language were written the oldest specimens of the literature of modern Europe. Scraps of Irish verses, ascribed to the fifth century, legendary ballads 4 , bardic songs 5 , glosses, and prose accounts of Irish his- tory 6 are still extant. The language of the Scandinavians or the Danes (as they were called by the Saxons) has furnished a great number of names of families and places in the North and East of England. The termination 'by', originally signifying a farm, then a village or town 7 , is still met with in Whitby, Derby [Deorby, deer], Grimsby [town ol Grim), Rugby, Dalby [dale] etc.; likewise are all the family names, formed with 'son', as Johnson, Adamson, Nelson etc. of northern origin. The verb 'earan' (are) was adopted for 'sindon' or 'sind', and the use of the preposi- tion 'of, as a sign of the genitive case, was introduced from the same source in the twelfth century. 8 1 Bard, basket, bog, bran, cart, clan, claymore (sword), coat, cockle cradle, crag, den, fillibeg and kilt (short petticoat of the highlanders) flannel, garter, glen, gyve, hem, hog, pail, pibroch (battle-song), pitcher plaid, reel, shamrock (trefoil), task, whiskey (uisg- water), willow etc. 2 Balderdash (idle talk), bug, bugbear (hobgoblin), lad, lass, b sham (deceit), spree (trick, glee), to bully, to cower, to grumble, to ki to knock, to lick (to cudgel), to toss, to trip etc. 3 Avon, (water), Aberdeen, Dee, Derwent, Dover, Exe, Kent, London (?), Man, (isle), Trent, Tweed. 4 The Comment of Gospel of St. Mark, oldest literary monument, in Turin. The Psalter of Cashel, one of the oldest remaining MSS. of Irish literature, compiled towards the end of the 9th century, con- tains metrical legends. 5 The Songs of the enchanter Merlin (Merdhin) a sage and poet of the sixth century, chanting the calamities of the Cymrians, and those of the bard Taliessin still remain. 6 The Annals of Tigernach and of the Four Masters of Ulster. 7 Bye-law, the law of a borough. 8 Of Scandinavian origin are: Ale, anger, bag, to bask, blunt, bull, brink, booty, cake, call, curl, cast, to cow, crop, to dwell, earl, eke, to egg (to edge or incite), flay, fell, fellow, flat, to flit, to foster, gain, gust, gin, hair, hap, heel, to hit, husband, ill, to irk, kid, kindle, knife, law, leg, meek, odds, to ransack, row, score, scrap, to scrape, shallow, skill, skin, sky, to slit, slouch, sly, sneek, spoil, swain, to take, thrall, thrift, tiding, ugly, want, window, wile, wont, wrath. 6 Elements of the English Language. It is from the Latin, the English language has received not only the greatest contributions to its vocabulary, but also the most important influence as regards its structure, either directly, through the Roman conquerors, the Church, and the revival and cultivation of classic studies, or indirectly, through the me- dium of the French language. About four fifths of all borrow- ed words are of Latin origin. From the time of the Roman conquest, though it lasted about four centuries, only very few words have survived, as: castra (a camp) in Chester, Colchester, Manchester, Gloucester, Leicester, Doncaster; colonia (a colony) in Lincoln; pons (a bridge) in Pontefract (pron. Pom fret); port a (a door) in Newport; portus (a harbour) in Bridgeport, Portsmouth, and strata in street, vallum in wall. Since the introduction of Christianity in the beginning of the seventh century, the Church, which was keeping on a con- stant intercourse with Rome and almost exclusively cultivated learning and letters, introduced a great number of Latin and latinized Greek words connected with ecclesiastical or religious matters. Such words are: Bishop (episcopus), chalice (calix), candle (candela}, church (cyrice, Kftgtcttnj), clerk (clericus), cloister (claustrum), devil (diabolus), epistle (epistola), minster (monasterium), porch (porticus), priest (presbyter"), psalter (psal- teriuni), mass (missa), provost (praepositus) , to preach (praedi- care), saint (sanctus) etc. The widest channel, however, through which Latin elements were streaming in by thousands after having already undergone a great change in shape, accent and pronunciation, was the Norman-French language. This infusion had already begun before the time of the Norman conquest under the last Saxon kings; Edward the Con- lessor, having been educated at the Norman court, spoke the French tongue with predilection and introduced many French ecclesiastics into England. The conquest of England finally succeeded in firmly rooting this language in the kingdom. The way in which the fusion of so many foreign words with the English tongue gradually took place, was threefold: firstly by shifting the accent from the termination to the root, according to the English accentuation, which, as in all Ger- manic languages, is logical, whilst in those of Latin derivation it is rhythmical, thus: accent into accent, honneur into honour. Elements of the English Language. 7 question into question 1 etc.; secondly by adopting the English inflexions, as in the conjugation of verbs: mov-, mov-est, mov-^ 2 etc. and in the comparison of adjectives: safe, saf-er, s&f-est* etc.; and thirdly by adapting Saxon prefixes and suf- fixes to Latin radicals: &e-siege, wn-pretending, mis-con- strue, wwcter-value, o^er-turn; l&rge-ness, duke- & ft =th; (tenuis & media). * Compound substantives are formed as in German by juxtaposition; hleodum, dat.plur. 2 Infinitive; other forms are gan and gangan. 3 Scotia and sceafoa; cf. English to scath, Germ. schadigen. 4 Gen. plur. of man. 5 In alliteration the prefix is not taken into account. 6 Germ. SaaL 7 hedn, dat. sing, of hedh, hea = high. 8 Imperf. of vadan, to pass through; cf. Germ, rvaten. 9 Dat. plur. of woken, Germ. Wolke. lo fce, rel. pron is often used with the demonstr. pron. !1 Gen. plur. of gum = man. 12 Sunerl. of gearrve, Old Germ. garo, Germ, gar = ready. The syllable ge in gearwost belongs to the root of the word. 13 Imperf. sing, of rvitan, to know, cf. to wit. Germ. mis sen. 14 Dat. plur. of feet (fatu ?) = plate. 15 Imperf. sing, of ge-secan, to seek. 16 All vowels possess an alliterative affinity among each other. 17 Aldor and ealdor = life; ealdor-dagum , dat. plur. = in the days of life. 18 Compar. of heard = hard. 19 Cf. Germ. held. 20 Ace. plur. of healftegn, a champion or guard of the hall; cf. Germ. Degen. 12 Anglo-Saxon Period. cal traditions and particularly for the many names of popular kings and heroes. The Death of Byrhtnoth* The hero leads an expedition against the Normans, who have landed on the English coast. He is slain in the combat at Maldon. Waldere*, consisting of two epic fragments, the first con- taining the speech of Hildeguth, inciting Walter of Aquitain to fight against Gunther, the second a dialogue between Gunther and Waldere. Deor, the Scaltfs Complaint*, is the only preserved Anglo- Saxon song. Deor, a gleeman, sought comfort for suffered wrongs in the memory of similar fates of great men, thus pre- serving a number of fine old legends. 6. CAEDMON* Among the religious poems, the first place is occuped by 2 he Metrical Paraphrase of the Gospel, ascribed to Caed- mon (t 680), a monk of Streoneshalh , later called Whitby in Yorkshire. His poems must, according to Bede, be set down about the year 670, which dates the beginning of poetry in Eng- land; the MS. is of the 10th century. Caedmon, so the Venerable Bede tells us, was a cowherd, entirely deprived of the gift of song, which being of great mortification to him, he one night left the hall, quite distressed in mind. In his troubled dreams a man appeared to him, who, not heeding his excuses, commanded him to sing of the "Be- ginning of all Created Things." Sweet, original verses flowed from his lips, and this heavenly gift did not forsake him, when he awoke. Great was the general astonishment; and after hav- ing proved his new-found skill on a given passage of the Bible, he was enrolled among the monks and spent his life in composing religious poetry, rendering the Scripture narratives into popular verse. "Thus he sang", says Bede, "of the Crea- tion of the World, of the origin of the human race, of the whole Genesis, and many other stories of the Old and the New Testament." The following works are generally ascribed to him: A Hymn*; Genesis*, a paraphrase, mostly drawn from apocryphical sources ; Cynewulf. 13 Exodus*, an epic song about the passage of the Israelites through the Red Sea and the destruction of the Egyptians; Daniel, another .paraphrase, and Christ* and Satan*. Of these works the first only, though not of great literary value, can with certainty be considered as having been written by Caedmon. 7. CYNEWULF. * About his life, nothing certain is known. He probably lived in the 8th century and perhaps in Northumbria, where he seems to have received his education in a monastery and then to have led the gay and unsteady life of a secular minstrel. In his old age, he most likely retired to a quiet, contemplative life and died in solitude. The poetical works attributed to Cynewulf must be divided into two groups, the first comprising four poems whose authen- ticity is ascertained by the name of Cynewulf itself occurring in them, both in runes and in the solution of riddles; the second contains a number of other poems of a doubtful origin. To the first group belong: A Collection of Riddles* ; Christ*, a didactic poem depicting Christ's threefold coming, viz. his birth, his re- surrection, and his return on the day of judgment; Juliana* con- tains the story of the temptation, imprisonment, and death of a female martyr, called Juliana, under the emperor Maximian (t 340) ; Elene* relates Constantino's victory over the Huns, his baptism, and the arrival of his mother "Elene" at Jerusalem, where she finds the cross and the nails of Christ's crucifixion on mount Calvary. The second group comprises: Guthlac*, the name of the hero, an Anglian saint in the 7 th and 8 th centuries, who dwells on a mountain, inhabited by demons who attempt to destroy him. They carry him to Hell where God delivers him. The second part, relating his death, is superior to the first in poeti- cal merit and probably written by another hand. The end is not preserved. The Phoenix* treats the subject of a Latin poem in the Christian spirit. Andreas* tells the legend of the liberation of the apostle Matthew from the hands of the Merme- dons through the help of Andreas, assisted by Christ and two angels. He himself is tortured, but he works a great wonder and the final conversion of the enemies. 14 Anglo-Saxon Period. Other works attributed to Cynewulf, however without any sufficient evidences, are The Vision of the Holy Rod, The Wanderer, The Seafarer, The Ruine, and some others of a didactic character. 8. MISCELLANEOUS LITERARY MONUMENTS. Some other poetical remains of this age are: Salomon and Saturn*, consisting of two parts, the first of which is a dialogue on the Lord's Prayer, the second a treatise on death, human life, the Fall of Angels etc. Judith*, an epic fragment of great excellency, superior to any poem of a similar character preserved of this time. Genesis* 1 (the younger), probably a translation of an Old- Saxon poem, written on the Continent and in the same spirit as the Heliand. It treats of the Creation and the Fall of Man. Be Domes Dage*, of a somewhat later date, is a description of the Last Day. Besides these, there are preserved a number of spells or magic formulas, relics of the pagan times, homilies, hymns, psalms, prayers, and didactic fragments on various subjects, mostly preserved in the Exeter Book* (Codex Exoniensis) and the Vercelli-Book* (Codex Vercellensis) of the llth cen- tury, thus called from the places where the MSS. are guard- ed; they are generally ascribed to Cynewulf. The second only contains also writings in prose. 9. PROSE-WRITING. I 'rose- writing properly begins with Aelfred the Great* (871 901), the "father of English prose", through whose bright example a great impulse was given to the use of the vernacular tongue, especially in works of religious edification and popular instruction. Whilst he invited over learned men from the Con- tinent and established convents and schools, he himself, the great warrior, law-giver, and governor, spent great part of his time in translating Latin authors into his own language with untiring industry. For it was the great aim of his life, by his own example to revive learning and general culture, so deeply ne- glected in his time. Thus he rendered his capital of Winchester the centre of learning and the cradle of the English language. Prose-Writing. 15 Aelfred's chief translations are : The Pastoral Rule of Gre- gory the Great* (Cura Pastoris), the most faithful of his trans- lations; Bedes Ecclesiastical History* (historia ecclesiastica Anglorum), a pretty faithful rendering; The History of Orosius*, the first attempt at a universal history and, though an uncriti- cal compilation, the chief authority for later historians; Boetius, On the Consolations of Philosophy*, occupies the first rank among his translations; The Metres of Boetius* in prose and in allitera- tive rhythms. Aelfred generally takes great liberties with his originals by omitting or adding, contracting or enlarging, inter- polating and expatiating according to his personal feelings or intentions. In all these works, Aelfred, himself no great Latin scholar, was aided by Asser, later bishop of Sherborn. Another great light and eminent cultivator of the national language towards the close of the period was Aelfric (c. 955 1025), abbot of Ensham in Oxfordshire, also called "the Grammarian" from his Latin Grammar*. He was the first translator of a great part of the Old Testament (the Penta- teuch, Joshua, the Judges, and Esther, popular, shortened translations for the laity), and wrote eighty Homilies* in two collections, each extending through the round of the whole year from the beginning to the end. Those of the first collection, called "homiliae catholicae", are distinguished for vast theo- logical learning, clearness and elaboration of style, the second, containing his Lives of Saints* (Passiones Sanctorum), are mostly written in rhythmical, alliterative prose. He, besides, left a number of dogmatical and didactic treatises. His numerous writings, distinguished for clearness and roundness of style, exer- cised a great influence on the literary activity of the clergy and the intellectual and moral life of the laity. A prose monument of the highest importance is the Saxon Chronicle*, a chronological record of important and trifling events since the time of Creation, continued and enlarged under Aelfred the Great and brought down to the death of Stephen 1154. It is the first history of any Teutonic nation, written in its own language. LatinLiterature. By far the greater portion of Anglo-Saxon literature was written in Latin by monks and ecclesiastics. The oldest contributors be- long to the Celtic race, as St. Gildas, a Scotchman, and St. Columban, an Irishman, both of the 6th century. Then followed Aid he 1m, Abbot of Malmsbury, end of the 7th century; The Venerable Bede (673735) who spent his life in the convent of Jarrow in "learning , teaching, and writing". He left 45 works of great and varied erudition, embracing all 16 The Age of Transition. sciences. St. Boniface (f 755) (Winfrid), the "Apostle of the Germans" , left a collection of letters; Alcuin of York (735 804^ passed his later years at the court of Charlemagne; John Scotus Erigena (f 877) lived at the court of Charles the Bald; Duns tan, Archhishop of Canter- bury, wrote The Benedictine Rule with an underlined Saxon translation. CHAPTER III. 10. THE AGE OF TRANSITION (SEMI-SAXON) 1100-1250.* Henry I. 11001135. Kichard I. 11891199. Stephen 1135-1154. John 11991216. Henry H. 11541189. Henry HI. 12161272. The two centuries which followed the Norman conquest were a time of conflict between the two hostile elements, the Saxons and the Normans. Through many rigorous measures and institutions, most of which were already embodied in the famous "Domesday-Book" of William the Conqueror, the former descended to an oppressed and servile class, whilst their lands were divided into 60,000 fiefs and bestowed on Norman lords. Tracts of inhabited country were depopulated and transformed into forests of chase, and the high offices in Church and State were confided to the Norman clergy and nobility. This system of oppression, together with the intellectual superiority of the conquering race, produced a strong hatred between the two classes, and it required several ages, before they and their lan- guages blended into one. This process of amalgamation or transformation of the Normans into English was already prepared under Henry I. particularly by intermarriages. On the accession of Henry II., the Norman name had disappeared, and the descendants of the victors of Hastings were proud of their English nationality. Various important political events of the 13th century also contributed to facilitate the gradual approach of the two races. Since the loss of Normandy (1204), the constant intercourse with the mother- country was broken. In the year 1215 "Magna Charta" was extorted from King John, which became the basis of England's future representative constitution, blending the lower people's rights with those of the nobility. Frequent wars and conquests in France created common sympathies, and the The Age of Transition. 17 general hostility against the numerous foreigners, crowding into England and obtaining the first and most lucrative posts, and the exorbitant exactions and usurpations of the Roman see, join- ed the nation in one common feeling and interest. Great social changes had also taken place since the time of the conquest through the introduction of the feudal system, which had been fully developed among the Normans. Along with it, chivalry spread its refining influence throughout the country; learning and arts were cultivated. William I. and nearly all his successors were well educated and patronized learning, though their personal characters were little less than despicable. The 12th century, opening with Beauclerc (Henry I.), was particularly distinguished for the cultivation of classical studies spreading from France along with the Romances, which took the place of the old Saxon songs and found eager and able imitators and translators among the clergy and the minstrels. Equally great were the effects which the invasion produced on the national language. During the first two centuries, no fusion of the two idioms took place, though both of them suffer- ed a gradual and incessant process of change. The French remained the language of the Church, the courts of justice, the Parliament and the schools, in fact of all educated classes, whilst the Saxon idiom, no longer cultivated, lost much of its original perfection and harmony; yet it remained triumphant in the struggle and preserved its Teutonic structure and genius. The most remarkable changes in the language during this space of time were a softening of the inflections 'arc' into l en\ and of 'a, o, u into l e'. The difference of gender with inani- mate beings was disregarded, and the plural was formed in '$'; the infinitive was used in connection with the preposition l to'. Three principal dialects were spoken and distinguished by the plural form in the present indicative, viz. t es l in the North, 'en in the Midland counties, and 'elk' in the South. The literary works of the time, for the greater part reli- gious and narrative, were mostly written in Latin and French. The literary remains, composed in the English language, were romances and chronicles in verse, in which alliteration was still frequently observed, occasionally mixed with rhyme. Bierbaum, Literature. Student's Ed. 18 The Age of Transition. 11- LITEEARY MONUMENTS. Four chief monuments are of importance for the study of the language and the spirit of the age: Layamon's Brut, The Ormulwn, The Ancren Rirvle, and The Owl and the Nightingale. Laymen's Brut 1 or Chronicle of Britain*, (about 1205), the first English poem after the conquest, is an amplified trans- lation from the French of W ace's Brut tf Angleterre* , who in his turn had translated it from Geoffrey of Monmouth's History of the Britons (vide p. 26). This work is highly interesting for representing the current speech of the writer's time, its style being lofty and animated, irregularly mixing alliteration and rhyme. In above 30,OUO short lines it contains only about 50 French words. Lay am on was a priest at Ernley on the Severn in Worcestershire. From Layamon's Brut. To pere 1 midnihte f)a men weoren aslepe, At the midnight when men were asleep, Arftur forb him wende aftelest alre kinge. Arthur forth him went noblest of all kings. Biforen rad heore lod cniht 2 J)at hit was daeliht Before rode their guide till it was daylight Heo lihten of heore steden and rihten 3 heore iweden 4 They alighted from their steeds and righted their weeds. iseyn 5 heo nawiht 6 feorren a muchel fur smokien 3n saw they not far a great fire smoke uppen ane hulle mid sae-nlode bi 7 -uallen; upon a hill by sea-flood surrounded; 1 Dat of the article fern. f,e. 2 A. S. Ie6d, Germ. Leute; cniht = knight, Germ. Knecht. 3 Germ, richten i. e. to adjust, to put aright. 4 Germ. obs. Die JftortJhland: ,,vierfaltig Tuch zur Wat") 0. Germ, mat, rvdtt. 6 The prefix i, A. 8. ge, is frequently joined to the part, past, sometimes to the praet. 6 natviht, from no and n>iht, a being, Engl. naught, Germ, nicht; cf. BOsewicht. 7 Germ, be, from all parts around (a particle). 1 Brut, according to some from Brutus, the fabulous founder of the British monarchy, according to others from the Cymric "brud", a rumour or history; cf. the French "bruit". Literary Monuments. 19 and an oper hul per wes swifte heh and another hill there was very high, pae sae hine bifledde ful neh the sea (around) him flowed full (very) nigh. The Ormulum*, (about 1215), so called by the author after his name Orm (Worm) or Ormin, is a series of metrical ho- milies on the lessons of the divine service, taken from the New Testament. It contains about 10,000 long lines, written in a phonetic system of spelling, doubling the consonant after any short vowel. Being composed in the North-East of England, it scarcely contains any trace of French words. From the Ormulum. (The Beginning.) Nu, broperr Wallterr, broperr min affterr f)e flaeshess kinde; * annd broperr min i Crisstenndom purrh fulluhht 2 annd purrh trowwpe 3 annd broperr min i Godess hus, yet o pe pride wise 4 purrh patt witt 5 hafenn 6 takenn ba 7 an reyhellboc 8 to follyhenn 9 unnderr kanunnkess 10 had 11 annd lif, swa summ 1 ' 2 Sannt Awwstin 13 sette; 14 ice hafe don swa summ pu badd, annd forpedd 15 te pin wille, ice hafe wennd 16 inntill 17 Ennglissh Goddspelless 1 * hallyhe" Iare 2 afFterr patt little witt 21 patt me min Drihhtin 22 hafepp lenedd. 23 The Aneren Riwle* (Rule of Female Anchorites, i. e. nuns), is a code of monastic precepts in prose, written about the year 1220 in Dorsetshire. The style is simple, but graceful and dignified. The amount of French words is about four times greater than that of Layamon. 1 Kindred, relationship. 2 Baptism. 3 truth. 4 In the third wise. 5 Dual form of we, we both. 6 Inf. have. 7 both. 8 Eulebook, Germ. Regelbuch. 9 To follow, Germ, folgen. 10 ll a canonic's hood. l2 so as. 13 St. Augustine. 14 Imperf. of to set. 15 furthered, promoted. 16 turn- ed, Germ, rvenden. 17 into. 18 Gospel's, from God and spellan = speak, tell. 19 Holy. 20 Germ. Lehre. 21 wit, spirit 2S Lord, 0. G. truhtin. 23 to lend, Germ, lehnen, leihen. 2* 20 The Early English Period. The Owl and the Nightingale* is a facetious, didactic poem, probably written about 1225. In 1800 well rhymed octosyllabics it contains an acrimonious disputation between those two birds on their respective powers and merits of song, in which the owl upholds the moral, and the nightingale the aesthetical point of view. The former is intended to represent the austere, ascetic clergy, the latter the merry and happy life of a layman. It abounds with sententious and proverbial sayings, and contains probably many political allusions. This age was very fertile in religious writings, specially in homilies, hymns, and metrical Lives of Saints*, translated from the French. Of these, the Life of St. Katharine is the most important, relating her life and martyrdom in Alexandria. The heroine is perhaps identical with the beautiful female philosopher Hypatia. The Poema morale* is a powerful sermon of repentance in verse, most impressively depicting the pains of Hell. Mention must be made of the Proverbs of Aelfred*, of which the writer is unknown. The Genesis and Exodus* (1250), two poems whose sub- jects are treated after a Latin source, and in which the old French metrical forms are successfully imitated, mark the close of this period. 12. THE EARLY ENGLISH PERIOD*, 12501360. Henry HE. 12161272. Edward H. 13071327. Edward I. 12721307. Edward HI. 13271377. During this short period of about one hundred years, the transfusion of the two races made great progress, and their union was stronger riveted, especially when Henry III. was defeated and taken prisoner by his own subjects in the "Barons' War" at the battle of Lewes (1264). The most salutary conse- quence of this struggle was the representation of the boroughs in Parliament, the first commencement of the later House of Commons. The provisions of the same king and of Louis IX., that no subject of either country should have possessions in the other, produced a final and complete separation of the Anglo- Normans from their mother-country. The wars and triumphs of Edward III. in France since 1339 (Cressy 1346 and Poi- The Early English Period. 21 tiers 1356) not only served to strengthen the union, but pro- duced a strong anti-Gallican feeling in the minds of both the Anglo-Normans and the Saxons. In the middle of the reign of Henry III., a blending of the two idioms was gradually taking place; it marks the be- ginning of the reconstruction of a national language, a process extending to the 15th century. The language of the conque- rors being rich in terms relating to war, chivalry, law, archi- tecture, dress, sports, and the table, furnished words and ex- pressions of this kind in great number. * "All the words of dignity, state, honour, and pre-eminence, as sovereign, scepter, throne, realm, royalty, homage, prince, duke, count, chancellor, treasurer, palace, castle, hall, dome, with the two singular ex- ceptions of king and earl, belong to the speech of the Con- querors." 2 The influence which the foreign idiom exercised on the vernacular tongue, was a threefold: firstly, it produced a con- traction and modification of the pronunciation of words: the sibilants l g', 4 ch', V were introduced; secondly, the inflections of nouns and verbs were omitted the final 'n' of the infinitive disappeared and prepositions and auxiliaries adopted in their place; thirdly, French derivatives were introduced, and French prefixes and suffixes used to coin new words. Not rarely two words, one of either language, have been joined together to express one common idea, as common wealth, coachman, wa,ist-coat etc. From the time of the Conquest, the documentary and episto- lary language had been the Latin; since the year 1270, however, a sudden change brought into use the French, except in p'rocla- mations, which were generally made in the vernacular tongue. The French, however, remained the language of all educat- ed classes. In the Latin schools, the only living tongue taught was the French. Many nobles sent their sons to France to learn French. Thousands of English students studied at the University of Paris. The minstrels sang in French and were 1 The peculiar mode of fusion between the two tongues has been aptly represented by W. Scott in his introductory chapter to Ivanhoe, where the common animals retain their Saxon appellations, when still tended by the Saxon serfs or bondsmen, but receive a French name, when served on the Norman tables, as "ox" and "beef", "swine" and "pork", "sheep" and "mutton", "calf" and "veal" , "deer" and "venison". , , 2 Trench, Study of Words, p. 98 ff. 22 The Early English Period. welcomed in the hall; the bards, who sang in English, were sent to the kitchen. Classics were translated into French. During this long struggle and process of amalgamation, English dialects were spoken by the great mass of the people, while the literary English language was slowly arising from one of the East-Midland dialects about Cambridge and Oxford, assi- milating the elements of the French language changing the pronunciation of s, x, and c into that of th and being vic- torious in the end. 13. LITERAEY MONUMENTS. Most of the literary works were still written in Latin and French. The oldest monument in the English tongue of this period is remarkable both for its historical and linguistic im- portance, although but an awkward translation from the French original; it is the Proclamation of Henry III. of the year 1258, enforcing the authority of the laws and his counsellors. Proclamation of Henry m. Henr', fmrg Godes fultume 1 king on Engleneloande, Ihoaverd 2 on Yrloand', duk on Norm* on Aquitain', and eorl on Aniow, send igretinge 3 to alle hise holde 4 ilaerde 5 and ileawede 6 on Huntendon'schir'. j)aet witen ye wel alle, f)aet we willen and vnnen 7 f)aet J)aet 8 vre 9 raedesmen, 10 alle of)er f)e moare 11 dael of heom, J)aet beof) 12 ichosen 13 fmrg us and fmrg f)aet loandes folk on vre kuneriche, habbef) 14 idon and schullen 15 don in f)e worf)- nesse 16 of Gode and on vre treowf)e 17 for f)e freme 18 of f)e loande, j)urg J)e besigte 19 of j)an toforeniseide 20 redesmen beo 21 stedefaest and ilestinde 22 in alle f>inge abuten 23 aende." 1 Assistance, help. 2 Contract, of Ihoaf or //", Mf, English loaf, Germ. Laib and ward = warden, keeper; English lord = the giver of bread. 8 = ge, a prefix; more frequently gretinge and gr&tunge = gree- ting. 4 Germ, hold, adj. = friendly, dutiful. 5 Part. perf. of ilderen, to teach = learned. 8 laymen. 7 Germ, go'nnen, to favour or grant. 8 Cf. p. 11, note 10. 9 our. 10 counsellors, Germ. Ratsmanner. n The greater part of those. la Third pers. plur. pres. ind. of bedn, to be. 11 Part. perf. of icheosen, to choose. 14 Third pers. plur. pres. ind. of habban, to have. " Third pers. plur. 10 In the honour of . " Loy- alty, Germ. Treue. 18 A. S. fremu, Germ. Frommen ("zu nutz und frommen") = profit, advantage. 10 be and siht foresight, provision. 80 Aforesaid. - 1 Conj. pres. sing, of bedn. * Part. pres. of laesten. to last. M without. Literary Monuments. 23 Of more genuine English the so-called "King's English", which was spoken at the court about the person of the King - is a letter of Henry, Prince of Wales (afterwards Henry V.), written to his father in 1402. It is one of the earliest letters written in English. "My soverain lord and fader, I Recomande me to yowr good and gracieux lordship , as humbly as I can, desiring to heere as good tydingges of yow and yowr hye estat, as ever did liege man of his soverain lord. And, Sir, I trust to God that ye shall have now a companie comyng with my brother of Bedford that ye shall like wel, in good feith, as hit is do me wite. 1 Neverthelatter my brothers maing 2 have I seyn, which is right a tal meyny. And so schal ye se of thaym that be of yowr other Captaines leding, of which I sende you al the names in a rolle be (by) the berer of this. etc. etc. The most considerable works of this epoch are two cro- nicles in verse, the first by Robertof Gloucester* (about 1300), comprising the time of the legendary age of Brutus to the close of Henry IH.'s reign. To the same writer a collection of Lives of Saints has also been ascribed. The author of the second chronicle is Robert Manning or Robert de Brunne* (about 1340); it consists of two parts, both translations, the first from Wactfs Brut, and the second from Peter de Langtoffs Chronicle. From the Chronicle of Robert of Gloucester. pus com lo! Engelond into Normandies hond, and |)e Normans ne coupe 1 speke |)o 2 bote 3 her owe 4 speche, and speke French as hii dude 5 atom, 6 and hor children dude also teche, so f)at heiemen 7 of f)ys lond, J)at of hor blod come, holdeft al 6ulke 8 speche bat hii 9 of him nome; vor bote 10 a man conne Frenss, me 11 telp 12 of him -lute; 13 ac lowe men 14 holdef) to Engliss and to hor owe speche yute. 15 1 Knew not. 2 Then or there. 3 But, except. 4 Own. 5 As (they) did. 6 At home. 7 Highmen. 8 The-ilk = such. 9 That they. 10 For unless. " Men. 12 Reckon or tell. 13 Very little. 14 But low-men. Yet. 1 Let me know. 2 Company, Germ. Menge. 24 The Early English Period. Ich wene 16 f)er ne be|) in al |)e world contreyes none pat ne holdej) to hor owe speche, bote Engelond one. Ac wel me wot 17 uor to conne bof)e wel it is; vor pe more fat a mon can, ])e more wurfe he is. The warlike, national songs of Lawrence Minot*(f 1352) occupy a prominent rank among the popular poems of the age. In a refined, powerful, and sometimes triumphant tone, he describes ten battles and victories of Edward IDE. over the Scotch and the French. The verses are rhymed and occasio- nally alliterative, the dialect akin to the Scotch. Another famous poem of great popularity is The Vision of Piers (Peter) Ploughman*, probably written by a monk, named William Langland. Though completed only about the year 1362, it may still be included in this period for its air of an- tiquity, effected by the regular use of the old alliterative system. It is a religious allegory in the satirical spirit ot the later Puritans, with whom it became a favourite book. Its subject is much alike that of Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress: the impe- diments and temptations in our mortal life. The poet after a ramble through the Malvern Hills on a May mor- ning falls asleep and sees a series of twenty dreams or visions, which he relates in an allegorical form, scourging the corruptions of the time, especially the abuses of the Church, and the ignorance, hypocrisy, sen- suality, in fact, all the vices of the ecclesiastics, without attacking, however, any of the doctrines of the Roman Church. The Land of Cockayne*, a satire on the sluggard life of the monks, was written about this time. The most numerous and most popular poems of the time were The Romances, translations or imitations of Norman origi- nals, constituting in the main four groups or cycles: King Arthur and his Round Table*, Charlemagne, The Life and Ex- ploits of Alexander, and The Siege of Troy. Separate romances are : King Horn*, relating the adventurous life and manifold ex- ploits of the hero, most likely of Scandinavian origin. Havelok the Dane*, of a similar character and metrical form as the former. Guy of Warwick* relates the knight's renunciation of his wealth and his wife, his pilgrimage to Jerusalem, his return and victory over the giant Colbrand, his unknown sojourn at his castle, and his life and death as an eremite in the forest of 18 I ween, think, Germ, rvuhnen. 17 But well men wot Literary Monuments. 25 the Ardennes. It is written in the ballad measure rhyming by pairs. William of Palerme*. In his strange adventures the hero is protected by the Prince Alfons of Castillane in the guise of a werewolf, and gains the hand of the daughter of the Roman emperor. Its metrical form are alliterative long lines. Sir Gorvther* contains the varied legends of Robert the Devil; the scene is Austria. It contains 63 stanzas of twelve lines. Beves of ffamton*, a compound of curious adventures and exploits against giants and drakes. St. Graal*. This was said to be the dish from which Christ ate The Last Supper. Joseph of Arimathea caught in it the blood from His wounds; then it became invisible and revealed itself only to a pure knight, Sir Galahad, who, having seen it, prayed for death. The most important writer of romances about king Arthur and the St. Graal was Walter Mapes in the llth century. The religious poetry of the time is very abundant; it was produced by the monks, whose influence, however, was broken towards the end of this period. There are to be mentioned: The Handling Synne* (a manual of sins) by Robert Manning (1303); Cursor Mundi*, a metrical translation of the 0. and N. T. mixed with legends of saints (1320), The Poems of William of Shorham* (1327), Ayeribite of Inrvyt* (the bite of conscience) translated from the French (1340) by dan Michel; The Pricke of Conscience* by Rich. Rolle de Hampole (1340); The Harrowing of Hell etc. A complete list of names of Latin writers would be out of place here. The most noteworthy of them were either theologians or chroniclers: Lane franc (1005 1089), a native of Italy and afterwards the head of a school in Normandy, was made archbishop of Canterbury by William the Conqueror after the deposition of the Saxon Stigand. He founded a new school of learning and literature in England. Anselm U033 1109), also an Italian by birth and successor of Lancfranc, composed a great number of works on various subjects and had a great influence on learn- ing in England. Alexander Hales (f 1245), "the Irrefragable Doctor", lived and taught abroad; Johannes Duns Scotus (f 1308), "the Subtle Doctor", lived at Oxford and in Paris; William of Occam (130847) 26 The Age of Chaucer. "the Invincible Doctor" and the head of the school of "Nominalists", 1 lived at the court of the German emperor; Koger Bacon (12 14 1292), a Franciscan friar and great investigator of physical science, through his stupendous knowledge gained the reputation of a wizard. Three Latin chroniclers deserve to be mentioned in this place: William of Malmesbury (1140) wrote a History of the English Kings in two books, abounding in stories of miracles and prodigies, and Geof- frey of Monmouth (about 1150), who compiled a more interesting History of the Britons , in which he saved from oblivion the fine old le- gends of the Celts, amongst which that of King Arthur and his Knights, mixing facts and fictions in an attractive way. It was translated into French by Wace (1155,) from whom Layamon (vide p. 18) retranslated it into English. Ealph Higden composed a work which he called Polychronicon, a universal history in 7 books, which was translated into lish and printed by W. Caxton in 1482. ChAPTER IT. THE AGE OF CHAUCER (MIDDLE ENGLISH)*, 1360-1450. Edward m. 13271377. Henry IV. 13991413. Kichard II. 13771399. Henry V. 1413-1422. Henry VI. 14221461. This space of time of about one hundred years includes the continued progress of social amalgamation and of the re- construction and final settlement of the English tongue. It also marks the origin of the English nationality and literature, which are the results of great events and changes of a political, social, and religious character. The wars of Edward III. and Henry V. in France (Agincourt 1415) had not only served to efface the last traces of distinction and hostility between the two races, but also to awaken that national pride, so characteristic with the English people, which ever since has been fostered by a high degree of political liberty and material welfare of the nation. Besides, a new spirit was arising, manifesting itself in the gradual decay of feudalism, the decline of the supremacy of the papal power, and a great intellectual and ecclesiastical progress: schools and colleges were founded; abuses in the Church were resisted by the laity 1 A sect of scholastic philosophers founded in the llth century by John Roscelin, a churchman of Compiegne, who maintained that univer- sals or general terms do not represent real existences, but are merely names. Their opponents were the realists. Geoffrey Chaucer. 27 and the Parliament; Wyclif translated the Bible and opposed the Roman see, and Chaucer, the most perfect type of his time, wiote his immortal works, thus highly contributing towards the re- gulation and perfection of the English language and inaugurating the dawn of English literature. Since the middle of the 14th century, pupils began to construe their Latin lessons in English. In 1362 it was provided by statute of Parliament (written in French!) that the English language might be used in the courts of justice the French being too little known. However, the latter still remained the language for all the reports of law cases till the middle of the 17th century, and the English laws were couched in French until the reign of Henry VII. The first English law dates from the year 1485, yet still with a French translation. Although in 1362 the Parliament had been opened for the first time by an English speech, still all the acts were recorded in French till Henry VH. Moreover , the House of Lords continued to use the French language up to the year 1483. From this year only, the English may be con- sidered as the domineering language in the kingdom. The English of this period was already much alike the language of the present day: it was mostly differing in the pro- nunciation of those syllables which gradually became mute or were entirely dropped. The part. pres. in 'ande' or 'inde' changed into 'ing' in the southern and midland dialects. A great influx of French words continued to take place, accommodating themselves, however, to the Germanic law of accentuation by placing the emphasis on the root of the word. With the middle of the 14th century begins the brightest era of English minstrelsy. The chief product of the literature of the time, therefore, was poetry, among which that of Chaucer occupies the first rank. POETICAL LITERATURE. 15. GEOFFREY CHAUCER*, c. 13401400. Geoffrey Chaucer, called the "Father of English Poetry", was born in London, and according to recent researches, about the year 1340. He most probably studied the law at Cam- bridge. Through the favour of his patron, John of Ghent, third 28 The Age of Chaucer. son of Edward ELI., the handsome and accomplished young poet was received as page at the court, and in 1359 went with an army to France, where he was taken prisoner, but released in the following year. (Treaty of Bretigny 1360.) After his return, he was honoured with courtly favours, and was sent on several diplomatic missions to Italy, on which occasion he is said to have become acquainted with Petrarch (f 1374) and Boccaccio (f 1375). He at least acquired a thorough insight into the Italian literature, which exercised a great influence upon him, especially with regard to form and versification. In 1374 he was made Comtroller of the Wool-Customs in the Port of London, to which lucrative post other kingly grants and favours were added. During this time of prosperity, he married a lady of honour to Queen Philippa, herself called Philippa, whose sister afterwards became the wife of his patron John of Ghent, whereby the poet entered into relationship with the royal family. The king, who placed great confidence in his talents, from 1376 till 1378 employed him on other diplomatic missions to Flanders, France and Italy (Milan). After the death of Edward III, this royal sunshine continued for some time under his successor Richard II. ; new gifts and honours were bestowed on the poet. In 1386 he became Member of Parliament and in 1389 "Clerk of the Works" or royal buildings; however in consequence of political troubles, he lost all his offices in 1391. Under Henry of Lancaster, royal favour once more smiled upon him, when he received the grant of a royal pension in 1394 and other tokens of favour and protection. Being wearied with public life, he retired to his home at Woodstock to complete his great work, The Canterbury Tales. He died on the 25th of October 1400 and was the first of those illustrious poets, whose bones were buried in Westminster Abbey, in the so-called "Poets' Corner". Chaucer's greatest and best work is the book of the famous Canterbury Tales, composed on a similar plan as Boccaccio's Decamerone. Its subject is the following: A company of twenty-nine persons, gathering at the "Tabard Inn" in Southwark near London, are bound on a pilgrimage to the shrine of Thomas a Becket at Canterbury. In order to beguile the tediousness of their journey, they agree to relate stories, each two in going and two in returning. The Poet himself joins the party; and the Host of the Tabard is accepted as a guide and a kind of judge, by whose decision the prize, Geoffrey Chaucer. 29 consisting in a free entertainment at their return to the Inn, is to be awarded to the best teller of tales. The motley company consists of persons of nearly all ranks and classes of society, except the very highest and the very lowest, and represents "a portrait gallery" of the social state of England in the 14th century. Chivalry is represented by a Knight and his son, a young Squire; 1 next in rank follows a Franklin, a freeholder or country gentleman. Peasantry has three representatives: a Ploughman, a Miller and a Reeve 2 or Bailiff. 3 The Clergy forms the largest contingent, comprising a Prioress, attended by a Nun and three Priests; then follow a Benedictine Monk and a Begging Friar, a Sompnour 4 and a Pardoner, last a poor secular Priest. Learning finds its re- presentatives in a Clerk 5 of Oxford, a Sergeant 6 of Law, and a Doctor of Physic. Trade and Industry furnish a Merchant, the Wife of Bath, a Haberdasher, 7 a Carpenter, a Weaver, a Dyer and a Tapestry-maker, who are attended by a cook. Then there is a Shipman, a Manciple 8 or Steward of a College or religious house, the Poet and the Host. The work, however, remained a fragment; only twenty-five stories being finished. It consists of two distinct portions, the first of which is the Prologue*, containing the exposition of the occasion of the gathering, the portraits of the members, their adventures on the road, and the commentaries on the Tales; the second comprises the Tales themselves. These are quite in accordance with the characters of the relating persons , and range between the tragic or pathetic, and the comic or humo- rous, representing the whole mediaeval literature, the legend, the romance, the allegory, the satire, the fable, and all sorts of tales. The finest of the serious class are the Clerk of Oxford's*, 1 Squire, the same as Esquire, a shieldbearer, a title given to the younger sons of noblemen, from the 0. Fr. escuyer, Lat. scutum, a shield. a Keeve, A. S. gerefa, Germ. Graf, a governor; comp. sheriff, A. S. scirgerefa, the reeve of a "shire". 3 Bailiff, from French bailli, overseer, guardian, Lat. bajutus, a bearer. 4 Sompnour, from Lat submoneo, to summon, to warn secretly. An officer, who summoned delinquents to appear in ecclesiastical courts. 5 Clerk, Lat. clericus, a clergyman, then a scholar, learning being originally confined to the clergy. 6 Sergeant of Law, a lawyer of the highest rank under a judge. 7 Haberdasher, of northern origin, a seller of small things. 8 Manciple, from Lat. manceps (manus-capio), one who undertakes something: a contractor. 30 The Age of Chaucer. the Knight's, and the Squire's Tales, of which the first, relating the touching story of "Griseldis", "the model of heroic, wifely patience", "is the crown and pearl of all the serious and pathetic narratives". The best of the comic class are the Miller's, the Reeve's and the Sompnour's Tales, which are dis- tinguished for drollery and acute painting of human nature. Only two of the tales are in prose, the story of Melibeus, the Poet's own contribution after a French original, and the Parson's or Priest's Tale, a tedious sermon on the doctrine and blessings of the Eoman sacrament of penance and the remedies of the various sins. Most of the poetic tales are written in the heroic rhymed couplets, each line containing ten, sometimes eleven syllables. The poet's talent is best revealed in his style, which from the simplest, coarsest, and even licentious tone, "rises to the highest flights of heroic, reflective, and even religious poetry." He is equally great in his portraying of characters and describ- ing incidents, in the domains of the lofty and pathetic, as well as in those of the comic and trivial, thus giving us a faithful picture of the manners, the language, the intellectual and moral conditions of his time. The sources from which the author drew his materials were the Latin, French, and Italian literatures ; only a few are of his own invention. Chaucer, besides, wrote a considerable number of other poetical works, of which the following may find a place: The Dethe of Blanche the Duchesse, or the Book of the Duchesse is an allegorical poem on the death of the Duchess Blanche of Lancaster, first wife of John of Ghent (1369); Troylus and Creseide (1380), a heavy tragic poem in five books; The Parlament of Foules (1380) relates the vision of a dream, in which the poet is carried to the wonderful gardens of Venus, where a Parliament of birds decide on three eagles addressing their courtship to an eagle-maiden; The House of Fame (1381), an allegorical poem telling another vision of a dream; The Legend of Good Women (1385) contains the legends of a number of celebrated women of antiquity. Of a doubtful origin are: The Romaunt of the Rose, a translation from the famous French allegory: Le Roman de la Rose; Chaucer's Dream, The Flower and the Leaf, &n ex- cellent specimen of the allegorical poetry, much cultivated in the author's time, treating of the inconstancy of beauty and Geoffrey Chaucer. 31 pleasure, as represented in the flower, and the stability of vir- tue, embodied in the leaf. Chaucer's works in prose are: Astroldbium, an incomplete astronomical treatise, and Translations of Boetius 'On the Con- solations of Philosophy . The language of Chaucer is very musical and quite in har- mony with the subjects and sentiments. It contains an uncom- monly great number of French words, which partly retain the French accent, as: aventure, cordge, nature, labour "e, langdge, contree, honour, which, together with the retention of a number of archaic terms, imparts to the language an antique character. It, besides, deviates from the English of the present day in the pronunciation of the final V in words as fame, love, time, large, strange, face, where it has -become mute, or as in songe, hoste, herde, dede, wilde etc., where it has been dropped altogether. It likewise sounded the inflections l es' in nouns: offtceres, knightes, squieres, ornamentes, and 'ed' in verbs: enclosed^ fost- redj considered; the infinitives terminated in ^eri and many of the past participles retained the prefix l y ( l i')i yfalle, yborne and yboren, ygendred, yfostred, ydressed, (ironne). The merits of Chaucer with regard to the formation of the English language are very considerable. His enthusiastic disciple and imitator Thomas Occleve called him "the first finder of our fair language", and Spenser praised him as "the pure well of English undefiled." With respect to poetry in particular, he has enriched the English literature with a number of effect- ive metres and stanzas. His literary deserts are analogous to those of Dante in the Italian: they both fixed and harmonized their native tongues and thus paved the way to their future national literatures. From Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. The Clerkes Tale, Pars secunda. Nought fer fro thilke paleis honourable, * Wher as this markis shape his mariage, 2 Ther stood a thorpe, of sighte delitable 3 In which that poure folk of that village Hadden hir bestes and hir herbergage,* And of hir labour toke hir sustenance, After that the erthe yave hem habundance. 1 such. 2 shaped, formed. 3 village, Germ. J)orf, delightful "beasts, dwelling; Germ. Herberge. 32 The Age of Chaucer. Among this poure folk ther dwelt a man, Which that was holden pourest of hem all: But highe God somtime senden can. His grace unto a litel oxes stall: Janicola men of that thorpe him call. A doughter had he, faire ynpugh to sight, And Grisildis this yonge maiden hight. 5 But for to speke of vertuous beautee, Than was she on the fairest under sonne : Ful pourely yfostred up was she: 6 No likerous lust was in hire herte yronne; 1 Wei ofter of the well than of the tonne She dranke, and for she wolde vertue plese, She knew wel labour, but non idel ese. But though this mayden tendre were of age Yet in the brest of hire virgimtee Ther was enclosed sad and ripe corage: And in gret reverence and charitee Hire olde poure fader fostred she: A few sheep spinning on the feld she kept, 8 She wolde not ben idel til she slept. And whan she homward came, she wolde bring Wortes and other herbes times oft 9 The which she shred and sethe for hire living 10 And made hire bed ful hard, and nothing soft: And ay she kept hire fadres lif on loft 11 With every obeisance and diligence, That child may don to fadres reverence. Upon Grisilde, this poure creature, Ful often sithe this markis sette his eye, As he on hunting rode parayenture: And whan it fell that he might hire espie, 1J He not with wanton loking of folie His eyen cast on hire, but in sad wise Upon hire chere he wold him oft avise Commending in his herte hire womanhede, And eke hire vertue, passing any wight" Of so yong age, as wel in chere as dede. For though the peple have no gret insight In vertue, he considered ful right Hire bountee, and disposed that he wold Wedde hire only, if ever he wedden shold. 5 Imperf. of haten, Germ, heissen, to be named. 6 fostered, bred. 7 lickerish, dainty, p. p. run. 8 running and feeting about. 9 herbage, Germ. Wurz. 10 to shred, Germ, kleinschneiden, schroten. " ay, always; kept it up. 12 happened. l3 face, Fr. chere; look at, turn at. 14 a being, creature, Germ. Wicht. John Gower. 33 The day of wedding came, but no wight can Tellen what woman that it slmlde be, For which mervaille wondred many a man, And saiden, whan they were in privetee, Wol not our lord yet leve his vanitee? Wol he not wedde? ala,s, alas the while! Why wol he thus himself and us begile? But natheless this markis hath do make 16 Of gemmes, sette in gold and in asure, Broches and ringes, for Grisildes sake, And of hire clothing toke he the mesure Of a maiden like unto hire stature, And eke of other ornamentes all, That unto srviche a wedding shulde fall. 18 The time of underne of the same day 17 Approcheth, that this wedding shulde be, And all the paleis put was in array, Bot halle and chambres, eche in his degree, Houses of office stuffed with plentee Ther mayst thou see of deinteous vitaille, That may be found, as fer as lasteth Itaille. 19 16. JOHN GOWER*, 13251408. Of this poet's personality, whom Chaucer called "the moral Gower", little is known. His name has been coupled with that of Chaucer throughout the whole course of English literature, probably from their being both versed in the learning then most prized, and writing both in the- language of the court, "the King's English", which became the standard form of the national speech. It seems probable that Gower was descended from a noble Kentish family and brought up for the profession of a judge. During the last nine years of his life, he was blind, and in 1408 he is said to have died a rich man. Besides a great number of French ballads, he wrote three great works in three languages, one in French, Speculum Me- ditantis, which is lost, another in Latin, Vox Clamantis* , and a third, Confessio Amantis*, in English, which was printed by Caxton in 1483 and has preserved him a lasting place in literature. The subject of this long and tedious allegorical poem is 15 caused to be made. ls such. 17 third hour, 9 o'clock. 18 vic- tuals. 19 reaches. Bierbaum, Literature. Student's Ed. 3 34 The Age of Chaucer. the vanity of love, told in the form of a confession to a priest of Venus, called Genius, and occasionally relieved by stories and episodes drawn from mediaeval history and romance. The read- ing of the 10,000 lines, though smooth and easy, has been pro- nounced as "petrifying". John Lydgate* (13731461), a Benedictine Monk and disciple of Chaucer living at the close of this epoch, was a prolific writer of miscel- laneous poetry. After travelling in France and Italy, he opened a school for "verse-making and polite composition" in England, and wrote poems of all kinds on worldly and religious matters, masques, may-plays, farces, satirical ballads and hymns. His three greatest poetical works are The Fall of Princes, relating the tragic fate of great men and women, The Storie of Thebes", intended for an addition to the Canterbury Tales, and The Book of Troye, a translation from the Italian. 17. SCOTTISH POETS. King James I. of Scotland, 13941436. The life of this royal poet is in itself a romantic poem with a tragic issue. When his father, Robert III., sent him to France to save him from his unscrupulous uncle, the Duke of Albany, the boy was taken off the Norfolk coast and brought a captive to the English Court in 1405, only then eleven years old. He received a noble education at Windsor, where he remained till the year 1424. His chief delights were music and poetry, especially that of Gower and Chaucer. Then he fell in love. "Early one morning looking from a window in the Round Tower of Windsor out upon a garden thick with May -leaves, and musical with the liquid song of nightingales, he saw walking below a lady, young, lovely, richly dressed and jewelled. This was Joan Beaufort, daughter of the Duke of Somerset." She afterwards became his wife. His love for her inspired his finest poem, The Kings Quhair, the subject of which is his love for Lady Joan Beaufort. It is written in imitation of Chaucer in the allegorical style of the age and consists of 197 stanzas of seven lines 'rime royal' con- taining many particulars of his life. Its finest passage is the description of the first sight of his future lady. The whole poem is of an exquisite refinement. James also is said to have written some pleasant comic poems in the Scotch dialect, His faithful wife was worthy of this amiable prince; for when in 1437 he was stabbed by some rebellious barons, she shielded him with her body, receiving several wounds, before she could be wrenched from her dying lord. King James I. of Scotland. 35 From the Kings Quhair of James I. of Scotland. Cast I down mine eyes again Where as I saw, walking under the Tower, Full secretly, new comen here to plain, 1 The fairest or the freshest young flower That ever I saw, methought before that hour, For which sudden abate, anon astart 2 The blood of all my body to my heart. And though I stood abasit to a lite, 3 No wonder was; for why? my wittis all Were so o'ercome with pleasanac and delight, Only through letting of my eyen fall, That suddenly my heart became her thrall. For ever of free will for of menace There was no token in her sweete face. And in my head I drew right hastily, And eftesoons I leant it out again, And saw her walk that very womanly With no wight mo', but only women twain. Then gan I study in myself, and sayn: 'Ah, sweet! are ye a worldly creature, Or heavenly thing in likeness of nature? 'Or are ye god Cupidis own princess, And comin are to loose me out of band? Or are ye very Nature the goddess, That have depainted with your heavenly hand, This garden full of flowers as they stand? What shall I think, alas! what reverence Shall I mister unto your excellence? 4 'If ye a goddess be, and that ye like To do me pain, I may it not astart; 5 If ye be warldly wight, that doth me sike Q Why list God make you so, my dearest heart, 7 To do a seely prisoner this smart, 8 That loves you all, and wot of nought but woe. And therefore mercy, sweet! sin' it is so'. Of her array the form if I shall write, Towards her golden hair and rich attire, In fretwise couchit with pearlis white, 9 And great balas learning as the fire, With rnony an emeraut and fair sapphire; And on her head a chaplet fresh of hue, * Of plumis parted* 1 red, and white, and blue. ') To play. 2 Went and came. 3 Confounded for a little while. 4 Minister. 5 Fly or escape. 6 Makes me sigh. 7 Pleased, Germ, geliistcn. * Wretched. 9 Variegated like network. 10 Gems of a certain kind; gleaming. al Divided into. 3* 36 The Age of Chaucer. John Barbour* (f 1396) was the first Scottish poet who wrote in the English language. His great epic poem, Bruce* (1376), relates the adventures of the heroic King Eobert in his struggle for the inde- pendence of Scotland, and the defeat of the English at Bannockburn (1314). Though its author calls it a "Komaunt", it is generally con- sidered as trustworthy with regard to historical facts. It is superior to all contemporary productions, with the only exception of Chaucer's, and composed in the octosyllabic metre, afterwards made famous by Sir W. Scott. Huchown*, a Scotchman and most probably of noble descent, -was one of the first and most effective poets of the 14th century, and is to be ranked with John Barbour. Of the works which are ascribed to him, two are to be mentioned with a certainty as belonging to his pen: Morte Arthur e, an alliterative poem treating Arthurs' fight against the Eoman emperor Lucius Iberius, his victory and death, and Susanne drawn from the Old Testament. Blind Harry*, another Scottish poet living at the end of the period, was a poor , wandering minstrel , reciting his poems for bread. He was the author of another national poem, called Wallace*, after the name of the second great hero in Scotch national history. The language is rather rough, and the whole work of little historical merit, since the poet was only relating from popular legends. PROSE LITERATURE. 18. JOHN WYCLIF*, 1324-1384. Another prose-writer and a man of the highest merit was John Wyclif, called "the Morning Star of English Reformation". He was the son of a country - squire in Yorkshire, whence in his sixteenth year he removed to Oxford, where in rapid suc- cession he gained the highest college honours, finally becoming the head of various colleges. He directed his first writings against the abuse of selling pardons and relics "all hot from Rome". Being made professor of divinity, he raised his voice against the abuses of the Church in general, declaring the Gospel the sole root of religion and denying several principles of the Roman Church, and loudly declaiming against the igno- rance and profligacy of the clergy, especially of the Mendicant Friars. In consequence, he was accused of heresy and summoned to St. Paul's, where, however, the meeting was dissolved on the dispute arising, whether the defendant should sit or stand. In spite of the Pope's wrath, who directed five bulls against the "master of errors", Wyclif was never imprisoned or tortured; John Wyclif. 37 for Richard II. held him in great esteem, and John of Ghent was his declared protector, besides, many powerful nobles and the whole laity being on his side. After the recovery from a severe illness, Wyclif resumed his activity by an attack on the transubstantiation (1381), upon which he was dismissed from the university; the number of his adherents, however, was continually increasing. He retired into the country, to Lutterworth in Leicestershire, devoting his last years to the functions of a country parson and to the accomplish- ment of his great work, the Translation of the Bible* of which he completed the New Testament 1 . It was completed about the year 1383. Soon after the fulfilment of this great task, he died of paralysis in 1384. Twenty years after his death, his body was dug up and burnt, and his ashes scattered in the river Swift. Although fragments of the Bible, the Psalms, Gospels and Epistles, had been translated at various times, his was the first complete version in English, which afterwards served as a basis for the authorised version, completed under James I. in 1611-. Besides this great work, which has given him an ever- lasting title to fame, Wyclif has written numerous Latin and English works. The characteristic feature of his English style is a manly ruggedness. What Chaucer had been to his nation with regard to the language of poetry, Wyclif became concerning that of prose: the founder of the national English speech and of modern cul- ture in England. From John Wyclif s Translation of the Bible. (Part of Luke XXIV) But in o day of the woke 1 ful eerli thei camen to the graue, and broughten swete smellynge spicis that thei hadden arayed 2 . And thei foundun the stoon turnyd awey fro the graue. And thei geden in and foundun not the bodi of the Lord Jhesus. And it was don, the while thei weren astonyed in thought of this thing, lo twey men stodun bisidis hem in schynyng cloth, And whanne thei dredden and bowiden her sem- blaunt into erthe, thei seiden to hem, what seeken ye him that lyueth with deede men? He is not here; but he is risun: haue ye niinde 3 how he spak to you whanne he was yit in Golilee, and seide, for it bihoueth 1 The 0. T. was from the pen of Nic. of Hereford, as far as Baruch (in, 20), the rest was added by Purvey in his revision. 1 Week, Germ. Woche, 2 Arranged. 3 Do you remember. 38 The Age of Chaucer. mannes sone to be bitakun into the hondis of synful men: and to be crucifyed: and the thridde day to rise agen? And thei bithoughten on hise wordis, and thei geden 4 agen fro the graue: and teelden 5 alle these thingis to the ellevene and to alle othere. And there was Marye Maude- leyn and Jone and Marye of James, and othere wymmen that weren with hem, that seiden to Apostlis these thingis. 19. JOHN MANDEVILLE*, f 1382. John Mandeville is one of the earliest known writers of English prose. Born about 1300 and educated for the medical profession, he soon followed an irresistible desire for travelling. He went to Asia-Minor, where he enlisted in. a Mahometan army in Palestine, and in succession visited Persia, India, China, so- journing for three years at Peking. Then he went to Egypt fighting for the Sultan and refusing the hand of his daughter and a province for the sake of his Christian faith (!), and thence to Lybia, thus roving over the known regions of the world. After an absence of 34 years, he returned to his country and wrote a narrative of his travels in Latin, a compilation in which true facts are mingled with most marvellous stories of wild ad- ventures, monsters, giants, and demons, all told with great se- riousness, as e. g. the story of a bird in the island of Mada- gascar, that carried an elephant in his talons. The Pope, how- ever, confirmed his descriptions to be true. Mandeville, after- wards, translated his book into French. A later translation of this curious work into English (1378), "The Voyage and Tra- vaill of Sir John Maundeville", by an unknown author was not only the most popular in its time, but still remains a remark- able specimen of the English speech in its infancy. In his later years , the author again left his native country and died abroad. From Sir John do Mandeville. And yee schulle undirstond that whan men comen to Jerusalem here first pilgrymage is to the chirche of the Holy Sepulcre where oure Lord was buryed, that is withoute the cytee on the north syde. But it is now enclosed inwith the toun walle. And there is a fulle fayr chirche alle rownd, and open above, and covered with leed. And on the west syde is a fair tour and an highe for belles strongly made. And in the myddes of the chirche is a tabernacle as it wer a lytylle hows, made with a low litylle dore; and that tabernacle is made in manere of half a compas Went. Told. John Mandeville. 39 right curiousely, and richely made of gold and azure and othere riche coloures, fulle nobelyche made. And in the righte syde of that tabernacle is the sepulcre of oure Lord. And the tabernacle is VIIJ fote long, and V fote wyde, and XJ fote in heighte. And it is not longe sithen the sepulcre was all open, that men myghte kisse it and touche it. But for pilgrymes that comen thidre peyned hem 1 to breke the ston in peces, or in poudre; therfore the Soudan hathe do make 2 a walle aboute the sepulcre that no man may towche it. CHAPTER Y. 20. THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION AND THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING 1450-1560.* Henry VI. 14221461. Henry VH. 14851509. Edward IV. 14611483. Henry VHI. 1509-1547. Edward V. 14831483. Edward VI. 15471553. Kichard IH. 14831485. Mary I. 15531558. This era produced great changes in the political, religious, and intellectual conditions of the English nation, which during this period passed from the Middle ages to the modern times. The bloody wars of the "Two Roses" (14551485) had "blighted all intellectual growth", and under the bloodstained scepter of Henry VIII., English feudalism had changed into unlimited monarchy. Causes of a political nature, which served at the same time to generate and to promote a greater intel- lectual activity, produced the so-called "Protestant Refor- mation" which had been already prepared by John Wyclif and carried on by various staunch reformers under the protection of the crafty, arbitrary, and faithless Henry VIII., whose motives and aims were but of a selfish character. The ensuing disse- verance of the English Church from the Roman see not only consolidated the power of the English monarch at home, but also raised his authority abroad. However, this great movement, arising more from political and egotistic motives than religious wants and conditions, was but of a superficial and outward nature, and not so radical and decisive as the Reformation in other Protestant countries; whence the Anglicau Church is still, at times, pervaded by Roman Catholic tendencies, en- gendering a lamentable acrimonious spirit between the High- 1 Exerted themselves; French peiner. 2 Cf. p. 33 n. 15. 40 The Protestant Keformation and the Kevival of Learning. and the Low-Church so hurtful to true religious life and sentiment. It may also be considered as one of the main springs of the sad dismemberment of a great part of the English people into numerous sects of dissenters. However, the polemic and reli- gious writings of the reformers, along with the various trans- lations of the Bible, did not fail to enlighten the lowest ranks of society and to awaken a taste for intellectual occupations. The brilliant age of Chaucer had been followed by a cen- tury of great barrenness; and although his bright example had found a number of imitators, no worthy successor of him, either in prose or poetry, can be found among them. Nor was it a time of erudition or original invention, but an age of artificial cultivation and perfection of the literary, particularly of the poeti- cal language, and of active preparations for the brilliant era near at hand. The most powerful agent in this direction was doubtless the invention of the Art of Printing on the continent, intro- duced into England by William Caxton about the year 1474. Caxton*, a merchant of London, went abroad, where he be- came acquainted with the new art and adopted it as a pro- fession, becoming himself an active author and translator. During twenty years, he published about 64 works, particularly of the old English poets, which gained great popularity. The work which is considered to have been the first issued from his press at Westminster, was "The Game and Playe of the Chesse, translated out of the French and fynyshid the last day of Marche 1474? Thus he contributed in no little degree to the regular literary framing of the language and to the creation of a good prose style. The number of books being increased and their price reduced to about one fifth of their former value, the circle of readers became widened, and learning and general cul- ture spread among the lower classes of the people. To this end the Study of Greek, which till then had been entirely neglected in England, was of a very high importance. William Grocyn, an Oxford scholar, who had studied this language in Rome and Florence with learned fugitives from Constantinople (1453), taught it to the students of Oxford. He, therefore, has not undeservedly been called the "Patriarch of English learning'*. Cambridge next became the seat of Hellenic studies. Like attention and zeal were bestowed on those of Latin and Latin classics, and several valuable books were written in this language. The Protestant Eeformation and the Kevival of Learning. 41 Numerous translations were made from both languages, and thus two new channels opened, through which learning, arts, and poetry were to receive fresh aliments from abundant sources. Of a propitious influence was also the increased Inter- course with the Continent. Whilst English scholars went to Italy to draw from new-found sources, learned men from the Continent even visited England, among whom the eminent Dutch scholar Erasmus (1497), who pronounced English learning to be inferior only to that of Italy. Translations from the French were continued. Lord Ber- ne rs translated the chronicle of Froissart, which became a land- mark of English prose. Another vivifying source, particularly for poetry, was the older Poetry of Italy, "which thenceforward became one of the chief fountain-heads of inspiration to that of England through- out the whole space of time over which is shed the golden light of the names of Spenser, of Shakespeare, and of Milton". Its chief cultivators were Surrey and Wyatt [v. 21], who opened the "School of Amourists", transplanting Petrarchian sen- timentalism together with his favourite metrical form, the Sonnet, into English literature. Of great service and importance was the Foundation of many Schools and Colleges. Twenty new schools were founded between the year 1500 and the Reformation, as St. Paul's School in London, the first in which Greek was taught in England, Eton, King's College at Cambridge, and the Universities of St. An- drew's, Glasgow, and Aberdeen in Scotland. The English language continued its process of per- fection, being employed in all public proceedings and docu- ments, in popular and partly in controversial writings, in the pulpit and the chair, and sustaining many changes and modifi- cations by which its literary capacities were gradually developed and brought to a final state of maturity. It is, however, not till after the commencement of the 16th century, that the rise of the classical prose literature can be dated, the political state of the country not being at all favourable to literary and scien- tific pursuits. The poetical products are less remarkable for their intrinsic value, than for the new materials and forms which they furnished for the coming time. 42 The Protestant Reformation and the Revival of Learning. 21. POETICAL LITERATURE. John Skeltoil* (t 1529), the tutor of Henry VIII., struck out a new, though not a very high path in poetry, that of sa- tire, which, stimulated by the reformatory spirit of the time, he levelled in the most unmerciful manner at the clergy in his poem Collin Clout, and at the powerful and magnificent minister Wolsey in another: Why come ye not to Court? His poems are composed in a peculiar short doggrel measure of frequently repeated rhymes and remarkable for their boldness, vivacity, and humour. He treats the language with great ease and freedom, making use of all that is coarse, quaint, and familiar in the so- called slang of the common people. He also composed poems of a more genteel character, as The Booke of Phyttyp Sparrow e, an elegy on a sparrow belonging to a fair nun; it is unrivalled for elegance, humour, and playfulness. Skelton, besides, was a man of great learning; Erasmus calls him "the glory and the light of English learning". He also occupied the post of a poet-laureate. Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey* (1516-1547), was not only a gallant courtier and brave soldier, but the first Eng- lish writer who deserves the name of a classical poet. Brought up in the midst of luxury and fondled at a splendid court, he became one of the most accomplished noblemen of his time. His poems, chiefly Sonnets, are addressed to a young Lady Ge- raldine (Elizabeth Fitz - Gerald). As a poet, Surrey's merits are of a double nature. Imbued with the spirit of Italian poetry through his friend and master Wyatt, he not only imparted to English poetry a greater refinement of taste and a more per- fect regularity of rhythm, but also introduced some new forms of versification, the Sonnet and the Blank-verse, which latter he employed in his chief work, a translation of the Second and the Fourth Book of the Aeneid, and which metre ever afterwards was used in the loftiest regions of poetry, the epic and the drama. This noble and refined poet was executed on a frivolous charge of treason in his 31st year, the last victim of the san- guinary tyrant, Henry VIIL, who died eight days after him. Description of Spring. [Wherein each thing renews, save only the lover.] The soote season, that bud and bloom forth brings, With green hash clad the hill, and eke the vale. The nightingale with feathers new she sings; The turtle to her make hath told her tale. Poetical Literature. 43 Summer is come, for every spray now springs, The hart hath hung his old head on the pale; The buck in brake his winter coat lie slings; The fishes flete with new repaired scale; The adder all her slough away she slings; The swift swallow pursueth the flies smale; The busy bee her honey now she mings 2 ; Winter is worn that was the flowers bale. 3 And thus I see among these pleasant things Each care decays, and yet my sorrow springs! Sir Thomas Wyatt* (1503-1542), the intimate friend and literary associate of the former, was equally distinguished for his accomplishments, his elegant scholarship and ready wit. Manifesting a great inclination for Italian poetry, he went with the English embassador on a journey to Italy (1527), where he familiarized himself with the sonnets of Petrarch whom he strove to equal. On his return he published a joint-edition of Songs and Sonnettes* with his young friend Surrey, through which they founded the new poetical "School of Amourists". The poetic vein of Wyatt possessed a greater vigour and diversity, especially suited for satire and epigram. Thomas Sackyille or Lord Buckhurst (15361608), High-Treasurer of England, must be included in this period, although in spirit and manner he resembled more the writers of the Elizabethan time. He may not unfitly be called the herald of the coming splendour. His Mirror of Magistrates* (1559), the joint-work of seven poets, which was to contain a collection of tragic examples of the vicissitudes of fortune, intended for lessons to future kings and statesmen, is an imitation of Boc- caccio. He only composed the "Induction" (introduction), a grand allegory "within the porch and jaws of hell", in imitation of Dante, and the first poem, which is also the finest: The Complaint of the Duke of Buckingham. The work was con- tinued by others in an inferior way, yet left unfinished. It is written in stanzas of seven lines, exhibiting great power of ex- pression; the general tone is gloomy and monotonous. Sack- ville, in company with Thomas Norton, wrote the first Eng- lish tragedy, Gorboduc, or Ferrex and Porrex [v. 29, p. 57], founded on ancient British history, in which the blank-verse was for the first time used in the English drama. 1 mate. z mingles. 3 destruction. 44 The Protestant Keformation and the Eevival of Learning. 22, SCOTCH POETS. William Dmrtar* (t about 1520), called the "Chaucer of the North", occupies the first rank. In the garb of a Fran- ciscan Friar, he travelled through England and France, preaching and begging, then visiting the English and some continental courts as an attache to certain Scottish embassies, and finally laid down his experiences and his knowledge of human nature in his allegorical poems, creations of a truly powerful and ori- ginal genius. His chief poems are The Thistle and the Rose, commemorating the marriage of James IV. with the Princess Margaret of England (1503); The Daunce of the Seven Deadly Sins, a wild conception describing a vision, in which each sin is represented by a distinct and striking personification and paint- ed "in horror's darkest hues"; and The Golden Terge 1 , an allegory of love, beauty, reason, and poetry. He also composed ballads of a keen, satiric character. <